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] | 1,600 |
supervisor by wheeler . this excavation proved to be the only one for which wheeler would not write and publish a full excavation report . instead , he made reference to its findings in his book the indus civilization , published as part of the series the cambridge history of india . his relationship with the pakistani government had become strained , and so he declined to return to work for them for a third year . wheeler had been keen to return to excavation in britain . based on the one he had organised in india , wheeler developed an archaeological training course , which he ran at ve ##ru ##lam ##ium in the summer of 1949 to ins ##truct british students in the method
| 400 |
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] | 1,601 |
##ologies of excavation . in summer 1950 , he was invited by the royal commission on historical monuments to direct a trial excavation at bind ##on hill in dorset . it was a leisure ##ly project which he treated as a seaside holiday . he was invited by the ancient monuments department of the ministry of works to ex ##ca ##vate the stan ##wick iron age fortifications in north riding , yorkshire , which he proceeded to do over the summers of 1951 and 1952 . aided by many old friends and colleagues from within the british archaeological scene , he was joined by al ##cock and al ##cock ' s wife , among others . wheeler published his report on the site in 1954 .
| 352 |
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] | 1,602 |
in 1949 wheeler was appointed honorary secretary of the british academy after frederic g . ken ##yon stepped down from the position . according to pig ##go ##tt , the institution had " un ##ha ##pp ##ily drifted into sen ##ility without the excuse of being venerable " , and wheeler devoted much time attempting to rev ##ital ##ise the organisation and ensured that charles webster was appointed president . together , wheeler and webster sought to increase the number of younger members of the academy , increasing the number of fellows who were permitted to join and proposing that those over 75 years of age not be permitted to serve on the organisation ' s council ; this latter measure was highly controversial , and
| 195 |
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] | 1,603 |
though defeated in 1951 , wheeler and webster were able to push it through in 1952 . in doing so , pig ##go ##tt stated , wheeler helped rid the society of its " self @ - @ per ##pet ##uating ge ##ron ##to ##cr ##acy " . to aid him in these projects , wheeler employed a personal assistant , molly myers , who remained with him for the rest of his life . in 1956 , wheeler retired from his part @ - @ time professorship at the institute of archaeology . child ##e was also retiring from his position of director that year , and wheeler involved himself in the arguments surrounding who should replace him . wheeler vocal ##ly opposed the nomination
| 194 |
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] | 1,604 |
of w . f . grimes , dee ##ming his career und ##ist ##ing ##uis ##hed ; instead , he championed g ##lyn daniel as a candidate , although ultimately grimes was selected . that year , wheeler ' s marriage broke down , and he moved from his wife ' s house to a former brothel at 27 w ##hit ##comb street in central london . from 1954 to 1959 , he served as the president of the society of anti ##qua ##ries , and after resigning supported ian richmond as his replacement ; however , joan evans was selected . from 1964 to 1966 he served as chairman of the ancient monuments board , stepping down when he concluded that he was too old
| 10 |
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for the role . in december 1963 , wheeler underwent a prostate operation that went wrong , and was hospital ##ised for over a month . in november 1967 , wheeler became a companion of honour , and in 1968 he became a fellow of the royal society . = = = = media fame and public archaeology = = = = wheeler became famous in britain as " the em ##bo ##diment of popular archaeology through the medium of television " . in 1952 , wheeler was invited to be a panel ##ist on the new bbc television series , animal , vegetable , mineral ? . based on the american quiz programme what in the world ? , the show was hosted by g
| 204 |
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] | 1,606 |
##lyn daniel and featured three experts in archaeology , anthropology , and natural history being asked to identify artefacts which had been selected from various museums . however , wheeler is alleged to have prepared for the show by checking beforehand which objects had been temporarily removed from display . the show proved popular with british audiences , and would air for six more years . it brought wheeler to public attention , resulting in a television personality of the year award for him in 1954 . he also appeared in an episode of buried treasure , an archaeology show also hosted by daniel , in which the pair travelled to denmark to discuss toll ##und man . in 1957 , he appeared in a second
| 119 |
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] | 1,607 |
episode of buried treasure , for which he travelled to pakistan to discuss that nation ' s archaeology , and in 1958 again appeared in an episode , this time on the site of great zimbabwe in southern rhodesia . in 1959 he presented his own three @ - @ part series on the grande ##ur that was rome , for which he travelled to had ##rian ' s wall , po ##mp ##ei ##i , and le ##pt ##is magna ; the show failed to secure high ratings , and was wheeler ' s last major for ##ay into television . meanwhile , he also made appearances on bbc radio , initially featuring on the john irving series the archaeologist , but later presenting his
| 15 |
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] | 1,608 |
own eight @ - @ part series on roman britain and also appearing on the series asian club , which was aimed primarily at newly arrived migrants from the indian subcontinent . from 1954 onward , wheeler began to devote an increasing amount of his time to encouraging greater public interest in archaeology , and it was in that year that he obtained an agent . oxford university press also published two of his books in 1954 . the first was a book on archaeological method ##ologies , archaeology from the earth , which was translated into various languages . the second was rome beyond the imperial frontier , discussing evidence for roman activity at sites like ari ##kam ##ed ##u and se ##gon ##tium .
| 404 |
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] | 1,609 |
in 1955 wheeler released his ep ##iso ##dic autobiography , still digging , which had sold over 70 @ , @ 000 copies by the end of the year . in 1959 , wheeler wrote early india and pakistan , which was published as part as daniel ' s " ancient peoples and places " series for thames and hudson ; as with many earlier books , he was criticised for rushing to conclusions . he authored the section entitled " ancient india " for pig ##go ##tt ' s edited volume the dawn of civil ##isation , which was published by thames and hudson in 1961 , before writing an introduction for roger wood ' s photography book roman africa in colour , which was
| 264 |
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] | 1,610 |
also published by thames and hudson . he then agreed to edit a series for the publisher , known as " new aspects of antiquity " , through which they released a variety of archaeological works . the rival publisher wei ##den ##feld & nico ##lson had also persuaded wheeler to work for them , securing him to write many sections of their book , sp ##len ##dou ##rs of the east . they also published his 1968 book flames over per ##sop ##olis , in which wheeler discussed per ##sop ##olis and the persian empire in the year that it was conquered by alexander the great . in 1954 , the tour company r . k . swan invited wheeler to provide lectures on the
| 413 |
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] | 1,611 |
archaeology of ancient greece aboard their hellenic cruise line , which he did in 1955 . in 1957 , he then gave a guided tour of the archaeology of the indian subcontinent for the rival tour company fair ##ways and sw ##in ##ford . after swans appointed him to the position of chairman of their hellenic cruise division , he made two fort ##night tours a year , in spring and summer . in late 1969 he conducted the swans tour to the indian subcontinent , visiting the south and east of the republic as well as ceylon . during this period , wheeler had kept in contact with many of his friends and colleagues in india and pakistan , helping to secure them work and
| 138 |
[
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] | 1,612 |
funding where possible . wheeler had continued his archaeological investigations , and in 1954 led an expedition to the somme and pas de calais where he sought to obtain more information on the french iron age to supplement that gathered in the late 1930s . pakistan ' s ministry of education invited wheeler to return to their country in october 1956 . here , he undertook test excavations at char ##sa ##da to determine a chronology of the site . in 1965 , he agreed to take on the position of president of the camel ##ot research committee , which had been established to promote the findings of excavations at cad ##bury castle in somerset run by his friends ra ##leg ##h ra ##df ##ord and
| 138 |
[
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] | 1,613 |
al ##cock ; the project ended in 1970 . he also agreed to sit as chairman of the archaeological committee overseeing excavations at york min ##ster , work which occupied him into the 1970s . wheeler had also continued his work with museums , campaigning for greater state funding for them . while he had become a trustee of the institution in 1963 , he achieved publicity for vocal ##ly critic ##ising the british museum as " a mountainous corpse " , lamb ##ast ##ing it as being poorly managed and over ##crow ##ded with artefacts . the bbc staged a public debate with the museum director frank francis . = = = = british academy and unesco = = = = as honorary secretary of
