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##gt ) tests computer chess engines by playing them against each other , with time controls of forty moves in one hundred and twenty minutes per player ( 40 / 120 ) , and also 40 / 20 and 40 / 4 , and uses the results of those games to com ##pile a rating list for each time control . at the slow ##est time control ( 40 / 120 ) , white has scored 55 @ . @ 4 % ( w ##34 . 7 d ##41 . 3 l ##24 . 0 ) in games played among 38 of the strongest chess engines ( as of may 27 , 2009 ) . at 40 / 20 , white has scored 54 @ .
| 292 |
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@ 6 % ( w ##37 . 0 d ##35 . 2 l ##27 . 8 ) in games played among 284 engines ( as of may 24 , 2009 ) . at the fastest time control ( 40 / 4 ) , white has scored 54 @ . @ 8 % ( w ##39 . 6 d ##30 . 5 l ##30 . 0 ) , in games played among 128 programs ( as of may 28 , 2009 ) . = = drawn with best play = = joseph bert ##in wrote in his 1735 textbook the noble game of chess , " he that plays first , is understood to have the attack . " this is consistent with the traditional view that
| 283 |
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white , by virtue of the first move , begins with the initiative and should try to extend it into the middle ##game , while black should strive to neutral ##ize white ' s initiative and attain equality . because white begins with the initiative , a minor mistake by white generally leads only to loss of the initiative , while a similar mistake by black may have more serious consequences . thus , sv ##esh ##nikov wrote in 1994 , " black players cannot afford to make even the slightest mistake . . . from a theoretical point of view , the tasks of white and black in chess are different : white has to strive for a win , black — for a draw
| 31 |
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] | 2,903 |
! " chess theorists have long debated how enduring white ' s initiative is and whether , if both sides play perfectly , the game should end in a win for white or a draw . george walker wrote in 1846 that , " the first move is an advantage , . . . but if properly answered , the first move is of little worth " . stein ##itz , the first world champion , who is widely considered the father of modern chess , wrote in 1889 , " it is now conceded by all experts that by proper play on both sides the legitimate issue of a game ought to be a draw . " las ##ker and cap ##ab ##lan ##ca ,
| 76 |
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] | 2,904 |
the second and third world champions , agreed . reuben fine , one of the world ' s leading players from 1936 to 1951 , wrote that white ' s opening advantage is too int ##ang ##ible to be sufficient for a win without an error by black . the view that a game of chess should end in a draw given best play pre ##va ##ils . even if it cannot be proved , this assumption is considered " safe " by rows ##on and " logical " by ad ##or ##jan . watson agrees that " the proper result of a perfectly played chess game . . . is a draw . . . . of course , i can ' t prove this
| 291 |
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, but i doubt that you can find a single strong player who would disagree . . . . i remember ka ##spar ##ov , after a last @ - @ round draw , explaining to the waiting reporters : ' well , chess is a draw . ' " world champion bobby fischer thought that was almost definitely so . las ##ker and cap ##ab ##lan ##ca both worried that chess would suffer a " draw death " as top @ - @ level players drew more and more of their games . more recently , fischer agreed , saying that the game has become played out . all three advocated changing the rules of chess to minimize the number of drawn games . las
| 291 |
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##ker suggested scoring less than half a point for a draw , and more than half a point for stale ##mat ##ing the opponent ' s king . cap ##ab ##lan ##ca in the 1920s proposed cap ##ab ##lan ##ca chess , a chess variant played on a larger board and with additional pieces . fischer advocated fischer random chess , another chess variant , in which the initial position of the pieces is determined at random . today some of the sharpe ##st opening variations have been analyzed so deeply that they are often used as drawing weapons . for example , at the highest levels , black often uses the marshall attack in the ru ##y lopez , a line where black sacrifices a
| 291 |
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pawn for strong attacking chances , to obtain an end ##game where black is still a pawn down but is able to draw with correct play . in 2007 , gm ##s ki ##ril georgie ##v and ata ##nas ko ##lev asserted that much the same was true of the so @ - @ called poisoned pawn variation of the na ##j ##dorf sicilian , which arises after 1 . e ##4 c ##5 2 . n ##f ##3 d ##6 3 . d ##4 c ##x ##d ##4 4 . n ##x ##d ##4 n ##f ##6 5 . nc ##3 a ##6 6 . b ##g ##5 e ##6 7 . f ##4 qb ##6 ! ? this has long been considered one of
| 118 |
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] | 2,908 |
the sharpe ##st and most problematic , or even fool ##hard ##y , opening lines . the game usually continues 8 . q ##d ##2 q ##x ##b ##2 9 . rb ##1 q ##a ##3 . georgie ##v and ko ##lev stated that 6 . b ##g ##5 is seldom seen at the highest level because the main line of this variation leads , with best play , to a draw by perpetual check . they wrote that the following game " will probably remain the last word of theory " : however , georgie ##v and ko ##lev ' s pe ##ssi ##mist ##ic assessment of 6 . b ##g ##5 has since been called into question , as white succeeded with 10 .
| 267 |
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e ##5 ( another critical line ) in several later high @ - @ level games . gm za ##ven and ##ria ##sy ##an wrote in 2013 that after 10 . f ##5 , " a forced draw results " , but that after 10 . e ##5 , " we reach a very sharp position , with mutual chances . " although it is very much a minority view , three prominent twentieth @ - @ century masters claimed that white ' s advantage should or may be decisive with best play . weaver adams , then one of the leading american masters , was the best @ - @ known proponent of this view , which he introduced in his 1939 book white to
| 70 |
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] | 2,910 |
play and win , and continued to expo ##und in later books and articles until shortly before his death in 1963 . adams opined that 1 . e ##4 was white ' s strongest move , and that if both sides played the best moves thereafter , " white ought to win . " adams ' claim was widely rid ##ic ##uled , and he did not succeed in demonstrating the validity of his theory in tournament and match practice . the year after his book was published , at the finals of the 1940 u . s . open tournament , he scored only one draw in his four games as white , but won all four of his games as black . adams also
| 644 |
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] | 2,911 |
lost a match to im i . a . ho ##row ##itz , who took the black pieces in every game . according to sv ##esh ##nikov , vs ##ev ##olo ##d ra ##uze ##r , a leading soviet player and theo ##ret ##icia ##n during the 1930s , likewise " claimed in the [ 1930s ] : ' 1 . e ##4 — and white wins ! ' and he managed to prove it quite often " . more recently , im hans berlin ##er , a former world champion of correspondence chess , claimed in his 1999 book the system that 1 . d ##4 gives white a large , and possibly decisive , advantage . berlin ##er asserted that with best play white
| 92 |
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] | 2,912 |
wins against the gr ##un ##feld defense , the modern ben ##oni , the ben ##ko ga ##mbit and other ( unnamed ) " major defences " , and achieve ##s at least a large advantage in many lines of the queen ' s ga ##mbit declined . however , he allowed that , " it is possible that the rules of chess are such that only some number of plausible @ - @ appearing defences to 1 . d ##4 can be ref ##uted . " berlin ##er wrote that adams ' " theories , though looked upon with sc ##orn by most top chess players , made an immediate and lasting impression on me . weaver w . adams was the first person i
| 70 |
[
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] | 2,913 |
met who actually had theories about how chess should be played . " berlin ##er ' s thesis , like adams ' , has been sharply criticized . = = modern perspectives = = as explained below , chess theorists in recent decades have continued to debate the size and nature of white ' s advantage , if any . apart from berlin ##er , they have rejected the idea that white has a forced win from the opening position . many also reject the traditional paradigm that black ' s objective should be to neutral ##ize white ' s initiative and obtain equality . = = = white has an enduring advantage = = = in 2004 , gm larry kaufman expressed a more nu
| 291 |
[
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] | 2,914 |
##ance ##d view than adams and berlin ##er , arguing that the initiative stemming from the first move can always be transformed into some sort of enduring advantage , albeit not necessarily a decisive one . kaufman writes , " i don ' t believe that white has a forced win in chess . i do however believe that with either 1 . e ##4 or 1 . d ##4 , white should be able to obtain some sort of advantage that persist ##s into the end ##game . if chess were scored like boxing , with drawn games awarded by some point system to the player ( if any ) who came ' closer ' to winning , then i believe white would indeed have
| 693 |
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] | 2,915 |
a forced win in theory . " starting in 1988 , ad ##or ##jan has argued in a series of books and magazine articles that " black is ok ! " alone amongst modern writers , ad ##or ##jan claims that white starts the game with essentially no advantage . he writes , " in my opinion , the only obvious advantage for white is that if he or she plays for a draw , and does so well , then black can hardly avoid this without taking obvious risks . " ad ##or ##jan goes so far as to claim that , " the tale of white ' s advantage is a del ##usion , belief in it is based on mass psycho ##sis .
