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|Heart Sounds & Murmurs|||||[Liver & Ascites]|||||Neck Veins|||||Pulmonary|||||Thyroid|
Liver & Ascites
Pathophysiology: Liver & Ascites
Ascites occurs when there is a disruption in the pressure forces between intravascular and extravascular fluid spaces, which allows extravascular fluid to accumulate in the anterior peritoneal cavity.
The most common causes of ascites include chronic parenchymal liver disease (alcoholic liver disease, cirrhosis due to viral hepatitis C), malignancy, and heart failure.
Classification by mechanism of ascites formation
For more discussion on pathogenesis of ascites, check the references.
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The earliest of the maps was drawn by Thomas Kitchen for the Reverend Dr. Robertson's History of America and is titled 'Mexico or New Spain in Which the Motion of Cortes May be Traced." Another of the early maps appears as the frontispiece in Henderson Yoakum's History of Texas, and shows rivers, location of Indian tribes, Indian Villages, missions, crossings, roads with dates of origin, presidios and trails. Texas is listed as "New Phillipines." There is a set of military maps of the Texas Revolution, which accompanies Andrew Jackson Houston's Texas Independence. The U. S. War Department's map by W. H. Emory is titled 'Map of Texas and the Countries Adjacent,' dated 1844, prior to annexation. The Walker map of 1949 and the Marcy maps of 1850 and 1853 show additions to knowledge of Indian tribes, fortifications, wagon routes, rivers and numerous notes on topography. In 1857-60, the United State Department of the Interior, J. H. Clark, Commissioner, produced the 'Map of the United States and Texas-Boundary Line and Adjacent Territory Determined and Surveyed.' The 'New Map of Texas as it is in 1874,' was prepared "expressly for Morphis' History of Texas." Robert T. Hill produced the 'Map of Texas and Parts of Adjoining Territories' for the U. S. Geological Survey in 1899. Many of the map descriptions are found in Day's Maps of Texas 1527-1900: The Map Collection of the Texas State Archives, Austin, 1964.
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If you assign a task to the computer. It can only complete the task if it can understand everything you want to say to computer. If your words are signs that you use to deliver the message to computer. The computer will not be able to fulfill the requirement and cannot perform according to your instructions.
Contextual computing is the source for computer to understand user and to deliver the best services according to the instructions of the users. Dictionary definition of context is it is the general situation of an idea that is associated with that idea and helps that idea to be understood by people.
In Contextual computing the used context enables the computer to understand the user and his situation for a proper output. Various contextual computing techniques are working for different fields of life like education, engineering, health-care etc. Many applications have no use without contextual computing like GPS devices used in Cars are useless without proper direction guidelines
- Top Emerging TechnologiesNew innovative technology moving towards the height of development is called Emerging technologies.
Top 10 Disruptive Technologies
- Distributed Computing A field of computer sciences being very popular now a day is called distributed computing.
- Social Media networksSocial media network has been very popular during the last few Years.
- Cloud ComputingA computer based technology that reduces the pain of running a business with a mess of employees.
- Web MashupsA next step to a largely experimental work in web 2.0 environment is known as web mashups.
- User InterfaceInteraction between a computer and a human being is called a user interface.
- Ubiquitous ComputingHave you ever thought about an invisible force watching your activities and participating.
- Contextual ComputingIf you assign a task to the computer. It can only complete the task if it can understand.
- Augmented RealityMost of us can watch Cartoons, Movies and games which are not actually in real environment.
- SemanticsA very important area of linguistic study is called Semantics.
- Multicore and Hybrid ProcessorsTo reduce the consumption of power and increase the performance of a computer.
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Examples of Python source code or interactive sessions are represented as \verbatim environments. This environment is a standard part of LaTeX. It is important to only use spaces for indentation in code examples since TeX drops tabs instead of converting them to spaces.
Representing an interactive session requires including the prompts and output along with the Python code. No special markup is required for interactive sessions. After the last line of input or output presented, there should not be an ``unused'' primary prompt; this is an example of what not to do:
>>> 1 + 1 2 >>>
Within the \verbatim environment, characters special to LaTeX do not need to be specially marked in any way. The entire example will be presented in a monospaced font; no attempt at ``pretty-printing'' is made, as the environment must work for non-Python code and non-code displays. There should be no blank lines at the top or bottom of any \verbatim display.
Longer displays of verbatim text may be included by storing the example text in an external file containing only plain text. The file may be included using the standard \verbatiminput macro; this macro takes a single argument naming the file containing the text. For example, to include the Python source file example.py, use:
Use of \verbatiminput allows easier use of special editing modes for the included file. The file should be placed in the same directory as the LaTeX files for the document.
The Python Documentation Special Interest Group has discussed a number of approaches to creating pretty-printed code displays and interactive sessions; see the Doc-SIG area on the Python Web site for more information on this topic.
See About this document... for information on suggesting changes.
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Phlebitis is the term for the swelling of a vein, most often in one’s leg. Thrombophlebitis is the term for inflammation of a vein caused by a blood clot. The term is often shortened to phlebitis. The condition is easily treatable, though it sometimes leads to more serious health concerns.
There are two kinds of phlebitis: superficial phlebitis (affecting veins near the skin's surface) and deep venous thrombosis (DVT).
When the clot is embedded into a deep vein, thrombophlebitis can become much more serious. The condition, appropriately named deep vein thrombosis , can cause blood clots in the lungs ( pulmonary embolism ), heart attack , and stroke .
Phlebitis is often caused by:
- Prolonged bed rest following an operation
- Use of estrogen
- Lack of exercising your legs over an extended period of time (eg, long airplane trips)
- Prior episodes of phlebitis
- Trauma to the lower extremity
- Cancer malignancy—Certain cancers may put you at risk for a clotting condition. This condition can lead to venous thrombosis. Cancers such as pancreatic , stomach , prostate , and colon cancer, as well as acute leukemia are known to increase clots.
A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition.
The following factors increase your chance of developing phlebitis:
- Sitting for long periods of time, such as on an airplane or being confined to bed rest
Health conditions that increase the risk of blood clots
- These include cancers particularly of the pancreas which is associated with recurrent phlebitis
Blood disorders which increase the clotting potential of blood
- These include Protein C deficiency due to Factor V Leiden (hereditary blood coagulation disorder)
- Very visible, cord-like vein that is tender and sensitive to pressure. This cord may develop over several hours to days.
- Redness and warmth surrounding the vein.
- Swelling around the vein.
- A low-grade fever may be seen, however a high fever and drainage that is purulent (pus) indicate infection.
- Call your physician immediately should you develop a fever, shortness of breath (which may indicate that the clot may have traveled to the lung), and severe pain and swelling in the arm or leg.
Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam.
Tests may include the following:
- Physical exam
- X-ray or ultrasound to check for deeper blood clots
- Venogram in which dye or contrast is injected
- In case of recurrent episodes of phlebitis, screening for blood disorders is done.
Talk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for you. Treatment options include:
- Anti-inflammatory medication—you may be advised to take over-the-counter pain relievers, like aspirin or ibuprofen.
- Exercise—walking is typically recommended.
- Compress—another option is applying a warm compress over the inflamed vein.
- Elevation—elevating the arm or leg with the inflamed vein to a level above the heart may be beneficial.
If you are diagnosed with phlebitis, follow your doctor's instructions .
Phlebitis can sometimes be prevented by the following actions:
- If you fly for long periods of time, walk around the cabin and stretch your limbs every hour or so.
- If you drive for long periods of time, pull over and stretch your limbs ever hour or so.
On flights or car rides lasting more than four hours, take additional precautions to reduce your risk of thrombosis. These include:
- Avoid wearing tight clothing around your waist.
- Drink plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration.
- Reviewer: Michael J. Fucci, DO
- Review Date: 09/2012 -
- Update Date: 00/92/2012 -
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Scientists have long projected that areas north and south of the tropics will grow drier in a warming world –- from the Middle East through the European Riviera to the American Southwest, from sub-Saharan Africa to parts of Australia.
These regions are too far from the equator to benefit from the moist columns of heated air that result in steamy afternoon downpours. And the additional precipitation foreseen as more water evaporates from the seas is mostly expected to fall at higher latitudes. Essentially, a lot of climate scientists say, these regions may start to feel more like deserts under the influence of global warming.
Now scientists have measured a rapid recent expansion of desert-like barrenness in the subtropical oceans –- in places where surface waters have also been steadily warming. There could be a link to human-driven climate change, but it’s too soon to tell, the scientists said.
[UPDATED below, 3/6, 1 p..m] Read more…
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Dragons are creatures with nearly unlimited life spans. They can survive for long periods of time, and no one has found a dragon that has died of old age. Adolescence is usually marked by the growth of a hatchling’s wings, although not all breeds of dragons grow wings and some breeds have other traits that indicate the beginning of maturation. Once they hit adolescence, hatchlings change quickly, maturing to their full forms in only 2 years.
Dragons don’t communicate with each other verbally, but they will growl to scare off predators and frighten prey. Young dragons will emit an extremely high-pitched squeal when they are frightened. To communicate, they use telepathy with each other and to speak to other creatures.
Dark green dragons, once they mature, appear to become an entirely different species. However, this isn’t true. Rather, they burrow underground and get nutrients from their vines. These vines are sometimes referred to as Dragon Grass. These dragons are very violent, and will use their vines to capture, kill, and eat anything that moves, as well as nearby plants. Luckily, their range is limited and they cannot use magic. Dark green dragons tend to be easy to spot since they usually kill all plants around them and thus are usually surrounded by a large clearing.
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The white, mottled area in the right-center of this image from NASA’s Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) is Madrid, the capital of Spain. Located on the Meseta Central, a vast plateau covering about 40 percent of the country, this city of 3 million is very near the exact geographic center of the Iberian Peninsula. The Meseta is rimmed by mountains and slopes gently to the west and to the series of rivers that form the boundary with Portugal. The plateau is mostly covered with dry grasslands, olive groves and forested hills.
Madrid is situated in the middle of the Meseta, and at an elevation of 646 meters (2,119 feet) above sea level is the highest capital city in Europe. To the northwest of Madrid, and visible in the upper left of the image, is the Sistema Central mountain chain that forms the “dorsal spine” of the Meseta and divides it into northern and southern subregions. Rising to about 2,500 meters (8,200 feet), these mountains display some glacial features and are snow-capped for most of the year. Offering almost year-round winter sports, the mountains are also important to the climate of Madrid.
Three visualization methods were combined to produce this image: shading and color coding of topographic height and radar image intensity. The shade image was derived by computing topographic slope in the northwest-southeast direction. North-facing slopes appear bright and south-facing slopes appear dark. Color coding is directly related to topographic height, with green at the lower elevations, rising through yellow and brown to white at the highest elevations. The shade image was combined with the radar intensity image in the flat areas.
Size: 172 by 138 kilometers (107 by 86 miles)
Location: 40.43 degrees North latitude, 3.70 degrees West longitude
Orientation: North toward the top
Image Data: shaded and colored SRTM elevation model, with SRTM radar intensity added
Original Data Resolution: SRTM 1 arcsecond (about 30 meters or 98 feet)
Date Acquired: February 2000
Image Courtesy SRTM Team NASA/JPL/NIMA
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A crocodile large enough to swallow humans once lived in East Africa, according to a May 2012 paper in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
Paper author Christopher Brochu is an associate professor of geoscience at University of Iowa. He said:
It’s the largest known true crocodile. It may have exceeded 27 feet in length. By comparison, the largest recorded Nile crocodile was less than 21 feet, and most are much smaller.
The newly-discovered species lived between two and four million years ago in Kenya. It resembled its living cousin, the Nile crocodile, but was more massive.
Brochu recognized the new species from fossils that he examined three years ago at the National Museum of Kenya in Nairobi. Some were found at sites known for important human fossil discoveries. Brochu said:
It lived alongside our ancestors, and it probably ate them. He explains that although the fossils contain no evidence of human/reptile encounters, crocodiles generally eat whatever they can swallow, and humans of that time period would have stood no more than four feet tall.
We don’t actually have fossil human remains with croc bites, but the crocs were bigger than today’s crocodiles, and we were smaller, so there probably wasn’t much biting involved.
Brochu added that there likely would have been ample opportunity for humans to encounter crocs. That’s because early man, along with other animals, would have had to seek water at rivers and lakes where crocodiles lie in wait.
The crocodile Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni is named after John Thorbjarnarson, famed crocodile expert and Brochu’s colleague who died of malaria while in the field several years ago.
Brochu says Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni is not directly related to the present-day Nile crocodile. This suggests that the Nile crocodile is a fairly young species and not an ancient “living fossil,” as many people believe. Borchu said:
We really don’t know where the Nile crocodile came from. But it only appears after some of these prehistoric giants died out.
Bottom line: A paper in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology in May, 2012 reports the discovery of an ancient crocodile large enough to swallow humans that lived two to four million years ago in East Africa.
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Activity Plan for Respect Wildlife
Exploring Respect for Wildlife
This activity should take about 70 minutes.
What Your Group Will Learn
After participating in this activity plan, which calls for participants to
observe impacts on wildlife, participants will be able to
- Describe what activities cause impacts to wildlife.
- Identify the actions that
can be taken to minimize impacts to wildlife.
Your participants are going on an imaginary hike to a marshland area where
they will encounter a flock of ducks, a doe, and a fawn. This activity will help
them think about their potential impacts to wildlife and how these impacts can
Materials and Preparation
- A garden hose or some other means of marking the marshland
- Duck decoys, silhouettes, or pictures of ducks
- Pictures or silhouettes of a doe and fawn deer
- Read the entire lesson plan and the Background on the
Principles of Leave No Trace thoroughly.
- Lay out the garden hose or some other means or marking the
- Place the duck, doe, and fawn pictures or silhouettes in the
Grabbing Your Group's Attention (20 minutes)
Explain to participants that they will be hiking along a trail and will come
to a marsh area with ducks, a doe, and a fawn. Ask them to explain the actions
they will take so they do not disturb the ducks and deer.
Steps for Teaching the Activity (30 minutes)
How Wild Is Wildlife?
The participants will demonstrate the techniques they feel will help minimize
impact to wildlife in the marshland area. After demonstrating these techniques,
group members will move past the marshland. The activity will help them become
more aware of their potential effects on wildlife and how they can avoid
As they approach the marked marshland, ask group members to
demonstrate how they will avoid disturbing the wildlife and how they will be
able to tell if they were successful.
After participants have passed the
marshland, ask them why they used the techniques they did to minimize their
impacts to the ducks and deer in the marsh. Ask them if there are any other
techniques they could use. Emphasize that the best means of determining their
success is the degree to which the wildlife may have altered their normal
behavior. In contrast, if the ducks fly or the deer run away quickly, you know
you have gotten too close.
Quick movement and loud noises are stressful to
animals. Considerate campers should
- Observe wildlife from afar to avoid
- Give animals a wide berth, especially during breeding, nesting,
and birthing seasons.
- Store food securely so wildlife will not be attracted to
- Keep garbage and food scraps away from animals so they will not acquire bad
Remember, you are too close to an animal if it alters its normal activities.
Wrapping Up the Activity (15 minutes)
Your group is considerate of wildlife needs and knows how to respect
wildlife. Group members also know the techniques for minimizing their impact on
wildlife and means of determining if they have been successful. Do the
- Discuss some of the local areas participants might visit
that have wildlife. What additional techniques or specific precautions
should they use to avoid disturbing the wildlife species in these areas?
- Talk about the behavior of some group members or the
behavior observed of others on previous outdoor activities that may have
disturbed wildlife. What could have been done differently to avoid
disturbing the wildlife? How can the group help encourage others to keep
Congratulations on conducting a well-prepared meeting for your group!
Visit a local wildlife refuge and have the wildlife managers explain how they
recommend viewing wildlife species at the refuge without disturbing them in the
wild. Take a walk with the wildlife manager around the refuge to practice the
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The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high. A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B. Bear in mind that this dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB.
"If both Inputs are true the Output will be true"
3 Input AND gate Truth table :
TTL AND gate :
TTL Logic gates are constructed by Transistor-Transistor Logic. Fig-2 shows a RTL- Resistor Transistor Logic. The TTL based AND gate ICs are as below :
- 74LS08 Quad 2-input
- 74LS11 Triple 3-input
- 74LS21 Dual 4-input
CMOS AND gate :
Three(3) p-type and three(3) n-type MOSFETs constructs a 2 input AND gate logic. The first 2 p-type and 2 n-type MOSFET construct a NAND gate logic and the rest two p-type and n-type construct an Inverter logic. So the first portion gives NAND output and the second part getting that output gives AND output doing the NOT logic operation (inverting) see the Fig-3. The CMOS type AND gates are shown below :
- CD4081 Quad 2-input
- CD4073 Triple 3-input
- CD4082 Dual 4-input
AND gate analogy :
Fig-4 shows an analogy of AND logic gate. Which constructed by a battery, 2-switches(SPST) and a electric bulb; where 2 switches are indicates AND inputs and the electric bulb as the AND output. If the switch A is closed and B is open the bulb will not light. If again switch A is opened and B is closed the output will be the same as previous, the bulb will not light. But if the both switches ( A and B) are closed the bulb will give light. That means this circuit follows the Truth table of an AND logic gate.
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SL Psychology/Intro to Research Methods
The following items should be included in this section: The Hypothetico-deductive (scientific)method, types of psychological research methods, research designs, sampling, reliability, validity, and triangulation.
Research into mind can be traced back to Ancient Greece. However, empirical psychological research has its roots in investigations into cognitive functions such as introspection and memory. While early psychological researchers attempted to bring the same standards of rigor and control to their investigations as physical scientists enjoy, psychological research poses unique obstacles. Psychological research investigates mind. Only recently the contents of the mind become observable since the advent of neuro-imaging technologies such as EEGs, PET scans, and fMRIs, thus early psychological research was focused on disagreements between different schools or generations of researchers that used varied approaches toward their investigations into the invisible mind. For example, cognitive researchers rely on inferences made from activities aimed at employing cognitive functions such as memory as opposed to examining how or where actual memories are laid down. Conversely Behaviorist researchers employed a more empirically rigorous method seeking only to make generalizations about phenomena that were directly observable and replicable in controlled settings.
Contemporary psychological research is derived from these disparate traditions and perspectives. It utilizes the hypothetico-deductive or scientific method:
1. observation and data gathering
2. inference of generalizations
3. construction of explanatory theories
4. deduction of hypothesis to test theories
5. hypothesis testing
6. support or challenges to existing theories and commensurate adjustments.
Theories and Hypothesis
Two key steps, theory construction and hypothesis deduction/testing pose special problems for researchers. Theories are sets of related generalizations explaining a specific mental phenomena e.g. schema and memory organization and hypotheses are specific predictions for research investigations. These steps are derived from empirical data, but are heavily influenced by an individual researcher’s perspective. Thus, researchers seek to clearly articulate operational definitions in an effort to make their research easily replicable. Additionally, controls are implemented to ensure credibility of results and subsequent conclusions. Finally, published research contributing to knowledge in the discipline is peer reviewed and usually rigorously scrutinized. Psychological research can take many forms ranging from: controlled laboratory true experiments (involving the manipulation of independent variables and controls for confounding variables) to field research (involving deliberate manipulation of independent variables in natural uncontrolled environments) to naturalistic/quasi experimental method (involving observation and analysis of independent variables changed by natural incidence). No matter which research method is employed, controls are carefully implemented to ensure the credibility of research. Key issues surrounding controls are: research design, sampling, reliability and validity.
The underlying structure of an investigation. It involves how psychologists use subjects/participants in their experiments. The three most common designs are:
1.Repeated Measures: using the same subjects in the experimental and control conditions
2.Independent Measures :using different subjects/participants in the experimental and control conditions
3. Matched Pairs :using different subjects/participants in the experimental and control conditions with each sample having similar characteristics.
The process of selecting participants/subjects to examine derived from a target population (a specified subpopulation of all humans). The results of a study are inferred from examination of the sample’s performance on a given measure, thus the sample is key in the line of reasoning from initial design to examination of results. Several methods can be employed when choosing a sample: random, stratified and convenience. Random sampling provides the best chance for the sample group to be representative of the target population. Stratified samples reflect similar proportions of various sub-groups within a sample. Convenience sampling involves choosing participants/subjects that are available at the time of data collection. Convenience samples do not control for possible biases that may within certain subgroups of a population and thus the results and conclusions from a convenience sample must be analyzed with caution and triangulated.
A study is reliable if it is replicable and the same results are achieved repeatedly. There are four types of reliability in regard to psychological study:
- Test-Retest Reliability (also called stability reliability)
- Interrater Reliability
- Parallel Forms Reliability
- Internal Consistency Reliability
To judge for reliability in this case, the test is administered two different times to the exact same or similar subjects. This judges for consistency of results across time, and to make sure the results were not affected by context of the time. Reliability is higher if the retest is close in chronological proximity to the original test.
Research psychologists tend to replicate older studies to generate theories or to amend findings to account for reliability. In attention for example, Treisman consistently retested findings to amend the attention models.
Two or more judges score the test. The scores are then compared to determine how much the two raters agree on the consistency on a rating system.
An example of interrater reliability would be that of teachers grading essays for an AP or IB exam. If a scale from 1 to 5 was used (where 1 is the worst and 5 is the best), and one teacher gave an essay a score of 2 and another gave a score of 5, then the reliability would be inconsistent. Through training, practice, and discussion, the individual raters can reach a consistent level of assessing an experiment, test, or result. Often, the raters are moderated by a higher rater who will assist in reaching consistency.
Parallel Forms Reliability
A large set of questions that are related to the same construct are generated and then divided into two sets. The two different sets are given to the same sample of people at the same time. Therefore, the two tests that study the same content are judged against each other for consistency.
An example would be a pretest-posttest, where the two groups would either receive form 1 or form 2, and in the posttest situation, the groups would be switched.
Internal Consistency Reliability
In this case, the tool is used as the tool to determine reliability. Thus would be a test situation in which the items on the test measure the same content. Often, questions can be strikingly similar, which shows that the test is also a measure for internal consistency reliability. Therefore, the similar questions should be answered in the same way. There are different ways to measure internal consistency reliability:
- Average Inter-item Correlation
- Average Itemtotal Correlation
- Split-Half Reliability
- Cronbach's Alpha (a)
Quantitative versus Qualitative Measures
Coolican, H. (2004). Research methods and statistics in Psychology. Cambridge University Press.
1. In what ways has new technology changed the science of psychology? Provide three examples.
2. How does the importance of validity and reliability change depending on the type of study?
3. In what ways will the different aspects of an experiment (sampling, methods, reliabilty, and validity) affect the results and conclusions of an psychology study?
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Anatolian Weights and Measures
The use of metal in Anatolia increased significantly towards the end of the Chalcolithic period, reflecting the development of trade relations in the region, and from commercial documents that have been deciphered, we know that units of weight originating in Mesopotamia were used in Anatolia. Although there is no firm evidence about the use of weights and measures in Anatolia prior to the Assyrian Colonies period, finds made of valuable metals with graduated markings are thought to have been used for measuring or for exchange in trade. For example, at Troy small gold bars and in particular graduated rods seem beyond doubt to show the existence of trade based on measurement.
The Hittites, like the other tribes of the Near East, used silver as a medium of exchange, in the form of rings or rods of specific size and weight. As in earlier times, hematite weights continued to be used to measure shekels and manas, units of weight that originated in Babylon.
Anatolian Weights and Measures in the Hellenic Period
The laws of Solon implemented around Athens in the Greek period are also thought to have been used in Anatolia. Solon ruled that the talent of weight (Greek talanton) should be 3 manas heavier than the monetary talent, distributing the difference between the constituent parts of the weight talent. This unit was the stater (873.2 g), equivalent to the old currency unit, the didrachmon. Fractions of this unit were also used.
The main Greek units of weight were the talent and mana, but these were not identical everywhere. For example, in Athens after the introduction of the Solonian standard this was equivalent to 36.39 kg when weighing commodities. As a monetary unit it was equivalent to metal weighing 25.92 kg. One sixtieth of a talent was a mna or mana.
The principal liquid measures were the katule (0.27 litres) and the amphora (1.27 litres), while dry measures were the khonix (1.08 litres) and medimnos (51.84 litres).
In the famous History by Herodotus of Halicarnassus we find almost all the measurements of length used in Anatolia during the ancient Greek period:
foot: 0.296 cm (the modern foot is 30.48 cm)
finger: one sixteenth of a foot, 0.0185 metres
cubit: 1.5 feet, 0.444 metres
fathom: 6 feet, 4 cubits, 1.776 metres
plethron: 100 feet
stadium: 600 Greek feet. The Athens stadium was equivalent to 177.6 metres.
palm: one quarter of a foot, 6 palms equalled one cubit
skenes: Egyptian unit equivalent to 60 stadiums, 10.656 km
parasang: Iranian unit equivalent to 30 stadiums, 5.328 km
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Chancellor of Austria
|Federal Chancellor of the
Republic of Austria
State flag of Austria
as President of Austria
|Term length||No term limit|
|Inaugural holder||Karl Renner,
as State Chancellor
30 October 1918
|Formation||First Republic of Austria
10 November 1920
|This article is part of the series:
Politics and government of
The Federal Chancellor (German: Bundeskanzler, sometimes shortened to Kanzler) is the head of government of Austria. In his capacity as chairman of the Austrian Federal Government, the chancellor represents the supreme federal authority of the executive branch. Though formally an equal member of the cabinet, the Chancellor is considered to be the most powerful position in Austrian politics, and as such is the nation's de facto chief executive. His official seat is in the Federal Chancellery.
The use of the term Chancellor (Kanzler, derived from Latin: cancellarius) as head of the chancery writing office can be traced back as far as the ninth century, when under King Louis the German the office of the Archchancellor (Erzkanzler), later Imperial Chancellor (Reichserzkanzler), was created as a high office on the service of the Holy Roman Emperor. The task was usually fulfilled by the Prince-Archbishops of Mainz as Archchancellors of the German lands.
In the course of the Imperial reform, the Habsburg Emperor Maximilian I in 1498 attempted to counter the spiritual power of the Reichserzkanzler with a more secular position of an Imperial Court Chancellor (Hofkanzler), but the two became merged. These were also the times when attempts were made to balance Imperial absolutism by the creation of Imperial Governments (Reichsregiment), ultimately a failure.
Habsburg Monarchy
Nevertheless, when Maximilian's grandson Ferdinand I succeeded him as Archduke of Austria in 1521, his elder brother Emperor Emperor Charles V (1519–1556) appointed Mercurino Gattinara as "Grand Chancellor of all the realms and kingdoms of the king" (Großkanzler aller Länder und Königreiche). The separate position of an Austrian Court Chancellor appeared as a Österreichische Hofkanzlei around 1526, when the Habsburg Monarchy arose with the Bohemian and Hungarian inheritance; it was however once again merged with the equivalent Reichshofkanzlei office of the Holy Roman Empire in 1559.
Upon the 1620 Battle of White Mountain and the suppression of the Bohemian revolt, Emperor Ferdinand II had separate Court Chancelleries established in order to strengthen the unity of the Habsburg hereditary lands. Beside a Bohemian and Hungarian chancellery, he created the office of an Austrian chancellor in Vienna, responsible for the Archduchy of Austria proper (i.e. Upper and Lower Austria) with the Inner Austrian territories and Tyrol. Under Emperor Leopold I (1658–1705) the term again became Hofkanzler with Johann Paul Freiherr von Hocher (1667–1683), and Theodor von Strattman (1683–1693).
The eighteenth century was dominated by Prince Wenzel Anton of Kaunitz-Rietberg (1753-1792), who was Chancellor to four Habsburg emperors from Maria Theresa to Francis II, with the titles of both Hofkanzler and Staatskanzler. He was succeeded by Johann Philipp von Cobenzl (1792–1793), who was dismissed by Emperor Francis II over the Partition of Poland and was succeeded by Johann Amadeus Francis de Paula (Baron Thugot) (1793–1800). Thugot's chancellorship did not survive the Austrian defeats by the French at the battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden in 1800 and he was replaced by Johan Ludwig Joseph Cobenzl (1800–1805), his predecessor's cousin, but who in turn was dismissed following the Austrian defeat at Austerlitz in 1805.
Austrian Empire
With the consequent dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and founding of the Austrian Empire, Francis II abdicated the former Imperial Throne, but remained Emperor Francis I of Austria in 1806. He had replaced Cobenzl with Johan Philip Charles Stadion (1805–1809) the previous year, but his career was in turn cut short in 1809 following yet another Austrian defeat by Napoleon at the Battle of Wagram and subsequent humiliation at the Treaty of Schönbrunn. Prince Klemens von Metternich was appointed by Francis I to the positions of Hofkanzler and Staatskanzler (1821-1848). However there is some opinion that the Chancellor title was not used between Prince Kaunitz-Rietberg's resignation in 1792 and 1821.
As the Metternich system had become a synonym for his reactionary politics, the title of a State Chancellor was abolished upon the 1848 revolutions. The position became that of a Minister-President of Austria, equivalent to Prime Minister, with the exception of Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust (1867–1871) the title only re-emerging at the birth of German Austria after World War I in 1918, when Karl Renner was appointed Staatskanzler. With the enactment of the Constitution of Austria on 10 November 1920, the actual term Bundeskanzler was implemented as head of the executive branch of the First Austrian Republic.
Since a 1929 constitutional reform, the Chancellor is appointed by the President of Austria. In theory, the President can select anyone he wishes to be Chancellor. De facto however, the National Council parliament has the right to pass a motion of no confidence in the government as a whole or individual cabinet members at any time. Also, it would be all but impossible for a cabinet to govern without adequate support in parliament.
The Chancellor assumes his office immediately and nominates the federal ministers for appointment by the President. Appointments and dismissals are made by the President at the Chancellor's recommendation. However, it has become strong constitutional convention for the President to act on the Chancellor's advice. Once sworn in, the government is capable of acting, without further confirmation by the National Council.
The Chancellor's term of office is not limited and in no way affiliated with the legislative session, though he usually declares the resignation of his government to the Presient upon a parliamentary election. If not, he would have to cope with the authority of the President to dismiss the cabinet or with the possibility of a vote of no confidence by the newly elected National Council. The Chancellor is normally entrusted by the President with the continuation of his offical duties until a new government is sworn in.
Role and powers
As primus inter pares ("first among equals") in the Austrian government, the Chancellor chairs the weekly cabinet meetings (Ministerrat) coordinating the government's policies, but—unlike the Chancellor of Germany—does not possess the power to direct the federal ministers; nor could he appoint or dismiss the cabinet members, though the President would normally act at his suggestion. Thus, although considered as the most powerful political position by the public opinion in Austria, he has a considerably weaker standing than the US President or the UK Prime Minister.
Bills adopted by the National Council and certified by the President need the countersignature by the Chancellor to obtain legal force. As a result of government formation process, the Chancellor could also conduct affairs of a federal ministry in his own responsibility. According to the protocol, the Chancellor ranks 3rd after the Austrian President and the President of the National Council.
The Chancellor normally chairs the largest political party in the Austrian parliament. His political power is devolved from within the party, and can vary depending on his personality and whether there is a coalition government. Especially his relationship with the Federal Minister of Finance has proven vital in the last decades.
The long-lasting Proporz constellation of two approxiamtely equipollent coalition parties has led to some incrustations in Austrian politics.The Chancellor's authority is much stronger in a single-party cabinet, which only Josef Klaus and Bruno Kreisky have achieved so far. On the other hand, in 2000 Wolfgang Schüssel was appointed Chancellor of a highly controversial coalition government with the far-right Freedom Party (FPÖ), although his Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) then had only been third in the previous parliamentary election.
List of Chancellors of Austria
See also
- Politics of Austria
- Constitution of Austria
- Austrian Federal Government
- Vice-Chancellor of Austria
- Federal Chancellery of Austria
- President of Austria
- Interdisziplinärer Arbeitskreis Kurmainz und der Erzkanzler des Reiches
- Cambridge Modern History vol xiii 1911. Books.google.ca. Retrieved 2012-09-20.
- Kaisergruft: Metternich
- Österreich Lexikon 1966, Band 1
- Official site (German)
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The October Manifesto (Russian: Октябрьский манифест, Манифест 17 октября), officially The Manifesto on the Improvement of the State Order (Манифест об усовершенствовании государственного порядка), is a document that served as a precursor to the Russian Empire's first constitution, which would be adopted the next year. The Manifesto was issued by Emperor Nicholas II, under the influence of Count Sergei Witte, on 30 October [O.S. 17 October] 1905 as a response to the Russian Revolution of 1905.
The October Manifesto addressed the unrest application throughout the Russian Empire and pledged to grant basic civil liberties, including personal immunity; and freedom of assembly, association, press, religion, and speech. Other provisions include the allowance of a broad participation in the Duma (parliament), the introduction of universal male suffrage, as well as a decree that no law should come into force without the consent of the Duma.
The Manifesto was a precursor to the Empire's first constitution. Neither document, however, resulted in significant reform, and the Emperor continued to exercise absolute veto power over parliamentary legislation. Between 1906–7 the Duma was dissolved and reformed twice.
The October Manifesto divided opposition to the Emperor. The Kadets were appeased by the idea of having freedom of speech and a truly representative government, and the Union of October 17 (informally known as the Octobrists, this party took its name from the October Manifesto). The Marxists, however, maintained that Nicholas had only made small concessions, arguing that the Duma was only a shell of democracy as it could not pass laws without the approval of the monarch, and that freedom of speech was heavily regulated.
- The Memoirs Of Count Witte New York & Toronto (1921), Armonk, New York (1990). ISBN 0-87332-571-0.
- Fiehn, Terry. (1996). Russia & The USSR 1905-1941. Hodder Headline Group, London. ISBN 0-7195-5255-9.
The October Manifesto of 1905
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|Minimalism in Art|
|Minimalism in Music|
Postmodern music is both a musical style and a musical condition. As a musical style, postmodern music contain characteristics of postmodern art—that is, art after modernism (see Modernism in Music). It favors eclecticism in form and musical genre, and often combines characteristics from different genres, or employs jump-cut sectionalization. It tends to be self-referential and ironic, and it blurs the boundaries between "high art" and kitsch. Daniel Albright (2004) summarizes the traits of the postmodern style as bricolage, polystylism, and randomness.
As a musical condition, postmodern music is simply the state of music in postmodernity. In this sense, postmodern music does not have any one particular style or characteristic, and is not necessarily postmodern in style. However, the music of postmodernity is thought to differ from that of modernity in that whereas modern music was valued for its fundamentals and expression, postmodern music is valued as both a commodity and a symbolic indicator of identity. For example, one significant role of music in postmodern society is to act as a language by which people can signify their identity as a member of a particular subculture.
Table of contents
The postmodern musical style
Modernist influences and postmodern philosophy
In the modern period, recording of music was seen as a way of transcribing an external event, as a photograph is supposed to record an moment in time. However, with the invention of magnetic tape in the 1930's the ability to directly edit a recording, and create a result which did not actually occur, made it possible for a recording to be viewed as the end product of artistic work itself. Through the 1950's, most music, even popular music, presented itself as the capturing of a performance, even if that performance was mic'ed to improve hearing of different parts.
Antecedents to this process, including the electronic music of Edgar Varèse, can be found dating back for several decades, and in 1948 Pierre Schaeffer would use tape to "compose" pieces, however it is with the advent of Rock 'n' Roll and particularly producer Phil Spector and Glenn Gould in classical music in the late 1950's that the idea of using tape to create a stand alone artistic work became more and more prevalent. However, it was with the studio recordings of the Beatles where the full use of multi-track recording and layering became common to popular music. The creation of this recording process transformed pop music. Rock and Hip Hop both extend this process further, by using more and more sophisticated techniques to layer and mix individual tracks.
The rise of popular music created another pressure on music, which would lead to another strand of post-modernity, namely the ability to create a sufficiently large audience for works. In the Modernist view, such a connection was unnecessary – people would naturally gravitate towards "serious" music as the place where ideas could be presented in musical form, rather than "popular" music, which was seen, as the Victorians had seen it, as subsidiary to the more "weighty" genres. As with Post-modern philosophy, post-modern music questioned whether this hierarchy of "high" and "low" culture was correct or appropriate.
A third strand of post-modern music is a change in the fundamental idea of what music is supposed to be "about". As the period wore on, the idea that "music is mainly about itself", became more and more firmly entrenched. Reference was not merely a technique, but the substance of music. Musical works reference other musical works, not because they can, but because they must. This is part of the general change from Modernism which saw the basic subject of art being the most pure elements of musical technique – whether intervals, motivic fragments or rhythms – to Postmodernism which sees the basic subject of art being the stream of media, manufactured objects, and genre materials. In otherwords, post-modernity views the role of art to be commenting on the consumer society and its products, where as modernism sought to convey the "reality" of the universe in its most fundamental form.
Postmodern techniques and their application
The ability to record and mix, and later sample, would feed into this idea, with the inclusion of "found sounds", snippets of other recordings, spoken voices, noises, and sampled tableux into music. Pioneers include Edgar Varèse, who began to experiment with the possibilities of new electronic instruments, using synthesizers and tape loops. John Cage used tapes, radios, and record players to reproduce prerecorded sounds in a wide variety of ways in works such as the series "Imaginary Landscape" and "Europera." Early examples in popular music include Abbey Road, Pink Floyd's Meddle and the "dub" style of music of Lee 'Scratch' Perry. As digital technology has made sampling easy, it has become very common in hip hop, and is taken to its extreme in Bastard pop.
As composers became interested in incorporating pre-existing sounds, they also looked to emulate the effect using only conventional instruments, by extensive quotation from pre-existing material. Quotation and reference to earlier work in principle was not new, as composers such as Richard Strauss and Charles Ives are famous for its use in their tone poems and symphonies nearly a century before, and it is essentially the basis behind organum, parody mass, and other early musical genres. However, the completeness of the collage or thorough use of a pre-existing piece went far beyond earlier composers' brief quotations or use of a cantus firmus. George Rochberg has used pieces from the classical repertoire as the basis for many of his compositions, essentially composing a frequently ironic commentary on an earlier work. Olivier Messiaen's "Oiseaux Exotiques" and "Catalogue d'Oiseaux" are collages of bird songs, precisely notated by species in the score, gathered together in a musical form. A tour-de-force of post-modern musical collage is the third movement of Luciano Berio's "Sinfonia," which uses the scherzo of Gustav Mahler's "Resurrection Symphony" as a musical foundation, and text from Samuel Beckett's "The Unnameable," but adds quotations spanning classical repertory, as though they were sampled or found haphazardly by spinning a radio dial.
A related aspect of post-modern classical music was an interest in reducing the role of a composer in musical composition, not by the use of pre-composed material, but instead by the use of random procedures in composition and performance. This began as a reaction to elements of late modernism, in particular, the modernist project of atonality, begun by Arnold Schoenberg, which had been taken to its logical conclusion, total serialism, by such late modernist composers as Pierre Boulez, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and others. A group of composers, including Boulez, Stockhousen, and especially John Cage began introducing elements of 'chance' in their music to create aleatory music. Cage is famous for using the I Ching to direct his compositions, essentially removing himself from the compositional procedure. On the other hand, his piece 4'33" is performed by a silent pianist, and is said to consist entirely of environmental noise. Aleatory music began to blur the boundaries between the composer and the audience, and between the musician and the environment, which was a postmodern trend.
