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When exposed to cold temperatures, especially with a high wind chill factor and high humidity, or to a cool, damp environment for prolonged periods, your body's control mechanisms may fail to keep your body temperature normal. When more heat is lost than your body can generate, hypothermia, defined as an internal body temperature less than 95 F (35 C), can result. Wet or inadequate clothing, falling into cold water and even not covering your head during cold weather can increase your chances of hypothermia. Signs and symptoms of hypothermia include: - Slurred speech - Abnormally slow breathing - Cold, pale skin - Loss of coordination - Fatigue, lethargy or apathy - Confusion or memory loss - Bright red, cold skin (infants) Signs and symptoms usually develop slowly. People with hypothermia typically experience gradual loss of mental acuity and physical ability, so they may be unaware that they need emergency medical treatment. Older adults, infants, young children and people who are very lean are at particular risk. Other people at higher risk of hypothermia include those whose judgment may be impaired by mental illness or Alzheimer's disease and people who are intoxicated, homeless or caught in cold weather because their vehicles have broken down. Other conditions that may predispose people to hypothermia are malnutrition, cardiovascular disease and an underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism). To care for someone with hypothermia: - Call 911 or emergency medical assistance. While waiting for help to arrive, monitor the person's breathing. If breathing stops or seems dangerously slow or shallow, begin cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) immediately. - Move the person out of the cold. If going indoors isn't possible, protect the person from the wind, cover the head, and insulate the individual from the cold ground. - Remove wet clothing. Replace wet things with a warm, dry covering. - Don't apply direct heat. Don't use hot water, a heating pad or a heating lamp to warm the person. Instead, apply warm compresses to the center of the body — head, neck, chest and groin. Don't attempt to warm the arms and legs. Heat applied to the arms and legs forces cold blood back toward the heart, lungs and brain, causing the core body temperature to drop. This can be fatal. - Don't give the person alcohol. Offer warm nonalcoholic drinks, unless the person is vomiting. - Don't massage or rub the person. Handle people with hypothermia gently because their skin may be frostbitten, and rubbing frostbitten tissue can cause severe damage. - Mechem CC, et al. Accidental hypothermia in adults. http://www.uptodate.com/home/index.html. Accessed March 3, 2012. - Corneli HM, et al. Clinical manifestations of hypothermia in children. http://www.uptodate.com/home/index.html. Accessed March 3, 2012. - Ferri FF. Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2011: Instant Diagnosis and Treatment. Philadelphia, Pa.: Mosby Elsevier; 2011. http://www.mdconsult.com/books/page.do?eid=4-u1.0-B978-0-323-05611-3..00017-3--sc0285&isbn=978-0-323-05611-3&uniqId=321844243-3#4-u1.0-B978-0-323-05611-3..00017-3--sc0285. Accessed March 3, 2012. - Hypothermia. The Merck Manuals: The Merck Manual for Healthcare Professionals. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/injuries_poisoning/cold_injury/hypothermia.html. Accessed March 3, 2012.	3.950184
Chromosomes are present in every cell of the body. These chromosomes carry the DNA information that defines many aspects of an individual's life. DNA evidence is used to determine if the individual will develop normally or not. There are a few genetic abnormalities that may be caught at an early stage of pregnancy. The tendency is to suggest that such pregnancies be terminated as they would only lead to the development of children who are born with abnormalities. The karyotype test is used to collect the information needed relating to the health and functioning of the chromosomes. There are several steps that need to be followed in order to perform the karyotype test. The sample is collected from a newborn baby or from the amniotic fluid of a pregnant woman. The entire karyotype test procedure requires one week to be performed. This is because the cells need to be collected and then divided and allowed to grow. When these cells grow in the laboratory, the doctors can identify the necessary genetic information in order to make a diagnosis. The actual process of collecting information from the chromosomes is complicated and requires extremely precise work. There is a specialized type of laboratory used for such testing. This is known as a cytogenetics laboratory. Cytogenetics is a relatively modern field of medicine. For this reason, one may not find a cytogenetics laboratory in every hospital. There are specialty hospitals that deal with issues relating to genetics. One needs to have the karyotype test done in such a location. The chromosome karyotype test is conducted to identify a number of different genetic conditions. One such syndrome is Down's syndrome. One may also discover conditions such as Klinefelter syndrome, Philadelphia syndrome and Turner syndrome. All these conditions involve complications relating to the genetic makeup of cells. In order to understand these conditions further, one may speak with the doctor for clarifications. There is no preparation required for the karyotype test. In fact, as far as the patient is concerned, the karyotype test takes less than a minute to perform. If the test is performed on a pregnant woman, then it will be done when she visits the clinic for a checkup. If the karyotype test is done on a new born baby, then it will be done in the hospital itself. Samples may then be transported to the appropriate laboratory capable of conducting the chromosome karyotype test. You could check with your doctor for the karyotype test cost as these rates would vary accordingly. Also it is of utmost importance that the karyotype test results be shown to your doctor for a proper interpretation.	3.33622
See mail address, network address. A unique number identifying a node on a network. There are only two types of Addresses; Hardware = OSI Layer 2 & Internet = OSI layer 3. string Simple Street/Mailing address of referenced item - multiple address lines (if needed) are sequenced by "rank". THIS ELEMENT UNDER REVIEW FOR EXTENSION. A location in a computer system, identified by a name, number, or code label. (1) A number, character, or group of characters which identifies a given device or a storage location which may contain a piece of data or a program step. (2) To refer to a device or storage location by an identifying number, character, or group of characters. Physical: A specific location in memory where a unit record, or sector, of data is stored. To return to the same area on the disc, each area is given a unique address consisting of three components: cylinder, sector and head. Memory: A unique memory location. Network interface cards and CPUs often use shared addresses in RAM to move data from each card to the PC's processor. The term can also refer to the unique identifier for a particular node in a network. Otherwise known as a URL, the unique location of a Web page on the Internet. Can also mean your email address. For Bluetooth, each Bluetooth device has built into its hardware a 48-bit device unique address. Computer location where a particular item is stored. A set of characters that identifies an individual network node. IP address is a 32-bit numeric identifier assigned to a node. The address has two parts, one for the network identifier and the other for the node identifier. All nodes on the same network must share the network address and have a unique node address. For networks connected to the Internet, network addresses are assigned by the Internet Activities Board (IAB). Addresses also include IPX addresses, the internal network number and external network number, and the Media Access Control (MAC) address assigned to each network card or device. A computer address is very different to a street address, but has the same function - a name for the place where other computers can find it "living". A unique identity of each network station on a LAN or WAN. A location of a web site or file on the Internet. A unique memory location permitting reading or writing of data to/from that location. Network interface cards and CPUs often use shared addresses in RAM to move data between programs. Words, numbers, symbols that designate a physical or virtual location. For example: street numbers and names, countries, e-mail addresses, URLs. The location of a Web page on the internet, otherwise called a URL. In the online world, the combination of letters, numbers, and/or symbols that will let you send e-mail to a particular person or organization. The identification of a physical or virtual distinct entity in a network. On the Internet, this network address is called a URL (Uniform Resource Locator). For instance: http://www.gsh.org. [It is important to type these accurately. The information in the header of a PDU that identifies the owner of the information in the payload. In connection-oriented protocols the address identified the virtual circuit number, and in connectionless protocols the address identifies the ultimate destination of the information. location in primary memory where data or instructions are held temporarily; identification of a storage location Similar to street addresses, computer addresses identify information's storage location on a computer or identify a node on a network. (1) A number that identifies a particular location in the memory, a register, or other data source or depository. (2) The location of a terminal, peripheral device, node, or any other component in a network. The series of letters or numbers that will take the user to a specific e-mail address or web site. Characters that are used by a device to locate another device in a network. See also group address. A number that specifies the location of a byte in memory. The location of an Internet resource. An e-mail address may take the form of [email protected]. A web address looks similar to http://www.showtheworld.com. In reference to the Internet, the name of a site that users can connect to, such as www.microsoft.com, or the address of an e-mail recipient, such as [email protected]. A typical address starts with a protocol name (such as ftp:// or http://) followed by the name of the organization that maintains the site. The suffix identifies the kind of organization. For example, commercial site addresses often end with .com. the means by which a particular portion of a storage medium is identified absolute address the actual address of a location in the main store relative address the number to be added to the starting address ion order to produce the absolute address Return A unique number or name assigned to all computers that are connected to the Internet. See also domain name and IP address. An address is a unique identifier that determines the originating location of data or the destination of data being transmitted across a communication link. There is a distinction between a station's link address, a station's network address, and an individual process running on a station. Normally refers to one's e-mail address which can be a series of letters and/or numbers, or when referring to a World Wide Web site, it is a URL. Refers to a location in a storage medium. Addresses most frequently refer to a locations in RAM. An Internet machine name or location, for example, www.prolifics.com. A character string that uniquely identifies a memory location in a PLC, computer, or other programmable system. The logical location of a terminal, node, peripheral device, or byte in memory in a network. The abbreviation for address is addr. A name, label, or number identifying a register, location or unit where information is stored. The address is the label given to the places in computer memory. A specific location where data is stored in a memory; a numerical or alphabetical designation of the storage location of data. the url of a Web page, such as http://www.anvil-graphics.com/. The location of an Internet resource. An email address may take the form of [email protected]. A web address looks something like http://www.intellisoft.co.uk. Address is the term used to refer to the physical location of any piece of information and the computer on which that information resides, on the Internet. Addresses are also used to define where electronic mail is sent to and from. 911 address-physical location; mailing address-owners location. A unique network location used to identify a network object such as a database service, client, Interchange, or Names Server. TNS addresses have a specific format. Addresses must be unique. See TNS address and well known address. An identifier defined and used by a particular protocol and associated software to distinguish one node from another. A specific location in memory, designated either numerically or by a symbolic name. A system just like a house or street address used for identifying a destination or location of information located on the internet. An example of a web address would be www.webct.com. When used within the context of the Internet, an address refers to one of these pieces of information: Internet email addresses or a Web site address, called a Uniform Resource Locator. Like a postal address, a "network address" is used to locate another user for the purpose of directing mail. On the Internet this is in the form: [email protected]. Francis Street, Perth, Western Australia 6000 A label such as an integer or other set of characters which identifies a register, location of device in which information is stored. either the address of a user of a system, as in an email address (required so that the message sent can be directed to the desired person), or the address of a site on the internet a code or series of letters, numbers and or symbols by which the Internet identifies you or a location where information is stored a data structure understood by a network which uniquely identifies the recipient an identifier which is unique within the particular computing network to identify each device associated with the network a numerical identifier for the topological location of the named entity a numeric label for a specific location in memory a place where a person or organization can be located and communicated with a primary means to identify and locate a unique object a unique number or group of characters that identifies a unique user or location on the Internet a virtual liaison office, not the physical location of AMBAI/Ambai