| 682 |
[
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] | 2,916 |
" rows ##on writes that ad ##or ##jan ' s " contention is one of the most important chess ideas of the last two decades . . . because it has shaken our assumption that white begins the game with some advantage , and revealed its ideological nature " . however , rows ##on rejects ad ##or ##jan ' s claim that white has essentially no advantage , reasoning that " ' white is better ' and ' black is ok ' need not be mutually exclusive claims " . in one of ad ##or ##jan ' s books , gm la ##jos port ##isch opined that " at least two @ - @ thirds of all ' tested ' openings give white an apparent advantage
| 270 |
[
".",
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] | 2,917 |
. " according to port ##isch , for black , " the root of the problem is that very few people know which are the openings where black is really ok . those who find these lines have nothing to fear , as black is indeed ok , but only in those variations ! " rows ##on considers this an important point , noting that " 1 . d ##4 players struggle to get anywhere against main @ - @ line sl ##avs and 1 . e ##4 players find the na ##j ##dorf and sv ##esh ##nikov sicilian ##s particularly tough . " modern writers often think of black ' s role in more dynamic terms than merely trying to equal ##ize . rows ##on
| 859 |
[
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] | 2,918 |
writes that " the idea of black trying to ' equal ##ize ' is questionable . i think it has limited application to a few openings , rather than being an opening prescription for black in general . " evans wrote that after one of his games against fischer , " fischer con ##fide ##d his ' secret ' to me : unlike other masters , he sought to win with the black pieces from the start . the revelation that black has dynamic chances and need not be satisfied with mere equality was the turning point in his career , he said . " likewise , watson sur ##mise ##d that ka ##spar ##ov , when playing black , bypass ##es the question of whether
| 700 |
[
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] | 2,919 |
white has an opening advantage " by thinking in terms of the concrete nature of the dynamic im ##balance on the board , and seeking to seize the initiative whenever possible " . watson observes that " energetic opening play by black may . . . lead to a position so complex and unclear that to speak of equality is meaningless . sometimes we say ' dynamic ##ally balanced ' instead of ' equal ' to express the view that either player is as likely as the other to emerge from complications with an advantage . this style of opening play has become prevalent in modern chess , with world champions fischer and ka ##spar ##ov as its most visible practitioners . " modern writers also
| 272 |
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] | 2,920 |
question the idea that white has an enduring advantage . sub ##a , in his influential 1991 book dynamic chess strategy , rejects the notion that the initiative can always be transformed into an enduring advantage . he contend ##s that sometimes the player with the initiative loses it with no logical explanation , and that , " sometimes you must lose it , just like that . if you try to cl ##ing to it , by forcing the issue , your dynamic potential will become exhausted and you won ' t be able to face a vigorous counter @ - @ attack . " rows ##on and watson con ##cu ##r . watson also observes , " because of the pre ##sum ##ption of
| 272 |
[
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"'",
"(",
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] | 2,921 |
white being better , the jun ##cture of the game at which black free ##s his game or neutral ##izes white ' s plans has often been automatically assumed to give him equality , even though in dynamic openings , the exhaustion of white ' s initiative very often means that black has seized it with advantage . " = = = counter ##va ##iling advantages = = = rows ##on argues that both white and black have certain advantages : according to rows ##on , white ' s first advantage is that , " the advantage of the first move has some similarities with the serve in tennis in that white can score an ' ace ' ( for instance with a powerful opening novelty
| 270 |
[
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] | 2,922 |
) , he has more control over the pace and direction of the game , and he has a ' second serve ' in that when things go wrong his position is not usually losing . " second , white begins the game with some initiative , although rows ##on regards this as a psychological rather than a position ##al advantage , " and whether it leads to a position ##al advantage depends on the relative skill of the players . " third , some players are able to use the initiative to " play a kind of powerful ' serve and volley ' chess in which black is flattened with a mixture of deep preparation and attacking prowess . " fourth , " if white
| 274 |
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] | 2,923 |
wants to draw , it is often not so easy for black to prevent this . this advantage is particularly acute in cases where there is a possible three ##fold repetition , because white can begin the repetition without committing to a draw and black has to decide whether to devi ##ate before he knows whether white is bluff ##ing . " rows ##on cites as an example of the last phenomenon the well @ - @ regarded za ##its ##ev variation of the ru ##y lopez . after 1 . e ##4 e ##5 2 . n ##f ##3 nc ##6 3 . bb ##5 a ##6 4 . ba ##4 n ##f ##6 5 @ . @ 0 @ - @ 0 be ##7
| 54 |
[
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",",
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"(",
"b",
")"
] | 2,924 |
6 . re ##1 b ##5 7 . bb ##3 0 @ - @ 0 8 . c ##3 d ##6 9 . h ##3 bb ##7 10 . d ##4 re ##8 ( initiating the za ##its ##ev variation ) , white can repeat moves once with 11 . ng ##5 rf ##8 12 . n ##f ##3 . this puts black in an awkward situation , since he must either ( a ) insist on the za ##its ##ev with 12 . . . re ##8 , which allows white to choose whether to draw by three ##fold repetition with 13 . ng ##5 rf ##8 14 . n ##f ##3 , or play on with a different move , or ( b )
| 280 |
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] | 2,925 |
play a different ( and possibly inferior ) variation by playing something other than 12 . . . re ##8 . rows ##on argues that black also has several advantages . first , " white ' s alleged advantage is also a kind of obligation to play for a win , and black can often use this to his advantage . " second , " white ' s ' extra move ' can be a burden , and sometimes white finds himself in a mild form of zu ##g ##z ##wang ( ' zu ##g ##z ##wang lit ##e ' ) . " third , although white begins the game with the initiative , if " black retains a flexible position with good reactive possibilities ,
| 188 |
[
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] | 2,926 |
this initiative can be absorbed and often passes over to black . " fourth , " the fact that white moves before black often gives black useful information " . sub ##a likewise argues that white ' s advantage is actually less than a move , since white must tip his hand first , allowing black to react to white ' s plans . sub ##a writes , " in terms of the mathematical games theory , chess is a game of complete information , and black ' s information is always greater — by one move ! " rows ##on also notes that black ' s chances increase markedly by playing good openings , which tend to be those with flexibility and late ##nt potential