At the same time, there was also a new interest in non-Western music, early music (typically meaning pre-Baroque), and popular music. This attention to all musical traditions is a general post-modern feature; for them the division between "high" and "low art" is illusory. György Ligeti found rhythmic elements of Pygmy song that fit his own sensibilities, and they influenced his later compositions. Olivier Messiaen studied thoroughly Indian music and medieval music, and some of his scores make reference to Indian tala or plainchant. Tan Dun, born in China, has sought ways in his compositions to unite the Chinese and Western strands of music. Steve Reich studied West African drumming, Indonesian gamelan, and Hebrew cantillation, and his works are sometimes compared to Perotin or rock music. Further eroding the wall between "art music" and "popular music," a number of DJs have remixed his work on the album "Reich Remixed." Glenn Branca and Rhys Chatham have worked with rock musicians and combined the techniques of classical and popular music.
The approach of post-modern composers with regard to foreign, obsolete or popular musical idioms differs substantially from the "exotic" references of earlier composers. One key difference is the thoroughness of the study. Mozart's "Rondo alla Turca" is supposedly influenced by Turkish music, but it is a superficial and stereotypical reference imposed in a pure classical form. Post-modern composers have generally sought in earnest to understand the underlying principles of exotic music by years of study or performance in the idiom. The result is often more subtly incorporated into the composer's vocabulary, so much that one may not imagine the source of the foreign elements until they are pointed out.
The emergence of postmodern styles
In the late 1950s and 1960s a series of styles, influenced by pop and post-modern conditions began to form, and existing styles began to incorporate post-modern elements.
In popular music, jazz, rhythm and blues, and early rock and roll are all begin to become shaped by not only new technology, but a fundamentally different way of producing recordings. Instead of trying to achieve a rounded three dimensional sound in imitation of the concert experience, recordings increasingly foregrounded the vocals and made the rest of the sounds a single "wall" behind the main track. By the mid 1960s this "wall of sound" style was the standard of most commercial radio. The full incorporation of the studio mixing techniques, electronics and use of layering would lead to the establishment of rock. "Pop" music, as a specific sub-genre, would eschew the electric guitar driven sound of rock in favor of synthesizers, acoustic instruments, and more subdued rhythm sections.
At the same time, dance music, particularly the "disc jockeys" at urban parties were creating a different road into post-modernity in music. Their approach was to take records on turntables, and by hand control the speed of the turntable, and using the mixing board as an instrument, add reverb and other sound effects. At the same time they would speak into the microphone, using the dance tracks as a background for their own speech, which would lead, eventual to eventually evolving into the DJing and MCing of hip hop music. Further evolution in the 1990s turntablism movement focused on the DJing aspect of hip hop, with music made almost entirely of samples. DJ Shadow is the most well known turntablist DJ, but Q-Bert and Mixmaster Mike of the Invisibl Skratch Piklz, DJ Spooky and Cut Chemist were also highly influential.
In classical music, minimalism is usually regarded as the first "post-modern" style. Minimalism was in part a reaction to the perceived inaccessibility and sterility of modernist classical music of such composers in the tradition of Arnold Schoenberg, Pierre Boulez, the early John Cage, and others among the avant-garde. The earliest minimalist composers included LaMonte Young, who had studied under Schoenberg and incorporated elements of serialism in his early minimalist works, and Terry Riley, who was largely influenced in his composition by the repetitiveness of Indian music and rock music.
Minimalism and related postmodern musical styles laid the groundwork for re-integrating popular and 'highbrow' music, which had been separated since the rise of modernism. By the 1970s, avant-garde rock and pop musicians (such as Suicide and Throbbing Gristle) had become interested in electronic instrumentation, the use of Eastern rhythms and unconventional instruments (for example the use of the sitar by the Beatles) and drone-like or repetitive music, stylistically similar to minimalism (such as the music of The Velvet Underground, Tangerine Dream, and Kraftwerk). Tape loops also prefigured the use of 'sampling' in techno music and house music, and the 'scratching' of hip-hop. Moreover the 'ironic' 'cut and paste' approach of Stockhausen's later work (which used elements from both 'high' and 'low' art) was highly influential on many pop and rock composers in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s: see, for example, Frank Zappa or The Residents. (See contemporary music).
It should also be noted that postmodern jazz has also been highly influential on contemporary pop/rock music. This has developed from two main sources, the innovations of Charlie Parker in the immediate post-war period, and (again) Arnold Schoenberg: this time, however, not so much his serial work as his pre-WWI 'atonal' style, where all forms of tonality were abandoned. The merging of these two traditions led to the development of free Jazz in the 1950s by Ornette Coleman who went onto inspire a new generation of musicians in the 1960s and 1970s: for example, John Coltrane, Albert Ayler and Sun Ra. Free jazz was hugely influential on many avant-garde rock musicians: for example Captain Beefheart, and, in a completely different way The Stooges and Lou Reed (who eventually worked with Coleman in 2003 on the Raven album). These artists themselves were influential on a generation of punk musicians in the 1970s and 1980s (see for example The Lounge Lizards and The Pop Group). In the 1970s Miles Davis repaid the compliment by incorporating elements of funk and rock into his sound, most notably on his Bitches Brew album. Again, this has been hugely influential on contemporary rock and jazz.
The postmodern musical condition: the condition of music in postmodernity
As a musical condition, postmodern music is music situated after the modern age, during the present period, where music has become valued primarily a commodity and a culture, rather than a form of idealized modernist expression for its own sake. Some authors have suggested that the transition in music from modern to postmodern occurred in the late 1960s, influenced in part by psychedelic music and the late Beatles albums. (Sullivan, 1995, p.217.) In the 1970s, the postmodern condition continued with the advent of disco, punk rock, heavy metal, hip-hop, and a newly-commodified country music.
The difference between modern music and postmodern music then is that modernist music was characterized by a focus on musical fundamentals and expression. In postmodern music, however, the commodity being sold by record companies and pop stars is not the fundamentals of the music, but the cultural image surrounding the music, which reverberates through film, television, and other media.
Causes and Theories of Post-Modernity in Music
Another theory advanced is that post-modernity is the explicit reaction to the rise of a mass production consumer society, and is linked to the need to create coherence and aesthetic value from the artifacts and patterns of that society.
Postmodern musical artists
- Patricia Barber
- Luciano Berio
- John Cage
- Ornette Coleman
- John Adams
- Philip Glass
- Steve Reich
- George Rochberg
- Alfred Schnittke
- Ezequiel Viñao
- LaMonte Young
- John Zorn
- The Beatles
- The Velvet Underground
- Pink Floyd
- Frank Zappa
- Wire (band)
- The Butthole Surfers
- Throbbing Gristle
- King Tubby
- Kurtis Blow
- Grandmaster Flash
- Grand Wizard Theodore
- Run DMC
- Pete DJ Jones
- Kool DJ Herc
- Public Enemy
- Invisibl Skratch Piklz
- Mixmaster Mike
- DJ Shadow
- Cut Chemist
- DJ Spooky
- list of turntablists
- Albright, Daniel (2004). Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226012670.
- Sullivan, Henry W. (1995) The Beatles with Lacan: Rock ‘n’ Roll as requiem for the modern age. (Sociocriticism: Literature, Society and History Series Vol. 4). New York: Lang. xiv.
- Larkin, C., ed. (1995). The Guinness Encyclopedia of Popular Music, vol 1–5. England: Guinness Publishing.
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A literature review gives an account of works published by researchers and scholars. Students may write literature reviews in form of assignments or in form of annotated bibliography. It is written in form of a discursive prose, and does not summarize one piece of literature after the other. Literature review is often part of an essay’s introduction, research report or thesis’ introduction. Students should organize literature reviews into sections presenting themes or including a relevant story.
Literature reviews aim at evaluating and synthesizing published material in accordance to the guiding concept of the research question. Students write literature reviews in order to inform the readers about their knowledge and ideas concerning a topic. Moreover, literature reviews show the strengths and weaknesses of a literature topic. Literature review is a kind of writing defined by a guiding concept. Such a guiding concept may be the problem or issue under discussion, research objective or an argumentative thesis. Students are not supposed to use a set of summaries or mere descriptive list of available material when writing literature reviews.
Literature reviews help students to enhance their knowledge about a topic, and help them gain a wide variety of skills. The skills demonstrated by students writing literature reviews are as following: The first skill is information seeking which is the ability of students to efficiently scan literature. Scanning is done using computerized methods or manually in order to identify the useful books and articles. The second skill is critical appraisal. This refers to the ability of students to apply analytical principles in order to identify valid and unbiased studies. A literature review should portray organization, and must relate to the research question or thesis formulated. A literature review must also synthesize results by summarizing them to known and unknown. The other vital point is for a literature review to identify controversial areas in literature and lastly, to formulate questions that require in-depth research.
A student needs to identify the research question that his or her literature review helps to define. Moreover, a student must identify or know the scope of the literature review, and the types of publications used when writing the literature review. It is essential for a student to do enough research in order to gather relevant material for writing a literature review. Moreover, the research has to be narrow enough to exclude the irrelevant material that do not form part of the literature review.
Critical analysis of a literature review is of the essence. This ensures that a student or writer writers a high-quality literature review. When writing annotated bibliography, students should not summarize each item but instead they should follow themes and critically assess the literature review material. Students should state the scope of the literature review using an overall introduction and conclusion. Grouping of items into sections helps students to show relationships and comparisons.
Literature review writing can be a complicated task to students. Hence, students should seek literature review writing help from writing sites and companies. A reliable company should provide custom literature review papers at an affordable price. Moreover, the customized literature review papers must be written from scratch by professional, academic writers. It is essential for a reliable company to hire writers who can write literature reviews on diverse literature books and based on several topics. Our company provides the best literature review papers for sale.
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Rewriting PTR salinity, alkalinity, chemical toxicity and drainage based on the wrb-standard
Review of available information in the SGDBE
In the SGDBE, the attribute WR gives information about the water regime of the STU following 4 classes. This attribute gives information about the duration and the depth where the soil is saturated by water during the year. The relation between the values of this attribute and the drainage classes used for CGMS is given in Table 4-21. The class 4 of WR is corresponding to the VP (very poorly drained) class used in CGMS. But for the other classes of WR, there are several CGMS classes that correspond. For these WR classes, it is necessary to use other information to choose which CGMS class corresponds. To do so, the information from the soil name (FAO85- FULL, FAO90-FULL and WRB-FULL) and the agricultural limitations (AGLIM1, AGLIM2) will be used. These attributes will also be used when WR is not given (that is the case for all the data coming from the Digital Soil Map of the World).
The current CGMS rule for drainage class on the part of the SGDBE where soil names were given in the FAO-UNESCO 1974 legend is evaluated. Note that not each individual record is compared separately. First, all records of the CGMS rule have been applied. Thus, for example, not all Gleysols will receive value ‘P’; only the STUs that have not been assigned ‘W’ or ‘VP’ because of a drained or flooded phase.
For each occurrence of the rule, the values taken by the WR attribute (except when WR = 0) were counted (Table 4-22). Some occurrences show a good correlation with WR:
- with a good estimation (in bold): for Gleysols, gleyic soils, Podzoluvisols, Arenosols and coarse-textured soils;
- with a bad estimation (in light grey): for Histosols, Placic Podzols, Plinthic Acrisols, Stagnic soils, Humic Podzols, Albic Luvisols, Orthic Greyzems and Vertisols.
The occurrences using the phase are generally dispatched in several WR classes. This result is not surprising because phases are generally not well defined. Moreover, the use of phases was very heterogeneous from one country to another.
Some soil types have more or less a high variability in their water regime:
- for Planosols, the water regime is mainly between 2 and 3;
- for Fluvisols, the water regime is mainly 1, but could be 2 or 3.
In the FAO-UNESCO 1974 legend, the water regime of soils is described by:
- hydromorphic properties;
- aridic moisture regime;
- presence of an albic E horizon overlying a slowly permeable horizon;
- presence of a sulphuric horizon or sulphidic materials (see 4.4).
The different soil names for which one or more of these characteristics are present, or are not allowed, are listed in Table 4-23.
Hydromorphic properties mark soils showing one or more of the following properties:
- saturation by groundwater;
- occurrence of a Histic H horizon;
- dominant hues that are neutral N, or bluer than 10Y;
- saturation with water at some periods of the year, or artificially drained, with evidence of
reduction processes or of reduction and segregation of iron reflected by different criteria
like for example:
- in Podzols, the presence of a duripan or a thin iron pan;
- in soils having an argillic horizon, iron-manganese concretions larger than 2 mm;
- in Ferralsols, plinthite that forms a continuous phase within 30 cm.
For some soil groups, the presence of hydromorphic properties was not defined because it was not possible to separate them at the scale of the Soil Map of the World. It is the case for Fluvisols, Regosols, Luvic Kastanozems, Luvic Chernozems and Nitosols. In the Soil Map of the European Communities (CEC, 1985), several subdivisions were added:
- showing hydromorphic properties:
- within 50 cm from the soil surface: Gleyo-eutric, Gleyo-calcaric and Gleyo-dystric Fluvisols,
- related to surface water stagnation during most of the year: Stagno-eutric, Stagno-Calcaric Stagno-dystric Gleysols, Stagno-gleyic Cambisols, Stagno-gleyic Luvisols, Stagnogleyic Podzoluvisols, Stagno-gleyic Podzols.
- having a thin iron pan: Placi-dystric Histosols.
If the soil name can give information about the presence of hydromorphic properties and their depth of appearance, it gives no information about the duration of the saturation by water periods.
In the Digital Soil Map of the World, there is a rule for drainage estimation based on FAO soil name, topsoil texture, slope and phases (Table 4-24). The estimation gives a repartition in % to each drainage class that enables calculation of areas.
The FAO rule for drainage class on the part of the SGDBE where soil names were given in the FAO-UNESCO 1974 legend was evaluated. For each occurrence of the rule, the values taken by the WR attribute (except when WR = 0) were counted (Table 4-25). All the occurrences for which we have WR values show a good correlation with WR:
• with a good estimation (in bold)
• with a bad estimation (in light grey): An estimation is considered as bad if the dominant FAO drainage class doesn’t correspond to the WR value, or if there are two classes having equal percentage, even if one corresponds to the WR value.
Topsoil texture, slope and phase don’t show an impact on WR values.
In the FAO-UNESCO 1990 legend, the water regime of soils is described by:
- gleyic properties;
- stagnic properties;
- presence of an E horizon abruptly overlying a slowly permeable horizon;
- presence of a sulphuric horizon or sulphidic materials (see 4.4);
- well drained;
- imperfect to very poor drainage;
- very poor drainage or undrained.
The different soil names for which one or more of these characteristics are present or are not allowed, are listed in Table 4-26.
Gleyic and stagnic properties refer to soil material which is saturated with water at some periods of the year, or throughout the year, in most years, and which show evidence of reduction processes or of reduction and segregation of iron. Gleyic properties are related to saturation by groundwater. Stagnic properties are related to saturation by surface water within 50 cm.
In WRB the water regime is described by:
- Gleysols: soils having gleyic properties within 50 cm from the soil surface;
- Planosols: soils having an eluvial horizon, the lower boundary of which is marked, within 100 cm from the soil surface, by an abrupt textural change associated with stagnic properies above that boundary;
- Histosols: soils having:
- a folic horizon which one of its characteristics is to have water saturation for less than one month in most years;
- or a histic horizon which one of its characteristics is to have water saturation for at least one month in most years;
- Gelistagnic soils present a temporary water saturation at the surface caused by a frozen
- Gleyic soils are soils having gleyic properties within 100 cm from the soil surface. Two specifiers
can be used:
- endogleyic: soils having gleyic properties between 50 and 100 cm from the soil surface;
- epigleyic: soils having gleyic properties within 50 cm from the soil surface.
- Oxyaquic Cryosols: Cryosols saturated with water during the thawing period and lacking redoximorphic features within 100 cm from the soil surface;
- Planic soils are soils having an eluvial horizon abruptly overlying a slowly permeable horizon within 100 cm from the soil surface;
- Rheic Histosols: Histosols having a water regime conditioned by surface water;
- Stagnic soils are soils having stagnic properties within 50 cm from the soil surface;
- Endostagnic soils are soils having stagnic properties between 50 and 100 cm from the soil surface.
Gleyic properties refer to soil materials which are, at least temporarily, completely saturated with groundwater for a period that allows reducing conditions to occur and show a gleyic colour pattern. Stagnic properties refer to soil materials which are completely saturated with surface water for a period long enough to allow reducing conditions to occur and show a stagnic colour pattern.
Attributes AGLIM1 and AGLIM2
Several phases are related with the water regime of the soils: drained, fragipan, flooded, phreatic. The drained phase has no definition, and becomes ‘excessively drained’ in the Instructions guide for version 4.0. When looking at the STUs having a dominant phase drained, all the values for WR are represented; the values 1, 2 and 3 are representing each of them around 30% of these STUs, the value 4 representing 8%. There is a low correlation between the phase drained and the water regime showing its bad quality. It is proposed to ignore this value in the rule.
The fragipan phase is defined in the FAO-UNESCO 1974 legend. It marks soils which have the upper level of the fragipan occurring within 100 cm from the soil surface. A fragipan is a loamy (uncommonly a sandy) subsurface horizon which has a high bulk density relative to the horizons above it. It is slowly to very slowly permeable.
The flooded phase has no definition.
The phreatic phase is defined in the FAO-UNESCO 1974 legend. It marks soils which have a groundwater table between 3 and 5 m from the soil surface. At this depth the presence of a groundwater is not normally reflected in the morphology of the solum; however, its presence is important for the water regime of the soil.
The petrocalcic phase marks soils in which the upper part of a petrocalcic horizon occurs within 100 cm from the soil surface (FAO-UNESCO, 1974). The petrocalcic horizon is a continuous cemented or indurated calcic horizon. The hydraulic conductivity is moderately slow to very slow.
When the current CGMS rule for drainage was evaluated, it appears that phases have often a high variability for the WR attribute. In this case it is proposed not to use them for estimating the drainage class.
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The Farmers Alliance
The populist movement first came into being in small communities far from any cities or centers of political or cultural activity. During the summer of 1890 farm families in the agrarian South and West gathered in their respective areas to discuss their problems. At these gatherings, agrarian families listened to the speeches of recruiters from the “National Farmers’ Alliance.” The Farmers’ Alliance grew at an astounding speed.
During the late 1800’s discontent among the agrarian population was becoming a worldwide issue. With the advent of advanced forms of transportation and communication the farmers were suddenly hurled into a far larger market that they no longer were in control of. Due to the increased opportunity for competition, prices of crops began to drop. However, this same phenomenon affected other products as well and, although farmers were making less profit quantitatively, their actual purchasing power (or qualitative profit) was increasing. Farmers expressed grievances about the cost of shipping their goods, however during this period the price of shipping actually decreased. All of these things, however, were still detrimental to the agrarian community because, up until this point, they had not required the services of the railroad to ship crops, and they had not been in need of as many manufactured goods to support their farms.
All of this can be deceiving. While general economic trends were more positive than anything else, the situation of farming communities varied widely from location to location. In fact, no nationwide patters could be clearly defined. In reality there was a more pressing issue that lead to the ascension of the populist movement: Despite overwhelming evidence to the contrary, farmers were having the distinct feeling that their situation was becoming worse. It is said that reality is perception, and this is certainly true in any social science because people do not react to their environment, they react to their perception of their environment. The farmers perceived doomsday. In the 1870’s and 80’s there was a growing social trend favoring cities and industry. Farmers’ children were leaving their homes and family businesses to make it big in the city. Literature was published during this time describing the drab and meaningless existence of farm life.
During this time multitudes of farmers' organizations were changing and merging with each other. Two major organizations emerged, both calling themselves the Farmers’ Alliance: The Northwestern Alliance in Mississippi and the West, and the Southern Alliance (however, the geographical coverage of these two organizations is not highly clear-cut). The Southern Alliance was started in Texas in 1875 and began absorbing other agrarian societies after 1886. The primary concerns of this society were residual systems from the old Civil War South. The sharecropping system, crop-liens, and overworked land ranked at the top of their lists. The Northwestern Alliance was similar to the Southern alliance, but differed on policies of the Southern alliance such as secrecy, and segregated organizations for Blacks. In 1889 the Southern alliance took on the “National Farmers’ Alliance” title and absorbed the greater part of the Northwestern alliance. The Alliance then formed its own political party due to a disapproval of both the Republican and Democratic parties. The first Peoples’ Party was formed in 1890. The party’s demands were for a federal farmers reserve (the sub-treasury) that would allow crops to be temporarily sold to the government, which would then hold them until the most opportune selling time presented itself, then distribute the profits back to the farmers. They also demanded, and much more within reason, the free coinage of both gold and silver, an abolition on tariffs, a federal income tax, the direct election of senators, and railroad regulation. During the elections of 1890 the fledgling people’s party gained thirty-eight supporters in congress.
The sub-treasury was a system devised by the populists to combat what they perceived to be a bad market for their products. It would allow farmers to store their crops in government warehouses and then take out a government loan for up to 80% of the market price of said goods. The loan would come to term upon the sale of the crops, which could be held until ideal market conditions presented themselves. This is an ingenious idea, except that it is basically asking for government aid for farmers and therefore it was slightly harder to gain acceptance at the national level than it was to convince their neighbors that it was a good idea.
The Federal Income Tax
Why would a farmer who is struggling to keep their home ask for a new tax? Well, boys and girls, is it simple. How does the government make money? Collecting taxes. How did the government make their money at this time? Property taxes. Who had the most money? Factory owners and businessmen did. Who had the most land? Farmers. Who paid the most money? Farmers. Is this fair?.
The Election of 1892
After the 1890 elections the populists formed the political party that gave them their name, the new People’s party was also known as the Populist Party. Up until this time the Populists had been participating with the Democratic Party to avoid splitting the white vote by forming a new party, and thus neutering the White’s Supremacy. The new party was formed because the Populists were not content with the false support provided to them by their democratic congressmen. The Democrats played off of the popularity of the populist movement, but rarely followed through on their campaign promises. The new Populist Party gained over one million votes in the election of 1892 and gained 22 electoral votes. Populist governors were installed in Kansas and North Dakota, and ten congressmen, five senators, and approximately fifteen hundred state legislators were installed. The populists never ran a more successful election, but the Democrats, through coercion, fraud, and manipulation, suppressed the populists’ following during the election of 1892.
Push for Equality
There was one unintended side effect of the populist movement. In the South, where racism was most rampant, there were certain populist politicians who saw a definite similarity of condition between white and black farmers. Both were in the same bad situation. Blacks and Whites served together on populist election committees, spoke from the same platforms, and even served on the same juries. It was unheard of for a black to be called for jury duty at this time. In 1892 a black populist was threatened with a lynching. Two thousand white populist farmers gathered in the area and protected him. Some of these farmers rode all night to get there. The populist sheared across race lines in many ways.
Then there was The Panic of 1893.
Primary Source: "America Past and Present" by Divine, and Lecture from Mr. Gruver's American History Class.
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A means of controlling a horse
mostly used in western
riding. For most of history, horses were controlled using the two reins independently
to indicate which direction
you wanted the horse to go. Of course, in the old west
, this caused a problem becuase you might need a hand for say, shooting or roping
. And you know, training your horse to repsond to leg pressure
is just too much work I guess. Insert neck reining.
So basically what you do is train the horse to respond to the pressure of the reins on the neck. The reigns are tied in a knot so it kinda forms a loop. To move the horse right, you move the reins to the right so that the left rein falls against his neck. When the horse feels the rein on the left side of his neck, he is trained to move away from it, hence he goes in the direction you want. And there you go, one handed control with very little pressure on the mouth being invovled.
And now you know.
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Many people are confused about the concepts in DBus. This page gives an analogy to the web which should help to explain things.
- unique bus name
- well-known bus name
- object path
- method name
- in parameters
- out parameters
Web Server Analogy
- unique bus name is like an IP address. In particular it is dynamic.
- well-known bus name is like a hostname. It can be held by different programs at different times, but they should all implement the same API
- object path is like the path on the server
- interface/method name is like GET or POST
- in parameters are like like GET/POST variables
- out parameters are like the page which is returned.
Object-Oriented Language Analogy
- an object path refers to an object, such as a java.lang.Object
- an interface is exactly like a Java interface
- in parameters are method arguments
- out parameters are method return values
- unique bus name identifies the running process or application uniquely (these bus names are never re-used by a different process)
- well-known bus name is a "symlink" that points to the process providing a particular API
- an API is made up of objects that are expected to exist, which are expected to implement certain interfaces
- see also http://log.ometer.com/2007-05.html#17
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Most Americans believe that the Declaration of Independence by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776 began American independence. While this date announced the formal break between the American colonists and the “mother country,” it did not guarantee independence. Not all Americans favored independence and most historical estimates place the number of Loyalist, or Tory, Americans near one-third of the population. Winning independence required an eight-year war that began in April, 1775 and ended with a peace treaty finalized on September 3, 1783. Unfortunately the infant nation found itself born in a world dominated by a superpower struggle between England and France. The more powerful European nations viewed the vulnerable United States, correctly, as weak and ripe for exploitation. Tragically, few Americans know of this period of crisis in our nation’s history because of the irresponsible neglect of the American education system.
American independence marked the end of one chapter in American history and the beginning of another. As with all historical events this declaration continued the endless cycle of action and reaction, because nothing occurs in a vacuum. Tragically, most Americans’ historical perspective begins with their birth, rendering everything that previously occurred irrelevant. Furthermore, most educators conveniently “compartmentalize” their subjects and do not place them in the proper historical context. Since most Americans only remember the United States as a superpower they do not know of our previous struggles. Unfortunately our agenda driven education system also ignores this period and often portrays America in the most negative light.
Without delving too deeply into the deteriorating relations between the American colonists and their “mother country,” declaring independence came slowly. None of the thirteen colonies trusted the other colonies and rarely acted in concert, even during times of crisis. Regional and cultural differences between New England, mid-Atlantic and the Southern colonies deeply divided the colonists. Even in these early days of America slavery proved a dividing issue, although few believed in racial equality. The “umbilical cord” with England provided the only unifying constant that bound them together culturally and politically.
The colonies further possessed different forms of government as well, although they steadfastly expressed their liberties and “rights as Englishmen.” Some colonies existed as royal colonies, where the English monarch selected the governor. Proprietary colonies formed when merchant companies or individuals, called proprietors, received a royal grant and appointed the governor. Charter colonies received their charters much as proprietary colonies with individuals or merchants receiving royal charters and shareholders selected the governor. Each colony elected its own legislature and local communities made their laws mostly based on English common law. Any form of national, or “continental,” unity remained an illusion largely in the minds of the delegates of the First Continental Congress.
The Second Continental Congress convened on May 10, 1775 because England ignored the grievances submitted by the First Continental Congress. Furthermore, open warfare erupted in Massachusetts between British troops and the colonial militia at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. Known today as Patriot’s Day few Americans outside of Massachusetts celebrate it, or even know of it. Setting forth their reasons for taking up arms against England, they established the Continental Army on June 14, 1775. For attempting a united front, they appointed George Washington, a Virginian, as commander-in-chief. On July 10, 1775, the Congress sent Parliament one last appeal for resolving their differences, which proved futile.
While Congress determined the political future of the colonies fighting continued around Boston, beginning with the bloody battle on Breed’s Hill on June 17, 1775. Known as the Battle of Bunker Hill in our history the British victory cost over 1,000 British and over 400 American casualties. This battle encouraged the Americans because it proved the “colonials” capable of standing against British regulars. British forces withdrew from Boston in March, 1776 and awaited reinforcements from England as fighting erupted in other colonies.
While Washington and the Continental Army watched the British in Boston, Congress authorized an expedition against Canada. They hoped for significant resentment of British rule by the majority of French inhabitants, something they misjudged. In September, 1775 the fledgling Continental Army launched an ambitious, but futile, two-pronged invasion of Canada. Launched late in the season, particularly for Canada, it nevertheless almost succeeded, capturing Montreal and moving on Quebec. It ended in a night attack in a snowstorm on December 31, 1775 when the commander fell dead and the second-in-command fell severely wounded. American forces did breach the city walls, however when the attack broke down these men became prisoners of war.
For disrupting the flow of British supplies into America Congress organized the Continental Navy and Continental Marines on October 13, 1775 and November 10, 1775, respectively. Still, no demands for independence despite the creation of national armed forces, the invasion of a “foreign country” and all the trappings of a national government.
The full title of the Declaration of Independence ends with “thirteen united States of America,” with united in lower case. I found no evidence that the Founding Fathers did this intentionally, or whether it merely reflected the writing style of the time. Despite everything mentioned previously regarding “continental” actions, the thirteen colonies jealously guarded their sovereignty.
Although Congress declared independence England did not acknowledge the legality of this resolution and considered the colonies “in rebellion.” England assembled land and naval forces of over 40,000, including German mercenaries, for subduing the “insurrection.” This timeless lesson proves the uselessness of passing resolutions with no credible threat of force backing them up. Unfortunately our academic-dominated society today believes merely the passage of laws and international resolutions forces compliance.
We hear much in the news today about “intelligence failures” regarding the war against terrorism. England definitely experienced an “intelligence failure” as it launched an expedition for “suppressing” this “insurrection” by a “few hotheads.” First, they under estimated the extent of dissatisfaction among the Americans, spurred into action by such “rabble rousers” as John Adams. They further under estimated the effectiveness of Washington and the Continental Army, particularly after the American victories at Trenton and Princeton.
British officials further under estimated the number of Loyalists with the enthusiasm for taking up arms for the British. While Loyalist units fought well, particularly in the South and the New York frontier, they depended heavily on the support of British regulars. Once British forces withdrew, particularly in the South, the Loyalist forces either followed them or disappeared. A perennial lesson for military planners today, do not worry about your “footprint,” decisively defeat your enemy. This hardens the resolve of your supporters, influences the “neutrals” in your favor and reduces the favorability of your enemies.
Regarding the “national defense” the Continental Congress and “states” did not fully cooperate against the superpower, England. The raising of the Continental Army fell on the individual colonies almost throughout the war with the Congress establishing quotas. Unfortunately, none of the colonies ever met their quota for Continental regiments, with the soldiers negotiating one-year enlistments.
Continental Army recruiters often met with competition from the individual colonies, who preferred fielding their militias. The Congress offered bounties in the almost worthless “Continental Currency” and service far from home in the Continental Army. Colonial governments offered higher bounties in local currencies, or British pounds, and part-time service near home.
Congress only possessed the authority for requesting troops and supplies from the colonial governors, who often did not comply. For most of the war the Continental Army remained under strength, poorly supplied, poorly armed and mostly unpaid. Volumes of history describe the harsh winters endured by the Continentals at Valley Forge and Morristown, New Jersey the following year.
Colonial governments often refused supplies for troops from other colonies, even though those troops fought inside their borders. As inflation continued devaluing “Continental Currency” farmers and merchants preferred trading with British agents, who often paid in gold. This created strong resentment from the soldiers who suffered the hardships of war and the civilians who profited from this trade. In fairness, the staggering cost of financing the war severely taxed the colonial governments and local economies, forcing hard choices.
Congress further declared independence as a cry for help from England’s superpower rival, France, and other nations jealous of England. Smarting from defeat in the Seven Years War (French and Indian War in America), and a significant reduction in its colonial empire, France burned for revenge. France’s ally, Spain, also suffered defeat and loss of territory during this war and sought advantage in the American war. However, France and Spain both needed American victories before they risked their troops and treasures. With vast colonial empires of their own they hesitated at supporting a colonial rebellion in America. As monarchies, France and Spain held no love of “republican ideals” or “liberties,” and mostly pursued independent strategies against England. Fortunately their focus at recouping their former possessions helped diminish the number of British forces facing the Americans.
On the political front the Congress knew that the new nation needed some form of national government for its survival. Unfortunately the Congress fell short on this issue, enacting the weak Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777. Delegates so feared the “tyranny” of a strong central government, as well as they feared their neighbors, that they rejected national authority. In effect, the congressional delegates created thirteen independent nations instead of one, and our nation suffered from it. Amending this confederation required the approval of all thirteen states, virtually paralyzing any national effort. This form of government lasted until the adoption of the US Constitution on September 17, 1787.
Despite these weaknesses the fledgling “United States” survived and even achieved some success against British forces. Particularly early in the war, the British forces possessed several opportunities for destroying the Continental Army and ending the rebellion. Fortunately for us British commanders proved lethargic and complacent, believing the “colonial rabble” incapable of defeating them. Furthermore, as the Continental Army gained experience and training it grew more professional, standing toe-to-toe against the British. Since the US achieved superpower status it fell into the same trap, continuously underestimating less powerful enemies.
The surrender of British forces at Yorktown, Virginia on October 19, 1781 changed British policy regarding its American colonies. British forces now controlled mainly three enclaves: New York City; Charleston, South Carolina and Savannah, Georgia. Loyalist forces, discouraged by British reverses, either retreated into these enclaves, departed America or surrendered. Waging a global war against France and Spain further reduced the number of troops available for the American theater. This serves another modern lesson for maintaining adequate forces for meeting not only your superpower responsibilities, but executing unforeseen contingencies.
Ironically, the victory at Yorktown almost defeated the Americans as well, since the civil authorities almost stopped military recruitment. Washington struggled at maintaining significant forces for confronting the remaining British forces in their enclaves. An aggressive British commander may still score a strategic advantage by striking at demobilizing American forces. Fortunately, the British government lost heart for retaining America and announced the beginning of peace negotiations in August, 1782.
The Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783 officially ended the American Revolution; however it did not end America’s struggles. American negotiators proved somewhat naïve in these negotiations against their more experienced European counterparts. Of importance, the British believed American independence a short-lived situation, given the disunity among Americans. Congress began discharging the Continental Army before the formal signing of the treaty, leaving less than one hundred on duty.
Instead of a united “allied” front, America, France and Spain virtually negotiated separate treaties with England, delighting the British. They believed that by creating dissension among the wartime allies they furthered their position with their former colonies. If confronted with a new war with more powerful France and Spain, America might rejoin the British Empire.
When England formally established the western boundary of the US at the Mississippi River it did not consult its Indian allies. These tribes did not see themselves as “defeated nations,” since they often defeated the Americans. Spanish forces captured several British posts in this territory and therefore claimed a significant part of the southeastern US.
France, who practically bankrupted itself in financing the American cause and waging its own war against England, expected an American ally. Unfortunately, the US proved a liability and incapable of repaying France for the money loaned during the war. France soon faced domestic problems that resulted in the French Revolution in 1789.
For several reasons England believed itself the winner of these negotiations, and in a more favorable situation, globally. England controlled Canada, from where it closely monitored the unfolding events in the US, and sowed mischief. It illegally occupied several military forts on American territory and incited the Indian tribes against the American frontier. By default, England controlled all of the American territory north of the Ohio River and west of the Appalachian Mountains.
Economically, England still believed that the US needed them as its primary trading partner, whether independent or not. A strong pro-British faction in America called for closer economic ties with the former “mother country.” As England observed the chaos that gripped the US at this time, they felt that its collapse, and reconquest by England, only a matter of time.
Most Americans today, knowing only the economic, industrial and military power of America cannot fathom the turmoil of this time. The weak central government and all the states accumulated a huge war debt, leaving them financially unstable. While the US possessed rich natural resources it lacked the industrial capabilities for developing them, without foreign investment. With no military forces, the nation lacked the ability of defending its sovereignty and its citizens. From all appearances our infant nation seemed stillborn, or as the vulnerable prey for the more powerful Europeans.
As stated previously the Articles of Confederation actually created thirteen independent nations, with no national executive for enforcing the law. Therefore each state ignored the resolutions from Congress and served its own self-interest. Each state established its own rules for interstate commerce, printed its own money and even established treaties with foreign nations. No system existed for governing the interactions between the states, who often treated each other like hostile powers.
The new nation did possess one thing in abundance, land; the vast wilderness between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. Conceded by the British in the Treaty of Paris, the Americans looked at this as their economic solution. The nation owed the veterans of the Revolution a huge debt and paid them in the only currency available, land grants. Unfortunately, someone must inform the Indians living on this land and make treaties regarding land distribution.
For the Americans this seemed simple, the Indians, as British allies, suffered defeat with the British and must pay the price. After all, under the rules of European “civilized” warfare, defeated nations surrendered territory and life went on. Unfortunately no one, neither American nor British, informed the Indians of these rules, because no one felt they deserved explanation. Besides, the British hoped that by inciting Indian troubles they might recoup their former colonies.
With British arms and encouragement the tribes of the “Old Northwest” raided the western frontier with a vengeance. From western New York down through modern Kentucky these Indians kept up their war with the Americans. In Kentucky between 1783 and 1790 the various tribes killed an estimated 1,500 people, stole 20,000 horses and destroyed an unknown amount of property.
Our former ally, Spain, controlled all of the territory west of the Mississippi River before the American Revolution. From here they launched expeditions that captured British posts at modern Vicksburg and Natchez, Mississippi, and the entire Gulf Coast. However, they claimed about two-thirds of the southeastern US based on this “conquest” including land far beyond the occupation of their troops. Like the British, they incited the Indians living in this region for keeping out American settlers.
Spain also controlled the port of New Orleans and access into the Mississippi River. Americans living in Kentucky and other western settlements depended on the Mississippi River for their commerce. The national government seemed unable, or unwilling, at forcing concessions from Spain, and many westerners considered seceding from the Union. Known as the “Spanish Conspiracy” this plot included many influential Americans and only disappeared after the American victory at Fallen Timbers.
While revisionist historians ignore the “Spanish Conspiracy” they illuminate land speculation by Americans in Spanish territory. Of course they conveniently ignore the duplicity of Spanish officials in these plots, and their acceptance of American money. In signing the Declaration of Independence the Founding Fathers pledged “their lives, their fortunes and their sacred honor.” Many Continental Army officers bankrupted themselves when Congress and their states proved recalcitrant at reimbursing them for incurred expenses. These officers often personally financed their troops and their expeditions because victory required timely action. Of importance for the western region, George Rogers Clark used his personal credit for financing his campaigns, which secured America’s claim. It takes no “lettered” historian for determining that without Clark’s campaign that America’s western boundary ends with the Appalachian Mountains, instead of the Mississippi River. With the bankrupt Congress and Virginia treasuries not reimbursing him he fell into the South Carolina Yazoo Company. Clark’s brother-in-law, Dr. James O’Fallon, negotiated this deal for 3,000,000 acres of land in modern Mississippi. This negotiation involved the Spanish governor of Louisiana, Don Estavan Miro, a somewhat corrupt official. When the Spanish king negated the treaty, Clark, O’Fallon and the other investors lost their money and grew hateful of Spain.
