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@ - @ and @ - @ mouth outbreak in 2001 , when access to farmland was denied . after strong growth in the late 1980s , traditional flying has shown a slight decline recently , reflecting a move amongst recreational flyers towards micro ##light aircraft , and increased numbers of foreign @ - @ registered aircraft . recreational helicopter usage has grown primarily due to the introduction of smaller and cheaper aircraft . glider activity has remained relatively static , although there has been a gradual increase in the number of self @ - @ launching motor glider ##s . business aviation has shown strong growth , although the numbers of aircraft on the uk register have declined . this reflects a shift away from
| 511 |
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turbo ##pro ##p aircraft towards foreign @ - @ registered business jets based in the uk , which are estimated to be growing in numbers . however , twin piston @ - @ engined aircraft numbers have declined significantly , reflecting pressures on the light air @ - @ taxi segment from increasingly flexible and cheaper scheduled services , and a more sophisticated corporate charter business . the amount of flight training conducted by uk schools has declined , largely at the hands of competition from foreign schools , which benefit from lower costs and better weather . since 1990 the total number of hours flown annually by the ga sector has remained in the range 1 @ . @ 25 – 1 @ . @
| 393 |
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] | 402 |
35 million , the dominant sector being traditional ga flying , which accounts for 0 @ . @ 6 million per year . an overall increase in aircraft numbers combined with ni ##l growth in hours flown has brought the annual average ut ##ilis ##ation per aircraft down from 157 hours in 1984 to 103 hours in 2002 . the decline in asset ut ##ilis ##ation has led to speculation that the economic health of the ga industry is weakening , though the lack of data on profit ##ability makes this difficult to confirm . = = regulation = = the objective of regulation is to " promote high standards of safety in all aspects of aviation " , and this is the main area of
| 344 |
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interaction between the ca ##a and the ga sector . efforts focus on ass ##uring appropriate standards of air ##worth ##iness , pilot qualification , the rules for the movement of aircraft , and equipment to be carried . the ca ##a was established as the primary regulatory body for all aviation in the uk in 1972 . in 1991 it started working within the joint aviation authorities ( ja ##a ) framework to implement agreed common standards , known as the joint aviation requirements ( jar ) , throughout the european union ( eu ) . in 2003 this was taken a step further when the european aviation safety agency ( ea ##sa ) was established as the central eu regulator , taking over responsibility
| 320 |
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for leg ##is ##lating air ##worth ##iness and environmental regulation from the national authorities . the ca ##a acts as an agency of ea ##sa on these issues , retaining its original regulatory powers in areas not yet transferred to ea ##sa . proposed developments seek to establish ea ##sa as the single authority throughout the eu , taking over from individual member states the power to regulate all aviation other than that specifically excluded from the scope of ea ##sa . = = = dev ##olved and self @ - @ regulation = = = within this framework certain sectors of ga are governed on a dev ##olved basis . in all cases the ca ##a / ea ##sa retains responsibility for safety regulation ,
| 326 |
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but representative bodies , particularly of sectors that are not included in the scope of ea ##sa , are granted greater oversight of their activities . the majority of micro ##light aircraft are regulated by the british micro ##light aircraft association ( b ##ma ##a ) , although a significant number are regulated by the light aircraft association ( la ##a ) , formerly known as the popular flying association . the la ##a is the primary regulator for amateur built aircraft , as well as vintage and classic aircraft . para ##chu ##ting is governed by the british parachute association , although the aircraft used in this activity are generally ca ##a @ - @ regulated . balloon and airship flying is overseen by the
| 56 |
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british balloon and airship club . the uk @ - @ specific national private pilot licence ( np ##pl ) is administered by the national pilots licensing group ltd . , supported by the la ##a , the aircraft owners and pilots association uk , the british gliding association , and the british micro ##light aircraft association . separate from these dev ##olved groups , gliding in the uk is self @ - @ regulated . the british gliding association was until recently responsible for glider air ##worth ##iness , now formally regulated as a result of ea ##sa legislation , and still retains control of pilot certification . hang gliding and para ##gli ##ding activities ( i . e . foot @ - @ launched
| 56 |
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glider ##s ) are governed by the british hang gliding and para ##gli ##ding association . = = = air ##worth ##iness = = = under ca ##a and ea ##sa rules , all aircraft are required to meet certain standards of air ##worth ##iness to fly safely and legally . aircraft that meet these standards are issued with a certificate of air ##worth ##iness . however , british @ - @ registered aircraft which are excluded from the scope of ea ##sa , and which cannot satisfy the requirements for the issue of a certificate of air ##worth ##iness , may be issued with a permit to fly . this allows them to fly in uk airspace subject to certain limitations , for example being
| 268 |
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] | 408 |
restricted to day @ - @ time flights under visual flight rules only . a number of organisations ( e . g . the british micro ##light aircraft association and the light aircraft association ) have obtained a standing over @ - @ flight permission for permit to fly aircraft within their area of interest with some european countries , notably france . permits are typically issued to vintage and historic aircraft , amateur built aircraft , and micro ##lights . = = = pilot licensing = = = the pilot qualification most relevant to ga is the private pilot licence ( pp ##l ) , which permits the holder to fly for recreational purposes without re ##mun ##eration . in addition to the european @
| 313 |
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- @ wide joint aviation regulations flight crew licensing ( jar @ - @ fc ##l ) standard , the ca ##a also issues uk @ - @ specific national licence ##s . in the absence of european standards for g ##yr ##op ##lane , balloon , and airship pilots , the ca ##a licenses these according to the original uk pp ##l standard . as a response to the perception that jar pilot licensing standards are excessive ##ly bureau ##cratic and expensive for the purposes of recreational pilots , the national private pilot licence ( np ##pl ) was introduced in 2002 . the np ##pl is easier to obtain than the jar @ - @ fc ##l licence , has less string ##ent medical
| 320 |
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"privileges",
"it",
"grants",
",",
"and",
"is",
"valid",
"only",
"for",
"flights",
"in",
"british",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"registered",
"aircraft",
"flying",
"in",
"uk",
"and",
"french",
"airspace",
".",
"although",
"there",
"are",
"plans",
"to",
"bring",
"glider",
"pilot",
"licensing",
"within",
"the",
"regulatory",
"framework",
"of",
"ea",
"##sa",
",",
"the",
"gliding",
"sector",
"is",
"currently",
"self",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"regulating",
"in",
"this",
"respect",
".",
"the",
"british",
"gliding",
"association",
"is",
"responsible",
"for",
"defining",
"the",
"standards",
"of",
"initial",
"training",
",",
"and",
"ce",
"##rti",
"##fying",
",",
"via",
"a",
"badge",
"system",
",",
"pilots",
"who",
"meet",
"those",
"standards",
".",
"pilots",
"working",
"in",
"sectors",
"of",
"ga",
"that",
"are",
"commercial",
"operations",
",",
"such",
"as",
"aerial",
"work",
"and",
"business",
"aviation",
",",
"are",
"required",
"to",
"hold",
"a",
"professional",
"pilot",
"licence",
"which",
",",
"at",
"a",
"minimum",
",",
"is"
] | 410 |
requirements , is more restrictive in the privileges it grants , and is valid only for flights in british @ - @ registered aircraft flying in uk and french airspace . although there are plans to bring glider pilot licensing within the regulatory framework of ea ##sa , the gliding sector is currently self @ - @ regulating in this respect . the british gliding association is responsible for defining the standards of initial training , and ce ##rti ##fying , via a badge system , pilots who meet those standards . pilots working in sectors of ga that are commercial operations , such as aerial work and business aviation , are required to hold a professional pilot licence which , at a minimum , is
| 319 |
[
"the",
"commercial",
"pilot",
"licence",
".",
"between",
"1995",
"and",
"2004",
"there",
"were",
"2",
"@",
",",
"@",
"630",
"accidents",
"involving",
"ga",
"aircraft",
",",
"of",
"which",
"139",
"were",
"fatal",
",",
"resulting",
"in",
"the",
"loss",
"of",
"317",
"lives",
".",
"the",
"majority",
"of",
"accidents",
"involved",
"small",
"fixed",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"wing",
"aircraft",
"engaged",
"in",
"private",
"flights",
",",
"and",
"analysis",
"attributes",
"the",
"most",
"common",
"causes",
"of",
"these",
"to",
":",
"flight",
"handling",
"skills",
";",
"poor",
"judgement",
"or",
"air",
"##manship",
";",
"lack",
"of",
"training",
"or",
"experience",
";",
"and",
"om",
"##iss",
"##ion",
"of",
",",
"or",
"inappropriate",
",",
"action",
".",
"there",
"were",
"27",
"fatal",
"accidents",
"involving",
"ga",
"aircraft",
"in",
"2007",
",",
"resulting",
"in",
"the",
"loss",
"of",
"48",
"lives",
".",
"these",
"compare",
"with",
"16",
"accidents",
"claiming",
"a",
"total",
"of",
"19",
"lives",
"the",
"previous",
"year",
",",
"and",
"although"
] | 411 |
the commercial pilot licence . between 1995 and 2004 there were 2 @ , @ 630 accidents involving ga aircraft , of which 139 were fatal , resulting in the loss of 317 lives . the majority of accidents involved small fixed @ - @ wing aircraft engaged in private flights , and analysis attributes the most common causes of these to : flight handling skills ; poor judgement or air ##manship ; lack of training or experience ; and om ##iss ##ion of , or inappropriate , action . there were 27 fatal accidents involving ga aircraft in 2007 , resulting in the loss of 48 lives . these compare with 16 accidents claiming a total of 19 lives the previous year , and although
| 173 |
[
"the",
"2007",
"statistics",
"are",
"higher",
"than",
"average",
",",
"they",
"are",
"not",
"exceptional",
".",
"the",
"growth",
"in",
"commercial",
"air",
"transport",
"(",
"cat",
")",
"has",
"eroded",
"the",
"operational",
"freedom",
"of",
"ga",
",",
"both",
"in",
"the",
"air",
"and",
"on",
"the",
"ground",
"at",
"larger",
"airports",
".",
"difficulty",
"with",
"access",
"to",
"larger",
"airports",
"is",
"compound",
"##ed",
"by",
"a",
"decline",
"in",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
"generally",
",",
"and",
"existing",
"sites",
"are",
"often",
"threatened",
"with",
"closure",
"and",
"re",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"development",
"for",
"more",
"profitable",
"uses",
".",
"the",
"uk",
"planning",
"system",
"is",
"designed",
"to",
"focus",
"on",
"local",
"issues",
",",
"and",
"consideration",
"of",
"the",
"national",
"impact",
"of",
"ga",
"operations",
"is",
"not",
"within",
"its",
"re",
"##mit",
".",
"this",
"makes",
"aerodrome",
"development",
"difficult",
",",
"often",
"subject",
"##ing",
"those",
"that",
"successfully",
"negotiate",
"the",
"process",
"to",
"restrictions"
] | 412 |
the 2007 statistics are higher than average , they are not exceptional . the growth in commercial air transport ( cat ) has eroded the operational freedom of ga , both in the air and on the ground at larger airports . difficulty with access to larger airports is compound ##ed by a decline in the number of aerodrome ##s generally , and existing sites are often threatened with closure and re @ - @ development for more profitable uses . the uk planning system is designed to focus on local issues , and consideration of the national impact of ga operations is not within its re ##mit . this makes aerodrome development difficult , often subject ##ing those that successfully negotiate the process to restrictions
| 326 |
[
"in",
"use",
".",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"airspace",
"access",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"airspace",
"is",
"shared",
"by",
"cat",
",",
"military",
"and",
"ga",
"users",
".",
"it",
"is",
"divided",
"into",
"controlled",
"airspace",
",",
"in",
"which",
"aircraft",
"must",
"always",
"be",
"under",
"the",
"control",
"of",
"an",
"air",
"traffic",
"controller",
",",
"and",
"un",
"##con",
"##tro",
"##lled",
"airspace",
",",
"in",
"which",
"aircraft",
"can",
"operate",
"autonomous",
"##ly",
".",
"although",
"ga",
"flights",
"can",
"under",
"certain",
"conditions",
"enter",
"controlled",
"airspace",
",",
"they",
"operate",
"mainly",
"outside",
"of",
"it",
".",
"controlled",
"airspace",
"is",
"essential",
"for",
"the",
"provision",
"of",
"a",
"known",
"air",
"traffic",
"environment",
"necessary",
"for",
"the",
"safe",
"operation",
"of",
"cat",
".",
"a",
"ca",
"##a",
"review",
"found",
"that",
"\"",
"mixing",
"[",
"commercial",
"]",
"operations",
"with",
"other",
"users",
"is",
"considered",
"und",
"##es",
"##ira",
"##ble",
",",
"even",
"un",
"##ten",
"##able",
"\"",
"by"
] | 413 |
in use . = = = airspace access = = = airspace is shared by cat , military and ga users . it is divided into controlled airspace , in which aircraft must always be under the control of an air traffic controller , and un ##con ##tro ##lled airspace , in which aircraft can operate autonomous ##ly . although ga flights can under certain conditions enter controlled airspace , they operate mainly outside of it . controlled airspace is essential for the provision of a known air traffic environment necessary for the safe operation of cat . a ca ##a review found that " mixing [ commercial ] operations with other users is considered und ##es ##ira ##ble , even un ##ten ##able " by
| 293 |
[
"commercial",
"operators",
".",
"however",
"this",
"position",
"has",
"resulted",
"in",
"extensive",
"class",
"a",
"controlled",
"airspace",
"with",
"complex",
"boundaries",
",",
"including",
"some",
"running",
"down",
"to",
"the",
"ground",
",",
"prohibiting",
"v",
"##fr",
"access",
"to",
"airspace",
",",
"resulting",
"in",
"high",
"numbers",
"of",
"ga",
"flights",
"operating",
"close",
"to",
"the",
"borders",
"of",
"controlled",
"airspace",
"who",
"could",
"not",
"get",
"formal",
"receipt",
"of",
"an",
"air",
"traffic",
"service",
".",
"coupled",
"with",
"pilot",
"navigation",
"errors",
",",
"hundreds",
"of",
"airspace",
"infringement",
"##s",
"have",
"been",
"recorded",
"every",
"year",
".",
"increases",
"in",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"cat",
"operations",
",",
"and",
"in",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"airports",
"they",
"operate",
"from",
",",
"has",
"resulted",
"in",
"a",
"corresponding",
"increase",
"in",
"class",
"a",
"controlled",
"airspace",
".",
"between",
"1997",
"and",
"2006",
"this",
"area",
"grew",
"in",
"size",
"from",
"13",
"per",
"cent",
"of",
"all",
"airspace",
"to",
"22",
"per"
] | 414 |