| 296 |
[
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] | 2,927 |
, " rather than those that give white fixed targets or that try to take the initiative prematurely . " he also emphasizes that " white has ' the initiative ' , not ' the advantage ' . success with black depends on seeing beyond the initiative and thinking of positions in terms of ' potential ' . " these ideas are exemplified by the hedge ##hog , a dynamic modern system against the english opening that can arise from various move orders . a typical position arises after 1 . c ##4 c ##5 2 . n ##f ##3 n ##f ##6 3 . g ##3 b ##6 4 . b ##g ##2 bb ##7 5 @ . @ 0 @ - @ 0 e
| 270 |
[
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] | 2,928 |
##6 6 . nc ##3 be ##7 7 . d ##4 c ##x ##d ##4 8 . q ##x ##d ##4 d ##6 9 . e ##4 a ##6 . white has a spatial advantage , while black often maneuvers his pieces on the last two ranks of the board , but white " has to keep a constant eye on the possible li ##ber ##ating pawn thrusts . . . b ##5 and . . . d ##5 . " watson remarks , " black ' s goal is to remain elastic and flexible , with many options for his pieces , whereas white can become paralyzed at some point by the need to protect against various dynamic pawn breaks . " he also observes
| 180 |
[
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] | 2,929 |
that , " white tends to be as much tied up by black ' s late ##nt activity as black himself is tied up by white ' s space advantage . " moreover , attempts by white to overrun black ' s position often rebound disastrous ##ly . an example of this is the following grandmaster game : lev pol ##uga ##evsky – lu ##bo ##mir ft ##ac ##nik , luce ##rne olympiad 1982 : 1 . n ##f ##3 n ##f ##6 2 @ . @ c ##4 c ##5 3 . nc ##3 e ##6 4 @ . @ g ##3 b ##6 5 . b ##g ##2 bb ##7 6 . 0 @ - @ 0 be ##7 7 @ . @ d
| 50 |
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"ne",
"##5",
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"@",
"h"
] | 2,930 |
##4 c ##x ##d ##4 8 . q ##x ##d ##4 d ##6 9 . rd ##1 a ##6 10 @ . @ b ##3 n ##b ##d ##7 11 @ . @ e ##4 qb ##8 12 . bb ##2 0 @ - @ 0 sub ##a wrote of a similar hedge ##hog position , " white ' s position looks ideal . that ' s the naked truth about it , but the ' ideal ' has by definition one draw ##back — it cannot be improved . " 13 . n ##d ##2 rd ##8 14 @ . @ a ##4 qc ##7 15 . q ##e ##3 ra ##c ##8 16 . q ##e ##2 ne ##5 17 @ . @ h
| 47 |
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"@",
"e",
"##5",
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"ft",
"##ac",
"##nik"
] | 2,931 |
##3 ? according to ft ##ac ##nik , 17 . f ##4 ne ##g ##4 18 . rf ##1 is better . h ##5 ! 18 @ . @ f ##4 ng ##6 19 . n ##f ##3 now black breaks open the position in typical hedge ##hog fashion . d ##5 ! 20 @ . @ c ##x ##d ##5 ? ! ft ##ac ##nik considers 20 . e ##5 or 20 . ex ##d ##5 prefer ##able . h ##4 ! 21 . n ##x ##h ##4 n ##x ##h ##4 22 @ . @ g ##x ##h ##4 q ##x ##f ##4 23 @ . @ d ##x ##e ##6 fx ##e ##6 24 @ . @ e ##5 ? ft ##ac ##nik
| 55 |
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"r",
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"##2",
"+",
"31",
"."
] | 2,932 |
recommends instead 24 . r ##x ##d ##8 r ##x ##d ##8 25 . rd ##1 . bc ##5 + 25 . k ##h ##1 nh ##5 ! 26 . q ##x ##h ##5 q ##g ##3 27 . n ##d ##5 other moves get mated immediately : 27 . b ##x ##b ##7 q ##h ##3 # ; 27 . q ##e ##2 q ##x ##h ##3 # ; 27 . q ##g ##4 b ##x ##g ##2 # . r ##x ##d ##5 28 . rf ##1 q ##x ##g ##2 + ! 29 . k ##x ##g ##2 rd ##2 + if 30 . kg ##3 ( the only legal response to the double check ) , r ##g ##2 + 31 .
| 133 |
[
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] | 2,933 |
k ##f ##4 rf ##8 + forces mate . 0 – 1 an examination of reversed and symmetrical openings illustrates white ' s and black ' s respective advantages : in a " reversed opening " , white plays an opening typically played by black , but with colors reversed and thus an extra tempo . evans writes of such openings , " if a defense is considered good for black , it must be even better for white with a move in hand . " former world champion mikhail bot ##vin ##nik reportedly expressed the same view . watson questions this idea , citing sub ##a ' s thesis that black , by moving second , has more complete information than white . he writes
| 87 |
[
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"this",
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] | 2,934 |
, " everyone has such difficulties playing as white against a sicilian defence ( 1 . e ##4 c ##5 ) , but . . . leading masters have no qu ##al ##ms about answering 1 . c ##4 with 1 . . . e ##5 . " to explain this paradox , watson discusses several different reversed sicilian lines , showing how black can exploit the disadvantage ##s of various " extra " moves for white . he concludes , " the point is , black ' s set @ - @ up in the sicilian is fine as a reactive system , but not worth much when trying to claim the initiative as white . this is true because black is able to react
| 125 |
[
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"that",
"gm",
"vladimir",
"mala",
"##ni",
"##uk"
] | 2,935 |
to the specific plan white chooses ; in sub ##a ' s terms , his information is indeed a move greater ! furthermore , he is able to take advantage of dead equal positions which white ( hoping to retain the advantage of the first move ) would normally avoid . " watson also observes , " similarly , the dutch defence looks particularly sterile when white achieve ##s the reversed positions a tempo up ( it turns out that he has nothing useful to do ! ) ; and indeed , many standard black openings are not very inspiring when one gets them as white , tempo in hand . " gm alex yer ##mo ##lins ##ky likewise notes that gm vladimir mala ##ni ##uk
| 282 |
[
",",
"a",
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"@",
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"1925",
",",
"writing",
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"ale",
"##kh",
"##ine"
] | 2,936 |
, a successful expo ##nent of the leningrad dutch ( 1 . d ##4 f ##5 2 . g ##3 g ##6 ) at the highest levels , " once made a deep impression on me by casually dismissing someone ' s suggestion that he should try 1 . f ##4 as white . he smiled and said , ' that extra move ' s gonna hurt me . ' " yer ##mo ##lins ##ky also agrees with ale ##kh ##ine ' s criticism of 1 . g ##3 e ##5 2 . n ##f ##3 , a reversed ale ##kh ##ine ' s defense , in re ##ti – ale ##kh ##ine , baden @ - @ baden 1925 , writing that ale ##kh ##ine
| 135 |
[
"\"",
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"160",
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",",
"writing",
"that",
"owen",
"'",
"s"
] | 2,937 |
" understood the difference in opening phil ##oso ##phi ##es for white and black , and realized they just can ' t be the same ! white is supposed to try for more than just obtaining a comfortable game in reversed colour opening set @ - @ ups , and , as the statistics show — surprisingly for a lot of people , but not for me — white doesn ' t even score as well as black does in the same positions with his extra tempo and all . " howard st ##au ##nton , generally considered to have been the strongest player in the world from 1843 to 1851 , made a similar point over 160 years ago , writing that owen ' s
