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] | 300 |
combined . ra was connected with the local deity sob ##ek to form sob ##ek @ - @ ra ; with his fellow ruling god , am ##un , to form am ##un @ - @ ra ; with the solar form of ho ##rus to form ra @ - @ ho ##rak ##ht ##y ; and with several solar deities as ho ##rem ##akh ##et @ - @ k ##he ##pr ##i @ - @ ra @ - @ at ##um . on rare occasion , even deities of different sexes were joined in this way , producing combinations like os ##iri ##s @ - @ ne ##ith and mu ##t @ - @ min . this linking of deities is called sync ##ret ##ism
| 107 |
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] | 301 |
. unlike other situations for which this term is used , the egyptian practice was not meant to fuse competing belief systems , although foreign deities could be sync ##ret ##ized with native ones . instead , sync ##ret ##ism acknowledged the overlap between their roles , and extended the sphere of influence for each of them . sync ##ret ##ic combinations were not permanent ; a god who was involved in one combination continued to appear separately and to form new combinations with other deities . but closely connected deities did sometimes merge . ho ##rus absorbed several falcon gods from various regions , such as k ##hen ##ty @ - @ ir ##ty and k ##hen ##ty @ - @ k ##het ##y ,
| 286 |
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] | 302 |
who became little more than local manifestation ##s of him ; hat ##hor sub ##sume ##d a similar cow goddess , bat ; and an early fun ##era ##ry god , k ##hen ##ti @ - @ am ##ent ##iu , was su ##pp ##lan ##ted by os ##iri ##s and an ##ub ##is . = = = the ate ##n and possible mono ##the ##ism = = = in the reign of ak ##hen ##ate ##n ( c . 135 ##3 – 133 ##6 bc ) in the mid @ - @ new kingdom , a single solar deity , the ate ##n , became the sole focus of the state religion . ak ##hen ##ate ##n ceased to fund the temples of other deities
| 219 |
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] | 303 |
and erased the gods ' names and images on monuments , targeting am ##un in particular . this new religious system , sometimes called ate ##nism , differed dramatically from the poly ##the ##istic worship of many gods in all other periods . whereas , in earlier times , newly important gods were integrated into existing religious beliefs , ate ##nism insisted on a single understanding of the divine that excluded the traditional multi ##plicity of perspectives . yet ate ##nism may not have been full mono ##the ##ism , which totally exclude ##s belief in other deities . there is evidence suggesting that the general populace was still allowed to worship other gods in private . the picture is further complicated by ate ##nism '
| 304 |
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] | 304 |
s apparent tolerance for some other deities , like shu . for these reasons , the egypt ##ologist dominic mont ##ser ##rat suggested that ak ##hen ##ate ##n may have been mono ##lat ##rous , worship ##ping a single deity while acknowledging the existence of others . in any case , ate ##nism ' s abe ##rran ##t theology did not take root among the egyptian populace , and ak ##hen ##ate ##n ' s successors returned to traditional beliefs . = = = unity of the divine in traditional religion = = = scholars have long debated whether traditional egyptian religion ever asserted that the multiple gods were , on a deeper level , unified . reasons for this debate include the practice of sync
| 305 |
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] | 305 |
##ret ##ism , which might suggest that all the separate gods could ultimately merge into one , and the tendency of egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power that sur ##pass ##es all other deities . another point of contention is the appearance of the word " god " in wisdom literature , where the term does not refer to a specific deity or group of deities . in the early 20th century , for instance , e . a . wallis budge believed that egyptian common ##ers were poly ##the ##istic , but knowledge of the true mono ##the ##istic nature of the religion was reserved for the elite , who wrote the wisdom literature . his contemporary james henry breast ##ed thought
| 305 |
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] | 306 |
egyptian religion was instead pan ##the ##istic , with the power of the sun god present in all other gods , while hermann junk ##er argued that egyptian civilization had been originally mono ##the ##istic and became poly ##the ##istic in the course of its history . in 1971 , erik horn ##ung published a study re ##bu ##tting these views . he points out that in any given period many deities , even minor ones , were described as superior to all others . he also argues that the unspecified " god " in the wisdom texts is a generic term for whichever deity the reader chooses to rev ##ere . although the combinations , manifestation ##s , and icon ##og ##raph ##ies of each
| 305 |
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] | 307 |
god were constantly shifting , they were always restricted to a finite number of forms , never becoming fully interchange ##able in a mono ##the ##istic or pan ##the ##istic way . hen ##oth ##eis ##m , horn ##ung says , describes egyptian religion better than other labels . an egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it with supreme power in that moment , without denying the other gods or merging them all with the god that he or she focused on . horn ##ung concludes that the gods were fully unified only in myth , at the time before creation , after which the multitude of gods emerged from a uniform none ##xi ##sten ##ce . horn ##ung ' s
| 305 |
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] | 308 |
arguments have greatly influenced other scholars of egyptian religion , but some still believe that at times the gods were more unified than he allows . jan ass ##mann maintains that the notion of a single deity developed slowly through the new kingdom , beginning with a focus on am ##un @ - @ ra as the all @ - @ important sun god . in his view , ate ##nism was an extreme out ##growth of this trend . it e ##qua ##ted the single deity with the sun and dismissed all other gods . then , in the backlash against ate ##nism , priest ##ly theologians described the universal god in a different way , one that coe ##xi ##sted with traditional poly ##the
| 305 |
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"says"
] | 309 |
##ism . the one god was believed to trans ##cend the world and all the other deities , while at the same time , the multiple gods were aspects of the one . according to ass ##mann , this one god was especially e ##qua ##ted with am ##un , the dominant god in the late new kingdom , whereas for the rest of egyptian history the universal deity could be identified with many other gods . james p . allen says that coe ##xi ##sti ##ng notions of one god and many gods would fit well with the " multi ##plicity of approaches " in egyptian thought , as well as with the hen ##oth ##eis ##tic practice of ordinary worship ##pers . he says
| 304 |
[
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"the",
"egyptians",
"may",
"have",
"recognized",
"the",
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"the",
"divine",
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",",
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",",
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"##zu",
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".",
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"scent",
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",",
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".",
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";",
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"myths",
",",
"gods",
"change",
"their",
"appearances",
"to",
"suit",
"their"
] | 310 |
that the egyptians may have recognized the unity of the divine by " identifying their uniform notion of ' god ' with a particular god , depending on the particular situation . " = = descriptions and depictions = = egyptian writings describe the gods ' bodies in detail . they are made of precious materials ; their flesh is gold , their bones are silver , and their hair is lap ##is la ##zu ##li . they give off a scent that the egyptians likened to the incense used in rituals . some texts give precise descriptions of particular deities , including their height and eye color . yet these characteristics are not fixed ; in myths , gods change their appearances to suit their
| 304 |
[
"own",
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",",
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"##ero",
"##gly",
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".",
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",",
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"or",
"jack",
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",",
"a",
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"whose",
"sc",
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"##nging",
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"mum",
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",",
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"an",
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".",
"his",
"black",
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"all",
"##udes",
"to",
"the",
"color",
"of",
"mum",
"##mi",
"##fied",
"flesh",
"and"
] | 311 |
own purposes . egyptian texts often refer to deities ' true , underlying forms as " mysterious " . the egyptians ' visual representations of their gods are therefore not literal . they symbol ##ize specific aspects of each deity ' s character , functioning much like the id ##eo ##gram ##s in hi ##ero ##gly ##phic writing . for this reason , the fun ##era ##ry god an ##ub ##is is commonly shown in egyptian art as a dog or jack ##al , a creature whose sc ##ave ##nging habits threaten the preservation of buried mum ##mies , in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for protection . his black coloring all ##udes to the color of mum ##mi ##fied flesh and
| 510 |
[
"to",
"the",
"fertile",
"black",
"soil",
"that",
"egyptians",
"saw",
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"a",
"symbol",
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".",
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".",
"hat",
"##hor",
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"a",
"cow",
",",
"cobra",
",",
"lion",
"##ess",
",",
"or",
"a",
"woman",
"with",
"bo",
"##vine",
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"or",
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".",
"by",
"depicting",
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"god",
"in",
"different",
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",",
"the",
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"its",
"essential",
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".",
"the",
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"in",
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"forms",
",",
"so",
"that",
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"often",
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"another",
"by",
"their",
"icon",
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"##raph",
"##ies",
".",
"these",
"forms",
"include",
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"and",
"women",
"(",
"ant",
"##hr",
"##op",
"##omo",
"##rp",
"##hism",
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",",
"animals",
"(",
"zoom",
"##or",
"##phi",
"##sm",
")",
",",
"and",
",",
"more",
"rarely",
",",
"ina",
"##ni",
"##mate",
"objects",
"."
] | 312 |
to the fertile black soil that egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection . most gods were depicted in several ways . hat ##hor could be a cow , cobra , lion ##ess , or a woman with bo ##vine horns or ears . by depicting a given god in different ways , the egyptians expressed different aspects of its essential nature . the gods are depicted in a finite number of these symbolic forms , so that deities can often be distinguished from one another by their icon ##og ##raph ##ies . these forms include men and women ( ant ##hr ##op ##omo ##rp ##hism ) , animals ( zoom ##or ##phi ##sm ) , and , more rarely , ina ##ni ##mate objects .