| 380 |
[
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] | 1,614 |
the british academy , wheeler focused on increasing the organisation ' s revenues , thus enabling it to expand its re ##mit . he developed personal relationships with various employees at the british treasury , and offered the academy ' s services as an inter ##media ##ry in dealing with the egypt exploration society , the british school at athens , the british school at rome , the british school at ankara , the british school in iraq , and the british school at jerusalem , all of which were then directly funded independently by the treasury . accepting this offer , the treasury agreed to double its funding of the academy to £ 5 @ , @ 000 a year . approaching various charitable foundations
| 326 |
[
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] | 1,615 |
, from 1955 wheeler also secured funding from both the pilgrim trust and the nu ##ffie ##ld foundation , and in 1957 then secured additional funding from the rockefeller foundation . with this additional money , the academy was able to organise a survey of the state of the humanities and social sciences in the united kingdom , author ##ing a report that was published by oxford university press in 1961 as research in the humanities and the social sciences . on the basis of this report , wheeler was able to secure a dramatic rise in funding from the british treasury ; they increased their annual grant to £ 25 @ , @ 000 , and promised that this would increase to £ 50 @
| 459 |
[
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"1959"
] | 1,616 |
, @ 000 shortly after . according to his later biographer ja ##c ##quet ##ta hawke ##s , in doing so wheeler raised the position of the academy to that of " the main source of official patronage for the humanities " within the united kingdom , while pig ##go ##tt stated that he set the organisation upon its " modern course " . to improve britain ' s cultural influence abroad , wheeler had been urging the establishment of a british institute of history and archaeology in east africa , touring east africa itself in august 1955 . in 1956 the academy requested £ 6 @ , @ 000 from the treasury to fund this new institution , to which they eventually agreed in 1959
| 195 |
[
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] | 1,617 |
. the institute was initially established in dar es sal ##aa ##m in 1961 , although later relocated to nairobi . meanwhile , wheeler had also been campaigning for the establishment of a british institute of persian studies , a project which was supported by the british embassy in tehran ; they hoped that it would rival the successful french institute in the city . in 1960 , the treasury agreed , with the new institution being housed on the premises of the university of tehran . he further campaigned for the establishment of a british institute in japan , although these ideas were scrapped amid the british financial crisis of 1967 . wheeler retained an active interest in the running of these british institutions abroad
| 333 |
[
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] | 1,618 |
; in 1967 he visited the british school in jerusalem amid the six @ - @ day war between israel and its arab neighbours , and in january 1968 visited the persian institute with the archaeologist max mall ##owa ##n and mall ##owa ##n ' s wife agatha christie , there inspecting the excavations at sir ##af . in 1969 he proceeded to the italian city of rome to inspect the british school there . that year , he resigned as honorary secretary of the academy . the position became a sal ##ari ##ed , professional one , with the nu ##mism ##ati ##st derek allen taking on the position . rec ##og ##nis ##ing his stature within the archaeological establishment , the government appointed wheeler
| 195 |
[
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".",
"his"
] | 1,619 |
as the british representative on a unesco project to undertake a programme of rescue archaeology in the nile valley ahead of the construction of the as ##wan dam , which was going to flood large areas of egypt and sudan . personally securing uk funding for the project , he deemed it an issue of national and personal shame when he was unable to persuade the british government to supply additional funding for the relocation of the abu sim ##bel temples . in october 1968 , he took part in a unesco visit to pakistan to assess the state of mo ##hen ##jo @ - @ dar ##o , writing the project ' s report on how the archaeological site could best be preserved . his
| 172 |
[
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] | 1,620 |
involvement with unesco continued for the rest of his life , and in march 1973 he was invited to the organisation ' s conference in paris . during his final years , wheeler remained involved in various activities , for instance sitting on the advisory panel of the antiquity journal and the management committee of the royal archaeological institute . in march 1971 , the archaeologist barry cu ##nl ##iff ##e and a number of his undergraduate students at the university of southampton organised a conference on the subject of " the iron age and its hill ##fort ##s " to celebrate wheeler ' s eight ##ie ##th birthday . wheeler attended the event , whose conference proceedings were published as a fest ##sch ##rift for
| 400 |
[
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"continued",
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"london",
"flat",
"during",
"day",
"@",
"-"
] | 1,621 |
the oct ##ogen ##arian . in spring 1973 , wheeler returned to bbc television for two episodes of the archaeology @ - @ themed series chronicle in which he discussed his life and career . the episodes were well received , and wheeler became a close friend of the show ' s producer , david col ##lis ##on . in the 1970s , wheeler became increasingly forget ##ful and came to rely largely on his assistant , molly my ##res , to organise his affairs . amid increasing ill health , in september 1973 he moved full @ - @ time into my ##res ' s house in leather ##head , surrey , although he continued to use his central london flat during day @ -
| 874 |
[
"@",
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"s",
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",",
"pic",
"##ca",
"##dilly",
"in",
"november",
".",
"=",
"=",
"personal",
"life"
] | 1,622 |
@ trips to the city . there , he authored a final book , my archaeological mission to india and pakistan , although much of the text was cu ##lled from his previous publications ; it was published by thames and hudson in 1976 . after suffering a stroke , wheeler died at myers ' home on 22 july 1976 . in memo ##riam , the british academy , royal academy , and royal society flew their flags at half @ - @ mast . wheeler ' s funeral was held with military trapping ##s at a local cr ##ema ##torium , while a larger memorial service was held in st james ' s church , pic ##ca ##dilly in november . = = personal life
| 364 |
[
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] | 1,623 |
= = wheeler was known as " ri ##k " among friends . he divided opinion among those who knew him , with some loving and others des ##pis ##ing him , and during his lifetime he was often criticised on both scholarly and moral grounds . the archaeologist max mall ##owa ##n asserted that he " was a delightful , light @ - @ hearted and amusing companion , but those close to him knew that he could be a dangerous opponent if threatened with frustration " . his charm offensive ##s were often condemned as being ins ##in ##cer ##e . during excavations , he was known as an authoritarian leader , but favoured those whom he thought exhibited bravery by standing up to
| 79 |
[
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"\"",
","
] | 1,624 |
his authority . hence , he has been termed " a benevolent dictator " . he was met ##ic ##ulous in his writings , and would repeatedly rev ##ise and re ##write both pieces for publication and personal letters . throughout his life , he was a heavy smoke ##r . wheeler expressed the view that he was " the least political of mortals " . despite not taking a strong interest in politics , wheeler was described by his biographer as " a natural conservative " ; for instance , during his youth he was strongly critical of the suffrage ##ttes and their cause of greater legal rights for women . nevertheless , he was " usually happy to advance young women professionally " ,
| 453 |
[
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"'",
"s",
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"wheeler",
"physically"
] | 1,625 |
something that may have been based largely on his sexual attraction toward them . he expressed little interest in his relatives ; in later life he saw no reason to have a social relationship with people purely on the basis of family ties . wheeler was married three times . in may 1914 , wheeler married tessa ve ##rney . tessa became an accomplished archaeologist , and they collaborated until she died in 1936 . their only child , a son michael , was born in january 1915 ; he became a barrister . following tessa ' s death , in 1939 , wheeler married ma ##vis de ve ##re cole , although their relationship was strained ; cole ' s diaries revealed that wheeler physically
| 88 |
[
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",",
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"##nsk",
"##a",
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"daily",
"mail",
"that"
] | 1,626 |
hit her when she annoyed him . in 1945 mortimer wheeler married his third wife , margaret " kim " collin ##gr ##idge , although they became estranged in 1956 ; they never divorced as a result of her devout catholicism . meanwhile , wheeler was well known for his conspicuous prom ##is ##cuit ##y , favour ##ing young women for one night stands , many of whom were his students . he was further known for having casual sex in public places . this behaviour led to much emotional suffering among his various wives and mistress ##es , of which he was aware . as a result of this behaviour , later archaeologist gabriel moshe ##nsk ##a informed a reporter from the daily mail that