| 33 |
[
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"what",
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",",
"black"
] | 2,938 |
defense ( 1 . e ##4 b ##6 ) is playable for black , but that 1 . b ##3 is inferior to " the more customary [ first ] moves , from its being essentially defensive " . the current view is that owen ' s defense is slightly better for white , while 1 . b ##3 is playable but less likely to yield an opening advantage than 1 . e ##4 or 1 . d ##4 . watson concludes that ( a ) " most moves have disadvantage ##s as well as advantages , so an extra move is not always an un ##qual ##ified blessing " ; ( b ) " with his extra information about what white is doing , black
| 280 |
[
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"##a",
",",
"evans",
",",
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"and",
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"ar",
"##on",
"ni",
"##m",
"##zow",
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"in",
"black",
"'",
"s"
] | 2,939 |
can better react to the new situation " ; and ( c ) because a draw is likely to be more acceptable to black than to white , white is apt to avoid lines that allow draw ##ish sim ##pl ##ification ##s , while black may not object to such lines . = = = = = symmetrical openings = = = = = rows ##on writes that " in general one would assume that whatever advantage white has would be revealed most clearly in symmetrical positions . " accordingly , watson , sub ##a , evans , and the eminent player and theorist ar ##on ni ##m ##zow ##its ##ch ( 1886 – 1935 ) have all argued that it is in black ' s
| 270 |
[
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] | 2,940 |
interest to avoid symmetry . nonetheless , even symmetrical opening lines sometimes illustrate the ten ##uous nature of white ' s advantage , in several respects . it is often difficult for white to prove an advantage in symmetrical opening lines . as gm bent larsen wrote , ann ##ota ##ting a game that began 1 . c ##4 c ##5 2 . b ##3 b ##6 , " in symmetrical openings , white has a theoretical advantage , but in many of them it is only theoretical . " gm andrew sol ##tis wrote in 2008 that he hates playing against the symmetrical pet ##ro ##ff ' s defense ( 1 . e ##4 e ##5 2 . n ##f ##3 n ##f ##6 )
| 27 |
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] | 2,941 |
, and accordingly varies with 2 . nc ##3 , the vienna game . however , there too he has been unable to find a way to an advantage after the symmetrical 2 . . . nc ##6 3 . g ##3 g ##6 4 . b ##g ##2 b ##g ##7 , or after 3 . n ##f ##3 n ##f ##6 ( trans ##po ##sing to the four knights game ) 4 . bb ##5 bb ##4 5 @ . @ 0 @ - @ 0 0 @ - @ 0 6 . d ##3 d ##6 7 . b ##g ##5 b ##g ##4 8 . n ##d ##5 n ##d ##4 9 . n ##x ##b ##4 n ##x ##b ##5 ,
| 59 |
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] | 2,942 |
or 7 . ne ##2 ne ##7 8 . c ##3 ba ##5 9 . ng ##3 c ##6 10 . ba ##4 ng ##6 11 . d ##4 d ##5 , when 12 . ex ##d ##5 ? ! e ##4 ! may even favor black . moreover , symmetrical positions may be disadvantage ##ous to white in that he has to commit himself first . watson notes that it is even difficult for white to play non ##com ##mit ##tal ##ly in a symmetrical position , since almost every move has certain draw ##backs . fischer once went so far as to claim that after 1 . n ##f ##3 n ##f ##6 2 . g ##3 g ##6 3 . b ##g ##2
| 270 |
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] | 2,943 |
b ##g ##7 4 @ . @ 0 @ - @ 0 0 @ - @ 0 5 . d ##3 d ##6 ( rein ##hard – fischer , western open 1963 ) , " ' believe it or not , ' black stands better ! now , whatever white does , black will vary it and get an as ##ym ##metric ##al position and have the superior position due to his better pawn structure ! " however , gm paul ke ##res responded in chess magazine , " we just don ' t believe it ! " in symmetrical positions , as the hodgson – ark ##ell and port ##isch – tal games discussed below illustrate , black can continue to im ##itate white as
| 114 |
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] | 2,944 |
long as he finds it feasible and desirable to do so , and devi ##ate when that cease ##s to be the case . further , a particular extra move is sometimes more of a liability than an asset . for example , sol ##tis notes that the exchange french position arising after 1 . e ##4 e ##6 2 . d ##4 d ##5 3 . ex ##d ##5 ex ##d ##5 4 . n ##f ##3 n ##f ##6 " is pretty equal . " the same position , but with black ' s knight moved to e ##4 , arises in pet ##ro ##ff ' s defense after 1 . e ##4 e ##5 2 . n ##f ##3 n ##f ##6 3
| 4 |
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] | 2,945 |
. n ##x ##e ##5 d ##6 4 . n ##f ##3 n ##x ##e ##4 5 . d ##4 d ##5 . that position offers white better chances precisely because black ' s extra move ( . . . ne ##4 ) allows the advanced knight to become a target for attack . finally , symmetrical positions may be difficult for the white player for psychological reasons . watson writes that anyone who tries the exchange french , " even if he thinks he is playing for a win , assume [ s ] a psychological burden . white has already ceded the advantage of the first move , and knows it , whereas black is challenged to find ways to seize the initiative .
| 277 |
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"'"
] | 2,946 |
" two famous examples of white losses in the exchange french are m . gu ##re ##vich – short and tata ##i – ko ##rch ##no ##i . in m . gu ##re ##vich – short , a game between two of the world ' s leading players , white needed only a draw to qualify for the candidates matches , while black needed to win . gu ##re ##vich played passive ##ly and was out ##play ##ed by short , who achieved the necessary win , qualified for the candidates , and ultimately went on to challenge ka ##spar ##ov for the world championship . in tata ##i – ko ##rch ##no ##i , the italian im fell victim to ko ##rch ##no ##i '
| 100 |
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] | 2,947 |
s w ##hir ##l ##wind mating attack , losing in just 14 moves . rows ##on gives the following example of black out ##play ##ing white from the symmetrical variation of the english opening . he remarks , " there is something compelling about black ' s strategy . he seems to be saying : ' i will copy all your good moves , and as soon as you make a bad move , i won ' t copy you any more ! ' " hodgson – ark ##ell , newcastle 2001 : 1 @ . @ c ##4 c ##5 2 @ . @ g ##3 g ##6 3 . b ##g ##2 b ##g ##7 4 . nc ##3 nc ##6 5 @ .
| 52 |
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] | 2,948 |
@ a ##3 a ##6 6 . rb ##1 rb ##8 7 @ . @ b ##4 c ##x ##b ##4 8 @ . @ ax ##b ##4 b ##5 9 @ . @ c ##x ##b ##5 ax ##b ##5 here rows ##on remarks , " both sides want to push their d @ - @ pawn and play bf ##4 / . . . bf ##5 , but white has to go first so black gets to play . . . d ##5 before white can play d ##4 . this doesn ' t matter much , but it already points to the challenge that white faces here ; his most natural continuation ##s allow black to play the moves he wants to .