| 510 |
[
"combinations",
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",",
"such",
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"with",
"human",
"bodies",
"and",
"animal",
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".",
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".",
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"others",
"if",
"they",
"are",
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",",
"as",
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"hat",
"##hor",
".",
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"between",
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"##es",
",",
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"both",
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"the",
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"@",
"-",
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"head",
"##dre",
"##ss",
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"##hor",
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".",
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"a",
"hybrid",
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",",
"the",
"head",
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"the",
"original",
"form",
"of",
"the"
] | 313 |
combinations of forms , such as gods with human bodies and animal heads , are common . new forms and increasingly complex combinations arose in the course of history . some gods can only be distinguished from others if they are labeled in writing , as with isis and hat ##hor . because of the close connection between these goddess ##es , they could both wear the cow @ - @ horn head ##dre ##ss that was originally hat ##hor ' s alone . certain features of divine images are more useful than others in determining a god ' s identity . the head of a given divine image is particularly significant . in a hybrid image , the head represents the original form of the
| 510 |
[
"being",
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",",
"so",
"that",
",",
"as",
"the",
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",",
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",",
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"\"",
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",",
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"##ero",
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"heads",
",",
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".",
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",",
"the",
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"hands",
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",",
"and",
"both",
"sexes",
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"an",
"##kh",
"signs",
","
] | 314 |
being depicted , so that , as the egypt ##ologist henry fischer put it , " a lion @ - @ headed goddess is a lion @ - @ goddess in human form , while a royal sphinx , conversely , is a man who has assumed the form of a lion . " divine head ##dre ##sse ##s , which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hi ##ero ##gly ##phs worn on gods ' heads , are another important indicator . in contrast , the objects held in gods ' hands tend to be generic . male deities hold was staff ##s , goddess ##es hold stalks of papyrus , and both sexes carry an ##kh signs ,
| 304 |
[
"representing",
"the",
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"word",
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"\"",
"life",
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",",
"to",
"symbol",
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",",
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",",
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"in",
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".",
"many",
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",",
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",",
"such",
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",",
"cobra",
"##s",
",",
"and",
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",",
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"the",
"early",
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".",
"for",
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",",
"the",
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",",
"which",
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"(",
"c",
".",
"1650",
"–",
"1550",
"bc",
")",
",",
"never",
"represented",
"a",
"god",
".",
"similarly",
",",
"the",
"clothes"
] | 315 |
representing the egyptian word for " life " , to symbol ##ize their life @ - @ giving power . the forms in which the gods are shown , although diverse , are limited in many ways . many creatures that are widespread in egypt were never used in divine icon ##ography , whereas a few , such as falcons , cobra ##s , and cattle , can each represent many deities . animals that were absent from egypt in the early stages of its history were not used as divine images . for instance , the horse , which was only introduced in the second intermediate period ( c . 1650 – 1550 bc ) , never represented a god . similarly , the clothes
| 267 |
[
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"the",
"same",
"colors",
"used",
"to",
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"men",
"and",
"women",
"—"
] | 316 |
worn by ant ##hr ##op ##omorphic deities in all periods changed little from the styles used in the old kingdom : a ki ##lt , false beard , and often a shirt for male gods and a long , tight @ - @ fitting dress for goddess ##es . the basic ant ##hr ##op ##omorphic form varies . child gods are depicted nude , as are some adult gods when their pro ##cre ##ative powers are emphasized . certain male deities are given heavy bell ##ies and breasts , sign ##ifying either and ##ro ##gy ##ny or prosperity and abundance . whereas most male gods have red skin and most goddess ##es are yellow — the same colors used to depict egyptian men and women —
| 511 |
[
"some",
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",",
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"skin",
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".",
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".",
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"=",
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"humans",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"="
] | 317 |
some are given unusual , symbolic skin colors . thus the blue skin and pau ##nch ##y figure of the god ha ##pi all ##udes to the nile flood he represents and the no ##uri ##shing fertility it brought . a few deities , such as os ##iri ##s , pt ##ah , and min , have a " mum ##mi ##form " appearance , with their limbs tightly swat ##hed in cloth . although these gods resemble mum ##mies , the earliest examples pre ##date the cloth @ - @ wrapped style of mum ##mi ##fication , and this form may instead ha ##rk back to the earliest , limb ##less depictions of deities . = = interactions with humans = = = = =
| 516 |
[
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"long",
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] | 318 |
relationship with the pharaoh = = = in official writings , pharaoh ##s are said to be divine , and they are constantly depicted in the company of the deities of the pantheon . each pharaoh and his predecessors were considered the successors of the gods who had ruled egypt in myth ##ic pre ##his ##tory . living kings were e ##qua ##ted with ho ##rus and called the " son " of many deities , particularly os ##iri ##s and ra ; deceased kings were e ##qua ##ted with these elder gods . pharaoh ##s had their own mort ##uary temples where rituals were performed for them during their lives and after their deaths . but few pharaoh ##s were worshipped as gods long after
| 304 |
[
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"provided",
"by",
"the",
"cult"
] | 319 |
their lifetime ##s , and non @ - @ official texts portray kings in a human light . for these reasons , scholars disagree about how genuinely most egyptians believed the king to be a god . he may only have been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies . however much it was believed , the king ' s divine status was the rational ##e for his role as egypt ' s representative to the gods , as he formed a link between the divine and human realms . the egyptians believed the gods needed temples to dwell in , as well as the periodic performance of rituals and presentation of offerings to no ##uri ##sh them . these things were provided by the cult
| 304 |
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] | 320 |
##s that the king oversaw , with their priests and laborers . yet , according to royal ideology , temple @ - @ building was exclusively the pharaoh ' s work , as were the rituals that priests usually performed in his ste ##ad . these acts were a part of the king ' s fundamental role : maintaining ma ##at . the king and the nation he represented provided the gods with ma ##at so they could continue to perform their functions , which maintained ma ##at in the cosmos so humans could continue to live . = = = presence in the human world = = = although the egyptians believed their gods to be present in the world around them , contact between
| 382 |
[
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] | 321 |
the human and divine realms was mostly limited to specific circumstances . in literature , gods may appear to humans in a physical form , but in real life the egyptians were limited to more indirect means of communication . the ba of a god was said to periodically leave the divine realm to dwell in the images of that god . by inhabit ##ing these images , the gods left their concealed state and took on a physical form . to the egyptians , a place or object that was ds ##r — " sacred " — was isolated and ritual ##ly pure , and thus fit for a god to inhabit . temple statues and reliefs , as well as particular sacred animals ,
| 506 |
[
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] | 322 |
like the api ##s bull , served as divine inter ##media ##ries in this way . dreams and trance ##s provided a very different venue for interaction . in these states , it was believed , people could come close to the gods and sometimes receive messages from them . finally , according to egyptian afterlife beliefs , human souls pass into the divine realm after death . the egyptians therefore believed that in death they would exist on the same level as the gods and fully understand their mysterious nature . temples , where the state rituals were carried out , were filled with images of the gods . the most important temple image was the cult statue in the inner sanctuary . these statues
| 382 |
[
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] | 323 |
were usually less than life @ - @ size , and made of the same precious materials that were said to form the gods ' bodies . many temples had several san ##ct ##uaries , each with a cult statue representing one of the gods in a group such as a family triad . the city ' s primary god was envisioned as its lord , employing many of the residents as servants in the divine household that the temple represented . the gods residing in the temples of egypt collectively represented the entire pantheon . but many deities — including some important gods as well as those that were minor or hostile — were never given temples of their own , although some were represented
| 382 |
[
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] | 324 |
in the temples of other gods . to ins ##ulate the sacred power in the sanctuary from the imp ##urities of the outside world , the egyptians enclosed temple san ##ct ##uaries and greatly restricted access to them . people other than kings and high priests were thus denied contact with cult statues . the only exception was during festival procession ##s , when the statue was carried out of the temple but still enclosed in a portable shrine . people did have less direct means of interaction . the more public parts of temples often incorporated small places for prayer , from doorway ##s to free ##standing chapels near the back of the temple building . communities also built and managed small chapels for their
| 383 |
[
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"##r",
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] | 325 |
own use , and some families had shrines inside their homes . despite the gulf that separated humanity from the divine , the egyptians were surrounded by opportunities to approach their gods . = = = intervention in human lives = = = egyptian gods were involved in human lives as well as in the over ##ar ##ching order of nature . this divine influence applied mainly to egypt , as foreign peoples were traditionally believed to be outside the divine order . but in the new kingdom , when other nations were under egyptian control , foreigners were said to be under the sun god ' s benign rule in the same way that egyptians were . tho ##th , as the oversee ##r of
| 304 |
[
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] | 326 |
time , was said to all ##ot fixed lifespan ##s to both humans and gods . other gods were also said to govern the length of human lives , including me ##sk ##hen ##et , who presided over birth , and sha ##i , the person ##ification of fate . thus the time and manner of death was the main meaning of the egyptian concept of fate , although to some extent these deities governed other events in life as well . several texts refer to gods influencing or inspiring human decisions , working through a person ' s " heart " — the seat of emotion and intellect in egyptian belief . deities were also believed to give commands , ins ##tructing the king in
| 304 |
[
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] | 327 |
the governance of his realm and regulating the management of their temples . egyptian texts rarely mention direct commands given to private persons , and these commands never evolved into a set of divine ##ly enforced moral codes . morality in ancient egypt was based on the concept of ma ##at , which , when applied to human society , meant that everyone should live in an orderly way that did not interfere with the well @ - @ being of other people . because deities were the uphold ##ers of ma ##at , morality was connected with them . for example , the gods judged humans ' moral righteous ##ness after death , and by the new kingdom , a verdict of innocence in this
| 264 |
[
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] | 328 |
judgment was believed to be necessary for admit ##tance into the afterlife . but in general , morality was based on practical ways to uphold ma ##at in daily life , rather than on strict rules that the gods laid out . humans had free will to ignore divine guidance and the behavior required by ma ##at , but by doing so they could bring divine punishment upon themselves . a deity carried out this punishment using its ba , the force that manifested the god ' s power in the human world . natural disasters and human ai ##lm ##ents were seen as the work of angry divine bas . conversely , the gods could cure righteous people of illness or even extend their lifespan
| 304 |
[
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] | 329 |
##s . both these types of intervention were eventually represented by deities : shed , who emerged in the new kingdom to represent divine rescue from harm , and pet ##be , an ap ##ot ##rop ##ai ##c god from the late eras of egyptian history who was believed to avenge wrong ##do ##ing . egyptian texts take different views on whether the gods are responsible when humans suffer un ##just ##ly . mis ##fort ##une was often seen as a product of is ##fe ##t , the cosmic disorder that was the opposite of ma ##at , and therefore the gods were not guilty of causing evil events . some deities who were closely connected with is ##fe ##t , such as set , could
| 304 |
[
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] | 330 |
be blamed for disorder within the world without placing guilt on the other gods . but some writings do accuse the deities of causing human misery , while others give theo ##dic ##ies in the gods ' defense . beginning in the middle kingdom , several texts connected the issue of evil in the world with a myth in which the creator god fights a human rebellion against his rule and then withdraw ##s from the earth . because of this human mis ##be ##ha ##vio ##r , the creator is distant from his creation , allowing suffering to exist . new kingdom writings do not question the just nature of the gods as strongly as those of the middle kingdom . they emphasize humans '
| 304 |
[
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",",
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] | 331 |
direct , personal relationships with deities and the gods ' power to intervene in human events . people in this era put faith in specific gods who they hoped would help and protect them through their lives . as a result , uphold ##ing the ideals of ma ##at grew less important than gaining the gods ' favor as a way to guarantee a good life . even the pharaoh ##s were regarded as dependent on divine aid , and after the new kingdom came to an end , government was increasingly influenced by oracle ##s communicating the gods ' will . official religious practices , which maintained ma ##at for the benefit of all egypt , were related to , but distinct from , the
| 304 |
[
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"often",
"involved",
"a"
] | 332 |
religious practices of ordinary people , who sought the gods ' help for their personal problems . official religion involved a variety of rituals , based in temples . some rites were performed every day , whereas others were festivals , taking place at longer intervals and often limited to a particular temple or deity . the gods received their offerings in daily ceremonies , in which their statues were clothed , an ##oint ##ed , and presented with food as hymns were recited in their honor . these offerings , in addition to maintaining ma ##at for the gods , celebrated deities ' life @ - @ giving generosity and encouraged them to remain benevolent rather than ve ##nge ##ful . festivals often involved a
| 382 |
[
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] | 333 |
ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a bar ##que @ - @ shaped shrine . these procession ##s served various purposes . in roman times , when local deities of all kinds were believed to have power over the nile in ##unda ##tion , procession ##s in many communities carried temple images to the river ##bank ##s so the gods could in ##vo ##ke a large and fruit ##ful flood . procession ##s also traveled between temples , as when the image of hat ##hor from den ##der ##a temple visited her consort ho ##rus at the temple of ed ##fu . rituals for a god were often based in that deity ' s mythology . such rituals
| 383 |
[
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"the",
"demons"
] | 334 |
were meant to be repetition ##s of the events of the myth ##ic past , renew ##ing the beneficial effects of the original events . in the k ##ho ##ia ##k festival in honor of os ##iri ##s , his death and resurrection were ritual ##ly re ##ena ##cted at a time when crops were beginning to sp ##rou ##t . the returning greene ##ry symbol ##ized the renewal of the god ' s own life . personal interaction with the gods took many forms . people who wanted information or advice consulted oracle ##s , run by temples , that were supposed to convey gods ' answers to questions . amulet ##s and other images of protective deities were used to ward off the demons
| 280 |
[
"that",
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"prayers",
",",
"and",
"all"
] | 335 |
that might threaten human well @ - @ being or to imp ##art the god ' s positive characteristics to the wear ##er . private rituals invoked the gods ' power to accomplish personal goals , from healing sickness to cursing enemies . these practices used he ##ka , the same force of magic that the gods used , which the creator was said to have given to humans so they could fen ##d off mis ##fort ##une . the performer of a private rite often took on the role of a god in a myth , or even threatened a deity , to involve the gods in accomplish ##ing the goal . such rituals coe ##xi ##sted with private offerings and prayers , and all
| 278 |
[
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] | 336 |
three were accepted means of obtaining divine help . prayer and private offerings are generally called " personal pie ##ty " : acts that reflect a close relationship between an individual and a god . evidence of personal pie ##ty is scan ##t before the new kingdom . vo ##tive offerings and personal names , many of which are theo ##ph ##oric , suggest that common ##ers felt some connection between themselves and their gods . but firm evidence of devotion to deities became visible only in the new kingdom , reaching a peak late in that era . scholars disagree about the meaning of this change — whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an out ##growth of older traditions .