commercial operators . however this position has resulted in extensive class a controlled airspace with complex boundaries , including some running down to the ground , prohibiting v ##fr access to airspace , resulting in high numbers of ga flights operating close to the borders of controlled airspace who could not get formal receipt of an air traffic service . coupled with pilot navigation errors , hundreds of airspace infringement ##s have been recorded every year . increases in the number of cat operations , and in the number of airports they operate from , has resulted in a corresponding increase in class a controlled airspace . between 1997 and 2006 this area grew in size from 13 per cent of all airspace to 22 per
| 319 |
[
"cent",
"nationally",
",",
"and",
"from",
"24",
"per",
"cent",
"to",
"43",
"per",
"cent",
"in",
"airspace",
"above",
"england",
"and",
"wales",
",",
"leading",
"to",
"a",
"perception",
"within",
"the",
"ga",
"community",
"of",
"being",
"squeezed",
"out",
".",
"there",
"are",
"particular",
"problems",
"for",
"ga",
"around",
"large",
"airports",
",",
"where",
"class",
"a",
"controlled",
"airspace",
"extends",
"to",
"ground",
"level",
".",
"the",
"concentration",
"of",
"commercial",
"operations",
"and",
"high",
"demand",
"for",
"ga",
"in",
"the",
"south",
"east",
"of",
"england",
"have",
"also",
"resulted",
"in",
"extensive",
"areas",
"of",
"class",
"a",
"controlled",
"airspace",
"there",
",",
"which",
"serve",
"to",
"channel",
"un",
"##con",
"##tro",
"##lled",
"ga",
"operations",
"through",
"high",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"collision",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"risk",
"hot",
"spots",
".",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"aerodrome",
"access",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"regional",
"airports",
",",
"such",
"as",
"edinburgh",
"airport",
",",
"have",
"experienced",
"strong",
"growth",
"in",
"cat"
] | 415 |
cent nationally , and from 24 per cent to 43 per cent in airspace above england and wales , leading to a perception within the ga community of being squeezed out . there are particular problems for ga around large airports , where class a controlled airspace extends to ground level . the concentration of commercial operations and high demand for ga in the south east of england have also resulted in extensive areas of class a controlled airspace there , which serve to channel un ##con ##tro ##lled ga operations through high @ - @ collision @ - @ risk hot spots . = = = aerodrome access = = = regional airports , such as edinburgh airport , have experienced strong growth in cat
| 319 |
[
"operations",
"in",
"recent",
"years",
".",
"these",
"operations",
"are",
"commercially",
"and",
"operational",
"##ly",
"incompatible",
"with",
"ga",
",",
"and",
"although",
"there",
"is",
"no",
"evidence",
"of",
"deliberate",
"discrimination",
",",
"the",
"effect",
"has",
"been",
"to",
"discourage",
"or",
"exclude",
"it",
".",
"ga",
"aircraft",
"are",
"being",
"subject",
"to",
"significant",
"increases",
"in",
"charges",
",",
"including",
"the",
"imp",
"##osition",
"of",
"handling",
"fees",
"in",
"some",
"cases",
".",
"some",
"airports",
"restrict",
"or",
"deny",
"ga",
"parking",
",",
"and",
"others",
"limit",
"or",
"refuse",
"certain",
"ga",
"activity",
".",
"as",
"a",
"result",
",",
"light",
"ga",
"aircraft",
"are",
"now",
"rarely",
"or",
"never",
"seen",
"at",
"large",
",",
"busy",
"international",
"airports",
"such",
"as",
"heath",
"##row",
",",
"stan",
"##sted",
",",
"ga",
"##t",
"##wick",
"and",
"manchester",
".",
"in",
"addition",
"to",
"this",
"de",
"facto",
"loss",
"of",
"facilities",
",",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
"in",
"the",
"uk"
] | 416 |
operations in recent years . these operations are commercially and operational ##ly incompatible with ga , and although there is no evidence of deliberate discrimination , the effect has been to discourage or exclude it . ga aircraft are being subject to significant increases in charges , including the imp ##osition of handling fees in some cases . some airports restrict or deny ga parking , and others limit or refuse certain ga activity . as a result , light ga aircraft are now rarely or never seen at large , busy international airports such as heath ##row , stan ##sted , ga ##t ##wick and manchester . in addition to this de facto loss of facilities , the number of aerodrome ##s in the uk
| 326 |
[
"has",
"been",
"in",
"decline",
"over",
"the",
"last",
"50",
"years",
",",
"as",
"a",
"result",
"of",
"increasing",
"urban",
"##isation",
"and",
"the",
"closure",
"of",
"airfields",
"built",
"during",
"wwii",
".",
"alternative",
"and",
"more",
"profitable",
"uses",
"for",
"land",
"can",
"also",
"lead",
"to",
"existing",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
"being",
"threatened",
"with",
"closure",
",",
"for",
"example",
"north",
"we",
"##ald",
",",
"or",
"actually",
"being",
"closed",
",",
"as",
"happened",
"to",
"ipswich",
"airport",
".",
"and",
"bristol",
"fi",
"##lton",
"airport",
".",
"referring",
"to",
"the",
"importance",
"of",
"a",
"\"",
"functioning",
"national",
"network",
"of",
"ga",
"airfields",
"\"",
",",
"especially",
"where",
"ga",
"performs",
"an",
"air",
"transport",
"role",
",",
"the",
"ca",
"##a",
"states",
"that",
"\"",
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"could",
"be",
"cause",
"for",
"concern",
"if",
"a",
"significant",
"further",
"loss",
"of",
"airfields",
"were",
"to",
"continue",
",",
"especially",
"if",
"crucial",
"nodes",
"on",
"the",
"transport",
"network",
"were",
"to",
"be"
] | 417 |
has been in decline over the last 50 years , as a result of increasing urban ##isation and the closure of airfields built during wwii . alternative and more profitable uses for land can also lead to existing aerodrome ##s being threatened with closure , for example north we ##ald , or actually being closed , as happened to ipswich airport . and bristol fi ##lton airport . referring to the importance of a " functioning national network of ga airfields " , especially where ga performs an air transport role , the ca ##a states that " there could be cause for concern if a significant further loss of airfields were to continue , especially if crucial nodes on the transport network were to be
| 612 |
[
"lost",
".",
"\"",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"planning",
"system",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"the",
"planning",
"system",
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"via",
"##bility",
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"ga",
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"with",
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"air",
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"services",
"between",
"them",
",",
"and",
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"ga",
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"commercial",
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",",
"a",
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"transport",
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"is",
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"as",
"an",
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"national",
"issue",
".",
"however",
",",
"there",
"is",
"no",
"unified",
"national",
"planning",
"policy",
"specific",
"to",
"ga",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
",",
"and",
"planning",
"decisions",
"relating",
"to",
"these",
"are",
"based",
"on",
"local",
"issues",
"that",
"are",
"not",
"required",
"to",
"consider",
"the",
"national",
"impact",
".",
"because",
"aircraft",
"are",
"excluded",
"from",
"noise",
"control",
"legislation",
",",
"the",
"only",
"rec",
"##ours",
"##e",
"for",
"people",
"affected",
"by",
"aircraft",
"noise"
] | 418 |
lost . " = = = planning system = = = the planning system is critical to the via ##bility and operation of ga aerodrome ##s . with many cities lacking scheduled air transport services between them , and with ga access to commercial airports becoming increasingly difficult and expensive , a viable network of aerodrome ##s supporting ga air transport operations is regarded as an important national issue . however , there is no unified national planning policy specific to ga aerodrome ##s , and planning decisions relating to these are based on local issues that are not required to consider the national impact . because aircraft are excluded from noise control legislation , the only rec ##ours ##e for people affected by aircraft noise
| 326 |
[
"is",
"through",
"the",
"planning",
"process",
",",
"and",
"this",
"issue",
"is",
"the",
"principal",
"factor",
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"which",
"the",
"majority",
"of",
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"decisions",
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".",
"ga",
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"authorities",
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"and",
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"planning",
"decisions",
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"ga",
"either",
"refuse",
"permission",
",",
"or",
"grant",
"it",
"with",
"restrictive",
"conditions",
".",
"little",
"gran",
"##sden",
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"just",
"one",
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"airfield",
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"to",
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"planning",
"restrictions",
"on",
"the",
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"of",
"movements",
"permitted",
",",
"thereby",
"inhibit",
"##ing",
"further",
"development",
".",
"such",
"restrictions",
",",
"if",
"poorly",
"conceived",
",",
"can",
"make",
"ga",
"operations",
"un",
"##via",
"##ble",
"or",
"even",
"unsafe",
".",
"=",
"=",
"criticism",
"=",
"=",
"public",
"opinion",
"towards",
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"generally",
"is",
"worse",
"##ning",
",",
"based",
"on",
"increasing",
"environmental",
"concerns",
"relating"
] | 419 |
is through the planning process , and this issue is the principal factor on which the majority of planning decisions relating to ga land use are made . ga is a specialist subject often unfamiliar to local planning authorities , and most planning decisions relating to ga either refuse permission , or grant it with restrictive conditions . little gran ##sden is just one example of a ga airfield required to comply with planning restrictions on the number of movements permitted , thereby inhibit ##ing further development . such restrictions , if poorly conceived , can make ga operations un ##via ##ble or even unsafe . = = criticism = = public opinion towards aviation generally is worse ##ning , based on increasing environmental concerns relating
| 453 |
[
"to",
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"and",
"noise",
",",
"and",
"private",
"flying",
"has",
"been",
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"by",
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"a",
"government",
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"fr",
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"or",
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".",
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] | 420 |
to emissions and noise , and private flying has been criticised by respondents to a government consultation on aircraft noise as a fr ##ivo ##lous or selfish activity . in terms of environmental complaints and en ##qui ##ries made to the ca ##a that relate specifically to ga , noise is " by far " the most common subject . half of the 2 @ , @ 000 noise complaints made annually to the ca ##a concern ga operations , most of which relate to aero ##bat ##ics , helicopters using private sites , air balloon incidents , parachute dropping , and alleged low flying . planning guidance on aircraft noise advises that " in some circumstances the public perceive general aircraft noise levels as more
| 284 |
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] | 421 |
disturbing than similar levels around major airports . " this is a result of the ton ##al characteristics of light aircraft engines and the activities they are engaged in , including : repetitive circuit flying at low @ - @ altitude near an aerodrome , during which aircraft are audible for long periods ; slow climbing aircraft engaged in parachute drop or glider tug activities concentrated around the drop zone or aerodrome , also audible for long periods ; erratic and repetitive engine noise from aircraft engaged in aero ##bat ##ics ; and piston @ - @ engines on full power in areas of low background noise , leading to the perception that such noise is more int ##rus ##ive . in an attempt to alleviate
| 298 |
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] | 422 |
these problems , the majority of aerodrome ##s implement noise aba ##tem ##ent procedures designed to route aircraft away from noise sensitive areas , and more than 50 are required by the government to provide consultative facilities in which local concerns can be raised with aerodrome operators . = sms z ##rin ##yi = sms z ##rin ##yi ( " his majesty ' s ship z ##rin ##yi " ) was a ra ##de ##tz ##ky @ - @ class pre @ - @ dread ##no ##ught battleship ( sc ##hl ##ach ##ts ##chi ##ff ) of the austro @ - @ hungarian navy ( k . u . k . k ##rie ##gs ##marine ) , named for the z ##rin ##ski , a noble
| 122 |
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] | 423 |
croatian family . z ##rin ##yi and her sisters , er ##zh ##er ##zog franz ferdinand and ra ##de ##tz ##ky , were the last pre @ - @ dread ##no ##ught ##s built by the austro @ - @ hungarian navy . during world war i , z ##rin ##yi saw action in the adriatic sea . she served with the second division of the austro @ - @ hungarian navy ' s battleships and shell ##ed sen ##iga ##lli ##a as part of the bombardment of the key sea ##port of an ##cona , italy , during may 1915 . however , allied control of the strait of ot ##rant ##o meant that the austro @ - @ hungarian navy was , for all
| 966 |
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] | 424 |
intent ##s and purposes , effectively bottled up in the adriatic . nonetheless , the presence of the z ##rin ##yi and other battleships tied down a substantial force of allied ships . with the war going against the austrians by the end of 1918 , z ##rin ##yi was prepared to be transferred to the new state of slovene ##s , croats and serbs . on 10 november 1918 — just one day before the end of the war , navy officers sailed the battleship out of pol ##a ( pu ##la ) and eventually surrendered to a squadron of american submarine chase ##rs . following the hand ##over to the united states navy , she was briefly designated uss z ##rin ##yi . in
| 970 |
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] | 425 |
the treaty of saint @ - @ germain @ - @ en @ - @ lay ##e , the transfer was not recognized ; instead , z ##rin ##yi was given to italy and broken up for scrap . = = design and construction = = z ##rin ##yi was built at the stab ##ili ##mento te ##c ##nic ##o tries ##tino dockyard in trieste , the same place where her sister ships were built earlier . she was laid down on 15 november 1908 and launched from the slip ##way on 12 april 1910 . the tea ##k used on z ##rin ##yi ' s deck was the only material austria @ - @ hungary had to purchase abroad to build the ship . the
| 130 |
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] | 426 |
ship was completed by 15 july 1911 , and on 22 november 1911 she was commissioned into the fleet . she was the last ship of the class to be completed and had a crew of 880 to 89 ##0 officers and men . z ##rin ##yi was 138 @ . @ 8 m ( 45 ##5 ft 4 in ) long , and had a beam of 24 @ . @ 6 m ( 80 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 8 @ . @ 1 m ( 26 ft 9 in ) . she displaced 14 @ , @ 50 ##8 long tons ( 14 @ , @ 74 ##1 t ) normally , and up to 15 @ , @ 84
| 982 |
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] | 427 |
##5 long tons ( 16 @ , @ 09 ##9 t ) with a full combat load . she was powered by two @ - @ shaft four @ - @ cylinder vertical triple expansion engines rated at 19 @ , @ 800 indicated horsepower . the ship had a top speed of 20 @ . @ 5 knots ( 38 @ . @ 0 km / h ; 23 @ . @ 6 mph ) . z ##rin ##yi was the first warship in the austro @ - @ hungarian navy to use fuel oil to supplement her 12 ya ##rrow @ - @ type coal @ - @ fired boilers . she had a maximum range of 4 @ , @ 000 nautical miles