| 766 |
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] | 2,949 |
i would therefore say that white is in ' zu ##g ##z ##wang lit ##e ' and that he remains in this state for several moves . " 10 . n ##f ##3 d ##5 10 . . . n ##f ##6 11 @ . @ 0 @ - @ 0 0 @ - @ 0 12 . d ##3 d ##6 13 . b ##d ##2 b ##d ##7 would trans ##pose to the port ##isch – tal game below . 11 @ . @ d ##4 n ##f ##6 12 . bf ##4 rb ##6 13 . 0 @ - @ 0 bf ##5 14 . rb ##3 0 @ - @ 0 15 . ne ##5 ne ##4 16 @ . @ h
| 59 |
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##3 h ##5 ! ? finally breaking the symmetry . 17 . k ##h ##2 the position is still almost symmetrical , and white can find nothing useful to do with his extra move . rows ##on w ##him ##sic ##ally suggests 17 . h ##4 ! ? , forcing black to be the one to break the symmetry . 17 . . . re ##8 ! rows ##on notes that this is a useful waiting move , covering e ##7 , which needs protection in some lines , and possibly supporting an eventual . . . e ##5 ( see black ' s twenty @ - @ second move ) . white cannot copy it , since after 18 . re ##1 ? n ##x
| 270 |
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##f ##2 black would win a pawn . 18 . be ##3 ? ! n ##x ##e ##5 ! 19 @ . @ d ##x ##e ##5 rc ##6 ! rows ##on notes that with his more active pieces , " it looks like black has some initiative . " if now 20 . n ##x ##d ##5 , b ##x ##e ##5 " is at least equal for black " . 20 . n ##x ##b ##5 b ##x ##e ##5 ! 20 . . . n ##x ##f ##2 ? 21 . q ##x ##d ##5 ! wins . 21 . n ##d ##4 b ##x ##d ##4 22 . b ##x ##d ##4 e ##5 rows ##on writes , " now both sides
| 280 |
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have their trump ##s , but i think black has some advantage , due to his extra central control , imposing knight and prospects for a kings ##ide attack . " 23 @ . @ b ##5 rc ##8 24 . bb ##2 d ##4 now white has a difficult game : rows ##on analyze ##s 25 . e ##3 ? ! n ##x ##g ##3 24 . fx ##g ##3 bc ##2 25 . q ##f ##3 b ##x ##b ##3 26 . ex ##d ##4 bc ##4 ! , winning ; 25 . g ##4 h ##x ##g ##4 26 . h ##x ##g ##4 n ##x ##f ##2 ! 27 . r ##x ##f ##2 bc ##2 , winning ; 25 . q
| 131 |
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##e ##1 ! ? rc ##2 ! with advantage ; and 25 . f ##4 ( risky @ - @ looking , but perhaps best ) nc ##3 ! 26 . b ##x ##c ##3 d ##x ##c ##3 27 . q ##x ##d ##8 rex ##d ##8 , and black is better . 25 @ . @ b ##6 ? overlooking black ' s threat . 25 . . . n ##x ##f ##2 ! 26 . q ##e ##1 if 26 . r ##x ##f ##2 , bc ##2 forks white ' s queen and rook . 26 . . . ne ##4 27 @ . @ b ##7 rb ##8 28 @ . @ g ##4 h ##x ##g ##4 29 @ .
| 438 |
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@ h ##x ##g ##4 be ##6 30 . rb ##5 n ##f ##6 ! 31 . r ##x ##f ##6 q ##x ##f ##6 32 . q ##g ##3 bc ##4 33 @ . @ g ##5 q ##h ##8 + 0 – 1 the opening of the following game between two world @ - @ class players , another symmetrical english , took a similar course : la ##jos port ##isch – mikhail tal , candidates match 1965 : 1 . n ##f ##3 c ##5 2 @ . @ c ##4 nc ##6 3 . nc ##3 n ##f ##6 4 @ . @ g ##3 g ##6 5 . b ##g ##2 b ##g ##7 6 . 0 @ - @ 0
| 133 |
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0 @ - @ 0 7 @ . @ d ##3 a ##6 8 @ . @ a ##3 rb ##8 9 . rb ##1 b ##5 10 @ . @ c ##x ##b ##5 ax ##b ##5 11 @ . @ b ##4 c ##x ##b ##4 12 @ . @ ax ##b ##4 d ##6 13 . b ##d ##2 b ##d ##7 once again , white is on move in a symmetrical position , but it is not obvious what he can do with his first @ - @ move initiative . sol ##tis writes , " it ' s ridiculous to think black ' s position is better . but mikhail tal said it is easier to play . by moving second
| 700 |
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he gets to see white ' s move and then decide whether to match it . " 14 . qc ##1 here , sol ##tis writes that black could maintain equality by keeping the symmetry : 14 . . . qc ##8 15 . b ##h ##6 b ##h ##3 . instead , he plays to prove that white ' s queen is mis ##placed . 14 . . . rc ##8 ! 15 . b ##h ##6 n ##d ##4 ! threatening 16 . . . n ##x ##e ##2 + . 16 . n ##x ##d ##4 b ##x ##h ##6 17 . q ##x ##h ##6 r ##x ##c ##3 18 . q ##d ##2 qc ##7 19 . rfc ##1 rc ##8
| 78 |
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although the pawn structure is still symmetrical , black ' s control of the c @ - @ file gives him the advantage . black ultimately reached an end ##game two pawn ##s up , but white managed to hold a draw in 83 moves . tal himself lost a famous game as white from a symmetrical position in tal – bel ##ia ##vsky , ussr championship 1974 . = = tournament and match play = = in chess tournaments and matches , the frequency with which each player receives white and black is an important consideration . in matches , the players ' colors in the first game are determined by drawing lots , and alternate ##d thereafter . in round robin tournaments with an
| 643 |
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odd number of players , each player receives an equal number of whites and blacks ; with an even number of players , each receives one extra white or black . where one or more players withdraw ##s from the tournament , the tournament director may change the assigned colors in some games so that no player receives two more blacks than whites , or vice versa . the double @ - @ round robin tournament is considered to give the most reliable final standings , since each player receives the same number of whites and blacks , and plays both white and black against each opponent . in swiss system tournaments , the tournament director tries to ensure that each player receives , as nearly
| 644 |
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as possible , the same number of games as white and black , and that the player ' s color alternate ##s from round to round . after the first round , the director may devi ##ate from the otherwise prescribed pairing ##s in order to give as many players as possible their equal ##izing or due colors . more substantial deviation ##s are per ##missible to avoid giving a player two more blacks than whites ( for example , three blacks in four games ) than vice versa , since extra whites " cause far less player distress " than extra blacks , which impose " a significant handicap " on the affected player . tournaments with an even number of rounds cause the most
| 27 |
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] | 2,960 |
problems , since if there is a di ##spar ##ity , it is greater ( e . g . , a player receiving two whites and four blacks ) . = = solving chess = = end ##game table ##base ##s have solved a very limited area of chess , determining perfect play in a number of end ##games , including all non @ - @ trivial end ##games with no more than six pieces or pawn ##s ( including the two kings ) . seven @ - @ piece end ##games were solved in 2012 and released as " lo ##mon ##oso ##v table ##base ##s " . jonathan rows ##on has speculated that " in principle it should be possible for a machine to
| 291 |
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] | 2,961 |
. . . develop 32 @ - @ piece table ##base ##s . this may take decades or even centuries , but unless runaway global warming or nuclear war gets in the way , i think it will eventually happen . " however , information theorist claude shannon argued that it is not feasible for any computer to actually do this . in his 1950 paper " programming a computer for playing chess " he writes : with chess it is possible , in principle , to play a perfect game or construct a machine to do so as follows : one considers in a given position all possible moves , then all moves for the opponent , etc . , to the end of the
| 702 |
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] | 2,962 |
game ( in each variation ) . the end must occur , by the rules of the games after a finite number of moves ( remembering the 50 move drawing rule ) . each of these variations ends in win , loss or draw . by working backward from the end one can determine whether there is a forced win , the position is a draw or is lost . it is easy to show , however , even with the high computing speed available in electronic cal ##cula ##tors this computation is imp ##rac ##tical . in typical chess positions there will be of the order of 30 legal moves . the number holds fairly constant until the game is nearly finished as shown .