| 304 |
[
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",",
"including"
] | 337 |
egyptians now expressed their devotion through a new variety of activities in and around temples . they recorded their prayers and their thanks for divine help on ste ##la ##e . they gave offerings of fig ##uri ##nes that represented the gods they were praying to , or that symbol ##ized the result they desired ; thus a relief image of hat ##hor and a statue ##tte of a woman could both represent a prayer for fertility . occasionally , a person took a particular god as a patron , de ##dic ##ating his or her property or labor to the god ' s cult . these practices continued into the latest periods of egyptian history . these later eras saw more religious innovations , including
| 352 |
[
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"spread",
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] | 338 |
the practice of giving animal mum ##mies as offerings to deities depicted in animal form , such as the cat mum ##mies given to the fe ##line goddess bas ##tet . some of the major deities from myth and official religion were rarely invoked in popular worship , but many of the great state gods were important in popular tradition . the worship of some egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands , especially to can ##aan and nu ##bia during the new kingdom , when those regions were under ph ##ara ##onic control . in can ##aan , the exported deities , including hat ##hor , am ##un , and set , were often sync ##ret ##ized with native gods , who in turn spread to
| 305 |
[
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"isis",
"and"
] | 339 |
egypt . the egyptian deities may not have had permanent temples in can ##aan , and their importance there wan ##ed after egypt lost control of the region . in contrast , many temples to the major egyptian gods and dei ##fied pharaoh ##s were built in nu ##bia . after the end of egyptian rule there , the imported gods , particularly am ##un and isis , were sync ##ret ##ized with local deities and remained part of the religion of nu ##bia ' s independent kingdom of ku ##sh . these gods were incorporated into the nu ##bian ideology of kings ##hip much as they were in egypt , so that am ##un was considered the divine father of the king and isis and
| 305 |
[
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] | 340 |
other goddess ##es were linked with the nu ##bian queen , the kan ##dak ##e . some deities reached farther . ta ##wer ##et became a goddess in min ##oa ##n crete , and am ##un ' s oracle at si ##wa oasis was known to and consulted by people across the mediterranean region . under the greek pt ##ole ##ma ##ic dynasty and then roman rule , greeks and romans introduced their own deities to egypt . these newcomers e ##qua ##ted the egyptian gods with their own , as part of the greco @ - @ roman tradition of interpret ##ati ##o gr ##ae ##ca . but the worship of the native gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones . instead
| 404 |
[
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] | 341 |
, greek and roman gods were adopted as manifestation ##s of egyptian ones . egyptian cult ##s sometimes incorporated greek language , philosophy , icon ##ography , and even temple architecture . meanwhile , the cult ##s of several egyptian deities — particularly isis , os ##iri ##s , an ##ub ##is , the form of ho ##rus named harp ##oc ##rates , and the fused greco @ - @ egyptian god sera ##pis — were adopted into roman religion and spread across the roman empire . roman emperors , like pt ##ole ##ma ##ic kings before them , invoked isis and sera ##pis to end ##ors ##e their authority , inside and outside egypt . in the empire ' s complex mix of religious traditions
| 404 |
[
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] | 342 |
, tho ##th was trans ##mute ##d into the legendary es ##oteric teacher hermes tri ##sm ##eg ##ist ##us , and isis , who was ve ##ner ##ated from britain to mesopotamia , became the focus of a greek @ - @ style mystery cult . isis and hermes tri ##sm ##eg ##ist ##us were both prominent in the western es ##oteric tradition that grew from the roman religious world . temples and cult ##s in egypt itself declined as the roman economy deteriorated in the third century ad , and beginning in the fourth century , christians suppressed the ve ##ner ##ation of egyptian deities . the last formal cult ##s , at phil ##ae , died out in the fifth or sixth century .
| 403 |
[
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"=",
"south",
"of",
"heaven",
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"the",
"fourth",
"studio",
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] | 343 |
most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hundred years , remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries . but many of the practices involved in their worship , such as procession ##s and oracle ##s , were adapted to fit christian ideology and persisted as part of the coptic church . given the great changes and diverse influences in egyptian culture since that time , scholars disagree about whether any modern coptic practices are descended from those of ph ##ara ##onic religion . but many festivals and other traditions of modern egyptians , both christian and muslim , resemble the worship of their ancestors ' gods . = south of heaven = south of heaven is the fourth studio album
| 308 |
[
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] | 344 |
by american thrash metal band slayer . released on july 5 , 1988 , the album was the band ' s second collaboration with record producer rick rubin , whose production skills on slayer ' s previous album reign in blood had helped the band ' s sound evolve . south of heaven was slayer ' s second album to enter the billboard 200 , and its last to be released by def jam recordings , although the album became an american recordings album after rick rubin ended his partnership with russell simmons . it was one of only two def jam titles to be distributed by ge ##ffen records through warner bros . records because of original distributor columbia records ' refusal to release work
| 897 |
[
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] | 345 |
by the band . the release peaked at number 57 and in 1992 was awarded a gold certification by the recording industry association of america . in order to offset the pace of the group ' s previous album , slayer deliberately slowed down the album ' s tempo . in contrast to their previous albums , the band utilized und ##isto ##rted guitars and toned @ - @ down vocals . while some critics praised this musical change , others — more accustomed to the style of earlier releases — were disappointed . the songs " mandatory suicide " and the title track , however , have become permanent features of the band ' s live set ##list . = = background = = south
| 905 |
[
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] | 346 |
of heaven was recorded in los angeles , california with reign in blood producer rick rubin . pop ##mat ##ters reviewer ad ##rien beg ##rand observed that rubin ' s production " shove ##s [ dave ] lombard ##o ' s drumming right up front in the mix . " guitarist jeff han ##nem ##an has since said that south of heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing the music . aware that they " couldn ' t top reign in blood " , and that whatever they recorded would be " compared to that album " , he believed they " had to slow down " , something slayer had never done on albums before , or since . guitarist kerry
| 809 |
[
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] | 347 |
king cited the need to " keep people guessing " as another reason for the musical shift . " in order to contrast the aggressive assault put forth on reign in blood , slayer consciously slowed down the tempo of the album as a whole " , according to slayer ' s official biography . " they also added elements like und ##isto ##rted guitars and toned @ - @ down vocal styles not heard on previous albums . " king has since been critical of his performance , which he describes as his " most lack ##lus ##ter . " king attributes this to the fact he had recently married , and moved to phoenix , arizona . describing himself as " probably the odd
| 811 |
[
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] | 348 |
man out at that point " , he admitted he " didn ’ t participate as much because of that . " han ##nem ##an said : " we go through dry spells sometimes , but the good thing about having two guitar players that can write music is that you are never gonna go without . i guess at that time , kerry was hitting a dry spell . " king has also been critical of the album in general , describing it as one of his least favorite slayer albums . he feels vocalist tom ara ##ya moved too far away from his regular vocal style , and " added too much singing . " drummer dave lombard ##o has since observed : "
| 915 |
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",",
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] | 349 |
there was fire on all the records , but it started dim ##ming when south of heaven came into the picture . and that ' s me personally . again , i was probably wanting something else . " judas priest ' s " di ##ssi ##dent ag ##gre ##sso ##r " is the only cover version to appear on a slayer studio album . the song was chosen due to its war @ - @ themed lyrics . han ##nem ##an described the track as " more just like one of those odd songs that a lot of people didn ' t know , but it was a favorite of kerry and i , so we just picked that one . " meanwhile , "
| 790 |
[
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] | 350 |
clean ##se the soul " has been heavily criticized by king who said that he hates the track : " that ' s one of the black marks in our history , in my book . i just fucking think it ' s horrible . [ laughs ] i hate the opening riff . it ' s what we call a ' happy riff . ' it ' s just like ' la @ - @ lal ##a @ - @ la @ - @ la @ - @ la . ' i can ' t see myself playing it , but after that , where it gets heavier , i like that section . if we ever did a medley , i ' d put
| 821 |
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] | 351 |
part of that in there . " the slayer box ##set soundtrack to the apocalypse featured , along with four songs of the album , an early version of the title track , recorded at han ##nem ##an ' s home . = = photography and illustration = = artist larry carroll and illustrator howard schwartz ##berg designed the cover artwork for south of heaven , having designed the artwork for slayer ' s previous album reign in blood . photographer glen e . friedman took the promotional shot which surfaced as the back cover of south of heaven around the time of 1986 ' s reign in blood . lombard ##o felt it made slayer seem as though they " had mature ##d a little
| 797 |
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] | 352 |