| 981 |
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] | 428 |
( 7 @ , @ 400 km ; 4 @ , @ 600 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . the ship ' s primary armament consisted of four 30 @ . @ 5 cm ( 12 in ) 45 @ - @ caliber guns in two twin gun turrets . this was augmented by a heavy secondary battery of eight 24 cm ( 9 @ . @ 4 in ) guns in four wing turrets . the tertiary battery consisted of twenty 10 cm l / 50 guns in case ##mate ##d single mounts , four 47 mm ( 1 @ . @ 85 in ) l / 44 and one 47 mm
| 983 |
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] | 429 |
l / 33 quick @ - @ firing guns . furthermore , the ship ' s boats were equipped with two 66 mm ( 2 @ . @ 6 in ) landing guns for operations shore . three 45 cm ( 17 @ . @ 7 in ) torpedo tubes were also carried , one on each broad ##side and one in the stern . = = service history = = the ship was assigned to the austro @ - @ hungarian fleet ' s 1st battle squadron after her 1911 commissioning . in 1912 , z ##rin ##yi and her two sister ships conducted two training cruises into the eastern mediterranean sea . on the second cruise into the aegean sea , conducted from november
| 976 |
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"##net",
",",
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"german",
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"cruiser",
"sms",
"br",
"##es"
] | 430 |
to december , z ##rin ##yi and her sister ships were accompanied by the cruiser sms admiral spa ##un and a pair of destroyers . after returning to pol ##a , the entire fleet mobilized for possible hostilities , as tensions flared in the balkans . in 1913 , z ##rin ##yi participated in an international naval demonstration in the ion ##ian sea to protest the balkan wars . ships from other na ##vies included in the demonstration were the british pre @ - @ dread ##no ##ught hms king edward vii , the italian pre @ - @ dread ##no ##ught am ##mir ##ag ##lio di saint bon , the french armored cruiser edgar qui ##net , and the german light cruiser sms br ##es
| 966 |
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] | 431 |
##lau . the most important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the command of british admiral cecil burn ##ey , was to blockade the montenegrin coast . the goal of the blockade was to prevent serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at sc ##uta ##ri , where montenegro had besieged a combined force of albanians and ottomans . pressured by the international blockade , serbia withdrew its army from sc ##uta ##ri , which was subsequently occupied by a joint allied ground force . during that year , the first of four new dread ##no ##ught ##s , sms vi ##ri ##bus unit ##is , that made up the te ##get ##th ##off class — the only dread ##no ##ught ##s built for
| 966 |
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] | 432 |
the austro @ - @ hungarian navy — came into active service . with the commissioning of these dread ##no ##ught ##s , z ##rin ##yi and her sisters were moved from the 1st division to the 2nd division of the 1st battle squadron . at that time of the assassination of archduke franz ferdinand of austria on 28 june 1914 , the battleships in the austro @ - @ hungarian navy consisted of the ra ##de ##tz ##ky class , the te ##get ##th ##off class ( which still had one ship , sms s ##zen ##t ist ##van , under construction ) , the er ##zh ##er ##zog karl class and finally , the older habsburg class . along with the remainder of the
| 976 |
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] | 433 |
austro @ - @ hungarian navy , z ##rin ##yi was mobilized in late july 1914 to support the flight of sms go ##eb ##en and sms br ##es ##lau . the two german ships broke out of messina , which was surrounded by the british navy and reached turkey . the flotilla had advanced as far south as br ##ind ##isi in southeastern italy when news of the successful breakout reached vienna . the austro @ - @ hungarian ships were then recalled before seeing action . on 23 may 1915 , between two and four hours after news of the italian declaration of war reached the main austro @ - @ hungarian naval base at pol ##a , z ##rin ##yi and the rest
| 968 |
[
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",",
"turbine",
",",
"was",
"severely",
"damaged",
"further"
] | 434 |
of the fleet departed to bomb ##ard the italian and montenegrin coast . their focus was on the important naval base at an ##cona , and later the coast of montenegro . the bombardment of montenegro was part of the larger austro @ - @ hungarian campaign against the kingdoms of montenegro and serbia , who were members of the en ##ten ##te , during the first half of 1915 . the attack on an ##cona was an immense success , and the ships were unopposed during the operation . the bombardment of the province and the surrounding area resulted in the destruction of an italian steamer in the port of an ##cona itself , and an italian destroyer , turbine , was severely damaged further
| 968 |
[
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"-",
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",",
"were",
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"bombardment"
] | 435 |
south . on the shore , the infrastructure of the port of an ##cona , as well as the surrounding towns , were severely damaged . the railroad yard in an ##cona , as well as the port facilities in the town , were damaged or destroyed . the local shore batteries were also suppressed . during the bombardment , z ##rin ##yi also helped to destroy a train , a railway station , and a bridge at sen ##iga ##lli ##a . additional targets that were damaged or destroyed included w ##har ##ves , warehouses , oil tanks , radio stations , and the local barracks . sixty @ - @ three italians , both civilians and military personnel , were killed in the bombardment
| 957 |
[
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",",
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"austro"
] | 436 |
. by the time italian ships from tara ##nto and br ##ind ##isi arrived on the scene , the austro @ - @ hungarians were safely back in pol ##a . the objective of the bombardment of an ##cona was to delay the italian army from deploy ##ing its forces along the border with austria @ - @ hungary by destroying critical transportation systems . the surprise attack on an ##cona succeeded in delaying the italian deployment to the alps for two weeks . this delay gave austria @ - @ hungary valuable time to strengthen its italian border and re @ - @ deploy some of its troops from the eastern and balkan fronts . aside from the attack on an ##cona , the austro
| 968 |
[
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"fleet",
"blockade",
"##d",
"in",
"the"
] | 437 |
@ - @ hungarian battleships were largely confined to pol ##a for the duration of the war . their operations were limited by admiral anton ha ##us , the commander of the austro @ - @ hungarian navy , who believed that he would need to husband his ships to counter any italian attempt to seize the dal ##mat ##ian coast . since coal was diverted to the newer te ##get ##th ##off @ - @ class battleships , the remainder of the war saw z ##rin ##yi and the rest of the austro @ - @ hungarian navy acting as a fleet in being . this resulted in the allied blockade of the ot ##rant ##o strait . with his fleet blockade ##d in the
| 970 |
[
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] | 438 |
adriatic sea , and with a shortage of coal , ha ##us followed a strategy based on mines and submarines designed to reduce the numerical superiority of the allied na ##vies . after the austro @ - @ hungarian empire collapsed in 1918 , the austrians wanted to turn the fleet over to the newly created state of slovene ##s , croats and serbs ( later to become a part of the kingdom of yugoslavia ) in order to prevent the italians from claiming the ships as spoil ##s of war . however , the victorious allies refused to acknowledge the conversations between the austrians and the south sl ##avs and , in due course , real ##lo ##cated the ships . the ship had been
| 968 |
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","
] | 439 |
boarded by a scratch yugoslav crew on 10 november 1918 , one day before the armistice , and had left pol ##a with her sister ship , ra ##de ##tz ##ky . they were soon spotted by heavy italian ships , so the two battleships hoisted american flags and sailed south along the adriatic coast to caste ##lli bay near spa ##lat ##o ( also known as split ) . they appealed for american naval forces to meet them and accept their surrender , which a squadron of united states navy ( us ##n ) submarine chase ##rs in the area did . she had apparently been turned over to the fledgling south sl ##av state , as it was a cr ##oat naval officer ,
| 977 |
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] | 440 |
ko ##r ##vet ##ten ##ka ##pit ##an mari ##jan pol ##ic , who presented the ship as a prize of war to representatives of the united states navy on the afternoon of 22 november 1919 at spa ##lat ##o ( split ) in dal ##mat ##ia . simultaneously she was commissioned as uss z ##rin ##yi and lieutenant e . e . ha ##zle ##tt , us ##n , assumed command . the initial american complement consisted of four officers and 174 enlisted men — the latter entirely composed of united states navy reserve force personnel . the ship remained at anchor at spa ##lat ##o for nearly a year while the negotiations that would determine her ultimate fate dragged on . only once did she
| 954 |
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",",
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] | 441 |
apparently turn her engines over , and that occurred during a severe gale that struck spa ##lat ##o on 9 february 1920 . on the morning of 7 november 1920 , z ##rin ##yi was decommissioned . uss chattanooga took her in tow and , assisted by brooks and hove ##y , towed the battleship to italy . under the terms of the treaties of versailles and st . germain , z ##rin ##yi was ultimately turned over to the italian government at venice . she was broken up for scrap later that year and into 1921 . = geo ##py ##xi ##s carbon ##aria = geo ##py ##xi ##s carbon ##aria is a species of fungus in the genus geo ##py ##xi ##s , family
| 548 |
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] | 442 |
p ##yr ##one ##mata ##ceae . first described to science in 1805 , and given its current name in 1889 , the species is commonly known as the charcoal loving elf @ - @ cup , dwarf ac ##orn cup , stalked bonfire cup , or pi ##xie cup . the small , go ##ble ##t @ - @ shaped fruit ##bo ##dies of the fungus are reddish @ - @ brown with a whitish fringe and measure up to 2 cm ( 0 @ . @ 8 in ) across . they have a short , tape ##red stalk . fruit ##bo ##dies are commonly found on soil where brush has recently been burned , sometimes in great numbers . the fungus is distributed throughout
| 534 |
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"##um",
".",
"figures",
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] | 443 |
many temperate regions of the northern hemisphere . it is found in europe , turkey , and north america . although it is primarily a sap ##rot ##rop ##hic species , feeding on the deco ##mp ##osing organic matter remaining after a fire , it also forms bio ##tro ##phic associations with the roots of norway spruce . the fungus was first described scientific ##ally in 1805 by johannes baptist ##a von albert ##ini and lewis david de sc ##h ##wei ##nitz as pe ##zi ##za carbon ##aria . mor ##de ##ca ##i cub ##itt cooke illustrated the fruit ##bo ##dies , spores , and as ##ci in his 1879 work my ##co ##graph ##ia , se ##u icon ##es fun ##gor ##um . figures of
| 508 |
[
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"##za",
"le",
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"collections",
"made"
] | 444 |
fungi from all parts of the world . in 1889 , pier andrea sac ##card ##o transferred the fungus to the genus geo ##py ##xi ##s , giving the species its current name . pu ##st ##ular ##ia carbon ##aria , published by heinrich re ##hm in 1884 , is a synonym of g . carbon ##aria . louis @ - @ joseph gr ##ele ##t proposed the variety geo ##py ##xi ##s carbon ##aria var . se ##ssi ##lis in 1937 , referring to forms producing fruit ##bo ##dies without a stalk , but the taxon is not considered to have independent taxonomic significance . in 1860 miles berkeley and moses ashley curtis described the species pe ##zi ##za le ##pid ##a from collections made
| 502 |
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"(",
"as",
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] | 445 |
in japan as part of the north pacific exploring and surveying expedition ( 1853 – 1856 ) . this taxon was synonym ##ized with g . carbon ##aria by mi ##en ri ##fa ##i in 1968 , a taxonomic opinion co ##rro ##bor ##ated by donald p ##fi ##ster about a decade later . the specific epithet carbon ##aria derives from the latin word for " charcoal " . common names given to the fungus include " charcoal loving elf @ - @ cup " , " dwarf ac ##orn cup " , " pi ##xie cup " , and the british my ##col ##ogical society approved " stalked bonfire cup " . = = description = = the fruit ##bo ##dies ( as ##co ##car
| 498 |
[
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] | 446 |
##ps ) of geo ##py ##xi ##s carbon ##aris are cup shaped , 1 – 2 cm wide , and have fringe ##d whitish margins . the inner sp ##ore @ - @ bearing surface of the cup , the h ##yme ##nium , is brick red and smooth , while the exterior surface is a dull yellow , and may be either smooth or have b ##list ##er @ - @ like spots ( pu ##st ##ules ) . the st ##ipe is small ( 1 – 1 @ . @ 5 mm long and 1 – 2 mm wide ) , whitish in color , and expands abruptly into the cup . the brownish flesh of the fungus is thin and brittle . it
| 535 |
[
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] | 447 |
does not have any distinctive taste , but has an unpleasant smell when crushed in water . the ed ##ibility of the fungus is not known , but the fruit ##bo ##dies are ins ##ub ##stan ##tial and unlikely to be harvested for eating . = = = microscopic characteristics = = = in mass , the spores are whitish . the spores are elliptical , smooth , h ##yal ##ine , devoid of oil droplets ( e ##gut ##tula ##te ) , and have dimensions of 13 – 18 by 7 – 9 µ ##m . they are thin walled and ge ##rmin ##ate and grow rapidly in vitro in the absence of external stimuli . the as ##ci are 190 – 225 by 9
| 534 |
[
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] | 448 |
– 10 µ ##m . the para ##phy ##ses are slightly club @ - @ shaped , un ##bra ##nched , and have irregular orange @ - @ brown gran ##ules , with tips up to 5 µ ##m wide , and are not fork ##ed or lobe ##d . the h ##yp ##oth ##ec ##ium , the layer of cells below the h ##yme ##nium , is made of densely packed , small irregular cells . = = = similar species = = = the closely related vulcan elf cup ( geo ##py ##xi ##s vulcan ##alis ) has a pale orange to yellowish fruit ##body that is deeply cup shaped before flat ##ten ##ing in maturity , and its crushed flesh often has an
| 534 |
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"microscopic",
"##ally",
"by",
"its",
"spores",
"that",
"contain",
"two",
"oil",
"droplets",
".",
"other",
"genera",
"with",
"similar",
"species",
"with",
"which",
"g",
".",
"carbon",
"##aria",
"may",
"be",
"confused",
"in",
"the",
"field",
"include",
"ale",
"##uria",
",",
"cal",
"##os"
] | 449 |
odor of sulfur . it may be distinguished microscopic ##ally by its para ##phy ##ses , which lack the orange @ - @ brown gran ##ules characteristic of g . carbon ##aria . it also has larger spores , measuring 14 – 22 by 8 – 11 µ ##m . unlike g . carbon ##aria , it grows on substrates other than burned wood , including moss ##es , and needle duff . tar ##ze ##tta cup ##ular ##is , which grows habitats similar to g . carbon ##aria , is distinguished microscopic ##ally by its spores that contain two oil droplets . other genera with similar species with which g . carbon ##aria may be confused in the field include ale ##uria , cal ##os