Another, lesser known, negotiation involved former Continental Army Colonel George Morgan and the Spanish ambassador, Don Diego de Gardoqui. Morgan received title for 15,000,000 acres near modern New Madrid, Missouri for establishing a colony. Ironically, an unscrupulous American, James Wilkinson, discussed later in the document, working in conjunction with Miro, negated this deal.
Both of these land deals involved the establishment of American colonies in Spanish territory, with Americans declaring themselves Spanish subjects. Few Spaniards lived in the area west of the Mississippi River and saw the growing number of American settlers as a threat. However, if these Americans, already disgusted with their government, became Spanish subjects, they now became assets. If they cleared and farmed the land, they provided revenue that Spanish Louisiana desperately needed. Since many of these men previously served in the Revolution, they provided a ready militia for defending their property. This included defending it against their former country, the United States, with little authority west of the Appalachian Mountains.
Internationally, the weak US became a tragic pawn in the continuing superpower struggle between England and France. With no naval forces for protection, American merchant mariners became victims of both nations on the high seas. British and French warships stopped American ships bound for their enemy, confiscating cargo and conscripting sailors into their navies. In the Mediterranean Sea, our ships became the targets of the Barbary Pirates, the ancestors of our enemies today. Helpless, our government paid ransoms for prisoners and tribute for safe passage until the Barbary Wars of the early 19th Century.
Despite all of these problems most influential Americans still “looked inward,” and feared a strong central government more than foreign domination. When the cries of outrage came from the western frontiers regarding Indian depredations, our leaders still more feared a “standing army.” In the world of the Founding Fathers the tyranny of King George III’s central government created their problem. The king further used his “standing army” for oppressing the colonists and infringing on their liberties.
Congress also possessed more recent examples of the problems with a “standing army” during the American Revolution. First came the mutiny of the Pennsylvania Line in January, 1781 for addressing their grievances. Since the beginning of the war, in 1775, the Continental soldiers endured almost insurmountable hardships, as explained previously. The soldiers rarely received pay, and then received the almost worthless “Continental Currency,” which inflation further devalued. This forced severe hardships also on the soldiers’ families, and many lost their homes and farms. The soldiers marched on the then-capital, Philadelphia, for seeking redress for these grievances. Forced into action, Congress addressed their problems with pay and the soldiers rejoined the Army.
A second, though less well known, mutiny occurred with the New Jersey Line shortly thereafter with different results. For “nipping” a growing problem “in the bud,” Washington ordered courts-martial and the execution of the ring leaders. The last such trouble occurred in the final months of the war in the Continental Army camp at Newburgh, New York. Dissatisfied with congressional inaction on their long-overdue pay, many officers urged a march on Philadelphia. Fortunately, Washington defused this perceived threat against civil authority, and squashed the strong possibility of a military dictatorship.
However, Congress realized that it needed some military force for defending the veterans settling on their land grants. The delegates authorized the First United States Regiment, consisting of 700 men drawn from four state militias for a one year period. I read countless sources describing the inadequacy of this force, highlighting congressional incompetence and non-compliance by the states. The unit never achieved its authorized strength, the primitive conditions on the frontier hindered its effectiveness and corrupt officials mismanaged supplies. Scattered in small garrisons throughout the western territories, it never proved a deterrent against the Indians.
No incentives existed for enlisting in this regiment, and it attracted a minority of what we call today “quality people.” Again, confirming state dominance over the central government, this “army” came from a militia levy from four states, a draft. A tradition at the time provided for the paying of substitutes for the men conscripted during these militia levies. Sources reflect that most of these substitutes came from the lowest levels of society, including those escaping the law. From whatever source these men came, at least they served and mostly did their best under difficult circumstances.
Routinely, once the soldiers assembled they must learn the skills needed for performing their duties. For defending the western settlements the small garrisons must reach their destination via river travel. Once at their destination they must often construct their new installations using the primitive tools and resources available. The primitive transportation system often delayed the arrival of the soldiers’ pay and supplies, forcing hardships on the troops. Few amenities existed at these frontier installations and the few settlements provided little entertainment for the troops. Unfortunately, once the soldiers achieved a level of professionalism, they reached the end of their enlistment. With few incentives for reenlistment, the process must begin again, with recruiting and training a new force.
Fortunately many prominent Americans saw that the country needed a different form of government for ensuring its survival. Despite the best intentions and established rules, few people followed these rules or respected our intentions. The Constitutional Convention convened in Philadelphia in May, 1787 with George Washington unanimously elected as its president. As the delegates began the process of forming a “more perfect Union,” the old, traditional “colonial” rivalries influenced the process.
While most Americans possess at least ancillary knowledge of the heated debates among the delegates, few know the conditions. Meeting throughout the hot summer, the delegates kept the windows of their meeting hall closed, preventing the “leaking” of information. We must remember that this occurred before electric-powered ventilation systems or air conditioning. They kept out the “media,” and none of the delegates spoke with “journalists,” again for maintaining secrecy. Modern Americans, often obsessed with media access, do not understand why the delegates kept their deliberations secret.
Most of the delegates felt they possessed one chance for creating this new government and achieving the best possible needed their focus. “Media access” jeopardized this focus and “leaked” information, with potential interruptions, jeopardized their chance for success. We find this incomprehensible today, with politicians running toward television cameras, “leaking” information and disclosing national secrets. Unfortunately a “journalistic elite” exists today, misusing the First Amendment, with many “media moguls” believing themselves the “kingmakers” of favorite politicians.
The delegates sought the best document for satisfying the needs of the most people, making “special interest groups” secondary. Creating a united nation proved more important than prioritizing regional and state desires. These delegates debated, and compromised, on various issues; many of which remain important today. They worried over the threat of dominance by large, well-populated states over smaller, less-populated states. Other issues concerned taxation, the issue that sparked the American Revolution, and import duties, which pitted manufacturing states against agricultural states. Disposition of the mostly unsettled western land, claimed by many states, proved a substantial problem for the delegates. The issue of slavery almost ended the convention and the delegates compromised, achieving the best agreement possible at the time. On September 17, 1787 the delegates adopted the US Constitution and submitted it for approval by the individual states.
Again, merely passing laws and adopting resolutions does not immediately solve the problems, or change people’s attitudes. Ratification of the Constitution required the approval of nine states, (three-fourths) which occurred on June 21, 1788. However, two important large states, New York and Virginia, still debated ratification. Several signers of the Declaration of Independence, and delegates at the Constitutional Convention, urged the defeat of the Constitution. Fiery orator, Patrick Henry, of “Give me liberty, or give me death,” fame worked hard for defeating it in Virginia. Even the most optimistic supporters gave the Constitution, and the nation, only a marginal chance at survival.
| 4.118275 |
The effect of UVR on biological systems is wavelength dependent. Action spectrum for DNA damage is an essential component of understanding the effects of increased UVB on a range of Antarctic invertebrate larvae. The wavelength dependency is quantified using spectral weighting functions which provide information such as the target organelles/molecules of the UVR, the degree that organisms are ... influenced by wavelengths that are enhanced by the process of ozone depletion and the activity of sunscreening and anti-oxidant compounds. Biological weighting functions (BWFs) were made for 3 embryonic stages of Sterechinus (eggs, blastula, 4 armed larvae) and embryos of Acodantaster, Perknaster and Parbolarsis. The embryos and larvae were exposed to artificial lights for 3 days. Three filter treatments with 50% nominal cut-off at 280, 305, 320, 375 and 400nm wavelengths were used. DNA was analysed for cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs). Using the species specific BWF and spectral irradiance data, biological effective irradiances were calculated for a given ambient light environment. Modelling of the species specific and stage specific effects of ozone depletion on larval stage were made using the BWFs and the change in ambient light field during ozone depletion.
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50 years ago this week, the world stood on the brink of nuclear war as the Cuban Missile Crisis unfolded. The United States finally decided to first blockade rather than immediately attack Cuba to prevent the Soviet Union from finishing installation of missiles that could reach the continental United States. This article introduces the little-known story of the battles between the “hawks” and the “doves” in the Kennedy Administration as related in a new publication, The Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy, Vol. 8, 1961-1964.
When President John F. Kennedy finally announced the naval blockade of Cuba and the reasons for it on national television, Americans huddled together, practiced nuclear drills, and prayed for some peaceful solution to prevent all-out nuclear war. Only decades later did the full story of brinkmanship, bravado and brilliance come out about what really happened behind the scenes during those two weeks.
Image Credit: The Arizona State Library, Archives and Public Records
A little known side of the story comes from the top military commanders who were serving the Kennedy administration during the crisis, found in the surprisingly fascinating book titled The Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy, Vol. 8, 1961-1964, from the Office of Joint History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
The Joint Chiefs of Staff during the Kennedy Administration
This accounting of the Joint Chiefs of Staff during this tumultuous period in the history of American foreign affairs goes beyond the normal third party historian’s post mortem, since the author was actually able to meet with several members of the joint chiefs in the 1970’s to add more of their personal insights, including Admiral Arleigh Burke, Admiral George Anderson, General Lyman Lemnitzer, Chairman during 1960-1962, and the Chairman who succeeded him, General Maxwell D. Taylor.
Image: President John F. Kennedy meets with the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Photograph includes: (L-R) United States Marine Corps General David Shoup; United States Army General Earle Wheeler; United States Air Force General Curtis LeMay, President Kennedy; Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff General Maxwell Taylor; United States Navy Admiral George Anderson. West Wing Lawn. White House. Washington, D.C. Credit: Robert Knudsen. White House Photographs. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston
What results is an interesting amalgam of history and a peek into the tensions between military joint chiefs and the civilians to whom they reported. Describing the relationship of the Kennedy administration and the military establishment, author Walter S. Poole says: “During 1961-1962, relations between the JCS and their civilian superiors were often awkward and even confrontational” particularly between Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara and Lemnitzer.
The old-school Joint Chiefs were concerned about the new approach to foreign policy being espoused by the Kennedy administration, and tensions grew. According to the author:
“What most concerned the JCS was an apparent erosion of US credibility that emboldened communist leaders to pursue more adventurous policies. President John F. Kennedy and Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara pursued what they conceived as more flexible approaches to strategy and crisis management.”
Quick Background on the Cuban Missile Crisis
In 1962, the Soviet Union was losing the arms race with the United States. In late April 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev conceived the idea of placing intermediate-range missiles in Cuba to double the Soviet strategic arsenal and provide a real deterrent to a potential U.S. attack against the Soviet Union from the Jupiter missiles the U.S. had just placed in Turkey. Ever since the failed Bay of Pigs invasion the previous year, Fidel Castro felt a second attack by the U.S. on Cuba was inevitable, so he agreed to host the missiles as protection.
Image: Initial U.S. intelligence estimates of possible U.S. targets within range of the nuclear-capable Soviet SS-4 medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs) and SS-5 intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) found by the U-2 spy plane surveillance photographs if they were launched from Cuba. Credit: Bettmann/CORBIS
On October 15, 1962, the National Photographic Intelligence Center confirmed that secret reconnaissance photographs from an American U-2 spy plane flight the day before were finally able to definitively prove the suspicion that Soviet medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic missiles capable of hitting Atlanta, the Midwest, Washington, DC, and even Los Angeles and Seattle were indeed in place and in the process of being installed and ready in Cuba within days. In response, President Kennedy and Secretary McNamara assembled the Executive Committee of the National Security Council call “ExComm” as a task force that, together with the Joint Chiefs of Staff and experts from the State Department and other intelligence agencies, would debate the United States’ options to deter the Soviets from nuclear escalation.
To Blockade, Strike or Invade?
Earlier in September 1962, after cloud-obscured U-2 photos had hinted at Soviet build-up in Cuba, the Joint Strategic Survey Council had submitted a recommendation for blockading rather than invading Cuba, on grounds that a blockade would be less dramatic, require smaller resources, cause fewer casualties, and be more plausibly related to upholding the Monroe Doctrine. In his 1823 annual message to Congress, President James Monroe had established this doctrine followed by the U.S. ever since that warned European countries not to interfere in the Western Hemisphere, stating “that the American continents… are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers.”
However, as the crisis unfolded, the primary debate among the military commanders of the Joint Chiefs was over whether to carry out an all-inclusive attack against Soviet and Cuban forces on the island or a surgical strike confined to just attacking the missiles themselves, the nuclear storage sites, and Soviet MiG planes.
Both President Kennedy and McNamara thought that an all-inclusive attack would inevitably lead to invasion of Cuba, and then possible counter-attacks elsewhere by the Soviets or escalation to all-out war.
But General Taylor reported that the Joint Chiefs and the combatant commanders felt “so strongly about the dangers inherent in [only] the limited strike that they would prefer taking no military action. They feel it’s opening up the United States to attacks which they can’t prevent, if we don’t take advantage of surprise.” Taylor added that his personal inclination was “all against invasion, but nonetheless trying to eliminate as effectively as possible every weapon [present in Cuba] that can strike the United States”.
According to the reports by the author, the Joint Chiefs were opposed to only attacking the medium-range ballistic missiles themselves, saying it would incur “an unacceptable risk” and that not attacking the enemy’s planes would expose the continental United States and Puerto Rico to air attack and could cause unnecessary casualties among the garrison at Guantanamo and the forces assembling for invasion. Instead, the JCS initially recommended “also hitting tactical missiles, aircraft, ships, tanks, and other appropriate targets, as well as imposing a ‘complete’ blockade.”
Image: A meeting of the Executive Committee of the National Security Council in the Cabinet Room during the Cuban Missile Crisis, October 29, 1962, 10:10-10:58am. Clockwise from left: Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy (standing); Assistant Sec. Defense Paul Nitze; Dep. USIA Dir. Donald Wilson; Special Counsel Theodore Sorensen; Exec. Sec. NSC Bromley Smith; Special Assistant McGeorge Bundy; Sec. Treasury Douglas Dillon; Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson; Ambassador Llewellyn Thompson; William C. Foster; CIA Dir. John McCone (hidden); Under Secretary of State George Ball (hidden); President John F. Kennedy; Sec. State Dean Rusk; Sec. Defense Robert McNamara; Dep. Sec. Defense Roswell Gilpatric; Chairman JCS Gen. Maxwell Taylor. Credit: Photo by Cecil Stoughton, JFK Library ST-A26-18-62
The Blues vs. the Reds
Even more fascinating was the story of the war gaming techniques used. To quickly develop two alternative scenarios for the President to consider, the ExComm task force split into two groups that constantly exchanged position papers and critiqued each other’s work. The “Blues,” who were to prepare the scenario for a surprise air strike, included General Maxwell Taylor, Robert Kennedy, Treasury Secretary Douglas Dillon, Director McCone, Dean Acheson, and McGeorge Bundy. The “Reds,” drafting the blockade option, included Chief of U.S. Naval Operations Adm. George Anderson, Marine Corps Commandant David Shoup, Secretary Rusk, Deputy Secretary Gilpatric, and Theodore Sorensen.
Image: On October 11 last week, certain documents from Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy’s personal papers about the Cuban Missile Crisis were declassified. In it was the above personal list of who RFK thought among the ExComm were the “Hawks” who favored an air strike (shown in the right column labeled “Strike”) vs. the “Doves” who favored a blockade of Cuba (in the left column). Note that the “Chiefs” meaning the Joint Chiefs of Staff along with General Taylor are shown on the “Hawks” Strike side of his list on the right. Source: The National Security Archive
In less than two days, two complete scenarios were prepared and presented to President Kennedy on October 20, with competing input coming from the Pentagon and the State Department.
From this insider accounting of events, we learn that the Chairman thought that the probable sequence of events to be green-lighted would be: a political approach; a warning; air attack on the missile sites; blockade; and, if necessary, invasion, with the earliest air strike date set for October 21 (optimally the 23rd), and an invasion to begin on October 28.
However, to find out exactly what happened and how the drama played out behind the scenes, pick up a copy of this fascinating book.
HOW DO I OBTAIN “The Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy, Vol. 8, 1961-1964”?
- Buy it online 24/7 at GPO’s Online Bookstore.
- Buy it at GPO’s retail bookstore at 710 North Capitol Street NW, Washington, DC 20401, open Monday-Friday, 9am to 4pm, except Federal holidays, (202) 512-0132.
- Find it in a library.
Find this and other Government publications about Cuba in our Cuba collection.
About the Author: Michele Bartram is Promotions Manager for GPO’s Publication and Information Sales Division and is responsible for online and offline marketing of the US Government Online Bookstore (http://bookstore.gpo.gov) and promoting Federal government content to the public.
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As the Crossroads of the Pacific, Hawaii played a vital role in the development of both commercial and military air travel. The first flight in Hawaii occurred on December 31, 1910. It captured the imagination and hearts of residents who dreamed of traveling by air between islands and the Mainland, Asia and Australia.On this site you'll find the incredible story of the first trans-Pacific flight by Navy Commander John Rodgers in 1925. Inter-Island Airways made its first commercial interisland flight in 1929, and Pan American Airways entered the trans-Pacific market in 1935. You'll find hundreds of historical documents and publications, and the complete book Above the Pacific written by the late William J. Horvat and originally published in 1966. This website features more than 4,000 photos.
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Obesity is a condition in which you have a high body mass index (BMI), or too much body fat for your height. Obesity is the not the same as being overweight, which is when your weight is higher than what is healthy for your height. In people who are overweight, the excess weight may be caused by high bone density, body structure, or excess body fat.
Morbid obesity occurs when the excess body fat becomes a danger to your overall health.
When you eat, your body stores the calories you consume for energy in your muscles and tissues. If those calories are not used, the body stores them as fat. If you continue to eat more calories than your body can use during daily activities and exercise, your body will build up fat stores. Obesity and morbid obesity are the result of too much fat being stored in your body.
Many behavioral factors play a role in obesity, including your eating habits and daily activity level. Many people develop their eating habits as children and have trouble refining them to maintain proper body weight as they age. As an adult, you may be inactive at your job and have less time for exercise, meal planning, and physical activity.
Other factors, such as stress, anxiety, and lack of sleep, can lead to weight gain. People who quit smoking often experience temporary weight gain. Women may also have trouble losing the weight they gain during pregnancy or gain additional weight during menopause. These rarely lead to morbid obesity by themselves, but can be a contributing factor.
Genetic factors can play a role in how your body stores energy, but this relationship has not been fully researched. Current research is investigating the relationship between genetics and body weight.
Anyone can gain weight and become obese if they eat more calories than their bodies can use.
The symptoms of obesity are weight gain and a body mass index (BMI) above 30. BMI is an estimate of your body fat content and is calculated using your height and weight measurements.
Without proper treatment, obesity can lead to other serious health problems, such as:
- heart disease
- sleep apnea (when you periodically stop breathing during sleep)
Your doctor will measure your weight and height in order to calculate your BMI. Your BMI is an estimate of your body fat and is used as a primary screening tool for obesity. Your provider may also take a measurement of your waist circumference. These combined measurements will help estimate how much body fat you have and determine your risk of diseases, such as heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.
The acceptable percentage of body fat can vary by age, sex, and ethnicity, but typically ranges between 10 and 22 percent for men and 20 to 32 percent for women. Your doctor will provide more specific information about your BMI and what it means for you.
BMI Ranges are as follows (CDC):
18.5 to 24.9
25.0 to 29.9
30.0 and above
Calculating Body Fat Percentage
A skinfold test may also be done to check your body fat percentage. In this test, a doctor measures the thickness of a fold of skin from the arm, abdomen, or thigh with a caliper.
Your healthcare provider may also ask questions about your lifestyle to find out more about your eating and exercise habits. Your doctor may order additional blood tests to look for hormonal or other medical problems that could be causing your weight gain.
Diet & Exercise
The most effective way to lose weight is to adopt healthy eating habits, exercise routines, and stress management techniques. Regular exercise and healthy eating are important, and even modest weight loss will improve your health. It is also important to learn stress management tools that can be used in place of overeating or snacking during stressful times.
You should work with your doctor and a dietician to set realistic goals that will help you lose weight slowly through diet and exercise. It may be helpful to find support from friends, family, or your community in order to make lifestyle changes that will lead to long-term weight loss.
Weight Loss Drugs
Sometimes, weight loss drugs may be prescribed. While these medications may cause weight loss, most people regain the weight once they stop taking the medication. There are many herbal and over-the-counter supplements that claim to help you lose weight, but many of these claims have not been verified.
Surgery may also be an option to treat obesity if you have tried other methods for losing weight but have not been successful in maintaining long-term weight loss. It can often help reduce the risk of other diseases (e.g. diabetes, heart disease, sleep apnea) that are associated with severe obesity.
Surgery may cause complications, and you should talk with your doctor to determine if this is an option for you. There are two common types of weight-loss (bariatric) surgeries:
Laparoscopic gastric bypass: In this procedure, the surgeon will place a band around the upper part of your stomach. This limits the amount of food you can eat at one time by making you feel full after eating small amounts of food.
Gastric bypass surgery: This surgery will change how the food you eat travels through your digestive tract by bypassing a portion of your stomach and small bowel. It will make you feel full when you’ve eaten less food.
Obesity and morbid obesity are serious and potentially life-threatening conditions. A healthy lifestyle that includes a healthy diet and regular exercise are important for preventing obesity.
Diet and Exercise
People who are morbidly obese should avoid “fad” diets and focus instead on changing eating behaviors. Recommendations include:
- adding more fruits and vegetables to your diet
- eating smaller meals
- count calories
- avoid saturated fats, trans fats, and refined sugars
Physical activity is good for overall health and is especially important if you’re trying to lose weight. To begin losing weight, you will need to do moderate to vigorous exercise for more than three hours per week. Vigorous activity raises your heart rate significantly. Examples include:
- running or jogging
- jumping rope
Moderate exercises include brisk walking or biking, and can also include everyday activities like shoveling snow or yard work (CDC).
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You may have heard that there are several kinds of fats. But how do we know which to avoid, and which are okay to eat?
We need some fat in our diets. Fats provide energy. They help build hormones and cells. While all fats are high in calories, some fats are better choices than others.
Choose unsaturated fats. They can actually help lower your cholesterol. These healthier fats usually stay liquid at room temperature, and are found in most vegetable oils. Good fats are also found in avocados, some fish, and nuts.
Saturated fats and trans fats are not good choices. They can clog up the arteries that carry blood to your heart. Most of these fats stay solid at room temperature. They’re found in fried foods, fatty meats, and baked goods.
Just like there are several sources of fats, there are also several sources of carbohydrate. Carbohydrate is found in many foods. It provides fuel for our heart, brain and muscles.
But, as with fats, some carbs are better than others. And if you have diabetes or pre-diabetes, controlling carbohydrate is important because when you eat too much carbohydrate, your blood sugar may rise too high.
The best carbs provide fiber. Fiber can help lower cholesterol. We can get fiber from fruits, vegetables and beans, as well as whole grain products -- whole wheat pastas and breads, and brown rice. It’s best to eat at least three ounces of whole grains per day. Check the food’s packaging to make sure that’s what you’re getting.
The not-so-good carbohydrate, like white flour and white sugar, is usually higher in calories and has little nutritional value. For too many of us, these make up too large a part of what we eat and drink everyday. Choosing less white bread and fewer soft drinks and sweets is a move in the right direction.
Fats and carbohydrate. Choose the ones that are better for you, and you’re on your way to healthier eating for life.
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Vitamin B12, also called cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin. Water-soluble vitamins are stored in the body in very limited amounts and are excreted through the urine. Therefore, it is a good idea to have them in your daily diet. Vitamin B12, the most complex of the vitamins, contains the metal cobalt, in its structure.
Vitamin B12’s functions include the following:
|Age Group (in years)||
Recommended Dietary Allowance
Most diets provide adequate B12; deficiency is often a result of absorption problems. In the stomach's acidic environment and through the action of the enzyme pepsin, vitamin B12 is released from food. People who do not have enough stomach acid (such as those taking strong acid-neutralizing medications) may not be able to separate B12 from food. People with this problem, however, absorb B12 supplements without difficulty.
Two proteins are also important for the vitamin's absorption and transport: intrinsic factor (IF) and R proteins. A B12 deficiency can result if there are any problems with pepsin, IF, or R proteins. Reduced secretion may occur in mid- to late-life. Severely reduced levels of IF lead to a condition called pernicious anemia. People with pernicious anemia have trouble absorbing B12 supplements and may need either very high doses or injections.
Symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency include the following:
Vitamin B12 has a very low potential for toxicity. The tolerable upper intake level (UL) for vitamin B12 from dietary sources and supplements combined has not been determined. This does not mean that there is no potential for adverse effects resulting from high intakes. Because data is limited, caution should be used when supplementing.
No symptoms of vitamin B12 toxicity have been reported.
Vitamin B12 can be found in animal products, such as fish, meat, poultry, eggs, and milk. Some foods high in vitamin B12 include:
The following populations may be at risk for vitamin B12 deficiency and may require a supplement:
Megaloblastic anemia can occur as a result of either a folate deficiency or a vitamin B12 deficiency. Supplementing with folate can correct this anemia. But, it will not correct the B12 deficiency. Permanent nerve damage can result if a B12 deficiency is left untreated. If you have megaloblastic anemia, talk with your doctor about assessing your B12 status as well as your folate status.
Here are tips to help increase your intake of vitamin B12:
Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics
American Society for Nutrition
Centre for Science in the Public Interest
Andres E, Federici L, Affenberger S, et al. B12 deficiency: a look beyond pernicious anemia [review]. J Fam Pract. 2007;56:537-542.
Groff JL, Gropper S. Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning; 2000.
Vitamin B12. EBSCO Dynamed website. Available at: http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed. Updated December 14, 2011. Accessed September 19, 2012.
Vitamin B12. Office of Dietary Supplements website. Available at: http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminB12-HealthProfessional/. Accessed September 19, 2012.
Vitamin B12. Oregon State Linus Pauling Institute website. Available at: http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminB12/. Accessed September 19, 2012
Wierzbicki AS. Homocysteine and cardiovascular disease: a review of the evidence. Diab Vasc Dis Res. 2007;4:143-150.
3/6/2013 DynaMed's Systematic Literature Surveillance http://www.ebscohost.com/dynamed/ : Marti-Carvajal AJ, Lathyris D, Salanti G. Homocysteine lowering interventions for preventing cardiovascular events. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;1:CD006612.
Last reviewed September 2012 by Brian Randall, MD
Last Updated: 3/6/2013
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What it is:
White blood cells play a role in reducing inflammation in the body. A high white blood cell count could mean that there is inflammation somewhere in the body, such as can occur in the gastrointestinal tract of people who have inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The white blood cell (WBC) count is also sometimes known as a leukocyte count or white count. A WBC count is typically done along with another common blood test, the complete blood cell count (CBC). A WBC count is the number of white blood cells per volume of blood, and is reported in either thousands in a microliter or millions in a liter of blood.
What it's used for:
A high WBC count can be an indicator of an infection, inflammation, or allergy. Some conditions may cause a decrease in the WBC count.
Leukocytosis is the presence of an elevated WBC count; leukopenia is a decreased WBC count. Leukocytosis may be caused by several conditions including bacterial infection, inflammation, leukemia, trauma, or stress. Leukopenia may occur as a result of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or immune system disorders.
How it's done:
A blood sample will be taken, normally from the arm. If several tests are ordered, more than one vial of blood will be taken.
The normal range for WBC count is 4,300 to 10,800 cells per cubic millimeter (cmm) or 4.3 to 10.8 x 109 cells per liter. A range of 11 to 17 x 109/L may be considered mild to moderate leukocytosis, and a range of 3.0 to 5.0x109/L may be considered mild leukopenia.
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Project Learning Tree’s “Web of Life” lets students investigate relationships between producers, consumers, and decomposers by acting as organisms connected by string in a food web. Want to make this lively activity have more energy? A fun musical variation to this activity is to assign a different sound to each plant. The consumers must say the respective sound when they feel the tug. Each organism must repeat the sounds that the previous organism said. (For example, hazelnut trees say “da,” oak trees say “dee,” raspberries say “mo,” grass says “tie.” The deer eats acorns and hazelnut trees so it will say “da, dee.” Rabbits eat raspberries and grass, so it will say “mo, tie.” Coyotes eat deer and rabbits, they will say “da, dee, mo, tie”) The top consumers will likely have so many sounds to say that they will have a difficult time remembering them.
Want to expand this activity? Try incorporating the following Project Learning Tree activities:
- Are Vacant Lots Vacant?
- Dynamic Duos
- Field, Forest and Stream
- Planet Diveristy
- School Yard Safari
Hickman, P. 1997. Hungry Animals: My First Look at a Foodchain. Kids Can Press Ltd.
Johansson, P. 2004. Wide Open Grasslands: A Web of Life. Enslow Publishers, Incorporated.
Kitchen, B. 1994. When Hunger Calls. Candlewick Press.
Lauber, P. 1995. Who Eats What?: Food Chains and Food Webs. HarperCollins Publishers.
Mckinney, B.S. 2000. Pass the Energy, Please! Dawn Publications.
Relf, P. 1996. Magic School Bus Gets Eaten: A Book about Food Chains. Scholastic, Inc.
Cole, J. 1996. The Magic School Bus Gets Eaten. A Book About Food Chains. Scholastic Inc.
Crenson, V. and R. Gurevich. 2003. Horseshoe Crabs and Shorebirds: The Story of a Food Web. Marshall Cavendish Inc.
Ellis, B. 2006. The Web at Dragonfly Pond. Dawn Publications.
Greenaway, T. 2001. Cycles in Nature Food Chain. Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers.
Heinz, B.J. 2006. Butternut Hollow Pond. Lerner Publishing Group.
Kalman, B. and J. Langille. 1998. What Are Food Chains and Webs? Crabtree.
Mason, C. 2003. Everybody's Somebody's Lunch: The Role of Predator and Prey in Nature. Tilbury House Publishers.
Nadeau, I. 2002. Food Chains in a Backyard Habitat. Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated.
Nadeau, I. 2001. Food Chains in a Forest Habitat. Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated.
Nadeau, I. 2002. Food Chains in a Meadow Habitat. Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated.
Nadeau, I. 2001. Food Chains in a Pond Habitat. Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated.
Norsgaard, E.J. 1990. Nature's Great Balancing Act: In Our Own Backyard. Penguin Young Readers Group.
Penny, M. 1998. The Foodchain. The Bookwright Press.
Pringle, L.P. 1975. Chains, Webs and Pyramids: The Flow of Energy in Nature. HarperCollins Publishers.
Rice, D.L. 1997. Lifetimes. Dawn Publications.
Riley, P. 2002. Food Chains. Franklin Watts.
Spilsbury, L., Spilsbury R. 2004. Food Chains and Food Webs: From Producers to Decomposers. Heinemann Library.
Staub, F. 2004. World of Wonder; The Food Chain. Creative Education.
Capeci, A. 2003. Food Chain Frenzy (The Magic School Bus Chapter Book). Scholastic Inc.
Hemsley, W. 1992. Feeding to Digestion: Projects with Biology. Scholastic Library Publishing.
Silverstein, A. 1998. Food Chains. Lerner Publishing Group.
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Mario Schenberg, Brazil’s most important theoretical physicist, who researched the formation of supernova stars, was born in Recife on this date in 1914. In the 1940s, together with Indian physicist and Nobel laureate Subrahmanyan Chanrasekhar, he discovered the Schenberg-Chandrasekhar limit, which is the maximum mass of the core of a star prior to its gravitational collapse. Schenberg also made significant contributions to mathematics vis-a-vis quantum physics, and was widely respected as a writer and art critic. He was twice elected to be Sao Paolo state legislator on the Communist ticket; following Brazil’s 1964 military coup d’etat, he was forced into retirement by presidential decree and was jailed for several months (his second jailing for communist activism). He also received death threats from Brazilian neo-Nazis for his opposition to a joint Brazil-Germany plan to build nuclear power stations in Brazil in 1975. Schenberg died in 1990. To view a video about the “Mario Schenberg Space Ship,” an interactive educational program for kids at the University of Sao Paolo, click here.
“The energy disappears in the nucleus of the supernova as quickly as . . . money disappeared at that roulette table.”—Mario Schenberg
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What Is Tetanus?
Tetanus is a bacterial infection that attacks the nervous system. Tetanus may result in severe muscle spasms, and this can lead to a condition known as lockjaw, which prevents the mouth from opening and closing. Tetanus can be fatal.
Tetanus is caused when the bacterium, Clostridium tetani , enters the body through a break in the skin. The bacterium can come from soil, dust, or manure. It produces a toxin that causes the illness.
In the United States and other countries with tetanus vaccination programs, the condition is rare.
What Is the Tetanus Vaccine?
The tetanus vaccine is an inactivated toxoid (a substance that can create an antitoxin). There are different types of the vaccines to prevent tetanus, including:
Who Should Get Vaccinated and When?
The DTaP vaccine is generally required before starting school. The regular immunization schedule is to give the vaccine at:
- 2 months
- 4 months
- 6 months
- 15-18 months
- 4-6 years
Tdap is routinely recommended for children aged 11-12 years who have completed the DTaP series. Tdap can also be given to:
- Children aged 7-10 years who have not been fully vaccinated
- Children and teens aged 13-18 years who did not get the Tdap when they were 11-12 years old
- Adults under 65 years who have never received Tdap
- Pregnant women after 20 weeks gestation who have not previously received Tdap
- Adults who have not been previously vaccinated and who have contact with babies aged 12 months or younger
- Healthcare providers who have not previously received Tdap
Td is given as a booster shot every 10 years. The vaccine may also be given if you have a severe cut or burn.
If you or your child has not been fully vaccinated against tetanus, talk to the doctor.
What Are the Risks Associated With the Tetanus Vaccine?
Most people tolerate the tetanus-containing vaccines without any trouble. The most common side effects are pain, redness, or swelling at the injection site, mild fever, headache, tiredness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea , or stomachache.
Rarely, a fever of more than 102ºF, severe gastrointestinal problems, or severe headache may occur. Nervous system problems and severe allergic reactions are extremely rare. Localized allergic reactions (redness and swelling) at the injection site may occur, while anaphylaxis (life-threatening, widespread allergic reaction) is extremely rare.
Acetaminophen (eg, Tylenol) is sometimes given to reduce pain and fever that may occur after getting a vaccine. In infants, the medicine may weaken the vaccine's effectiveness. However, in children at risk for siezures, a fever lowering medicine may be important to take. Discuss the risks and benefits of taking acetaminophen with the doctor.
Who Should Not Get Vaccinated?
The vast majority of people should receive their tetanus-containing vaccinations on schedule. However, individuals in whom the risks of vaccination outweigh the benefits include those who:
- Have had a life-threatening allergic reaction to DTP, DTap, DT, Tdap, or Td vaccine
- Have had a severe allergy to any component of the vaccine to be given
- Have gone into a coma or long seizure within seven days after a dose of DTP or DTaP
Talk with your doctor before getting the vaccine if you have:
- Allergy to latex
- Epilepsy or other nervous system problem
- Severe swelling or severe pain after a previous dose of any component of the vaccination to be given
- Guillain-Barre syndrome
Wait until you recover to get the vaccine if you have moderate or severe illness on the day your shot is scheduled.
What Other Ways Can Tetanus Be Prevented Besides Vaccination?
Caring properly for wounds, including promptly cleaning them and seeing a doctor for medical care, can prevent a tetanus infection.
- Reviewer: Lawrence Frisch, MD, MPH
- Review Date: 06/2012 -
- Update Date: 00/61/2012 -
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If you've ever been sick to your stomach while riding in a car, train, airplane, or boat, you know exactly what motion sickness feels like. It's no fun.
To understand motion sickness, it helps to understand a few parts of your body and how they affect the way you feel movement:
Inner ears: Liquid in the semicircular canals of the inner ear allows you to sense if you're moving, and, if you are, which way you're moving — up, down, side to side, round and round, forward, or backward.
Eyes: What you see also lets your body know whether you're moving and in which direction.
Skin receptors: These receptors tell your brain which parts of your body are touching the ground.
Muscles and joint sensory receptors: These sensing receptors tell your brain if you're moving your muscles and which position your body is in.
The brain gets an instant report from these different parts of your body and tries to put together a total picture about what you are doing just at that moment. But if any of the pieces of this picture don't match, you can get motion sickness.
For example, if you're riding in a car and reading a book, your inner ears and skin receptors will detect that you are moving forward. However, your eyes are looking at a book that isn't moving, and your muscle receptors are telling your brain that you're sitting still. So the brain gets a little confused. Things may begin to feel a little scrambled inside your head at that point.
When this happens, you might feel really tired, dizzy, or sick to your stomach. Sometimes you might even throw up. And if you're feeling scared or anxious, your motion sickness might get even worse.
Put your best face forward. Always sit facing forward. Don't face backward in your seat or sit in a seat that faces backward. Sitting forward helps keep the motion sensed by your eyes and ears the same.
Examine the great outdoors. Look outside. From inside a car, look at stuff far away, like the barn up ahead or a mountain. If you're seasick on a boat, go to the top deck (in the middle of the boat) and look far out into the horizon — where the sea and sky meet. On an airplane, try looking out the window. This way, your eyes won't be fooled into thinking you're not moving when you actually are.
Get to the middle of things. Whatever you're riding in, find the place with the least amount of movement. This means sitting closer to the center of a plane (in the aisle seats over the wings) or in the middle of a boat — rather than at the sides or the front, where you're more likely to feel seasick.
If you feel this way easily during any kind of movement, it's a good idea to go to the doctor. He or she will want to make sure there's nothing wrong with your inner ears or any of the other body parts that sense movement.
But for typical motion sickness, your parent may be able to give you medicine before you travel. For some kids, it may help to wear pressure bracelets that can be bought at the drugstore.
If you feel yourself getting sick while you're traveling in a car, it might help if the driver finds a safe spot where you can get out and walk around a little bit. If you can't pull over, make sure you have a plastic bag in the car — just in case!
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Kawasaki disease is an illness that involves the skin, mouth, and lymph nodes, and most often affects kids under age 5. The cause is unknown, but if the symptoms are recognized early, kids with Kawasaki disease can fully recover within a few days. Untreated, it can lead to serious complications that can affect the heart.
Kawasaki disease occurs in 19 out of every 100,000 kids in the United States. It is most common among children of Japanese and Korean descent, but can affect all ethnic groups.
Signs and Symptoms
Kawasaki disease can't be prevented, but usually has telltale symptoms and signs that appear in phases.
The first phase, which can last for up to 2 weeks, usually involves a persistent fever higher than 104°F (39°C) and lasts for at least 5 days.
Other symptoms that typically develop include:
severe redness in the eyes
a rash on the stomach, chest, and genitals
red, dry, cracked lips
swollen tongue with a white coating and big red bumps
sore, irritated throat
swollen palms of the hands and soles of the feet with a purple-red color
swollen lymph nodes
During the second phase, which usually begins within 2 weeks of when the fever started, the skin on the hands and feet may begin to peel in large pieces. The child also may experience joint pain, diarrhea, vomiting, or abdominal pain. If your child shows any of these symptoms, call your doctor.
Doctors can manage the symptoms of Kawasaki disease if they catch it early. Symptoms often disappear within just 2 days of the start of treatment. If Kawasaki disease is treated within 10 days of the onset of symptoms, heart problems usually do not develop.