bit " , while friedman himself deemed it " a really cool back cover " and " one of the most classic shots of them [ slayer ] ever . " = = critical reception = = south of heaven was released on july 5 , 1988 , and was the final slayer album distributed via def jam records . when label co @ - @ founders russell simmons and rubin parted ways , slayer signed to rubin ' s newly founded def american recordings label . the album peaked at number 57 on the billboard 200 album chart , and on november 20 , 1992 , became slayer ' s second album to be certified gold in the united states . south of heaven was
| 897 |
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] | 353 |
awarded silver certification in the united kingdom on january 1 , 1993 , slayer ' s first record to do so in that country . slayer ' s official biography states that " some critics praised the album as demonstrating slayer ' s desire to grow musically and avoid repeating themselves . " alex henderson of allmusic described the record as " disturbing and powerful , " while joe mater ##a of ultimate guitar deemed the album a slight departure ; he wrote that while the pace was slowed down , it " didn ' t sacrifice any of the he ##avi ##ness inherent in slayer ' s music . " reviewing the 2003 slayer box set soundtrack to the apocalypse , ad ##rien beg ##rand
| 812 |
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] | 354 |
of pop ##mat ##ters described the album as " their most under ##rated , and on this set , its five selections show how highly the band thinks of the record . " kn ##ac . com ' s peter atkinson was also positive , saying the album has a " grand ##ios ##ity and imposing presence " which makes the record " so magnificent . " grave ' s ol ##a lin ##d ##gren and bolt throw ##er ' s karl will ##ett ##s both rate south of heaven as amongst the top five albums of all time , while max ko ##les ##ne of brazilian death metal group kris ##iu ##n remembers hearing the song " silent scream " for the first time :
| 684 |
[
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] | 355 |
" it just blew me away . it was like fast double @ - @ bass , fast kicks during the whole song . that was very inspiring for me . " when discussing slayer in an october 2007 interview , evil ##e frontman matt drake stated that while reign in blood " was just speed " , south of heaven proved that the group could write " slow material as well . " metal forces reviewer gives " the band credit for at least making an effort to try something new and not being afraid to experiment at such a crucial stage of their career " , creating " one of the more original sounding thrash / speed metal albums he heard in a long
| 907 |
[
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] | 356 |
while " . he remarks , however , that " if you ’ re expecting to hear reign in blood part two , you ’ ll be in for a major disappointment " . kim nee ##ly of rolling stone dismissed the album as " genuinely offensive satan ##ic drive ##l . " slayer ' s official biography states : " the new sounds disappointed some of the band ' s fans who were more accustomed to the style of earlier releases . " michael roberts of west ##world online said this was due to some of the numbers moving " at the sl ##ud ##gie ##r speed of black sabbath . " ara ##ya commented that the " album was a late bloom ##er —
| 813 |
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] | 357 |
it wasn ' t really received well , but it kind of grew on everybody later . " = = cover versions = = the title track and the song " mandatory suicide " have received various cover interpretations , particularly on slayer tribute albums . toni ferguson recorded string quartet adaptations of both tracks on the album the string quartet tribute to slayer : the evil you dread , with the former cover being described as having " menacing chord shifts " by allmusic ' s johnny loft ##us . 1995 slayer tribute album sl ##ata ##nic slaughter featured three tracks which originally appeared on south of heaven , with the title track , " mandatory suicide " and " spill the blood " interpreted
| 797 |
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] | 358 |
by ce ##met ##ary , crown of thorns and gr ##ope respectively . its 1998 follow up sl ##ata ##nic slaughter , vol . 2 only featured two tracks originally from the album ; namely " silent scream " arranged by va ##der and " read between the lies " interpreted by ana ##the ##ma . 1999 ' s straight to hell : a tribute to slayer collected four slayer rendition ##s which originated on the album , with versions of south of heaven performed by aba ##dd ##on ( venom ) and electric hell ##fire club , " mandatory suicide " cut by chapter 7 and " behind the crooked cross " adapted by gig ##anto ##r . 2006 argentine tribute album al sur del
| 75 |
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] | 359 |
ab ##ism ##o ( tri ##bu ##to argent ##ino a slayer ) saw na ##fa ##k and climatic terra also respectively cover " south of heaven " and " mandatory suicide " . hate ##bre ##ed covered the song " ghosts of war " for their 2009 cover album for the lions . they released a music video for it also . ko ##rn has covered the title track at least twice live , once with kid rock on vocals and another using the intro to follow into one of their songs live . the title track itself has also been covered by integrity 2000 , modest mouse and cal ##if ##one , pro @ - @ pain , and universe eye . polish death metal
| 509 |
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] | 360 |
band dec ##ap ##itated covered the song " mandatory suicide " on their first full @ - @ length album winds of creation . in 2003 , " silent scream " was covered by children of bodo ##m for their album hate crew death ##roll in his uk version . hardcore punk band , the mongol ##oids opened their set with the beginning of " south of heaven " at heart ##fest 7 on may 4 , 2013 = = live performances = = two songs taken from the album ( " mandatory suicide " and " south of heaven " ) have become near constant fixtures in the band ' s live set ##list , notch ##ing up appearances on the following : the live
| 823 |
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dvds live intrusion , war at the war ##field , still reigning , soundtrack to the apocalypse ' s deluxe edition ' s bonus live disc , and the live double album decade of aggression . lombard ##o guest ##ed with finnish cell ##ist group apocalyptic ##a on a live medley of the two tracks at 1998 ' s head ##bang ##er ' s heaven festival in the netherlands . ad ##rien beg ##rand of pop ##mat ##ters described " south of heaven " as " an uno ##rth ##od ##ox set opener in theory " , noting " the song went over like a mega ##ton bomb det ##ona ##ting the place : dozens of inverted crosses projected behind the high drum rise ##r ,
| 898 |
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the sin ##ew ##y opening notes kicked in , followed by an overture of bass , cy ##mba ##l crashes , and tom fills , leading up to the slowly building cr ##es ##cend ##o " in a concert review . lombard ##o remembers listening to a live rendition of " south of heaven " and thinking " ‘ man ! there ' s just so much groove in that song . ’ to my kids i was saying , ‘ listen to that ! listen to how gr ##oo ##vy that is ! ’ and it ' s heavy . " a rare live version of the track featured on the ja ##ger ##music ra ##rit ##ies 2004 promotional cd , given away to attendees
| 810 |
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] | 363 |
at the spring 2004 ja ##ger ##meister music tour . a live rendition of " south of heaven " was also included on a bonus dvd which came with the group ' s 2007 re @ - @ release of ninth studio album christ illusion , shot in vancouver , british columbia during 2006 ' s un ##hol ##y alliance tour . " behind the crooked cross " is rarely played live as han ##nem ##an hates the track , though king has always wanted to play it " because it ' s got a cool intro " despite it not being his favorite song . king said " that ' s fine " when speaking of the situation , noting " there are songs that
| 684 |
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] | 364 |
he wants to play that i always shoot down . " " ghosts of war " isn ' t king ' s favorite song either , which he at ##test ##s " everybody always wants to hear " performed live . he confessed ; " i like the ending , you know , i like the big heavy part and i always say , ‘ let ' s put the heavy ending at the end of " chemical warfare " and just do the last half . ’ but i could never make that fly . " slayer has toy ##ed with the idea of creating a live set mixed with selections from the album and 1990 ' s seasons in the abyss , though han
| 822 |
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] | 365 |
##nem ##an said it ' s something which hasn ' t been " seriously considered . " metal mania ##cs asked slayer in a 2006 interview whether they would consider playing south of heaven in the footsteps of the still reigning tour , to which ara ##ya replied , " it ' s becoming a trend ##y thing now . i don ' t know . we have some really cool albums , but i don ' t think we ' ll ever do that again . " king was equally unsure , commenting , " probably not . and i just don ' t like enough songs off south of heaven . " = = track listing = = = = personnel = = tom
| 907 |
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] | 366 |
ara ##ya – bass , lead vocals jeff han ##nem ##an – lead and rhythm guitar kerry king – lead and rhythm guitar , backing vocals dave lombard ##o – drums = = charts and certification ##s = = = general aviation in the united kingdom = general aviation in the united kingdom has been defined as a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule or military aviation . although the international civil aviation organization ( icao ) exclude ##s any form of re ##mun ##erated aviation from its definition , some commercial operations are often included within the scope of general aviation ( ga ) in the uk . the sector operates business jets , rotor ##craft ,
| 918 |
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] | 367 |
piston and jet @ - @ engined fixed @ - @ wing aircraft , glider ##s of all descriptions , and lighter than air craft . public transport operations include business ( or corporate ) aviation and air taxi services , and account for nearly half of the economic contribution made by the sector . other commercial ga activities are aerial work , such as surveying and air ambulance ##s , and flight training , which plays an important role in the supply of pilots to the commercial air transport ( cat ) industry . private flying is conducted for personal transport and recreation . it includes a strong vintage aircraft movement , and encompasses a range of air sports , such as racing , aero
| 965 |
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| 317 |
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] | 369 |
, @ 000 private pilot licence holders , and 10 @ , @ 000 certified glider pilots . some of the 19 @ , @ 000 pilots who hold professional licence ##s are also engaged in ga activities . although ga operates from more than 1 @ , @ 800 aerodrome ##s and landing sites , ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips , over 80 per cent of ga activity is conducted at 134 of the larger aerodrome ##s . the ga industry , which is around 7 per cent the size of its cat cousin , employs 12 @ , @ 000 people , and contributes £ 1 @ . @ 4 billion to the uk economy . ga is regulated