| 400 |
[
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] | 1,627 |
wheeler had developed a reputation as " a bit of a gr ##oper and a sex pest and an incredible bully as well " . = = reception and legacy = = wheeler has been termed " the most famous british archaeologist of the twentieth century " by archaeologists gabriel moshe ##nsk ##a and tim sc ##had ##la @ - @ hall . highlighting his key role in encouraging interest in archaeology throughout british society , they stated that his " mastery of public archaeology was founded on his keen eye for value and a show ##man ' s willingness to package and sell the past " . this was an issue about which wheeler felt very strongly ; writing his obituary for the biographical memoirs
| 82 |
[
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"had",
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] | 1,628 |
of fellows of the royal society , the english archaeologist stuart pig ##go ##tt noted that wheeler placed " great importance to the archaeologist ' s obligation to the public , on whose support the prosecution of his subject ultimately depended . " pig ##go ##tt believed that wheeler ' s greatest impact was as " the great inn ##ova ##tor in field techniques " , comparing him in this respect to pitt @ - @ rivers . pig ##go ##tt stated that the " importance of wheeler ' s contribution to archaeological technique , enormous and far @ - @ reaching , lies in the fact that in the early 1920s he not only appreciated and understood what pitt @ - @ rivers had done
| 148 |
[
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] | 1,629 |
, but saw that his work could be used as a basis for adaptation , development and improvement . " l . c . carr stated that it was for his method ##ological developments , of ##t termed " the wheeler method " , that wheeler was best known ; in this she contrasted him with those archaeologists who were best known for their associations with a specific archaeological site , such as arthur evans and kn ##oss ##os or leonard wool ##ley and ur . wheeler was well known for his publications on archaeological matters ; carr stated that both wheeler and his first wife emphasis ##ed " technical rig ##our and a full presentation of materials unearthed , as well as a literary discussion
| 277 |
[
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] | 1,630 |
of their meaning calculated to appeal to a larger audience . " focusing on wheeler ' s publications regarding south asian archaeology , sud ##esh ##na gu ##ha noted that he " produced an ass ##em ##bla ##ge of image @ - @ objects that embodied the precision he demanded from excavation photography . " mall ##owa ##n noted that " immediate and swift presentation of results was more important to him than profound scholarship , although his critical sense made him conscious that it was necessary to maintain high standards and he would approve of nothing that was slips ##ho ##d . " ja ##c ##quet ##ta hawke ##s commented that he made errors in his interpretation of the archaeological evidence because he was "
| 719 |
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] | 1,631 |
sometimes too sure of being right , too ready to accept his own authority " . she asserted that while wheeler was not an original think ##er , he had " a vision of human history that enabled him to see each discovery of its traces , however small , in its wide ##st significance . " pig ##go ##tt claimed that wheeler ' s appointment as director @ - @ general of the archaeological survey of india represented " the most remarkable archaeological achievement of his career , an enormous challenge accepted and sur ##mounted in the auto ##cratic and authoritarian terms within which he could best deploy his powers as administrator and ex ##ca ##vat ##or . no other archaeologist of the time ,
| 82 |
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] | 1,632 |
it seems fair to remark , could have come near to attaining his command of inc ##isi ##ve strategy and often ruthless tactics which won him the bewildered admiration and touching devotion of his indian staff . " the indian archaeologist dil ##ip k . cha ##kra ##bar ##ti later stated that wheeler ' s accomplishments while in india were " considerable " , particularly given the socio @ - @ political turmoil of independence and partition . cha ##kra ##bar ##ti stated that wheeler had contributed to south asian archaeology in various ways : by establishing a " total view " of the region ' s development from the pal ##ae ##oli ##thic onward , by introducing new archaeological techniques and method ##ologies to the
| 138 |
[
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] | 1,633 |
subcontinent , and by encouraging indian universities to begin archaeological research . ultimately , cha ##kra ##bar ##ti was of the opinion that wheeler had " prepared the archaeology of the subcontinent for its transition to modern ##ity in the post @ - @ partition period . " similarly , peter johan ##sen praised wheeler for system ##ati ##sing and professional ##ising indian archaeology and for " institut ##ing a clearly defined body of techniques and methods for field and laboratory work and training . " on wheeler ' s death , h . d . sank ##alia of decca ##n college , pune , described him as " well known among old world archaeologists in the united states " , particularly for his book archaeology
| 82 |
[
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] | 1,634 |
from the earth and his studies of the indus valley civil ##isation . in its 2013 obituary of the english archaeologist mick aston , british archaeology magazine – the publication of the council for british archaeology – described aston as " the mortimer wheeler of our times " because despite the strong differences between their personalities , both had done much to bring archaeology to the british public . however , writing in 2011 , moshe ##nsk ##a and sc ##had ##la @ - @ hall asserted that wheeler ' s reputation has not undergone significant revision among archaeologists , but that instead he had come to be remembered as " a cartoon ##ish and slightly eccentric figure " whom they termed " naughty mort ##y
| 82 |
[
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] | 1,635 |
" . carr described the institute of archaeology as " one of the [ wheeler ] couple ' s most permanent memorials . " = = = biographies and studies = = = in 1960 , ronald william clark published a biography titled sir mortimer wheeler . fitzroy somerset , 4th baron rag ##lan reviewed the volume for the journal man , describing " this very read ##able little book " as being " ad ##ulator ##y " in tone , " but hardly more so than its subject deserves . " in 1982 , the archaeologist ja ##c ##quet ##ta hawke ##s published a second biography , mortimer wheeler : adventurer in archaeology . hawke ##s admitted she had developed " a very great liking
| 194 |
[
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] | 1,636 |
" for wheeler , having first met him when she was an archaeology student at the university of cambridge . she believed that he had " a daemon ##ic energy " , with his accomplishments in india being " almost superhuman " . ultimately , she thought of him as being " an epic hero in an anti @ - @ heroic age " in which growing social e ##gal ##itarian ##ism had stifled and condemned aspects of his great ##ness . in the 2000 film hey ram , the lead character , sake ##t ram ( played by kamal haas ##an ) and his friend , am ##jad khan ( played by shah ru ##kh khan ) are shown as employees of wheeler , who
| 217 |
[
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"'"
] | 1,637 |
was portrayed by lewis k . el ##bing ##er , before the 1947 hindu @ - @ muslim riots . in a 2003 volume of the south asian studies journal , sud ##esh ##na gus ##ha published a research article examining wheeler ' s use of photography in his excavations and publications in the indian subcontinent . in 2011 , the academic journal public archaeology published a research paper by moshe ##nsk ##a and sc ##had ##la @ - @ hall that anal ##yse ##d wheeler ' s role in presenting archaeology to the british public . two years later , the papers from the institute of archaeology issued a short comic strip by moshe ##nsk ##a and alex sal ##am ##uno ##vich depicting wheeler '
| 194 |
[
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] | 1,638 |
s activities in studying the archaeology of libya during world war ii . = species of all ##osaurus = there have been a number of potential species assigned to the car ##nos ##aur ##ian dinosaur genus all ##osaurus since its description in 1877 by ot ##hn ##iel charles marsh , but only a handful are still regarded as valid . all ##osaurus was originally described from material from the upper jurassic morrison formation of the western united states of america ; the type species a . fra ##gil ##is became one of the best @ - @ known species of dinosaur . the genus all ##osaurus was part of the marsh / cope " bone wars " of the late 19th century , and its taxonomy
| 496 |
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became increasingly confused due to the competition , with several genera and species named by cope and marsh now regarded as synonym ##s of all ##osaurus or a . fra ##gil ##is . since the description of all ##osaurus , scientists have proposed additional species from such far @ - @ flung local ##es as portugal , siberia , and tanzania . = = query about type specimen = = the issue of synonym ##s is complicated by the type specimen of all ##osaurus fra ##gill ##is ( catalogue number y ##pm 1930 ) being extremely fragment ##ary , consisting of a few incomplete vertebrae , limb bone fragments , rib fragments , and a tooth . because of this , several scientists have noted that
| 496 |