Cases that go untreated can lead to more serious complications, such as vasculitis, an inflammation of the blood vessels. This can be particularly dangerous because it can affect the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart.
In addition to the coronary arteries, the heart muscle, lining, valves, and the outer membrane that surrounds the heart can become inflamed. Arrhythmias (changes in the normal pattern of the heartbeat) or abnormal functioning of some heart valves also can occur.
No single test can detect Kawasaki disease, so doctors usually diagnose it by evaluating the symptoms and ruling out other conditions.
Most kids diagnosed with Kawasaki disease will have a fever lasting 5 or more days and at least four of these symptoms:
redness in both eyes
changes around the lips, tongue, or mouth
changes in the fingers and toes, such as swelling, discoloration, or peeling
Treatment should begin as soon as possible, ideally within 10 days of when the fever begins. Usually, a child is treated with intravenous doses of gamma globulin (purified antibodies), an ingredient of blood that helps the body fight infection. The child also might be given a high dose of aspirin to reduce the risk of heart problems.
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Sickle cell disease. It's a strange sounding name — and, no, the word "sickle" isn't related to "sick." The disease got this name because it causes blood cells to be curved or C-shaped, like the shape of an old-fashioned farm tool called a sickle.
Normally, blood cells are round and look a bit like donuts. In people with sickle cell disease, some of the red blood cells harden and curve. They also break down faster than healthy red blood cells and can clog a person's small blood vessels.
Sickle cell disease is inherited. You can't catch it from someone. It's most common among people of African or Hispanic descent, but it can occur in many different ethnic groups.
There's no easy cure for sickle cell disease. In rare cases, it is possible to get sick enough to die, but most teens and kids are able to manage sickle cell disease by eating carefully and taking vitamins (especially folic acid), getting enough rest, and scheduling regular visits to the doctor — and by having supportive friends like you who let them just be themselves!
What's My Friend Going Through?
Your friend may be tired more often than you are or have trouble fighting infections. People with sickle cell disease can develop . They also may have some .
Your friend also might have bouts of severe pain, caused by the red blood cells restricting blood flow. These are called "pain crises" and they can happen anywhere in the body. Pain crises can last anywhere from a few moments to several days or even longer. Right now, there's no cure, but doctors can give a person medications to help lessen the pain.
If you want to know what it's like to have sickle cell disease, ask your friend: Your gentle curiosity may help your friend feel less self-conscious or less embarrassed (after all, we all can feel awkward about the things that make us feel different from our friends). If your friend doesn't feel like talking, though, don't press. Doing a little research online can help you get a sense of what it's like to live with sickle cell disease.
Most teens with sickle cell disease have to pay extra attention to diet, exercise, and watching how their bodies respond to common infections. Some may take antibiotics to help fight off common bacteria. They might need to have frequent doctor's appointments to stay well.
First, be there for your friend. OK, so this is obvious. But sometimes a friend may not realize how important it can be. People with chronic illnesses often feel isolated and alone, especially if their symptoms keep them out of school for stretches of time.
Visit your friend as often as you can. Even if you aren't sure what to say, just being there to listen to music, share some quiet time together, and show your support will mean a lot.
If you can't be there in person, take a moment to text, call, or IM. Set up a social network group so your friend can stay connected to a bunch of people. Or surprise your friend by sending a card or note through the mail.
Talk about it — and listen. Most of us like to talk with people we love and trust when we're going through tough times. Listen, ask questions, and do some basic research on your own so you can understand more about the condition and what your friend might be feeling. Don't be afraid to ask questions of your friend's family, the doctors, and other people with sickle cell disease.
Your friend might have to limit some of activities, especially sports, and may feel self-conscious about having sickle cell disease. Try to be understanding and remind your friend of the skills that make him or her shine — like a great singing voice or debating skills. Having a chronic illness is only a part of who your friend is.
Encourage healthy habits. Eating well and staying hydrated is important for all of us, but it's especially important for someone with sickle cell disease. Help your friend avoid alcohol and smoking, both of which can aggravate the condition. It's a huge help to a friend (not to mention your own health!) when you don't drink or smoke, since people who feel like they're "different" may think they have to drink or smoke in order to fit in.
Know the warning signs. Talk to your friend if you notice any of these symptoms. They may be signs of a serious problem:
severe chest pain
shortness of breath (difficulty breathing)
abdominal swelling or pain
any sudden weakness or loss of feeling, slurring of speech
sudden changes in vision
Sickle cell disease carries a (small) risk of , so it's a good idea to know the signs so your friend can get medical attention if he or she needs it. But don't panic, and don't let watching for danger signs get in the way of having fun together. Most problems won't be serious.
Be the go-to person. Managing a chronic disease takes a lot of energy and your friend may tire more easily than you do. If your friend has to miss school or starts to fall behind, nominate yourself to be the point person in charge of bringing books and assignments, and keeping him or her up to date on what classmates and friends are doing.
Take care of yourself. When a close friend has a disease like sickle cell, it can take a toll on you, too. So try to be aware of your own emotional needs. It's particularly hard to watch someone you care about endure a pain crisis — it can feel helpless and scary. Think about how you want to respond and talk to your friend about what's most helpful. Talk with a trusted adult about the impact this has on you, or keep a journal or write poetry or songs to get your feelings out.
It can feel good to be there for your friend, in whatever way feels natural, so that the disease doesn't take center stage. More than anything, just focus on having fun together.
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You have probably seen people who have Down syndrome. They have certain physical features, such as a flatter face and upward slanting eyes. They may have medical problems, too, such as heart defects. Kids with Down syndrome usually have trouble learning and are slower to learn how to talk and take care of themselves.
But despite their challenges, kids with Down syndrome can go to regular schools, make friends, enjoy life, and get jobs when they're older. Getting special help early — often when they are just babies and toddlers — can be the key to healthier, happier, more independent lives.
Chromosomes Are the Cause
To understand why Down syndrome happens, you need to understand a little about chromosomes. What are chromosomes? They're thread-like structures within each cell and are made up of genes. Genes provide the information that determines everything about people, from hair color to whether they are girls or boys.
Most people have 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46. But a baby with Down syndrome has an extra chromosome (47 instead of 46) or one chromosome has an extra part. This extra genetic material causes problems with the way their bodies develop.
Health Problems Are Common
About half of babies with Down syndrome are born with heart defects, which means their hearts developed differently and don't work as they should. Usually, these problems can be corrected by surgery. Some babies may have intestinal problems that also require surgery to fix.
Kids with Down syndrome are more likely to get infections that affect their lungs and breathing. When they do get infections, they often last longer. They may have eye or ear problems or digestion problems like constipation. Some may develop leukemia, a type of cancer. Each person with Down syndrome is different and may have one, several, or all of these problems.
Kids with Down syndrome tend to grow and develop more slowly than other children do. They may start walking or talking later than other babies. Special help, such as physical therapy and speech therapy, can give kids a boost with their walking and talking skills.
About 1 out of every 800 babies born in the United States has Down syndrome, no matter what race or nationality the parents are. It is not contagious, so you can't catch it from someone else. You are born with it. No one gets Down syndrome later in life.
Now you know that Down syndrome is caused by a problem with a chromosome. You might already know that we get our chromosomes from our mother and father. Remember the 23 pairs of chromosomes — half are from your mom and half are from your dad.
But doctors aren't sure why this chromosome problem happens to some babies. It's nothing the mom or dad did before the child was born. Anyone can have a baby with Down syndrome. But the older the mother, the greater the risk.
Times Have Changed
At one time, most kids with Down syndrome did not live past childhood. Many would often become sick from infections. Others would die from their heart problems or other problems they had at birth. Today, most of these health problems can be treated and most kids who have it will grow into adulthood.
Medicines can help with infections and surgery can correct heart, intestinal, and other problems. If the person gets leukemia, medical treatments can be very successful.
Down syndrome is something a person will have all of his or her life. But scientists continue to do research in the hope of finding ways to prevent Down syndrome or at least improve the health and lives of people who have it.
What's Life Like for Kids With Down Syndrome?
Many kids with Down syndrome go to regular schools and may attend regular classes. Some need special classes to help them in areas where they have more trouble learning. Their parents work with teachers and others to come up with a plan for the best way for each child to learn. Kids with Down syndrome like their playtime, too. They play sports and participate in activities, such as music lessons or dance classes.
Kids with Down syndrome may look different, but they want to be treated the same way all kids want to be treated — with respect, fairness, and friendship.
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|"If I Only Had A Brain!"|
The brain is usually referred to as if it were a single organ. However, the brain is a system with multiple and distinct components performing certain tasks for the body and mind. One such component, the Amygdala (amygdaloid nucleus), plays an important part in our emotional processes. It can jolt our bodies in fear, form emotional memories, helps us feel our dreams and can shape the effects of certain stress disorders and phobias. Indeed, the amygdala is where the excitement is at in our bodies.
Amygdala is the Latin word for almond. Anatomically, it is part of our limbic system including the hippocampus and basal ganglia. This group of structures deals with motivation, learning and memory. The amygdala is a mass of gray matter reaching into each hemisphere of the brain. The two amygdale sit on the horn-like tips of the hippocampus. They work with our sympathetic nervous system to put the body in a state of “fight-or-flight”. This means the body puts all its resources towards surviving a threat. The amygdala assesses stimuli extremely fast and that is how we get excited – information on a potential threat is sent directly from the thalamus and our body reacts with increased heart rate and better vision among other effects, such as processes of the bowels being stopped. While this is occuring, the thalamus sends information about the stimulus to the cortex which, to put it loosely, takes a while to think about it. This dual appraisal system gets us on our feet to aid in survival. However, the cortex could determine the stimulus was only a harmless spooking thus signaling the amygdala an all-clear so our body can relax.
The amygdala has an important role in memory. It reminds us, for better or worse, of past situations. Since it is so emotional, the amygdala is responsible for those persistent thoughts we wish we would forget (Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner 6.5.7). It nags us with recollections of painful or shocking events. Flash bulb memories are vivid in our minds where we can remember where we were and what we were doing at the moment bad news came. Now when I hear someone say, “I still get worked up over that old situation”, I know it is the amygdala causing physiological reactions. We need not fret too much however, as we can deal with persistence in memory and reframe things to help cope with lingering emotional pain (16.3.1). It’s about looking at the past in a new way that can facilitate emotional healing.
The amygdala is central in fear conditioning. Rats who were conditioned to associate a tone with pain reacted with freezing, which is a natural response to a threat where they crouch down motionless. The animal’s appraisal of the tone caused its amygdala to activate the sympathetic nervous system’s physiological effects.
Rats were conditioned in a lab experiment to get physically stressed out by a tone. But some people get stressed at the mere thought of rats! A quick trip to the Phobia List site tells us this is referred to as zemmiphobia. While this is a pseudo-medical term, the real fear could be based in preparedness theory, which means there is a natural reason to be afraid of rats who can bite and spread disease. As a result of adaptation, humans could be predisposed to fear rats. I have seen a person shriek at the sight of a rat – an example of the amygdala in action! Phobias are also linked to high levels of activity in the amygdala (14.2.2). A phobic disorder is persistent and excessive fear of specific objects. For example, this means some people can be really afraid of rats in a way that is irrational.
The size of the amygdala can also affect our behavior. Japanese researchers have evidence produced by brain scans that a smaller amygdala is associated with anxiety in patients with panic disorder (Hayano, et al., 2009). The researchers first diagnosed the patients using the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). Anxiety disorders are number 7 on the DSM-IV list. The research states, “The basic conception of PD [panic disorder] is fear of panic attack and anticipatory anxiety, ‘Panic attack may happen to me’. Fear and anxiety are inseparably connected the function of the amygdala, and the sense of fear is stored in the hippocampus area (267).” It is that nagging, persistent memory that creates the vicious circle of the fear of a panic attack causing an attack itself. The research suggests a smaller amygdala could indicate a dysfunctional aspect of that region of the brain (274). In other words, the little amygdala is causing big worries that lead to negative physical reactions.
Being an excitable part of the brain, the amygdala works day and night to even affect our sleep. This is how we intensely feel emotion in our dreams, whether it is bliss, terror, love or awe (Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner 5.2.2). The amygdala is acting with the visual association area of the brain, conjuring emotionally stirring images that can result in a nightmare and waking up from a scary dream.
Why am I compelled by the amygdala? I suppose it is my frequent interaction with it. Certain emotional memories persist in my mind. Some are good but I can’t seem to shake many that are bad. Recollections of painful events and personal losses come back to me every now and then. I still feel these events and that is my amygdala at work. Personally, hard life experiences have almost always resulted in hard lessons. It is not like Dr. B.F. Skinner experimenting on a rat, but it can be fear conditioning of sorts. The term, “once bitten, twice shy” could be about reacting to memories of real pain stored in the amygdala. Sometimes, with those persistent memories, I wonder if I only knew then what I know now? It is not about so much about knowledge but rather it is wisdom and that is something time and experience can produce – or I would at least hope so! The amygdala is there to remind us of what experiences felt like so we can avoid them if possible. Those little “almonds” strung together in the middle of our brain could be the roots of our own wisdom – which means knowing how to go about current situations because we are frequently reminded by feeling similar past experiences.
Hayano, F., Nakamura, M., Asami, T., Uehara, K., Yoshida, T., Roppongi, T., Otsuka, T., Hirayasu, Y., Inoue, T., (2009) Smaller amygdala is associated with anxiety in patients with panic disorder. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 63 266–276
Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner Psychology (Second Edition)
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Growth hormone (GH) controls the growth of soft tissue and bone. Elevated GH causes an excess of bone and soft tissue growth. In adults, this can cause a rare disorder called acromegaly. It can cause serious complications and early death if not treated.
In young children, bone fusion and growth is still occurring. Excess GH can cause a similar condition called gigantism.
The pituitary gland is a small gland located at the base of the brain. It produces many hormones, including GH.
In most cases, the elevation of GH is caused by a benign tumor of this gland. In a small number of cases, malignant tumors of other organs (pancreas, adrenal, lung) may be the source of excess GH.
Risk factors that increase your chance of developing acromegaly include:
- Family history (rare)
- Age: 40-45 years old
Symptoms usually develop slowly over time.
In children, the bones are elongated and cause soft tissue swelling. If not treated, children can grow to a height of 7-8 feet.
Symptoms and complications in adults may include:
Abnormally large growth and deformity of the:
- Hands (rings no longer fit)
- Feet (need a bigger size shoe)
- Face (protrusion of brow and lower jaw)
- Jaw (teeth do not line up correctly when the mouth is closed)
- Carpal tunnel syndrome
Skin changes, such as:
- Thickened, oily, and sometimes darkened skin
- Severe acne
- Excessive sweating and unpleasant body order due to enlargement of the sweat glands
- Deepening voice due to enlarged sinuses, vocal cords, and soft tissues of the throat
- Fatigue and weakness in legs and arms
- Sleep apnea
- Arthritis and other joint problems, especially in the jaw
- Abnormally large liver, kidneys, spleen, heart, and/or other internal organs, which can lead to:
- Irregular menstrual cycles
- Galactorrhea (abnormal production of breast milk) in about 50% of cases
- Impotence in about 50% of cases
The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done. Acromegaly is often not diagnosed until years after its onset.
Blood tests will be done to measure the level of:
- Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-I)
- Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)
- Other pituitary hormones
A glucose tolerance test may also be given to see if the GH level drops. It will not drop in cases of acromegaly.
If these tests confirm acromegaly, the following may be done to locate the tumor that is causing the disorder:
The goals of treatment are to:
- Reduce production of GH to normal levels
- Stop and reverse the symptoms caused by excess GH
- Correct other endocrine abnormalities (thyroid, adrenal, sex organs)
- Reduce the tumor size
Treatment may include:
The tumor that is believed to be causing acromegaly may be removed. In most cases, this is the preferred treatment. However, drug treatment is becoming more popular as the primary treatment approach.
External beams of radiation are used to shrink the tumor. It is most often used when surgery cannot be used or when medications have failed.
Drugs may be given to reduce the level of GH. These include:
- Cabergoline (Dostinex)—given orally
- Pergolide (Permax)—given orally
- Bromocriptine (Parlodel)—may be given before surgery to shrink tumor
- Octreotide (Sandostatin)—given by injections (may be the most effective medication for this condition)
- Pegvisomant —given by injections if not responding to other forms of treatment
There are no known steps to prevent acromegaly. Early treatment will help to prevent serious complications.
- Reviewer: Kari Kassir, MD
- Review Date: 10/2012 -
- Update Date: 10/30/2012 -
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Healthy eating will take center stage as Scotland County joins the rest of the nation in recognizing “National Nutrition Month” this March.
Sponsored by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, the National Nutrition Month program was created to encourage consumers to develop a healthy eating plan.
Promoting the theme “Eat Right, Your Way, Every Day,” Cardra E. Burns of the Scotland County Department of Public Health said that healthy eating does not have to be painful.
“Eating healthy doesn’t mean taste is compromised and most favorite foods can fit (within a healthy diet pattern),” Burns said.
Advising locals to choose foods packed with vitamins, minerals, fiber and other nutrients, the WIC program director said that it is also important to choose foods that are low in calories.
Asked what foods should be included in a healthy diet, Burns praised “fruits, vegetables, whole grains and fat-free or low-fat dairy” as healthy meal choices.
Included in Burns’ recommendation was a warning: “Be aware of portion sizes. Even low-calorie foods can add up when portions are larger than you need. The key to eating right, your way is moderation with appropriate portion size … combined with physical activity.”
According to the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, there are several ways to “Eat Right, Your Way, Every Day.”
The personalization of a diet plan is among the most important steps that must be taken to achieve a balanced dietary plan. According to the academy, the easiest way to eat healthy is to find healthy foods that you enjoy.
Eating foods appropriate for your lifestyle is also important. Whether you live a sedentary lifestyle or the lifestyle of an athlete, each person has unique nutritional requirements.
The academy also recommends the incorporation of cultural and ethnic foods into the diet, as a way to keep traditions alive and to make eating enjoyable.
National Nutrition Month comes just a month after a study was published linking the southern diet with the American South’s elevated stroke risk.
Over the past several decades medical science has observed that residents of the southeastern United States are approximately 20 percent more likely to suffer stroke than the rest of the country.
Using data from a national survey University of Alabama at Birmingham researchers learned that those most likely to eat the typical southern diet, including fried foods and sweet tea, were at a 41% increased risk of stroke compared with those less likely to observe the southern diet.
As part of this public education campaign, the Scotland County Department of Public Health’s website has been set up to include a variety of helpful tips, games, promotional tools and nutrition education resources – all designed to spread the message of good tradition and the “Eat Right, Your Way, Every Day” theme.
For information about National Nutrition Month, contact Cardra E. Burns at 277-2470 (ex. 4462).
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How LCLS X-ray pulses can be used to determine the atomic structure of a complicated molecule.
A New Kind of Laser
SLAC's two-mile-long linear accelerator (or linac) has begun a new phase of its career, with the creation of the Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS).
For nearly 50 years, SLAC's linac has produced high-energy electrons for cutting-edge physics experiments. Now, scientists continue this tradition of discovery by using the linac to drive a new kind of laser, creating X-ray pulses of unprecedented brilliance.
LCLS produces pulses of X-rays more than a billion times brighter than the most powerful existing sources, the so-called synchrotron sources which are also based on large electron accelerators.
The ultrafast X-ray pulses are used much like flashes from a high-speed strobe light, enabling scientists to take stop-motion pictures of atoms and molecules in motion, shedding light on the fundamental processes of chemistry, technology, and life itself.
Probing the Ultrasmall
The diameter of a human hair is about 1/1000 of an inch. The wavelength of visible light is about 50 times smaller than this, so ordinary microscopes can easily resolve a hair. But a molecule, about 10,000 times smaller than a hair, is too small to be resolved with visible light. X-rays, with wavelengths that are even smaller than a molecule, are ideal for imaging at the atomic scale.
Capturing the Ultrafast
The atomic and molecular world is abuzz with frenetic motion. Because they are so small and light, molecules and atoms react incredibly quickly to forces that act on them. Chemical reactions, in which molecules join or split, can take place in mere quadrillionths of a second.
The ultrafast LCLS X-ray flash captures images of these events with a “shutter speed” of less than 100 femtoseconds (100 femtoseconds = 1/10 of a trillionth of a second).
A Long History of Imaging Breakthroughs
The LCLS photographs atomic motion much as a “strobe” flash is used to photograph the motion of a bullet in flight. This latest advance in stop-action imaging at Stanford has roots going back more than 100 years. Around 1872, Eadweard Muybridge started making stop-motion photographs of people, animals, and trains in motion on Leland Stanford’s farm. He is famous for showing that all four of a horse’s feet leave the ground during a gallop. To be able to click a shutter fast enough to show each stride a horse makes when galloping required tremendous engineering ingenuity. The LCLS provides X-rays of such shortness and precision that stroboscopic experiments can be done with materials on the nanoscale, and even with individual molecules and atoms.
How Fast Is a Femtosecond?
2.4 seconds: The time it takes light to travel the distance to the moon and back—about 480,000 miles.
100 femtoseconds: the time it takes light to travel the width of a human hair.
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Properties of Water
Life would not have existed on earth without water. Water molecules
are composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Together, the
hydrogen and oxygen molecules form a shape that resembles the head of
While water molecules seem to be simple compounds, their properties
have profound impact on life. Because of the arrangement of hydrogen
and oxygen atoms, water molecules have polarized charges (one end is
positive and the other end is negative). Due to their polarized nature, 2
adjacent water molecules can form a linkage via a hydrogen bond.
The polarized nature of water causes other molecules to be either
hydrophilic (like water) or hydrophobic (afraid of water). This
property allows certain molecules to dissolve in water while preventing others from entering the cell. For example, hydrophobic
interaction can hold molecules together.
Another important property of water is its ability
to facilitate the transfer of molecules through osmosis. When 2
aqueous solutions are separated by a membrane that only allows the
passage of water molecules, water will move from the less concentrated
to the more concentrated side (Shown in the diagram below).
Hydrophobic interactions can hold molecules together: 2 or more
hydrophobic groups surrounded by water will tend to coalesce since
they thereby cause less disruption to the hydrogen-bonded structure of
water (Shown in the diagram below. Red hexagons represent hydrophobic
material and blue dots represent water molecules.).
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Lisa G Kahle
Therapy Horses for
The use of animals to
provide service and therapy to enhance people’s health and lives and
to provide greater independence has been practiced throughout
recorded history. Today, many different types of
animals – monkeys, birds, pigs, dogs, and horses, to name a few –
provide therapeutic benefits to humans with physical and mental
illnesses as well as providing assistance to people with
disabilities. For deaf people of all ages, animals can provide
love, protection, and companionship. While the most commonly recognized
therapy and/or service animals are dogs, the use of horses as
therapy animals for people who are Deaf is becoming increasingly
popular. The emphasis here on the use of horses for
therapy rather than
is important since the research suggests that horses are not
well-suited as service animals. In fact, the Guide Horse Foundation
(2005), states the following:
1. The Guide Horse Foundation is against the use of riding-size horses indoors because of the risk of injury to the horses, the
... handler and the general public. While our research has
indicated that Miniature horses make suitable guide animals, large
guide animals of any species can create a hazard for the public when
used in an inappropriate setting for an animal of that size.
2. Miniature horses are not well suited for assisting
[people who are
deaf]. Horses do not possess the "watch dog" instinct which is
important for a hearing assistance animal.
Horses are known
to possess a particular ability to break through the wall of isolation and frustration which can be
frequently present in the lives of people who are deaf. According to the Professional
Association of Therapeutic Horsemanship (PATH), an international
organization dedicated to serve as a resource and advocate for
equine-assisted activities and therapies, “People
who are deaf or hard of hearing may experience improved self-esteem
and a sense of independence and empowerment by becoming an
independent equestrian. People with hearing impairments will develop
unique ways to communicate with their instructor and equine partner
while learning riding or driving.” (2012)
Britton (1991) identified additional benefits of horse therapy to
balance and coordination;
Communication with a horse, which responds to actions, is often
easier than communicating with another person, who responds to
words. For example, when a rider pulls on the right rein, the horse
turns to the right. If they pull both reins, the horse stops. If
they don’t do anything at all, the horse usually will not do
deaf person will need to be taught how to
interpret the language of the horse, the horse can still compensate
for sensory deficits of the rider. For example, if a horse hears
something, like a loud noise, dog barking, or people laughing, they
are able to alert the rider by responding with different body
signals; Such as, raising of the head, tensing of the body, turning
towards of the sound. As a deaf rider becomes
more astute at recognizing these types of signals, it will contribute to
developing an increased sensory awareness.
There are also unique
challenges to teaching the deaf to ride. Robin
Hulsey writes, “Since effective communication is the key in teaching
riding to anyone, regardless of disability, it is especially
important in the case of a deaf child”. (1979). The author offers
person can’t see the instructor, they can’t "hear" the instructor. An
instructor will need to place themselves in the arena such that the
person can see them as they ride. Anything that can be done to
promote more effective communication with deaf students will make
learning to ride easier and more enjoyable.
persons may have a diminished sense of rhythm, teaching
them concepts, such as posting to a trot, should be taught at a walk
before moving to the next level.
Demonstration is one of the most effective techniques to introduce
and reiterate riding concepts. It’s important for the instructor to
establish new techniques by direct communication with the deaf rider before they then try it on their own.
I had the privilege of meeting and
observing a session with a local individual who provides horse therapy
to the disabled. Deb Amidon, owner of EdgeCort farms has been
providing therapeutic services with horses since 1996. The service
is offered to several different organizations in the Cortland
County, New York area. There are two thirty-minute sessions
conducted a day, twice a week. The students range widely
including those who are
severely autistic, mentally disabled, blind, hard of hearing,
and deaf. Several of her students have gone to the Special Olympics
with horses from her stable.
In speaking with Ms.
Amidon about her experiences with deaf persons she reiterated
positively all of the
areas identified by Vanessa Britton above.
Students who are deaf achieve a sense of
well-being, independence, and freedom through interacting with her
horses. She also agreed that as an instructor teaching a deaf student to ride, it’s
important that they see you and that you develop a language you both
understand. One of the things she strives to do with all her
students is to have them “be as independent as they can be.” (Amidon,
A riding instructor does
not need to be someone well-versed in American Sign Language, but
they should be well-versed in the knowledge and techniques of
teaching riding. It will be important for the instructor to
establish a means of communication with a deaf
or hard of hearing person, learning the basics of sign language and
additional signs unique to riding instruction. When an instructor
is able to develop a connection between the student and the therapy
horse, the benefits of teaching the deaf to
ride far outweigh the challenges.
Adams, K. & Rice, S.
(2011, Sept. 19). A Brief Information Resource on Assistance
Animals for the Disabled. Animal Welfare Information Center,
U.S. Department of Agriculture. Retrieved June 27, 2012: http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/companimals/assist.htm
Amidon, D. (2012).
EdgeCort Horse Farm. Route 11, Cortland, NY 13045. Interview
conducted July 11, 2012
Britton, V. (1991). Riding for the Disabled. London: B.T.
Hulsey, R. (1979). Horseback Riding for the Hearing Impaired.
Chesterfield, Missouri: Riding High, Inc.
Professional Association of Therapeutic Horsemanship (PATH)
International. (2012). Benefits-Deafness. Resources, Industry
Links, Equine Welfare. Retrieved July 5, 2012:
The Guide Horse Foundation. (2005). Main web page and
Frequently asked Miniature Horse Questions. Retrieved July 1,
U.S. Department of Justice. (2008, Jan. 14). Commonly Asked
Questions about Service Animals in Places of Business.
Civil Rights Division, Disability Rights Section. Retrieved July 4,
Websites of additional
articles on Therapy horses & Service Animals:
Bragg, R. (nd). Animals that Help Deaf People. Retrieved July
1, 2012: http://www.ehow.com/list_6851997_animals-deaf-people.html
National Technical Institute for the Deaf. (nd). Success
Stories: Dacia Anastasia Hirsch. Rochester Institute of
Technology. Rochester, NY 14623. Retrieved June 28, 2012:
Dogs for the Deaf, Inc. An organization dedicated to rescuing and
professional dogs to assist with hearing loss, autism,
panic/anxiety, and other challenges. http://www.dogsforthedeaf.org/
Interview conducted with Ms. Deb Amidon
Owner of Edge-Cort Horse
How long have you been providing horse therapy to the
Overall what has been your experience doing this type of
Have you ever had a deaf or hearing impaired person?
If yes, what are the unique challenges of these individuals?
What has been the positive to teaching these individuals
Can I meet them?
Anything else you would like to share?
Notes: Observed 4 different riders, some who had to be assisted, one
who was able to ride by himself and understood direction and could
guide the horse independently.
You can learn American Sign Language (ASL) online at American Sign Language University ™
ASL resources by Lifeprint.com © Dr. William Vicars
| 3.55257 |
Akkadian is a cover term for the Semitic languages of ancient Mesopotamia,
constituting the eastern branch of the Semitic family.
Akkadian, the most ancient Semitic linguistic continuum attested, was
written in the cuneiform script, mainly on clay tablets. It is attested
from the third millennium BCE to the third century CE. Linguistic research
of Akkadian has been relatively scanty, and grammatical descriptions of any
of the attested languages and dialects were intended primarily for didactic
purposes. Research has concentrated on phonology, and, especially, on
morphology, which is typically Semitic. Syntactic structures have remained
The grammatical description offered in LW/M is based on the language of
mythological narratives from the Old Babylonian period (the first half of
the second millennium BCE). Considering the state of the art and the frame
and goals of this series, the authors have confined themselves to a brief
model of the language and to defining the basic linguistic strategies of
Akkadian. As such, it may also serve as a guide to Semitic grammatical
All levels of the grammar of this language are treated together for the
first time: phonology, morphology, micro- and macro-syntax. Some attention
is given to linguistic variation, acknowledging the (relatively small)
diversity within the time-space continuum of the texts which constitute
this corpus. A short description of the cuneiform script will aim at giving
some idea of the problems one encounters in attempting to elicit the
linguistic data of Akkadian.
This grammatical description is written with a systemic, structural
conception of language in mind. It is intended first and foremost for
linguists for whom the language is inaccessible for various reasons, and
for Semitists whose expertise is not in Akkadian. However,
Assyriologists will benefit from it as well, as this description is unique
in its linguistic presentation, revealing important details hitherto unknown.
Shlomo Izre'el is professor of Semitic linguistics at Tel-Aviv University.
Eran Cohen is lecturer in linguistics at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
A provisional list of corrections to Literary Old Babylonian by Shlomo
Izre'el and Eran Cohen (Languages of the World/Materials, 81, München:
LINCOM, 2004) can be found at
| 3.409595 |
|U.S. Naval Observatory||Earth Orientation Department|
In 1956, following several years of work, two astronomers at the U. S. Naval Observatory (USNO) and two astronomers at the National Physical Laboratory (Teddington, England) determined the relationship between the frequency of the Cesium atom (the standard of time) and the rotation of the Earth at a particular epoch. As a result, they defined the second of atomic time as the length of time required for 9 192 631 770 cycles of the Cesium atom at zero magnetic field. The second thus defined was equivalent to the second defined by the fraction 1 / 31 556 925.9747 of the year 1900. The atomic second was set equal, then, to an average second of Earth rotation time near the end of the 19th century.
The Rapid Service/Prediction Center of the International Earth Rotation Service (IERS), located at the U.S. Naval Observatory, monitors the Earth's rotation. Part of its mission involves the determination of a time scale based on the current rate of the rotation of the Earth. UT1 is the non-uniform time based on the Earth's rotation.
The Earth is constantly undergoing a deceleration caused by the braking action of the ocean tides. Through the use of ancient observations of eclipses, it is possible to determine the deceleration of the Earth to be roughly 2 milliseconds per day per century. This is an effect which causes the Earth's rotational time to slow with respect to the atomic clock time. Since it has been about 1 century since the defining epoch (i.e., the duration since 1900), the difference has accumulated to roughly 2 milliseconds per day. Other factors also affect the Earth's dynamics, some in unpredictable ways, so that it is necessary to monitor the Earth's rotation continuously.
In order to keep the cumulative difference in UT1-UTC less than 0.9 seconds, a leap second is inserted periodically in the atomic UTC time scale to decrease the difference between the two. This leap second can be either positive or negative depending on the Earth's rotation. Since the first leap second in 1972, all leap seconds have been positive (click here for a list of all announced leap seconds). This reflects the general slowing trend of the Earth due to tidal braking.
Confusion sometimes arises over the misconception that the occasional insertion of leap seconds every few years indicates that the Earth should stop rotating within a few millennia. The confusion arises because some mistake leap seconds as a measure of the rate at which the Earth is slowing. The one-second increments are, however, indications of the accumulated difference in time between the two systems. As an example, the situation is similar to what would happen if a person owned a watch that lost two seconds per day. If it were set to a perfect clock today, the watch would be found to be slow by two seconds tomorrow. At the end of a month, the watch will be roughly a minute in error (thirty days of the two second error accumulated each day). The person would then find it convenient to reset the watch by one minute to have the correct time again.
This scenario is analogous to that encountered with the leap second. The difference is that instead of resetting the clock that is running slow, we choose to adjust the clock that is keeping a uniform, precise time. The reason for this is that we can change the time of an atomic clock while it is not possible to alter the Earth's rotational speed to match the atomic clocks. Currently the Earth runs slow at roughly 2 milliseconds per day. After 500 days, the difference between the Earth rotation time and the atomic time would be one second. Instead of allowing this to happen a leap second is inserted to bring the two times closer together.
The decision of when to introduce a leap second in UTC is the responsibility of the International Earth Rotation Service (IERS). According to international agreements, first preference is given to the opportunities at the end of December and June, and second preference to those at the end of March and September. Since the system was introduced in 1972, only dates in June and December have been used.
The official United States time is determined by the Master Clock at the U. S. Naval Observatory (USNO). The Observatory is charged with the responsibility for precise time determination and management of time dissemination. Modern electronic systems, such as electronic navigation or communication systems, depend increasingly on precise time and time interval (PTTI). Examples are the ground-based LORAN-C navigation system and the satellite-based Global Positioning System (GPS). Navigation systems are the most critical application for precise time. GPS, in particular, is widely used for navigating ships, planes, missiles, trucks, and cars anywhere on Earth. These systems are all based on the travel time of electromagnetic signals: an accuracy of 10 nanoseconds (10 one-billionths of a second) corresponds to a position accuracy of about 3 meters (or 10 feet).
Precise time measurements are needed for the synchronization of clocks at two or more sites. Such synchronization is necessary, for example, for high-speed communications systems. Power companies use precise time to control power distribution grids and reduce power loss. Radio and television stations require precise time (the time of day) and precise frequencies in order to broadcast their transmissions. Many programs are transmitted from coast to coast to affiliate stations around the country. Without precise timing the stations would not be able to synchronize the transmission of these programs to local audiences. All of these systems are referenced to the USNO Master Clock.
Very precise time is kept by using atomic clocks. The principle of operation of the atomic clock is based on measuring the microwave resonance frequency (9,192,631,770 cycles per seconds) of the cesium atom. At the Observatory, the atomic time scale (AT) is determined by averaging 60 to 70 atomic clocks placed in separate, environmentally controlled vaults. Atomic Time is a very uniform measure of time (one tenth of one billionth of a second per day).
The USNO must maintain and continually improve its clock system so that it can stay one step ahead of the demands made on its accuracy, stability and reliability. The present Master Clock of the USNO is based on a system of some 60 independently operating cesium atomic clocks and 7 to 10 hydrogen maser atomic clocks. These clocks are distributed over 20 environmentally controlled clock vaults, to ensure their stability. By automatic inter-comparison of all clocks every 100 seconds, a time scale is computed which is not only reliable but also extremely stable. Its rate does not change by more than about 100 picoseconds (.0000000001 seconds) per day from day to day.
On the basis of this computed time scale, a clock reference system is steered to produce clock signals which serve as the USNO Master Clock. The clock reference system is driven by a hydrogen maser atomic clock. Hydrogen masers are extremely stable clocks over short time periods (less than one week). They provide the stability and reliability needed to maintain the accuracy of the Master Clock System.
Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) is used to determine Universal Time (UT1) based on the rotation of the Earth about its axis. VLBI is an advanced astronomical technique of observing extra-galactic sources (typically quasars) with radio telescopes. The information gained using VLBI can be used to generate images of the distant radio sources, measure the rotation rate of the Earth, the motions of the Earth in space, or even measure how the tectonic plates where the telescopes are located are moving on the surface of the Earth. Measuring the Earth's rotational motion is critical for navigation. The most accurate navigation systems rely on measurements using satellite systems which are not tied to the Earth's surface. These systems can provide a position accurate to a about a meter (few feet), but the position of the Earth relative to the satellites must also be known to avoid potentially far larger errors.
The U.S. Naval Observatory has been in the forefront of timekeeping since the early 1800s. In 1845, the Observatory offered its first time service to the public: a time ball was dropped at noon. Beginning in 1865 time signals were sent daily by telegraph to Western Union and others. In 1904, a U.S. Navy station broadcast the first worldwide radio time signals based on a clock provided and controlled by the Observatory.
A time of day announcement can be obtained by calling 202-762-1401 locally in the Washington area. For long distance callers the number is 900-410-TIME. The latter number is a commercial service for which the telephone company charges 50 cents for the first minute and 45 cents for each additional minute. Australia, Hong Kong, and Bermuda can also access this service at international direct dialing rates. You can also get time for your computer by calling 202-762-1594. Use 1200 baud, no parity, 8 bit ASCII.
|Last modified: 24 October 2001||Approved by EO Dept. Head, USNO|
| 4.017096 |
Map-making has often adapted technologies designed for purposes other than making maps.
I recall Scitex hardware as the state-of-the-art in large format color computer mapping in the early 1980s when I was first learning cartography. Cartography applications were developed when Scitex, its origins in designing and printing textiles, noticed “the similarity between printing large fabric surfaces and coloring topographic surfaces.” (PDF source).
Step back a few generations and we find the then ubiquitous typewriter adapted to making maps by DIY cartographers.
It is not difficult to find old DIY maps that used a typewriter to create type, like this 1950s map (below) of Camp Tonkawa in east Texas (source). This is a sketch map that was run through a typewriter for typographic annotations:
A more sophisticated DIY approach to typing maps was detailed by R. A. Daly in the March 1905 issue of the American Journal of Science. Daly describes a typewriter with special characters – examples shown in the graphic which heads this posting – for creating area patterns on maps:
It is safe to say that the majority of persons are seriously hampered in the preparation of text illustrations by the difficulty and expense entailed in the tedious drawing of map, section or diagram. Yet the desirability of greatly increasing the proportion of such illustrations in the thousands of scientific articles published each year is manifest. That clearness, precision and conciseness in the exposition of a theme are generally enhanced by the use of abundant, appropriate diagrams and maps is as evident as that the blackboard is the constant friend of the teacher.
Ideally, the author should himself be able to make the original drawing quickly, neatly and artistically. The usual execution of drawing with the pen is, to the average author, discouragingly slow and expensive, not always neat, and still less often artistic. The following note relates to some experiments made to increase rapidity and neatness in the production of line drawings by the use of a machine. Enough success has been attained to warrant the recommendation of the machine method to geologists, geographers, and others.