| 350 |
[
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] | 370 |
by the civil aviation authority ( ca ##a ) , although regulatory powers are being increasingly transferred to the european aviation safety agency ( ea ##sa ) . the main focus is on standards of air ##worth ##iness and pilot licensing , and the objective is to promote high standards of safety . at the lighter end of the ga spectrum some regulatory authority is dev ##olved to representative bodies , and gliding is in transition from a self @ - @ regulatory model to more formal governance by ea ##sa . airspace regulation necessary to protect an increasing number of cat operations has reduced the area in which ga flights can be freely conducted . the growth in cat is also making access to larger
| 319 |
[
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] | 371 |
airports more difficult for the ga sector , and smaller aerodrome ##s are vulnerable to closure and re @ - @ development for more profitable uses . the uk planning system has no re ##mit to consider the national significance of ga public transport operations , and generally does not favour the development of smaller aerodrome ##s catering to the ga market . the planning process has become a mechanism for addressing local aerodrome @ - @ related environmental issues which , particularly regarding noise , are the main subjects of public criticism level ##led at ga . = = definitions = = the international civil aviation organization ( icao ) defines general aviation ( ga ) as " an aircraft operation other than a commercial
| 347 |
[
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] | 372 |
air transport operation or an aerial work operation . " it defines commercial air transport ( cat ) as " an aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers , cargo or mail for re ##mun ##eration or hire " , and aerial work as " an aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture , construction , photography , surveying , observation and patrol , search and rescue , aerial advertisement , etc . " organisations in the united kingdom ( uk ) describe ga in less restrictive terms that include elements of commercial aviation . the british business and general aviation association interpret ##s it to be " all aero ##plane and helicopter flying except that performed by the
| 963 |
[
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] | 373 |
major airlines and the armed services " . the general aviation awareness council applies the description " all civil aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non @ - @ scheduled air transport operations for re ##mun ##eration or hire " . for the purposes of a strategic review of ga in the uk , the civil aviation authority ( ca ##a ) defined the scope of ga as " a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule " , and considered it necessary to depart from the icao definition and include aerial work and minor cat operations . the first aerodrome in the uk was established by the aero club at mu ##swell manor on the isle
| 311 |
[
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] | 374 |
of she ##ppe ##y , and in may 1909 it was the venue of the first flight conducted in the country by a british pilot , john moore @ - @ bra ##ba ##zon . in 1910 the aero club was granted the royal prefix , took responsibility for controlling all private flying in the uk , and started issuing the first british pilot licence ##s . the introduction of the de havilland dh . 60 moth in 1925 revolution ##ised light aviation , and the royal aero club , rec ##og ##nis ##ing the " vital necessity of promoting civil flying " , formed the light aero ##plane club scheme . between 1925 and 1939 around 60 flying clubs were started , and more than
| 965 |
[
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] | 375 |
5 @ , @ 000 pilots were trained . during world war ii civil aerodrome ##s were taken over for military use , existing military airfields were expanded , and new ones were built . this resulted in a significant inventory of facilities becoming available after the war . pre @ - @ war civil aerodrome ##s , for example sy ##well , were returned to civilian use . surplus military airfields were closed , and in some cases , for example be ##cc ##les , subsequently re @ - @ opened as civil aerodrome ##s . the ministry of civil aviation was created to regulate all civil aviation in the uk , and this task remained the responsibility of government departments until the establishment of
| 326 |
[
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"##ised",
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] | 376 |
the independent ca ##a in 1972 . with an expanded infrastructure in place , ga became established after the war when manufacturers such as cessna and piper introduced light aircraft designed for the private market . the cessna 172 , developed from the late 1940s cessna 170 , was introduced in 1956 , and became the world ' s best selling single @ - @ engine aero ##plane . single piston @ - @ engine aircraft are still the most common class of aircraft in the uk ga fleet . the development of the ro ##gall ##o wing in the 1950s foster ##ed the development of hang @ - @ gliding during the 1960s and 1970s . the 1960s also saw experiments with motor ##ised hang
| 347 |
[
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"@",
"-",
"@",
"produced"
] | 377 |
glider ##s , but it was not until the 1970s that this blend of technologies started to mature , resulting in the birth of the micro ##light movement . another milestone in the development of ga was the 1964 introduction of the lear ##jet 23 . although it was not the first business jet , it popular ##ised corporate aviation , and established the personal jet as a " whole new class of aircraft " . = = activities = = the ga sector operates a range of aircraft , including balloons and airship ##s , glider ##s , hang glider ##s , para ##gli ##ders , micro ##lights , g ##yr ##oco ##pt ##ers , helicopters , amateur built and mass @ - @ produced
| 516 |
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"offer",
"charter",
"services",
"for",
"third",
"parties"
] | 378 |
light aircraft , ex @ - @ military aircraft , and business jets . flights can be broadly cat ##ego ##rise ##d as public transport , aerial work , and private flying , the first two of which are commercial activities . = = = commercial operations = = = commercial operations are re ##mun ##erated activities which fall within the icao definition of cat . some are , however , closely aligned to , and considered part of , the ga sector . public transport operations are non @ - @ scheduled , on @ - @ demand services flying between points specified by the customer , providing a more flexible service than airline travel . air taxi operations offer charter services for third parties
| 311 |
[
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"re",
"##mun",
"##erated",
"non"
] | 379 |
, and business or corporate aviation uses company @ - @ owned aircraft to transport employees and clients . aircraft used in these operations include business jets , helicopters , and twin piston @ - @ engine aero ##planes carrying between six and ten people . an example of this type of operation is the transport by helicopter of spectators to the british formula one grand prix at silver ##stone . this involves so many flights that , according to cr ##an ##field aviation services , on race day the he ##lip ##ort is temporarily the world ' s busiest airport . aerial work is a small but important component of the commercial ga sector , characterised in its simplest form as re ##mun ##erated non
| 311 |
[
"@",
"-",
"@",
"transport",
"activities",
",",
"such",
"as",
"surveying",
",",
"crop",
"spraying",
",",
"and",
"emergency",
"services",
"work",
"(",
"air",
"ambulance",
"and",
"police",
")",
".",
"flying",
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"businesses",
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"in",
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"training",
"of",
"pilots",
",",
"both",
"for",
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"purposes",
"and",
"for",
"those",
"intending",
"to",
"fly",
"professionally",
".",
"they",
"make",
"widespread",
"use",
"of",
"fixed",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"wing",
"light",
"aircraft",
"associated",
"with",
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"ga",
",",
"not",
"only",
"for",
"flying",
"lessons",
"but",
"also",
"as",
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"out",
"to",
"qualified",
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"for",
"recreational",
"flights",
".",
"school",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"owned",
"aircraft",
"account",
"for",
"a",
"significant",
"amount",
"of",
"ga",
"activity",
",",
"both",
"in",
"terms",
"of",
"hours",
"flown",
"and",
"aircraft",
"movements",
".",
"the",
"pilot",
"training",
"element",
"is",
"regarded",
"by",
"the",
"ga",
"community",
"as",
"a",
"key",
"benefit",
"that",
"is",
"critical"
] | 380 |
@ - @ transport activities , such as surveying , crop spraying , and emergency services work ( air ambulance and police ) . flying schools are commercial businesses engaged in the training of pilots , both for recreational purposes and for those intending to fly professionally . they make widespread use of fixed @ - @ wing light aircraft associated with traditional ga , not only for flying lessons but also as club aircraft rented out to qualified pilots for recreational flights . school @ - @ owned aircraft account for a significant amount of ga activity , both in terms of hours flown and aircraft movements . the pilot training element is regarded by the ga community as a key benefit that is critical
| 963 |
[
"to",
"the",
"supply",
"of",
"pilots",
"for",
"the",
"airline",
"industry",
".",
"it",
"is",
"claimed",
"by",
"the",
"general",
"aviation",
"awareness",
"council",
"that",
"60",
"–",
"70",
"per",
"cent",
"of",
"professional",
"pilots",
"have",
"self",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"financed",
"their",
"flight",
"training",
"at",
"ga",
"schools",
",",
"and",
"one",
"uk",
"airline",
"operator",
"has",
"stated",
"that",
"the",
"industry",
"must",
"rely",
"on",
"70",
"–",
"80",
"per",
"cent",
"of",
"new",
"pilots",
"coming",
"from",
"the",
"ga",
"sector",
".",
"the",
"ca",
"##a",
"estimates",
"that",
"between",
"1996",
"and",
"2006",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"new",
"professional",
"pilots",
"following",
"the",
"un",
"##sp",
"##ons",
"##ored",
"training",
"route",
"rose",
"from",
"48",
"per",
"cent",
"to",
"59",
"per",
"cent",
".",
"the",
"counter",
"argument",
"to",
"this",
"claim",
"is",
"that",
"pilots",
"can",
"be",
"trained",
"outside",
"of",
"the",
"uk",
",",
"and",
"that",
"the",
"airline",
"industry",
"is",
"not",
"therefore"
] | 381 |