U's faculty and officials see uniform resource locator (URL) The location of a word of memory in RAM. In data communication, the unique code assigned to each device, workstation, user, or multicast group connect to a network. See IP address. A number uniquely identifying each node in a network. A collection of letters and numbers that tell the world whosesite it is - cf URL. The unique code by which the Internet identifies you (also referred to as URL). Most URLs contain three parts: the protocol, the host name, and the folder or filename. (Network Address) Internet site address come in two forms: as a set of numbers such as 22.214.171.124 and alphanumeric such as nasa.gov (both of these represent the same address, and either could be used). An individual e-mail's address at this site, for example, John Glenn's, might look like this: [email protected]. (referring to e-mail or network address) A unique combination of letters and/or numbers which identifies a person or location sought. Also referred to as a URL. The location of an Internet resource. A web address looks something like http://www.stunik.com. An e-mail address may take the form of [email protected]. Unique designation for a device on a network that lets other devices direct messages to it. Identifies the author and supplies the author's mailing address. A hexadecimal number that represents a location in storage or memory. Used to identify communication ports. To communicate with a storage device. A string of characters used in cyberspace that allows users to identify themselves. The unique code assigned to the location of a file in storage, a device in a unique system or network, or any other data source on a network. An address is the name you need to either a) access an Internet site or b) send an email. An Internet site's address is also referred to as a URL and typically appears in the format www.address.com. Email, on the other hand, appears in the form of [email protected] and provides a unique identifier for your inbox so your mail can find you. There are three basic types: Computer address: e.g. www.bournemouth.ac.uk E-Mail address: e.g. [email protected] URL:e.g. http://www.bids.ac.uk Internet addresses help you find people or information on the Internet. People with e-mail addresses can have mail delivered right to their computer. It's a lot like your street address which tells the post office where to deliver letters. E-mail addresses usually look like this: [email protected] or [email protected]. Either a personal/business address for email (i.e. [email protected]) or a Web site address, also called a URL (i.e. www.cincinnati.com) The actual street listing associated with the Remediation Site. With city and zip, constitutes the complete physical address for the site. In the context of the Internet, an address is the information a web browser needs to locate a particular website. The location to which mail items are delivered. It consists of certain elements such as recipient name, street name and house number, city, state, and postal code as required by the type of mail. location of an internet site. a unique set of numbers that identifies a particular location in computer memory. The location of an Internet resource. An email address may take the form of [email protected]. A web address looks something like http://www.geeksnet.com. A unique name or number identifying a specific computer. Addresses are used in network communications in transmitting messages to a particular machine. You can address a particular person by associating their account with the address of the machine where they have the account. For example, the "john" in [email protected] is the account of an individual on the machine "reliant.c-cwis.siu.edu". This machine address is an IP (Internet Protocol) address. You must always have an IP address to use the Internet. IP addresses can also be expressed numerically, e.g., 126.96.36.199, which represents the same machine. The verbal names are simply easier for people to remember. the number, street, city, and ZIP code on a letter that tell postal workers where to deliver it The string of characters that you must give an electronic mail program to direct a message to a particular person. The term "Internet address" often refers to an assigned number, which identifies a host on this network. A unique network location used to identify a client on a network. TNS addresses have a specific format. Addresses must be unique. See TNS address. The address is the number which identifies a computer on the internet. The location of an Internet resource. An email address may take the form [email protected]. A web address looks something like http://www.metrac.org. The numerical designation of a location in memory. See either IP Address or Email Address. Internet address is just like your home or apartment address, only it is in cyberspace. Once you have an Internet address, you have a place all your own on the Internet. The location of a highway-rail grade crossing. There are three addressing systems that locate a highway-rail grade crossing: The local governmental street address The railroad milepost number The Federal DOT Crossing Number (See DOT Crossing Number and Milepost Number.) a binary pattern used to select a location in memory. In this text, addresses are 16 bits wide. The location of an Internet resource. An email address may be [email protected], a web address shall look like http://www.funnyjobs.co.au The location of a computer, file or peripheral device on a network. A unique identifier for a communication endpoint. This is a way of identifying a location on a network, and is used for email and Internet locations. Another term for a website address is URL which stands for Uniform Resource Locator. The address identifies the location of a web page on the World Wide Web. This is also referred to as URL or Uniform Resource Locator. a unique identifier used in sending data to a particular person or object. For example, an "IP address", "Mail address" or "Ethernet address". In online terms this commonly refers to a particular machine or computer system connected to the Internet. Machine 'addresses' exist on the Internet for servers for e-mail sending and receiving, web page or web site access, and almost everything functioning on the Internet. Internet users encounter two important types of addresses: Web page addresses (more properly called URLS) and E-mail addresses (for sending e-mail to someone. E-mail addresses almost always contain an @). Used for finding people, URLs, email, newsgroups. The common descriptor that identifies a property. It usually includes a building number and street name. The unique string of text that identifies the location of a web page on the World Wide Web. An address on the Internet is described as a uniform resource locator, which can be used for any type of addressing, such as e-mails (mailto:[email protected]), web pages (http://www.news.com/) and ftp sites (ftp://ftp.netscape.com/pub/communicator). Instead of using domain names, it is also possible to use IP addresses. See also ftp, e-mail, IP, uniform resource locator, web page. Refers to the email address of an individual or group, or the address of a site on the Internet. Site addresses are known as URLs. A number identifying each individual locomotive and accessory decoder on a layout. When a controller is set to a particular address, only the decoder set to the corresponding address can read the instructions from the controller. An address is a word or number that refers to a storage location or port. On the Internet a unique name or number combination which identifies a user or system. Ex: "[email protected]" is the address of a user known as fozz. "xmission.com" is the address of the system called Xmission. The memory location of a data item or procedure. The expression can represent just the offset (in which case the default segment is assumed), or it can be in segment: offset format. The number of a particular memory or peripheral storage location. Like post office boxes, each byte of memory and each disk sector has its own unique address. Programs are compiled into machine language, which references actual addresses in the computer. Code used to locate any person, website and/or file on the Internet. The format for email addresses is username@hostname, where username is your username, login name, or account number, and hostname is the name of the computer or Internet provider you use (e.g. AOL). Websites and files are also identified by a unique address, or URL (Uniform Resource Locator). EGS's URL, for example, is www.ellisgs.com. An email address is composed of the following: [email protected] recipiant(username), @, location, domain Unique identifier of a web page. URL (Uniformed Resource Locator) is more frequently used for this purpose. a unique identifier for a computer or site online, usually a URL for a Web site or marked with an @ for an e-mail address. Literally, it is how one computer finds the location of another computer using the Internet. The physical location of a variable in memory, addresses are stored as hexadecimal numbers and are usually not directly modified by the programmer. in Organization, the mailing address of the organization (or person). Includes street number, name, city, state, zipcode, and count ry. each web page on the Internet is assigned a unique recognizable address. Address is also known as URL (Uniformed Resource Locator). See IP Address or E-Mail Address. An address is the unique identifier you need to either a) access the services of an Internet site or b) send E-Mail. Another word for Internet site addresses is URL. Chances are you're already familiar with E-Mail addresses. They're in the form of [email protected] and provide a unique identifier for your in-box so your mail can find you. [See Also: URL a unique combination of letters, numbers and other characters determining the recipient of an email message or the location of a computer on the Internet (e.g. a Web site). A unique alphanumeric sequence used to identify a computer transmitting or receiving data. Also a location in memory. The location of an Internet resource. An email address may take the form of [email protected] A web address looks something like http://www.slashtime.com A unique name or number identifying a computer user or a computer. They are used in network communication in transmitting messages to a particular machine or person. In Internet Explorer, an address is the location of a Web page. Addresses can be used to identify Web site, FTP site and gopher site on the Internet, as well as files on an intranet. Type the following address in the Address box: http://www.dpsinfo.com/help/words.html http means the URL to open is residing on a Web server www.dpsinfo.com is the domain of the server help is a subdirectory under the dpsinfo.com domain on the server words.html identifies the Web page being opened Internet Explorer gives the user the option of displaying Addresses as simplified addresses ("friendly URLs") or full addresses (URLs as described above). This value is set from the Options menu, on the Appearance tabsheet. When the term address is typically used on the Internet, it means an E-mail address. The term URL is more often used to represent Web page addresses. An Internet address can consist of letters, number and/or symbols. The address allows the Internet to identify a computer. Addresses allow people to transfer files, send email and visit web sites. a web address is the domain name or URL. An e-mail address is in the form [email protected] In communications, the coded representation of the source or destination of a message. ( 188) In data processing character or group of characters that identifies a register, a particular part of storage, or some other data source or destination. ( 188) To assign to a device or item of data a label to identify its location. ( 188) The part of a selection signal that indicates the destination of a call. To refer to a device or data item by its address. Back to the Top Code by which the Internet identifies you. The format is username@hostname, where username is your username, login name, or account number, and hostname is the name of the computer or Internet provider you use. The hostname may be a few words strung together with periods. A numerical identifier for a controller when used in computer communications. Unique identifier or location of a web page. Also called a Web Address or URL (Uniformed Resource Locator) 6940 Villagreen View Rockford, IL 61107 Click here to Email Kiki Glossary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - X- Y - Z A address is a unique name (or number) identifying a computer user or computer. Addresses are used in network communications in transmitting messages to a particular person or machine. numbers and letters which locate a computer The unique identifier you need to either access a Web site: http://www.webguest.com (see URL) or 188.8.131.52 (see IP address) or to send email: [email protected] (see email address). The location where a person or computer expects to find or deliver a particular piece of information, such as: e-mail—"Its_me@workplace," that specifies how electronic mail can be sent to a person or organization. or a Website address (see URL)—"http://www.ownpage.ownsite/beginhere" The location of a web site on the Internet-- also called a "URL." The address of a site can tell you something of the nature of the information that you will find there. An address that has ".gov" at the end of the address will belong to a "government" site. Typing "http://www.nsa.gov" in the location field will bring you to the National Security Agency web site. Another common suffix is ".com." Sites with this suffix are generally commercial sites. See also "Domain Name." a location in memory; each data item is stored at a particular memory address a name, label or number that is used to identify a location in memory; allows each device on a single communications line to respond to its own message A name, group of numbers or bits used to identify a specific device. (e.g. server, router, switch, printer, or computer) on a network. There are two types of addresses in common use within the Internet. They are email and IP or Internet addresses. Typically refers to either a website or email address. A website address appears in the form of a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) and is prefixed with http:// or https://. Either the address of a user (usually a name, followed by '@' and some other bits, separated by dots) ... or the address ('URL') of an Internet site (usually preceded by 'http://...' or 'ftp://...' An identification (number, name, or label) that uniquely identifies a computer