Recently the Hammond Typewriter Company of New York has constructed, for the Geological Survey Department of Canada, a typewriter provided with a carbon ribbon and with ninety special characters designed for the preparation of line drawings to accompany geological and geographical papers.
It is to be understood, of course, in the preparation of a diagram that an outline drawing is first prepared, and that the spaces thus formed are filled with the symbols shown in the legends, by means of the machine.
The earliest printed computer maps, such as the map below created with SYMAP software in the mid-1960s, used a line printer. Line printers were, more or less, a typewriter adapted to printing from a computer.
Computer output, on monitors and printers, was limited to typical typewriter characters – letters, numbers, and symbols such as + or = or %. These limited symbols could be used to create area patterns on maps. A modification of the line printer hardware allowed the overprinting of characters, the darkest being overprinted OXAV ranging down to a “-” for the lightest area pattern. The table below provides the overprint line printer symbols for a nine step range of grey tones:
The output was actually less sophisticated than the output from the 1905 map typewriter given the limited symbology of the line printer:
A recent book by Nick Chrisman called Charting the Unknown (ESRI Press, 2006) documents the early history of computer mapping and GIS at Harvard University’s Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis, including the SYMAP software which produced the above map.
• • •
Source of above quotes: “Machine-Made Line Drawings for the Illustration of Scientific Papers” by R. A. Daly. American Journal of Science, March 1905.
Source of Line Printer Symbols table: R. Mould and C. Wyld, “A comparison between line printer and conventional Polaroid gamma camera displays using a liver phantom. Off-line computer and contour mapping package.” Physics in Medicine and Biology, 18:1, January 1973, p. 88-99.
| 3.290079 |
See also the
Dr. Math FAQ:
order of operations
3D and higher
Browse Middle School Algebra
Stars indicate particularly interesting answers or
good places to begin browsing.
Selected answers to common questions:
Direct and indirect variation.
Inequalities and negative numbers.
Positive/negative integer rules.
Solving simple linear equations.
- Formulas for the Equation of a Line [09/28/1998]
Can you explain the meaning behind the point-slope formula? What about
other formulas for the equation of a line?
- Four Methods of Solving Classic Chicken and Egg Problems [02/24/2009]
If 6 cats can kill 6 rats in 6 minutes, how many cats will it take to
kill 100 rats in 50 minutes? A look at four different solution methods
for this sort of problem.
- The Fourth Dimension [8/24/1995]
What is the fourth dimension mathematically?
- Fraction: Algebra without the Equations [8/23/1996]
I have come up with a way to solve fraction problems like "2/3 of ? =
66", but I have no idea why it works.
- Fraction Equation Problem [5/10/1995]
Let 1/a = a + 1/b = b + 1/c = c + 1/d = 2. What is the value of abcd?
- Fraction Equivalents of Decimals that Repeat ... Mostly [05/04/2010]
How do you find the fraction equivalent of a repeating decimals that also includes
digits that do not repeat? Doctor Greenie tweaks a student's formal algebraic
approach, introduces another wrinkle grounded in the base ten number system, then
shares two algorithms based on his work with high school students who take part in
- Fraction or Decimal Form? [07/30/2002]
Is it better to write 1/2(6x-3(2x-1)) or 0.5(6x-3(2x-1)), and why?
- Fractions and Cross Multiplication [07/14/1998]
When do you cross-multiply in solving fractions?
- Fractions and Lowest Terms [07/19/2001]
Simplifying expressions: how do you finish cancelling fractions, and then
what do you multiply? What is the lowest term?
- From Word Problems to Equations [01/28/1999]
If the sides of a square are lengthened by 3m, the area becomes 81m
squared. Find the length of a side of the original square.
- Functions and Equations [02/10/2001]
When is an equation also a function? How do you recognize a function?
- A Game in Three Rounds [04/19/1999]
After three rounds each of the girls has 8 chips. How many chips did they
have at the start?
- Geometrically Completing the Square [08/07/1997]
What are the steps for geometrically completing the square?
- Getting the Job Done [12/17/1996]
Two typists share a job and each does half of the work. The second typist
begins working one hour after the first...
- Given Perimeters, Find Sides [8/5/1996]
A triangle and a rectangle have equal perimeters... find the sides.
- Grade Averages [11/16/1995]
If Johnny has an 82% average for the 1st 9wks and a 75% average for the
2nd 9wks, what grade would he have to get on the final to receive an 80%
semester grade? The grades are weighted as follows: each 9wks 40% and the
semester test 20%.
- Graphing Intercepts [11/06/1997]
How would I find the intercept for a problem such as 3x-2y = 12?
- Graphing Slope Intercept [02/13/1999]
When given the slope intercept form, how do you know whether you rise or
drop when looking at the slope?
- Grid Patterns [09/10/99]
Finding a formula for the difference between the diagonal products of the
numbers in a 2x2 square within a 3x5 rectangle of numbers, and
generalizing it for any rectangle of numbers.
- Guess and Check Tables, Algebra [10/12/2002]
Find the mass of Hector's math, science, and Spanish textbooks.
- Hands of a Clock [10/10/1997]
How many times do the hour and minute hands cross in a 12-hour period of
- Heads and Legs [07/25/2001]
Joe counts 48 heads and 134 legs among the chickens and dogs on his farm.
How many dogs and how many chickens does he have?
- A Hen and a Half [09/23/1998]
If a hen and a half lays an egg and a half in a day and a half, how many
eggs will five hens lay in 6 days?
- Hot Air Balloons [12/25/1996]
A hot air balloon covered 2100 miles in 7 days. If it covered 50 miles
more each day than the day before, how many miles did it cover each day?
- How Does the Trick Work? [06/20/2003]
From time to time I've run across math tricks that ask me to give a
number, then take me through a series of other questions and by the
time I work my way to the end, the trick tells me my original number.
- How Does the Volume Change? [03/04/1999]
We have been doing a project where we change one side of an object and
see how it affects the volume...
- How Long is Duke the Dog? [09/04/2001]
Duke the dog's head is 6 inches long, his tail is as long as his head
plus half the length of his body, and his body is as long as the head and
the tail combined.
- How Long is the Train? [05/21/1999]
Two trains are traveling in opposite directions along parallel tracks,
train A at 72kph and train B at 54kph...
- How Many Apples? [09/19/2002]
How many apples did John get from his boss?
- How Many Coins Did Each Originally Have? [10/22/2001]
Natalie has some nickels, Dirk has some dimes, and Quincy has some
quarters. Dirk has five more dimes than Quincy has quarters... How many
coins did each originally have?
- How Many Factor Pairs Does a Given Number Have? [03/19/2004]
I'm wondering if there is a formula or algorithm that will tell me
exactly how many pairs of factors a number has?
- How Many Games Were Tied? [06/07/1999]
How many games are tied if each team receives 3 points for a win, 1 point
for a tie, and no points for a loss, and after 4 rounds the accumulated
points are: Lions 22, Tigers 19, Mounties 14, Royals 12?
- How Many Mice, Cats, and Dogs? [01/13/2003]
You must spend $100 to buy 100 pets, choosing at least one of each
pet. The pets and their prices are: mice @ $0.25 each, cats @ $1.00
each, and dogs @ $15.00 each. How many mice, cats, and dogs must you
- How Many of Each Ticket Were Sold? [09/06/2001]
Five hundred tickets were sold for a play, for $8 at the lower level and
$6 at the upper level, totaling $3600.
- How Many Stools? How Many Tables? [12/13/2002]
In their spare time, the Buffalo Bills operations staff members build
3-legged stools and 4-legged tables. Last month they used 72 legs to
build 3 more stools than tables.
- How Many Trains Meet? [09/17/2001]
Every hour, on the hour, a train leaves Tallahassee for Jacksonville,
while another train leaves Jacksonville for Tallahassee. The trip between
the two cities takes exactly two hours. How many trains going in the
opposite direction will a Tallahassee train to Jacksonville meet?
- How Many Valentines? [02/10/2003]
If everyone in your class gave a Valentine to everyone else in your
class, how many valentines would be exchanged?
- How Much Does the Youngest Boy Get? [05/25/2000]
Five brothers, each born in a different year, share a gift of $100...
- How Much Money Entering the First Store? [09/26/2002]
Timothy spent all of his money at five stores. At each store, he spent
$1 more than half of the amount he had when entering the store. How
much money did he have when he entered the first store?
- How Much Popcorn did Paul Sell? [01/28/2002]
Paul made $44.14 selling 27 items (beer and popcorn). If he made $1.22
selling popcorn and $2.62 selling beer, how many boxes of popcorn were
| 3.802915 |
Hepatitis A is an infection of the liver. It can be passed easily from contaminated food, water, or close contact with an infected person..
Hepatitis A is caused by a specific virus. It may be spread by:
- Drinking water contaminated by raw sewage
- Eating food contaminated by the hepatitis A virus, especially if it has not been properly cooked
- Eating raw or partially cooked shellfish contaminated by raw sewage
- Sexual contact with a partner infected with the hepatitis A virus, especially as oral-anal contact
Hepatitis A is present in stool of people with the infection. They can spread the infection if they do not wash their hands after using the bathroom and touch other objects or food.
Factors that increase your chance of a hepatitis A infection include:
- Having close contact with an infected person—although the virus is generally not spread by casual contact
- Using household items that were used by an infected person and not properly cleaned
- Having oral-anal sexual contact with an infected person
- Traveling to or spending long periods of time in a country where hepatitis A is common or where sanitation is poor
- Working as a childcare worker, changing diapers or toilet training children
- Being in daycare centers
- Being institutionalized
- Injecting drugs—especially if you share needles
- Receiving plasma products, common in conditions like hemophilia
Hepatitis A does not always cause symptoms. Adults are more likely to have them than children.
- Loss of appetite
- Nausea and vomiting
- Abdominal pain or discomfort
- Yellowing of the eyes and skin
- Darker colored urine
- Light or chalky colored stools
The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done.
Tests may include:
- Blood test—to look for signs of hepatitis A
- Liver function studies
Hepatitis A usually goes away on its own within two months. There are no lasting effects in most once the infection passes.
The goals of hepatitis A treatments are to:
- Help you stay as comfortable as possible
- Prevent the infection from being passed to others
- Prevent stress on the liver while it's healing. Mainly done by avoiding certain substances like specific medications or alcohol
You will be immune to the virus once you are well.
In rare cases, the infection is very severe. A liver transplant may be needed in these cases if the liver is severely damaged.
To decrease your chance of hepatitis A:
- Wash your hands often with soap and water.
- Wash your hands before eating or preparing food.
- Avoid using household utensils that a person with hepatitis A may touch. Make sure all household utensils are carefully cleaned.
- Avoid sexual contact with a person with hepatitis A.
- Avoid injected drug use. If you do, do not share needles.
If you travel to a high risk region, take the following precautions:
- Drink bottled water
- Avoid ice chips
- Wash fruits well
- Eat well-cooked food
Medical treatments that may help prevent infection include:
- Immune (Gamma) Globulin—temporary protection from hepatitis A. It can last about 3-6 months. It must be given before exposure to the virus or within two weeks after exposure.
Hepatitis A Vaccine—highly effective in preventing infection. It provides full protection four weeks after the first injection. A second injection provides long-term protection.
The vaccine should be considered for:
- All children aged 12-23 months
- Children aged 24 months or older who are at high risk and have not been previously vaccinated
- People traveling to areas where hepatitis A is prevalent (The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Traveler's Health website shows which areas have a high prevalence of hepatitis A.)
- Men who have sex with men
- Injection drug users
- People who are at risk because of their job, such as lab workers
- People with chronic liver disease
- People with blood-clotting disorders, such as hemophilia
- People who will have close contact with an adopted child from a medium- or high-risk area
- People who desire immunity to hepatitis A
Check with your doctor to see if you should receive the vaccine.
- Reviewer: Brian Randall, MD
- Review Date: 02/2013 -
- Update Date: 02/20/2013 -
| 3.725909 |
Mainstream groups such as the American Heart Association and the American Dietetic Association endorse a unified set of dietary guidelines for people who wish to lose weight—eat a low-fat diet and cut calories.
However, many popular diet books take a very different approach. The Atkins diet, the Zone diet,
, and numerous other dietary approaches turn thumbs down on low-fat. Instead, these methods recommend cutting down on carbohydrates. According to proponents of these theories, when you reduce the carbohydrates in your diet (and, correspondingly, increase protein and/or fat), you will find it much easier to reduce your calorie intake, and you may even lose weight without cutting calories.
The controversy over these contradictions has been heated. Proponents of the low-fat diet claim that low-carbohydrate diets are ineffective and even dangerous, while low-carb proponents say much the same about the low-fat approach. However, an article published in the
Journal of the American Medical Association
suggests that neither side has a strong case. Researchers concluded, essentially, that a calorie is a calorie, regardless of whether it comes from a low-carbohydrate or a low-fat diet.
They did not find any consistent evidence that the low-carb diet makes it easier to lose weight than the low-fat diet, but neither did they find any consistent evidence for the reverse. Furthermore, the authors of the
review did not find any compelling reason to conclude that low-carb diets are unsafe, although they did point out that the long-term safety of such diets remains unknown.
Subsequent studies confirmed these findings for a variety of low-carb diets.
In some studies, one particular diet method may do better than others. But, in other studies, a different diet stands out.
For example, researchers reviewing 13 studies comparing low-carb against low-fat/low-calorie diets in overweight subjects for at least 6 months concluded that the low-carb diets tended to perform better at reducing weight and cardiovascular disease factors for up to 1 year.
But, in a subsequent trial involving 144 obese subjects with diabetes, researchers found that a low-carb diet did not result in greater weight loss when compared to a low-fat diet over a 2-year period, nor did it perform any better at improving blood cholesterol or glucose levels.
As research continues, a consensus has yet to emerge among nutrition scientists as to which diet performs better overall. Many of the studies cited above suggest that if a diet causes weight loss, cholesterol will improve regardless of the diet used to achieve that weight loss. However, the manner of change in cholesterol profile differs between the two approaches. Low-fat diets tend to improve total and LDL cholesterol levels, but worsen HDL and triglyceride levels, while low-carb, high fat diets have the opposite effect.
The Mediterranean diet, which is relatively high in fiber and monounsaturated fats (eg, olive oil) has also attracted the attention of nutrition researchers. There is good evidence that it is as effective as low-carb diets for weight reduction, and probably more effective than low-fat diets.
It also seems to have the added advantage of benefiting diabetic patients more than the other two diets.
However, if one undertakes a low-carb (or low-fat) diet that does not cause weight loss, cholesterol profile will probably not improve significantly. In addition, there is little to no evidence that the low-carb approach improves blood sugar control except insofar as it leads to weight loss. However, there is a bit of evidence that a low-carb, high-monounsaturated fat diet reduces blood pressure to a slightly greater extent than a high-carb, low-fat diet.
Contrary to claims by some low-carb proponents, low-fat, high-carb diets do not seem to
metabolically backfire and
Therefore, based on the current state of information, it seems that the most sensible course is as follows: If you need to lose weight, experiment with different diets, and see which one allows you to most easily cut calories (and keep them cut). If the low-carb diet approach works for you, stick with it. However, if it does not help you lose weight, you probably should not continue it indefinitely.
: Any form of extreme dieting can cause serious side effects or even death.
We strongly recommend that all people who intend to adopt an unconventional diet should first seek medical advice. Furthermore, people with kidney failure should not use low-carb, high-protein diets, as high protein intake can easily overstress failing kidneys. (High-protein diets are probably not harmful for people with healthy kidneys.
In addition, people who take the blood thinner
(Coumadin) may need to have their blood coagulation tested after beginning a high-protein, low-carbohydrate diet. Two case reports suggest that such diets may decrease the effectiveness of warfarin, requiring a higher dose.
Conversely, if you are already on warfarin and a high-protein, low-carbohydrate diet and go off the diet, you may need to reduce your warfarin dose.
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Fundamental rights of Indian citizens
Table of Contents
The constitution of India1 provides certain fundamental rights to every citizen of India. The fundamental rights are listed in Part III of the Constitution under the heading of “Fundamental Rights”. There are total 24 Articles (Article 12 to Article 35) in Part III. First two articles (Article 12 and 13) provide definition of some relevant terms like “State”, “law”, “laws in force” etc.
The Fundamental Rights are stated in the following 22 articles (Article 14 to 35). The Rights are classified under following headings.
(a) “Right to equality”: Article 14 states “The State shall not deny to any person equality before the law or the equal protection of the laws within the territory of India.” (b) “Right to freedom” © “Right against exploitation” (d) “Right to freedom of religion” (e) “Cultural and educational right” (d) “Right to Constitutional remedies”
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Price Fixing in the Massachusetts Theocracy
[This article is excerpted from Conceived in Liberty (1975), volume 1, chapter 31: "Economics Begins to Dissolve the Theocracy: The Failure of Wage and Price Controls." An MP3 audio file of this article, narrated by Floy Lilley, is available for download.]
From the first, the Massachusetts oligarchy, seeing that in the New World land was peculiarly abundant in relation to labor, tried by law to push down the wage rates that they had to pay as merchants or landowners. Maximum-wage controls were persistently imposed. John Winthrop set the tone in 1633, complaining that "the scarcity of workmen had caused them to raise their wages to an excessive rate." What else was supposed to happen with a scarce product?
As in the South, there were at the base of New England's economic structure indentured servants and Negro slaves, who sometimes were farm labor but mostly were artisans, helpers, and domestic servants. After the servants' terms expired, they received small grants of land and became farmer-settlers. The Massachusetts gentry also supplemented this system of labor with general compulsory service in harvesting neighboring farms — a neat way of exploiting the local citizenry at wage rates far below the market.
Maximum-wage control always aggravates a shortage of labor, as employers will not be able to obtain needed workers at the statutory price. In trying to force labor to be cheaper than its price on the free market, the gentry only made it more difficult for employers to obtain that labor. By 1640 Winthrop was admitting that Massachusetts had
found by experience that it would not avail by any law to redress the excessive rates of laborers' and workmen's wages, etc. (for being restrained, they would either remove to other places where they might have more or else being able to live by planting or other employments of their own, they would not be hired at all).
Of course, one method of alleviating this induced shortage was by using the forced labor of slavery, servitude, and compulsory harvest service. Thus, one intervention by violence in the market created conditions impelling a further and stronger intervention. But apart from forced labor, the Massachusetts authorities, as we have noted, found it extremely difficult to enforce maximum-wage control.
The first maximum-wage law was enacted by Massachusetts as early as 1630. Due to the high wages commanded by the scarcity of construction craftsmen, the law concentrated on maximum-wage rates in the building trades. Carpenters, bricklayers, etc., were limited to two shillings a day and any payment above this rate would subject both the employer and the worker to punishment (for instance, a buying-cartel of employers established by the law punished the recalcitrant employer who decided to break ranks). Almost immediately, the magistrates decided to imbibe more of the magic medicine, and legal wage rates were pushed down to 16 pence a day for master carpenters and bricklayers, and correspondingly lower for other laborers.
But the economic laws of the market made enforcement hopeless, and after only six months, the General Court repealed the laws, and ordered all wages to be "left free and at liberty as men shall reasonably agree." But Massachusetts Bay was not to remain wise for long. By 1633 the General Court became horrified again at higher wage rates in construction and other trades and at the propensity of the working classes to rise above their supposedly appointed station in life by relaxing more and by spending their wages on luxuries. Denouncing "the great extortion … by divers persons of little conscience" and the "vain and idle waste of precious time," the court enacted a comprehensive and detailed wage-control program.
The law of 1633 decreed a maximum of two shillings a day without board and 14 pence with board, for the wages of sawyers, carpenters, masons, bricklayers, etc. Top-rate laborers were limited to 18 pence without. These rates were approximately double those of England for skilled craftsmen and treble for unskilled laborers. Constables were to set the wages of lesser laborers. Penalties were levied on the employers and the wage earners who violated the law. Sensing that maximum controls below the market wage led to a shortage of labor, the General Court decreed that no idleness was to be permitted. In effect, minimum hours were decreed in order to bolster the maximum-wage law — another form of compulsory labor. Workmen were ordered to work "the whole day, allowing convenient time for food and rest."
Interestingly, the General Court soon decided to make an exception for the government itself, which was naturally having difficulty finding men willing to work on its public-works projects. A combination of the carrot and the stick was used: government officials were allowed to award "such extraordinary wages as they shall judge the work to deserve." On the other hand, they were empowered to send town constables to conscript laborers as the need arose.
Although merchants were happy to join the landed oligarchy and the Puritan zealots in forcing down the wage rates of laborers, they were scarcely as happy about maximum controls on selling prices. The gentry were eager, however, to force downward the prices of products they needed to buy. A blend of mercantilist fallacies and Puritan suspicion of commerce, the result was persistent attempts to force commodities below their market prices. Having little conception of the function of the price system on the free market, the Massachusetts authorities also felt that maximum-price control would bolster the maximum-wage-rate program. There was no understanding that general movements in prices and wages are governed by the supply of and demand for money, and that this too can best work itself out on the free market.
Corn was the major monetary medium of the North, and in 1630 Massachusetts set the sterling price of corn at six shillings per bushel. Failing to work, this control was repealed along with the wage laws of 1631, and corn was "left at liberty to be sold as men can agree." In 1633, however, maximum-price controls were reimposed as an auxiliary to the wage controls.
The massive wage laws of 1633 were quickly discovered to be a failure; once again the quiet but powerful economic laws of the market had triumphed over the dramatic decrees of the coercive state. After one year the actual wage rates were 50 percent higher than the statutory levels. At that point, the General Court repealed the penalties against paying, but retained those against receiving, wages above the fixed legal rate. While, in fact, no employer had ever been tried or penalized under the old act, the wage law was now an open and flagrant piece of class legislation. This was nothing new, however, as there were ample precedents in English maximum-wage laws since the early 15th century.
Another change made in 1634 allowed a little flexibility in decreed prices and wages by permitting each town to alter the legal rate in case of disputes. Only a year later the General Court, despairing of the continued failure of the law to take hold, repealed the comprehensive wage controls and the auxiliary price controls. Just before this comprehensive repeal, the courts had apparently been driven by the failure to inflict ever harsher penalties; fines had been so heavy that two workers were imprisoned for failure to pay. The authorities were at the crossroads: should they begin to impose on workers violating clearly unworkable economic decrees the sort of punishment meted out to heretics or to critics of the government? Happily, common sense, in this case, finally prevailed.
Made wary by its thundering failure, the theocracy no longer attempted a comprehensive planned economy in Massachusetts Bay. From then on, it was content to engage in annoying, but not fatal, hit-and-run harassments of the market. Penalties were made discretionary, and in 1636 wage and price regulations were transferred by the provincial government to the individual towns, as suggested by the leading Puritan divine, Rev. John Cotton. The General Court was supposed to exercise overall supervision, but exerted no systematic control. Control by each town, as had been anticipated, was even more ineffective than an overall plan, because each town, bidding against the others for laborers, competitively bid wages up to their market levels. The General Court wailed that all this was "to get the great dishonor of God, the scandal of the Gospel, and the grief of divers of God's people." A committee of the most eminent oligarchs of the Bay colony was appointed to suggest remedies, but could think of no solution.
Of the towns, Dorchester was perhaps the most eager to impose wage controls. During the Pequot War, and again in 1642, it combined maximum wages with conscription of any laborer unwilling to work and to work long enough at the low rates. Hingham also enacted a maximum-wage program in 1641, and Salem was active in prosecuting wage offenders.
In 1635, the year of the repeal of the wage and price plan, the Massachusetts authorities tried a new angle: under the cloak of a desire to "combat monopolizing," the Massachusetts government created a legal monopoly of nine men — one from each of the existing towns — for purchasing any goods from incoming ships. This import monopoly was to board all the ships before anyone else, decide on the prices it would pay, and then buy the goods and limit itself to resale at a fixed 5 percent profit. But this attempt to combine monopoly with maximum-price control failed also. The outlawing of competing buyers could not be enforced and the import monopoly had to be repealed within four months. What ensued was far better but was still not pure freedom of entry. Instead, licensing was required of all importers, with preference usually given to friends of the government.
Generally, the merchants were the most progressive, worldly, and cosmopolitan element in Massachusetts life. The merchants were able to gain political control of the growing commercial hub of Boston by the mid-1630s. But the rest of Massachusetts remained in the hands of a right alliance of Puritan zealots and landed gentry who dominated the magistrates' council and the governorship. During the decade of the 1630s only 2 out of 22 magistrates were merchants, 1 of these being the Hutchinsonian leader William Coddington. This reflected the occupational differences of their native England. The gentry had, by and large, been minor gentry in rural England, while the merchants usually hailed from London or other urban centers. In contrast to the authoritarian and theocratic gentry, the merchants had a far more individualist and independent spirit and often opposed the Massachusetts oligarchy. It was no accident that almost all the merchants championed the Hutchinsonian movement — including Coddington, John Coggeshall, and the Hutchinson family itself. In spite of the earlier failures, Massachusetts tried to resume its harassment and regulation of the merchants, but even more sporadically than in the case of wages. Millers were fined for charging what were arbitrarily termed "excessive" prices for their flour. A woodmaker was fined in 1639 for charging the Boston government "excessive" prices for making Boston's stocks, and, as Professor Richard Morris notes in Government and Labor in Early America, the General Court "with great Puritan humor sentenced him, in addition, to sit in the stocks he himself had made." Heavy fines and Puritan denunciations were also the lot of merchants supposedly overcharging for nails, gold buttons, and other commodities. The Puritan church was quick to condemn these merchants, and insisted on penitence for this "dishonor of God's name" in order to regain membership in the church.
The most notable case of persecution of a merchant occurred in 1639. Robert Keayne, a leading Boston importer and large investor in the Massachusetts Bay Company, and the devout brother-in-law of Rev. John Wilson, was found guilty in General Court of gaining "excess" profit, including a markup of over 150 percent on some items. The authorities displayed once more their profound ignorance of the functions of profit and loss in the market economy. Keayne was especially aggrieved because there was no law on the books regulating profits. In contrast, the Maine court, in the case of Cleve v. Winter (1640), dismissed charges against a merchant for setting excessive prices, on the grounds that it was not legitimate to regulate a man's profit in trade. So a sounder strain of thought did exist despite the official view.
Massachusetts' sister colonies also tried to impose a theocratic planned economy. As we might have expected, the effort of New Haven Colony, founded in distaste for the alleged laxity of Massachusetts Puritanism, was the most comprehensive. New Haven's Act of 1640 established fixed profit markups of varying grades for different types of trade: 3 pence in the shilling, for example, for retail of English imports, and less for wholesale. Prices were supposed to be proportionate to risk for colonial products. Above all, a highly detailed list of maximum-wage rates for each occupation was issued. A year later, an ambitious new schedule was decreed, pushing down wage rates even further.
But even fanatical New Haven could not conquer economic law, and only nine months later the authorities were forced to admit defeat, and the entire program was repealed. After that resounding failure, no further comprehensive controls were attempted at New Haven, although there were a few sporadic attempts to regulate specific occupations.
Comprehensive wage control was also attempted in Connecticut. An abortive regulation of wages was imposed in early 1640, but repealed later the same year. The following year Connecticut, again alarmed about "excessive" and rising wages (with men "a law unto themselves"), enacted a maximum-wage scale for each occupation. However, instead of the heavy fines imposed by Massachusetts, the only prescribed penalty was censure by the colony's General Court.
Because the monetary medium of Connecticut was corn, wheat, or rye, maximum-wage legislation, to be effective, depended on minimum rates of exchange of these commodities in terms of shillings — otherwise, maximum wages in shillings would be effectively negated by declines in the shilling prices of corn. Minimum corn, wheat, and rye prices were, accordingly, fixed at legal tender for wage and other contracts. A slight reduction of wheat and corn prices, however, was allowed in 1644, and, finally, in 1650 Connecticut also abandoned the foolhardy attempt to plan the price and wage structure of the colony's economy.
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The diagram below shows the path of the Sun across the sky in Melbourne for four important dates:
The outer circle on the diagram represents the horizon and the inner circles are lines of constant elevation, drawn at 15° intervals. The radial lines are lines of constant azimuth drawn at 15° intervals also.
The position of the Sun at each hour of the day is marked and the time indicated. All times are Australian Eastern Standard Time. Add one hour for daylight savings.
Hi, Fernando. The "Time and Date" website gives information about the length of days for several locations in regional Victoria, including Ballarat. Hope this helps!
Hi there John. As in the Northern Hemisphere the Sun rises in the East and sets in West (due to Earth’s rotation from west to east), but its path as seen from the Southern Hemisphere is across the northern sky. You might find this link and this one useful.
Hi Steve - The Sun is at the centre of our Solar System, and all planets revolve about the Sun. The Sun at the centre of our Solar System, is in our galaxy called the Milky Way Galaxy amongst about 400 billion other stars. All the stars that can be seen with the naked eye are in our galaxy. It's important to remember at this point that our sun is not at the centre of the galaxy.
Because we revolve about the Sun, which is very close to us, all the other stars which are much further away, do not appear to move as we move around the Sun. So the constellations, such as The Southern Cross, look the same wherever we are. As the axis of the Earth is tilted, the south pole axis points towards the Southern Cross, so that constellation is always visible in the lower latitudes such as Victoria.
Hope that helps
We love receiving comments, but can’t always respond.
Hi there Suradi - thanks for your question. According to the Museum's Planetarium Presenters, these days a Sun Path can be got using any good astronomy program or planetarium software such as Starry Night or Stellarium. Please note, if you would like to use our diagram for anything other than private use then MV copyright acknowledgement would be expected.
The link to this section of the NASA website gives a brief insight to the history of the evolution of the theory of the planets movement around the sun.
Hi Casper, the Sun’s path is at its lowest in the sky on the Winter Solstice – 21st June, see here for more information.
Hi John,There are two websites that may help you determine the angle of the sun at your house on a particular date. The Rise and Set Times on the Planetarium website provides a calendar for the visibility of the sun in Melbourne. There is also an online resource about how to make your own Sun Angle Calculator.
Hi Jim, if you were at one of the poles during a summer equinox the Sun continues to make a circle in the sky, but now it would dip below the horizon for a while. It may appear to be an ellipse, but in actual fact it is still a circle. This YouTube clip, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZZcafg-meJA shows what it would look like a little further away from the pole. This web link may also be helpful.
Try to think of it this way - If you were “on” the Southern Cross and looked towards Earth with a theoretical, highly powerful telescope, then Melbourne would always be visible, because the bottom of the Earth is pointing towards the Southern Cross. As the Earth spins on its axis, Melbourne would appear to rotate around the globe. As go further north from Melbourne, say to Sydney, then as the Earth spins, an observer on the Southern Cross would see Sydney disappear briefly on each rotation. The further you travel north the less time you will be able to see the Southern Cross, until you can never see the Southern Cross.
It is like that the Sun is at the centre of a globe of stars, and the Earth always points to one spot in the sky which is close to the Southern Cross. In reality this is not so, but the concept is true.
I hope this may clarify it a bit more for you.
Hi Mel, the Tropic of Capricorn is technically an infinitesimally thin line, although the uncertainty in the measurement of the Earth's obliquity corresponds to an error in positioning of the Tropic of about 3cm. We can't locate the Tropic any better than this, so this is a kind of width. At the moment the Tropic is at 23°26'16.7" S. But the obliquity of the Earth varies and is decreasing around a half a second of arc per year, so the Tropic is moving slowly northwards at the same rate. This corresponds to something like 13m per year. So depending on what kind a timeframe you want to look at this also puts limits on how precisely you can locate the tropic. Within a decade, for example, we can't locate the Tropic more precisely than a 133m band.
Hi Georgina - Several factors effect sunrise and set times, such as surrounding buildings or mountains, elevation above sea level, etc; however the main reason in this case is because Sydney is much further east than Melbourne, by approximately 700 km.
For advice about seating, you would probably be best to check with MCG staff directly - MCG contact details can be found here.
The only time that the Sun rises due east and sets due west is at the Spring and Autumn Equinoxes, 21st March and 21st September. After the Spring equinox the Sun gradually rises and sets further south until the solstice on 21st December, then starts moving northwards. So for your house to have the Sun shining on the south facing side, it needs to be between these two equinoxes. After the Autumn equinox the Sun rises and sets northwards of east and west, so no Sun on your south wall.
For more information, please see the following link: http://museumvictoria.com.au/discoverycentre/infosheets/planets/the-path-of-the-sun/
Hi again Steve - The sun is not at any point directly 'between' earth and the Southern Cross. An important point to consider here is that unlike Earth, the Sothern Cross does not revolve around our Sun.
If you look at the diagram at the top of this page, you can see the path of the sun as it appears to us here in Melbourne throughout the year. If we were to factor into this diagram the relatively static position of the Southern Cross, it would be close to the southern horizon. Notice that the southern most path of the sun (in the Summer Solstice) does not intersect with the position of the Southern Cross.
This means the Sun does not obstruct our view of the Southern Cross - so, we are never on 'the other side of the sun' to the Southern Cross. As we've explained previously, the Sothern Cross may not be visible during the day due to brightness of the Sun, but it is still there.
Hello Cool - we ran this past our experts in the Planetarium, and their response is as follows:
In Australia, seasons begin on the first day of a particular calendar month – March for autumn, June for winter, September for spring and December for summer. This is also the convention followed internationally by meteorologists. One idea for Australia following this rule, is that during the early years of Australia’s white settlement soldiers would change from their summer to winter uniforms on the first of the month.
Indigenous Australians have a more tactile view of the seasons. They link the seasons to the local conditions and environment, and also to the activities of the birds, plants and animals around them. With such a diverse climate across Australia, it’s no surprise that the seasons vary greatly across Indigenous groups. Some regions have five seasons and others only three as the Bureau of Meteorology explains.
In other countries, such as Britain and the USA, the seasons are said to begin on the equinoxes and solstices – Spring Equinox, Summer Solstice, Autumn Equinox and Winter Solstice. These are the times when Earth reaches a particular point along its orbit around the Sun.
I hope this helps
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No doubt Native Americans took advantage of the
natural bounty of the Suwannee and the neighboring forest. By
around 7500 BC the Native American population increased, and people
began to settle, at least for a time, along rivers and lakes. They
fished, gathered freshwater snails, and hunted deer. Within Andrews
on the bluff above the Suwannee are the remains of an ancient
hunting and fishing camp. When Spanish explorer Narvarez crossed
the Suwannee thousands of years later, his men called it "River of
the Deer." Later, Indians escaping to Florida from other parts of
the Southeast named it "Suwani," meaning "echo river" in Creek.
Sound echoes from the river's limestone bluffs, especially when the
water is low.
Postcard, 1936 - Florida Photo Archives
Ferry on the Suwannee ca 1882 - Florida Photo Archives
By the 1830s the tranquil, tree-lined Suwannee
became an important navigation route. Steamboats carried lumber to
Cedar Key for transport by steamship to Europe and the Northeast.
Much of the virgin cypress in the Suwannee floodplain was harvested
in the early 1900s. Furrows created by "snaking" huge cypress logs
are still visible along the banks of the Suwannee.
In the early part of the 1900s what was later to
become Andrews was subject to a wide range of uncontrolled uses,
including open range livestock grazing. Range hogs readily adapted
to the habitat and are still present on Andrews today as hunters
rediscover each fall.
In 1945 the Andrews family purchased the area. They
managed the land for outdoor recreation and were careful to protect
natural resources. Limited weekend hunts were held for deer,
turkey, and squirrel, and no mining or significant timber harvest
occurred. The Andrews family created four, five-acre clearings in
the upland hardwoods and scattered roadside openings.
In the late 1970s the deer density approached one
deer per ten acres, which resulted in severe over-browsing of
understory vegetation and a decline in the physical condition of
the deer. Doe harvest was initiated in the early 1980s to reduce
the population and to achieve a more balanced sex ratio.
The state purchased the land in 1985 through the
Save Our Rivers and Conservation and Recreation Lands programs.
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Talking Points on the Environment #15
A Species Protection Plan That Works for Both Wildlife and Humans
Although most Americans oppose the excesses of the Endangered Species Act,
many also favor some form of species protection for the most valued species.
The best way to protect these species while protecting individual liberty is
through a voluntary, incentive-based system.
Elements of such a system might include:
- Tax for Nature Swaps: Incentives could be offered to private property
owners to create rather than destroy wildlife habitat by making changes to the
tax code. Losses in federal tax receipts resulting from such tax breaks would
be made up from profits generated from publicly-held natural resources.
- Advice and Information: The federal government's role in species
protection could be changed from a coercive role to an advisory one, thereby
fostering cooperation rather than confrontation. Government could offer
information resources to encourage and assist landowners with their own
- Cash for Species Protection: Cash payments could be provided to landowners
for their conservation efforts, ending the unfunded federal mandate for species
protection and strengthening private property rights in the process. The large
increases in federal ESA funding needed to make these payments could be paid
for with profits generated from publicly-held natural resources.
- Privatization: Greater "pride of ownership" -- and thus
environmental stewardship -- could be fostered by giving individuals greater
control over their own land and greater ownership of all lands (by selling off
some surplus federal land).
- Rewards for Responsibility and Innovation on Public Lands: Efforts to
preserve species on public lands could be enhanced by rewarding those who
improve habitat with such incentives as favorable lease terms.
- Conservation through Commerce: Private breeding of endangered and
threatened species could be encouraged by reducing government interference.
The development of private, for-profit wildlife and hunting reserves and
captive breeding programs in recent decades has led to the recovery of such
species as alligators in Florida, Bighorn sheep in Wyoming and elephants in
five African countries.
Recommendations developed based on information from David Ridenour of The
National Center for Public Policy Research; Myron Ebell, formerly of the
American Land Rights Association; John Shanahan of The Heritage Foundation; and
EcoSanity by Joseph L. Bast, Peter J. Hill and Richard C. Rue (Madison Books,
Issue Date: April 12, 1995.
Talking Points on the Economy: Environment #15, published by The National
Center for Public Policy Research, 501 Capitol Ct NE, Washington, D.C.
20002 Tel. (202) 543-4110, Fax (202)543-5975, [email protected],
http://www.nationalcenter/inter.net. For more information about Talking Points
on the Economy: Environment #15 contact Bob Adams at 202/543-4110 or
<<< Return to the Science and Environment
<<< Return to the Talking Points on the
Environment Cards Page
<<< Return to the NCPPR Home Page
| 3.017573 |
A Major Depressive Episode (MDE) is defined as a period of at least 2 weeks when a person experiences a depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure in daily activities, plus at least four additional symptoms of depression (such as problems with sleep, eating, energy, concentration, and feelings of self-worth) (American Psychiatric Association 1994). In 2009, about 14 percent of 14- to 25-year-olds reported having had an MDE in their lifetime, which was not measurably different from the percentage in 2006. From 2006 to 2009, the percentages of males and females who had experienced an MDE did not measurably change; nor were there differences from 2006 to 2009 among 14- to 17-year-olds and 18- to 20-year-olds. However, among all 21- to 25-year-olds, the percentage who reported having an MDE in their lifetime decreased from 16 to 14 percent, and the percentage among females in this age group decreased from 20 to 18 percent. In contrast, the percentage of male 14- to 17-year-olds reporting an MDE increased from 8 percent in 2006 to 10 percent in 2009. Among 14- to 25-year-olds, higher percentages of females than males reported having experienced an MDE in their lifetime in each year from 2006 through 2009; in 2009, the reported incidence of lifetime MDEs was about twice as high for females as for males (19 vs. 10 percent). Differences also emerged when examining reports of lifetime MDEs by age group. The percentage of reported lifetime MDEs in 2009 for 14- to 17-year-olds (15 percent) was higher than the percentage for 18- to 20-year-olds (13 percent).