| 268 |
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] | 2,963 |
. . by de gr ##oot , who averaged the number of legal moves in a large number of master games . thus a move for white and then one for black gives about 103 possibilities . a typical game lasts about 40 moves to resignation of one party . this is conservative for our calculation since the machine would calculate out to check ##mate , not resignation . however , even at this figure there will be 101 ##20 variations to be calculated from the initial position . a machine operating at the rate of one variation per micro ##se ##con ##d would require over 109 ##0 years to calculate the first move ! it is thus theoretically possible to " solve " chess ,
| 284 |
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] | 2,964 |
determining with certainty whether a perfectly played game should end in a win for white , a draw , or even a win for black . however , according to shannon the time frame required puts this possibility beyond the limits of any feasible technology . hans @ - @ joachim br ##eme ##rman ##n , a professor of mathematics and bio ##physics at the university of california at berkeley , further argued in a 1965 paper that the " speed , memory , and processing capacity of any possible future computer equipment are limited by certain physical barriers : the light barrier , the quantum barrier , and the the ##rm ##od ##yna ##mic ##al barrier . these limitations imply , for example , that
| 292 |
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] | 2,965 |
no computer , however constructed , will ever be able to examine the entire tree of possible move sequences of the game of chess . " nonetheless , br ##eme ##rman ##n did not fore ##cl ##ose the possibility that a computer would someday be able to solve chess . he wrote , " in order to have a computer play a perfect or nearly perfect game [ of chess ] it will be necessary either to analyze the game completely . . . or to analyze the game in an approximate way and combine this with a limited amount of tree searching . . . . a theoretical understanding of such he ##uri ##stic programming , however , is still very much wanting . "
| 292 |
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] | 2,966 |
recent scientific advances have not significantly changed that assessment . the game of check ##ers was solved in 2007 , but it has roughly the square root of the number of positions in chess . jonathan sc ##hae ##ffer , the scientist who led the effort , said a breakthrough such as quantum computing would be needed before solving chess could even be attempted , but he does not rule out the possibility , saying that the one thing he learned from his 16 @ - @ year effort of solving check ##ers " is to never under ##est ##imate the advances in technology " . = = quota ##tion = = " you will win with either color if you are the better player ,
| 291 |
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but it takes longer with black . " – isaac ka ##sh ##dan = frederick rein ##es = frederick rein ##es ( rye @ - @ ness ) ; ( march 16 , 1918 – august 26 , 1998 ) was an american physicist . he was awarded the 1995 nobel prize in physics for his co @ - @ detection of the ne ##ut ##rino with clyde cowan in the ne ##ut ##rino experiment . he may be the only scientist in history " so intimately associated with the discovery of an elementary particle and the subsequent thorough investigation of its fundamental properties " . a graduate of the stevens institute of technology and new york university , rein ##es joined the manhattan project '
| 194 |
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s los alam ##os laboratory in 1944 , working in the theoretical division in richard fey ##n ##man ' s group . he became a group leader there in 1946 . he participated in a number of nuclear tests , culminating in his becoming the director of the operation greenhouse test series in the pacific in 1951 . in the early 1950s , working in han ##ford and savannah river sites , rein ##es and cowan developed the equipment and procedures with which they first detected the supposedly und ##ete ##ctable ne ##ut ##rino ##s in june 1956 . rein ##es dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the ne ##ut ##rino ' s properties and interactions , which work would influence
| 199 |
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study of the ne ##ut ##rino for many researchers to come . this included the detection of ne ##ut ##rino ##s created in the atmosphere by cosmic rays , and the 1987 detection of ne ##ut ##rino ##s emitted from super ##nova s ##n ##19 ##8 ##7 ##a , which inaugurated the field of ne ##ut ##rino astronomy . frederick rein ##es was born in paterson , new jersey , one of four children of gus ##sie ( cohen ) and israel rein ##es . his parents were jewish emi ##grants from the same town in russia , but only met in new york city , where they were later married . he had an older sister , paula , who became a doctor , and
| 130 |
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"and",
"life",
"in",
"a",
"small",
"american",
"town",
",",
"including",
"independence",
"day",
"july"
] | 2,970 |
two older brothers , david and william , who became lawyers . he said that his " early education was strongly influenced " by his studio ##us siblings . he was the great @ - @ nephew of the rabbi yi ##tz ##cha ##k ya ##aco ##v rein ##es , the founder of mi ##z ##rac ##hi , a religious zionist movement . the family moved to hill ##burn , new york , where his father ran the general store , and he spent much of his childhood . he was an eagle scout . looking back , rein ##es said : " my early childhood memories center around this typical american country store and life in a small american town , including independence day july
| 160 |
[
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",",
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",",
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"on",
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",",
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",",
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"age",
",",
"rein",
"##es",
"exhibited",
"an",
"interest"
] | 2,971 |
celebrations marked by fireworks and patriotic music played from a pavilion bands ##tan ##d . " rein ##es sang in a chorus , and as a soloist . for a time he considered the possibility of a singing career , and was instructed by a vocal coach from the metropolitan opera who provided lessons for free because the family did not have the money for them . the family later moved to north bergen , new jersey , residing on kennedy boulevard and 57th street . because north bergen did not have a high school , he attended union hill high school in union hill , new jersey , from which he graduated in 1935 . from an early age , rein ##es exhibited an interest
| 197 |
[
"in",
"science",
",",
"and",
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"and",
"building",
"things",
".",
"he",
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"that",
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".",
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".",
"ironically",
",",
"rein",
"##es",
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"and",
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",",
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"and",
"senior",
"years",
"through",
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"encouragement",
"of",
"a"
] | 2,972 |
in science , and liked creating and building things . he later recalled that : the first stirring ##s of interest in science that i remember occurred during a moment of boredom at religious school , when , looking out of the window at twilight through a hand curled to simulate a telescope , i noticed something peculiar about the light ; it was the phenomenon of di ##ff ##raction . that began for me a fascination with light . ironically , rein ##es excelled in literary and history courses , but received average or low marks in science and math in his freshman year of high school , though he improved in those areas by his junior and senior years through the encouragement of a
| 710 |
[
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",",
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",",
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",",
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".",
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".",
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"in",
"1941",
",",
"writing",
"a",
"thesis",
"on",
"\""
] | 2,973 |
teacher who gave him a key to the school laboratory . this cultivated a love of science by his senior year . in response to a question seniors were asked about what they wanted to do for a yearbook quote , he responded : " to be a physicist extra ##ord ##ina ##ire . " rein ##es was accepted into the massachusetts institute of technology , but chose instead to attend stevens institute of technology in ho ##bo ##ken , new jersey , where he earned his bachelor of science ( b . s . ) degree in mechanical engineering in 1939 , and his master of science ( m . s . ) degree in mathematical physics in 1941 , writing a thesis on "
| 194 |
[
"a",
"critical",
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"of",
"optical",
"di",
"##ff",
"##raction",
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"\"",
".",
"he",
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",",
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".",
"they",
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",",
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".",
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",",
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"ph",
".",
"d",
".",
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".",
"he",
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".",
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",",
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".",
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"\"",
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"and",
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"in",
"1946",
".",
"=",
"=",
"los",
"alam",
"##os",
"laboratory",
"=",
"=",
"in"
] | 2,974 |
a critical review of optical di ##ff ##raction theory " . he married sylvia samuel ##s on august 30 , 1940 . they had two children , robert and ali ##sa . he then entered new york university , where he earned his doctor of philosophy ( ph . d . ) in 1944 . he studied cosmic rays there under serge a . ko ##rf ##f , but wrote his thesis under the supervision of richard d . present on " nuclear fission and the liquid drop model of the nucleus " . publication of the thesis was delayed until after the end of world war ii ; it appeared in physical review in 1946 . = = los alam ##os laboratory = = in