register, memory location, or storage device. The code used to designate the location of a specific piece of data within computer storage The location of a site on the Internet, which in its pure form is expressed by a number. An identifier assigned to networks, stations, and other devices so that each device can be separately designated to receive and reply to message. The location of an Internet resource. An email address may take the form of [email protected]. A web address looks something like " http://www.q2websolutions.com" Reference to a memory location. In C pointers are used to hold addresses. Data structure or logical convention used to identify a unique entity, such as a particular process or network device. (1.) The telephone number that remote systems use to call the system. (2.) To refer to a device or an item of data by its address. (3.) In word processing, the location, identified by an address code, of a specific section of the recording medium or storage. (4.) In data communication, the unique code assigned to each device or workstation connected to a network. See also network user address. (5.) A numbering system used in network communications to identify a specific network or host with which to communicate. Addresses are often denoted in dotted decimal form. The information in an email message that determines where and how the message must be sent. Addresses are found both on message headers and on message envelopes. The identifying location of a device or an area of storage; for example, a memory register, disk sector, or network node. 2.To identify with an address. See also URL There are three types of addresses in common use within theInternet. They are email address; IP, internet or Internetaddress; and hardware or MAC address. See also: email address, IPaddress, internet address, MAC address. address mask System developed to identify and reach someone or something. About concerning the Internet, there are: a) e-mail addresses, b) IP addresses, c) hardware addresses, e) URLs. a slippery term, depending on context; in e-mail world, the combination of usercode/mailname and domain designation allowing proper routing of messages to an individual (e.g., [email protected] or [email protected]). In a network context, an address is the end of a glorified phone jack (a Network Access Module or NAM), able to be designated to receive packets of data in IP (Internet Protocol) form. All Internet traffic is tracked and routed by IP addressing, whether or not the addressing is manifest to the naked eye: the text address [email protected] silently incorporates the four-digit IP address of the server known as peseta.ucdavis.edu. The number of IP addresses on a given subnet is limited by the number of ports served by the equipment in a given IDF closet. Think of the World Wide Web as a network of electronic files stored on millions of computers all around the world. Hypertext links these resources together. Uniform Resource Locators or URLs are the addresses used to locate the files. The information contained in a URL gives you the ability to jump from one web page to another with just a click of your mouse. When you type a URL into your browser or click on a hypertext link, your browser sends a request to a remote computer, called a web server, to download one or more files. Every URL is unique and identifies one specific file. Identifies the location of an Internet resource. Examples: an e-mail address ([email protected]); a web address (http://www.osu.edu); or an internet address (128.146.999.9). A way to identify an Internet resource. See also URL. The following are examples of different Internet addresses: an electronic mail address - [email protected], a web server address - www.farmingdale.edu A name, label, or number identifying a location in storage, a device in a system or network, or any other data source. A number that represents a location in the memory. Usually shown in a hexadecimal value for memory or storage. (also called e-mail address) A special code name that is a user's unique name on the Internet. Usually describing both the person and the place where the person works, the address is used to direct e-mail to its intended destination. See Chapter 6. In networking, a unique code that identifies a node to the network. Internet address, usually in dotted decimal notation. Sometimes referred to as a URL. This is the address of the website, web page or resource on the Internet. The identification of a physical or virtual distinct entity in a network. On the Internet, this network address is known as a URL, Uniform Resource Locator, e.g., http://www.gsh.org. An electronic mail location of a user. A number given to a location in memory. The location is accessed by using that number, like accessing a variable by using its name. Your Internet address is like your phone number, it is how you are uniquely identified. Once you are assigned your Internet address, you are connected to all other Internet computers. For example, New Technology Associates Internet address is 184.108.40.206. Number representing the location of a byte in memory. Within CP/M there are two kinds of addresses: logical and physical. A physical address refers to an absolute and unique location within the computer's memory space. A logical address refers to the offset or displacement of a byte in relation to a base location. A standard CP/M program is loaded at address 0100H, the base value; the first instruction of a program has a physical address of 0100H and a relative address or offset of 0H. There are three types of addresses in common use within the Internet. They are email address; IP, internet or Internet address; and hardware or MAC address. See also: email address, IP address, internet address, MAC address. The label or number identifying the memory location where a unit of information is stored. With reference to the Web, an address is a string of letters and punctuation marks that identifies an email mailbox or a web site. [email protected] is a sample email address, and http://www.techsoup.org is a sample web address. A web address is also called a URL. Source: TechSoup.org This could be an email or web address. Web addresses are also sometimes called URLs. Web addressed are always always in this format www.thedomain.com or http://thedomain.com. What about the .au or .uk endings, you ask? That's the country ( Au stralia or nited ingdom, for instance). American sites don't have the two country letters at the end of the address for the same reason that English stamps don't have "England" on them - they invented it. Email addresses are always in this format: [email protected] (or maybe .net, .gov, .org. .edu etc). (1) A coded representation of the destination of data, as well as of its source. Multiple terminals on one communications line, for example, must each have a unique address. (2) A group of digits that makes up a telephone number. Also known as the called number. (3) In software, a location that can be specifically referred to in a program. (4) A name, label, or number that identifies a location in storage, a device in a network, or any other data source. A component of a location that can be assigned a US Postal Service street address. (1) Disks and other storage devices have numbers that identify locations by sector and by byte. Retrieval software searches for the address assigned to the desired information in order to locate it. (2) Used as a verb, it means what a computer can access: "This Mac can address 5 megs of RAM." a unique network identification name which can alternatively be expressed numerically, such as 220.127.116.11 or science3.soe.umich.edu A unique network location used to identify a network object, such as a listener, Oracle Connection Manager, or Oracle Names server. Addresses have a specific format and must be unique. An e-mail address. A way to locate you through your Internet service provider. 1.The precise location in memory or on disk where a piece of information is stored. Every byte in memory and every sector on a disk have their own unique addresses. 2. To reference or manage a storage location. address - A recipient address is a collection of information that identifies a specific message recipient. It must be unique and complete to properly identify an e-mail recipient. There are four types of addresses in common use on the Internet: Email, IP, hardware, and URL. Network addresses are usually of two types:(1) the physical or hardware address of a network interface card; for ETHERNET this 48-bit address might be 0260.8C00.7666. The hardware address is used to forward PACKETS within a physical network. Fortunately, network users do not have to be concerned about hardware addresses since they are automatically handled by the networking software.(2) The logical or INTERNET address is used to facilitate moving data between physical networks. The 32-bit INTERNET address is made up of a network number, a subnetwork number, and a host number. Each host computer on the INTERNET, has a unique address. All INTERNET hosts have a numeric address and an English-style name. For example, the INTERNET address for UCC's CYBER 840 is 18.104.22.168; its INTERNET name is csugreen.UCC.ColoState.EDU. A name, decimal number or bit string used to identify a networked device. A number used by the operating system to identify a storage location. The unique code assigned to each device or workstation connected to a network. A standard Internet address (or IP address) is a 32-bit address field. This field contains two parts. The first part is the network address; the second part is the host number. See also IP address. A unique name (or number) identifying a computer user or computer is called an address. Addresses are used in network communications to transmit messages to a particular person or machine. In IP (Internet Protocol) form, it consists of a series of numbers, separated by dots, which enables a machine in one part of the world to contact another (much like a personal zip code). Also, technical reference to a specific location in a computer's memory. Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, NY 10024 A memory location in a particular machine's RAM; a numeric identifier or symbolic name that specifies the location of a particular machine or device on a network; and a means of identifying a complete network, subnetwork, or a node within a network. There are two separate uses of this term in Internet networking: "electronic mail address" and "Internet address." An electronic mail address is the string of characters that you must give an electronic mail program to direct a message to a particular person. See "Internet address" for its definition. There are three types of addresses in common use on the Internet: email addresses, IP addresses, and Uniform Resource Locators. Examples: email address: [email protected] IP address: 22.214.171.1244 Uniform Resource Locator (URL): http://www.nrtc.net Secret code by which the Internet identifies you so that people can send you mail. It usually looks like username@hostname - where username is your username, or login name, or account number; and hostname is the Internet's name for the computer or Internet provider you use. The host name can be a few words strung together with periods. A specific site (www, ftp, gopher) or "mailbox" (e-mail) on the Internet, often the mailbox of a particular user. If referring to e-mail, an address will usually contain the "at" sign: @. An address is often rendered in lower case. Example: [email protected]. Another name for a unique URL of a Web page. ... A name, set of numbers, or sequence of bits used to identify devices (computer, printer, or server) on a network. The unique identifier for a specific location on a network. There are three types of addresses in common use within the Internet: e-mail addresses; IP or Internet address; and hardware or MAC addresses. WWWebfx Home Page Computers store numbers and instructions in their store. The store is usually divided into locations each of which holds one number or instruction. Each of these locations is given a designation so that it can be referred to, no matter what number or instruction it happens to contain. This designation is often called the 'address' of the location. Number or bit pattern that uniquely identifies a location in library memory. Every location has a distinct address. An Internet address is the name of a site you want to connect to, such as www.aga.org. Also, an Internet address can be the address of someone you want to send e-mail to, such as [email protected] The street address that describes the physical (geographic) location of the front door or main entrance of a facility site. Example: 123 Main Street. A number of reference, which identifies a unique location in a computer's memory. A number which identifies a location in memory where information is stored. The location of an Internet resource. email address may take form [email protected]. A web looks something like http://www.squareonetech.com. A number which is used to identify a location. Each computer on the internet has a unique IP address, which the network uses to direct information to it. memory address is a string of digits which identifies where to read or write data. (URL-uniform resource locator): generally of the form www.something.com; entering this into the address bar of your browser is the most direct way of accessing a site An exact location in memory. A program can store or retrieve data from this address. An address in a unique identifier assigned to a web page. The address is more commonly referred to as the URL (Uniformed Resource Locator). Unique location of a person or computer on the Internet. Communication on the Internet requires an address. An address is the location of a computer or computer resource on the Internet. You can find the address in the Address Box (Explorer) or the Location Box (Netscape) The location of an Internet resource. An email address may take the form of [email protected]. A web address looks something like http://www.crn.org. The Uniform Resource Locator of a file contained on a network. This can be the home page of a website or any of its files. It usually appears as http://www.