to the supply of pilots for the airline industry . it is claimed by the general aviation awareness council that 60 – 70 per cent of professional pilots have self @ - @ financed their flight training at ga schools , and one uk airline operator has stated that the industry must rely on 70 – 80 per cent of new pilots coming from the ga sector . the ca ##a estimates that between 1996 and 2006 the number of new professional pilots following the un ##sp ##ons ##ored training route rose from 48 per cent to 59 per cent . the counter argument to this claim is that pilots can be trained outside of the uk , and that the airline industry is not therefore
| 965 |
[
"dependent",
"on",
"a",
"healthy",
"ga",
"sector",
"in",
"the",
"uk",
"for",
"its",
"supply",
"of",
"pilots",
".",
"the",
"ca",
"##a",
"concludes",
"that",
"a",
"severe",
"reduction",
"in",
"ga",
"would",
"give",
"\"",
"some",
"merit",
"to",
"the",
"argument",
"that",
"pilot",
"recruitment",
"would",
"be",
"threatened",
"\"",
",",
"but",
"that",
"the",
"data",
"on",
"flying",
"hours",
"\"",
"does",
"not",
"support",
"such",
"a",
"gloom",
"##y",
"outlook",
".",
"\"",
"of",
"course",
",",
"reliance",
"on",
"other",
"countries",
"for",
"pilot",
"training",
"means",
"that",
"the",
"uk",
"fore",
"##go",
"##es",
"the",
"economic",
"benefit",
"of",
"the",
"training",
"activity",
".",
"private",
"flying",
"can",
"be",
"for",
"both",
"recreational",
"purposes",
"and",
"personal",
"transport",
",",
"using",
"aircraft",
"that",
"are",
"owned",
"individually",
",",
"collectively",
"as",
"part",
"of",
"a",
"syndicate",
",",
"or",
"rented",
"from",
"a",
"flying",
"club",
".",
"a",
"survey",
"of",
"pilots",
"conducted",
"between",
"2001",
"and",
"2002"
] | 382 |
dependent on a healthy ga sector in the uk for its supply of pilots . the ca ##a concludes that a severe reduction in ga would give " some merit to the argument that pilot recruitment would be threatened " , but that the data on flying hours " does not support such a gloom ##y outlook . " of course , reliance on other countries for pilot training means that the uk fore ##go ##es the economic benefit of the training activity . private flying can be for both recreational purposes and personal transport , using aircraft that are owned individually , collectively as part of a syndicate , or rented from a flying club . a survey of pilots conducted between 2001 and 2002
| 963 |
[
"indicated",
"that",
"the",
"most",
"common",
"purposes",
"of",
"recreational",
"flights",
"were",
"local",
"flights",
"near",
"the",
"base",
"aerodrome",
",",
"visits",
"to",
"other",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
",",
"and",
"day",
"trips",
"away",
".",
"half",
"of",
"all",
"flights",
"landed",
"at",
"the",
"same",
"aerodrome",
"they",
"departed",
"from",
",",
"and",
"only",
"9",
"per",
"cent",
"involved",
"an",
"overnight",
"stay",
"away",
"from",
"home",
".",
"private",
"flying",
"is",
"most",
"associated",
"with",
"the",
"traditional",
"form",
"of",
"factory",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"produced",
"two",
"and",
"four",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"seater",
",",
"single",
"piston",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"engine",
"training",
"and",
"touring",
"aircraft",
".",
"examples",
"of",
"these",
"are",
"the",
"cessna",
"152",
",",
"cessna",
"172",
",",
"and",
"piper",
"pa",
"##28",
"cherokee",
",",
"all",
"with",
"their",
"origins",
"in",
"the",
"1950s",
",",
"and",
"the",
"more",
"modern",
"designs",
"of",
"ci",
"##rr",
"##us",
".",
"the",
"average",
"cost"
] | 383 |
indicated that the most common purposes of recreational flights were local flights near the base aerodrome , visits to other aerodrome ##s , and day trips away . half of all flights landed at the same aerodrome they departed from , and only 9 per cent involved an overnight stay away from home . private flying is most associated with the traditional form of factory @ - @ produced two and four @ - @ seater , single piston @ - @ engine training and touring aircraft . examples of these are the cessna 152 , cessna 172 , and piper pa ##28 cherokee , all with their origins in the 1950s , and the more modern designs of ci ##rr ##us . the average cost
| 311 |
[
"per",
"hour",
"to",
"fly",
"such",
"aircraft",
"has",
"been",
"estimated",
"to",
"be",
"£",
"133",
",",
"compared",
"to",
"an",
"estimated",
"£",
"77",
"per",
"hour",
"for",
"glider",
"##s",
",",
"and",
"a",
"reported",
"£",
"35",
"per",
"hour",
"for",
"micro",
"##lights",
".",
"recent",
"trends",
"have",
"seen",
"an",
"increase",
"in",
"the",
"use",
"of",
"micro",
"##lights",
",",
"and",
"also",
"in",
"recreational",
"helicopter",
"flying",
"following",
"the",
"introduction",
"of",
"smaller",
"and",
"cheaper",
"machines",
"such",
"as",
"the",
"robinson",
"r",
"##22",
"and",
"r",
"##44",
".",
"another",
"growth",
"area",
"in",
"private",
"flying",
"in",
"recent",
"years",
"has",
"been",
"in",
"the",
"use",
"of",
"amateur",
"built",
"aircraft",
",",
"such",
"as",
"the",
"van",
"'",
"s",
"aircraft",
"rv",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"4",
"and",
"the",
"europa",
".",
"there",
"is",
"a",
"strong",
"vintage",
"aircraft",
"movement",
"in",
"the",
"uk",
",",
"with",
"two",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"thirds"
] | 384 |
per hour to fly such aircraft has been estimated to be £ 133 , compared to an estimated £ 77 per hour for glider ##s , and a reported £ 35 per hour for micro ##lights . recent trends have seen an increase in the use of micro ##lights , and also in recreational helicopter flying following the introduction of smaller and cheaper machines such as the robinson r ##22 and r ##44 . another growth area in private flying in recent years has been in the use of amateur built aircraft , such as the van ' s aircraft rv @ - @ 4 and the europa . there is a strong vintage aircraft movement in the uk , with two @ - @ thirds
| 511 |
[
"of",
"the",
"500",
"registered",
"historic",
"aircraft",
"active",
".",
"these",
"cover",
"the",
"whole",
"spectrum",
"of",
"civil",
"and",
"military",
"aviation",
",",
"examples",
"being",
"the",
"de",
"havilland",
"dragon",
"rapid",
"##e",
"airline",
"##r",
"of",
"the",
"1930s",
",",
"and",
"the",
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"war",
"ii",
"(",
"wwii",
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"spitfire",
"fighter",
".",
"there",
"are",
"many",
"post",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"wwii",
"aircraft",
"which",
"could",
"also",
"be",
"considered",
"historic",
"under",
"a",
"loose",
"##r",
"definition",
",",
"including",
"for",
"example",
"60",
"ex",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"military",
"jets",
"such",
"as",
"the",
"hawker",
"hunter",
".",
"historic",
"aircraft",
"are",
"regular",
"exhibits",
"at",
"air",
"displays",
",",
"which",
"are",
"claimed",
"to",
"be",
"the",
"second",
"most",
"popular",
"spectator",
"activity",
"after",
"football",
"in",
"the",
"uk",
".",
"competitive",
"gliding",
"in",
"the",
"uk",
"takes",
"place",
"between",
"may",
"and",
"september",
".",
"regional",
"##s",
"are",
"local",
"competitions",
",",
"organised"
] | 385 |
of the 500 registered historic aircraft active . these cover the whole spectrum of civil and military aviation , examples being the de havilland dragon rapid ##e airline ##r of the 1930s , and the world war ii ( wwii ) spitfire fighter . there are many post @ - @ wwii aircraft which could also be considered historic under a loose ##r definition , including for example 60 ex @ - @ military jets such as the hawker hunter . historic aircraft are regular exhibits at air displays , which are claimed to be the second most popular spectator activity after football in the uk . competitive gliding in the uk takes place between may and september . regional ##s are local competitions , organised
| 311 |
[
"and",
"run",
"by",
"one",
"of",
"the",
"bigger",
"gliding",
"clubs",
"in",
"the",
"region",
",",
"and",
"represent",
"the",
"entry",
"level",
"to",
"glider",
"racing",
".",
"races",
"are",
"handicapped",
"according",
"to",
"glider",
"performance",
",",
"and",
"normally",
"take",
"place",
"over",
"nine",
"days",
".",
"success",
"in",
"the",
"regional",
"##s",
"allows",
"pilots",
"to",
"progress",
"to",
"the",
"nationals",
",",
"where",
"there",
"are",
"five",
"classes",
"of",
"competition",
".",
"these",
"are",
"based",
"on",
"glider",
"performance",
",",
"the",
"lowest",
"being",
"club",
"class",
",",
"and",
"then",
"progressing",
"through",
"standard",
"(",
"maximum",
"15",
"metres",
"(",
"49",
"ft",
")",
"wingspan",
",",
"and",
"flaps",
"not",
"permitted",
")",
",",
"15",
"metres",
"(",
"49",
"ft",
")",
"(",
"as",
"standard",
",",
"but",
"flaps",
"are",
"permitted",
")",
",",
"18",
"metres",
"(",
"59",
"ft",
")",
"(",
"maximum",
"18",
"metres",
"(",
"59",
"ft",
")",
"wingspan",
")",
","
] | 386 |
and run by one of the bigger gliding clubs in the region , and represent the entry level to glider racing . races are handicapped according to glider performance , and normally take place over nine days . success in the regional ##s allows pilots to progress to the nationals , where there are five classes of competition . these are based on glider performance , the lowest being club class , and then progressing through standard ( maximum 15 metres ( 49 ft ) wingspan , and flaps not permitted ) , 15 metres ( 49 ft ) ( as standard , but flaps are permitted ) , 18 metres ( 59 ft ) ( maximum 18 metres ( 59 ft ) wingspan ) ,
| 385 |
[
"and",
"finally",
"open",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"class",
"(",
"no",
"restrictions",
")",
".",
"success",
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"national",
"level",
"can",
"lead",
"to",
"a",
"place",
"in",
"the",
"national",
"team",
"and",
"competition",
"at",
"international",
"level",
".",
"in",
"2007",
"the",
"british",
"gliding",
"team",
"was",
"ranked",
"number",
"one",
",",
"and",
"british",
"pilots",
"took",
"two",
"women",
"'",
"s",
"world",
"championships",
"and",
"the",
"open",
"class",
"european",
"championship",
".",
"handicapped",
"air",
"racing",
"is",
"open",
"to",
"any",
"propeller",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"driven",
"aircraft",
"capable",
"of",
"maintaining",
"a",
"minimum",
"speed",
"of",
"100",
"miles",
"(",
"160",
"km",
")",
"per",
"hour",
"in",
"level",
"flight",
".",
"races",
"are",
"a",
"case",
"of",
"\"",
"fly",
"low",
",",
"fly",
"fast",
",",
"turn",
"left",
"\"",
",",
"consisting",
"of",
"4",
"–",
"5",
"laps",
"round",
"a",
"20",
"–",
"25",
"mile",
"(",
"32",
"–",
"40",
"km",
")",
"circuit"
] | 387 |
and finally open @ - @ class ( no restrictions ) . success at national level can lead to a place in the national team and competition at international level . in 2007 the british gliding team was ranked number one , and british pilots took two women ' s world championships and the open class european championship . handicapped air racing is open to any propeller @ - @ driven aircraft capable of maintaining a minimum speed of 100 miles ( 160 km ) per hour in level flight . races are a case of " fly low , fly fast , turn left " , consisting of 4 – 5 laps round a 20 – 25 mile ( 32 – 40 km ) circuit