| 571 |
[
"##cy",
"##pha",
",",
"mel",
"##ast",
"##iza",
",",
"and",
"so",
"##wer",
"##by",
"##ella",
".",
"=",
"=",
"habitat",
"and",
"distribution",
"=",
"=",
"geo",
"##py",
"##xi",
"##s",
"carbon",
"##aria",
"is",
"widespread",
"on",
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"soil",
"or",
"charcoal",
"in",
"the",
"spring",
"and",
"throughout",
"the",
"growing",
"season",
".",
"it",
"is",
"one",
"of",
"the",
"most",
"common",
"pioneer",
"species",
"found",
"on",
"burned",
"ground",
".",
"the",
"charred",
"litter",
"on",
"the",
"forest",
"floor",
"increases",
"the",
"underlying",
"soil",
"ph",
"as",
"well",
"as",
"the",
"availability",
"of",
"minerals",
".",
"fruit",
"##bo",
"##dies",
"are",
"produced",
"from",
"16",
"to",
"139",
"weeks",
"after",
"a",
"forest",
"fire",
"in",
"areas",
"with",
"con",
"##iferous",
"trees",
".",
"most",
"fruit",
"##bo",
"##dies",
"are",
"produced",
"in",
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"year",
"after",
"a",
"burn",
".",
"the",
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"fruit",
"##ing",
"in",
"micro",
"##hab",
"##ita",
"##ts",
"with",
"thin",
"post",
"##fire",
"duff"
] | 450 |
##cy ##pha , mel ##ast ##iza , and so ##wer ##by ##ella . = = habitat and distribution = = geo ##py ##xi ##s carbon ##aria is widespread on burned soil or charcoal in the spring and throughout the growing season . it is one of the most common pioneer species found on burned ground . the charred litter on the forest floor increases the underlying soil ph as well as the availability of minerals . fruit ##bo ##dies are produced from 16 to 139 weeks after a forest fire in areas with con ##iferous trees . most fruit ##bo ##dies are produced in the first year after a burn . the fungus prefers fruit ##ing in micro ##hab ##ita ##ts with thin post ##fire duff
| 534 |
[
"near",
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"burned",
"tree",
"trunks",
".",
"geo",
"##py",
"##xi",
"##s",
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"##aria",
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"-",
"@",
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"as",
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"##ls",
",",
"although",
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"former",
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"more",
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".",
"because",
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"more",
"##ls",
",",
"it",
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".",
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"##ing",
"in",
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".",
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"##bia",
",",
"pe",
"##zi",
"##za",
",",
"and",
"tar",
"##ze",
"##tta",
".",
"the",
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"in",
"europe",
"(",
"from",
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")",
",",
"and",
"is",
"widespread",
"throughout",
"north",
"america",
".",
"the",
"north",
"american"
] | 451 |
near standing burned tree trunks . geo ##py ##xi ##s carbon ##aria fruit ##bo ##dies are often found in the same post @ - @ fire stands as more ##ls , although the former is usually more abundant . because the pi ##xie cup fruits earlier than more ##ls , it may serve as an indicator of imminent more ##l fruit ##ing . other cup fungi often found fruit ##ing in the same area as g . carbon ##aria include those from the genera ale ##uria , ant ##hra ##co ##bia , pe ##zi ##za , and tar ##ze ##tta . the fungus is found in europe ( from where it was originally described ) , and is widespread throughout north america . the north american
| 534 |
[
"distribution",
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"north",
"to",
"alaska",
".",
"in",
"2010",
",",
"it",
"was",
"reported",
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".",
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"##rop",
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"-",
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",",
"geo",
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"##xi",
"##s",
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"##aria",
"has",
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"##tom",
"##y",
"##cor",
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"##e",
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"(",
"pic",
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"ab",
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")",
".",
"it",
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"laboratory",
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"that",
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"fungus",
"has",
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"##tro",
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"with",
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"##pole",
"pine",
"(",
"pin",
"##us",
"con",
"##tort",
"##a",
")",
".",
"the",
"h",
"##yp",
"##hae",
"of",
"g",
".",
"carbon",
"##aria",
"were",
"able",
"to",
"in",
"##fect",
"the",
"cortex",
"of",
"the",
"tree",
"seed",
"##ling",
",",
"but"
] | 452 |
distribution extends north to alaska . in 2010 , it was reported for the first time from turkey . although primarily a sap ##rot ##rop ##hic fungus involved in the post @ - @ fire breakdown of duff and con ##iferous roots , geo ##py ##xi ##s carbon ##aria has been shown to be capable of forming ec ##tom ##y ##cor ##rh ##iza ##e with norway spruce ( pic ##ea ab ##ies ) . it had been demonstrated earlier in laboratory experiments that the fungus has a bio ##tro ##phic interaction with lodge ##pole pine ( pin ##us con ##tort ##a ) . the h ##yp ##hae of g . carbon ##aria were able to in ##fect the cortex of the tree seed ##ling , but
| 530 |
[
"did",
"not",
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"the",
"end",
"##oder",
"##mis",
".",
"these",
"traits",
"suggest",
"that",
"the",
"fungus",
"is",
"a",
"moderate",
"pathogen",
",",
"with",
"limited",
"ability",
"to",
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"ge",
"##rmin",
"##ation",
".",
"additionally",
",",
"the",
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"the",
"enzyme",
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"ox",
"##ida",
"##se",
",",
"and",
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"li",
"##gni",
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"—",
"features",
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"##rop",
"##hic",
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".",
"the",
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"ru",
"##diment",
"##ary",
"hart",
"##ig",
"net",
",",
"a",
"characteristic",
"of",
"my",
"##cor",
"##rh",
"##iza",
"##l",
"fungi",
",",
"indicated",
"that",
"g",
".",
"carbon",
"##aria",
"might",
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"of",
"forming",
"mutual",
"##istic",
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"the",
"right",
"conditions",
".",
"vr",
"##als",
"##tad",
"and",
"colleagues",
"suggest",
"that",
"its",
"below",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ground",
"association",
"with",
"spruce",
"roots",
"protects",
"it"
] | 453 |
did not penetrate the end ##oder ##mis . these traits suggest that the fungus is a moderate pathogen , with limited ability to cause reductions in seed ge ##rmin ##ation . additionally , the fungus produces the enzyme poly ##ph ##eno ##l ox ##ida ##se , and can break down the complex organic polymer li ##gni ##n — features characteristic of sap ##rot ##rop ##hic fungi . the formation of a ru ##diment ##ary hart ##ig net , a characteristic of my ##cor ##rh ##iza ##l fungi , indicated that g . carbon ##aria might be capable of forming mutual ##istic relationships under the right conditions . vr ##als ##tad and colleagues suggest that its below @ - @ ground association with spruce roots protects it
| 556 |
[
"from",
"physical",
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"the",
"event",
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"a",
"fire",
",",
"and",
"the",
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"##body",
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"after",
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"\"",
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"from",
"a",
"dying",
"host",
"where",
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"no",
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"\"",
".",
"large",
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"with",
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"to",
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",",
"such",
"as",
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"which",
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"with",
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".",
"a",
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"that",
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"were",
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"likely",
"to",
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"in",
"areas",
"that",
"were",
"heavily",
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",",
"compared",
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"trees",
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",",
"or",
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"##cut",
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".",
"fruit",
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"##r",
"in",
"spruce",
"forests",
"—",
"with",
"up",
"to",
"700",
"–"
] | 454 |
from physical damage in the event of a fire , and the extensive fruit ##body production after a fire may reflect " a successful fungal escape from a dying host where the fungus no longer can maintain its bio ##tro ##phic association " . large fruit ##ings of the fungus are often associated with damage to the host tree , such as that which occurs with burning . a field study conducted in norway demonstrated that fruit bodies were more likely to be found in areas that were heavily burned , compared to locations with light to moderate burning where the trees remained viable , or in clear ##cut areas . fruit ##ing was much dense ##r in spruce forests — with up to 700 –
| 534 |
[
"1000",
"fruit",
"##bo",
"##dies",
"per",
"square",
"meter",
"—",
"than",
"in",
"pine",
"forests",
",",
"where",
"fruit",
"##bo",
"##dies",
"were",
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".",
"fruit",
"##bo",
"##dies",
"grew",
"by",
"the",
"millions",
"in",
"the",
"year",
"following",
"the",
"yellowstone",
"fires",
"of",
"1988",
".",
"=",
"gold",
"dollar",
"=",
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"gold",
"dollar",
"or",
"gold",
"one",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"dollar",
"piece",
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"a",
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"issue",
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"of",
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"to",
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".",
"the",
"coin",
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"three",
"types",
"over",
"its",
"lifetime",
",",
"all",
"designed",
"by",
"mint",
"chief",
"engraver",
"james",
"b",
".",
"long",
"##ac",
"##re",
".",
"the",
"type",
"1",
"issue",
"had",
"the",
"smallest",
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"of",
"any",
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"states",
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".",
"a",
"gold",
"dollar",
"had",
"been",
"proposed",
"several",
"times",
"in",
"the",
"1830s",
"and",
"1840s",
","
] | 455 |
1000 fruit ##bo ##dies per square meter — than in pine forests , where fruit ##bo ##dies were sporadic . fruit ##bo ##dies grew by the millions in the year following the yellowstone fires of 1988 . = gold dollar = the gold dollar or gold one @ - @ dollar piece was a coin struck as a regular issue by the united states bureau of the mint from 1849 to 1889 . the coin had three types over its lifetime , all designed by mint chief engraver james b . long ##ac ##re . the type 1 issue had the smallest diameter of any united states coin ever mint ##ed . a gold dollar had been proposed several times in the 1830s and 1840s ,
| 381 |
[
"but",
"was",
"not",
"initially",
"adopted",
".",
"congress",
"was",
"finally",
"gal",
"##vani",
"##zed",
"into",
"action",
"by",
"the",
"increased",
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"of",
"bull",
"##ion",
"caused",
"by",
"the",
"california",
"gold",
"rush",
",",
"and",
"in",
"1849",
"authorized",
"a",
"gold",
"dollar",
".",
"in",
"its",
"early",
"years",
",",
"silver",
"coins",
"were",
"being",
"ho",
"##arded",
"or",
"exported",
",",
"and",
"the",
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"dollar",
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".",
"silver",
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"in",
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"required",
"that",
"new",
"coins",
"of",
"that",
"metal",
"be",
"made",
"lighter",
",",
"and",
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"gold",
"dollar",
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"even",
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"coins",
"vanished",
"from",
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"because",
"of",
"the",
"economic",
"disruption",
"caused",
"by",
"the",
"american",
"civil",
"war",
".",
"gold",
"did",
"not",
"again",
"ci",
"##rc",
"##ulate",
"in",
"most",
"of",
"the",
"nation",
"until",
"1879",
";",
"once",
"it",
"did"
] | 456 |
but was not initially adopted . congress was finally gal ##vani ##zed into action by the increased supply of bull ##ion caused by the california gold rush , and in 1849 authorized a gold dollar . in its early years , silver coins were being ho ##arded or exported , and the gold dollar found a ready place in commerce . silver again circulated after congress in 1853 required that new coins of that metal be made lighter , and the gold dollar became a ra ##rity in commerce even before federal coins vanished from circulation because of the economic disruption caused by the american civil war . gold did not again ci ##rc ##ulate in most of the nation until 1879 ; once it did
| 475 |
[
",",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"did",
"not",
"regain",
"its",
"place",
".",
"in",
"its",
"final",
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",",
"it",
"was",
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"numbers",
",",
"causing",
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"by",
"ho",
"##ard",
"##ers",
".",
"it",
"was",
"also",
"in",
"demand",
"to",
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"mounted",
"in",
"jewelry",
".",
"the",
"regular",
"issue",
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"dollar",
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"in",
"1889",
";",
"the",
"following",
"year",
",",
"congress",
"ended",
"the",
"series",
".",
"=",
"=",
"background",
"=",
"=",
"in",
"proposing",
"his",
"plan",
"for",
"a",
"mint",
"and",
"a",
"coinage",
"system",
",",
"secretary",
"of",
"the",
"treasury",
"alexander",
"hamilton",
"in",
"1791",
"proposed",
"that",
"the",
"one",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"dollar",
"denomination",
"be",
"struck",
"both",
"as",
"a",
"gold",
"coin",
",",
"and",
"as",
"one",
"of",
"silver",
",",
"representative",
"of",
"the",
"two",
"metals",
"which",
"he",
"proposed",
"be",
"made",
"legal",
"tender",
".",
"congress",
"followed",
"hamilton",
"'",
"s"
] | 457 |