(name).com. There can also be addresses that include a /(filename) after the ".com" reference. An address in memory is a location to which an application or a piece of hardware refers. For example, a word processor will store your document in a particular memory address while you have it open. Problems occur when two things (hardware or software) try to use the same address. A location in the memory where a particular piece of data is stored. Most commonly, an address is a person's email location or a web page's URL. The location of an Internet resource. An email address may take the form of [email protected]. A web address looks something like http://www.domain.com. A unique number assigned to a device on a network. For example, a twinax terminal must be assigned a unique address before it is able to access the host system. Internet users encounter two important types of addresses: Web page addresses (more properly called URLs) and e-mail addresses (for sending e-mail to someone). One example of an e-mail address is [email protected]. In telephony, the number dialed by a calling party which identifies the party called. Also known as the telephone number. The number assigned to an individual memory location. Each byte in the Atari has its own unique address, much like a house has a street address. The main use of this book is to provide you a roadmap to each address so you don't get lost. See e-mail address and host address. The unique location of an information site on the Internet, a specific file (for example, a Web page), or an email user. 1151, Punchbowl Street, Honolulu, Hawaii The location of an internet resource. An email address may take the form of [email protected] -- a web address appears as http://www.insurancestop.com A unique sequence of letters or numbers for the location of data or the identity of an intelligent device. A unique identifier assigned to networks and stations that allows each device individually to receive and reply to messages. Three types of addresses are commonly used on networks: e-mail address; IP, internet, or Internet address; and hardware or MAC address. See also Class A/B/C address, IP address, MAC address. A specific site (www, ftp, gopher etc.) on the Internet, often the mailbox of a particular user. If referring to email, an address will usually contain the "at" sign: @. An address is often rendered in lower case. Example: [email protected] (1) A name, numeral, or label that designates a particular location in primary or secondary storage. (2) A location identifier for nodes in a computer network. The location of an Internet resource. An email address may take the form of [email protected]. A web address looks something like http: //www.supanet.com. Also know as the URL (Uniformed Resource Locator). An address by which the Internet identifies you so that people can send you mail. It usually looks something like [email protected], where username is your username, login name, or account number, and ispname is the Internet's name for the computer or Internet provider you use. Also See: E-mail The location of an Internet resource. An email address may take the form of [email protected]. A web address looks something like http://www.aic.net.au. The numerical location of a web site. Example: 126.96.36.199. The first six digits are a country location, the next three are a server computer location, and the last three are a location on the server computer. The numbers can range from 0 to 255. 1. Physical location of a home. 2. Code or path used to locate stored information in a computer. A unique identifier for a computer or site online, usually a URL for a web site or marked with an @ for an e-mail address. Literally, it is how your computer finds a location on the information highway. Another name for a Web URL. A character or group of characters that identify a register, a location or some other data source or destination. A way to identify an Internet resource. The following are examples of different Internet addresses: an electronic mail address [email protected], a gopher server address - gopher.unm.edu, a web server address - www.unm.edu Number that uniquely identifies the location of a word in memory. An address is a code and abstract concept expressing the fixed location of a home, business or other building on the earth's surface.	3.793397
We all like to think of ourselves as rational creatures who smartly prepare for the worst. We watch our back, weigh the odds and pack an umbrella when the skies look threatening. But although we take such precautions, we generally expect things to turn out pretty well — often better than they actually do. The belief that the future will probably be much better than the past and present is known as the optimism bias, and most of us have this tendency to overestimate the likelihood of good events happening to us and underestimate the likelihood that bad events will come crashing down. Take marriage, for example. In the Western world, divorce rates are higher than 40 percent: Two out of five marriages end in divorce. But newlyweds estimate their own likelihood of divorce at zero. Why is optimism about our personal future so resilient? It starts with what may be the most extraordinary of human talents: the ability to move back and forth through time and space in one’s mind. To think positively about our prospects, it helps to be able to imagine ourselves in the future. Our capacity to envision a different time and place is critical for our survival. It allows us to plan ahead, to save resources for times of scarcity, and to endure hard work in anticipation of a future reward. While mental time travel has clear survival advantages, conscious foresight came to humans at an enormous price — the understanding that death awaits. The knowledge that old age, sickness, decline of mental power and oblivion are somewhere around the corner can be devastating. Ajit Varki, a biologist at the University of California at San Diego, argues that the awareness of mortality on its own would have led evolution to a dead end. The despair would have brought the daily activities needed for survival to a stop. The only way that conscious mental time travel could have arisen is if it emerged along with irrational optimism. The knowledge of death had to emerge in parallel with the persistent ability to picture a bright future. The capacity to envision that future relies partially on the hippocampus, a brain structure that is crucial to memory. (People with damage to the hippocampus are unable to recollect the past; they are also unable to construct detailed images of future scenarios.) But the human brain doesn’t travel in time randomly. It tends to engage in specific types of thoughts: We consider how well our kids will do in life, how we will obtain that desired job, whether our team will win. We also worry about losing loved ones, failing at our job or dying in a plane crash. But research shows that most of us spend less time mulling negative outcomes than we do positive ones. Why do we maintain this rosy bias even when information challenging our upbeat forecasts is so readily available? Only recently have we been able to decipher this mystery. My colleagues and I at University College London recently scanned the brains of people as they processed both positive and negative information about the future. Among other things, we asked them to estimate how likely they were to encounter 80 negative events, including developing cancer, having Alzheimer’s disease and being robbed. We then told them the likelihood that a person like them would suffer these misfortunes; for example, the lifetime risk of cancer is about 30 percent. Then we asked again: How likely are you to suffer from cancer?	3.57969
Consider cover crops your most important crops, because the requirements for abundant food crops — building soil fertility, improving soil texture, suppressing weeds, and inhibiting disease and crop-damaging insects — can be best met by the abundant use of cover crops, season after season. 5 Benefits of Cover Crops Soil Fertility. A vast array of soil organisms decompose once-living plants into nutrients easily taken up by plant roots, and add to your soil’s humus content (the final residues of organic matter in your soil, which assist nutrient uptake, improve texture and hold moisture). I grow organic matter in place using cover crops because, in many ways, a living cover crop is even better than adding manure and compost for fertility. The area of most intense biological activity — ultimately the definition of soil fertility — is the rhizosphere, the zone immediately around plant roots. Plants release nutrients through their roots to feed their buddies in the soil — beneficial microbes and mycorrhizal fungi — that increase access to water and convert soil nutrients into forms more readily utilized by plants. If the intense bioactivity in the rhizosphere is the key to fertility, imagine the contribution of closely planted cover crops with vastly more root mass than more widely spaced food crops. Soil Texture. Mycorrhizal fungi (beneficial fungi that grow in association with plant roots) produce glomalin, a substance which glues microscopic clay and organic matter particles into aggregate clumps, stabilizing the soil and making it nice and crumbly. This crumbly texture is more porous to oxygen and water. Bacteria encouraged by cover crops produce polysaccharides, which also act as soil glues. Grass and grain cover crops with fine, dense root masses loosen soil texture as they decompose. Others, such as sweet clovers and sorghum-sudangrass hybrids, grow deep, aggressive taproots that break up soil compaction. Erosion Prevention. A cover crop’s tight canopy protects the soil from the drying and scouring effects of wind and the forceful impact of heavy rain. The loosened soil structure achieved by cover cropping allows rapid absorption of rain and prevents runoff. Soil Moisture. Organic matter added by cover crops acts like a sponge in the soil, absorbing rainwater and holding it for gradual release to plant roots. Thus, gardens that have been home to regular use of cover crops become more resistant to drought. Protection From Weeds, Diseases and Insect Damage. Garden beds frequently planted with cover crops will have fewer problems with weeds. Cover crops suppress weeds, out-competing them for water and nutrients and shading them under a tight canopy, sometimes releasing chemical compounds that inhibit germination of weed seeds (a phenomenon called allelopathy). Plus, the roots of cover crops release nutrients that feed beneficial microbes in the soil. These microbes then suppress pathogens that cause root diseases. Some cover crop plants, such as rape, rye and sorghum-sudangrass hybrids, inhibit root-knot nematodes, which can be disastrous to beets, carrots and other root crops in some regions. You can cut cover crops and use them as mulches to boost populations of beneficial ground-dwelling species, such as rove beetles and spiders. Other cover crops can provide a wonderful habitat for the pollinators that help keep your food garden thriving. Cover crops that flower, for example, provide important food sources for honeybees and butterflies. Cover Crop Species Depending on your climate, gardening goals and the time of year, you’ll have a variety of cover crop options. Cover crop species vary widely in their tolerance of cold, heat, soil moisture extremes and soil types. It’s often good practice to plant a mix of different species. The most important division among species is between legumes and non-legumes. Legumes, such as cowpeas, vetches and clovers, serve as hosts to rhizobia, bacterial alchemists that live in plant roots and convert nitrogen from the atmosphere into nitrogen compounds that help plants grow. Some of this “fixed” nitrogen remains attached to legume roots in nodules — like beads on a string — and becomes available to other plants after the legume dies. Non-legumes include all other cover crops: grasses such as small grains, various millets, annual and perennial rye, and sorghum-sudangrass hybrids; crucifers such as mustards, rape and forage radish; and buckwheat. For detailed information on the major cover crop species, see Managing Cover Crops Profitably by the Sustainable Agriculture Network. Even though this book is geared toward farmers, it includes great information for the home gardener. (Clicking on the link in this paragraph will take you to a page on the Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education program’s website where you can download a free copy of the most recent edition of this book.) Cover Cropping Strategies The most important strategy of all is: Do it now! When I complete a food crop harvest in fall, that same day I plant an overwinter cover crop. If I harvest a spring crop such as lettuce from a bed that I won’t be planting again until fall, I sow a fast-growing interim cover crop that does well in summer heat, such as buckwheat or cowpeas. The best time to plant a cover crop is anytime a bed is not covered by a food crop or mulch. The easiest way to incorporate more cover cropping is the half and half strategy: I dedicate every other garden bed to cover crops for an entire year. I may grow several fast-growing covers such as cowpeas and buckwheat in succession, or a cover such as sweet clover, which takes a full year to yield all its benefits. In the following year, the beds previously in cover crops now grow food crops, and vice versa. This strategy allows you to grow mulches in place. Using a scythe or sickle, you can cut cover crops that produce a lot of biomass — hairy vetch, rye, and sorghum-sudangrass hybrids — and lay them out as mulches in an adjacent bed that’s planted with food crops. Most cover crops cut when in their vegetative growth stage will regrow to produce even more mulch. If you can’t give half of your garden space to cover crops, how about one bed out of three? Or four? Or even 10? Some cold-hardy cover crops grow well through fall frosts, then die if the ground freezes solid — this is known as winterkilling, and you can use to your advantage. When I remove the top growth from asparagus beds in late September, I plant a mix of winter peas and oats. They create a knee-high tangle of green by the time the ground freezes, and they both reliably winterkill here in northern Virginia, leaving a thick, weed-suppressing mulch come spring. Plus, the leguminous peas fix nitrogen in the soil for the heavy-feeding asparagus. It’s possible to grow both a food crop and a cover crop in the same bed at the same time. Under tall-growing crops with a small footprint, such as tomatoes or pole beans, plant an undersown cover crop, such as low-growing Dutch white clover or perennial ryegrass. If such a cover has already been established, leave it in place as a living mulch and open up holes for large transplants such as tomatoes or broccoli, or open up rows for beans. Shade-tolerant species — annual ryegrass, cereal rye, hairy vetch, some clovers — can be sown as overseeded cover crops into existing crops such as corn or brassicas up to several weeks before harvest. The cover crops will grow slowly under the existing canopy, then come on strong when the food crop has been removed. Try