In 2009, higher percentages of 14- to 17-year-olds (10 percent) reported having an MDE in the past year than did 18- to 20-year-olds and 21- to 25-year-olds (8 percent each). Across all three age groups, higher percentages of females than males reported having an MDE in the past year. For example, 11 percent of female 18- to 20-year-olds reported having an MDE in the past year, compared with 5 percent of male 18- to 20-year-olds.
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This interactive diagram is based on the energy flow diagram produced by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 2009. The data are from the Energy Information Administration of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE/EIA-0384(2008), June 2009). Hydro, wind, and solar electricity inputs are expressed using fossil-fuel plants’ heat rate to more easily account for differences between the conversion efficiency of renewables and the fuel utilization for combustion- and nuclear-driven systems. This enables hydro, wind, and solar to be counted on a similar basis as coal, natural gas, and oil. For this reason, the sum of the inputs for electricity differs slightly from the displayed total electricity output. Distributed electricity represents only retail electricity sales and does not include self-generation. The efficiency of electricity production is calculated as the total retail electricity delivered divided by the primary energy input into electricity generation. End use efficiency is estimated as 80% for residential, commercial, and industrial sectors, and as 25% for the transportation sector. Totals may not equal the sum of components due to independent rounding.
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|WHO, UNICEF Tackle Critical Lack of 'Child Size' Medicines|
Geneva - 21 January 2009 -- The World Health Organization (WHO) has received a US$ 9.7 million grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to work with UNICEF to conduct crucial research in children’s medicines, with the aim of increasing the number of 'child size' medicines designed and formulated specifically for children.
Currently, many medicines are only designed for adults. More than 50 percent of medicines prescribed for children have either not been developed specifically for children or have not been proven to be effective and safe for their use. Therefore many children lack access to essential treatment because no suitable paediatric dosage or formulation of the necessary medicine exists, or those that do exist are not available or are too expensive.
"We must take the guess work out of medicines for children," said Carissa Etienne, Assistant Director-General, WHO. "Children are suffering and dying from diseases we can treat, and yet we lack the critical evidence needed to deliver appropriate, effective, affordable medicines that might save them.”
As an unsafe alternative to missing paediatric medicines, healthcare workers and parents often use fractions of adult dosage forms or prepare makeshift prescriptions of medicines by crushing tablets or dissolving portions of capsules in water. Other challenges include the need for more clinical trials and research to be carried out on paediatric medicines.
"Some progress has been made on children's medicines but too many medicines are still given to children that have never been properly tested for them," said Dr Hans Hogerzeil, Director of Essential Medicines and Pharmaceutical Policies, WHO. "This work is an excellent example of coordination of United Nations agencies and key experts in the world to address this urgent problem."
The grant provides support for essential research to: determine the optimum dosage forms for paediatric medicines (e.g. small tablets, dispersible tablets, powders); develop dosing guides (e.g. a review of existing priority medicines and the identification of the appropriate doses for new medicines for children); and develop guidelines for testing, treatment and use of medicines in children, including guidelines on conducting clinical trials in children.
Globally, 1000 children under the age of five die every hour. Diarrhoeal diseases account for 17 percent of these deaths. The optimal treatment for diarrhoea is zinc with oral rehydration salts. Yet, in a recent study of health facilities zinc was the least available of all paediatric medicines. And when zinc is available, it is not licensed as a treatment to reduce diarrhoea -- leaving pharmacists to concoct doses -- and it is both unpleasant tasting and difficult to administer. To reduce child mortality in this area, easy to use, palatable and appropriate dosages are needed.
"The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation grant will contribute to accelerating work on investigating, clarifying and communicating to partners, including industry, what the needs of children are in terms of medicines and dosages to more effectively fight child morbidity and mortality”, Hanne Bak Pedersen, Deputy-Director UNICEF Supply Division, said. “UNICEF is very pleased to be working with WHO on this project and appreciates the support from the Gates Foundation.”
Another major cause of under-five mortality is pneumonia, leading to 17 percent of deaths each year. Effective treatment of pneumonia requires 50mg of amoxicillin per kilogram of child's weight per day for three to five days. An easy to use package of oral amoxicillin providing the appropriate dose would ensure the right course of medicine is taken, and thus help reduce child mortality.
"Improving essential medicines for children is a critical global health issue,” added Jaime Sepulveda, Director of Integrated Health Solutions Development, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. "This program will help provide effective health interventions to children and improve child survival, particularly in the world’s poorest countries.
This work follows the WHO-led "make medicines child size" initiative launched in December 2007, which focuses on improving access to better medicines for children. The topic of children’s medicines will be discussed at the WHO Executive Board meeting in January 2009.
For more information: Backgrounder - 'make medicines child size' - http://www.who.int/childmedicines/en
All press releases, fact sheets and other WHO media material may be found at www.who.int
Grosvenor Medical Centre, off Shirley Street, Nassau, Bahamas
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The research, which is featured on the cover of the July 17, 2005 issue of The Journal of Experimental Medicine, focused on the major human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus and the characteristic yellow-orange color for which it is named ("aureus" is Latin for "golden").
Among the deadliest of all disease-causing organisms, "Staph" is the leading cause of human infections in the skin and soft tissues, bones and joints, abscesses and normal heart valves. Staph especially flourishes in the hospital setting, producing bloodstream and surgical wound infections. The spread of antibiotic resistant strains of Staph, referred to as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus or MRSA, has reached epidemic proportions and poses a major threat to the public health.
The UCSD team proved for the first time that the golden pigment that coats the surface of Staph is not just for decoration; rather, the molecules that give the bacteria its golden hue also help it resist killing by neutrophils, white blood cells with a front line role in immune defense against invading microbes.
Staph's coloration reflects the production of molecules called carotenoids, similar to those present in carrots and other colorful vegetables and fruits. Dietary carotenoids have long been touted for their antioxidant properties with hope that they could slow aging or fight off cancer. The scientists found that pathogenic Staph took advantage of the antioxidant effects of its carotenoid pigment to extend its own life, by inactivating chemicals deployed by neutrophils that are lethal to most bacteria.
The UCSD team u
Contact: Leslie Franz
University of California - San Diego
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Photograph by Taylor S. Kennedy, National Geographic
Updated March 16, 2011
On St. Patrick's Day—Thursday, March 17—millions of people will don green and celebrate the Irish with parades, good cheer, and perhaps a pint of beer.
But few St. Patrick's Day revelers have a clue about St. Patrick, the historical figure, according to the author of St. Patrick of Ireland: A Biography.
Who Was the Man Behind St. Patrick's Day?
For starters, the real St. Patrick wasn't even Irish. He was born in Britain around A.D. 390 to an aristocratic Christian family with a townhouse, a country villa, and plenty of slaves.
What's more, Patrick professed no interest in Christianity as a young boy, Freeman noted.
At 16, Patrick's world turned: He was kidnapped and sent overseas to tend sheep as a slave in the chilly, mountainous countryside of Ireland for seven years. (See Ireland pictures.)
"It was just horrible for him," Freeman said. "But he got a religious conversion while he was there and became a very deeply believing Christian."
St. Patrick's Disembodied Voices
According to folklore, a voice came to Patrick in his dreams, telling him to escape. He found passage on a pirate ship back to Britain, where he was reunited with his family.
The voice then told him to go back to Ireland.
"He gets ordained as a priest from a bishop, and goes back and spends the rest of his life trying to convert the Irish to Christianity," Freeman said.
Patrick's work in Ireland was tough—he was constantly beaten by thugs, harassed by the Irish royalty, and admonished by his British superiors. After he died on March 17, 461, Patrick was largely forgotten.
But slowly, mythology grew around Patrick, and centuries later he was honored as the patron saint of Ireland, Freeman noted.
St. Patrick's Day Shamrock Shortage
According to St. Patrick's Day lore, Patrick used the three leaves of a shamrock to explain the Christian holy trinity: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
Today, St. Patrick's Day revelers wear a shamrock out of tradition. But people in Ireland hoping to wear an authentic shamrock are running low on luck.
Trifolium dubium, the wild-growing, three-leaf clover that some botanists consider the official shamrock, is an annual plant that germinates in the spring. Recently, Ireland has had two harsh winters, affecting the plant's growth.
"The growing season this year is at least as delayed as it was last year, and therefore there is the potential for shortage of home-grown material," John Parnell, a botanist at Trinity College Dublin, said in an email.
"We have had frost and snow showers in parts of Ireland within the past week," he added.
Other experts pin the shortage of the traditional plant as much on modern farming methods and loss of traditional hay meadows.
"The cold winters we are having here lately are just another nail in the coffin," Carsten Krieger, a landscape and nature photographer whose books include The Wildflowers of Ireland, said via email.
To make up for the shortfall, many sellers are resorting to other three-leaf clovers, such as the perennials Trifolium repens and Medicago lupulina. According to the Irish Times, these plants are "bogus shamrocks."
Trinity College's Parnell agreed that Trifolium dubium is the most commonly used shamrock today, which lends credence to the claims of authenticity.
However, he added, the custom of wearing a shamrock dates back to the 17th and 18th centuries, and "I know of no evidence to say what people then used. I think the argument on authenticity is purely academic—basically I'd guess they used anything cloverlike then."
What's more, botanists say there's nothing uniquely Irish about shamrocks. Most clover species can be found throughout Europe.
No Snakes in Ireland
Another St. Patrick myth is the claim that he banished snakes from Ireland. It's true no snakes exist on the island today, Freeman said—but they never did.
Ireland, after all, is surrounded by icy ocean waters—much too cold to allow snakes to migrate from Britain or anywhere else.
Since snakes often represent evil in literature, "when Patrick drives the snakes out of Ireland, it is symbolically saying he drove the old, evil, pagan ways out of Ireland [and] brought in a new age," Freeman said.
The snake myth, the shamrock story, and other tales were likely spread by well-meaning monks centuries after St. Patrick's death, Freeman said.
St. Patrick's Day: Made in America?
Until the 1970s, St. Patrick's Day in Ireland was a minor religious holiday. A priest would acknowledge the feast day, and families would celebrate with a big meal, but that was about it.
"St. Patrick's Day was basically invented in America by Irish-Americans," Freeman said.
Irish-American history expert Timothy Meagher said Irish charitable organizations originally celebrated St. Patrick's Day with banquets in places such as Boston, Massachusetts; Savannah, Georgia; and Charleston, South Carolina.
Eighteenth-century Irish soldiers fighting with the British in the U.S. Revolutionary War held the first St. Patrick's Day parades. Some soldiers, for example, marched through New York City in 1762 to reconnect with their Irish roots.
Other parades followed in the years and decades after, including well-known celebrations in Boston, Philadelphia, and Chicago, primarily in flourishing Irish immigrant communities.
"It becomes a way to honor the saint but also to confirm ethnic identity and to create bonds of solidarity," said Meagher, of Catholic University in Washington, D.C..
Dyeing the River Green for St. Patrick's Day
Sometime in the 19th century, as St. Patrick's Day parades were flourishing, wearing the color green became a show of commitment to Ireland, Meagher said.
In 1962 the show of solidarity took a spectacular turn in Chicago when the city decided to dye a portion of the Chicago River green.
The tradition started when parade organizer Steve Bailey, head of a plumbers' union, noticed how a dye used to trace possible sources of river pollution had stained a colleague's overalls a brilliant green, according to greenchicagoriver.com.
Why not use the dye to turn the whole river green on St. Patrick's Day, Bailey thought. So began the tradition.
The environmental impact of the dye is minimal compared with pollution such as bacteria from sewage-treatment plants, said Margaret Frisbie, the executive director of the advocacy group Friends of the Chicago River.
Rather than advising against the dye, her group focuses on turning the Chicago River into a welcoming habitat full of fish, herons, turtles, and beavers. If the river becomes a wildlife haven, the thinking goes, Chicagoans won't want to dye their river green.
"Our hope is that, as the river continues to improve, ultimately people can get excited about celebrating St. Patrick's Day different ways," she said.
Pint of Guinness on St. Patrick's Day
On any given day 5.5 million pints of Guinness, the famous Irish stout brand, are consumed around the world.
But on St. Patrick's Day, that number more than doubles to 13 million pints, said Beth Davies Ryan, global corporate-relations director of Guinness.
"Historically speaking, a lot of Irish immigrants came to the United States and brought with them lots of customs and traditions, one of them being Guinness," she said.
Today, the U.S. tradition of St. Patrick's Day parades, packed pubs, and green silliness has invaded Ireland with full force, said Freeman, the classics professor.
The country, he noted, figured out that the popularity of St. Patrick's Day was a good way to boost spring tourism. (Get National Geographic Traveler magazine's list of the best hotels in Ireland.)
"Like anybody else," he said, "they can take advantage of a good opportunity."
The Ring Nebula shines, a volcano erupts, and Germans see the bat signal in this week's best new space pictures.
As extreme weather seems to accelerate globally, scientists believe events Down Under can help explain what to look for-and guard against.
Cicadas bugging you? See our recipe ideas for the low-fat critters, including the new candied cicada cocktail.
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All tea comes from a single plant, the Camellia Sinensis. An evergreen bush, tea is grown predominantly in Southeastern Asia. Harvesting, picking and processing the camellia sinensis bush yields 5 classes of tea: white, green, oolong, black, and pu·erh.
Although scientists believe Yunnan Province in China to be the birthplace of the tea plant, both Indian and Chinese mythology stake legendary claims to its discovery.
Known as the Divine Healer, second Emperor Shen Nung is credited with identifying the medicinal properties of hundreds of ingredients that later became the foundation of Chinese Medicine. It is said that he possessed the magical property of a transparent stomach with which he could gauge the effects of medicine on the body. One fateful afternoon in the year 2737 B.C., Shen Nung was boiling water and resting upon a wild tree when a slight breeze stirred the branches above and caused a few leaves to drift into the simmering cauldron. Intrigued by the tempting aroma, Shen Nung drank the liquid and felt revitalized and invigorated. As chance would have it, he was resting under a tea tree.
According to another legend, an Indian Bodhisattva by the name of Bodhidharma went to China to teach Buddhism in the 6th Century B.C.. One version of the story tells of his students becoming impatient and falling asleep during lengthy meditation. Leading by example, Bodhidharma began a nine year meditation near the entrance of a cave. After seven years he accidentally fell asleep. When he awoke he became angry with himself and sliced the eyelids from his face, throwing them upon the ground. Legend has it, that a tea plant grew where his eyelids fell. The monks of Zen buddhism would come to incorporate the use of tea into their rituals to attain a calm awakeness and focus during their meditations.
“Monkey-picked” is a term used today to denote high-quality tea, but like the origin of tea's use, the history of the term is shrouded in mystery.
One story tells of Buddhist monks training monkeys to fetch precious leaves from tea trees growing from the sides of treacherously steep cliffs. Another version portrays the monks throwing stones at monkeys perched high in tea trees, so that they would fall to the ground, breaking the branches and bringing the prized, top-most leaves down with them.
Today, most tea plants are pruned to waist high bushes and monkeys aren't used to pick the leaves. When someone refers to “monkey-picked” tea, they are simply referring to premium quality tea leaves.
Before the advent of tea cultivation, two genera of Camellia Sinensis thrived in the wild. Camellia Sinensis var. Sinensis (China bush) is at home on the foggy mountainsides of Southwestern China and produce a small, tender leaf during a short growing period. Separated from China by the Himalayan Mountains, Camellia Sinensis var. Assamica (Assam bush) prefers the jungle-like conditions of Northeastern India and yields a large, broad leaf that can be picked year-round.
Since the discovery of tea by the Western World in the 1600’s, tea has been transplanted and cultivated all over the world. Although still predominantly grown in China and India, tea gardens thrive in Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Kenya, Uganda, Argentina and Brazil. Experimental and small-production gardens are even being grown in Hawaii, Washington, and South Carolina.
The top leaves and bud of the camellia sinensis bush yield thousands of varieties of tea. Like different vines for different wines, tea farmers harvest different bushes for specific varieties of tea. For example, one cultivar may yield a Lung Jing Green Tea while another bush is best used for a Ti Kuan Yin oolong. Teas are generally named after the region they are from: Darjeeling from Darjeeling India, Yunnan from Yunnan Province in China; or named after the physical attributes of processed tea: Jasmine Pearls from the scenting and rolling of green tea, Silver Needles from the color and shape of budset white tea.
White tea (in one form or another) has been treasured for over 1,000 years as the finest of all teas and for a time, was reserved solely for Chinese Royalty. True to its history, white tea remains a delicacy to this day, albeit, one we can all enjoy.
Harvested in early spring, tender young buds are carefully plucked the day before they unfurl into leaves. The downy buds are briefly withered and then quickly air driedsteamed to prevent oxidation. As a result of minimal processing, white tea is valued for its high concentration of polyphenols. The flavor of white tea can be described as delicate, smooth, sweet, velvety, and reminiscent of fresh apricots.
The combination of a bud and top leaf from the tea plant provides the backbone for green tea. After picking, the tea begins its journey down the mountain where it will be thinly spread in the shade and left to air-dry. This primary drying is kept short to prevent oxidation of the leaf. The next step determines the characteristics of a green tea’s style. Working with fresh product, a team of firers will sift, roll, flatten, tumble, or shake the tea over a heat source until it is thoroughly dried and the flavor is locked in.
Careful manipulation of the leaves during the firing process results in distinctive shapes and flavors. Traditionally, this process was done entirely by hand in baskets and woks carefully placed over coal and wood burning fires. Today, large tumblers and ovens are employed during this phase to process large amounts of green tea for export.
The flavors of green tea are partially determined by region of growth and seasib of pick, but are also deapendent upon method of finishing. Pan-frying results in the toasty flavor of Long Jing, while steaming results in the sweetly vegetal flavors of Japanese Sencha.
It was once said that over 10,000 types of green tea exist in China alone. While this may be an exaggeration, if you haven’t found a green tea you like, chances are good that there is one waiting for you.
Jasmine Green Tea
Jasmine Green Tea is one of the oldest known scenting methods for tea. To obtain such a delicate flavor, night blooming jasmine flowers are picked during the day and laid over dried tea leaves. As the flowers open overnight and release their aromatic fragrance, the tea naturally absorbs the sweet scent. The next day, the flowers and tea are separated and the tea is allowed to rest and dry for several days. This process is repeated anywhere from 3-5 times depending on the quality of jasmine scenting (the longer the scenting the higher the quality). The whole process can take up to one month!
This process is often imitated with perfumes and "natural" or artificial flavoring, but results in unpleasant and sharp aromas and tastes. Choose real jasmine blossoms and scenting methods for the best experience.
Oolong teas are made from large, broad tea leaves that are picked later in the season than green tea. Oolongs can be made from the bud of the tea plant with up to three large leaves still attached to the twig, or from a single large leaf. Some oolongs are green in color and tightly rolled into little pellets, while others are brown, crimped, or loosely folded. What separates oolongs from other classes of tea is that oolongs are only partially oxidized.
Particular to the style of oolong being produced, a complex method of bruising the tea leaves is used to break down cell walls and begin the oxidation of the leaf. Low heat is then used to halt the process, allowing for the still pliable leave to be rolled, curled, crimped, twisted, and fired into their final form.
Different levels of oxidation and firing are used to bring out complex flavors and aromas that are uniquely “oolong.” Sometimes referred to as the “tea for connoisseurs,” oolongs possess aromatics that range from distinctively floral, to reminiscent of stone fruit. Flavors can be smooth, savory, full-bodied and rich; or delicate, with notes of orchid, honey, and exotic fruits.
Black tea results from the full oxidation of the bud and first two leaves of the tea plant. Like green and white teas, a high quality black tea is picked early in the spring and contains a high ratio of bud-to-leaf.
Unlike other teas, leaves destined for black tea are spread thickly during the withering process. An extended withering time (up to 18 hours) drives moisture out of the leaf and begins the conversion of delicate “juices” within the leaf into dark, complex liquoring compounds. The oxidation begins at this stage and continues into the rolling process. After being sorted by size, the withered leaves will be twisted, compressed, and rolled multiple times, breaking down cell walls and allowing enzymes to mix. special oxidation chambers are used to feed air through thin layers of rolled leaves to quicken the process. Once the tea master determines oxidation is complete and the flavors and aromas properly developed, the leaves will be dried, cooled, and packaged for sale
Grown and produced similarly all over the world, black tea is graded and sold by its size of leaf and point of origin. High quality black teas are of whole leaf with a high ratio of leaf buds (tips) to leaf. Terms like “Flowery Orange Pekoe” (FOP) are used to describe a full leaf tea with tips. Names like: Assam, Darjeeling, Yunnan, and Ceylon refer to the region where the tea was grown
Lower quality black teas are prepared from fannings and dust (not full leaf) will taste bitter and harsh. Full leaf black teas will have aromas that are clean, nutty, and bright, with flavors that are brisk, full, coppery and soft.
Pu·erh (pū-ĕr) is an ancient healing tea picked from 500 year old organic wild tea trees in the majestic mountains of China's Yunnan province. Pu·erh’s history began over 2000 years ago when tea was transported along five Tea Horse Roads’. The first and most traveled road began in the village of Pu Erh. In order to maximize their load, merchants compressed the tea, and to their surprise, the tea tasted better at the journey’s end and yielded additional health benefits. It is said the Last Emperor’s mother, known as the Beautiful Countenance, was cured of her gout by drinking Pu·erh
Pu·erh is processed differently than traditional white, green, oolong, and black teas. Pu·erh undergoes a unique fermenting process: once picked, the leaves are piled, dampened, and turned, over a 60-day period. The tea is then dried and ready to be compressed into bricks for additional aging, or left as loose tea, which Numi uses in its tea bags. The resulting taste is rich and smooth with hints of malt - a great alternative to coffee. Numi is first to bring you this revolutionary healthy tea in tea bags, aged compressed tea bricks and bottled iced teas.
Health & Vitality
The roots of these mature trees gather more minerals from the earth resulting in elevated levels of antioxidants; more than most green teas. The unique fermentation process then acts on the nutrients that already exist in the tea leaves. Pu·erh has been purported in Chinese culture to aid digestion and metabolism, maintain healthy cholesterol levels, help with weight management and naturally boost energy (without the jitters).* According to independent ORAC tests, Numi’s bottled Puerh iced teas contain 3x more antioxidants than leading brand black and green iced teas.
*Along with a healthy diet and exercise.
After tea leaves are picked and still moist, they are sewn with cotton thread together with flowers into various shapes and bundles (tea leaves may also be scented with jasmine blossoms before sewing for a more floral flavor). Some shapes take one minute to sew, while other more elaborate designs containing lilies, chrysanthemum, or osmanthus flowers may take up to twelve minutes. The sewn leaves and flowers are shaped into bundles or rosettes and then undergo the usual drying and firing process. They require boiling water in order for the leaves to expand and unfurl.
Tea is a misnomer for anything steeped in hot water. Teas come from the tea plant. “Teasan” is our term, from the French tisanes, for brewed herbal beverages; which, strictly speaking, are not from the camellia sinensis plant.
Herbal teasans are dried pure herbs, fruits, spices and flowers, and are naturally caffeine free (with a few exceptions like Yerba Mate). Grown all over the world, teasans have been steeped in hot water since the beginning of time for a warm soothing beverage or an inigorating boost to the day.
“Tea absorbs yesterday’s weather” and soaks in anything around it. It is recommended to store loose leaf tea in an air-tight container that is placed in a dry cool area away from light and strong scented items such as coffee or spices. Stored in this fashion, tea will remain fresh for approximately 6 - 9 months. We offer small and large storage containers.
Tea is one of the few beverages naturally containing caffeine and has been enjoyed for millennia as an enlivened boost with focused clarity. Unlike coffee which is absorbed quickly and can cause unpleasant jitters and an afternoon crash, the caffeine in tea provides a gentle and sustained energy balanced by the calming effect of theanine, another compound found naturally in tea leaves. This unique combination makes tea the perfect beverage to enjoy throughout the day.
A 6 to 8 ounce cup of tea generally contains between 15 and 70 milligrams of caffeine. Remember, 8 ounces of brewed coffee has a range of 95-200 miligrams, so you can be sure that your cup of tea will always be lower in caffeine.
We’re asked all the time how many milligrams of caffeine are in a particular tea, and the honest answer is: we don’t know for sure! The environment each year, location of the bush, processing style and method of steeping all has an effect on the amount in your cup, so we can only provide a range.
We use the lower, medium, high and higher caffeine labeling on our package based on past tests and the proportion of tea to ingredients in each blend. Our decaffeinated teas have 99.9% of the caffeine removed with a beneficial process known as effervescence that leaves no-residue and preserves the antioxidants.
Herbal teasans are derived from a variety of plants and herbs that naturally do not contain caffeine and are thus caffeine-free. One exception is the south American beverage Yerba Mate which contains a caffeine content comparable to coffee.
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leafscale gulper shark
Today the European Commission proposed new catch limits for 2013 and 2014 that will allow fishermen to exploit some little-known but important deep-sea fishes against the advice of scientists. As this video of the European deep-sea prepared by our European office demonstrates, even though light doesn’t penetrate to the ocean bottom, it's still thriving with life. It's a strange world and the animals themselves often have fittingly strange names, like the Mediterranean slimehead, greater forkbeard, and conger, to name a few.
Some species, like the roundnose grenadier, blue ling and red seabream, need special protection. Executive Director of Oceana Europe, Xavier Pastor explains why:
“Due to their biological characteristics, like low reproduction, slow growth rate and late maturity, deep sea species are highly vulnerable to overexploitation. Their management must, now more than ever, follow the precautionary approach.”
European fishermen have increasingly turned to scouring the deep-sea for fish as more traditional stocks have fallen and pirate fishermen have been able to hammer stocks of threatened deep-sea sharks through the sale of shark liver oil in the EU.
Right now Oceana’s research vessel, the Oceana Ranger, is sailing off of the picturesque Algarve section of Portugal using an underwater robot, known as an ROV, to explore and document the scarcely seen world of seamounts, deep-sea coral reefs and seafloor habitat. It’s an effort that will help scientists develop conservation proposals and better protect this vital ecosystem--one that can be obliterated in an instant by bottom trawlers. Keep up with the Ranger expedition online and check out the latest pictures and video.
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Beersheba - A Spring and an Oath
Be’er means a spring and Sheva means an oath, and the two combine to form the name of the city that is known as the capital of the Negev of modern Israel.
Ancient Beersheba is where the Patriarch Avraham discovered a spring and where he made a covenant with the Philistines which he sealed with an oath. The well built on this spring was eventually stuffed up by the Philistines until the Patriarch Yitzchak restored it to use. Like his father he also made a covenant with the Philistines and reinstituted the name given to it, which became the name of the city that grew around it.
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This article is about monastic cells (living quarters).
The term cell applies to such a living space in a building, usually within a cenobitic monastery, which consists of rooms for each monk or nun, as well as a hermit's primitive solitary living space (possibly a cave, hut in the desert, deep forest, etc.) isolated from monasteries. In a cenobitic setting the building of "cells” also contains communal rooms for eating.
In 2005, the oldest physical example of living quarters for Christian monks was found by renovators who were repairing paintings in a fifteenth-century church at the site of the ancient Monastery of St. Anthony in Egypt, near the Red Sea. The monastery was founded in the mid-fourth century and is located about 100 miles southwest of Cairo, Egypt. These cells date from the fourth and fifth centuries. This archeological find is the first physical evidence that monks lived on the monastery site before the sixth century.
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Theophany (from Greek theophania, meaning "appearance of God") is one of the Great Feasts of the Orthodox Church, celebrated on January 6. It is the feast which reveals the Most Holy Trinity to the world through the Baptism of the Lord (Mt.3:13-17; Mark 1:9-11; Luke 3:21-22).
Baptism of Christ
This observance commemorates Christ's baptism by John the Forerunner in the River Jordan, and the beginning of Christ's earthly ministry. The Feast of Theophany is the culmination of the Christmas Season, which starts on December 25 and ends on January 6. In mystic commemoration of this event, the Great Blessing of Water is performed on this day, and the holy water so blessed is used by the local priest to bless the homes of the faithful.
The feast is called Theophany because at the baptism of Christ the Holy Trinity appeared clearly to mankind for the first time -- the Father's voice is heard from Heaven, the Son of God is incarnate and standing physically in the Jordan, and the Holy Spirit descends on Him in the form of a dove.
This feast is also sometimes referred to as Epiphany by English-speaking Orthodox Christians, but that name more properly refers to the Western Christian feast falling on that same day and commemorating the visit of the Magi to the child Jesus. The term "Epiphany" does appear in the services for this feast, however.
Originally, there was just one Christian feast of the shining forth of God to the world in the human form of Jesus of Nazareth. It included the celebration of Christ's birth, the adoration of the Wisemen, and all of the childhood events of Christ such as his circumcision and presentation to the temple as well as his baptism by John in the Jordan. There seems to be little doubt that this feast, like Easter and Pentecost, was understood as the fulfillment of a previous Jewish festival, in this case the Feast of Lights.
Celebration of the feast
The services of Theophany are set up exactly as those of the Nativity. Historically the Christmas services were established later.
- For as many as been baptized into Christ,
- have put on Christ
The gospel readings of all the services tell of the Lord's baptism by John in the Jordan River. The epistle reading of the Divine Liturgy tells of the consequences of the Lord's appearing which is the divine epiphany.
Since the main feature of the feast is the blessing of water. It is prescribed to follow both the Divine Liturgy of the eve of the feast and the Divine Liturgy of the day itself. But most local parishes do it only once when most of the parishioners can be present. The blessing verifies that mankind, and all of creation, were created to be filled with the sanctifying presence of God.
- When You, O Lord were baptized in the Jordan
- The worship of the Trinity was made manifest
- For the voice of the Father bore witness to You
- And called You His beloved Son.
- And the Spirit, in the form of a dove,
- Confirmed the truthfulness of His word.
- O Christ, our God, You have revealed Yourself
- And have enlightened the world, glory to You!
Kontakion (Tone 4)
- Today You have shown forth to the world, O Lord,
- and the light of Your countenance has been marked on us.
- Knowing You, we sing Your praises.
- You have come and revealed Yourself,
- O unapproachable Light.
Troparion (Tone 4)
- Today the Lord enters the Jordan and cries out to John:
- "Do not be afraid to baptize me.
- For I have come to save Adam, the first-formed man."
Kontakion (Tone 4)
- Prepare, O Zebulon,
- And adorn yourself, O Naphtali;
- River Jordan, cease flowing
- And receive with joy the Master coming to be baptized.
- Adam, rejoice with our First Mother
- And do not hide yourself as you did of old in Paradise;
- For having seen you naked,
- He has appeared to clothe you with the first garment.
- Christ has appeared to renew all creation.
Eve and Afterfeast hymn
Troparion (Tone 4)
- Of old, the river Jordan
- Turned back before Elisha's mantle at Elijah's ascension.
- The waters were parted in two
- And the waterway became a dry path.
- This is truly a symbol of baptism
- By which we pass through this mortal life.
- Christ has appeared in the Jordan to sanctify the waters!
- Discourse On the Day of the Baptism of Christ Saint John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople
- Epiphany The Orthodox Faith by Fr. Thomas Hopko
- Feast of the Theophany of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ - OCA website
- The Baptism of Christ - Uncovering Bethany beyond the Jordan - 47 min Documentary
- Icons of Theophany
| 3.051407 |
Uncovering The Origins of The Earth
Study of the Earth
Bricks of the Earth: An innovative way to engage students in green building techniques
The Politics of the Earth: Environmental Discourses
Movement Of The Earth’S Crust
THE ASSESSMENT OF THE DAMAGE FROM INDIAN OCEAN TSUNAMI ON THE COASTAL MORPHOLOGY OF THE ANDAMAN SEACOAST OF THAILAND BY REMOTE SENSING
Facts about The Earth
The blood of the earth—water
Mapping and Analysis of Marine Pollution in Tuticorin Coastal Area Using Remote Sensing and GIS
Evaluation of Fluoride Contamination in Groundwater Using Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques in Virudhunagar District, India
Use coupon below to get discount at eCampus.com!
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|Amazon US||Paperback||$303.49 - $389.00|
The book presents a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) research. It focuses on experimental ABL research, while most of the books on ABL ...
Remote Sensing of the Earth from Space: Atmospheric Correction
Tsunamis are underrated as major hazards, mainly due to the misconceptions that they occur infrequently and happen along some distant shoreline. However, evidence for past great tsunami has recently ...
Buried waste on the seabed is a major source of pollution. But, very often, waste sites are not known until a serious problem occurs, or are not adequately mapped. Recent examples around Europe ...
This book describes a new tool called the Generic Model System for simulations and assessment of potential radioactive spreading in the Arctic regions. It considers the present and future potential ...
This popular book introduces the fundamentals of remote sensing from an earth resource (versus engineering) perspective. The author ...
The enclosed and marginal seas surrounding the European continent exhibit a wide spectrum of environmental traits, ranging from sub-polar to sub-tropical climates, from shallow continental shelves to ...
This book is an introductory graduate-level text on atmospheric remote sensing. The basic interaction between radiation and the atmosphere is examined, and illustrated with actual sensing examples. ...
A classic of nineteenth-century French literature, this science fiction tale delves into the depths of the Earth, and by so doing, reveals the staggeringly long history of our planet. THIS ...
Many advances in spaceborne instrumentation, remote sensing, and data analysis have occurred in recent years, but until now there has been no book that reflects these advances while delivering a ...
| 3.229833 |
A pheochromocytoma is a tumor typically of the adrenal gland, originating within the chromaffin cells, which produces excessive adrenaline. Aside from the adrenal glands, it may also be located in other chromaffin tissue. Although such tumors may grow to a considerable size, most are less than 10 cm.
Signs and Symptoms
Pheochromocytoma symptoms vary depending upon the case and individual, but some possibilities may include the following:
Anxiety, nervousness, or panic attacks
Excessive sweating (diaphoresis)
Hyperglycemia (Elevated blood sugar levels)
Hypertension (high blood pressure)
Localized amyloid deposits (upon microscopic examination)
Lower chest pain
Pallor (pale color)
Tachycardia (elevated heart rate)
Upper abdomen pain
Continue reading additional information on pheochromocytoma symptoms.
Diagnosis and Treatment
Pheochromocytoma diagnosis is made by a doctor or medical professional. Common methods of receiving a diagnosis involve measuring the catecholamines in the blood plasma, or metanephrines and catecholamines in the urine. If a pheochromocytoma is diagnosed, CT scan imaging may be useful in localizing the tumor.
Certain other conditions can be ruled out in the diagnosis process: anxiety disorders, essential hypertension, hyperthyroidism, insulinoma, paragangliomas, paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia, and renovascular hypertension.
Pheochromocytoma treatment methods involve surgery: either surgical resection (laparotomy or laparoscopy), or adrenalectomy (total removal of any adrenal glands affected by the tumor).
Pheochromocytoma prognosis depends upon a number of factors, such as whether the tumor is malignant, and if so, how far it has spread. Prognosis of such malignant cases in children is not as well known as in adults.
Continue to read more regarding diagnosis and treatment.
It is sometimes known as the "ten percent tumor" due to the fact that a variety of its statistics are approximately 10%. As an example, roughly 10% of cases involve malignant pheochromocytoma tumors.
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Ingenious fishing method may be spreading through dolphinsAugust 24th, 2011 in Biology / Plants & Animals
(PhysOrg.com) -- Researchers from Murdoch University believe a recently documented method of fishing may be spreading throughout a population of dolphins.
Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) in Shark Bay were photographed engaging in conching in 2007 and 2009.
The dolphins would trap small fish in large conch shells with their rostrums (beaks), then bring the shells to the surface and shake them, causing the water to drain out and the fish to fall into their mouths.
Murdoch Cetacean Research Unit Researcher Simon Allen says this previously rarely witnessed phenomenon might be on the increase, suggesting that the technique is spreading.
In the last four months alone, the research team have seen and photographed the behaviour no less than six times, possibly even seven.
If and that is a big if we are witnessing the horizontal spread of this behaviour, then I would assume that it spreads by an associate of a conching dolphin closely observing the behaviour and then imitating it, Mr. Allen said.
It is a tantalising possibility that this behavior could spread before our very eyes over a field season or two and that we could track that spread.
The prospect of observing a learned behavior spreading through a population over a short period of time is exciting in itself, but the behavior also raises new questions about how exactly dolphins engage in conching.
As yet, we dont know if dolphins simply pursue fish into the refuge of the large, empty conch/bailer shells or whether they actually manipulate the shells prior perhaps turning them over so that the opening is facing up in order to make them appealing to fish as a place to hide from the jaws of death, Mr. Allen said.
If we were to set up a few shells opening down in a known location and either witness dolphins turning them over, see evidence of them having been turned over when we werent around, or better still get some video footage of dolphins manipulating them in some way, then that would be priceless, since that implies forward planning on the dolphins part.
I wouldnt be too surprised to find such cunning and devilish ploys being adopted by Shark Bays bottlenose dolphins.
Until such observations are recorded though, Mr. Allen says it is too early to rush to any conclusions.
Members of the Murdoch Cetacean Unit, with colleagues from the University of Zurich, spend roughly four months of the year studying western Shark Bays dolphin population in the field.
The Unit operates with the assistance of a partnership with Shark Bay Resources, who provide accommodation, office space and mess facilities for the research teams.
Provided by Murdoch University
"Ingenious fishing method may be spreading through dolphins." August 24th, 2011. http://phys.org/news/2011-08-ingenious-fishing-method-dolphins.html
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The steps by which molecules in the primordial soup came together to form the genetic backbone of life are largely unknown. One approach to finding out is to artificially create basic life functions in the laboratory and consider if such conditions might have been possible in the Earth’s past. Writing in Physical Review Letters, Hubert Krammer and colleagues at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in Germany show they are able to drive the replication of segments of tRNA (transfer ribonucleic acid), the molecule responsible for translating genetic code into the production of specific proteins, using a purely thermal process.
Krammer et al. begin by rapidly cooling a solution of four halves of tRNA from high temperatures to so that the molecules form hairpins—a state where the strand forms a closed loop on itself, except for a snippet of a sequence of bases, called a “toe hold.” It is this toe hold, which, in principle, carries enough information to encode a protein, that the authors try to protect and replicate by using a thermal process to coax the hairpins to open and pair to a complementary strand. When Krammer et al. thermally cycle the solution between and , the energy stored in the hairpin (which prefers it to bind to a complementary pair instead of itself) compensates for the loss of entropy associated with the molecules pairing up with their partners.