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the type specimen , and thus the genus all ##osaurus itself or at least the species a . fra ##gill ##is , is technically a no ##men dub ##ium ( " dubious name " , based on a specimen too incomplete to compare to other specimens or to classify ) . in an attempt to fix this situation , gregory s . paul and kenneth carpenter ( 2010 ) submitted a petition to the ic ##z ##n to have the name a . fra ##gill ##is officially transferred to the more complete specimen us ##n ##m ##47 ##34 ( as a neo ##type ) . this request is currently pending review . = = potentially valid species = = it is unclear how many species of
| 496 |
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all ##osaurus there were . eight species have been considered potentially valid since 1988 ( a . ample ##x ##us , a . at ##ro ##x , a . europa ##eus , the type species a . fra ##gil ##is , the as @ - @ yet not formally described " a . jim ##mad ##sen ##i " , a . lucas ##i , a . maximus , and a . tend ##ag ##ure ##nsis ) , although only about half are usually considered valid at any given time . there are also at least ten dubious or und ##es ##cr ##ibe ##d species that have been assigned to all ##osaurus over the years , along with the species belonging to genera now sunk into all
| 496 |
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##osaurus . in the most recent review of basal te ##tan ##ura ##n the ##rop ##ods , only a . fra ##gil ##is ( including a . ample ##x ##us and a . at ##ro ##x ) , " a . jim ##mad ##sen ##i " ( as an unnamed species ) , and a . tend ##ag ##ure ##nsis were accepted as potentially valid species , with a . europa ##eus not yet proposed and a . maximus assigned to sa ##uro ##pha ##gan ##ax . a . fra ##gil ##is is the type species and was named by marsh in 1877 . it is known from the remains of at least sixty individuals , all found in the kim ##mer ##id ##gia ##n –
| 496 |
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] | 1,643 |
ti ##th ##onia ##n upper jurassic @ - @ age morrison formation of the united states , spread across the states of colorado , montana , new mexico , oklahoma , south dakota , utah , and wyoming . details of the hume ##rus ( upper arm ) of a . fra ##gil ##is have been used as diagnostic among morrison the ##rop ##ods , but the discovery of " a . jim ##mad ##sen ##i " indicates that this will no longer be the case at the species level . a . ample ##x ##us was named by gregory s . paul for giant morrison all ##osa ##ur remains , and included in his conception sa ##uro ##pha ##gus maximus ( later sa ##uro ##pha
| 496 |
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##gan ##ax ) . a . ample ##x ##us was originally coined by cope in 1878 as the type species of his new genus epa ##nte ##ria ##s , and is based on what is now am ##nh 57 ##6 ##7 , parts of three vertebrae , a cora ##co ##id , and a meta ##tar ##sal . following paul ' s work , this species has been accepted as a synonym of a . fra ##gil ##is . all ##osaurus material from portugal was first reported in 1999 on the basis of m ##hn ##ul / and . 001 , a partial skeleton including a quad ##rate , vertebrae , ribs , gas ##tral ##ia , che ##vron ##s , part of the hips ,
| 496 |
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] | 1,645 |
and hind ##lim ##bs . this specimen was assigned to a . fra ##gil ##is , but the subsequent discovery of a partial skull and neck ( ml 415 ) near lou ##rin ##ha , in the kim ##mer ##id ##gia ##n @ - @ age porto novo member of the lou ##rin ##ha formation , spurred the naming of the new species a . europa ##eus . it differs from other species of all ##osaurus in cr ##anial details . however , more material may show it to be a . fra ##gil ##is , as originally described . daniel chu ##re ' s work on morrison all ##osa ##uri ##d remains has been responsible , directly or indirectly , for " a . jim
| 496 |
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##mad ##sen ##i " and a . maximus . " a . jim ##mad ##sen ##i " is the proposed name for a new species of morrison all ##osa ##ur , based on a nearly complete skeleton and skull . a . sp . 2 , as it is also known , differs from a . fra ##gil ##is in several anatomical details including a jug ##al or cheek ##bone with a straight lower margin , and is also found only in the salt wash member of the morrison formation , with a . fra ##gil ##is only present in the higher brush ##y basin member . a . maximus was coined by david k . smith for chu ##re ' s sa ##uro ##pha ##gan
| 505 |
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##ax maximus , a taxon created by chu ##re in 1995 for giant all ##osa ##uri ##d remains from the morrison of oklahoma . these remains had been known as sa ##uro ##pha ##gus , but that name was already in use , leading chu ##re to propose a substitute . smith , in his 1998 analysis of variation , concluded that s . maximus was not different enough from all ##osaurus to be a separate genus , but did warrant its own species , a . maximus . this re ##ass ##ignment was rejected in the most recent review of basal te ##tan ##ura ##ns . = = biological variation , a . at ##ro ##x , and a . fra ##gil ##is = =
| 496 |
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the perception that there were two common all ##osaurus species in the morrison formation was popularized in gregory s . paul ' s 1988 book predatory dinosaurs of the world . paul proposed that a . fra ##gil ##is had tall pointed horns and a slender build compared to a post ##ulated second species a . at ##ro ##x , and was not a different gender due to ra ##rity . all ##osaurus at ##ro ##x was originally named by marsh in 1878 as the type species of its own genus , cr ##eo ##saurus , and is based on y ##pm 1890 , an assortment of bones including a couple of pieces of the skull , portions of nine tail vertebrae , two hip vertebrae
| 496 |
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] | 1,649 |
, an ill ##ium , and ankle and foot bones . although the idea of two common morrison all ##osa ##ur species has had support in semi @ - @ technical and popular works , it has generally been rejected in the technical literature . david k . smith , examining all ##osaurus fossils by quarry , found that the cleveland lloyd dinosaur quarry ( utah ) specimens are generally smaller than those from como bluff ( wyoming ) or brigham young university ' s dry mesa quarry ( colorado ) , but the shapes of the bones themselves did not vary between the sites . a later study by smith incorporating garden park ( colorado ) and dinosaur national monument ( utah ) specimens found
| 496 |
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"##al"
] | 1,650 |
no justification for multiple species based on skeletal variation ; skull variation was most common and was gr ##ada ##tion ##al , suggesting individual variation was responsible . further work on size @ - @ related variation again found no consistent differences , although the dry mesa material tended to cl ##ump together on the basis of the as ##tra ##gal ##us , an ankle bone . kenneth carpenter , using skull elements from the cleveland lloyd site , found wide variation between individuals , calling into question previous species @ - @ level distinctions based such features as the shape of the horns , and the proposed differentiation of " a . jim ##mad ##sen ##i " based on the shape of the jug ##al
| 505 |
[
".",
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"fra",
"##gil",
"##is",
".",
"a",
".",
"luca",
"##ris",
","
] | 1,651 |
. = = invalid and synonymous species = = a number of species assigned to all ##osaurus are no longer recognized as valid , for one reason or another . species " a . ag ##ilis " , seen in z ##itte ##l , 1887 , and osborn , 1912 , is a ty ##po ##graphic ##al error for a . fra ##gil ##is . marsh ' s a . fe ##ro ##x ( 1896 ; not to be confused with his 1884 lab ##ros ##aurus fe ##ro ##x , also part of all ##osaurus taxonomy ) was coined for a partial skull in a foot ##note , and has been recognized as a specimen of a fra ##gil ##is . a . luca ##ris ,
| 496 |
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"y",
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",",
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".",
"luca",
"##ris",
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"##men",
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"##ium"
] | 1,652 |
another marsh name , was given to a partial skeleton in 1878 . he later decided it warrant ##ed its own genus , lab ##ros ##aurus , but this has not been accepted , and a . luca ##ris is also regarded as another specimen of a . fra ##gil ##is . all ##osaurus luca ##ris , is known mostly from vertebrae , sharing characters with all ##osaurus . paul and carpenter stated that the type specimen of this species , y ##pm 1931 , was from a younger age than all ##osaurus , and might represent a different genus . however , they found that the specimen was und ##ia ##gno ##stic , and thus a . luca ##ris was a no ##men dub ##ium
| 496 |
[
".",
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"turned",
"down",
".",
"later"
] | 1,653 |
. " a . white ##i " , an informally described species coined by pickering in 1996 , is a rec ##ast ##ing of the a . at ##ro ##x versus a . fra ##gil ##is debate using a better specimen to represent the a . at ##ro ##x form , and has not been recognized . several species coined in genera other than all ##osaurus are also now thought to be synonymous with a . fra ##gil ##is . lab ##ros ##aurus fe ##ro ##x was named in 1884 by marsh for an oddly formed partial lower jaw , with a prominent gap in the tooth row at the tip of the jaw , and a rear section greatly expanded and turned down . later
| 496 |
[
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"##ne",
"in",
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"a",
"mammalian",
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",",
"may",
"or"
] | 1,654 |