frost-seeding a cover crop into overwintered grains. In late winter, broadcast the seeds — small round ones such as clovers work best — into the grain beds. Winter freezes and thaws will work the seeds into the soil, where they will germinate in spring rains. The grain could mature into a food crop for feeding your pigs or chickens while serving as a nurse crop to establish the clover, which will grow rapidly after you harvest the grain. Some species work as reseeding cover crops. Subclovers (cool-season legumes) will die back in winter, but the seeds they leave behind will remain dormant through much of the next growing season, then sprout in the fall to establish a new cover. Permanent cover crops are appropriate in orchards, vineyards and border areas never planted with food crops. Keeping these areas in mixed flowering species — perennials such as clovers, or annuals that reseed themselves such as crucifers — protects the soil, supports pollinators and encourages insect diversity. Encouraging lots of different kinds of insects is the key to preventing crop damage, as the bug-munching insects will help you control the crop-munching insects. In high-traffic areas, covers that can take a good deal of wear are in order, such as annual ryegrass and white clovers. Planting Cover Crops Plant cover crops with as much care as your food crops. Make a furrow for larger or more vigorous seeds, such as cowpeas or sorghum-sudangrass, sow thickly, and then cover with soil. For smaller seeds, such as clovers, crucifers and small grains, scatter, rake in, and tamp the bed with the back of a garden rake to ensure good soil contact. To speed germination, apply a light mulch and water occasionally. Seeds of vigorous covers, such as annual ryegrass, oats and hairy vetch, will germinate if left on the surface, especially if broadcast just before a soaking rain. You can plant a food crop as soon as the cover crop is killed unless there could be a temporary problem of allelopathy or nitrogen tie-up (keep reading for more information). In such cases, wait about three weeks or so before planting. Killing a Cover Crop It’s better to avoid deep mechanical tillage, which disrupts soil life and breaks down soil structure. Tall, heavy stands of cover crops, such as rye and hairy vetch, are a nightmare to till in with a power tiller in any case. So what’s the best way to kill a cover crop so decomposer organisms can break it down to feed your soil? Remember that a cover crop in the vegetative stage (i.e., not flowering) usually regrows after being cut. Most cover crops in the reproductive stage (i.e., flowering), however, will die if cut. A complete no-till strategy that works for most covers is to cut the cover just above soil line after it has flowered, and transplant crops such as tomatoes, peppers or broccoli through the severed tops, leaving the cut tops and cover crop stubs as a mulch. For small areas, use a hand sickle for the cutting. (We’ve found a used butcher knife also works well. — MOTHER) Or, use a heavy field hoe to chop cover crop plants just below the soil surface to kill them without disturbing the soil deeper down. Another option is to loosen the soil with a broadfork and pull the cover plants out by the roots, again laying them on a bed as mulch. As your soil becomes more friable, the broadfork may not be necessary. My favorite way to till in a cover crop is to place a hardworking flock of chickens on the bed. Allow them to roam inside a chicken tractor or temporary fencing. For a great example of how well this method works, check out these before-and-after photos of a garden planted with a lush mix of cover crops and the same garden two weeks later, after the chickens went to work on the area. Thirsty rye may deplete available soil moisture enough to inhibit the following crop in a dry season. A few crops — small grains such as rye and sorghum-sudangrass hybrids — may temporarily release chemicals that will inhibit the growth and germination of other plants. Though these allelopathic effects help with weed control, they can suppress germination and growth of food crops that follow, especially small-seeded ones, such as lettuce, spinach and onions. Just wait a few weeks after killing a cover crop to plant your food crop and you won’t run into problems. Cover crops susceptible to diseases, herbaceous insects or nematodes could serve as vectors if grown beside or followed by food crops with the same susceptibilities. If you allow cover crops to mature their seeds before being killed, they can later volunteer as weeds in following crops. However, the more diverse our gardening practices and the more complex our rotations, the less likely we will encounter such problems. And the more we learn about cover crop species, the more we discover management solutions to problems that could occur. For example, if rye has been allowed to mature, the high carbon content of its residues, both roots and top mass, can temporarily tie up nitrogen in the soil and inhibit growth of the following crop. But if you grow the rye in a mix with a compatible legume, nitrogen fixed by the legume will minimize nitrogen tie-up. Begin experimenting with cover crop species in your garden today, and you’ll soon see that the enormous advantages far outweigh any problems that may crop up. Ultimately, cover crops will lead to healthier soil and bigger, better harvests. For more on using cover crops in your garden, see Cover Crops: Options, Tips and Advantages for the Home Garden and Cover Cropping Your Garden. Harvey Ussery uses cover crops galore in his Virginia garden. His website, The Modern Homestead, includes much more information about his homesteading and gardening endeavors. He is the author of The Small-Scale Poultry Flock (2011).	3.363649
New South Wales Government Gazette 1840 New South Wales Government Gazette 1840. 1840. Government Gazettes are a unique, useful and extremely fascinating resource for local, family and social historians and researchers in other fields throughout Australia. They were published by the government as a means of communication to officials and the general public and therefore contain information that is of great use in establishing an image of the colony of New South Wales and its people in the past. Issued weekly with occasional special issues, the New South Wales Government Gazette contains information such as land transactions, court notices, notice of acts, tenders contracts, bankruptcies, dissolution of partnerships, police auctions of stolen property, statistics and much more ... There is a large amount of information (which include physical descriptions) relating to convicts - absconders, those who were granted ticket-of-leave, deserters, apprehensions and more. The Government Gazettes have information covering a broad spectrum of the community with important details and facts on many thousands of people. This product provides a great tool for researching the history of New South Wales, making information that is difficult to find, easily accessible on one CD. Example entry taken from 8 January 1840 issue:State of the Female Factory, Parramatta, on Saturday, 4th January, 1839:Under-Colonial Sentence = 291In Solitary Confinement = 61Confines by order of the Matron = 36Nursing Children = 50Number Assignable = 370Number not Assignable = 81In Hospital = 38Total number of Women = 921Total number of Children - 250S. Bell, Matron Example entry taken from 8 January 1840 issue[partial extract only - only two entries listed below, there are about fifty listed just in this one issue]:The undermentioned Prisoners having absconded from the individuals employments set against with stolen Certificates and Tickets of Leave, all Constables and others are hereby required and commanded to use their utmost exertion in apprehending and lodging them safe in custody.Taylor Thomas, alias Henley Thomas, Minerva (5), 30, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, writing master, 5 feet 7 1/2 inches, sallow comp., brown hair, grey eyes, charged with forgery, from No. 7 Road Party, since February 27, 1833.Jeffreys George (1), 34-758, 35, Devonshire, seaman and farm labourer, 5 feet 3 1/2 inches, dark sallow comp., brown to grey hair, hazel eyes, nose inclining a little to the left side, scar betwixt the eyebrows, blue ring on left little finger, left fourth and little fingers contracted, PJME cocoa-nut tree and H N inside lower left arm, anchor ball of ball of left thumb, scar back of left forefinger, from Goat Island, since July 17, 1836.	3.136597
For Sophomore/Junior level courses in Theories of Personality, Personality, Individual Differences. Using a theorist-by-theorist approach, this comprehensive introduction to personality theory gives students the history of psychology with practical information to help them understand their own lives and their relationships with others. Primary sources, abundant biographical information and supporting research are used to descibe and detail each theorist, presenting the theories of personality in an accessible and unbiased way. Table of Contents Chapter 1: What is Personality? Chapter 2: Sigmund Freud Chapter 3: Carl Jung Chapter 4: Alfred Adler Chapter 5: Karen Horney Chapter 6: Erik H. Erikson Chapter 7: Gordon Allport Chapter 8: Raymond B. Cattell and Hans J. Eysenck Chapter 9: B.F. Skinner Chapter 10: John Dollard and Neal Miller Chapter 11: Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel Chapter 12: David M. Buss Chapter 13: George Kelly Chapter 14: Carl Rogers Chapter 15: Abraham Maslow Chapter 16: Rollo Reese May Chapter 17: A Final Word With CourseSmart eTextbooks and eResources, you save up to 60% off the price of new print textbooks, and can switch between studying online or offline to suit your needs. Once you have purchased your eTextbooks and added them to your CourseSmart bookshelf, you can access them anytime, anywhere. Introduction to Theories of Personality, An, CourseSmart eTextbook, 8th Edition Format: Electronic Book $75.99 \| ISBN-13: 978-0-205-81001-7	3.767658
Looking for a fun, kid-friendly activity to help your family appreciate the outdoors? Backyard birding is a great way to get the kids outside and learning more about the beautiful birds in your area. Here are a few helpful backyard birding tips to get started. Educate with games Start your birding adventures by learning which birds are native to your state. There are numerous online resources that include species listings, like the Bird Library from Perky-Pet. Once you have your list, make it a game. Print out the different types of birds and let your kids check them off as they see them. Whoever spots the most species could win a prize, like a birdfeeder. Making it a game will help motivate them to get outside and start bird watching. Nature is full of sounds and smells. While outside, have your kids close their eyes and sit quietly for a few moments. Discuss the sounds you hear and try to recreate bird sounds as you heard them. Since our feathered friends are attracted to flowers, seeds and berries, identify which plants will invite birds. Encourage your kids to research other plants that might attract new birds to your backyard. Backyard birding is a great tool to encourage responsibility. If your birdfeeders are not cleaned weekly it's possible for dangerous bacteria to grow. This can have a disastrous effect on a community of birds. Create a birdfeeder-cleaning calendar for your child and make note of days when the feeders should be refilled. Depending on weather and the time of the year, your feeders may need to be filled with fresh seed daily. Help with nesting Birds appreciate being able to keep clean as well as being provided with nesting materials. Help your kids collect lint or strips of fabric to set outside for birds to use when building their nests. As a family, set up a birdbath or bird waterer, like the new Perky-Pet Droplet Bird Waterer, and take turns keeping it cleaned and filled with fresh water. Attract new birds Have your kids select a new bird species they would like to see and learn how to attract them to your yard. One fun choice for young birders is the hummingbird. Hummingbird feeder kits, like the Perky-Pet Oasis Hummingbird Feeder Complete Set, include all the essentials for feeding these tiny birds and will help your child become familiar with this species. Have your child take notes on the hummingbird behavior they witness including the birds' swift movements, territorial nature and whether they eat while perched or while flying. Connecting kids with nature is always a good idea, and birding is a fun way to start. So now, equipped with these kid-friendly ideas, it's time to start your backyard birding adventure. It's the perfect way to get your kids outside and the birds will enjoy the extra attention as well.	3.140085