This thermally driven process occurs on a relatively fast time scale of about seconds, an important factor since molecules need to replicate faster than they degrade. According to the authors, convection currents in prebiotic liquids could have provided the necessary quenching and thermal cycling. – Jessica Thomas
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When the Manchu ruled China during the Qing Dynasty, certain social strata emerged. Among them were the Banners, mostly Manchu, who as a group were called Banner People.
Manchu women typically wore a one-piece dress that came to be known as the cheongsam. The qipao fitted loosely and hung straight down the body. You can pull on cheongsam of PLUS SIZE DRESSES Under the dynastic laws after 1644, all Han Chinese were forced to wear a queue and dress in Manchurian qipao instead of traditional Han Chinese clothing, under penalty of death. In the following 300 years, the qipao became the adopted clothing of the Chinese (though it cannot be considered as the traditional dress of Chinese, as it was forced upon them), and was eventually tailored to suit the preferences of the population. Such was its popularity that the garment form survived the political turmoil of the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that toppled the Qing Dynasty. Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons made by the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity (sericulture). The shimmering appearance for which silk is prized comes from the fibers' triangular prism-like structure which allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at different angles. "Wild silks" are produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm and can be artificially cultivated. A variety of wild silks have been known and used in China, South Asia, and Europe since early times, but the scale of production was always far smaller than that of cultivated silks. They differ from the domesticated varieties in color and texture, and cocoons gathered in the wild usually have been damaged by the emerging moth before the cocoons are gathered, so the silk thread that makes up the cocoon has been torn into shorter lengths. Commercially reared silkworm pupae are killed by dipping them in boiling water before the adult moths emerge, or by piercing them with a needle, allowing the whole cocoon to be unraveled as one continuous thread. This permits a much stronger cloth to be woven from the silk. Wild silks also tend to be more difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm. We can PLUS SIZE DRESSES for you
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What is API?
API is an interface that allows software programs to interact with each other. It defines a set of rules that should be followed by the programs to communicate with each other. APIs generally specify how the routines, data structures, etc. should be defined in order for two applications to communicate. APIs differ in the functionality provided by them. There are general APIs that provide library functionalities of a programming language such as the Java API. There are also APIs that provides specific functionalities such as the Google Maps API. There are also language dependent APIs, which could only be used by a specific programming language. Furthermore, there are language independent APIs that could be used with several programming languages. APIs needs to be implemented very carefully by exposing only the required functionality or data to the outside, while keeping the other parts of the application inaccessible. Usage of APIs has become very popular in the internet. It has become very common to allow some of the functionality and data through an API to the outside on the Web. This functionality can be combined to offer an improved functionality to the users.
What is SDK?
SDK is a set of tools that can be used to develop software applications targeting a specific platform. SDKs include tools, libraries, documentation and sample code that would help a programmer to develop an application. Most of the SDKs could be downloaded from the internet and many of the SDKs are provided free to encourage the programmers to use the SDK‘s programming language. Some widely used SDKs are Java SDK (JDK) that includes all the libraries, debugging utilities, etc., which would make writing programs much easier in Java. SDKs make the life of a software developer easy, since there is no need to look for components/ tools that are compatible with each other and all of them are integrated in to a single package that is easy to install.
What is the difference between API and SDK?
API is an interface that allows software programs to interact with each other, whereas a SDK is a set of tools that can be used to develop software applications targeting a specific platform. The simplest version of a SDK could be an API that contains some files required to interact with a specific programming language. So an API can be seen as a simple SDK without all the debugging support, etc.
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QFK - Quest for Knowledge
What is QFK ?
QFK is the Game Based Mobile Learning (GBML) Platform. It enables development and playing of mobile educational games.
Games can be played via multimedia mobile devices (mobile phones, smart phones) or regular internet browser from the desktop computer, using WWW technologies only. Players may use additional multimedia devices, such as digital cameras, PDA's, or GPS devices.
QFK was developed within the eMapps.com (Motivating Active Participation of Primary Schoolchildren in Digital Online Technologies for Creative Opportunities through Multimedia) 6th Framework Program STREP project.
What Are Mobile Educational Games ?
Games are based on the previously prepared game scripts called Game Matrixes. These are basically game stories (narrative), plots, challenges and belonging multimedia objects that form the game in the platform. There are no technical obstacles to implement any kind of Game Matrix in the platform.
Each game consists of multiple missions (layers). Each mission consists of multiple tasks that need to be completed by the teams of players.
Games are played outside, in the real environment, on different locations and in real time by several teams of players. Each team is divided into two parts: Game Base (part of the team on the desktop computer) and Avatars (part of the team on the field). Each game is run by the Game Master who gives additional clues, misguides teams and tracks progress. Communication among players and game master is performed via integrated chat. Players submit their results as text answers, uploaded files (pictures, video, audio...), solved puzzles or set of geographical coordinates.
Games are played by pupils of elementary or secondary schools. Game Masters are usually their teachers. Games cover topics from different curricula fields. Game stories are interesting, appealing and represent the modern approach to learning.
Why Mobile Educational Games?
Games, played in the QFK platform differ from regular computer games which usually define aims, rules or missions and are played in the pure virtual world. Mobile educational games take the players outside of their classrooms, involve real world and real people, blurred with alternate reality that can be defined in the game story. Using modern multimedia devices enable infinite possiblities of communication, social netorking and creation of multimedia content. Players learn through performance. This requires active participation and discovery,
analysis, interpretation, problem solving, and physical activity. The educational value of the experience is not just the game itself, but creative coupling of educational media with effective pedagogy to engage students in meaningful practices.
Mobile Clients: Nokia N70+, Nokia N90+, Sony Ericsson P1; OS Symbian s60+; Opera Web kit
Desktop clients: PC with internet access, Browser (FF2+, IE 6.0+)
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
University of Ljubljana
Marko Papić, M. Sc.
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Fifth Grade, Lesson 1: Biodiversity
The more diverse an ecosystem is, the more interdependence of species exists within that system. The complex relationships among diverse species are difficult to identify. As species disappear or become extinct we begin to see the vital links that exist among species. Essential levels of biodiversity vary among biomes and bioregions.
Could an ocelot live where you live?
Step 1 -- Connect (The Concept to Prior Knowledge)
Students will observe the biodiversity in their backyard by connecting the adaptations of the animals in their neighborhood to the climate and habitats in which they live in.
- Access to schoolyard or nearby park
- Paper, pencils
- Take students out into the school grounds and look for signs of life.
- Search for insects, birds, animal tracks, scat, feathers, nests, different types of trees, grasses, soil types, etc.
- Make a class list that shows all findings in the schoolyard and post it as a visual in the classroom.
- Make headings to organize groupings: insects, plants, mammals, birds, etc.
- Discuss the Web of Life concept. Draw lines that connect one thing to another.
Step 2 -- Literature/Discuss (Give Expert Information Book; Ask Questions)
Students will learn about the biodiversity of the rainforest and compare and contrast with that of their own schoolyard findings.
- Book: The Great Kapok Tree by Lynne Cherry
- Biodiversity list from Step 1
- 1 piece of long string or rope
- Read The Great Kapok Tree by Lynne Cherry. Discuss the different perspectives voiced throughout the book.
Activity: The Web of Life
- Have students stand in a large circle.
- Each student should choose one of the items from the classroom biodiversity list, making sure everyone represents a different living thing.
- Use a string or a rope to represent the links between each person.
- One person starts by saying the name they chose and, as a class, decide how they are connected to another organism in the circle.
- The rope is then passed to that organism.
- The goal is to finish with a web that is connected to everyone.
- This game demonstrates the intricate web of life.
- Debrief in order for students to see how everything in their backyard, as in the rainforest, is ultimately connected in some way or another to their specific environment.
Step 3A -- Practice (Math and Learning Centers)
Students will come up with their own web of life example.
- Access to natural area (i.e., yard, park, etc.)
- Each student will look for an animal or insect in their own backyard or the schoolyard.
- Students will make observations based on the behavior of that animal or insect.
- Students will come up with their own web of life example based on the observations made and research on the behavior, food and habitat of that organism.
- Students will make observations that support the theory that all organisms are connected: behavior, food, habitat, etc.
Step 3B -- Create (Performance Tasks Related to Standard Indicators)
Students will demonstrate through writing how all living things interact with their environment in order to survive.
- Paper, pencils
Students will synthesize their observations of an organism and create a story that parallels The Great Kapok Tree. Using their observations as a framework, they will write their own stories to explain who depends on what for survival and why these interactions are unique to their environment.
Step 4 -- Present (Edit Work/Students Present Projects)
Students will practice their oral reading skills.
- Story from Step 3B
Each student will read their story to the class.
The Rainforest Alliance curriculum is unique in that it teaches science, math, language arts and social studies essentials while addressing the United States National Standards for Learning. These are the standards addressed in the fifth grade lessons.
Standard 3: Evaluation Strategies
Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate and appreciate texts.
Standard 1: Reading for Perspective
Students read a wide range of print and non-print texts to build an understanding of texts, of themselves and of the cultures of the US and the world.
Standard 4: Communication Skills
Students adjust their use of spoken, written and visual language to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes.
Standard 7: Evaluating Data
Students conduct research on issues and interests by generating ideas and questions, and by posing problems.
Students develop an understanding of the structure and function in living systems, populations and ecosystems, and diversity and adaptations of organisms.
Standard 1: Grades 3 - 5
Students understand the need for measuring with standard units and that measurements are approximations and how differences in units affect precision.
Standard 5: Technology Research Tools
Students use technology to locate, evaluate and collect information from a variety of sources.
Standard 4: Technology Communication Tools
Students use a variety of media and formats to communicate information and ideas effectively to multiple audiences.
Standard 5: Environment and Society
Students should understand how human actions modify the physical environment.
Standard 6: Personal and Social Perspectives
Students develop an understanding of populations, resources and environments.
Fifth and Sixth Grade Resources
- Fifth Grade Curriculum
- Sixth Grade Curriculum
- El Salvador Slideshow [PDF]
- El Salvador Slideshow Script [PDF]
- Coffee Slideshow [PDF]
- Alex Goes Exploring in El Imposible [PDF]
- Alex Explora El Imposible [PDF]
- Alex Explora o Parque Nacional O Impossível [PDF]
- Life in San Miguelito [PDF]
- La Vida en San Miguelito [PDF]
- A Vida em São Miguelito [PDF]
- Ocelot [PDF]
- Great Curassow [PDF]
- King Vulture [PDF]
- Ruby-Throated Hummingbird [PDF]
- Blue-Crowned Motmot [PDF]
- Coffee [PDF]
Teacher Summary: El Imposible National Park, El Salvador [PDF]
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A partial vocabulary of the Yinikurtira Aboriginal people
Petkovic, J. (2007) A partial vocabulary of the Yinikurtira Aboriginal people. IM: Interactive Media (3).
|PDF - Published Version |
Download (236kB) | Preview
*Open access, no subscription required
The Yinikurtira people of the North West region of Australia are generally thought to have been a sub-group of the Talandji language speakers, although the exact nature of their connection is somewhat uncertain.1 The Talandji language is reasonably well documented and still has a few living speakers.2 In contrast, the Yinikurtiri language is classified as extinct. 3 Discovering early Yinikurtira wordlists could potentially give us a productive comparison with the known Talandji language as well as a window into the once vibrant Yinikurtira culture.
|Publication Type:||Journal Article|
|Murdoch Affiliation:||National Academy of Screen and Sound|
School of Media, Communication and Culture
|Publisher:||National Academy of Screen and Sound|
|Copyright:||2009 Murdoch University|
|Item Control Page|
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Nahuatl, known as “Mexicano” by many of its speakers, is the most widely spoken indigenous language in Mexico. It was the lingua franca of the Aztec empire and is currently one of Mexico’s official languages. It belongs to the Uto-Aztecan language family, which spread from the United States Southwest to Central America. In fact, it is theorized that Nicaragua’s etymology comes from the Nahuatl words “Nican ca Anahuac,” which roughly translates to “here is Anahauc” denoting the geographical limits of the Aztec empire. There are currently several regional varieties of Nahuatl, including one still spoken in El Salvador. All in all, today the language boasts over 1.5 million native speakers.
Nahuatl is an agglutinative language and is rich in morphology. Its classical form was highly metaphorical and poetic in style. Some of the literary treasures studied in depth by scholars are the poems of Nezahualcoyotl (“coyote in fast”) and the Huehuetlahtolli (literally “the ancient word”), which is an ancient collection of sayings, exhortations, and the traditional wisdom of the culture which helped preserve and pass down family values and ideals to generations—until the Spanish invasion.
The good news is that despite the imposition of Spanish and trends showing a slight decline in the number of Nahuatl monolinguals, there has recently been a growing interest in Nahuatl. Aided by a movement of cultural revival, specifically in many areas of the United States, Nahuatl’s resilience is in part due to the cultural consciousness and commitment of the new generation of Mexicans.
Sergio Avila (@NAHUALYOLOTL) is part of that generation who are working to keep the language alive. Using social media he strives to preserve the language and teach the rich history and culture of his ancestors. He has primarily been using his Twitter account, which has more than 1,000 followers to post a Nahuatl “Word of the Day” as a way to teach and to interact with other up and coming learners of this indigenous language. He also is an administrator of the Nahuatl Facebook Page. Here is a short interview with Sergio conducted in the Nahuatl language:
Rising Voices: Tell us about yourself.
Notoca Sergio, ompa Mexihco Tenochtitlan nichanti. Ce pohualli ihuan chicoace xihuitl nicpia. Nitlacuilo ihuan ompa “Twitter” ihuan “Facebook” nitemachtia nochin cemilhuitl in Nahuatlahtolli.
RV: How long have you been studying Nahuatl? How did you become interested in the language and how did you learn it?
Ome xihuitl nahuatlahtolli onicmomaxtic. Ihcuac onimomatic ¿Tleica in mexihcatlaca titlahtoah caxtillantlahtolli intla tehuan ahmo caxtillantlaca?.
Ompa “Tepeticpac Tlahtolcalli, ce telpochcalli.
RV: How do you use social media for language preservation? What kind of response are you seeing from your followers on Twitter and Facebook?
Nochin cemilhuitl ce nahuatlahtolli nitlacuiloa ompa “twitter” ihuan “facebook”. In tlacah quinpactiah notequiuh miec, inon nechpactia miec. In tlacah nechtlacuiloa “pahpaquiliztli” ihuan “miec tlazohcamati”.
RV: Give us an example or two of a “Nahuatl Word of the Day” (#palabranahuatl)
1. Nahualyolotl: Corazón de Nahual (Nahual es el ser que se reboza bajo la piel de otro, así como parte de nuestra alma fuera de nuestro cuerpo, parecido a un “animal totémico” propio) #palabranahuatl
2. Chicahualiztli: Fuerza (física) #palabranahuatl
2. Chicahualiztli: Strength (physical)
RV: In your opinion, what is the future of the Nahuatl language?
Nicneltoca intla cachi tlacah in nahualthtolli quimatizque (tlen inon notequiuh), yehuan quiihtazque iquetzalcayo ihuan in nahuatlhtolli nochipa nemiz.
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Alana Potter, lead author of the WASHCost working paper on “Assessing hygiene cost-effectiveness“, explains the importance of changing hygiene behaviours so that improved water and sanitation can lead to the expected health benefits. She has been reviewing indicators, tools and methods that sector institutions are using to monitor and measure hygiene behaviour change and identified three key hygiene behaviours common to all of these tools. Simply put, these are hand washing, using a toilet (i.e. separation of faeces from users) and safe management of household water. These are crucial for health benefits to be derived from improved water and should be remembered on World Water Day.
Interview and video by Nicolas Dickinson, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre
March 21, 2012
Source: IRC / WASHCost, 21 Mar 2012
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North Berwick High School's Health Web.
The pages on
this site contain a range of interesting tasks designed
to help pupils increase their understanding of health and wellbeing.
are used by a variety of subjects across the school to enhance work in the classroom and at home.
our Bodyzone for a wide range of tasks to help you learn how
your body works.
You will also discover what you should and should not do
to take proper care of your body.
After all, it's
the only one you've got!
Our school Health Web includes
a number of Health Challenges on A4 worksheets.
They cover important matters of health and wellbeing and
capture the interest of pupils by the use of quiz-based
exercises in a variety of styles. Click
below to try some out:
above to open the file. If your browser is Google Chrome
you may need to right
click and use 'Save link as' to download
Health care is very important in Britain.
But how much do you know about health care and the
National Health Service?
Your teacher may display the Health Alphabet above on a
Alternatively, you can click on the image to open up the
sheet on this computer. The answers are listed at
Are you easily
you touch a wasp? Even a dead one?
The feeling of disgust plays an important role in
keeping us healthy. Find out how by completing an
online BBC experiment. Click the picture and
follow the instructions carefully.
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Matter in the corona and solar wind is derived from the outer convective zone (OCZ) of the Sun. Isotopic abundances of the less volatile elements in the solar atmosphere are probably very similar to terrestrial, lunar and meteoritic abundances. From such elements it is possible to infer the amount of isotopic fractionation under varying conditions in the solar wind source region. For many species, the solar wind provides the only source of information, which is important for many cosmochemical and astrophysical applications. Knowledge of the isotopic composition of the OCZ will yield information on the early solar nebula and the history of the solar system. The CELIAS solar wind mass spectrometer (MTOF, Mass Time-of-Flight sensor) has unprecedented mass resolution for solar wind composition studies, and has already measured rare elements and isotopes that were previously not resolvable from more abundant neighboring species, or were not previously observable at all. The MTOF sensor is routinely measuring isotopic abundance variations for several elements (neon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, argon, calcium, iron, and nickel), some of which have never been previously observed in either the solar wind, solar energetic particles, or spectroscopically. Among the new solar wind isotopes are those of silicon, sulfur, calcium, chromium, iron, and nickel. Other isotopes are being measured with a much finer temporal resolution than previously available (on the order of minutes/hours instead of months/years). Previously, neon and argon solar wind isotopic measurements were available only from foil measurements collected during the Apollo lunar landings - clearly a limited data set! The first magnesium isotope measurements have been reported by MTOF's sister sensor WIND/SMS/MASS. This image shows isotopes of Chromium, Iron, and Nickel.
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Marine science students at Tates Creek High School are raising largemouth bass and growing vegetables without soil in a new three-level aquaponics station, which recycles water in a sustainable food-production model.
In the simple setup, water from the fish barrel trickles into the grow beds, which routinely drain so the roots get some air and the plants aren’t overly saturated. The water then is pumped back into the barrel of bass.
“Throughout generations, it’s been done. It’s the whole idea of being sustainable and increasing your output with low input,” said teacher Diana Mullins. “In this closed system, the plants are taking less time to grow, so you’ve got a faster turnaround. In six months, the fish will be about plate-size.”
The project is a collaboration with FoodChain, a local nonprofit run by Becca Self.
“The great thing is the fish and the plants have a symbiotic relationship. The fish waste is used by the plants as food, and they filter the water so it’s clean to go back to the fish,” Self said. “It uses less than 10 percent of the water that conventional agriculture uses, so it’s a really environmentally friendly way of producing food.”
| 3.013458 |
|Evolution of plants
ferns The oldest
Four very old plants Parka Myriapods Crock Hey (Seed) ferns Scorpion Lepidodendron Sigillaria Calamites
Wood of Calamites Cordaites The leaf of Neuropteris Little animals Graissessac Psaronius Permian of Lodève
Bayreuth Yorkshire Gymnosperm wood Tree fern Tempskya Palm wood Hardwood Manosque Links Eight fossils
A concise report of the development of the flora
I. Silurian and Devonian
Carboniferous and Early Permian
III. Permian - Early Cretaceous
IV. Cretaceous - present
| The oldest fossils of land plants visible with the naked eye are
about 425 million years old. They are miniscule plants from the
Mid-Silurian of Ireland en are called
Cooksonia. Cooksonia plants had dichotomously divided
little stems with small knobs at the end. These knobs were sporangia
and they were filled with spores. During about 20 or 30 millions of years
these were the most common plants. They became extinct at the end of the
Early Devonian. In the photo on the left my finest specimen of
Cooksonia. It comes from South Wales and measures 3.5 cm. Click
on the photos for enlargement. Click
here for more information
Recently microscopic remains have been found in Oman indicating that land plants existed already 475 million years ago. Probably land plants have developed from green algae living in the sea.
| During the Early Devonian, from about
410 million years ago, more variation came into the flora. New groups of
plants came into existence, but still the plants were small (up to 50 cm).
Flowers developed only 250 millions of years later. Leaves didn't exist either,
except for the scalelike leaves, like those of the clubmosses (click
the photo on the right).
Several plants had spines (click photo on the left). These were not for defending the plant, for animal life on the land was still minimal and the land animals were very small (millipedes, collembolans, trigonotarbids ('spiders'), very small crustaceans, etc.). Probably the function of the spines was to enlarge the green surface and so to enhance the assimilation. Furthermore the spines could have given more hold to the plants in forming small bushes of plants of the same species, hanging more or less on each other.
All plants of that period were cryptogams (plants with spores), like
at present the mosses, the ferns, the clubmosses and the horsetails. But
they are so different from the living plants, that in nearly all cases it
is impossible to identify to which group of recent plants they belong. All
those ancient plants have become extinct.
Relatively little is known about these primitive plants, because only a small number of complete and well preserved plants have been found. In most cases the plants have been transported by rivers before they ended up in the mud and could fossilize. Therefore the plants were mostly cut to small pieces before getting fossil. There are only a limited number of places where plants from the Silurian, the Lower and Middle Devonian have been well preserved.
| A huge source of information on the oldest land plants is the so
called Rhynie chert.
About 400 million years ago there was a kind of Yellowstone Park near the place where Rhynie is now situated (click on the photo on the left). There were erupting vulcanos and geysers belching boiling water, saturated with silicium. That is how a complete silicified marsh came into existence with exceptionally well preserved plants, even showing their cell structure. Many animals have also been found in the chert. The photo on the right shows a stem of the plant Rhynia (1.3 mm in diameter). Click here for a more extensive description of the Rhynie chert.
|During the Middle Devonian the plants became taller and little trees
arose, sized up to a couple of meters. Recently a trunk with attached crown
has been discovered in the State of New York. This tree is called
Eospermatopteris and it could be sized up to 8 m. It lived in the
late Middle Devonian. Read
more about this subject.
From the Late Devonian, Archaeopteris (don't confuse it with the ancient bird Archaeopterix) is the most well-known tree. It was possibly a predecessor of the conifers and this tree could reach a height of 18 m. The drawing on the left is a reconstruction from the fine website Devonian Times.
Especially in Belgium quite a number of plants from the Upper Devonian are found. An example is Rhacophyton, occurring in the region of Liège (click photo on the right), which could very well be a precursor of the ferns. It lacks still leaves, but it has small hooks at the end of the branches.
|At the end of the Devonian the first plants with seeds came into
being. The oldest seed plant of Europe has been found in Belgium and it is
has got its name after the village of Moresnet: Moresnetia (click
photo on the left). This plant has primitive seeds: they are not yet
entirely enveloped, like modern seeds. Recently a precursor of this plant
has been discovered in Belgium with still more primitive 'seeds'. Click
here for the original paper.
The seed plants have become more ande more important in the course of the hundreds of million years. It appeared to be a successful formula because nowadays by far most plants are seed plants. The free-sporing plants have been pushed into the background. Click here for a more extensive description of the early land plants.
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New study details lethal impacts of a fungicide commonly used on golf courses around the world
By Summit Voice
SUMMIT COUNTY — Despite the lessons learned from the effects of DDT, people continue to use chemicals in the same organochlorine family, to the detriment of natural ecosystems.
Now, University of South Florida researchers have shown that one of the world’s most common fungicides is lethal to a wide variety of freshwater organisms and essentially crashes ecosystems from the bottom up.
Biologists Taegan McMahon and Jason Rohr tested the effects of Chlorothalonil, a common fungicides used pervasively on food crops and golf courses. Even at levels below those deemed safe by the EPA, the chemical killed amphibians, snails, zooplankton, algae, and aquatic plants The loss of these herbivores and plants freed the algae from predation and competition, which eventually resulted in algal blooms that were similar to the effects of eutrophication.
“Some species were able to recover from the chemical assault, but the ecosystem was fundamentally changed after its exposure to chlorothalonil,” Rohr said.
The four-week study was conducted in a series of 300-gallon tanks used to mimic pond conditions. It follows a 2011 laboratory study conducted by McMahon and Rohr that found that ecologically-relevant concentrations of chlorothalonil killed four species of amphibians.
“Although our new study is the only reported community- and ecosystem-level experiment on chlorothalonil, our results are consistent with several direct toxicity studies conducted in the laboratory and with observations in the field,” McMahon said.
Chlorothalonil kills molds and fungus by disrupting cellular respiration, an essential process for most multicellular organisms on the planet. Like the infamous DDT, chlorothalonil is a member of the organochlorine chemical family.
“In addition, to reducing biodiversity and altering ecosystem functions, chlorothalonil reduced the decomposition of waste, an important service that freshwater ecosystems provide to humans,” McMahon added.
“Interest in the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functions stems at least partly from the concern that anthropogenically-driven declines in biodiversity will reduce or alter the benefits offered by ecosystems,” Rohr said. “Surprisingly, however, this is one of the first studies to actually manipulate an anthropogenic factor and link it to changes in ecosystem functions mediated by declines in biodiversity.”
“This is important because many species in ecosystems might contribute little to ecosystem functions or are functionally redundant with other species, and thus declines in biodiversity do not always affect the functions and services of ecosystems,” Rohr said.
McMahon and Rohr encourage further research on effects of anthropogenic factors on ecosystem functions in systems with complex food webs and the re-evaluation of the safety of chlorothalonil.
| 3.130825 |
The 1st Octet already specify the network class (1-127: A, 128-191: B,
192-223: C etc.). A, B, or C implies the number of octets for network
(respectively, 255.0.0.0, 255.255.0.0, 255.255.255.0), which
automatically tells you how many hosts is allowed for each class of
While this was historically true. This hasn't been true for years. Years ago 188.8.131.52/8 was given out in pieces to various ISPs. (I believe this was mostly to cable providers.)
Even when it was true for network assignments, netmasks were necessary for internal networks to simplify routing. Efficient routing of a network like 10.0.0.0/8 requires subdivision into smaller networks. This may be a simple scheme using /16 and /8 subdivisions, but is more likely to be classless subdivision. Larger subnets make more efficient use of address space (over 99% of a /24 is available for devices, while only 50% of a /30 is available.
The local network is routed directly from the device, while other addresses are passed through a router. Hosts with multiple interfaces may be connected to networks of different sizes.
For sub-nets without multi-homed hosts a /24 contains more addresses than is required. Most routers I have worked with have 24, 48, or 96 ports and can be supported with /27, /26, or /25 sub-nets. This allows some extra addresses for DCHP and/or multi-homing. Organizations may standardize on allocating sub-nets of /24 or /23 for routing.
Since a IPv4 address already gives the information of the network and and host, why do we >still need a subnet mask?
Many devices use a default netmask of /24 which in many cases matches the size of the local subnet (localnet) assigned to the router. This is equally applicable to classes A, B, and C. Unless the subnet size matches the default subnet a netmask is required.
If addresses are specified using CIDR format, the netmask and network can be calculated from the address. If not the network can be calculated from the address and netmask. It is not possible to reliably calculate the netmask from the address and network.
Providing a gateway (router) address for a subnet allows the default route to be configured allowing routing to addresses outside the subnet.
| 3.73766 |
Select the product you need help with
- Internet Explorer
- Windows Phone
- More products
Detailed Explanation of FAT Boot Sector
Article ID: 140418 - View products that this article applies to.
This article was previously published under Q140418
Understanding the content and function of a file system "boot sector" can be helpful when troubleshooting boot failures or disk corruption.
From time to time, usually due to hardware failure or virus infection, a boot sector may become corrupted. If the partition is the active primary partition, or a partition containing operating system files, this can prevent the system from starting. Otherwise, it may simply prevent access to data on the drive.
Usually, if you suspect disk corruption, it is best to use commercial anti- virus or disk recovery software. In some cases, however, detailed knowledge of the boot sector can come in handy.
This article explains the various fields of a FAT boot sector. Using the following information, it may be possible to manually repair a damaged FAT boot sector. In order to attempt such a repair, disk editing tools capable of editing raw disk sectors are required. This article does not discuss specific tools which can be used to perform such a repair operations.
While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the following information, different operating systems, including future versions of Microsoft operating systems, may use different data structures. Therefore you should make use of the following information at your own risk.
Background and TerminologyIn this document, a "file system boot sector" is the first physical sector on a logical volume. A logical volume might be a primary partition, a logical drive in an extended partition, or a composite of two or more partitions, as is the case with mirrors, stripe sets, and volume sets.
On floppy disks, the boot sector is the first sector on the disk. In the case of hard drives, the first sector is referred to as the "Master Boot Record" or "MBR." This MBR is different from a file system boot sector and contains a partition table, which describes the layout of logical partitions on that hard drive. The file system boot sector would be the first sector in one of those partitions.
The Boot ProcessThe boot process of 80x86-based personal computers (as opposed to RISC- based systems) makes direct use of a file system boot sector for executing instructions. The initial boot process can be summarized as follows:
In the case of FAT volumes which have Windows NT installed, the FAT boot sector is responsible for identifying the location of the file "NTLDR" on the volume, loading it into memory, and transferring control to it.
Inside the FAT Boot SectorBecause the MBR transfers CPU execution to the boot sector, the first few bytes of the FAT boot sector must be valid executable instructions for an 80x86 CPU. In practice these first instructions constitute a "jump" instruction and occupy the first 3 bytes of the boot sector. This jump serves to skip over the next several bytes which are not "executable."
Following the jump instruction is an 8 byte "OEM ID". This is typically a string of characters that identifies the operating system that formatted the volume.
Following the OEM ID is a structure known as the BIOS Parameter Block, or "BPB." Taken as a whole, the BPB provides enough information for the executable portion of the boot sector to be able to locate the NTLDR file. Because the BPB always starts at the same offset, standard parameters are always in a known location. Because the first instruction in the boot sector is a jump, the BPB can be extended in the future, provided new information is appended to the end. In such a case, the jump instruction would only need a minor adjustment. Also, the actual executable code can be fairly generic. All the variability associated with running on disks of different sizes and geometries is encapsulated in the BPB.
The BPB is stored in a packed (that is, unaligned) format. The following table lists the byte offset of each field in the BPB. A description of each field follows the table.
Bytes Per Sector: This is the size of a hardware sector and for most disks in use in the United States, the value of this field will be 512.
Field Offset Length ----- ------ ------ Bytes Per Sector 11 2 Sectors Per Cluster 13 1 Reserved Sectors 14 2 FATs 16 1 Root Entries 17 2 Small Sectors 19 2 Media Descriptor 21 1 Sectors Per FAT 22 2 Sectors Per Track 24 2 Heads 26 2 Hidden Sectors 28 4 Large Sectors 32 4
Sectors Per Cluster: Because FAT is limited in the number of clusters (or "allocation units") that it can track, large volumes are supported by increasing the number of sectors per cluster. The cluster factor for a FAT volume is entirely dependent on the size of the volume. Valid values for this field are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128. Query in the Microsoft Knowledge Base for the term "Default Cluster Size" for more information on this subject.
Reserved Sectors: This represents the number of sectors preceding the start of the first FAT, including the boot sector itself. It should always have a value of at least 1.
FATs: This is the number of copies of the FAT table stored on the disk. Typically, the value of this field is 2.
Root Entries: This is the total number of file name entries that can be stored in the root directory of the volume. On a typical hard drive, the value of this field is 512. Note, however, that one entry is always used as a Volume Label, and that files with long file names will use up multiple entries per file. This means the largest number of files in the root directory is typically 511, but that you will run out of entries before that if long file names are used.
Small Sectors: This field is used to store the number of sectors on the disk if the size of the volume is small enough. For larger volumes, this field has a value of 0, and we refer instead to the "Large Sectors" value which comes later.
Media Descriptor: This byte provides information about the media being used. The following table lists some of the recognized media descriptor values and their associated media. Note that the media descriptor byte may be associated with more than one disk capacity.
Sectors Per FAT: This is the number of sectors occupied by each of the FATs on the volume. Given this information, together with the number of FATs and reserved sectors listed above, we can compute where the root directory begins. Given the number of entries in the root directory, we can also compute where the user data area of the disk begins.
Byte Capacity Media Size and Type F0 2.88 MB 3.5-inch, 2-sided, 36-sector F0 1.44 MB 3.5-inch, 2-sided, 18-sector F9 720 KB 3.5-inch, 2-sided, 9-sector F9 1.2 MB 5.25-inch, 2-sided, 15-sector FD 360 KB 5.25-inch, 2-sided, 9-sector FF 320 KB 5.25-inch, 2-sided, 8-sector FC 180 KB 5.25-inch, 1-sided, 9-sector FE 160 KB 5.25-inch, 1-sided, 8-sector F8 ----- Fixed disk
Sectors Per Track and Heads: These values are a part of the apparent disk geometry in use when the disk was formatted.
Hidden Sectors: This is the number of sectors on the physical disk preceding the start of the volume. (that is, before the boot sector itself) It is used during the boot sequence in order to calculate the absolute offset to the root directory and data areas.
Large Sectors: If the Small Sectors field is zero, this field contains the total number of sectors used by the FAT volume.
Some additional fields follow the standard BIOS Parameter Block and constitute an "extended BIOS Parameter Block." The next fields are:
Physical Drive Number: This is related to the BIOS physical drive number. Floppy drives are numbered starting with 0x00 for the A: drive, while physical hard disks are numbered starting with 0x80. Typically, you would set this value prior to issuing an INT 13 BIOS call in order to specify the device to access. The on-disk value stored in this field is typically 0x00 for floppies and 0x80 for hard disks, regardless of how many physical disk drives exist, because the value is only relevant if the device is a boot device.
Field Offset Length ----- ------ ------ Physical Drive Number 36 1 Current Head 37 1 Signature 38 1 ID 39 4 Volume Label 43 11 System ID 54 8
Current Head: This is another field typically used when doing INT13 BIOS calls. The value would originally have been used to store the track on which the boot record was located, but the value stored on disk is not currently used as such. Therefore, Windows NT uses this field to store two flags:
ID: The ID is a random serial number assigned at format time in order to aid in distinguishing one disk from another.
Volume Label: This field was used to store the volume label, but the volume label is now stored as a special file in the root directory.
System ID: This field is either "FAT12" or "FAT16," depending on the format of the disk.
On a bootable volume, the area following the Extended BIOS Parameter Block is typically executable boot code. This code is responsible for performing whatever actions are necessary to continue the boot-strap process. On Windows NT systems, this boot code will identify the location of the NTLDR file, load it into memory, and transfer execution to that file. Even on a non-bootable floppy disk, there is executable code in this area. The code necessary to print the familiar message, "Non-system disk or disk error" is found on most standard, MS-DOS formatted floppy disks that were not formatted with the "system" option.
Finally, the last two bytes in any boot sector always have the hexidecimal values: 0x55 0xAA.
TroubleshootingIf you suspect that a FAT boot sector is corrupt, you can check several of the fields listed above to see whether the values listed there make sense. For example, BytesPerSector will be 512 in the vast majority of cases. You would also expect to see text strings in the executable code section of the boot sector that are appropriate for the operating system that formatted the disk.
Typical text strings on FAT volumes formatted by MS-DOS include: "Invalid system disk."; "Disk I/O error."; "Replace the disk, and then press any key"; "Non-System disk or disk error"; "Replace and press any key when ready."; and "Disk Boot failure." Text strings on FAT volumes formatted by Windows NT include: "BOOT: Couldn't find NTLDR."; "I/O error reading disk."; and "Please insert another disk." You should not regard this list as being all-inclusive. If you find other messages in the boot sector, this does not necessarily indicate that there is a problem with the boot sector. Different versions of MS-DOS and Windows NT will sometimes have slightly different message strings in their boot sectors. On the other hand, if you find no text whatsoever, or if the text is clearly not related to MS-DOS or Windows NT, you should consider the possibility that your boot sector may have been infected by a virus or that some other form of data corruption may have taken place.
To recover from a boot sector that has been infected by a virus, it is usually best to use a commercial anti-virus program. Many viruses will do much more than just write data to the boot sector, so manual repair of the boot sector is not recommended, as it may not completely eliminate the virus and in some cases, may do more harm than good.
If you suspect that the boot sector was damaged for some other reason, it is usually best to use commercial disk recovery tools. While it may be possible to recover from boot sector damage without resorting to reformatting the drive by manually modifying the fields described above, manual editing of boot sectors should only be attempted as a last resort and cannot be guaranteed to work in situations where other disk structures may also have been damaged.
Article ID: 140418 - Last Review: December 6, 2003 - Revision: 3.0
| 3.315197 |
Explanation: Please wait while one of the largest mobile machines in the world crosses the road. The machine pictured above is a bucket-wheel excavator used in modern surface mining. Machines like this have given humanity the ability to mine minerals and change the face of planet Earth in new and dramatic ways. Some open pit mines, for example, are visible from orbit. The largest excavators are over 200 meters long and 100 meters high, now dwarfing the huge NASA Crawler that transports space shuttles to the launch pads. Bucket-wheel excavators can dig a hole the length of a football field to over 25 meters deep in a single day. They may take a while to cross a road, though, with a top speed under one kilometer per hour.
| 3.256579 |
Light glowing from a "super-Earth" planet beyond our solar system has been detected by Nasa’s Spitzer Telescope.
Until now, scientists have never been able to detect infrared light emanating from 55 Cancri E, a super-hot extrasolar planet twice the size and eight times the mass of our own.
55 Cancri E is one of five exoplanets orbiting a bright star named 55 Cancri in a solar system lying in the constellation of Cancer (The Crab).
Previously, Spitzer and other telescopes were able to study the planet by observing how the light from 55 Cancri changed as the planet passed in front of the star.
In the new study, Spitzer instead measured how much infrared light came from the planet itself – revealing some of the planet’s major features.
At 41-light years from Earth, the giant planet is considered uninhabitable.
The giant planet is tidally locked, so one side always faces the star. The telescope found that the sun-facing side is extremely hot, indicating the planet probably does not have a substantial atmosphere to carry the sun's heat to the unlit side.
[Related content: Amazing Nasa footage shows how the Earth looks from space]
On its sun-facing side, the surface has a temperature of 1,727 Celsius – or 3,140 degrees Fahrenheit – That’s hot enough to melt silver or aluminium.
The new findings are consistent with a previous theory that 55 Cancri E is a water world: A rocky core surrounded by a layer of water in a "supercritical" state where it is both liquid and gas, and topped by a blanket of steam.
Bill Danchi, Spitzer programme scientist at NASA, said: “Spitzer has amazed us yet again. The spacecraft is pioneering the study of atmospheres of distant planets and paving the way for NASA's upcoming James Webb Space Telescope to apply a similar technique on potentially habitable planets.”