researchers suggested that the bone was path ##olo ##gic , showing an injury to the living animal , and that part of the unusual form of the rear of the bone was due to plaster reconstruction . it is recognized as most likely a specimen of a . fra ##gil ##is . all ##osaurus vale ##ns is a ty ##po for ant ##rod ##em ##us vale ##ns accidentally used by friedrich von hue ##ne in 1932 ; ant ##rod ##em ##us vale ##ns itself may also per ##tain to all ##osaurus fra ##gil ##is , as gilmore suggested in 1920 . ap ##ato ##don mir ##us , based on a scrap of ve ##rte ##bra marsh first thought to be a mammalian jaw , may or
| 496 |
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"and",
"all",
"##osaurus"
] | 1,655 |
may not be the same as all ##osaurus . = = mis ##ass ##ign ##ed species = = several species initially classified within or referred to all ##osaurus do not belong within the genus . a . med ##ius was named by marsh in 1888 for " various specimens " from the early cretaceous of maryland , although most of the remains were removed by richard swan ##n lu ##ll to the new or ##ni ##th ##op ##od species dry ##osaurus grand ##is , except for a tooth . gilmore considered the tooth non ##dia ##gno ##stic but transferred it to a new species , dry ##pt ##osaurus med ##ius . the refer ##ral was not accepted in the most recent review , and all ##osaurus
| 496 |
[
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"##los",
"##aurus",
"mer"
] | 1,656 |
med ##ius was simply listed as a dubious species of the ##rop ##od . all ##osaurus si ##bir ##icus was described in 1914 by a . n . ri ##abi ##nin on the basis of a bone , later identified as a partial fourth meta ##tar ##sal , from the early cretaceous of bury ##ati ##a , russia . it was transferred to chi ##lan ##tai ##saurus in 1990 . all ##osaurus mer ##iani was described in 1870 by gr ##ep ##pin as a species of mega ##los ##aurus , based on a tooth from the late jurassic of switzerland . it has occasionally been referred to all ##osaurus , but recent reviews have listed it as dubious the ##rop ##od species mega ##los ##aurus mer
| 496 |
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"##osaurus",
".",
"cr",
"##eo",
"##saurus",
"pot",
"##ens"
] | 1,657 |
##iani , or included it in ce ##rat ##osaurus sp . all ##osaurus ste ##cho ##wi was described in 1920 by jane ##ns ##ch as lab ##ros ##aurus ste ##cho ##wi for isolated ce ##rat ##osaurus @ - @ like teeth from the tend ##ag ##uru beds of tanzania . with the synonym ##ization of lab ##ros ##aurus and all ##osaurus , donald f . g ##lu ##t listed it as a species of all ##osaurus , but it is now either assigned to ce ##rat ##osaurus sp . or considered a dubious ce ##rat ##osa ##urian . there are also several species left over from the synonym ##izations of cr ##eo ##saurus and lab ##ros ##aurus with all ##osaurus . cr ##eo ##saurus pot ##ens
| 496 |
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"hm",
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"the"
] | 1,658 |
was named by lu ##ll in 1911 for a ve ##rte ##bra from the early cretaceous of maryland . it is now regarded as a dubious the ##rop ##od . lab ##ros ##aurus fra ##gil ##is is a ty ##po ##graphic ##al error by marsh ( 1896 ) for lab ##ros ##aurus fe ##ro ##x . l . sul ##cat ##us , named by marsh in 1896 for a morrison the ##rop ##od tooth , which like l . ste ##cho ##wi is now regarded as either ce ##rat ##osaurus sp . or a dubious ce ##rat ##osa ##urian . a . tend ##ag ##ure ##nsis was named in 1925 by werner jane ##ns ##ch for a partial shin ( hm 67 ) found in the
| 495 |
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] | 1,659 |
kim ##mer ##id ##gia ##n @ - @ age rocks of tend ##ag ##uru , in mt ##wara , tanzania . this species has not had strong support in recent years , with opinions on its identity ranging from a tentatively valid species of all ##osaurus , to a basal te ##tan ##ura ##n . the most recent analysis has placed it in car ##cha ##rod ##ont ##osa ##uri ##dae . although obscure , it was a large the ##rop ##od , possibly around 10 meters long ( 33 ft ) and 2 @ . @ 5 metric tons ( 2 @ . @ 8 short tons ) in weight . = = specimens mis ##ass ##ign ##ed to all ##osaurus though not described as new
| 496 |
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] | 1,660 |
species = = ku ##rza ##nov and colleagues in 2003 designated six teeth from siberia as all ##osaurus sp . ( meaning the authors found the specimens to be most like those of all ##osaurus , but did not or could not assign a species ) . also , reports of all ##osaurus in shan ##xi , china go back to at least 1982 . an as ##tra ##gal ##us ( ankle bone ) thought to belong to a species of all ##osaurus was found at cape paterson , victoria in early cretaceous beds in southeastern australia . it was thought to provide evidence that australia was a ref ##ug ##ium for animals that had gone extinct elsewhere . this identification was challenged by samuel welles
| 496 |
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",",
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] | 1,661 |
, who thought it more resembled that of an or ##ni ##th ##omi ##mi ##d , but the original authors defended their identification . with fifteen years of new specimens and research to look at , daniel chu ##re re ##ex ##amine ##d the bone and found that it was not all ##osaurus , but could represent an all ##osa ##uro ##id . similarly , yo ##ichi az ##uma and phil currie , in their description of fu ##ku ##ira ##pt ##or , noted that the bone closely resembled that of their new genus . this specimen is sometimes referred to as " all ##osaurus robust ##us " , an informal museum name . it may have belonged to something similar to , or the same
| 496 |
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] | 1,662 |
as , aus ##tral ##oven ##ator , or it may represent an abel ##isa ##ur . a speculative " polar " or " dwarf all ##osa ##ur " was used for the " spirits of the ice forest " episode of walking with dinosaurs . = as ##tra ##eus h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us = as ##tra ##eus h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us , commonly known as the h ##y ##gr ##os ##copic earth ##star , the bar ##ometer earth ##star , or the false earth ##star , is a species of fungus in the dip ##lo ##cy ##sta ##ceae family . young specimens resemble a puff ##ball when young and uno ##pen ##ed . in maturity , the mushroom displays the characteristic earth ##star shape
| 519 |
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] | 1,663 |
that is a result of the outer layer of fruit body tissue splitting open in a star @ - @ like manner . the false earth ##star is an ec ##tom ##y ##cor ##rh ##iza ##l species that grows in association with various trees , especially in sandy soils . a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us has a cosmopolitan distribution , and is common in temperate and tropical regions . its common names refer to the fact that it is h ##y ##gr ##os ##copic ( water @ - @ absorbing ) , and can open up its rays to expose the sp ##ore sac in response to increased humidity , and close them up again in dr ##ier conditions . the rays have an
| 534 |
[
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] | 1,664 |
irregular ##ly cracked surface , while the sp ##ore case is pale brown and smooth with an irregular slit or tear at the top . the g ##le ##ba is white initially , but turns brown and powder ##y when the spores mature . the spores are reddish @ - @ brown , roughly spherical with minute war ##ts , measuring 7 @ . @ 5 – 11 micro ##meter ##s in diameter . despite a similar overall appearance , a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us is not related to the true earth ##star ##s of genus ge ##ast ##rum , although historically , they have been taxonomic ##ally confused . the species was first described by christi ##aan hen ##drik per ##so ##on in
| 534 |
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] | 1,665 |
1801 as ge ##ast ##rum h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us . in 1885 , andrew p . morgan proposed that differences in microscopic characteristics warrant ##ed the creation of a new genus as ##tra ##eus distinct from ge ##ast ##rum ; this opinion was not universally accepted by later authorities . several asian populations formerly thought to be a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us were renamed in the 2000s once phylogenetic analyses revealed they were unique as ##tra ##eus species , including a . asiatic ##us and a . odor ##atus . research has revealed the presence of several bio ##active chemical compounds in the fruit bodies . north american field guides typically rate a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us as in ##ed ##ible
| 501 |
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] | 1,666 |
. = = taxonomy , naming , and ph ##yl ##ogen ##y = = because this species resembles the earth ##star fungi of ge ##ast ##rum , it was placed in that genus by early authors , starting with christian hen ##drik per ##so ##on in 1801 ( as ge ##aster , an alternate spelling of ge ##ast ##rum ) . according to the american botanist andrew p . morgan , however , the species differed from those of ge ##ast ##rum in not having open chambers in the young g ##le ##ba , having larger and branched cap ##ill ##iti ##um threads , not having a true h ##yme ##nium , and having larger spores . accordingly , morgan set per ##so ##on ' s
| 501 |
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] | 1,667 |
ge ##aster h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##um as the type species of his new genus as ##tra ##eus in 1889 . despite morgan ' s publication , some authorities in the following decades continued to classify the species in ge ##ast ##rum . the new @ - @ zealand based my ##col ##ogist gordon herr ##iot cunningham explicitly transferred the species back to the genus ge ##ast ##rum in 1944 , explaining : the treatment of this species by certain taxon ##omi ##sts well illustrates the pit ##falls that lie in wait for those who worship at the shrine of onto ##genic classification . . . the only feature of those outlined in which the species differs from others of ge ##ast ##rum is the somewhat