The ancient city of Cerveteri (Latin: Caere Greek: Agylia) is located about 50 km north-west of Rome and occupied an immense area protected by steep slopes and fortifications. The English word ceremony comes from the Latin caeremonium, meaning "pertaining to Caere," and reflects the Etruscan fascination with divination and prophecy. Through its ports of Pyrgi, Alsium and Punicum, the city became an important early trading centre. Its name in Etruscan has been variously represented as Cisra, Chaisra or some other variant. In the Phoenician tablet from Pyrgi, it is referred to as Kisry. The earliest major settlements at Cerveteri date from between the 9th and 8th centuries BCE and are characteristic of the Villanovan period. At least two villages were established during this time, as evidenced by the finds of biconical and hut shaped cinerary urns at the oldest Necropolis areas of Cava della Pozzolana and Sorbo. Trading with the Euboean Greeks commenced in the mid 8th century BCE with Etrusco -Geometric vessels becoming more common in the grave-goods. From the 7th century BCE onwards, Caere underwent rapid demographic development, becoming Etruria's chief trading centre. By the beginning of the seventh century, Euboean influence had been replaced by that of the Corinthian and other Greek colonies which had been established in Southern Italy and Sicily. During the seventh century, local manufacture of pottery started to emulate the Greek imports, with new traditions of early Orientalising vase painting becoming established in Cerveteri. An example of these are the works of the "Painter of the Heptachord". The craft of manufacturing bucchero ware also originated in Caere during this period. Trench type burials began to be replaced by the chamber tomb or hypogeum. The richness of grave-goods from the Orientalising period are legendary, with examples being the Regolini Galassi and Calabresi tombs, the contents of which are on display at the Vatican Etruscan museum. The Gold jewellery and vases from this period are of particularly fine workmanship. In the 6th century BC, Caere, at the height of its power, clashed, emerging victorious, with the Phocaean Greeks of Italy who at the time were establishing their control on the Tyrrhenian Sea via the colony of Alaria on Corsica. Following the so called "Battle of the Sardinian Sea", hundreds of Phocaean prisoners were stoned to death in Caere, which according to ancient sources resulted in a plague on the city, which was only lifted after consultation with the oracle at Delphi. By way of expiation, the citizens of Caere were required to schedule athletic contests every year to honour the dead Phocaeans. The Greek prisoners were buried en masse probably at a site located midway between Caere and Pyrgi, which has been recently located. After the crisis common to the whole of Etruria in the 5th century BC, there was a strong recovery in the next century, made possible in part thanks to the excellent relations enjoyed with Rome, of which Caere was a traditional ally. In 253 BCE Caere, supporting Tarquinii (modern Tarquinia) against Rome, was defeated and lost part of its territory, including the coastal area. Deprived of its ports, Caere was thus doomed to a crisis which came to an end with its total extinction in the 1st century CE. As you can see from the map (below), the area of the ancient city covered approximately 150 hectares, in comparison with the modern town, which occupies only a third of this space. The remainder of the area is now used for agriculture. The plateau of tufa where the city was located runs on a north-east south-west line, roughly 5 kilometers from the sea, and surrounded to the north by the valley of the Manganello, and to the south that of the Mola. The cliff sides in some places reach a height of 50 meters, and formed the major defensive element of the city. In the areas where the cliffs were lower, or disappeared completely walls were built to form a continuous line of defense. Today a continuous section of 400 meters of wall is still visible. Near the end of the Via degli Inferi (the road to hell, or funerary road) the cliffs on both sides of the Manganello stream were deepened to about 40 meters, to form a defensive trench and wall, integrated in some points with stone walls. All of these walls date to the first half of the 5th century BCE. There were a series of at least 7 gates, providing outlets to the surrounding areas. The only one to have any visible structures is the so-called "PORTA COPERTO" (covered gate) (A), located on the narrow side of the plateau to the north-east. Through this gate ran a road leading to the Necropolis of Cava della Pozzolana, and beyond it towards the area of Bracciano. Of this gate there remains only descriptions, and a breach in the walls, which here have a width at the base of 5 meters. The second gate (B), opened out onto the north cliff, where a new modern cemetery is under construction. at a point where the cliffs open out into a natural amphitheatre. This gate was mostly intended to give access to the Banditaccia Necropolis. The third gate (C), was along the continuation of the Via degli Inferi, which entered the city area, and reached the Manganello temple. The fourth (D), was located below the temple, and gave access to the sea road, and some of the stone blocks are still visible on the site. The fifth (E), was on the present site of the castle (Castello Ruspoli), and also opened towards the sea. The sixth (F), and the seventh (G), were both on the south cliff, giving access to the Sorbo and Monte Abetone Necropoli, as well as the areas to the south of the city. The Etruscans built a significant network of roads between their cities, and most of these roads were improved by the Romans, and are still in use today. Both the VIA CLODIA and the initial part of the VIA AURELIA were first laid out by the Etruscans. The Via Clodia runs from the Tiber crossings in Rome to Sovana, in the area of Lake Bolsena. The Aurelia is the coastal road which became a Consular road in the second century B.C. In the city area there have been no regular excavations carried out, but only sporadic probings, notably those done by Mengarelli in the 20's in the area of the sports field, where he found traces of a temple dedicated to HERA, and on a cliff above the Manganello, where a structure was found, probably another temple, of unknown dedication . Other excavations were carried out in the last century near the remains of the theatre, uncovering a number of marble slabs of the Roman period, of enormous importance, with allegorical images of each of the major Etruscan cities. These slabs are now preserved in the Gregorian Etruscan Museum in the Vatican. The structures in which they were found are classified as being Roman. The Necropolis Areas The great development of ancient Caere is shown by the number and wealth of the tombs discovered in its necropolis. The Necropoli of Cerveteri include the Banditaccia, Sorbo, Cava della Pozzolana, Groppie di San Antonio and Monte Abetone. The Bandittacia represents one of the most interesting archaeological areas in the whole of the Mediterranean. In the 5th century BCE, a real city of the dead rose up with streets intersecting at right angles and areas devoted to worship. The tombs are more modest than in the previous period: the chambers are small and the style has become standardized. Only in the last centuries was there a return to the underground tombs with a complex floor plan, the symbol of a return to power by the aristocracy. The tomb treasures include many bronze and silver objects, refined gold jewellery, vases of local production, including the famous bucchero ware and others imported from Greece and painted terracotta objects including votive figures and heads. Pyrgi was one of the ports of the city of Caere, lying about eight miles away and was very famous for its sacred area, which was visited by Phoenicians and Etruscans alike. Archaeological excavations have brought to light the remains of two sanctuaries dedicated to Uni and the Phoenician goddess Astarte (Western form of Ishtar). The more ancient can be dated around the 6th century BC, whilst the more recent dates back to the middle of the 5th century BC. The Pyrgi lamellae, a series of three inscriptions on rolls of gold foil (Two in Etruscan and one on Phoenician) were discovered during the excavation of the older sanctuary, and describe a tyrant named Thefarie Velianas, who ruled over Caere at this time. This was about the time of the great alliance between the Etruscans and the Phoenicians which led to the purging of the Greeks from Corsica, and the Phoenician conquest of greek settlements in Sardinia. The joint consecration of the temple by both sides of the alliance in the Pyrgi inscriptions agrees well with historical traditions in that respect. The fragments of a mythological high relief which decorated the fronton of the more recent temple, and the three gold lamellae are on display in Rome at the Villa Giulia Museum. Cerveteri is about 50 km North West of Rome. From Fiumicino Airport, you can drive North along the Highway (allow about 20 minutes - Toll section). If you are relying on Public transport, head for Lepanto metro station and take a blue 'Cotral' bus (destination Ladispoli/ Cerveteri). If returning to Rome, buy a 'BIRG' ticket, which will cost about 4 Euros. The trip to Cerveteri takes about 40 minutes. Get off at Cerveteri, which is the terminus. The terminus is next to the museum, located in the Castello Ruspoli, an imposing 11th Century castle. There is accommodation available in Cerveteri, Ladispoli or Civitavecchia (further afield to the North), contact details below. Very few Italian hotels have refrigerator or air conditioning. It is important to check. Some will not accept credit cards, and will require a cash advance to confirm bookings. From the piazza in Cerveteri, allow about 30 minutes (hilly) walk to the Banditaccia necropolis, or there is a tourist bus which leaves infrequently. Check with the tourist information centre. Some Useful Contact Numbers	3.297162
Ensuring that the food provided to children in schools is consistent with current dietary recommendations is an important national focus. Various laws and regulations govern the operation of school meal programs. In 1995, Nutrition Standards and Meal Requirements were put in place to ensure that all meals offered would be high in nutritional quality. School Meals reviews and provides recommendations to update the nutrition standard and the meal requirements for the National School Breakfast and Lunch Programs. The recommendations reflect new developments in nutrition science, increase the availability of key food groups in the school meal programs, and allow these programs to better meet the nutritional needs of children, foster healthy eating habits, and safeguard children's health. School Meals sets standards for menu planning that focus on food groups, calories, saturated fat, and sodium and that incorporate Dietary Guidelines for Americans and the Dietary Reference Intakes. This book will be used as a guide for school food authorities, food producers, policy leaders, state/local governments, and parents.	3.304361
The following HTML text is provided to enhance online readability. Many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to HTML. Please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. DRI Dietary Reference Intakes Calcium Vitamin D SOURCES OF CALCIUM Ingested calcium comes from food sources and dietary supplements. In this report dietary calcium refers to both food sources and supplements combined (although some researchers reserve the term dietary calcium to mean only food sources) and is most often referred to as total calcium intake for clarity. With more than one-half of the U.S. population (Bailey et al., 2010)—and between 24 and 60 percent of Canadians (2004 Canadian Community Health Survey, personal communication, D. Brulé, Health Canada, April 29, 2010)—reporting use of dietary supplements of some type, dietary supplements must be taken into account when considering the sources of calcium in the diet and, in turn, estimating total calcium intake. Current estimates from 2003 to 2006 indicate that the median total intake of calcium from all sources for persons > 1 year of age ranges from 918 to 1,296 mg/day, depending upon life stage (Bailey et al., 2010). Only small amounts of calcium are contributed by water, depending upon geographic location. Chapter 7 of this report contains an assessment of quantitative calcium intake in the U.S. and Canadian populations. Calcium is classically associated with dairy products; milk, yogurt, and cheese are rich sources of calcium, providing the major share of calcium from foods in the general diet in the United States and Canada. In the United States, an estimated 72 percent of calcium comes from milk, cheese and yogurt and from foods to which dairy products have been added (e.g., pizza, lasagna, dairy desserts). The remaining calcium comes from vegetables (7 percent); grains (5 percent); legumes (4 percent); fruit (3 percent); meat, poultry, and fish (3 percent); eggs (2 percent); and miscellaneous foods (3 percent).1 Similar data from Canada are not currently available. Fortification with calcium for a number of foods that do not naturally contribute calcium—such as orange juice, other beverages, and ready-to-eat cereals—is becoming commonplace in the United States (Calvo et al., 2004; Rafferty et al., 2007; Poliquin et al., 2009). These practices challenge the ability of national food composition databases, such as those maintained by U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), to keep abreast of these newer products and may result in some underestimation of actual calcium intake from food sources. However, for those persons who choose such foods, total calcium intake is increased.	3.414818
The following HTML text is provided to enhance online readability. Many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to HTML. Please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. DRI DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES FOR Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride average of 61 mg [2 mmol]/day or 5 percent of the total intake) when intakes were calculated using USDA's nutrient database (Pennington and Wilson, 1990). Because of the uncertainty about phosphorus values for processed foods in nutrient databases, trends in phosphorus intake may be difficult to ascertain. Daily intakes of women aged 19 to 50 years from USDA 's national surveys averaged 965 mg (31.1 mmol) in 1977, 1,039 mg (33.5 mmol) in 1985, and 1,022 mg (33.0 mmol) in 1994 (Cleveland et al., 1996; USDA, 1985). Thus, it appears that intakes from foods increased about 8 percent between 1977 and 1985, but then decreased slightly between 1985 and 1994. Food supply data show a larger increase in phosphorus consumption: 12 percent from 1980 through 1994 (from 1,480 to 1,680 mg [47.7 to 54.2 mmol]/day per capita) (USDA, 1997). However, disappearance data may be unreliable for detecting trends because phosphate additives (such as those in cola beverages) are not included. Disappearance data on phosphorus-containing additives show that the use of these additives has increased by 17 percent over the last decade (Calvo, 1993). These figures also do not reflect actual consumption, because not all phosphates included in disappearance data are actually consumed, (for example, blends of sodium tripolyphosphate and sodium hexametaphosphate are used in brines for curing meat, but the brine is rinsed off and not consumed). Nevertheless, taken together, these data suggest a substantial increase in phosphorus consumption, in the range of 10 to 15 percent, over the past 20 years. Food Sources of Phosphorus Phosphates are found in foods as naturally occurring components of biological molecules and as food additives in the form of various phosphate salts. These salts are used in processed foods for nonnutrient functions, such as moisture retention, smoothness, and binding. In infants, dietary intake of phosphorus spans a wide range, depending on whether the food is human milk, cow milk, adapted cow milk formula, or soy formula (see Table 5-2). Moreover, the phosphorus concentration of human milk declines with progressing lactation, especially between 4 and 25 weeks of lactation (Atkinson et al., 1995). By contrast, more of the variation in dietary intake of phosphorus in adults is due to differences in total food intake and less to differences in food composition. Phosphorus contents of adult diets average about 62 mg (2 mmol)/100 kcal in both sexes (Carroll et al., 1983), and phosphorus:energy ratios exhibit a coefficient of variation of only	3.023335