| 385 |
[
".",
"faster",
"aircraft",
"are",
"handicapped",
"by",
"starting",
"after",
"slower",
"aircraft",
",",
"the",
"intention",
"being",
"that",
"the",
"race",
"concludes",
"with",
"all",
"aircraft",
"diving",
"for",
"the",
"finish",
"line",
"together",
".",
"there",
"are",
"up",
"to",
"16",
"races",
"per",
"year",
",",
"conducted",
"at",
"airfields",
"in",
"the",
"uk",
",",
"france",
"and",
"the",
"channel",
"islands",
",",
"for",
"prizes",
"that",
"include",
"the",
"schneider",
"trophy",
"and",
"king",
"'",
"s",
"cup",
",",
"and",
"the",
"season",
"cu",
"##lm",
"##inates",
"with",
"the",
"british",
"air",
"racing",
"and",
"european",
"air",
"racing",
"championships",
".",
"aero",
"##bat",
"##ic",
"competitions",
"take",
"place",
"for",
"both",
"powered",
"aircraft",
"and",
"glider",
"##s",
",",
"with",
"up",
"to",
"30",
"events",
"each",
"year",
"in",
"the",
"uk",
"and",
"ireland",
".",
"starting",
"at",
"the",
"begin",
"##ner",
"level",
",",
"pilots",
"can",
"move",
"up",
"to",
"standard",
"(",
"powered",
"aircraft",
")",
"or",
"sports"
] | 388 |
. faster aircraft are handicapped by starting after slower aircraft , the intention being that the race concludes with all aircraft diving for the finish line together . there are up to 16 races per year , conducted at airfields in the uk , france and the channel islands , for prizes that include the schneider trophy and king ' s cup , and the season cu ##lm ##inates with the british air racing and european air racing championships . aero ##bat ##ic competitions take place for both powered aircraft and glider ##s , with up to 30 events each year in the uk and ireland . starting at the begin ##ner level , pilots can move up to standard ( powered aircraft ) or sports
| 629 |
[
"(",
"glider",
")",
"levels",
",",
"and",
"then",
"on",
"to",
"intermediate",
",",
"advanced",
",",
"and",
"finally",
"unlimited",
"classes",
".",
"each",
"step",
"up",
"requires",
"a",
"wider",
"repertoire",
"of",
"aero",
"##bat",
"##ic",
"figures",
"and",
"progressively",
"more",
"performance",
"from",
"the",
"aircraft",
".",
"national",
"championships",
"are",
"awarded",
"annually",
"at",
"standard",
"/",
"sports",
",",
"intermediate",
",",
"advanced",
"(",
"powered",
"aircraft",
"only",
")",
",",
"and",
"unlimited",
"levels",
",",
"and",
"pilots",
"who",
"have",
"reached",
"advanced",
"and",
"unlimited",
"levels",
"are",
"eligible",
"for",
"selection",
"to",
"represent",
"the",
"uk",
"in",
"international",
"competition",
".",
"parachute",
"competitions",
"are",
"held",
"at",
"club",
",",
"regional",
",",
"national",
"and",
"international",
"levels",
",",
"and",
"include",
"the",
"disciplines",
"of",
"accuracy",
"landings",
",",
"free",
"##fall",
"gymnastics",
",",
"formation",
"sky",
"##di",
"##ving",
",",
"canopy",
"formation",
",",
"freestyle",
"and",
"free",
"##fly",
"##ing",
",",
"and",
"sky",
"##sur",
"##fin"
] | 389 |
( glider ) levels , and then on to intermediate , advanced , and finally unlimited classes . each step up requires a wider repertoire of aero ##bat ##ic figures and progressively more performance from the aircraft . national championships are awarded annually at standard / sports , intermediate , advanced ( powered aircraft only ) , and unlimited levels , and pilots who have reached advanced and unlimited levels are eligible for selection to represent the uk in international competition . parachute competitions are held at club , regional , national and international levels , and include the disciplines of accuracy landings , free ##fall gymnastics , formation sky ##di ##ving , canopy formation , freestyle and free ##fly ##ing , and sky ##sur ##fin
| 302 |
[
"##g",
".",
"british",
"teams",
"consistently",
"win",
"medals",
"in",
"canopy",
"formation",
"world",
"championships",
",",
"and",
"a",
"british",
"team",
"took",
"the",
"2006",
"world",
"championship",
"in",
"women",
"'",
"s",
"4",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"way",
"formation",
"sky",
"##di",
"##ving",
".",
"=",
"=",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
"=",
"=",
"aerodrome",
"is",
"a",
"collective",
"term",
"for",
"any",
"location",
"from",
"which",
"flying",
"operations",
"take",
"place",
",",
"although",
"more",
"specific",
"terminology",
"can",
"be",
"used",
"to",
"character",
"##ise",
"its",
"purpose",
".",
"the",
"ca",
"##a",
"strategic",
"review",
"of",
"ga",
"applies",
"the",
"term",
"airport",
"to",
"locations",
"which",
"predominantly",
"support",
"large",
"scale",
"commercial",
"operations",
",",
"and",
"airfield",
"to",
"locations",
"which",
"predominantly",
"support",
"ga",
"operations",
".",
"the",
"general",
"aviation",
"small",
"aerodrome",
"research",
"study",
"(",
"gas",
"##ar",
")",
"anal",
"##yse",
"##d",
"68",
"##7",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
"in",
"england",
"which",
"come",
"under",
"the",
"scope"
] | 390 |
##g . british teams consistently win medals in canopy formation world championships , and a british team took the 2006 world championship in women ' s 4 @ - @ way formation sky ##di ##ving . = = aerodrome ##s = = aerodrome is a collective term for any location from which flying operations take place , although more specific terminology can be used to character ##ise its purpose . the ca ##a strategic review of ga applies the term airport to locations which predominantly support large scale commercial operations , and airfield to locations which predominantly support ga operations . the general aviation small aerodrome research study ( gas ##ar ) anal ##yse ##d 68 ##7 aerodrome ##s in england which come under the scope
| 54 |
[
"of",
"ga",
",",
"classify",
"##ing",
"37",
"##4",
"into",
"six",
"types",
".",
"these",
"range",
"in",
"size",
"from",
"regional",
"airports",
"to",
"the",
"smallest",
"farm",
"strip",
",",
"although",
"84",
"per",
"cent",
"of",
"ga",
"flights",
"operate",
"from",
"134",
"of",
"the",
"larger",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
"in",
"the",
"first",
"four",
"categories",
".",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"gas",
"##ar",
"aerodrome",
"classification",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"the",
"factors",
"used",
"in",
"determining",
"how",
"an",
"individual",
"aerodrome",
"is",
"cat",
"##ego",
"##rise",
"##d",
"by",
"the",
"gas",
"##ar",
"study",
"are",
"based",
"broadly",
"on",
"size",
"and",
"facilities",
".",
"the",
"six",
"types",
"of",
"aerodrome",
"are",
"described",
",",
"in",
"size",
"order",
",",
"as",
":",
"regional",
"airports",
"(",
"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"east",
"midlands",
")",
";",
"major",
"ga",
"airports",
"(",
"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"oxford",
")",
";",
"developed",
"ga",
"airfields",
"(",
"e",
".",
"g",
"."
] | 391 |
of ga , classify ##ing 37 ##4 into six types . these range in size from regional airports to the smallest farm strip , although 84 per cent of ga flights operate from 134 of the larger aerodrome ##s in the first four categories . = = = gas ##ar aerodrome classification = = = the factors used in determining how an individual aerodrome is cat ##ego ##rise ##d by the gas ##ar study are based broadly on size and facilities . the six types of aerodrome are described , in size order , as : regional airports ( e . g . east midlands ) ; major ga airports ( e . g . oxford ) ; developed ga airfields ( e . g .
| 326 |
[
"andrews",
"##field",
")",
";",
"basic",
"ga",
"airfields",
"(",
"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"ru",
"##ff",
"##orth",
")",
";",
"developed",
"airs",
"##trip",
"##s",
"(",
"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"til",
"##stock",
")",
";",
"and",
"basic",
"airs",
"##trip",
"##s",
"(",
"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"chi",
"##lb",
"##olt",
"##on",
"in",
"hampshire",
")",
".",
"the",
"actual",
"criteria",
"used",
"to",
"cat",
"##ego",
"##rise",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
"were",
"complex",
",",
"using",
"28",
"different",
"parameters",
",",
"backed",
"up",
"with",
"a",
"peer",
"review",
"by",
"experienced",
"ga",
"pilots",
".",
"airports",
"generally",
"have",
"long",
",",
"fully",
"lit",
",",
"hard",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"surfaced",
"runways",
",",
"full",
"air",
"traffic",
"control",
",",
"and",
"navigation",
"and",
"landing",
"aids",
".",
"they",
"are",
"usually",
"located",
"on",
"urban",
"fringe",
"##s",
",",
"support",
"commercial",
"and",
"business",
"operations",
",",
"and",
"often",
"exclude",
"certain",
"types",
"of",
"light",
"aircraft"
] | 392 |
andrews ##field ) ; basic ga airfields ( e . g . ru ##ff ##orth ) ; developed airs ##trip ##s ( e . g . til ##stock ) ; and basic airs ##trip ##s ( e . g . chi ##lb ##olt ##on in hampshire ) . the actual criteria used to cat ##ego ##rise aerodrome ##s were complex , using 28 different parameters , backed up with a peer review by experienced ga pilots . airports generally have long , fully lit , hard @ - @ surfaced runways , full air traffic control , and navigation and landing aids . they are usually located on urban fringe ##s , support commercial and business operations , and often exclude certain types of light aircraft
| 277 |
[
".",
"at",
"the",
"more",
"rural",
"##ly",
"located",
"airfields",
",",
"the",
"lighter",
"end",
"of",
"aviation",
",",
"such",
"as",
"micro",
"##light",
"and",
"gliding",
"activities",
",",
"becomes",
"increasingly",
"prevalent",
",",
"and",
"there",
"are",
"few",
"or",
"no",
"commercial",
"operations",
"other",
"than",
"flying",
"schools",
".",
"at",
"this",
"level",
"runways",
"are",
"generally",
"shorter",
",",
"and",
"grass",
"surfaces",
"are",
"increasingly",
"common",
".",
"navigation",
"aids",
"are",
"increasingly",
"scarce",
",",
"being",
"more",
"basic",
"where",
"they",
"are",
"available",
",",
"and",
"informal",
"ground",
"to",
"air",
"radio",
"communication",
"replaces",
"air",
"traffic",
"control",
".",
"the",
"smallest",
"airfields",
"are",
"too",
"small",
"to",
"feature",
"on",
"general",
"purpose",
"ordnance",
"survey",
"(",
"os",
")",
"maps",
",",
"and",
"lack",
"basic",
"facilities",
"such",
"as",
"fuel",
"and",
"maintenance",
".",
"the",
"majority",
"of",
"airs",
"##trip",
"##s",
"are",
"basically",
"single",
"short",
"grass",
"runways",
"with",
"no",
"supporting",
"facilities",
","
] | 393 |
. at the more rural ##ly located airfields , the lighter end of aviation , such as micro ##light and gliding activities , becomes increasingly prevalent , and there are few or no commercial operations other than flying schools . at this level runways are generally shorter , and grass surfaces are increasingly common . navigation aids are increasingly scarce , being more basic where they are available , and informal ground to air radio communication replaces air traffic control . the smallest airfields are too small to feature on general purpose ordnance survey ( os ) maps , and lack basic facilities such as fuel and maintenance . the majority of airs ##trip ##s are basically single short grass runways with no supporting facilities ,
| 326 |
[
"although",
"the",
"presence",
"of",
"a",