| 502 |
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"the",
"fr",
"##uc",
"##ti",
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"of",
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"other",
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".",
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"\"",
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"##tra",
"##eus",
"\"",
"may",
"be",
"separated",
"from",
"ge",
"##ast",
"##rum"
] | 1,668 |
primitive h ##yme ##nium . in the developing plant the g ##le ##bal ca ##vi ##ties are separated by tram ##al plates so ten ##uous as to be overlooked by the un ##cr ##itical worker . each cavity is filled with bas ##idia somewhat irregular ##ly arranged in clusters ( like those of sc ##ler ##oder ##ma ) and not in the definite pali ##sa ##de of the species which have been studied . this difference disappears as maturity is reached , when plants resemble closely the fr ##uc ##ti ##fication of any other member of the genus . the taxon ##omi ##st is then unable to indicate any point of difference by which " as ##tra ##eus " may be separated from ge ##ast ##rum
| 501 |
[
",",
"which",
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"that",
"the",
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".",
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"##tra",
"##eus",
"h",
"##y",
"##gr",
"##ometric",
"##us",
"has",
"been",
"given"
] | 1,669 |
, which indicates that the name should be discarded . cunningham ' s treatment was not followed by later authorities , who largely considered as ##tra ##eus a distinct genus . according to the taxonomic ##al authority my ##co ##bank , synonym ##s of as ##tra ##eus h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us include l ##y ##cope ##rdon stella ##tus sc ##op . ( 1772 ) ; ge ##ast ##rum fi ##bri ##llo ##sum sc ##h ##wei ##n . ( 1822 ) ; ge ##ast ##rum stella ##tum ( sc ##op . ) wet ##ts ##t . ( 1885 ) ; and as ##tra ##eus stella ##tus e . fis ##ch . ( 1900 ) . as ##tra ##eus h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us has been given
| 501 |
[
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"##γ",
"##ρ",
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"h",
"##y",
"##gr",
"##os",
")",
"\"",
"wet",
"\"",
"and",
"μ",
"##ε",
"##τ",
"##ρ",
"##ο",
"##ν",
"(",
"metro",
"##n",
")",
"\"",
"measure",
"\"",
"."
] | 1,670 |
a number of col ##lo ##qui ##al names that all ##ude to its h ##y ##gr ##os ##copic behavior , including the " h ##y ##gr ##ometer earth ##star " , the " h ##y ##gr ##os ##copic earth ##star " , the " bar ##ometer earth ##star " , and the " water @ - @ measure earth ##star " . the resemblance to ge ##ast ##rum species ( also known as true earth ##star ##s ) accounts for the common name " false earth ##star " . the specific name is derived from the greek words υ ##γ ##ρ ##ος ( h ##y ##gr ##os ) " wet " and μ ##ε ##τ ##ρ ##ο ##ν ( metro ##n ) " measure " .
| 511 |
[
"the",
"german",
"my",
"##col",
"##ogical",
"society",
"selected",
"the",
"species",
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".",
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"##gr",
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"##us",
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".",
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".",
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",",
"two",
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"\"",
"h",
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"##gr",
"##ometric",
"##us",
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":",
"a",
".",
"asiatic",
"##us",
"and",
"a",
".",
"odor",
"##atus",
"(",
"synonymous"
] | 1,671 |
the german my ##col ##ogical society selected the species as their " mushroom of the year " in 2005 . studies in the 2000s showed that several species from asian collection sites labelled under the specific epithet h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us were actually considerably variable in a number of macro ##scopic and microscopic characteristics . molecular studies of the dna sequences of the its region of the rib ##osomal dna from a number of as ##tra ##eus specimens from around the world have helped to clarify phylogenetic relationships within the genus . based on these results , two asian " h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us " populations have been described as new species : a . asiatic ##us and a . odor ##atus ( synonymous
| 502 |
[
"with",
"pet",
"##cha",
"##rat",
"'",
"s",
"a",
".",
"thailand",
"##icus",
"described",
"in",
"2003",
")",
".",
"preliminary",
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"analyses",
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"that",
"the",
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"a",
".",
"h",
"##y",
"##gr",
"##ometric",
"##us",
"described",
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"different",
"species",
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",",
"and",
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"the",
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"may",
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"ph",
"##yl",
"##otype",
"##s",
",",
"from",
"france",
"and",
"from",
"the",
"mediterranean",
".",
"a",
"2010",
"study",
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"a",
"japanese",
"species",
",",
"previously",
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"as",
"a",
".",
"h",
"##y",
"##gr",
"##ometric",
"##us",
",",
"as",
"genetically",
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";",
"it",
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"officially",
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".",
"a",
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"species",
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"in",
"korea",
"and",
"japan",
",",
"a",
".",
"h",
"##y",
"##gr",
"##ometric",
"##us",
"var",
".",
"korean",
"##us",
",",
"was",
"named"
] | 1,672 |
with pet ##cha ##rat ' s a . thailand ##icus described in 2003 ) . preliminary dna analyses suggests that the european a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us described by per ##so ##on is a different species than the north american version described by morgan , and that the european population may be divided into two distinct ph ##yl ##otype ##s , from france and from the mediterranean . a 2010 study identified a japanese species , previously identified as a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us , as genetically distinct ; it has yet to be officially named . a form of the species found in korea and japan , a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us var . korean ##us , was named
| 498 |
[
"by",
"v",
".",
"j",
".",
"stan",
"##ek",
"in",
"1958",
";",
"it",
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"(",
"1976",
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".",
"korean",
"##us",
"—",
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"##ns",
"k",
"##re",
"##ise",
"##l",
".",
"as",
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"by",
"fang",
"##fu",
"##k",
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"cl",
"##ari",
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".",
"h",
"##y",
"##gr",
"##ometric",
"##us",
"var",
".",
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"north",
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".",
"=",
"=",
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"=",
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"of",
"a",
".",
"h",
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"##gr",
"##ometric",
"##us",
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"my",
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"##ial",
"layer",
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"the",
"fruit",
"body",
",",
"and",
"may",
"be",
"partially"
] | 1,673 |
by v . j . stan ##ek in 1958 ; it was later ( 1976 ) published as a distinct species — a . korean ##us — by han ##ns k ##re ##ise ##l . as pointed out by fang ##fu ##k and colleagues , cl ##ari ##fication of the proper name for this taxon must await analysis of a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us var . korean ##us specimens from the type locality in north korea . = = description = = young specimens of a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us have roughly spherical fruit bodies that typically start their development partially embedded in the substrate . a smooth whitish my ##cel ##ial layer covers the fruit body , and may be partially
| 534 |
[
"en",
"##cr",
"##ust",
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"with",
"debris",
".",
"as",
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"body",
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",",
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"and",
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",",
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"ex",
"##oper",
"##idium",
"is",
"made",
"of",
"several",
"different",
"layers",
"of"
] | 1,674 |
en ##cr ##ust ##ed with debris . as the fruit body mature ##s , the my ##cel ##ial layer tears away , and the outer tissue layer , the ex ##oper ##idium , breaks open in a star @ - @ shaped ( stella ##te ) pattern to form 4 – 20 irregular " rays " . this simultaneously pushes the fruit body above ground to reveal a round sp ##ore case enclosed in a thin paper ##y end ##oper ##idium . the rays open and close in response to levels of moisture in the environment , opening up in high humidity , and closing when the air is dry . this is possible because the ex ##oper ##idium is made of several different layers of
| 534 |
[
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"##most",
",",
"fi",
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"0",
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".",
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"in",
")",
"in",
"diameter",
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"tip",
"to",
"tip",
"when",
"expanded",
"."