Health officials on alert for tick fever By Cindy Yurth WINDOW ROCK, May 24, 2012 S ummer is almost here, which means the Navajo Nation Veterinary and Livestock Program is once again bracing for an epidemic the Navajo Nation has managed to avoid for several years through, near as anybody can tell, sheer luck. Since 2003, Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever has been identified in Arizona. There have been 194 cases and 17 deaths - all Native Americans living on three reservations near Phoenix, and mostly children under eight years old. Glenda Davis, head of the Veterinary and Livestock Program, says it's no mystery why Arizona's Natives are most susceptible to the sometimes fatal disease. "It's our culture," she said. "We think we have to let our dogs run free." The bacterium that causes spotted fever, Rickettsia rickettsii, is transmitted by ticks, and ticks are transmitted by dogs. For years, it was thought that only three species of tick - the deer tick, the Rocky Mountain wood tick and the Lone Star tick - carried the bacterium. But lately, it has turned up in the brown dog tick. That's the extremely common tick that, unless you regularly treat your dog for ticks and fleas, is probably sucking blood from him right now. If an infected tick bites your dog, Davis explained, the bacterium gets into the animal's bloodstream, where it can infect the next tick that sucks its blood. If that tick then bites you or your child, it transmits the bacterium to you through its blood-thinning saliva. If you're lucky, you will soon exhibit the classic spotted rash that characterizes Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. Your physician will recognize it and give you doxycycline, and you will start to recover in a few days. But many victims don't exhibit the rash. Instead, they will have flu-like symptoms such as body aches, respiratory problems and nausea. It's quite possible their doctor will tell them they have a flu virus, and send them home with a prescription of aspirin and bed rest. In eight days, their organs will start shutting down and they could die or be left with permanent neurological symptoms. Since the Phoenix area tribes are plagued by stray dogs and many pet owners don't believe in confining their pets, the disease has spread rapidly - from 13 cases in 2004 to around 50 last year. The only mystery, Davis said, is why it hasn't shown up in humans on Navajo, where an estimated 250,000 to 400,000 dogs are running free, and most have ticks. According to Davis, the Centers for Disease Control sampled blood from dogs in all the Navajo Nation animal shelters in 2005, and found rickettsii in Shiprock and Crownpoint. That has given the Navajo Nation some lead time in preparing for a possible outbreak. Davis said her program has alerted the IHS, the community health representatives and the Navajo Housing Authority to be on the lookout for tick infestations and humans or animals exhibiting symptoms of the disease. But, as with any health problem, the bottom line is personal responsibility. "This is a very, very preventable disease," she said, "but we have to change our cultural outlook." The best thing an individual family can do, Davis said, is to stay away from ticks. Check yourself and your children daily for the insects and tweeze them out straight up if you find them. Don't crush them to death with a thumbnail - if they're gorged with infected blood, you may just be spreading the bacterium. Instead, drop them into a bottle of alcohol or bleach. Once you've been bitten, watch carefully for flu-like symptoms and rush to the doctor if you suspect tick fever. Be sure to tell your physician you've had a tick bite so he doesn't dismiss the symptoms as an ordinary flu. Here are some other tips: Treat all your dogs for ticks and fleas, and don't let them roam at large where they can mingle with strays Wash pet and human bedding frequently and dry in dryer (but be aware this isn't a cure - in some life stages, ticks can survive a trip through both the washer and dryer) Keep pet and human sleeping areas separate Don't stack wood against your house Use an insect repellent with DEET when you go outdoors in the summer, or before handling tick-infested pets If you suspect you have a tick infestation in your home, have it professionally fumigated Trim back thick vegetation around your home, and drain standing water (ticks can go weeks without feeding on blood, but need regular drinks of water) Don't leave old mattresses or couches outdoors for summer sleeping - ticks love hiding out in old upholstery Spay or neuter your pet to prevent overpopulation and more roaming strays Turn unwanted pets over to Animal Control rather than releasing them to fend for themselves In the meantime, arm yourself with education. The NNVLP can provide plenty of written material, or a training seminar for your chapter, church or housing unit. If everyone is on the alert, it could mean the difference between an epidemic on Navajo and a disease that - so far - we've only heard about.	3.045393
WebMD Medical News Brunilda Nazario, MD Jan. 25, 2012 -- Working 11-hour days may seem the norm in this economy, but regularly logging long hours can more than double a worker’s risk of depression. People who routinely put in more than 11-hour days more than double their chances of major depression, compared to employees who typically work about eight hours a day, a new study suggests. Long workdays take a physical toll on the body, but there's been mixed evidence of their effects on the brain. And little is known about the link between long work hours and depression. This research looked at more than 2,000 British civil servants who had no mental health problems when the study began in 1991, and whose average age was 47. About six years later, 66 cases of major depression were found in the workers after they received mental health screenings. Men and women who worked more than 11-hour days had a more than twofold increased risk of depression, compared to public employees who spent less than eight hours at the office. The civil servants who were more likely to become depressed were typically younger females in lower job grades who used alcohol moderately and also had a chronic disease. The research appears in the online journal PLoS ONE. A variety of genetic, physical, and emotional factors can make a person vulnerable to depression. At the workplace, the prolonged stress felt by people with long hours is one of the contributing factors to depression. "Long working hours are likely to be related to less time to relax and less sleep," says study researcher Marianna Virtanen, PhD. She is a team leader of the Work and Mental Health team at the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health in Helsinki. "It is also possible that excessive working hours result in problems with close relationships, which in turn, may trigger depression," Virtanen says. The current economic climate has millions of people working extremely long hours -- or holding two or three jobs just to make ends meet. Many of us are working too much. So how can you tell if all those hours are affecting your mood? Some warning signs for depression include trouble sleeping, feeling stressed, being irritable and dissatisfied, or lacking pleasure in those things that usually make you happy. You may also make more mistakes on the job, or have trouble getting organized or concentrating. Workaholics are not immune to depression, but Virtanen suspects it might take them longer to develop depression because they probably find their jobs more rewarding than people who may be forced to put in longer hours. Although this research was done in the 1990s, these days technology tethers us even closer to our jobs. "Work is no longer so much tied to time and place," Virtanen says. "This may make some people feel highly attached to their work tasks outside of their usual working hours." Although the study only looked at public employees in white-collar jobs, it's unclear if similar results would be found in blue-collar or private-sector workers. Of course, working long hours is not the only reason people become depressed, but the study raises awareness that it can play a role, says Randy Auerbach, PhD, who researches depression at McLean Hospital in Belmont, Mass. Auerbach said the number of cases of depression found were reasonable for this population, and that the researchers did a good job accounting for other factors that may contribute to depression, such as economic status, alcohol use, social support, and gender. The reality is that employees are often driven to work more to hold on to the job and income they have. If it doesn't seem feasible to cut back on your hours, Auerbach says, then ask yourself, "What can I do to put my mental and physical well-being first?" Longer work hours could result in less time with your loved ones and less time to invest in your self-care. Sleep often slides, as do plans to exercise and eat healthy foods. Time with family and friends may take a back seat. Yet these are many of the healthy ways that buffer against stress and let people blow off steam. "It's important to have periods with less pressure at work and shorter hours," Virtanen says. Her other tips for work-life balance include making a distinction between work and leisure, not skipping your vacation time, and taking care of your health, especially sleep and exercise. SOURCES:Virtanen, M. PLoS One, published online Jan. 25, 2012.Marianna Virtanen, PhD, team leader, Work and Mental Health team, Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland.Randy Auerbach, PhD, instructor, department of psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston. The Health News section does not provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. See additional information.	3.029044
The Japanese do not just dream of perfect ski slopes, they are developing the technology to produce them. Six Japanese companies have carried out 'extensive research' to provide artificial snow for Japan's skiers when nature fails to fill the need (European patents 440 256 and 440 257). Existing snow machines only work properly at very low ambient temperatures; otherwise they just produce slush. The new trick is to use granules of polymer, such as polyacrylic acid salts, which absorb a large volume of water. The snow makers then mix the bloated polymer with natural snow, if available, or other artificial snow. Finally they freeze the mixture. Ice bridges form between the polymer granules and snow crystals to make good snow for skiing. The companies have tried colouring the snow with dyes and adding perfume, so that the snow smells nice as well as looking good. To continue reading this article, subscribe to receive access to all of newscientist.com, including 20 years of archive content.	3.063128
Geneva Conventions (1949) The Geneva Conventions consist of four treaties formulated in Geneva, Switzerland, that set the standards for international law for humanitarian concerns. They chiefly concern the treatment of non-combatants and prisoners of war. They do not affect the use of weapons in war, which are covered by the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 and the Geneva Protocol on the use of gas and biological weapons of 1925. They were founded by two young men—Henry Dunant, founder of the Red Cross movement and Gustave Moynier, a co-founder—who cordially loathed each other. The role of the Red Cross and Red Crescent, a voluntary humanitarian organization as a non-state actor in monitoring the treatment of prisoners of war, and the conduct of war according to international law, is an example of how civil society, because it is sometimes more neutral than states, can play a pivotal part in helping to create a better, more humane world. The Conventions were the results of efforts by Henry Dunant, who was motivated by the horrors of war he witnessed at the Battle of Solferino in 1859. The adoption of the First Convention followed the foundation of the International Committee of the Red Cross whose founder, Henry Dunant, initiated international negotiations that produced the Convention for the Amelioration of the Wounded in Time of War in 1864. Because some belligerents in World War II had abused the principles contained in earlier conventions, an International Red Cross conference in Stockholm in 1948 extended and codified the existing provisions. The conference developed four conventions, which were approved in Geneva on August 12, 1949. In the decades following World War II, the large number of anticolonial and insurrectionary wars threatened to render the Geneva Conventions obsolete. After four years of Red Cross-sponsored negotiations, two additional protocols to the 1949 conventions, covering both combatants and civilians, were approved in 1977. As per article 49, 50, 129 and 146 of the Geneva Conventions I, II, III and IV, respectively, all signatory states are required to enact sufficient national laws that make grave violations of the Geneva Conventions a punishable criminal offense, this is what created the international criminal court. More than 180 states have become parties to the 1949 conventions. Approximately 150 states are party to Protocol I; more than 145 states are party to Protocol II, though the United States is not. In addition, more than 50 states have made declarations accepting the competence of international fact-finding commissions to investigate allegations of grave breaches or other serious violations of the conventions or of Protocol I. The conventions and their agreements - First Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field" (first adopted in 1864, last revision in 1949) - Second Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea" (first adopted in 1949, successor of the 1907 Hague Convention X) - Third Geneva Convention "relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War" (first adopted in 1929, last revision in 1949) - Fourth Geneva Convention "relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War" (first adopted in 1949, based on parts of the 1907 Hague Convention IV) In addition, there are three additional amendment protocols to the Geneva Convention: - Protocol I (1977): Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts. As of January 12, 2007, it had been ratified by 167 countries. - Protocol II (1977): Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts. As of January 12, 2007, it had been ratified by 163 countries. - Protocol III (2005): Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949, and relating to the Adoption of an Additional Distinctive Emblem. As of June 