, the gold dollar did not regain its place . in its final years , it was struck in small numbers , causing speculation by ho ##ard ##ers . it was also in demand to be mounted in jewelry . the regular issue gold dollar was last struck in 1889 ; the following year , congress ended the series . = = background = = in proposing his plan for a mint and a coinage system , secretary of the treasury alexander hamilton in 1791 proposed that the one @ - @ dollar denomination be struck both as a gold coin , and as one of silver , representative of the two metals which he proposed be made legal tender . congress followed hamilton ' s
| 475 |
[
"recommendation",
"only",
"in",
"part",
",",
"author",
"##izing",
"a",
"silver",
"dollar",
",",
"but",
"no",
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"of",
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"denomination",
"in",
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".",
"in",
"1831",
",",
"the",
"first",
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"was",
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"##ed",
",",
"at",
"the",
"private",
"mint",
"of",
"christopher",
"be",
"##cht",
"##ler",
"in",
"north",
"carolina",
".",
"much",
"of",
"the",
"gold",
"then",
"being",
"produced",
"in",
"the",
"united",
"states",
"came",
"from",
"the",
"mountains",
"of",
"north",
"carolina",
"and",
"georgia",
",",
"and",
"the",
"dollars",
"and",
"other",
"small",
"gold",
"coins",
"issued",
"by",
"be",
"##cht",
"##ler",
"circulated",
"through",
"that",
"region",
",",
"and",
"were",
"now",
"and",
"then",
"seen",
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"away",
".",
"additional",
"one",
"@",
"-",
"@",
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"##cht",
"##ler",
",",
"christopher",
"'",
"s",
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".",
"soon",
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"be",
"##cht",
"##lers",
"began",
"to",
"strike",
"their",
"private",
"issues",
",",
"secretary"
] | 458 |
recommendation only in part , author ##izing a silver dollar , but no coin of that denomination in gold . in 1831 , the first gold dollar was mint ##ed , at the private mint of christopher be ##cht ##ler in north carolina . much of the gold then being produced in the united states came from the mountains of north carolina and georgia , and the dollars and other small gold coins issued by be ##cht ##ler circulated through that region , and were now and then seen further away . additional one @ - @ dollar pieces were struck by august be ##cht ##ler , christopher ' s son . soon after the be ##cht ##lers began to strike their private issues , secretary
| 381 |
[
"of",
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"levi",
"wood",
"##bury",
"became",
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"(",
"\"",
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",",
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"@",
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".",
"he",
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"director",
",",
"robert",
"m",
".",
"patterson",
".",
"wood",
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"persuaded",
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"jackson",
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"coins",
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".",
"in",
"response",
",",
"patterson",
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"second",
"engraver",
"christian",
"go",
"##bre",
"##cht",
"break",
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"new",
"design",
"for",
"the",
"silver",
"one",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"dollar",
"coin",
"and",
"work",
"on",
"a",
"pattern",
"for",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
".",
"go",
"##bre",
"##cht",
"'",
"s",
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"featured",
"a",
"liberty",
"cap",
"surrounded",
"by",
"rays",
"on",
"one",
"side",
",",
"and",
"a",
"palm",
"branch",
"arranged",
"in",
"a"
] | 459 |
of the treasury levi wood ##bury became an advocate of having the mint of the united states ( " mint " , when described as an institution ) strike the one @ - @ dollar denomination in gold . he was opposed by the mint director , robert m . patterson . wood ##bury persuaded president andrew jackson to have pattern coins struck . in response , patterson had mint second engraver christian go ##bre ##cht break off work on the new design for the silver one @ - @ dollar coin and work on a pattern for the gold dollar . go ##bre ##cht ' s design featured a liberty cap surrounded by rays on one side , and a palm branch arranged in a
| 381 |
[
"circle",
"with",
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"denomination",
",",
"date",
",",
"and",
"name",
"of",
"the",
"country",
"on",
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"other",
".",
"consideration",
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"given",
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"gold",
"dollar",
"as",
"an",
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"in",
"the",
"revision",
"##ary",
"legislation",
"that",
"became",
"the",
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"of",
"1837",
".",
"the",
"philadelphia",
"newspaper",
"public",
"ledger",
",",
"in",
"december",
"1836",
",",
"supported",
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",",
"stating",
"that",
"\"",
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",",
"and",
"as",
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"##ly",
"so",
",",
"neither",
"silver",
"nor",
"paper",
"should",
"be",
"allowed",
"to",
"take",
"its",
"place",
".",
"\"",
"nevertheless",
",",
"after",
"mint",
"director",
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"before",
"a",
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",",
"the",
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"from",
"the",
"bill",
".",
"=",
"=",
"inception",
"=",
"=",
"in",
"january",
"1844"
] | 460 |
circle with the denomination , date , and name of the country on the other . consideration was given to including the gold dollar as an authorized denomination in the revision ##ary legislation that became the mint act of 1837 . the philadelphia newspaper public ledger , in december 1836 , supported a gold dollar , stating that " the dollar is the smallest gold coin that would be convenient , and as it would be eminent ##ly so , neither silver nor paper should be allowed to take its place . " nevertheless , after mint director patterson appeared before a congressional committee , the provision author ##izing the gold dollar was deleted from the bill . = = inception = = in january 1844
| 475 |
[
",",
"north",
"carolina",
"representative",
"james",
"iv",
"##er",
"mckay",
",",
"the",
"chairman",
"of",
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"and",
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",",
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"of",
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".",
"patterson",
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"more",
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"##bre",
"##cht",
"'",
"s",
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",",
"again",
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"would",
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"only",
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"inch",
"(",
"13",
"mm",
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"in",
"diameter",
".",
"he",
"told",
"treasury",
"secretary",
"john",
"c",
".",
"spencer",
"that",
"the",
"only",
"gold",
"coins",
"of",
"that",
"size",
"in",
"commerce",
",",
"the",
"spanish",
"and",
"colombian",
"half",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"es",
"##cu",
"##dos",
",",
"were",
"unpopular",
"and",
"had",
"not",
"been",
"struck",
"for",
"more",
"than",
"twenty",
"years",
".",
"this",
"seemed",
"to",
"satisfy",
"the",
"committee",
"as",
"nothing",
"more",
"was"
] | 461 |
, north carolina representative james iv ##er mckay , the chairman of the committee on ways and means , sol ##ici ##ted the views of director patterson on the gold dollar . patterson had more of go ##bre ##cht ' s pattern dollar struck to show to committee members , again advising against a coin that if issued would be only about a half inch ( 13 mm ) in diameter . he told treasury secretary john c . spencer that the only gold coins of that size in commerce , the spanish and colombian half @ - @ es ##cu ##dos , were unpopular and had not been struck for more than twenty years . this seemed to satisfy the committee as nothing more was
| 470 |
[
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"for",
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",",
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",",
"mckay",
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".",
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"record",
"amounts",
"of",
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"but",
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"these",
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".",
"this",
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"as",
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",",
"then",
"the",
"largest",
"gold",
"coin",
".",
"in",
"january",
"1849",
",",
"mckay",
"introduced",
"a",
"bill",
"for",
"a",
"gold",
"dollar",
",",
"which",
"was",
"referred",
"to",
"his",
"committee",
".",
"there",
"was",
"much",
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"in",
"the",
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"about",
"the",
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";",
"one",
"newspaper",
"published",
"a",
"proposal",
"for",
"an",
"ann",
"##ular",
"gold"
] | 462 |
done for the time , and when a gold dollar was proposed again in 1846 , mckay ' s committee recommended against it . even before 1848 , record amounts of gold were flowing to american mint ##s to be struck into coin , but the california gold rush vastly increased these quantities . this renewed calls for a gold dollar , as well as for a higher denomination than the eagle ( $ 10 piece ) , then the largest gold coin . in january 1849 , mckay introduced a bill for a gold dollar , which was referred to his committee . there was much discussion in the press about the proposed coin ; one newspaper published a proposal for an ann ##ular gold
| 381 |
[
"dollar",
",",
"that",
"is",
",",
"with",
"a",
"hole",
"in",
"the",
"middle",
"to",
"increase",
"its",
"small",
"diameter",
".",
"mckay",
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"his",
"legislation",
"to",
"provide",
"for",
"a",
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"eagle",
"(",
"$",
"20",
"gold",
"coin",
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"and",
"wrote",
"to",
"patterson",
",",
"who",
"replied",
"stating",
"that",
"the",
"ann",
"##ular",
"gold",
"dollar",
"would",
"not",
"work",
",",
"and",
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"would",
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"proposal",
"to",
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"dollar",
"piece",
"consisting",
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"a",
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"plug",
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".",
"nevertheless",
",",
"go",
"##bre",
"##cht",
"'",
"s",
"successor",
"as",
"chief",
"engraver",
",",
"james",
"b",
".",
"long",
"##ac",
"##re",
",",
"prepared",
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",",
"including",
"some",
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".",
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",",
"new",
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"##herton",
",",
"to",
"introduce",
"the",
"bill",
"to",
"author",
"##ize",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"and"
] | 463 |
dollar , that is , with a hole in the middle to increase its small diameter . mckay amended his legislation to provide for a double eagle ( $ 20 gold coin ) and wrote to patterson , who replied stating that the ann ##ular gold dollar would not work , and neither would another proposal to have dollar piece consisting of a gold plug in a silver coin . nevertheless , go ##bre ##cht ' s successor as chief engraver , james b . long ##ac ##re , prepared patterns , including some with a square hole in the middle . mckay got his fellow democrat , new hampshire senator charles at ##herton , to introduce the bill to author ##ize the gold dollar and
| 456 |
[
"the",
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",",
"1849",
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"20",
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"day",
".",
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",",
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",",
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",",
"would",
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"and",
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"half",
"dime",
",",
"the",
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"similar",
"in",
"size",
".",
"mckay",
"did",
"not",
"respond",
"substantive",
"##ly",
",",
"but",
"stated",
"that",
"if",
"no",
"one",
"wanted",
"these",
"denominations",
",",
"they",
"would",
"not",
"be",
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"for",
"at",
"the",
"mint",
",",
"and",
"would",
"not",
"be",
"coined",
".",
"pennsylvania",
"representative"
] | 464 |
the double eagle in the senate on february 1 , 1849 — at ##herton was chairman of the senate finance committee . mckay introduced a version into the house on february 20 ; debate began the same day . the dollar was attacked by congress ##men from the whig party , then in the minority , on the grounds that it would be too small , would be counter ##feit ##ed and in bad light might be mistakenly spent as a half dime , the coins being similar in size . mckay did not respond substantive ##ly , but stated that if no one wanted these denominations , they would not be called for at the mint , and would not be coined . pennsylvania representative
| 494 |
[
"joseph",
"ing",
"##ers",
"##oll",
",",
"a",
"whig",
",",
"spoke",
"against",
"the",
"bill",
",",
"noting",
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"the",
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",",
"and",
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",",
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".",
"another",
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",",
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"'",
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",",
"related",
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"a",
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"and",
"a",
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"dollar",
"to",
"his",
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"and",
"the",
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"of",
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".",
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"made",
"no",
"answer",
"to",
"these",
"claims",
",",
"but",
"others",
"did",
",",
"including",
"new",
"york",
"congressman",
"henry",
"nico",
"##ll",
",",
"who",
"assured",
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"##feit",
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".",
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",",
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",",
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"the",
"double",
"eagle",
"and",
"gold",
"dollar",
"were",
"wanted",
"by",
"the",
"public",
","
] | 465 |
joseph ing ##ers ##oll , a whig , spoke against the bill , noting that patterson opposed the new denominations , and that the idea had been repeatedly turned down , whenever considered . another whig , massachusetts ' s charles hudson , related that patterson had sent a real and a counter ##feit gold dollar to his committee and the majority of members had been unable to tell the difference . mckay made no answer to these claims , but others did , including new york congressman henry nico ##ll , who assured the house that the counter ##feit ##ing allegations were greatly exaggerated . the point was , he indicated , that the double eagle and gold dollar were wanted by the public ,