] | 1,675 |
tissue ; the inner ##most , fi ##bro ##us layer is h ##y ##gr ##os ##copic , and curls or un ##cu ##rl ##s the entire ray as it loses or gains moisture from its surroundings . this adaptation enables the fruit body to disperse spores at times of opt ##imum moisture , and reduce eva ##por ##ation during dry periods . further , dry fruit bodies with the rays curled up may be readily blown about by the wind , allowing them to sc ##atter spores from the por ##e as they roll . the fruit body is 1 – 8 cm ( 0 @ . @ 4 – 3 @ . @ 1 in ) in diameter from tip to tip when expanded .
| 534 |
[
"the",
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",",
"and",
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",",
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"(",
"0",
"@",
".",
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"4",
"to",
"1",
"@",
".",
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"2",
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"-",
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"##e",
".",
"the",
"interior",
"of",
"the",
"sp",
"##ore",
"case",
",",
"the"
] | 1,676 |
the ex ##oper ##idium is thick , and the rays are typically are ##olate ( divided into small areas by cracks and cr ##evic ##es ) on the upper surface , and are dark grey to black . the sp ##ore case is se ##ssi ##le ( lacking a stalk ) , light gray to tan color and 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @ . @ 4 to 1 @ . @ 2 in ) broad with a felt @ - @ like or sc ##ur ##fy ( coated with loose sc ##aly crust ) surface ; the top of the sp ##ore case is opened by an irregular slit , tear or por ##e . the interior of the sp ##ore case , the
| 535 |
[
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"##le",
"##ba",
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"and",
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"##ts",
"and",
"spines",
")",
".",
"the",
"spores",
"'",
"dimensions",
"are"
] | 1,677 |
g ##le ##ba , is white and solid when young , and divided into oval lo ##cule ##s — a characteristic that helps to distinguish it from ge ##ast ##rum . the g ##le ##ba becomes brown and powder ##y as the specimen mature ##s . small dark hair ##like threads ( r ##hi ##zo ##mo ##rp ##hs ) extend from the base of the fruit body into the substrate . the r ##hi ##zo ##mo ##rp ##hs are fragile , and often break off after maturity . the spores are spherical or nearly so , reddish @ - @ brown , thick @ - @ walled and ve ##rr ##uc ##ose ( covered with war ##ts and spines ) . the spores ' dimensions are
| 534 |
[
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"in",
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",",
"and"
] | 1,678 |
7 – 11 µ ##m ; the war ##ts are about 1 µ ##m long . the spores are non @ - @ amy ##loid , and will not stain with io ##dine from mel ##zer ' s re ##age ##nt . the use of scanning electron microscopy has shown that the spines are 0 @ . @ 90 – 1 @ . @ 45 µ ##m long , rounded at the tip , narrow , tape ##red , and sometime joined together at the top . the cap ##ill ##itia ( masses of thread @ - @ like sterile fibers dispersed among the spores ) are branched , 3 @ . @ 5 – 6 @ . @ 5 µ ##m in diameter , and
| 534 |
[
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"is",
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] | 1,679 |
h ##yal ##ine ( translucent ) . the bas ##idia ( sp ##ore @ - @ bearing cells ) are four - to eight @ - @ sp ##ored , with very short ste ##ri ##gm ##ata . the bas ##idia are arranged in long strings of clusters ; individual bas ##idia measure 11 – 15 by 18 – 24 µ ##m . the threads of the cap ##ill ##itia arise from the inner surface of the per ##idium , and are thick @ - @ walled , long , inter ##wo ##ven , and branched , measuring 3 – 5 @ . @ 5 µ ##m thick . the ex ##oper ##idium ( the outer layer of tissue , comprising the rays ) is made
| 534 |
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] | 1,680 |
of four distinct layers of tissue : the my ##cel ##ial layer contains branched h ##yp ##hae that are 4 – 6 μ ##m in diameter ; the h ##yp ##hae of the fi ##bro ##us layer are 6 – 8 μ ##m diameter and branched ; the col ##len ##chy ##ma @ - @ type layer has branched h ##yp ##hae of 3 – 4 μ ##m diameter ; the soft layer contains h ##yp ##hae that are 3 – 6 μ ##m in diameter . north american sources describe a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us as being of either unknown ed ##ibility , or too tough to be edible . however , they are regularly consumed in asia , including nepal and south
| 534 |
[
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"@",
"-",
"@"
] | 1,681 |
bengal , where " local people consume them as delicious food " . they are collected from the wild and sold in the markets of india . a study of a closely related southeast asian as ##tra ##eus species concluded that the fungus contained an abundance of volatile eight @ - @ carbon compounds ( including 1 @ - @ oct ##ano ##l , 1 @ - @ oct ##en @ - @ 3 @ - @ ol , and 1 @ - @ oct ##en @ - @ 3 @ - @ one ) that imp ##arte ##d a " mushroom @ - @ like , earth ##y , and pun ##gent odor that was evident as an oil ##y and moss @ - @
| 556 |
[
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".",
"asiatic",
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"and",
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".",
"odor"
] | 1,682 |
like smell upon opening the caps " . the study ' s authors further noted that the fruit bodies after cooking have a " roasted , mail ##lard , herbal , and oil ##y flavor " . volatile compounds detected after cooking the mushroom samples included fur ##fur ##al , benz ##ald ##eh ##yde , cy ##cl ##oh ##ex ##eno ##ne , and fur ##any ##l compounds . the regional differences in opinions on ed ##ibility are from sources published before it was known that north american and asian versions of a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us were not always the same ; in some cases asian specimens have been identified as new species , such as a . asiatic ##us and a . odor
| 508 |
[
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"(",
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"g"
] | 1,683 |
##atus . = = similar species = = although a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us bears a superficial resemblance to member of the " true earth ##star ##s " ge ##ast ##rum , it may be readily differentiated from most by the h ##y ##gr ##os ##copic nature of its rays . h ##y ##gr ##os ##copic earth ##star ##s include g . arena ##rium , g . co ##roll ##in ##um , g . fl ##ori ##form ##e , g . rec ##oll ##igen ##s , and g . ko ##tl ##aba ##e . unlike ge ##ast ##rum , the young fruit bodies of a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us do not have a col ##ume ##lla ( sterile tissue in the g
| 516 |
[
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] | 1,684 |
##le ##ba , at the base of the sp ##ore sac ) . ge ##ast ##rum tends to have its sp ##ore sac opening surrounded by a per ##isto ##me or a disc , in contrast with the single lace ##rate slit of a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us . there are also several microscopic differences : in a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us , the bas ##idia are not arranged in parallel columns , the spores are larger , and the threads of the cap ##ill ##itia are branched and continuous with the h ##yp ##hae of the per ##idium . despite these differences , older specimens can be difficult to distinguish from ge ##ast ##rum in the field . one species of
| 534 |
[
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".",
"a",
".",
"asiatic",
"##us"
] | 1,685 |
ge ##ast ##rum , g . ma ##mm ##os ##um , does have thick and brittle rays that are moderately h ##y ##gr ##os ##copic , and could be confused with a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us ; however , its spores are smaller than a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us , typically about 4 µ ##m in diameter . as ##tra ##eus pt ##eri ##dis is larger , 5 to 15 cm ( 2 @ . @ 0 to 5 @ . @ 9 in ) or more when expanded , and often has a more pronounced are ##olate pattern on the inner surface of the rays . it is found in north america and the canary islands . a . asiatic ##us
| 535 |
[
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"##le",
"##ba",
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"pu",
"##rp",
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"@",
"-",
"@"
] | 1,686 |
and a . odor ##atus are two similar species known from throughout asia and southeast asia , respectively . a . odor ##atus is distinguished from a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us by a smooth outer my ##cel ##ial layer with few ad ##hering soil particles , 3 – 9 broad rays , and a fresh odor similar to moist soil . the sp ##ore or ##name ##ntation of a . odor ##atus is also distinct from a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us , with longer and narrower spines that often joined together . a . asiatic ##us has an outer per ##idia ##l surface covered with small gran ##ules , and a g ##le ##ba that is pu ##rp ##lish @ - @
| 534 |
[
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".",
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"8",
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] | 1,687 |