Michael Werner, who also works on the Spitzer project, added: “When we conceived of Spitzer more than 40 years ago, exoplanets hadn't even been discovered. Because Spitzer was built very well, it's been able to adapt to this new field and make historic advances such as this.”
The planet was first discovered in 2004 and the new findings are published in the current issue of Astrophysical Journal Letters.
| 3.937232 |
Places - Franklin, “Canaday-I-O”
The major recurring theme in these folksongs from Maine and Maritime Canada is the flow of cultural products and people within the area of New Hampshire, Maine, and eastern Canada. But while this cultural and demographic exchange helped define the region, it did not mean there was no rivalry or animosity between states, provinces, or nations. Within the woods song-making tradition was a subset of satirical songs that ranged from poking fun at individuals and places to utterly scandalizing them, and this was very much alive in the northeastern United States and eastern Canada. In some labor traditions, this type of song served as a form of protest, but among lumbermen this was not usually the case. What purpose did they serve? Some scholars suggest they served as a means of control over bosses, preventing them from being hard-driving skinflints. The argument suggests that as a boss, if someone “songed” you, then other men would know not to go to work for you and business would collapse. Yet, so many satirical songs were written that if this were the case, then no one would have been able to find men willing to work in the woods. It was more likely that this was primarily a way of blowing off steam after a hard day, week, or winter in the woods.
“Canaday-I-O” is thus an interesting case in point, as it takes this latter point to its extreme. The song did not merely mock an individual or a single lumber outfit; rather, it attacked the entire Canadian lumbering industry. Scholars generally attribute the song to Ephraim Braley, a Maine woodsman, and point to 1854 as its probable date of origin. Of course, Canada was not yet an independent nation, and the song cites “Three Rivers” (or, Trois-Rivieres, Quebec) as the launching point for the woods crew, thus the song may be more specifically criticizing Quebec alone and not all of Canada. “Canaday-I-O” was based on an English sea song called “Canada-I-O,” and ultimately an even older love song called “Caledonia.” From Maine, the song carried westward, morphing into complaints about woods work in Pennsylvania and Michigan, and eventually a gripe song about skinning buffalo called “The Buffalo Skinners,” which was found in Texas. In this song, a “preacher of the gospel” convinces some Mainers to travel to Quebec for a winter. This was not, however, a man of the cloth recruiting loggers. According to Fannie Hardy Eckstorm, this was a slang term for an agent who hired men to work in the woods. The version of the song heard here is slightly shorter than versions collected elsewhere, such as the one printed in Eckstorm and Smyth’s Minstrelsy of Maine. These forgotten verses do not change the story, they just make the winter in Canada seem slightly less disastrous.
Come all ye jolly lumbermen, and listen to my song,
But do not get discouraged, the length it is not long,
Concerning of some lumbermen, who did agree to go
And spend one pleasant winter up in Canaday-I-O.
It happened late one season in the fall of fifty-three,
That a preacher of the gospel one morning came to me;
Says he: “My jolly fellow, how would you like to go
And spend one pleasant winter up in Canaday-I-O?”
To him I quickly made reply, and unto him did say:
“In going out to Canaday depends upon the pay.
If you will pay good wages, my passage to and fro,
Then I think I’ll go along with you to Canaday-I-O.”
“Yes, we will pay good wages, and will pay your passage out,
Provided you sign papers that you will stay the route;
But if you do get homesick, and swear that home you’ll go,
We never can your passage pay from Canaday-I-O.”
It was by his gift of flattery he enlisted quite a train,
Some twenty-five or thirty, both well and able men;
We had a pleasant journey o’er the road we had to go
‘Til we landed at Three Rivers, up in Canaday-I-O.
But there our joys were ended, and our sorrows did begin;
Fields, Phillips, and Norcross they then came marching in;
They scattered us all directions, some where I do not know,
Among those jabbering Frenchmen up in Canaday-I-O.
After we had suffered there some eight or ten long weeks
We arrived at headquarters, up among the lakes;
We thought we’d find a paradise, at least they told us so,
God grant there may is no worse a hell than Canaday-I-O!
To describe what we have suffered here is beyond the art of man,
But to give a fair description I will do the best I can;
Our food the dogs would snarl at, our beds were on the snow,
We suffered worse than murderers up in Canaday-I-O.
But now our lumbering is over and we are returning home,
To greet our wives and sweethearts and never more to roam,
To greet our friends and neighbors; we tell them not to go
To that gosh darn forsaken place called Canaday-I-O.
Sources: For “Canaday-I-O” see Eckstorm, Fannie Hardy and Mary Winslow Smyth. Minstrelsy of Maine: Folk-Songs and Ballads of the Woods and the Coast. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1927, 21-25; Gray, Ronald Palmer. Songs and Ballads of the Maine Lumberjacks with Other Songs from Maine. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1924, 37-40; Linscott, Eloise Hubbard. Folk Songs of Old New England. New York: MacMillan Co., 1939, 181-83; Fowke, Edith. Lumbering Songs from the Northern Woods. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970, 28-29; & Fowke, Edith Fulton and Richard Johnston. Folk Songs of Canada. Waterloo, Ontario: Waterloo Music Company, 1954, 68-69. For “Canada-I-O” see Leach, MacEdward. Folk Ballads and Songs of the Lower Labrador Coast. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, 1965, 230-31; Huntington, E. G. Sam Henry’s Songs of the People. Revised, with additions and indexes by Lani Herrmann. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990, 333-34. Also see Laws. G. Malcolm. Native American Balladry. Philadelphia: The American Folklore Society, 1964, 155 (C17); & discussion in Ives, Edward D. Larry Gorman: The Man Who Made the Songs. Fredericton, NB: Goose Lane Editions, 1993, 170, 181.
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The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has a well established role in the Convention
process in communicating scientific information to the Convention through its regular assessment
reports and its wide range of special reports and technical papers. Although it does not carry out
its own research, it plays a key role in assessing the information from worldwide climate research in
peer-reviewed literature, journals, books and other sources. It also has an important function in
identifying priority needs for further research activities.
Research on climate and issues connected with climate change is carried out nationally, regionally
and internationally. Internationally, climate-related research is coordinated by a variety of
international programmes and organizations; some of the major ones being the International Council
for Science (ICSU), the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), the International
Geosphere–Biosphere Programme (IGBP), the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global
Environmental Change (IHDP), DIVERSITAS. In addition, a number of regional networks promote and
support climate-relevant research activities, including activities to enhance research capacity in
the regions, such as the Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI) and the
Asia-Pacific Network for Global Change Research (APN).
The UNFCCC secretariat works in close collaboration with a variety of international and regional
research programmes and organizations active in climate change-related research and facilitates
dialogue and communication on the research needs and priorities expressed by Parties of the
Convention to the scientific community.
In addition, Parties regularly report on their national and cooperative research activities and their
contributions to climate science, as well as emerging research needs and priorities, in their
| 3.287945 |
The highly anticipated second edition of Understanding by Design poses the core, essential questions of understanding and design, and provides readers with practical solutions for the teacher-designer. The book opens by analyzing the logic of backward design as an alternative to coverage and activity-oriented plans. Though backward from habit, this approach brings more focus and coherence to instruction. The book proposes a multifaceted approach, with the six “facets” of understanding. The facets combine with backward design to provide a powerful, expanded array of practical tools and strategies for designing curriculum, instruction, and assessments that lead students at all grade levels to genuine understanding.
The second edition, a refined work, has been thoroughly and extensively revised, updated, and expanded, including improvement of the UbD Template, the key terms of UbD, dozens of worksheets, and some of the larger concepts. The authors have successfully put together a text that demonstrates what best practice in the design of learning looks like, enhancing for its audience their capability for creating more engaging and effective learning, whether the student is a third grader, a college freshman, or a faculty member.
| 3.544909 |
Geocaching isn’t just for science class or the serious geography geek! A cache is simply a hiding place, and caching is hiding something like a treasure. Nature is full of treasures waiting to be explored. A popular movement called “geocaching” gets folks outside with their GPS units to find treasures hidden by other geocachers. If you haven’t tried it yet, it’s great fun! (www.geocaching.com) Folks are geocaching all over the world!
Many educators are taking that idea to the classroom to do campus investigations. Now you might expect that it’s the science teacher out looking at nature, but surprise your students in English Language Arts class with an outdoors writing assignment! Realizing that not all classrooms are created equally, here are some low-tech options as well as the spiffy high-tech ones. Either have students locate specific cached items or let them explore the landscape for surprises. Anyway you do it, get creative and allow the students to explore their creativity.
1. Create a map of your site with destinations. Use a hand-drawn map with destinations or use a tool like Sketch-A-Map (http://edgis.org/sketch) to create your map for students.
2. Students can create a poem or story based on the destinations on the map. Nature is an excellent way to pull more adjectives out of a student. I used a similar activity with my students in my book, Reading, Writing and Thinking around the Globe: Geospatial Technologies for English Language Arts Classroom and Beyond (www.barbareeduke.com) where students create topographic and geographic definitions for words. Visualizing vocabulary can help cement those words into a student’s personal dictionary.
1. Using your school’s or a set of loaner GPS units (www.gisetc.com). Set up waypoints with caches. Perhaps the students find words, phrases or starters for writing assignments. They could take photos and return to the classroom with real experiences. Don’t think that you have to have green spaces and trees to make this work. Urban explorations could be quite powerful as well! Perhaps tell the stories of graffiti or buildings changing over time.
2. Perhaps you decide to pair the GPS units with cameras (a reason for kids to use those cell phones) to create a photo essay. Just ask National Geographic if photos have a story to tell (http://photography.nationalgeographic.com/photography/?source=NavPhoHome)!
3. Another option is to use a smart phone application. I have a GPS app on my iPhone (MotionX GPS) that integrates a picture and text with my waypoint. I can email this waypoint with the photo and text attached, and then view it in a virtual globe application like ArcGIS Explorer (http://www.esri.com/arcgisexplorer) or Google Earth (http://earth.google.com), another educational reason for kids to use that cell phone at school. Because applications like ArcGIS Explorer are equipped with a simple presentation creator, as a next step, you could combine all the stories and photos for a class-wide virtual tour.
4. For the more adventurous, you might like to check out a project called “confluencing” (www.confluence.org). This calls for a GPS unit and some planning. Check out some of my adventures with my friend, Dr. Joseph Kerski. (http://www.confluence.org/confluence.php?visitid=14853). The post-adventure writing is the star here. You could take this same approach with your geocaching explorations as well, a detailed story of who, what, where, when, why and how is great practice for all those persuasive writing assignments!
The moral of the story here is: expand the borders of your classroom. Think beyond the text book and computer screen. Engage students with outdoor spatial experiences and watch their writing transform!
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The United States’ National POW/MIA Recognition Day is observed across the nation on the third Friday of September each year. Americans take this time to remember prisoners of war (POW) and recognize those who are still missing in action (MIA).
Many veterans organizations commemorate this day by setting an extra space at an empty table and saying a few words of remembrance. Known as the “POW/MIA Table Ceremony”, it reminds us that we can “Never Forget” the soldiers of America who have not come home:
-As you entered the dining area this evening, you may have noticed a small table in the place of honor near our head table. It is set for one.
The military caste is filled with symbolism. This table is our way of symbolizing the fact that the members of our profession of arms are missing from our midst.
They are commonly called, POW/MIA. We call them brothers. They are unable to be with us this evening and so we remember them because of their incarceration.
- This table set for one is small, symbolizing the frailty of one prisoner alone against his oppressors. Remember!
- The tablecloth is white, symbolizing the purity of their intentions to respond to their country’s call to arms. Remember!
- The single rose displayed in a vase reminds us of the families and loved ones of our comrades-in-arms who kept the faith awaiting their return. Remember!
- The red ribbon tied so prominently on the vase is reminiscent of the red ribbon worn upon the lapel and breasts of thousands who bear witness to their unyielding determination to demand a proper accounting of our missing. Remember!
- A slice of lemon is on the bread plate to remind us of their bitter fate. Remember!
- There is salt upon the bread plate symbolic of families’ tears as they wait. Remember!
- The glass is inverted, they cannot toast with us this night. Remember!
- The chair, the chair is empty, they are not here. Remember!”
The National League of Families’ POW/MIA flag symbolizes the United States’ resolve to never forget POWs or those who served their country in conflicts and are still missing.
Newt Heisley designed the flag. The flag’s design features a silhouette of a young man, which is based on Mr Heisley’s son, who was medically discharged from the military. As Mr Heisley looked at his returning son’s gaunt features, he imagined what life was for those behind barbed wire fences on foreign shores. He then sketched the profile of his son as the new flag’s design was created in his mind.
The flag features a white disk bearing in black silhouette a man’s bust, a watch tower with a guard on patrol, and a strand of barbed wire. White letters “POW” and “MIA”, with a white five-pointed star in between, are typed above the disk. Below the disk is a black and white wreath above the motto “You Are Not Forgotten” written in white, capital letters.
The POW/MIA flag can be displayed on Armed Forces Day, Memorial Day, Flag Day, Independence Day, Patriot Day and Veterans Day. The POW/MIA flag can be seen displayed on these memorial holidays and remembrance days at State Capitols, the White House, the Korean War Veterans Memorial the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, national cemeteries, various government buildings, and major military installations.
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Laura formed as a slightly unusual sub-tropical storm in the northern mid-Atlantic on September 29, 2008. Subtropical storms are hybrids of tropical storm systems and extratropical storms, forming in cooler waters farther north (or south) of the usual hurricane formation regions. Laura formed quite far north, well away from major land masses. As of September 30, the National Hurricane Center predicted that the storm could hit Scotland by October 4. With peak sustained winds of around 95 kilometers per hour (55 miles per hour), Laura was a powerful storm, but not hurricane strength. It was unlikely that the storm would ever become a hurricane, but forecasters expected the storm to remain near its September 30 strength for several days.
This data visualization was made with observations from the QuikSCAT satellite taken on September 30, 2008, at 5:39 a.m. local time (7:39 UTC). It shows Laura as a tight ball of circular winds around a calmer core. The image depicts wind speed in color and wind direction with small barbs. White barbs point to areas of heavy rain.
QuikSCAT measurements of the wind strength of Laura and other cyclones (the generic term for typhoons, hurricanes, and similar storms) can be slower than actual wind speeds. QuikSCAT’s scatterometer sends pulses of microwave energy through the atmosphere to the ocean surface and measures the energy that bounces back from the wind-roughened surface. The energy of the microwave pulses changes depending on wind speed and direction.
To relate the radar signal to actual wind speed, scientists compare measurements taken from buoys and other ground stations to data the satellite acquired at the same time and place. Because the high wind speeds generated by cyclones are rare, scientists do not have corresponding ground information to know how to translate data from the satellite for wind speeds above 50 knots (about 93 km/hr or 58 mph). Peak winds in Laura measured in other ways are near this extreme limit, so values from QuikSCAT may not be reliable near the core of the storm system.
Also, the unusually heavy rain found in a cyclone distorts the microwave pulses in a number of ways, making a conversion to exact wind speed difficult. Instead, the scatterometer provides a nice picture of the relative wind speeds within the storm and shows wind direction.
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The Savage Islands, or Ilhas Selvagens in Portuguese, are a small archipelago in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean between the archipelago of Madeira to the north and the Canary Islands to the south. Like these other island groups, the Savage Islands are thought to have been produced by volcanism related to a mantle plume or “hot spot.”
Typically, volcanoes are fueled by magma being generated where tectonic plates are colliding or being pulled apart. The active volcanoes remain at the plate boundaries, even as the plates shift. Mantle plumes, in contrast, are relatively fixed regions of upwelling magma that can feed volcanoes on an overlying tectonic plate. When a tectonic plate passes over the mantle plume, active volcanoes form, but they become dormant as they are carried away from the hot spot on the moving tectonic plate. Over geologic time, this creates a line of older, extinct volcanoes, seamounts, and islands extending from the active volcanoes that are currently over the plume.
These two astronaut photographs illustrate the northern (top) and southern (bottom) Savage Islands. The two views were taken 13 seconds apart from the International Space Station; the geographic center points of the images are separated by about 15 kilometers. Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometers, is the largest of the islands. The smaller and more irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible at the center of the lower image. Spain and Portugal both claim sovereignty over the Savage Islands.
All of the islands of the archipelago are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches. Reefs that surround the Savage Islands make it very difficult to land boats there, and there is no permanent settlement on the islands. The islands serve as nesting sites for several species of seabird including petrels and shearwaters, and they are included on the tentative list of additional UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
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Can you imagine living back in the day of Fred Flintstone? Where cars were powered by feet instead of gasoline, and traveling by air consisted of climbing on top of the next available pterodactyl instead of sitting comfortably inside of an airplane. And instead of the ever present email we have today, the Flintstones had to chisel out their notes in stone, which never took more than a few seconds, and then a bird that needed to make a living would grip the stone in its beak and fly it to the proper recipient. Birds must have been smarter back then and their beaks stronger than they are today.
Thank goodness technology has evolved and we don't have to worry about chiseling out a business report or family newsletter anymore. Today we just go to the nearest computer, open up the word processing software and type away. Within a brief period of time we have a nice-looking, completely legible piece of information that we can print out or for faster service, we can email a document anywhere in the world and it shows up in minutes. We have definitely come a long way since the Fred Flintstone days.
So how did word processors evolve?
Wikipedia states that IBM invented the term "word processing" in the 1960s. By 1971 it was officially recognized by the New York Times as a "buzz word." However, back then word processors were much different than they are in today's modern society.
When the term was first used it referred to typing on semi-automatic typewriters and using dictating machines. Information was typed and then stored on magnetic tape or cards that could later be used for corrections and additional copies. However, if you were typing a form letter each one still had to be inserted into the typewriter to change in the variable data such as names and dates.
Later a calculator and word processors were interfaced to come up with an even more modern word processing system. Each time the enter key was pressed the typed data would be stored on a cassette tape. The information could later be viewed and edited.
After realizing what a breakthrough this had become, innovations continued. The next idea was to add a screen. No more printing out page after page to review corrected information and text. This was definitely something that would help companies and individuals alike in their scribing needs. Secretaries became worried that they would lose their jobs because they would have no place in the office workforce. However, just the opposite came true. Faster and more efficient typing on word processors meant more could be done in a short amount of time. Office productivity increased.
Transformation of word processors continued through to the addition of being able to hook up an apparatus to print these now nearly-flawless documents. Adding to the building blocks of the word processing evolution came along the ability to prints drafts using dot matrix printers and on up the line through the laser printers we use today.
During the rise of word processors personal computers were making their way into more and more homes. As the process unfolded, word processors were linked to computers and then eventually morphed into the available software packages we use today.
Can't decide which word processing application is right for you? Check out our word processing software review.
At TopTenREVIEWS We Do the Research So You Don't Have To.™
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Definition: Dust Mites
Dust mites are microscopic bugs that live in household dust. They work their way into soft places like pillows, blankets, mattresses, and stuffed animals. Many people with asthma are allergic to dust - but in fact it's the droppings produced by the mites in the dust, along with the body fragments of dead dust mites, that really cause allergic reactions. When breathed in, these can lead a person to develop allergy or asthma symptoms.
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FAQs: Japan nuclear concerns
What is the current risk of radiation-related health problems in Japan for those residing near the reactor in comparison to those in other parts of Japan?
- During the early phase of the nuclear emergency radiation-related health were dependant on exposure, which is turn were due to several things, including: the amount and type of radiation released from the reactor; weather conditions, such as wind and rain; a person’s proximity to the plant; and the amount of time spent in irradiated areas.
- The Government of Japan’s early actions in response to events at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant were in line with the existing recommendations for radiation exposure. The Government has evacuated individuals who were living within a 20-kilometre radius around the Fukushima Daiichi plant. Those living between 20 km and 30 km from the plant were asked to evacuate voluntarily. In general, people living farther away of the site of the event are at lower risk than those who live nearby.
- In light of evolving new information on levels of environmental radioactivity in the 20-30 km zone and some surrounding areas beyond the 30km zone, the Government of Japan established new planned evacuation zones from which residents were relocated to temporary housing based on the estimated cumulative doses they may receive in the 1 year following the accident.
- In addition, an emergency evacuation preparedness zone was also identified in which residents were asked to prepare their affairs in case they were asked to evacuate. These zones also follow administrative boundaries and extend beyond the 30 km radius.
Is there a risk of radioactive exposure from food contamination?
- Yes, there is a risk of exposure as a result of contamination in food.
- However, contaminated food would have to be consumed over prolonged periods to represent a risk to human health.
- The radioactive iodine and caesium in concentrations above the Japanese regulatory limits have been detected in some food commodities as a result of food monitoring
- Japanese authorities have advised residents to avoid these food and have implemented measures to prevent their sale and distribution.
Are there health risks to people living outside of Japan from radiation emitted into the atmosphere from damaged Japanese nuclear power plants?
Thus far, there are no health risks to people living in other countries from radioactive material released into the atmosphere from the Japanese nuclear power plants. Radiation levels measured to date in other countries are far below the level of background radiation that most people are exposed to in every day circumstances.
Radiation levels have been monitored by the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), which operates 63 surveillance stations around the world.
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Key: "S:" = Show Synset (semantic) relations, "W:" = Show Word (lexical) relations
Display options for sense: (gloss) "an example sentence"
- S: (v) compel, oblige, obligate (force somebody to do something) "We compel all students to fill out this form"
- direct troponym / full troponym
- S: (v) force, thrust (impose urgently, importunately, or inexorably) "She forced her diet fads on him"
- S: (v) stick, sting (saddle with something disagreeable or disadvantageous) "They stuck me with the dinner bill"; "I was stung with a huge tax bill"
- S: (v) walk (make walk) "He walks the horse up the mountain"; "Walk the dog twice a day"
- S: (v) parade, exhibit, march (walk ostentatiously) "She parades her new husband around town"
- S: (v) march (cause to march or go at a marching pace) "They marched the mules into the desert"
- S: (v) coerce, hale, squeeze, pressure, force (to cause to do through pressure or necessity, by physical, moral or intellectual means) "She forced him to take a job in the city"; "He squeezed her for information"
- S: (v) turn up the heat, turn up the pressure (apply great or increased pressure) "The Democrats turned up the heat on their candidate to concede the election"
- S: (v) drive (to compel or force or urge relentlessly or exert coercive pressure on, or motivate strongly) "She is driven by her passion"
- S: (v) bludgeon (overcome or coerce as if by using a heavy club) "The teacher bludgeoned the students into learning the math formulas"
- S: (v) steamroller, steamroll (bring to a specified state by overwhelming force or pressure) "The Senator steamrollered the bill to defeat"
- S: (v) squeeze for (squeeze someone for money, information, etc.)
- S: (v) dragoon, sandbag, railroad (compel by coercion, threats, or crude means) "They sandbagged him to make dinner for everyone"
- S: (v) terrorize, terrorise (coerce by violence or with threats)
- S: (v) bring oneself (cause to undertake a certain action, usually used in the negative) "He could not bring himself to call his parents"
- S: (v) clamor (compel someone to do something by insistent clamoring) "They clamored the mayor into building a new park"
- S: (v) condemn (compel or force into a particular state or activity) "His devotion to his sick wife condemned him to a lonely existence"
- S: (v) shame (compel through a sense of shame) "She shamed him into making amends"
- S: (v) enforce, implement, apply (ensure observance of laws and rules) "Apply the rules to everyone"
- S: (v) run, execute (carry out a process or program, as on a computer or a machine) "Run the dishwasher"; "run a new program on the Mac"; "the computer executed the instruction"
- S: (v) execute (carry out the legalities of) "execute a will or a deed"
- S: (v) give (execute and deliver) "Give bond"
- S: (v) enforce, impose, constrain (compel to behave in a certain way) "Social relations impose courtesy"; "duty constrains one to act often contrary to one's desires or inclinations"
- direct hypernym / inherited hypernym / sister term
- S: (v) induce, stimulate, cause, have, get, make (cause to do; cause to act in a specified manner) "The ads induced me to buy a VCR"; "My children finally got me to buy a computer"; "My wife made me buy a new sofa"
- derivationally related form
- W: (n)
compulsion [Related to: compel] (using force to cause something to occur) "though pressed into rugby under compulsion I began to enjoy the game"; "they didn't have to use coercion"
- W: (n)
obligation [Related to: oblige, obligate] (the social force that binds you to the courses of action demanded by that force) "we must instill a sense of duty in our children"; "every right implies a responsibility; every opportunity, an obligation; every possession, a duty"- John D.Rockefeller Jr
- sentence frame
- S: (v) oblige, bind, hold, obligate (bind by an obligation; cause to be indebted) "He's held by a contract"; "I'll hold you by your promise"
- S: (v) oblige, accommodate (provide a service or favor for someone) "We had to oblige him"
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MISR Views Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and the Appalachian Mountains
Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR) images of Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and the Appalachian Mountains acquired on March 24, 2000 during Terra orbit 1417. The large image on the right was taken by the MISR camera viewing straight down (nadir). The series of smaller images, from top to bottom, respectively, were taken by cameras viewing 70.5 degrees forward, 45.6 degrees forward, 45.6 degrees aftward, and 70.5 degrees aftward of nadir. These images cover the environs of Newark, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, and Richmond. Differences in brightness, color, and contrast as a function of view angle are visible over both land and water. Scientists are using MISR data to monitor changes in clouds, Earth's surface, and pollution particles in the air, and to assess their impact on climate.
Credit: Image Credit: NASA/GSFC/JPL, MISR Science Team.
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Alternate Names : Sexual Abuse, Sexual Assault
Rape is the physical act of attacking another person and forcing that person to have sex. It is the illegal sexual penetration of any body opening. Rape can happen to men, women, and children. It is often violent, although sometimes the threat is only implied. Rape can also occur without the victim knowing about it. This can happen if the victim is unconscious, intoxicated, or high on drugs.
Male rapists usually have an extreme hatred for women. They may feel inadequate and have problems with sexual performance. At least half the time, the rapist knows the victim and works or lives near the victim. Most rapes are planned ahead of time by the attacker. More than half of sexual assaults involve a weapon.
What is the information for this topic?
Following are some safety measures to help prevent rape when you are at home or in your car:
Don't let a stranger into the house without proper identification.
Don't list a first name on a mailbox or in a phone book.
Have the key ready before reaching the door of a car or house.
Keep a light on at all entrances.
Keep doors and windows locked.
Look in the car before entering.
Make arrangements with a neighbor for assistance in emergency situations.
Set the house lights to go on and off with a timer.
Other safety measures you can take to help prevent rape are as follows:
Appear strong and confident.
Avoid isolated and secluded areas.
Don't walk or jog alone at night.
Look for unusual behavior in those around you.
Scream loudly if attacked.
Sit in lighted areas and near other people such as the driver when using public transportation.
When someone has been raped, the rape should immediately be reported to the police. The victim should be taken to a medical facility and examined. The person should not bathe before this examination, as evidence might be destroyed. Additionally, clothing or samples of clothing might be collected by the police as evidence.
During this exam, a healthcare provider will take the following steps:
check for bruises, bite marks, and other trauma
remove pubic hair samples
take swabs from the anus and mouth
take swabs from the vaginal area if the victim is a female
test for pregnancy if the victim is a female, and provide emergency contraception as needed
test for sexually transmitted diseases and provide treatment as needed
The provider will treat all cuts and wounds. But often the emotional wounds are more severe than the physical wounds. It is very important that the victim get counseling and therapy. A local rape crisis center can help the victim through this trauma.
Recovery from rape varies from person to person. Usually the physical wounds heal quickly. Mental wounds can last for many years after the attack. A rape victim may be viewed as suffering a posttraumatic stress disorder. This usually has an acute phase, lasting a few days to a few weeks, which is followed by a long-term process of recovery. Many rape victims suffer from the following:
If the person doesn't receive effective treatment, he or she may experience these difficulties:
inability to establish long-term relationships
problems with sex
Rape victims can go on to lead normal lives. But it's very important to their mental health that they get proper counseling. Healthcare providers can help the victim work through many of the problems that result from rape. They help monitor the victim's healing, both physically and mentally.
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Students who struggle with reading or school need caring adults to represent them. Being an advocate for a student can mean learning new terms, knowing your rights, and insisting that your student gets the help he or she needs to have the best opportunity to succeed. See the articles below to get started and visit our sister website LD OnLine.
Sort by: Date Title
Children who struggle with reading often need extra help. This help usually comes from the school, but some parents choose to look outside the school for professionals who can assess, diagnose, tutor, or provide other education services. The following article provides information on how to find the right person for your child.
Parents are often the best educational advocates for their children, especially children with a learning disability. The Coordinated Campaign for Learning Disabilities (CCLD) has developed the following tips to help parents champion their child.
Literacy programs seem to have sprung up everywhere, but how can you tell the good ones from the bad ones? This guide identifies the key elements to consider in evaluating adolescent literacy programs.
This is a cautionary tale, not just for people who have no real idea of what a learning disability is and probably suspect the whole thing is an overindulgent scam, but also for any parent of a child struggling mightily through school.
This checklist prepared by the PACER Center will help parents prepare for and get the most out of Individualized Education Plan (IEP) meetings with the school staff.
"Solution Shop" is a counseling and study skills program designed to address the academic needs of struggling middle school students. In this program, the school counselor serves the critical role of developing and providing appropriate interventions, which range from individual and group counseling, study skills instruction, parent consultation, behavioral contracts, math and reading tutoring, and teacher meetings.
Learn to develop the evidence you need to support your belief that your child is not receiving the right help in school. Peter and Pamela Wright, from Wrightslaw, tell you how to interpret and chart your child's test scores, graph your child's progress, and successfully communicate with the educators who make decisions about your child.
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Atypical pneumonia refers to pneumonia caused by certain bacteria, including Legionella pneumophila, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and Chlamydophila pneumoniae. It is called “atypical” because the symptoms differ from those of pneumonia due to other common bacteria.
Mycoplasma pneumonia is a type of atypical pneumonia. It is caused by the bacteria M. pneumoniae. It typically affects people younger than age 40. For more information on this type of pneumonia, see: Mycoplasma pneumonia
Pneumonia due to chlamydia-related bacteria occurs year round and accounts for 5 - 15% of all pneumonias. It is usually mild.
Pneumonia due to Legionella is seen more often in middle-aged and older adults, smokers, and those with chronic illnesses or a weak immune system. It can be more severe.
Pneumonia due to mycoplasma and chlamydophila bacteria is usually mild.
Pneumonia due to Legionella pneumophila gets worse during the first 4 - 6 days, and then improves over 4 - 5 days.
Even though symptoms will improve, it may take a while for them to go away completely.
The most common symptoms of pneumonia are:
Cough (with Legionella pneumonia, you may cough up bloody mucus)
Fever, which may be mild or high
Shortness of breath (may only occur when you climb stairs)
Other symptoms include:
Chest pain that gets worse when you breathe deeply or cough
Confusion, especially in older people or those with Legionella pneumonia
Loss of appetite, low energy, and fatigue
Muscle aches and joint stiffness
Sweating and clammy skin
Less common symptoms include:
Diarrhea (especially with Legionella pneumonia)
Ear pain (with mycoplasma pneumonia)
Eye pain or soreness (with mycoplasma pneumonia)
Neck lump (with mycoplasma pneumonia)
Rash (with mycoplasma pneumonia)
Sore throat (with mycoplasma pneumonia)
Signs and tests
Persons with suspected pneumonia should have a complete medical evaluation. It may be hard for your health care provider to tell whether you have pneumonia or bronchitis, so you may need a chest x-ray. Depending on the severity of the illness, other tests may be done, including:
Control your fever with aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen or naproxen), or acetaminophen. DO NOT give aspirin to children.
Do not take cough medicines without first talking to your doctor. Cough medicines may make it harder for your body to cough up the extra sputum.
Drink plenty of fluids to help loosen secretions and bring up phlegm.
Get a lot of rest. Have someone else do household chores.
Antibiotics are used to treat atypical pneumonia.
You may be able to take antibiotics by mouth at home.
If you have severe atypical pneumonia, you will likely be admitted to a hospital, where you will be given antibiotics through a vein (intravenously), as well as oxygen.
Antibiotics are used for 2 weeks or more
Antibiotics used to treat atypical pneumonia include:
Fluoroquinolones (such as levofloxacin)
Tetracyclines (such as tetracycline or doxycycline)
Most patients with pneumonia due to mycoplasma or chlamydophila do well with the right antibiotics. Legionella pneumonia can be severe, leading to problems in patients with kidney failure, diabetes, COPD, and a weak immune system. It can lead to death.
Mandell LA, Wunderink RG, Anzueto A, et al. InfectiousD iseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:S27-S72.
Torres A, Menendez R, Wunderink R. Pyogenic bacterial pneumonia and lung abscess. In: Mason RJ, VC Broaddus, Martin TR, et al, eds. Murray and Nadel’s Textbook of Respiratory Medicine. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa:Saunders Elsevier; 2010:chap 32.
David C. Dugdale, III, MD, Professor of Medicine, Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine. Denis Hadjiliadis, MD, Assistant Professor of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M. Health Solutions, Ebix, Inc.
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Using Bone Marrow to Protect the Brain Tuesday, September 20, 2011
Stem cell technology from TAU research begins clinical trial for Lou Gehrig's disease
The ability to produce neuroprotectors, proteins that protect the human brain against neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's and ALS, is the holy grail of brain research. A technology developed at Tel Aviv University does just that, and it's now out of the lab and in hospitals to begin clinical trials with patients suffering from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as Lou Gehrig's disease.
Developed by Prof. Daniel Offen and Prof. Eldad Melamed of TAU's Sackler Faculty of Medicine and Felsenstein Medical Research Center, the technology is now a patent-pending process that takes stem cells from a patient's own bone marrow and causes them to differentiate into astrocyte-like cells, which are responsible for the well-being of the brain's neurons. The cells release neurotrophic factors, or neuroprotectants, which have been shown to play a key role in reducing the progress of ALS, a debilitating disease characterized by the progressive degeneration of motor neurons, resulting in paralysis of a patient's limbs and organ function.
The research has appeared in the Journal of Stem Cells Reviews and Reports and a number of other publications.
Trials in Jerusalem and Boston
This stem cell technology, says Prof. Offen, represents 10 years of development. Inspired by advances in embryonic stem cell research and its huge potential — but trying to bypass the ethical and safety issues — Prof. Offen and his fellow researchers turned to stem cells derived from a patient's own bone marrow.
After coaxing the cells to differentiate into astrocyte-like cells, whose natural function is to guard the brain's neurons and prevent deterioration, the researchers began testing the concept in animal models. "In the mouse model," Prof. Offen explains, "we were able to show that the bone marrow derived stem cells prevent degeneration in the brain following injection of selective neurotoxins." Researchers also demonstrated that transplantation of these cells increased the survival rate in the mouse model of ALS and significantly delayed the progress of motor dysfunction.
According to Prof. Offen, this is a uniquely successful method for differentiating bone marrow stem cells into astrocyte-like cells without manipulating the genetic material of the cell itself. They are the first team of researchers to demonstrate the efficacy of this technology in vivo in various models of neurodegenerative diseases.
The technology was licensed to BrainStorm Cell Therapeutics that has developed it into a clinical grade product called NurOwn™, which is now being used in a clinical trial at Jerusalem's Hadassah Medical Center. BrainStorm Cell Therapeutics has recently struck an agreement to expand clinical trials to Massachusetts General Hospital in collaboration with the University of Massachusetts Medical School.
Home-grown therapy — and talent
The ongoing clinical studies are aimed at evaluating the safety and the efficacy of this treatment, says Prof. Offen. Because the original cells are drawn from the patients themselves, he adds, the body should have no adverse reactions.
Although the current study targets ALS, these cells have the potential to treat a broad range of neurodegenerative conditions, including Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases. For many conditions, explains Prof. Offen, the current available treatments only attempt to alleviate the symptoms of these diseases rather than repair existing damage.
BrainStorm Cell Therapeutics, the company that is developing the technology, is a spin-off of TAU, Prof. Offen notes. The university has spearheaded the invention involved, and a number of the researchers working within the company graduated from TAU.
For more news about stem cell research from Tel Aviv University, click here.
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by Jos Van der Poel
Down’s syndrome is a genetic disorder (in stead of two these persons have three chromosomes 21) that besides a number of physical characteristics leads to intellectual impairment.
It occurs in one out of every 1.000 births. Life expectancy of people with Down’s syndrome has increased substantially over the last century: about 50 % of them will reach the age of 60. Because of the trisomie 21 people with Down’s syndrome have an overexpression of the amyloid precursor protein. Amyloid is the main ingredient of the plaques, which are found in the brains of people with Alzheimer’s disease.
Symptoms and course
Not all persons with Down’s syndrome show evidence of cognitive deterioration or other clinical evidence of dementia even after extended periods of observation.
Clinical symptoms at first are increasing depression, indifference and a decline in social communication. Later symptoms are: seizures in previously unaffected persons, changes in personality, loss of memory and general functions, long periods of inactivity or apathy, hyperactive reflexes, loss of activity of daily skills, visual retention deficits, loss of speech, disorientation, increase in stereotyped behaviour and abnormal neurological signs.
Especially for brothers and sisters who are confronted with the responsibility for (the care of) their sibling with Down’s syndrome when their parents have died. It is distressing when this person develops Alzheimer’s disease at a relatively young age. Not only are they loosing the person they (often) love very much, but the burden of care gets heavier.
Causes and risk factors
In Down’s syndrome the development of Alzheimer’s disease seems to be linked directly to the overexposure to APP. The ApoE2 gene seems to have a protective effect in Down’s syndrome too, but whether ApoE4 increases the risk of Alzheimer’s disease in Down’s syndrome is not clear yet. Men and women seem to be equally susceptible.
Down’s syndrome originates in an extra copy of chromosome 21.
At least 36 % of the people with Down’s syndrome aged 50 – 59 years and 65 % aged 60 and older are affected by dementia. Brain changes associated with Alzheimer’s disease are found in 96 % of all adults with Down’s syndrome.
Diagnosing dementia in people with Down’s syndrome is very difficult, as the dementia symptoms are often masked by the existing intellectual impairment. Several screening and evaluation procedures have been developed. These evaluations must be performed at select intervals, thus comparing with the person’s previous score. Definitive diagnosis is only available after death.
Care and treatment
Because of limited personel in small scale living settings for people with an intellectual impairment, persons with dementia often have to move (back) to an institution for mentally retarded people. Research has shown that donepezil (Aricept®) has a positive though not significant effect.
Ongoing research/Clinical trials
Erasmus University Rotterdam (Evenhuis HM)
- Beer EFG de; De effecten van donepezil bij Downsyndroom; Down + Up 2003; 62
- Lott IT, Head E; Down syndrome and Alzheimer’s disease: a link between development and aging; Ment Ret Dev Dis 2001; 7
- Visser FE; Down en Alzheimer in perspectief; dissertation 1996
- Down’s Syndrome and Alzheimer’s Disease; Briefing North West Training & Development Team (1995)
- Dementia an Intellectual Disabilities; Fact sheet Alzheimer’s Disease International (s.a.)
Last Updated: vendredi 09 octobre 2009
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