| 453 |
[
"and",
",",
"in",
"the",
"case",
"of",
"the",
"gold",
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"##rc",
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"in",
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"where",
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"##notes",
"were",
"not",
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".",
"connecticut",
"representative",
"john",
"a",
".",
"rockwell",
",",
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",",
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"to",
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"bill",
",",
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".",
"the",
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",",
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",",
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"3",
",",
"1849",
".",
"=",
"=",
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"=",
"=",
"the",
"officers",
"at",
"the",
"philadelphia",
"mint",
",",
"including",
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"coin",
"##er",
"franklin",
"pea",
"##le",
",",
"were",
"mostly",
"the",
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"and",
"relations",
"of",
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".",
"the",
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"b",
".",
"long",
"##ac",
"##re",
",",
"successor",
"to",
"go",
"##bre",
"##cht",
"(",
"who",
"had",
"died",
"in",
"1844",
")"
] | 466 |
and , in the case of the gold dollar could help money ci ##rc ##ulate in small communities where bank ##notes were not accepted . connecticut representative john a . rockwell , a whig , tried to table the bill , but his motion was defeated . the bill passed easily , and met only minimal opposition in the senate , becoming law on march 3 , 1849 . = = preparation = = the officers at the philadelphia mint , including chief coin ##er franklin pea ##le , were mostly the friends and relations of director patterson . the outsider in their midst was chief engraver james b . long ##ac ##re , successor to go ##bre ##cht ( who had died in 1844 )
| 493 |
[
".",
"a",
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"@",
"-",
"@",
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",",
"long",
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"##re",
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"c",
".",
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".",
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",",
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"##d",
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"that",
"he",
"was",
"ready",
"to",
"begin",
"work",
"on"
] | 467 |
. a former copper @ - @ plate engraver , long ##ac ##re had been appointed through the political influence of south carolina senator john c . calhoun . when long ##ac ##re began work on the two new coins in early 1849 , he had no one to assist him . long ##ac ##re wrote the following year that he had been warned by a mint employee that one of the officers ( undoubtedly pea ##le ) planned to undermine the chief engraver ' s position by having the work of preparing designs and dies done outside mint premises . accordingly , when the gold coin bill became law , long ##ac ##re app ##rise ##d patterson that he was ready to begin work on
| 381 |
[
"the",
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".",
"the",
"mint",
"director",
"agreed",
",",
"and",
"after",
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"##re",
",",
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"had",
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",",
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",",
"was",
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".",
"=",
"=",
"original",
"design",
"="
] | 468 |
the gold dollar . the mint director agreed , and after viewing a model of the head on the ob ##verse , authorized long ##ac ##re to proceed with preparation of dies . according to long ##ac ##re , the engraving was unusually minute and required very close and inc ##ess ##ant labor for several weeks . i made the original dies and hub ##s for making the working dies twice over , to secure their perfect adaptation to the coin ##ing machinery . i had a wish to execute this work single handed , that i might thus silently reply to those who had questioned my ability for the work . the result , i believe , was satisfactory . = = original design =
| 381 |
[
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"the",
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"##est",
",",
"tin",
"##iest",
",",
"light",
"##est",
",",
"coin",
"in",
"this",
"country",
".",
".",
".",
"it",
"is",
"too",
"delicate",
"and",
"beautiful",
"to",
"pay",
"out",
"for",
"potatoes"
] | 469 |
= the type 1 gold dollar depicts a head of liberty , facing left , with a co ##rone ##t or tia ##ra on her head bearing her name . her hair is gathered in a bun ; she is surrounded by 13 stars representing the original states . the reverse features the date and denomination within a wreath , with the name of the nation near the rim . contemporary reviews of the type 1 design were generally favorable . the new york weekly tribune on may 19 , 1849 described the new dollar as " undoubtedly the neat ##est , tin ##iest , light ##est , coin in this country . . . it is too delicate and beautiful to pay out for potatoes
| 381 |
[
",",
"and",
"sa",
"##uer",
"##kra",
"##ut",
",",
"and",
"salt",
"pork",
".",
"obe",
"##ron",
"might",
"have",
"paid",
"puck",
"with",
"it",
"for",
"bringing",
"the",
"blossom",
"which",
"be",
"##wi",
"##tched",
"titan",
"##ia",
".",
"\"",
"willis",
"'",
"bank",
"note",
"list",
"stated",
"that",
"\"",
"there",
"is",
"no",
"probability",
"of",
"them",
"ever",
"getting",
"into",
"general",
"circulation",
";",
"they",
"are",
"altogether",
"too",
"small",
".",
"\"",
"the",
"north",
"carolina",
"standard",
"hoped",
"that",
"they",
"would",
"be",
"struck",
"at",
"the",
"charlotte",
"mint",
"and",
"circulated",
"locally",
"to",
"eliminate",
"the",
"problem",
"of",
"small",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"denomination",
"bank",
"notes",
"from",
"out",
"of",
"state",
".",
"coin",
"dealer",
"and",
"nu",
"##mism",
"##atic",
"author",
"q",
".",
"david",
"bow",
"##ers",
"notes",
"that",
"the",
"head",
"of",
"liberty",
"on",
"the",
"type",
"1",
"dollar",
"is",
"a",
"scaled",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"down",
"version",
"of",
"that",
"on"
] | 470 |
, and sa ##uer ##kra ##ut , and salt pork . obe ##ron might have paid puck with it for bringing the blossom which be ##wi ##tched titan ##ia . " willis ' bank note list stated that " there is no probability of them ever getting into general circulation ; they are altogether too small . " the north carolina standard hoped that they would be struck at the charlotte mint and circulated locally to eliminate the problem of small @ - @ denomination bank notes from out of state . coin dealer and nu ##mism ##atic author q . david bow ##ers notes that the head of liberty on the type 1 dollar is a scaled @ - @ down version of that on
| 381 |
[
"the",
"double",
"eagle",
",",
"and",
"\"",
"a",
"nicely",
"preserved",
"gold",
"dollar",
"is",
"beautiful",
"to",
"behold",
"\"",
".",
"=",
"=",
"modifications",
"=",
"=",
"mint",
"records",
"indicate",
"the",
"first",
"gold",
"dollars",
"were",
"produced",
"on",
"may",
"7",
",",
"1849",
";",
"long",
"##ac",
"##re",
"'",
"s",
"diary",
"notes",
"state",
"instead",
"that",
"the",
"first",
"were",
"struck",
"on",
"may",
"8",
".",
"a",
"few",
"coins",
"in",
"proof",
"condition",
"were",
"struck",
"on",
"the",
"first",
"day",
",",
"along",
"with",
"about",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
"for",
"circulation",
".",
"there",
"are",
"five",
"major",
"varieties",
"of",
"the",
"1849",
"gold",
"dollar",
"from",
"philadelphia",
",",
"made",
"as",
"long",
"##ac",
"##re",
"continued",
"to",
"fine",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"tune",
"the",
"design",
".",
"mint",
"##mark",
"##ed",
"dies",
"were",
"sent",
"by",
"long",
"##ac",
"##re",
"'",
"s",
"engraving",
"department",
"at",
"the",
"philadelphia",
"mint",
"to"
] | 471 |
the double eagle , and " a nicely preserved gold dollar is beautiful to behold " . = = modifications = = mint records indicate the first gold dollars were produced on may 7 , 1849 ; long ##ac ##re ' s diary notes state instead that the first were struck on may 8 . a few coins in proof condition were struck on the first day , along with about 1 @ , @ 000 for circulation . there are five major varieties of the 1849 gold dollar from philadelphia , made as long ##ac ##re continued to fine @ - @ tune the design . mint ##mark ##ed dies were sent by long ##ac ##re ' s engraving department at the philadelphia mint to
| 381 |
[
"the",
"branch",
"mint",
"##s",
"at",
"charlotte",
",",
"dahl",
"##one",
"##ga",
"(",
"in",
"georgia",
")",
",",
"and",
"new",
"orleans",
";",
"coins",
"struck",
"at",
"the",
"branches",
"resemble",
"some",
"of",
"the",
"types",
"issued",
"from",
"philadelphia",
",",
"depending",
"on",
"when",
"the",
"dies",
"were",
"produced",
".",
"of",
"the",
"coins",
"struck",
"at",
"the",
"branch",
"mint",
"##s",
"in",
"1849",
",",
"only",
"pieces",
"struck",
"at",
"charlotte",
"(",
"1849",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"c",
")",
"exist",
"in",
"multiple",
"varieties",
";",
"most",
"are",
"of",
"what",
"is",
"dubbed",
"the",
"\"",
"closed",
"wreath",
"\"",
"variety",
".",
"approximately",
"five",
"of",
"the",
"1849",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"c",
"open",
"wreath",
"are",
"known",
";",
"one",
",",
"believed",
"the",
"finest",
"surviving",
"specimen",
",",
"sold",
"at",
"auction",
"for",
"$",
"690",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
"in",
"2004",
",",
"remaining",
"a",
"record",
"for",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"series"
] | 472 |
the branch mint ##s at charlotte , dahl ##one ##ga ( in georgia ) , and new orleans ; coins struck at the branches resemble some of the types issued from philadelphia , depending on when the dies were produced . of the coins struck at the branch mint ##s in 1849 , only pieces struck at charlotte ( 1849 @ - @ c ) exist in multiple varieties ; most are of what is dubbed the " closed wreath " variety . approximately five of the 1849 @ - @ c open wreath are known ; one , believed the finest surviving specimen , sold at auction for $ 690 @ , @ 000 in 2004 , remaining a record for the gold dollar series
| 381 |
[
"as",
"of",
"2013",
".",
"one",
"of",
"the",
"changes",
"made",
"during",
"production",
"was",
"the",
"inclusion",
"of",
"long",
"##ac",
"##re",
"'",
"s",
"initial",
"\"",
"l",
"\"",
"on",
"the",
"tr",
"##un",
"##cation",
"of",
"liberty",
"'",
"s",
"neck",
",",
"the",
"first",
"time",
"a",
"u",
".",
"s",
".",
"coin",
"intended",
"for",
"full",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"scale",
"production",
"had",
"borne",
"the",
"initial",
"of",
"its",
"designer",
".",
"all",
"issues",
"beginning",
"in",
"1850",
"bear",
"the",
"closed",
"wreath",
".",
"beginning",
"in",
"1854",
",",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"was",
"also",
"struck",
"at",
"the",
"new",
"san",
"francisco",
"mint",
".",
"the",
"continued",
"flow",
"of",
"gold",
"from",
"california",
"made",
"silver",
"expensive",
"in",
"terms",
"of",
"gold",
",",
"and",
"u",
".",
"s",
".",
"silver",
"coins",
"began",
"to",
"flow",
"out",
"of",
"the",
"country",
"for",
"melting",
"in",
"1849",
",",
"a",
"flow",
"that",
"accelerated",
"over"
] | 473 |
as of 2013 . one of the changes made during production was the inclusion of long ##ac ##re ' s initial " l " on the tr ##un ##cation of liberty ' s neck , the first time a u . s . coin intended for full @ - @ scale production had borne the initial of its designer . all issues beginning in 1850 bear the closed wreath . beginning in 1854 , the gold dollar was also struck at the new san francisco mint . the continued flow of gold from california made silver expensive in terms of gold , and u . s . silver coins began to flow out of the country for melting in 1849 , a flow that accelerated over
| 381 |
[
"the",
"next",
"several",
"years",
"as",
"the",
"price",
"of",
"the",
"metal",
"continued",
"to",
"rise",
".",
"by",
"1853",
",",
"a",
"thousand",
"dollars",
"in",
"silver",
"coin",
"contained",
"$",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"04",
"##2",
"worth",
"of",
"bull",
"##ion",
".",
"as",
"silver",
"coins",
"vanished",
",",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"became",
"the",
"only",
"federal",
"coin",
"in",
"circulation",
"between",
"the",
"cent",
"and",
"the",
"quarter",
"eagle",
"(",
"$",
"2",
"@",
".",
"@",
"50",
"piece",
")",
".",
"as",
"such",
",",
"it",
"was",
"struck",
"in",
"large",
"numbers",
"and",
"widely",
"circulated",
".",
"according",
"to",
"bow",
"##ers",
"in",
"his",
"book",
"on",
"the",
"denomination",
",",
"\"",
"the",
"years",
"1850",
"to",
"1853",
"were",
"the",
"high",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"water",
"mark",
"of",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
",",
"the",
"glory",
"years",
"of",
"the",
"denomination",
"when",
"the",
"little",
"gold",
"coins",
"took",
"the",
"place",
"of"
] | 474 |
the next several years as the price of the metal continued to rise . by 1853 , a thousand dollars in silver coin contained $ 1 @ , @ 04 ##2 worth of bull ##ion . as silver coins vanished , the gold dollar became the only federal coin in circulation between the cent and the quarter eagle ( $ 2 @ . @ 50 piece ) . as such , it was struck in large numbers and widely circulated . according to bow ##ers in his book on the denomination , " the years 1850 to 1853 were the high @ - @ water mark of the gold dollar , the glory years of the denomination when the little gold coins took the place of
| 381 |
[
"half",
"dollars",
"and",
"silver",
"dollars",
"in",
"everyday",
"transactions",
".",
"\"",
"this",
"time",
"came",
"to",
"an",
"end",
"in",
"1853",
"when",
"congress",
"passed",
"an",
"act",
"reducing",
"the",
"weight",
"of",
"most",
"silver",
"coins",
",",
"allowing",
"new",
"issues",
"of",
"them",
"to",
"ci",
"##rc",
"##ulate",
".",
"as",
"early",
"as",
"1851",
",",
"new",
"york",
"congressman",
"william",
"due",
"##r",
"alleged",
"that",
"that",
"patterson",
"had",
"made",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"too",
"small",
"in",
"diameter",
"on",
"purpose",
"to",
"provoke",
"criticism",
".",
"patterson",
"retired",
"that",
"year",
"after",
"16",
"years",
"in",
"his",
"position",
",",
"and",
"under",
"his",
"successor",
",",
"george",
"n",
".",
"ec",
"##ker",
"##t",
",",
"ann",
"##ular",
"gold",
"dollar",
"and",
"half",
"dollar",
"patterns",
"were",
"struck",
".",
"public",
"ledger",
"reported",
"that",
"although",
"gold",
"dollars",
"would",
"not",
"be",
"struck",
"in",
"ann",
"##ular",
"form",
",",
"gold",
"half",
"dollars",
"would",
"be"
] | 475 |
half dollars and silver dollars in everyday transactions . " this time came to an end in 1853 when congress passed an act reducing the weight of most silver coins , allowing new issues of them to ci ##rc ##ulate . as early as 1851 , new york congressman william due ##r alleged that that patterson had made the gold dollar too small in diameter on purpose to provoke criticism . patterson retired that year after 16 years in his position , and under his successor , george n . ec ##ker ##t , ann ##ular gold dollar and half dollar patterns were struck . public ledger reported that although gold dollars would not be struck in ann ##ular form , gold half dollars would be
| 475 |
[
",",
"to",
"help",
"fill",
"the",
"need",
"for",
"change",
".",
"with",
"the",
"new",
"pierce",
"administration",
",",
"thomas",
"m",
".",
"pet",
"##ti",
"##t",
"took",
"office",
"as",
"mint",
"director",
"on",
"march",
"31",
",",
"1853",
".",
"in",
"april",
",",
"treasury",
"secretary",
"james",
"guthrie",
"wrote",
"to",
"pet",
"##ti",
"##t",
"that",
"there",
"were",
"complaints",
"that",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"was",
"too",
"small",
",",
"often",