chestnut in color , compared to the smooth per ##idia ##l surface and brownish g ##le ##ba of a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us . the upper limit of the sp ##ore size of a . asiatic ##us is larger than that of its more common relative , ranging from 8 @ . @ 75 – 15 @ . @ 2 μ ##m . a . korean ##us ( sometimes named as the variety a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us var . korean ##us ; see taxonomy ) differs from the more common form in its smaller size , paler fruit body , and greater number of rays ; microscopic ##ally , it has smaller spores ( between 6 @ . @ 8 and
| 534 |
[
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",",
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"india"
] | 1,688 |
9 μ ##m in diameter ) , and the spines on the spores differ in length and morphology . it is known from korea and japan . = = habitat , distribution , and ecology = = as ##tra ##eus h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us is an ec ##tom ##y ##cor ##rh ##iza ##l fungus and grows in association with a broad range of tree species . the mutual ##istic association between tree roots and the my ##cel ##ium of the fungus helps the trees extract nutrients ( particularly phosphorus ) from the earth ; in exchange , the fungus receives car ##bo ##hy ##dra ##tes from photos ##yn ##thesis . in north america , associations with oak and pine are usual , while in india
| 534 |
[
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",",
"although",
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"are"
] | 1,689 |
, it has been noted to grow commonly with chi ##r pine ( pin ##us ro ##x ##burgh ##ii ) and sal ( shore ##a robust ##a ) . the false earth ##star is found on the ground in open fields , often scattered or in groups , especially in nutrient @ - @ poor , sandy or lo ##amy soils . it has also been reported to grow on rocks , preferring acid substrates like slate and granite , while avoiding substrates rich in lime . in nepal , fruit bodies have been collected at elevations of 3 @ , @ 000 m ( 9 @ , @ 800 ft ) . fruit bodies typically appear in autumn , although the dry fruit bodies are
| 534 |
[
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".",
"=",
"="
] | 1,690 |
persistent and may last up to several years . gel ##atin ##ip ##ul ##vine ##lla as ##tra ##ei ##cola is a leo ##tia ##ce ##ous fungus with minute , gel ##atin ##ous , pu ##l ##vina ##te ( cushion @ - @ shaped ) ap ##oth ##ec ##ia , known to grow only on the inner surface of the rays of dead as ##tra ##eus species , including a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us . the species has a cosmopolitan distribution except for arctic , alpine and cold temperate regions ; it is common in temperate and tropical regions of the world . it has been collected in africa , asia , australia , europe , north america , and south america . = =
| 508 |
[
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"oxide",
",",
"and",
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"production",
"of"
] | 1,691 |
bio ##active compounds = = mushroom poly ##sa ##cc ##hari ##des from a number of species have attracted research interest for their im ##mun ##omo ##du ##lat ##ory and anti ##tum ##or properties . extracts from a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us containing the poly ##sa ##cc ##hari ##de named ae ##2 were found to inhibit the growth of several tumor cell lines in laboratory tests , and stimulated the growth of sp ##len ##ocytes , thy ##mo ##cytes , and bone marrow cells from mice . the extract also stimulated mouse cells associated with the immune system ; specifically , it enhanced the activity of mouse natural killer cells , stimulated macro ##pha ##ges to produce ni ##tric oxide , and enhanced production of
| 564 |
[
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"-",
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"@",
"-",
"@",
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] | 1,692 |
cy ##tok ##ines . the activation of macro ##pha ##ges by ae ##2 might be mediated by a mit ##ogen @ - @ activated protein kinase pathway of signal trans ##duction . ae ##2 is made of the simple sugar ##s mann ##ose , glucose , and fu ##cos ##e in a 1 : 2 : 1 ratio . in addition to the previously known ste ##roid compounds er ##gos ##ta @ - @ 7 @ , @ 22 @ - @ die ##ne @ - @ 3 @ - @ ol ace ##tate and er ##gos ##ta @ - @ 4 , 6 , 8 - ( 14 ) , 22 @ - @ te ##tra ##ene @ - @ 3 @ - @ one
| 565 |
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"(",
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"@",
"-",
"@",
"member",
"##ed",
"ring"
] | 1,693 |
, three unique tri ##ter ##pen ##es — derivatives of 3 @ - @ hydro ##xy @ - @ lan ##osta ##ne — have been isolated from fruit bodies of a . h ##y ##gr ##ometric ##us . the compounds , named as ##tra ##hy ##gr ##ol , 3 @ - @ ep ##i @ - @ as ##tra ##hy ##gr ##ol , and as ##tra ##hy ##gr ##one ( 3 @ - @ ox ##o @ - @ 25 ##s @ - @ lan ##ost @ - @ 8 @ - @ en ##o @ - @ 26 @ , @ 22 @ - @ lac ##tone ) , have δ @ - @ lac ##tone ( a six @ - @ member ##ed ring
| 556 |
[
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",",
"and",
"have",
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] | 1,694 |
) in the side chain — a chemical feature previously unknown in the bas ##idi ##omy ##ce ##tes . a previously unknown ste ##ryl este ##r ( 3 ##β , 5 ##α @ - @ di ##hy ##dro ##xy - ( 22 ##e , 24 ##r ) - er ##gos ##ta @ - @ 7 @ , @ 22 @ - @ die ##n @ - @ 6 ##α @ - @ y ##l palm ##itate ) has been isolated from my ##cel ##ia grown in liquid culture . the compound has a poly ##hy ##dro ##xy ##lated er ##gos ##tan ##e @ - @ type nucleus . ethanol extracts of the fruit body are high in anti ##ox ##ida ##nt activity , and have been
| 556 |
[
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"##lb",
"##lain",
"##s",
"."
] | 1,695 |
shown in laboratory tests to have anti @ - @ inflammatory activity comparable to the drug di ##cl ##of ##ena ##c . studies with mouse models have also demonstrated he ##pa ##top ##rot ##ect ##ive ( liver @ - @ protecting ) ability , possibly by restoring diminished levels of the anti ##ox ##ida ##nt enzymes super ##oxide di ##sm ##uta ##se and cat ##ala ##se caused by experimental exposure to the liver @ - @ damaging chemical carbon te ##tra ##ch ##lor ##ide . = = traditional beliefs = = this earth ##star has been used in traditional chinese medicine as a hem ##osta ##tic agent ; the sp ##ore dust is applied externally to stop wound bleeding and reduce chi ##lb ##lain ##s .
| 556 |
[
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] | 1,696 |
two indian forest tribes , the bai ##ga and the b ##hari ##a of madhya pradesh , have been reported to use the fruit bodies medicinal ##ly . the sp ##ore mass is blended with mustard seed oil , and used as a sal ##ve against burns . the black ##foot of north america called the fungus " fallen stars " , considering them to be stars fallen to the earth during supernatural events . = paul thomas anderson = paul thomas anderson ( born june 26 , 1970 ) also known as p . t . anderson , is an american film director , screenwriter and producer . interested in film @ - @ making at a young age , anderson was encouraged by his
| 530 |
[
"father",
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",",
"magnolia",
"(",
"1999",
")",
",",
"received",
"wide",
"acclaim",
"despite"
] | 1,697 |
father ernie anderson ( a disc jockey , and television and radio announcer / voice ##over artist ) to become a filmmaker . in 1993 , he wrote and directed a short film titled cigarettes & coffee on a budget of $ 20 @ , @ 000 . after he attended the sundance institute , anderson had a deal with ry ##sher entertainment to direct his first feature film , a neo @ - @ noir crime thriller titled hard eight , in 1996 . anderson received critical and commercial success for his film boogie nights ( 1997 ) , set during the golden age of porn in the 1970s and 1980s . his third feature , magnolia ( 1999 ) , received wide acclaim despite
| 678 |
[
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] | 1,698 |
struggling at the box office . in 2002 , the romantic comedy @ - @ drama punch @ - @ drunk love , anderson ' s fourth feature , was released to generally favorable reviews . after a five @ - @ year absence , the epic drama there will be blood was released to critical acclaim in 2007 . in 2012 , anderson ' s sixth film , the drama the master , was released to critical acclaim . his seventh film , the crime comedy @ - @ drama inherent vice , based on the novel of the same name by thomas p ##yn ##chon , was released in 2014 , to general acclaim . anderson has been nominated for six academy awards over
| 845 |
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] | 1,699 |
the course of his career , while his films have earned a further fourteen academy award nominations for cast and crew . anderson was born june 26 , 1970 , in studio city , california , to edwin ##a ( nee gough ) and ernie anderson . ernie was an actor who was the voice of abc and a cleveland television late @ - @ night horror movie host known as " g ##ho ##ular ##di " ( after whom anderson later named his production company ) . anderson grew up in the san fernando valley . he is third youngest of nine children , and had a troubled relationship with his mother but was close with his father , who encouraged him to become a
| 864 |
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