| 572 |
[
"1944",
"richard",
"fey",
"##n",
"##man",
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"rein",
"##es",
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"@",
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"s",
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"\"",
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",",
"the",
"dragon",
"was",
"a",
"machine",
"that",
"could",
"attain"
] | 2,975 |
1944 richard fey ##n ##man recruited rein ##es to work in the theoretical division at the manhattan project ' s los alam ##os laboratory , where he would remain for the next fifteen years . he joined fey ##n ##man ' s t @ - @ 4 ( diffusion problems ) group , which was part of hans beth ##e ' s t ( theoretical ) division . diffusion was an important aspect of critical mass calculations . in june 1946 , he became a group leader , heading the t @ - @ 1 ( theory of dragon ) group . an out ##growth of the " tick ##ling the dragon ' s tail " experiment , the dragon was a machine that could attain
| 572 |
[
"a",
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",",
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"1948",
",",
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".",
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"1951",
"he",
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".",
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",",
"an",
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"the",
"##rm",
"##on",
"##uc",
"##lea",
"##r",
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".",
"he",
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"the",
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"of",
"nuclear",
"blasts",
",",
"and",
"co",
"@",
"-"
] | 2,976 |
a critical state for short bursts of time , which could be used as a research tool or power source . rein ##es participated in a number of nuclear tests , and writing reports on their results . these included operation crossroads at bikini atoll in 1946 , operation sandstone at en ##i ##we ##tok atoll in 1948 , and operation ranger and operation buster – jang ##le at the nevada test site . in 1951 he was the director of operation greenhouse series of nuclear tests in the pacific . this saw the first american tests of boosted fission weapons , an important step towards the ##rm ##on ##uc ##lea ##r weapons . he studied the effects of nuclear blasts , and co @ -
| 199 |
[
"@",
"authored",
"a",
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"with",
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",",
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"=",
"=",
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"ne",
"##ut",
"##rino",
"was",
"a",
"sub",
"##ato",
"##mic"
] | 2,977 |
@ authored a paper with john von neumann on mach stem formation , an important aspect of an air blast wave . in spite or perhaps because of his role in these nuclear tests , rein ##es was concerned about the dangers of radioactive pollution from atmospheric nuclear tests , and became an advocate of underground nuclear testing . in the wake of the sp ##ut ##nik crisis , he participated in john archibald wheeler ' s project 137 , which evolved into jason . he was also a delegate at the atoms for peace conference in geneva in 1958 . = = discovery of the ne ##ut ##rino and the inner workings of stars = = the ne ##ut ##rino was a sub ##ato ##mic
| 572 |
[
"particle",
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".",
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",",
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",",
"but",
"fe",
"##rmi",
"'",
"s",
"theory",
"described",
"a",
"particle",
"with",
"little"
] | 2,978 |
particle first proposed theoretically by wolfgang paul ##i on december 4 , 1930 , to explain und ##ete ##cted energy that escaped during beta decay when neutron decay ##ed into a proton and an electron so that the law of conservation of energy was not violated . enrico fe ##rmi renamed it the ne ##ut ##rino , italian for " little neutral one " , and in 1934 , proposed his theory of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton , an electron , and a ne ##ut ##rino : the ne ##ut ##rino accounted for the missing energy , but fe ##rmi ' s theory described a particle with little
| 576 |
[
"mass",
"and",
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"charge",
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"would",
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",",
"j",
".",
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",",
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".",
"rein",
"##es",
"and",
"his",
"colleague",
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"to",
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"if",
"they",
"could",
"detect",
"ne",
"##ut",
"##rino",
"##s",
".",
"\"",
"so",
"why",
"did",
"we",
"want",
"to",
"detect",
"the",
"free",
"ne",
"##ut",
"##rino"
] | 2,979 |
mass and no electric charge that would be difficult to observe directly . in a 1934 paper , rudolf pei ##er ##ls and hans beth ##e calculated that ne ##ut ##rino ##s could easily pass through the earth , and concluded " there is no practically possible way of observing the ne ##ut ##rino . " in 1951 , at the conclusion of the greenhouse test series , rein ##es received permission from the head of t division , j . carson mark , for a leave in residence to study fundamental physics . rein ##es and his colleague clyde cowan decided to see if they could detect ne ##ut ##rino ##s . " so why did we want to detect the free ne ##ut ##rino
| 285 |
[
"?",
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"and",
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"0",
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".",
"@",
"51",
"me",
"##v",
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",",
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"and",
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"a",
"2",
"@",
".",
"@",
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] | 2,980 |
? " he later explained , " because everybody said , you couldn ’ t do it . " according to fe ##rmi ' s theory , there was also a corresponding reverse reaction , in which a ne ##ut ##rino combines with a proton to create a neutron and a po ##sit ##ron : the po ##sit ##ron would soon be ann ##ih ##ila ##ted by an electron and produce two 0 @ . @ 51 me ##v gamma rays , while the neutron would be captured by a proton and release a 2 @ . @ 2 me ##v gamma ray . this would produce a distinctive signature that could be detected . they then realised that by adding cad ##mium salt to their
| 573 |
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liquid sci ##nti ##lla ##tor to enhance the neutron capture reaction , resulting in a 9 me ##v burst of gamma rays . for a ne ##ut ##rino source , they proposed using an atomic bomb . permission for this was obtained from the laboratory director , norris brad ##bury . work began on digging a shaft for the experiment when j . m . b . kellogg convinced them to use a nuclear reactor instead of a bomb . although a less intense source of ne ##ut ##rino ##s , it had the advantage in allowing for multiple experiments to be carried out over a long period of time . in 1953 , they made their first attempts using one of the large reactors at
| 572 |
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the han ##ford nuclear site in what is now known as the cowan – rein ##es ne ##ut ##rino experiment . their detector now included 300 litres ( 66 imp gal ; 79 us gal ) of sci ##nti ##lla ##ting fluid and 90 photo ##mu ##lt ##ip ##lier tubes , but the effort was frustrated by background noise from cosmic rays . with encouragement from john a . wheeler , they tried again in 1955 , this time using one of the newer , larger 700 mw reactors at the savannah river site that emitted a high ne ##ut ##rino flux of 1 @ . @ 2 x 101 ##2 / cm ##2 sec . they also had a convenient , well @ - @
| 572 |
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] | 2,983 |
shielded location 11 metres ( 36 ft ) from the reactor and 12 metres ( 39 ft ) underground . on june 14 , 1956 , they were able to send paul ##i a telegram announcing that the ne ##ut ##rino had been found . when beth ##e was informed that he had been proven wrong , he said , " well , you shouldn ’ t believe everything you read in the papers . " from then on rein ##es dedicated the major part of his career to the study of the ne ##ut ##rino ’ s properties and interactions , which work would influence study of the ne ##ut ##rino for future researchers to come . cowan left los alam ##os in 1957 to
| 285 |
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teach at george washington university , ending their collaboration . on the basis of his work in first detecting the ne ##ut ##rino , rein ##es became the head of the physics department of case western reserve university from 1959 to 1966 . at case , he led a group that was the first to detect ne ##ut ##rino ##s created in the atmosphere by cosmic rays . rein ##es had a booming voice , and had been a singer since childhood . during this time , besides performing his duties as a research supervisor and chairman of the physics department , rein ##es sang in the cleveland orchestra chorus under the direction of robert shaw in performances with george s ##zell and the cleveland orchestra
| 818 |
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. in 1966 , rein ##es took most of his ne ##ut ##rino research team with him when he left for the new university of california , irvine ( uci ) , becoming its first dean of physical sciences . at uci , rein ##es extended the research interests of some of his graduate students into the development of medical radiation detectors , such as for measuring total radiation delivered to the whole human body in radiation therapy . rein ##es had prepared for the possibility of measuring the distant events of a super ##nova explosion . super ##nova explosions are rare , but rein ##es thought he might be lucky enough to see one in his lifetime , and be able to catch the ne
| 400 |
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##ut ##rino ##s streaming from it in his specially @ - @ designed detectors . during his wait for a super ##nova to explode , he put signs on some of his large ne ##ut ##rino detectors , calling them " super ##nova early warning systems " . in 1987 , ne ##ut ##rino ##s emitted from super ##nova s ##n ##19 ##8 ##7 ##a were detected by the irvine – michigan – brook ##haven ( im ##b ) collaboration , which used an 8 @ , @ 000 ton cher ##enko ##v detector located in a salt mine near cleveland . normally , the detectors recorded only a few background events each day . the super ##nova registered 19 events in just ten seconds .