"lost",
"or",
"mistaken",
"for",
"a",
"small",
"silver",
"coin",
",",
"and",
"en",
"##qui",
"##ring",
"about",
"reports",
"the",
"mint",
"had",
"experimented",
"with",
"ann",
"##ular",
"dollars",
".",
"pet",
"##ti",
"##t",
"replied",
",",
"stating",
"that",
"none",
"had",
"been",
"preserved",
",",
"but",
"enclosed",
"a",
"silver",
"piece",
"of",
"equivalent",
"size",
".",
"he",
"noted",
"that",
"while",
"there",
"would",
"be",
"technical",
"difficulties",
"in",
"the",
"production",
"of",
"the",
"ann",
"##ular",
"dollar",
",",
"these",
"could",
"be",
"overcome",
".",
"in"
] | 476 |
, to help fill the need for change . with the new pierce administration , thomas m . pet ##ti ##t took office as mint director on march 31 , 1853 . in april , treasury secretary james guthrie wrote to pet ##ti ##t that there were complaints that the gold dollar was too small , often lost or mistaken for a small silver coin , and en ##qui ##ring about reports the mint had experimented with ann ##ular dollars . pet ##ti ##t replied , stating that none had been preserved , but enclosed a silver piece of equivalent size . he noted that while there would be technical difficulties in the production of the ann ##ular dollar , these could be overcome . in
| 381 |
[
"a",
"letter",
"dated",
"may",
"10",
",",
"pet",
"##ti",
"##t",
"proposed",
"an",
"oval",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"shaped",
"hole",
"##d",
"piece",
",",
"or",
"an",
"angular",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"shaped",
"coin",
",",
"which",
"would",
"less",
"##en",
"the",
"production",
"problems",
".",
"pet",
"##ti",
"##t",
"died",
"suddenly",
"on",
"may",
"31",
";",
"guthrie",
"did",
"not",
"let",
"the",
"issue",
"fall",
",",
"but",
"que",
"##ried",
"pet",
"##ti",
"##t",
"'",
"s",
"replacement",
",",
"james",
"ross",
"snow",
"##den",
",",
"concerning",
"the",
"issue",
"on",
"june",
"7",
".",
"as",
"u",
".",
"s",
".",
"coins",
"were",
"required",
"to",
"bear",
"some",
"device",
"emblem",
"##atic",
"of",
"liberty",
",",
"the",
"secretary",
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"that",
"artists",
"could",
"be",
"found",
"who",
"could",
"find",
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"such",
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"for",
"an",
"ann",
"##ular",
"coin",
".",
"the",
"act",
"of",
"february",
"21",
",",
"1853",
",",
"that",
"had",
"light",
"##ened",
"the"
] | 477 |
a letter dated may 10 , pet ##ti ##t proposed an oval @ - @ shaped hole ##d piece , or an angular @ - @ shaped coin , which would less ##en the production problems . pet ##ti ##t died suddenly on may 31 ; guthrie did not let the issue fall , but que ##ried pet ##ti ##t ' s replacement , james ross snow ##den , concerning the issue on june 7 . as u . s . coins were required to bear some device emblem ##atic of liberty , the secretary hoped that artists could be found who could find some such design for an ann ##ular coin . the act of february 21 , 1853 , that had light ##ened the
| 381 |
[
"silver",
"coins",
"also",
"authorized",
"a",
"gold",
"three",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"dollar",
"piece",
",",
"which",
"began",
"to",
"be",
"produced",
"in",
"1854",
".",
"to",
"ensure",
"that",
"the",
"three",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"dollar",
"piece",
"was",
"not",
"mistaken",
"for",
"other",
"gold",
"coins",
",",
"it",
"had",
"been",
"made",
"thinner",
"and",
"wider",
"than",
"it",
"would",
"normally",
"be",
",",
"and",
"long",
"##ac",
"##re",
"put",
"a",
"distinctive",
"design",
"with",
"an",
"indian",
"princess",
"on",
"it",
".",
"long",
"##ac",
"##re",
"adapted",
"both",
"the",
"technique",
"and",
"the",
"design",
"for",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
",",
"which",
"was",
"made",
"thinner",
",",
"and",
"thus",
"wider",
".",
"an",
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"of",
"long",
"##ac",
"##re",
"'",
"s",
"princess",
"for",
"the",
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"gold",
"coin",
"was",
"placed",
"on",
"the",
"dollar",
",",
"and",
"a",
"similar",
"agricultural",
"wreath",
"on",
"the",
"reverse",
".",
"the",
"idea",
"of",
"making",
"the",
"gold"
] | 478 |
silver coins also authorized a gold three @ - @ dollar piece , which began to be produced in 1854 . to ensure that the three @ - @ dollar piece was not mistaken for other gold coins , it had been made thinner and wider than it would normally be , and long ##ac ##re put a distinctive design with an indian princess on it . long ##ac ##re adapted both the technique and the design for the gold dollar , which was made thinner , and thus wider . an adaptation of long ##ac ##re ' s princess for the larger gold coin was placed on the dollar , and a similar agricultural wreath on the reverse . the idea of making the gold
| 381 |
[
"dollar",
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"in",
"this",
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"as",
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"as",
"1852",
",",
"and",
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"pet",
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"##t",
",",
"but",
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"in",
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",",
"snow",
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",",
"especially",
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"the",
"coins",
"to",
"e",
"##ject",
"properly",
"from",
"the",
"press",
",",
"were",
"more",
"than",
"trivial",
".",
"nevertheless",
",",
"the",
"type",
"2",
"gold",
"dollar",
"(",
"as",
"it",
"came",
"to",
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")",
"proved",
"un",
"##sat",
"##is",
"##factory",
"as",
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"##s",
"had",
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"new",
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"so",
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"all",
"details",
"were",
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".",
"this",
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"the",
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"design",
"—"
] | 479 |
dollar larger in this way had been suggested in congress as early as 1852 , and had been advocated by pet ##ti ##t , but guthrie ' s desire for an ann ##ular coin stalled the matter . in may 1854 , snow ##den sent guthrie a letter stating that the difficulties with an ann ##ular coin , especially in getting the coins to e ##ject properly from the press , were more than trivial . nevertheless , the type 2 gold dollar ( as it came to be known ) proved un ##sat ##is ##factory as the mint ##s had difficulty in striking the new coin so that all details were brought out . this was due to the high relief of the design —
| 381 |
[
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"-",
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"three",
"@",
"-",
"@"
] | 480 |
the three southern branch mint ##s especially had trouble with the piece . many of the type 2 pieces quickly became ill ##eg ##ible , and were sent back to philadelphia for melting and rec ##oin ##age . on most surviving specimens , the " 85 " in the date is not fully detailed . the type 2 gold dollar was struck only at philadelphia in 1854 and 1855 , at the three southern branch mint ##s in the latter year , and at san francisco in 1856 , after the design was designated for replacement . to correct the problems , long ##ac ##re enlarged the head of liberty , making it a scaled @ - @ down version of the three @ - @
| 381 |
[
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"any",
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".",
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"a",
"number",
"of",
"versions",
"of"
] | 481 |
dollar piece , and moved the lettering on the ob ##verse closer to the rim . this improved the metal flow and design sharp ##ness so much that early nu ##mism ##atic scholars assumed the reverse was also altered , though in fact no change was made and the type 2 and type 3 reverse ##s are identical . the type 2 and 3 gold dollars depict liberty as a native american princess , with a fan ##ciful feather ##ed head ##dre ##ss not resembling any worn by any indian tribe . this image is an in ##ex ##act copy of the design long ##ac ##re had made for the three @ - @ dollar piece , and is one of a number of versions of
| 381 |
[
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"3",
"gold",
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",",
"and",
"for",
"the"
] | 482 |
liberty long ##ac ##re created based on the venus acc ##roup ##ie or crouch ##ing venus , a sculpture then on display in a philadelphia museum . for the reverse , long ##ac ##re adapted the " agricultural wreath " he had created for the reverse of the three @ - @ dollar piece , composed of cotton , corn , tobacco , and wheat , blending the produce of north and south . this wreath would appear , later in the 1850s , on the flying eagle cent . art historian cornelius ve ##rm ##eu ##le de ##pre ##cated the indian princess design used by long ##ac ##re for the ob ##verse ##s of the types 2 and 3 gold dollar , and for the
| 381 |
[
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",",
"just",
"under",
"a",
"third"
] | 483 |
three @ - @ dollar piece , " the ' princess ' of the gold coins is a bank ##note engraver ' s elegant version of folk art of the 1850s . the plume ##s or feathers are more like the crest of the prince of wales than anything that saw the western frontiers , save perhaps on a music hall beauty . " the gold dollar continued to be produced in the late 1850s , though mint ##ages declined from the figures of two million or more each year between 1850 and 1854 . only about 51 @ , @ 000 gold dollars were produced in 1860 , with over two @ - @ thirds of that figure at philadelphia , just under a third
| 381 |
[
"at",
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"and",
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",",
"as",
"the",
"american",
"civil",
"war",
"began",
".",
"under",
"orders",
"from",
"governor"
] | 484 |
at san francisco , and 1 @ , @ 56 ##6 at dahl ##one ##ga . roughly a hundred are known of the last , creating one of the great ra ##rit ##ies from dahl ##one ##ga in the series . the other candidate for the rare ##st from that mint is the 1861 @ - @ d , with an estimated mint ##age of 1 @ , @ 000 and perhaps 45 to 60 known . two pairs of dies were shipped from philadelphia to dahl ##one ##ga on december 10 , 1860 ; they arrived on january 7 , 1861 , two weeks before georgia voted to sec ##ede from the union , as the american civil war began . under orders from governor
| 381 |
[
"joseph",
"e",
".",
"brown",
",",
"state",
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"had",
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".",
"gold",
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".",
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",",
"they",
"would",
"have",
"been",
"sent",
"to",
"philadelphia",
"to",
"await",
"the",
"following",
"year"
] | 485 |
joseph e . brown , state militia secured the mint , and at some point , small quantities of dollars and half eagles were produced . records of how many coins were struck and when have not survived . since dies crack in time , and all the mint ##s were supplied with them from philadelphia , coin ##ing could not last , and in may 1861 , coins and supplies remaining at dahl ##one ##ga were turned over to the treasury of the confederate states of america , which georgia had by then joined . gold coins with a face value of $ 6 were put aside for ass ##ay . normally , they would have been sent to philadelphia to await the following year
| 381 |
[
"'",
"s",
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"but",
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"gold",
"dollars",
"again",
"."
] | 486 |
' s meeting of the united states ass ##ay commission , when they would be available for testing . instead , these were sent to the initial confederate capital of montgomery , alabama , though what was done with them there , and their ultimate fate , are unknown . the ra ##rity of the 1861 @ - @ d dollar , and the association with the confederacy , make it especially prized . dahl ##one ##ga , like the other two branch mint ##s in the south , closed its doors after the 1861 striking ##s . it and the charlotte facility never reopened ; the new orleans mint again struck coins from 1879 to 1909 , but did not strike gold dollars again .
| 381 |
[
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"the",
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"and",
"paper",
"money",
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"at",
"a",
"discount",
".",
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"the",
"rest"
] | 487 |
after 1861 , the only iss ##uance of gold dollars outside philadelphia was at san francisco , in 1870 . the outbreak of the civil war shook public confidence in the union , and citizens began ho ##arding spec ##ie , gold and silver coins . in late december 1861 , banks and then the federal treasury stopped paying out gold at face value . by mid @ - @ 1862 , all federal coins , even the base metal cent , had vanished from commerce in much of the country . the exception was the far west , where for the most part , only gold and silver were acceptable cu ##rre ##ncies , and paper money traded at a discount . in the rest
| 441 |
[
"of",
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"gold",
"and",
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"period",
",",
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"@",
",",
"@",
"36",
"##1",
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"the",
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"production",
"would",
"exceed",
"a",
"million"
] | 488 |
of the nation , gold and silver coins could be purchased from banks , exchange agents , and from the treasury for a premium in the new green ##backs the government began to issue to fill the gap in commerce and finance the war . = = final years , abolition , and collecting = = since gold did not ci ##rc ##ulate in the united states ( except on the west coast ) in the postwar period , much of the production of coins of that metal in the united states was double eagles for export . accordingly , although 1 @ , @ 36 ##1 @ , @ 355 gold dollars were struck in 1862 — the last time production would exceed a million
| 381 |
[
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"of",
"the"
] | 489 |
— the mint ##age fell to 6 @ , @ 200 in 1863 and remained low for the rest of the coin ' s existence , except ##ing 1873 and 1874 . the mint felt it improper to suspend coinage of a coin authorized by congress , and issued proof coins ( generally a few dozen to the tiny nu ##mism ##atic community ) from specially @ - @ polished dies , also producing enough circulation strikes so that the proof coins would not be und ##ul ##y rare . in 1873 and 1874 , old and worn gold dollars held by the government were melted and rec ##oin ##ed , generating large mint ##ages of that denomination . this was done in anticipation of the
| 381 |
[
"res",
"##ump",
"##tion",
"of",
"spec",
"##ie",
"payments",
",",
"which",
"did",
"not",
"occur",
"until",
"the",
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"of",
"1878",
".",
"once",
"spec",
"##ie",
"again",
"circulated",
"at",
"face",
"value",
",",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"found",
"no",
"place",
"in",
"commerce",
"amid",
"large",
"quantities",
"of",
"silver",
"coinage",
",",
"either",
"released",
"from",
"ho",
"##arding",
"or",
"newly",
"struck",
"by",
"the",
"mint",
".",
"the",
"government",
"expected",
"that",
"the",
"res",
"##ump",
"##tion",
"of",
"spec",
"##ie",
"payments",
"would",
"cause",
"the",
"dollar",
"and",
"other",
"small",
"gold",
"coins",
"to",
"ci",
"##rc",
"##ulate",
"again",
",",
"but",
"the",
"public",
",",
"allowed",
"to",
"red",
"##eem",
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"currency",
",",
"continued",
"to",
"use",