"hangar",
"is",
"not",
"uncommon",
"at",
"the",
"larger",
"examples",
".",
"they",
"do",
"not",
"feature",
"on",
"os",
"maps",
",",
"and",
"are",
"owned",
"by",
"private",
"clubs",
"or",
",",
"more",
"commonly",
",",
"individuals",
".",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"aerodrome",
"licensing",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"most",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
"used",
"for",
"public",
"transport",
"operations",
"are",
"required",
"to",
"be",
"licensed",
"by",
"the",
"ca",
"##a",
".",
"to",
"be",
"granted",
"a",
"licence",
"an",
"aerodrome",
"operator",
"must",
"satisfy",
"the",
"ca",
"##a",
"that",
":",
"the",
"physical",
"conditions",
"at",
"the",
"aerodrome",
",",
"and",
"its",
"en",
"##vir",
"##ons",
",",
"are",
"acceptable",
";",
"the",
"scale",
"of",
"equipment",
",",
"and",
"facilities",
"provided",
",",
"are",
"adequate",
"for",
"the",
"flying",
"activities",
"which",
"are",
"expected",
"to",
"take",
"place",
";",
"an",
"effective",
"safety",
"management",
"system",
"is",
"in",
"place",
";",
"and",
"that",
"staff"
] | 394 |
although the presence of a hangar is not uncommon at the larger examples . they do not feature on os maps , and are owned by private clubs or , more commonly , individuals . = = = aerodrome licensing = = = most aerodrome ##s used for public transport operations are required to be licensed by the ca ##a . to be granted a licence an aerodrome operator must satisfy the ca ##a that : the physical conditions at the aerodrome , and its en ##vir ##ons , are acceptable ; the scale of equipment , and facilities provided , are adequate for the flying activities which are expected to take place ; an effective safety management system is in place ; and that staff
| 314 |
[
"are",
"competent",
"and",
",",
"where",
"necessary",
",",
"suit",
"##ably",
"qualified",
".",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
"classified",
"as",
"developed",
"ga",
"airfields",
"or",
"larger",
"by",
"the",
"gas",
"##ar",
"study",
"are",
",",
"with",
"few",
"exceptions",
",",
"licensed",
".",
"only",
"two",
"basic",
"ga",
"airfields",
",",
"silver",
"##stone",
"and",
"du",
"##x",
"##ford",
",",
"are",
"licensed",
",",
"and",
"all",
"airs",
"##trip",
"##s",
"are",
"un",
"##lice",
"##nsed",
".",
"the",
"light",
"aviation",
"airports",
"study",
"group",
",",
"a",
"joint",
"ca",
"##a",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"industry",
"initiative",
",",
"was",
"established",
"in",
"2005",
"to",
"review",
"the",
"regulation",
"of",
"light",
"aviation",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
".",
"a",
"particular",
"focus",
"of",
"this",
"group",
"was",
"a",
"review",
"of",
"the",
"restrictions",
"placed",
"on",
"un",
"##lice",
"##nsed",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
".",
"the",
"group",
"concluded",
"that",
"the",
"requirement",
"for",
"public",
"transport",
"operations",
"to",
"be",
"conducted",
"only",
"from",
"licensed"
] | 395 |
are competent and , where necessary , suit ##ably qualified . aerodrome ##s classified as developed ga airfields or larger by the gas ##ar study are , with few exceptions , licensed . only two basic ga airfields , silver ##stone and du ##x ##ford , are licensed , and all airs ##trip ##s are un ##lice ##nsed . the light aviation airports study group , a joint ca ##a @ - @ industry initiative , was established in 2005 to review the regulation of light aviation aerodrome ##s . a particular focus of this group was a review of the restrictions placed on un ##lice ##nsed aerodrome ##s . the group concluded that the requirement for public transport operations to be conducted only from licensed
| 53 |
[
"aerodrome",
"##s",
"should",
"be",
"further",
"reviewed",
"in",
"the",
"context",
"of",
"corresponding",
"international",
"and",
"european",
"requirements",
".",
"it",
"also",
"recommended",
"that",
"restrictions",
"on",
"flight",
"training",
"at",
"un",
"##lice",
"##nsed",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
"should",
"be",
"lifted",
",",
"and",
"this",
"was",
"permitted",
"from",
"april",
"2010",
"=",
"=",
"scale",
"of",
"the",
"sector",
"=",
"=",
"there",
"are",
"an",
"estimated",
"27",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
"civil",
"aircraft",
"registered",
"in",
"the",
"uk",
",",
"96",
"per",
"cent",
"of",
"which",
"are",
"engaged",
"in",
"ga",
"activities",
".",
"in",
"2005",
"the",
"ga",
"fleet",
"comprised",
"9",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
"fixed",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"wing",
"aircraft",
",",
"4",
"@",
",",
"@",
"100",
"micro",
"##lights",
",",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"300",
"helicopters",
",",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"800",
"airship",
"##s",
"/",
"balloons",
",",
"2",
"@",
",",
"@",
"500",
"glider",
"##s"
] | 396 |
aerodrome ##s should be further reviewed in the context of corresponding international and european requirements . it also recommended that restrictions on flight training at un ##lice ##nsed aerodrome ##s should be lifted , and this was permitted from april 2010 = = scale of the sector = = there are an estimated 27 @ , @ 000 civil aircraft registered in the uk , 96 per cent of which are engaged in ga activities . in 2005 the ga fleet comprised 9 @ , @ 000 fixed @ - @ wing aircraft , 4 @ , @ 100 micro ##lights , 1 @ , @ 300 helicopters , 1 @ , @ 800 airship ##s / balloons , 2 @ , @ 500 glider ##s
| 317 |
[
"and",
"some",
"7",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
"hang",
"glider",
"##s",
".",
"estimates",
"put",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"foreign",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"registered",
"ga",
"aircraft",
"based",
"in",
"the",
"uk",
"at",
"900",
".",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"pilots",
"licensed",
"by",
"the",
"ca",
"##a",
"to",
"fly",
"powered",
"aircraft",
"in",
"2005",
"was",
"47",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
",",
"of",
"whom",
"28",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
"held",
"a",
"private",
"pilot",
"licence",
".",
"the",
"remainder",
"held",
"professional",
"pilot",
"licence",
"##s",
",",
"either",
"a",
"commercial",
"pilot",
"licence",
"or",
"an",
"airline",
"transport",
"pilot",
"licence",
",",
"although",
"not",
"all",
"of",
"these",
"would",
"be",
"engaged",
"in",
"ga",
"activities",
".",
"in",
"addition",
",",
"there",
"are",
"10",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
"active",
"glider",
"pilots",
",",
"and",
"estimates",
"put",
"the",
"membership",
"of",
"aviation",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"related",
"sport",
"and",
"recreational",
"associations"
] | 397 |
and some 7 @ , @ 000 hang glider ##s . estimates put the number of foreign @ - @ registered ga aircraft based in the uk at 900 . the number of pilots licensed by the ca ##a to fly powered aircraft in 2005 was 47 @ , @ 000 , of whom 28 @ , @ 000 held a private pilot licence . the remainder held professional pilot licence ##s , either a commercial pilot licence or an airline transport pilot licence , although not all of these would be engaged in ga activities . in addition , there are 10 @ , @ 000 active glider pilots , and estimates put the membership of aviation @ - @ related sport and recreational associations
| 311 |
[
"at",
"36",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
".",
"the",
"number",
"of",
"aerodrome",
"##s",
"that",
"support",
"ga",
"in",
"the",
"uk",
"is",
"difficult",
"to",
"establish",
"with",
"certainty",
".",
"poole",
"##ys",
"2008",
"united",
"kingdom",
"flight",
"guide",
"lists",
"355",
",",
"and",
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"air",
"##pl",
"##an",
"flight",
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"uk",
"v",
"##fr",
"flight",
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"2008",
"lists",
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"lock",
"##year",
"##s",
"farm",
"'",
"strips",
"'",
"and",
"private",
"airfields",
"flight",
"guide",
"lists",
"more",
"than",
"300",
"landing",
"sites",
".",
"the",
"gas",
"##ar",
"study",
"estimates",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"100",
"formal",
"flying",
"sites",
"in",
"england",
"alone",
",",
"a",
"figure",
"which",
"includes",
"400",
"sites",
"known",
"to",
"planning",
"authorities",
"but",
"not",
"included",
"in",
"flight",
"guides",
".",
"it",
"estimates",
"another",
"75",
"##9",
"informal",
"sites",
"known",
"only",
"to",
"land",
"owners",
",",
"customs",
",",
"and",
"members",
"of",
"the",
"enthusiast",
"group"
] | 398 |
at 36 @ , @ 000 . the number of aerodrome ##s that support ga in the uk is difficult to establish with certainty . poole ##ys 2008 united kingdom flight guide lists 355 , and the air ##pl ##an flight equipment uk v ##fr flight guide 2008 lists nearly 500 . lock ##year ##s farm ' strips ' and private airfields flight guide lists more than 300 landing sites . the gas ##ar study estimates 1 @ , @ 100 formal flying sites in england alone , a figure which includes 400 sites known to planning authorities but not included in flight guides . it estimates another 75 ##9 informal sites known only to land owners , customs , and members of the enthusiast group
| 965 |
[
"air",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"britain",
".",
"the",
"sector",
"was",
"estimated",
"to",
"employ",
"nearly",
"12",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
"people",
"and",
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"£",
"1",
"@",
".",
"@",
"4",
"billion",
"to",
"the",
"uk",
"economy",
"in",
"2005",
",",
"making",
"it",
"roughly",
"seven",
"per",
"cent",
"of",
"the",
"size",
"of",
"the",
"cat",
"industry",
".",
"nearly",
"half",
"of",
"the",
"economic",
"contribution",
"was",
"generated",
"by",
"business",
"aviation",
".",
"most",
"sectors",
"of",
"ga",
"for",
"which",
"data",
"are",
"available",
"have",
"experienced",
"growth",
"in",
"aircraft",
"numbers",
"and",
"hours",
"flown",
"over",
"the",
"last",
"two",
"decades",
".",
"the",
"lighter",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"ga",
"spectrum",
":",
"micro",
"##lights",
",",
"amateur",
"built",
",",
"and",
"airship",
"##s",
"and",
"balloons",
",",
"have",
"in",
"particular",
"shown",
"strong",
"growth",
",",
"although",
"the",
"last",
"of",
"these",
"activities",
"was",
"severely",
"curt",
"##ailed",
"during",
"the",
"foot"
] | 399 |
air @ - @ britain . the sector was estimated to employ nearly 12 @ , @ 000 people and directly contribute £ 1 @ . @ 4 billion to the uk economy in 2005 , making it roughly seven per cent of the size of the cat industry . nearly half of the economic contribution was generated by business aviation . most sectors of ga for which data are available have experienced growth in aircraft numbers and hours flown over the last two decades . the lighter end of the ga spectrum : micro ##lights , amateur built , and airship ##s and balloons , have in particular shown strong growth , although the last of these activities was severely curt ##ailed during the foot
| 511 |
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