| 285 |
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] | 2,987 |
this discovery is regarded as ina ##ug ##ura ##ting the field of ne ##ut ##rino astronomy . in 1995 , rein ##es was honored , along with martin l . per ##l with the nobel prize in physics for his work with cowan in first detecting the ne ##ut ##rino . unfortunately , cowan had died in 1974 , and the nobel prize is not awarded posthumously . rein ##es also received many other awards , including the j . robert op ##pen ##heimer memorial prize in 1981 , the national medal of science in 1985 , the bruno rossi prize in 1989 , the michel ##son – morley award in 1990 , the pan ##of ##sky prize in 1992 , and the franklin medal in
| 198 |
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1992 . he was elected a member of the national academy of sciences in 1980 and a foreign member of the russian academy of sciences in 1994 . he remained dean of physical sciences at uci until 1974 , and became a professor emeritus in 1988 , but he continued teaching until 1991 , and remained on uci ' s faculty until his death . rein ##es died after a long illness at the university of california , irvine medical center in orange , california , on august 26 , 1998 . he was survived by his wife and children . his papers are in the uci libraries . rein ##es hall at uci was named in his honor . = = publications = = rein
| 195 |
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##es , f . & c . l . cowan , jr . " on the detection of the free ne ##ut ##rino " , los alam ##os national laboratory ( lan ##l ) ( through predecessor agency los alam ##os scientific laboratory ) , united states department of energy ( through predecessor agency the atomic energy commission ) , ( august 6 , 1953 ) . rein ##es , f . , cowan , c . l . jr . , carter , r . e . , wagner , j . j . & m . e . w ##yman . " the free anti ##ne ##ut ##rino absorption cross section . part i . measurement of the free anti ##ne ##ut ##rino absorption
| 199 |
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"atomic",
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",",
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] | 2,990 |
cross section . part ii . expected cross section from measurements of fission fragment electron spectrum " , los alam ##os national laboratory ( lan ##l ) ( through predecessor agency los alam ##os scientific laboratory ) , united states department of energy ( through predecessor agency the atomic energy commission ) , ( june 1958 ) . rein ##es , f . , gu ##rr , h . s . , jenkins , t . l . & j . h . mu ##nse ##e . " ne ##ut ##rino experiments at reactors " , university of california @ - @ irvine , case western reserve university , united states department of energy ( through predecessor agency the atomic energy commission ) , ( september
| 576 |
[
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] | 2,991 |
9 , 1968 ) . roberts , a . , blood , h . , learned , j . & f . rein ##es . " status and aims of the du ##man ##d ne ##ut ##rino project : the ocean as a ne ##ut ##rino detector " , fe ##rmi national accelerator laboratory ( f ##nal ) , united states department of energy ( through predecessor agency the energy research and development administration ) , ( july 1976 ) . rein ##es , f . ( 1991 ) . ne ##ut ##rino ##s and other matters : selected works of frederick rein ##es . tea ##neck , n . j . : world scientific . isbn 978 @ - @ 98 ##1 @ - @
| 320 |
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] | 2,992 |
02 @ - @ 03 ##9 ##2 @ - @ 4 . = lock haven , pennsylvania = the city of lock haven is the county seat of clinton county , in the u . s . state of pennsylvania . located near the confluence of the west branch susquehanna river and bald eagle creek , it is the principal city of the lock haven micro ##pol ##itan statistical area , itself part of the williams ##port – lock haven combined statistical area . at the 2010 census , lock haven ' s population was 9 @ , @ 77 ##2 . built on a site long favored by pre @ - @ columbian peoples , lock haven began in 1833 as a timber town and
| 592 |
[
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] | 2,993 |
a haven for log ##gers , boat ##men , and other travelers on the river or the west branch canal . resource extraction and efficient transportation financed much of the city ' s growth through the end of the 19th century . in the 20th century , a light @ - @ aircraft factory , a college , and a paper mill , along with many smaller enterprises , drove the economy . frequent floods , especially in 1972 , damaged local industry and led to a high rate of unemployment in the 1980s . the city has three sites on the national register of historic places — memorial park site , a significant pre @ - @ columbian archaeological find ; he ##ise ##y house
| 592 |
[
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] | 2,994 |
, a victorian @ - @ era museum ; and water street district , an area with a mix of 19th - and 20th @ - @ century architecture . a lev ##ee , completed in 1995 , protects the city from further flooding . while industry remains important to the city , about a third of lock haven ' s workforce is employed in education , health care , or social services . the earliest settlers in pennsylvania arrived from asia between 1200 ##0 bce and 800 ##0 bce , when the glaciers of the pleistocene ice age were rec ##eding . flute ##d point spear ##heads from this era , known as the pale ##o @ - @ indian period , have been found
| 379 |
[
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".",
"=",
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"=",
"="
] | 2,995 |
in most parts of the state . archeological discoveries at the memorial park site 36 ##c ##n ##16 ##4 near the confluence of the west branch susquehanna river and bald eagle creek collectively span about 8 @ , @ 000 years and represent every major prehistoric period from the middle archaic to the late woodland period . prehistoric cultural periods over that span included the middle archaic starting at 650 ##0 bce ; the late archaic starting at 3000 bce ; the early woodland starting at 1000 bce ; the middle woodland starting at 0 ce ; and the late woodland starting at 900 ce . first contact with europeans occurred in pennsylvania between 1500 and 1600 ce . = = = eighteenth century = =
| 149 |
[
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",",
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",",
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"a",
"fifth"
] | 2,996 |
= in the early 18th century , a tribal confederacy known as the six nations of the iroquois , headquartered in new york , ruled the indian ( native american ) tribes of pennsylvania , including those who lived near what would become lock haven . indian settlements in the area included three mu ##nse ##e villages on the 325 @ - @ acre ( 1 @ . @ 32 km ##2 ) great island in the west branch susquehanna river at the mouth of bald eagle creek . four indian trails , the great island path , the great sham ##oki ##n path , the bald eagle creek path , and the sinn ##ema ##hon ##ing path , crossed the island , and a fifth
| 589 |
[
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] | 2,997 |
, logan ' s path , met bald eagle creek path a few miles upstream near the mouth of fishing creek . during the french and indian war ( 1754 – 63 ) , colonial militia ##men on the kit ##tan ##ning expedition destroyed mu ##nse ##e property on the great island and along the west branch . by 1763 , the mu ##nse ##e had abandoned their island villages and other villages in the area . with the signing of the first treaty of fort stan ##wi ##x in 1768 , the british gained control from the iroquois of lands south of the west branch . however , white settlers continued to appropriate land , including tracts in and near the future site of lock
| 589 |
[
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] | 2,998 |
haven , not covered by the treaty . in 1769 , clear ##y campbell , the first white settler in the area , built a log cabin near the present site of lock haven university of pennsylvania , and by 1773 william reed , another settler , had built a cabin surrounded by a stock ##ade and called it reed ' s fort . it was the western ##most of 11 mostly primitive forts along the west branch ; fort augusta , at what is now sun ##bury , was the eastern ##most and most def ##ens ##ible . in response to settler inc ##urs ##ions , and encouraged by the british during the american revolution ( 1775 – 83 ) , indians attacked colonists and
| 230 |
[
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] | 2,999 |
their settlements along the west branch . fort reed and the other white settlements in the area were temporarily abandoned in 1778 during a general evacuation known as the big runaway . hundreds of people fled along the river to fort augusta , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) from fort reed ; some did not return for five years . in 1784 , the second treaty of fort stan ##wi ##x , between the iroquois and the united states , transferred most of the remaining indian territory in pennsylvania , including what would become lock haven , to the state . the u . s . acquired the last remaining tract , the erie triangle , through a separate treaty and sold it to
| 236 |
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