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"as",
"more",
"convenient",
"than",
"coins",
".",
"in",
"the",
"1870s",
"and",
"1880s",
",",
"public",
"interest",
"grew",
"in",
"the",
"low",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"mint",
"##age",
"gold",
"dollar",
".",
"collecting",
"coins",
"was",
"becoming"
] | 490 |
res ##ump ##tion of spec ##ie payments , which did not occur until the end of 1878 . once spec ##ie again circulated at face value , the gold dollar found no place in commerce amid large quantities of silver coinage , either released from ho ##arding or newly struck by the mint . the government expected that the res ##ump ##tion of spec ##ie payments would cause the dollar and other small gold coins to ci ##rc ##ulate again , but the public , allowed to red ##eem paper currency , continued to use it as more convenient than coins . in the 1870s and 1880s , public interest grew in the low @ - @ mint ##age gold dollar . collecting coins was becoming
| 381 |
[
"more",
"popular",
",",
"and",
"a",
"number",
"of",
"nu",
"##mism",
"##ati",
"##sts",
"put",
"aside",
"some",
"gold",
"dollars",
"and",
"hoped",
"for",
"increases",
"in",
"value",
".",
"the",
"mint",
"most",
"likely",
"channel",
"##ed",
"its",
"production",
"through",
"some",
"favored",
"philadelphia",
"dealers",
",",
"though",
"proof",
"coins",
"could",
"be",
"purchased",
"for",
"$",
"1",
"@",
".",
"@",
"25",
"at",
"the",
"cash",
"##ier",
"'",
"s",
"window",
"at",
"the",
"philadelphia",
"facility",
".",
"banks",
"charged",
"a",
"premium",
"for",
"circulation",
"strikes",
".",
"they",
"were",
"popular",
"in",
"the",
"jewelry",
"trade",
",",
"mounted",
"into",
"various",
"items",
".",
"the",
"coins",
"were",
"often",
"exported",
"to",
"china",
"or",
"japan",
",",
"where",
"such",
"jewelry",
"was",
"made",
".",
"the",
"dollars",
"were",
"often",
"damaged",
"in",
"the",
"process",
";",
"the",
"mint",
"refused",
"to",
"sell",
"into",
"this",
"trade",
"and",
"did",
"its",
"best",
"to",
"hind",
"##er",
"it",
".",
"nevertheless"
] | 491 |
more popular , and a number of nu ##mism ##ati ##sts put aside some gold dollars and hoped for increases in value . the mint most likely channel ##ed its production through some favored philadelphia dealers , though proof coins could be purchased for $ 1 @ . @ 25 at the cash ##ier ' s window at the philadelphia facility . banks charged a premium for circulation strikes . they were popular in the jewelry trade , mounted into various items . the coins were often exported to china or japan , where such jewelry was made . the dollars were often damaged in the process ; the mint refused to sell into this trade and did its best to hind ##er it . nevertheless
| 381 |
[
",",
"mint",
"officials",
"concluded",
"that",
"jewel",
"##ers",
"were",
"successful",
"at",
"getting",
"the",
"majority",
"of",
"each",
"issue",
".",
"proof",
"mint",
"##ages",
"exceeded",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
"by",
"1884",
",",
"and",
"remained",
"above",
"that",
"mark",
"for",
"the",
"remainder",
"of",
"the",
"series",
",",
"numbers",
"likely",
"inflated",
"by",
"agents",
"of",
"jewel",
"##ers",
",",
"willing",
"to",
"pay",
"the",
"mint",
"'",
"s",
"premium",
"of",
"$",
".",
"25",
"per",
"coin",
".",
"another",
"use",
"for",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"was",
"as",
"a",
"holiday",
"gift",
";",
"after",
"its",
"abolition",
"the",
"quarter",
"eagle",
"became",
"a",
"popular",
"present",
".",
"james",
"pollock",
",",
"in",
"his",
"final",
"report",
"as",
"mint",
"director",
"in",
"1873",
",",
"advocated",
"limiting",
"striking",
"of",
"gold",
"dollars",
"to",
"deposit",
"##ors",
"who",
"specifically",
"requested",
"it",
".",
"\"",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"is",
"not",
"a",
"convenient",
"coin",
",",
"on"
] | 492 |
, mint officials concluded that jewel ##ers were successful at getting the majority of each issue . proof mint ##ages exceeded 1 @ , @ 000 by 1884 , and remained above that mark for the remainder of the series , numbers likely inflated by agents of jewel ##ers , willing to pay the mint ' s premium of $ . 25 per coin . another use for the gold dollar was as a holiday gift ; after its abolition the quarter eagle became a popular present . james pollock , in his final report as mint director in 1873 , advocated limiting striking of gold dollars to deposit ##ors who specifically requested it . " the gold dollar is not a convenient coin , on
| 381 |
[
"account",
"of",
"its",
"small",
"size",
",",
"and",
"it",
"suffers",
"more",
"proportion",
"##ately",
"from",
"ab",
"##ras",
"##ion",
"than",
"larger",
"coins",
".",
"\"",
"his",
"successors",
"called",
"for",
"its",
"abolition",
",",
"with",
"james",
"p",
".",
"kimball",
",",
"before",
"he",
"left",
"office",
"in",
"1889",
",",
"writing",
"to",
"congress",
"that",
"except",
"as",
"jewelry",
",",
"\"",
"little",
"practical",
"use",
"has",
"been",
"found",
"for",
"this",
"coin",
"\"",
".",
"later",
"that",
"year",
",",
"the",
"new",
"director",
",",
"edward",
"o",
".",
"lee",
"##ch",
",",
"issued",
"a",
"report",
"stating",
"that",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"\"",
"is",
"too",
"small",
"for",
"circulation",
",",
"and",
".",
".",
".",
"[",
"is",
"]",
"used",
"almost",
"exclusively",
"for",
"the",
"purposes",
"of",
"or",
"##name",
"##nt",
".",
"the",
"last",
"year",
"in",
"which",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"was",
"struck",
"was",
"1889",
".",
"congress",
"abolished",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar"
] | 493 |
account of its small size , and it suffers more proportion ##ately from ab ##ras ##ion than larger coins . " his successors called for its abolition , with james p . kimball , before he left office in 1889 , writing to congress that except as jewelry , " little practical use has been found for this coin " . later that year , the new director , edward o . lee ##ch , issued a report stating that the gold dollar " is too small for circulation , and . . . [ is ] used almost exclusively for the purposes of or ##name ##nt . the last year in which the gold dollar was struck was 1889 . congress abolished the gold dollar
| 475 |
[
",",
"along",
"with",
"the",
"three",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"cent",
"nickel",
"and",
"three",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"dollar",
"piece",
",",
"by",
"the",
"act",
"of",
"september",
"26",
",",
"1890",
".",
"a",
"total",
"of",
"19",
"@",
",",
"@",
"49",
"##9",
"@",
",",
"@",
"337",
"gold",
"dollars",
"were",
"coined",
",",
"of",
"which",
"18",
"@",
",",
"@",
"223",
"@",
",",
"@",
"43",
"##8",
"were",
"struck",
"at",
"philadelphia",
",",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"00",
"##4",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
"at",
"new",
"orleans",
",",
"109",
"@",
",",
"@",
"138",
"at",
"charlotte",
",",
"90",
"@",
",",
"@",
"232",
"at",
"san",
"francisco",
"and",
"72",
"@",
",",
"@",
"52",
"##9",
"at",
"dahl",
"##one",
"##ga",
".",
"according",
"to",
"an",
"advertisement",
"in",
"the",
"february",
"1899",
"issue",
"of",
"the",
"nu",
"##mism",
"##ati",
"##st",
",",
"gold",
"dollars",
"brought",
"$",
"1",
"@"
] | 494 |
, along with the three @ - @ cent nickel and three @ - @ dollar piece , by the act of september 26 , 1890 . a total of 19 @ , @ 49 ##9 @ , @ 337 gold dollars were coined , of which 18 @ , @ 223 @ , @ 43 ##8 were struck at philadelphia , 1 @ , @ 00 ##4 @ , @ 000 at new orleans , 109 @ , @ 138 at charlotte , 90 @ , @ 232 at san francisco and 72 @ , @ 52 ##9 at dahl ##one ##ga . according to an advertisement in the february 1899 issue of the nu ##mism ##ati ##st , gold dollars brought $ 1 @
| 381 |
[
".",
"@",
"80",
"each",
",",
"still",
"in",
"demand",
"as",
"a",
"birthday",
"present",
"and",
"for",
"jewelry",
".",
"that",
"journal",
"in",
"1905",
"carried",
"news",
"of",
"a",
"customer",
"deposit",
"##ing",
"100",
"gold",
"dollars",
"into",
"a",
"bank",
";",
"the",
"teller",
",",
"aware",
"of",
"the",
"value",
",",
"credited",
"the",
"account",
"with",
"$",
"1",
"@",
".",
"@",
"60",
"per",
"coin",
".",
"in",
"1908",
",",
"a",
"dealer",
"offered",
"$",
"2",
"each",
"for",
"any",
"quantity",
".",
"as",
"coin",
"collecting",
"became",
"a",
"widespread",
"past",
"##ime",
"in",
"the",
"early",
"20th",
"century",
",",
"gold",
"dollars",
"became",
"a",
"popular",
"specialty",
",",
"a",
"status",
"they",
"retain",
".",
"the",
"2014",
"edition",
"of",
"r",
".",
"s",
".",
"ye",
"##oman",
"'",
"s",
"a",
"guide",
"book",
"of",
"united",
"states",
"coins",
"rates",
"the",
"least",
"expensive",
"gold",
"dollar",
"in",
"very",
"fine",
"condition",
"(",
"v",
"##f"
] | 495 |
. @ 80 each , still in demand as a birthday present and for jewelry . that journal in 1905 carried news of a customer deposit ##ing 100 gold dollars into a bank ; the teller , aware of the value , credited the account with $ 1 @ . @ 60 per coin . in 1908 , a dealer offered $ 2 each for any quantity . as coin collecting became a widespread past ##ime in the early 20th century , gold dollars became a popular specialty , a status they retain . the 2014 edition of r . s . ye ##oman ' s a guide book of united states coins rates the least expensive gold dollar in very fine condition ( v ##f
| 381 |
[
"@",
"-",
"@",
"20",
")",
"at",
"$",
"300",
",",
"a",
"value",
"given",
"for",
"each",
"of",
"the",
"type",
"1",
"philadelphia",
"issues",
"from",
"1849",
"to",
"1853",
".",
"those",
"seeking",
"one",
"of",
"each",
"type",
"will",
"find",
"the",
"most",
"expensive",
"to",
"be",
"a",
"specimen",
"of",
"the",
"type",
"2",
",",
"with",
"the",
"1854",
"and",
"1855",
"estimated",
"at",
"$",
"350",
"in",
"that",
"condition",
";",
"the",
"other",
"two",
"types",
"have",
"dates",
"valued",
"at",
"$",
"300",
"in",
"that",
"grade",
".",
"=",
"=",
"commemorative",
"gold",
"dollars",
"=",
"=",
"the",
"gold",
"dollar",
"had",
"a",
"brief",
"resurrection",
"during",
"the",
"period",
"of",
"early",
"united",
"states",
"commemorative",
"coins",
".",
"between",
"1903",
"and",
"1922",
"nine",
"different",
"issues",
"were",
"produced",
",",
"with",
"a",
"total",
"mint",
"##age",
"of",
"99",
"@",
",",
"@",
"79",
"##9",
".",
"these",
"were",
"mint",
"##ed",
"for",
"various",
"public"
] | 496 |
@ - @ 20 ) at $ 300 , a value given for each of the type 1 philadelphia issues from 1849 to 1853 . those seeking one of each type will find the most expensive to be a specimen of the type 2 , with the 1854 and 1855 estimated at $ 350 in that condition ; the other two types have dates valued at $ 300 in that grade . = = commemorative gold dollars = = the gold dollar had a brief resurrection during the period of early united states commemorative coins . between 1903 and 1922 nine different issues were produced , with a total mint ##age of 99 @ , @ 79 ##9 . these were mint ##ed for various public
| 381 |
[
"events",
",",
"did",
"not",
"ci",
"##rc",
"##ulate",
",",
"and",
"none",
"used",
"long",
"##ac",
"##re",
"'",
"s",
"design",
".",
"=",
"johnson",
"–",
"corey",
"–",
"cha",
"##yk",
"##ovsky",
"reaction",
"=",
"the",
"johnson",
"–",
"corey",
"–",
"cha",
"##yk",
"##ovsky",
"reaction",
"(",
"sometimes",
"referred",
"to",
"as",
"the",
"corey",
"–",
"cha",
"##yk",
"##ovsky",
"reaction",
"or",
"cc",
"##r",
")",
"is",
"a",
"chemical",
"reaction",
"used",
"in",
"organic",
"chemistry",
"for",
"the",
"synthesis",
"of",
"ep",
"##oxide",
"##s",
",",
"az",
"##iri",
"##dine",
"##s",
",",
"and",
"cy",
"##cl",
"##op",
"##rop",
"##ane",
"##s",
".",
"it",
"was",
"discovered",
"in",
"1961",
"by",
"a",
".",
"william",
"johnson",
"and",
"developed",
"significantly",
"by",
"e",
".",
"j",
".",
"corey",
"and",
"michael",
"cha",
"##yk",
"##ovsky",
".",
"the",
"reaction",
"involves",
"addition",
"of",
"a",
"sulfur",
"y",
"##lide",
"to",
"a",
"ke",
"##tone",
",",
"al",
"##deh",
"##yde",
",",
"im"
] | 497 |
events , did not ci ##rc ##ulate , and none used long ##ac ##re ' s design . = johnson – corey – cha ##yk ##ovsky reaction = the johnson – corey – cha ##yk ##ovsky reaction ( sometimes referred to as the corey – cha ##yk ##ovsky reaction or cc ##r ) is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry for the synthesis of ep ##oxide ##s , az ##iri ##dine ##s , and cy ##cl ##op ##rop ##ane ##s . it was discovered in 1961 by a . william johnson and developed significantly by e . j . corey and michael cha ##yk ##ovsky . the reaction involves addition of a sulfur y ##lide to a ke ##tone , al ##deh ##yde , im
| 72 |
[
"##ine",
",",
"or",
"en",
"##one",
"to",
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"the",
"corresponding",
"3",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"member",
"##ed",
"ring",
".",
"the",
"reaction",
"is",
"dia",
"##ster",
"##eo",
"##sel",
"##ect",
"##ive",
"favor",
"##ing",
"trans",
"substitution",
"in",
"the",
"product",
"regardless",
"of",
"the",
"initial",
"stereo",
"##chemist",
"##ry",
".",
"the",
"synthesis",
"of",
"ep",
"##oxide",
"##s",
"via",
"this",
"method",
"serves",
"as",
"an",
"important",
"retro",
"##sy",
"##nt",
"##hetic",
"alternative",
"to",
"the",
"traditional",
"ep",
"##ox",
"##ida",
"##tion",
"reactions",
"of",
"ole",
"##fin",
"##s",
".",
"the",
"reaction",
"is",
"most",
"often",
"employed",
"for",
"ep",
"##ox",
"##ida",
"##tion",
"via",
"methyl",
"##ene",
"transfer",
",",
"and",
"to",
"this",
"end",
"has",
"been",
"used",
"in",
"several",
"notable",
"total",
"synth",
"##eses",
"(",
"see",
"synthesis",
"of",
"ep",
"##oxide",
"##s",
"below",
")",
".",
"additionally",
"detailed",
"below",
"are",
"the",
"history",
",",
"mechanism",
",",
"scope",
",",
"and",
"en",
"##ant",
"##ios"
] | 498 |
##ine , or en ##one to produce the corresponding 3 @ - @ member ##ed ring . the reaction is dia ##ster ##eo ##sel ##ect ##ive favor ##ing trans substitution in the product regardless of the initial stereo ##chemist ##ry . the synthesis of ep ##oxide ##s via this method serves as an important retro ##sy ##nt ##hetic alternative to the traditional ep ##ox ##ida ##tion reactions of ole ##fin ##s . the reaction is most often employed for ep ##ox ##ida ##tion via methyl ##ene transfer , and to this end has been used in several notable total synth ##eses ( see synthesis of ep ##oxide ##s below ) . additionally detailed below are the history , mechanism , scope , and en ##ant ##ios
| 556 |
[
"##ele",
"##ctive",
"variants",
"of",
"the",
"reaction",
".",
"several",
"reviews",
"have",
"been",
"published",
".",
"the",
"original",
"publication",
"by",
"johnson",
"concerned",
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"reaction",
"of",
"9",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"dime",
"##thy",
"##ls",
"##ulf",
"##oni",
"##um",
"flu",
"##ore",
"##ny",
"##lide",
"with",
"substituted",
"benz",
"##ald",
"##eh",
"##yde",
"derivatives",
".",
"the",
"attempted",
"wit",
"##ti",
"##g",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"like",
"reaction",
"failed",
"and",
"a",
"benz",
"##al",
"##fl",
"##uo",
"##ren",
"##e",
"oxide",
"was",
"obtained",
"instead",
",",
"noting",
"that",
"\"",
"reaction",
"between",
"the",
"sulfur",
"y",
"##lid",
"and",
"benz",
"##ald",
"##eh",
"##yde",
"##s",
"did",
"not",
"afford",
"benz",
"##al",
"##fl",
"##uo",
"##ren",
"##es",
"as",
"had",
"the",
"phosphorus",
"and",
"arsenic",
"y",
"##lid",
"##s",
".",
"\"",
"the",
"subsequent",
"development",
"of",
"(",
"dime",
"##thy",
"##lo",
"##x",
"##os",
"##ulf",
"##ani",
"##um",
"##yl",
")",
"met",
"##hani",
"##de",
",",
"(",
"ch",
"##3",
")"
] | 499 |
##ele ##ctive variants of the reaction . several reviews have been published . the original publication by johnson concerned the reaction of 9 @ - @ dime ##thy ##ls ##ulf ##oni ##um flu ##ore ##ny ##lide with substituted benz ##ald ##eh ##yde derivatives . the attempted wit ##ti ##g @ - @ like reaction failed and a benz ##al ##fl ##uo ##ren ##e oxide was obtained instead , noting that " reaction between the sulfur y ##lid and benz ##ald ##eh ##yde ##s did not afford benz ##al ##fl ##uo ##ren ##es as had the phosphorus and arsenic y ##lid ##s . " the subsequent development of ( dime ##thy ##lo ##x ##os ##ulf ##ani ##um ##yl ) met ##hani ##de , ( ch ##3 )
| 556 |
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