2007 it had been ratified by 17 countries and signed but not yet ratified by an additional 68 countries. All four conventions were last revised and ratified in 1949, based on previous revisions and partly on some of the 1907 Hague Conventions; the whole set is referred to as the "Geneva Conventions of 1949" or simply the "Geneva Conventions." Later conferences have added provisions prohibiting certain methods of warfare and addressing issues of civil wars. Nearly all 200 countries of the world are "signatory" nations, in that they have ratified these conventions. Clara Barton was instrumental in campaigning for the ratification of the First Geneva Convention by the United States; the U.S. signed in 1882. By the Fourth Geneva Convention some 47 nations had ratified the agreements. Other Geneva Conventions Other conventions of the United Nations taking place in Geneva and agreements signed there have become part of international and national laws, but are not to be confused with the above-mentioned treaties though they may be referred to as "Geneva Conventions." These include the Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone, the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1951) and Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees (1967), and others. Extent of Provisions War on Terror The war against terror following the attack on the Twin Towers of New York's World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, has raised issues regarding the classification of prisoners. The United States classified many detainees in its facility at Guantanamo Bay as "illegal combatants" and argued that the terms of the Geneva Convention apply only to those individuals who abide by the rules of law. The ICRC, which has visited the camp and also Amnesty International, have argued that the detainees deserve the full protection of the Geneva Conventions, but the U.S.'s position was that that only some of the provisions of the Convention apply. Following a ruling by the Supreme Court of the United States in June 2006 rejecting the use of "special tribunals" to try detainees, and called for the application of the rule of law and conformity with the Geneva Conventions. Subsequently, the U.S. government announced that it would treat all prisoners captured during the war on terror according to the Geneva Conventions. On the one hand, some argue that the war on terror requires a revision of international humanitarian law to deal with changed circumstances, in which non-state actors do not follow the rules of war. On the other hand, the Supreme Court's ruling has been hailed as a vindication of the Geneva Convention's effectiveness. West Bank and Gaza One of the most debated issues surrounds the applicability of the Geneva Conventions to the West bank and Gaza strip following the Israeli occupation. Article two states that "The Convention shall also apply to all cases of partial or total occupation of the territory of a High Contracting Party, even if the said occupation meets with no armed resistance." The United Nations determined in 1979 that the Geneva Conventions do apply but this has been rejected by Israel, which hold that "the Fourth Geneva Convention is not applicable to the occupied territories." The International Court of Justice has ruled that the Convention does apply, which again can be interpreted as a vindication of the extent of the provisions of the Conventions. - Human rights - Red Cross - Laws of war - War crime - ↑ The text is given at the ICRC website, Resolutions of the Geneva International Conference Retrieved February 7, 2008. - ↑ Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949, State Parties, Signatories Geneva Conventions of August 12, 1949, Parties / Signatories Retrieved February 7, 2008. - ↑ Texts of all related documents available at the ICRC, 1949 Conventions and 1977 Protocols Retrieved February 7, 2008. - ↑ Charles Lane, "High Court Rejects Detainee Tribunals." Washington Post, June 30, 2006, High Court Rejects Detainee Tribunals Retrieved February 7, 2008. - ↑ "The Question of the Observance of the Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 in Gaza and the West Bank," United Nations, January 1, 1979, The Question of the Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949 in Gaza and the West Bank Retrieved February 7, 2008. - ↑ "Consider Geneva pact, Israel told," BBC News, August 24, 2004, Consider Geneva pact, Israel told Retrieved February 7, 2008. - Bennett, Angela. 2005. The Geneva Convention the hidden origins of the Red Cross. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton. ISBN 9780750941471 - Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts, and Howard S. Levie. Protection of War Victims Protocol 1 to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Oceana Publications, 1979. ISBN 9780379007862 - Jinks, Derek. 2005. The rules of war: the Geneva Conventions in the age of terror. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195183627 - Levie, Howard S. The Law of Non-International Armed Conflict Protocol II to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. Scientific collection of the Henry Dunant Institute. Dordrecht: M. Nijhoff, 1987. ISBN 9789024734917 - Roth, Kenneth, Minky Worden, and Amy D. Bernstein. 2005. Torture - does it make us safer? is it ever OK?: a human rights perspective. New York: New Press. ISBN 9781595580573 All Links Retrieved February 7, 2008. - Texts and commentaries of 1949 Conventions & Additional Protocols - ICRC overview of the Geneva Conventions - Reference Guide to the Geneva Conventions - www.SupportGenevaConventions.info: Coalition for re-affirming and extending the Geneva Conventions New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.	3.892834
About this product: This graphic shows an approximate representation of coastal areas under a hurricane warning (red), hurricane watch (pink), tropical storm warning (blue) and tropical storm watch (yellow). The orange circle indicates the current position of the center of the tropical cyclone. The black line and dots show the National Hurricane Center (NHC) forecast track of the center at the times indicated. The dot indicating the forecast center location will be black if the cyclone is forecast to be tropical and will be white with a black outline if the cyclone is forecast to be extratropical. If only an L is displayed, then the system is forecast to be a remnant low. The letter inside the dot indicates the NHC's forecast intensity for that time: D: Tropical Depression – wind speed less than 39 MPH S: Tropical Storm – wind speed between 39 MPH and 73 MPH H: Hurricane – wind speed between 74 MPH and 110 MPH M: Major Hurricane – wind speed greater than 110 MPH NHC tropical cyclone forecast tracks can be in error. This forecast uncertainty is conveyed by the track forecast "cone", the solid white and stippled white areas in the graphic. The solid white area depicts the track forecast uncertainty for days 1-3 of the forecast, while the stippled area depicts the uncertainty on days 4-5. Historical data indicate that the entire 5-day path of the center of the tropical cyclone will remain within the cone about 60-70% of the time. To form the cone, a set of imaginary circles are placed along the forecast track at the 12, 24, 36, 48, 72, 96, and 120 h positions, where the size of each circle is set so that it encloses 67% of the previous five years official forecast errors. The cone is then formed by smoothly connecting the area swept out by the set of circles. There is also uncertainty in the NHC intensity forecasts. The Maximum 1-minute Wind Speed Probability Table provides intensity forecast and uncertainty information. It is also important to realize that a tropical cyclone is not a point. Their effects can span many hundreds of miles from the center. The area experiencing hurricane force (one-minute average wind speeds of at least 74 mph) and tropical storm force (one-minute average wind speeds of 39-73 mph) winds can extend well beyond the white areas shown enclosing the most likely track area of the center. The distribution of hurricane and tropical storm force winds in this tropical cyclone can be seen in the Wind History graphic linked above. Considering the combined forecast uncertainties in track, intensity, and size, the chances that any particular location will experience winds of 34 kt (tropical storm force), 50 kt, or 64 kt (hurricane force) from this tropical cyclone are presented in tabular form for selected locations and forecast positions. This information is also presented in graphical form for the 34 kt, 50 kt, and 64 kt thresholds. Note: A detailed definition of the NHC track forecast cone is also available.	3.008959
1. Loopback Test A loopback test can be used to troubleshoot serial communications. It can show problems in the serial port, the cable, or the software generating the messages without having to connect to third party hardware. By connecting the proper wires, a loopback test can verify the operation of serial communication. Loopback tests can be used for RS-232, RS-422, and RS-485 serial communication. For more information on RS-232, RS-422, and RS-485 see the Serial Communication Overview. Note that not all serial devices, especially those with many connections on one card, allow hardware flow control on every serial output of the device. To perform a loopback test for RS-232, the TXD pin must be connected to the RXD pin. This allows the data to flow from the transmit to the receive pins. Since the communication is differential for RS-422 and RS-485, the TXD+ connects to the RXD+ and the TXD- connects to the RXD- pins. A more advanced loopback test that allows hardware flow control will need more pins connected to allow the flow control signals to be properly passed. For RS-232, the CTS and RTS pins must be connected along with the DTR and DSR pins. For RS-422 and RS-485, CTS+ should be connected to RTS+ and CTS- should be connected to RTS-. For more information about National Instrument’s serial interfaces, visit ni.com/serial. DE-9 (DB9) Connector The DE-9 connector is the most common serial connector. This connector is found on National Instrument’s one and two port serial interfaces. Figure 1: Pinout diagram for DE-9 Connector To perform a loopback test with no hardware flow control, you will need to connect pins 2 and 3 for RS-232 and pins 4 to 8 and 5 to 9 for RS-422/485. These connections can be seen in red below (figure 2 for RS-232 and figure 3 for RS-422/485). When using hardware flow control, you will need to connect pins 4 to 6 and 7 to 8 for RS-232. Pins 7 and 8 are used for RTS/CTS hardware flow control where pins 4 and 6 are used for DTR/DSR hardware flow control. For RS-422/485, you will need to connect pins 2 to 3 and 6 to 7. Both of these connections are required for RTS/CTS hardware flow control since RS-422/485 have differential connections. These connections can be seen in blue below (figure 2 for RS-232 and figure 3 for RS-422/485). Figure 2: RS-232 female DE-9 plug with connections required for loopback test Figure 3: RS-422/485 female DE-9 plug with connections required for loopback test This connector is not as common as the DE-9 connector. This connector can still be used to perform a loopback test with a method similar to the one used for the DE-9 connector. Figure 4: Pinout diagram for DB-25 Connector Most of the pins on DB-25 connectors are not connected since only nine pins are used for RS-232, RS-422, and RS-485 communication. To perform a loopback test with no hardware flow control with a DB-25 connector, connect pins 2 to 3 for RS-232. For RS-422/485 connect pins 5 to 20 and 7 to 22. The required connections can be seen in red on figures 5 and 6. For hardware flow control using RS-232, pins 4 and 5 must be connected along with pins 6 and 20. When using RS-422/485, pin 5 must connect to pin 20 and pin 7 must connect to pin 22. This will allow the loopback test to use the proper flow control lines. These connections can be seen in blue on figures 5 and 6. Figure 5: RS-232 female DB-25 plug with connections required for loopback test Figure 6: RS-422/485 female DB-25 plug with connections required for loopback test 10P10C (RJ50) Connector This connector is most commonly found on National Instrument’s 4 port serial interfaces. The National Instrument 4 port serial interfaces come with 4 10P10C to DE-9 male converter cables. Figure 7: Pinout diagram for RJ50 Connector It is not recommended to use the 10P10C connector by itself to perform a loopback test due to the small separation between pins. Using a 10P10C to DE-9 connector (Part Number 192190-01), a looback test can be performed using the methods described above. 3. Performing a Loopback Test in Hyperterminal 1. Create a new connection with any name and icon. 2. Select the communications port you would like to test 3. Select the type of flow control you would like to use. Note that Xon / Xoff is software flow control and will only require that the TXD and RXD pins to be connected. 4. Type a message using the computer's keyboard. Any data that shows in Hyperterminal is received from the device. 4. Performing a Loopback test in Measurement & Automation Explorer 1. Open Measurement & Automation Explorer and select the communications port you would like to use. 2. Ensure the proper settings are selected for flow control. 3. Save the settings by selecting the Save button then select the Open VISA Test Panel button 4. On the Write tab, type the message you would like to send (followed by a \n) then select Execute 5. On the Read tab, select Execute and verify the message 5. Performing a Loopback test in LabVIEW Note: For a free evaluation copy of LabVIEW, visit ni.com/trylabview 1. Start LabVIEW 2. Select Help»Find Examples... 3. Browse to Hardware Input and Output»Serial»Basic Serial Write and Read.vi 4. Ensure the proper settings are selected, enter the string you would like to write in the "string to write" box, and then select the white run arrow on the toolbar.	3.312461
Abstract - Introduction of Prescribed Burning to Wind Cave National Park Lovaas, Allan L. 1976. Introduction of Prescribed Burning to Wind Cave National Park. The Wildlife Society Bulletin 4. pp. 69-73. Because of the poor fire control reputation at Wind Cave National Park, due to heavy fuels and past conflagrations, initiation of prescribed burning was prudently delayed until 3 years after prescribed burning was introduced into the Black Hills in 1970 by other agencies. The introduction provoked minimal negative public reaction, although a fire that escaped immediate control was widely publicized. The success of the introduction to the Black Hills and the park was attributed to the unity of the land management agencies, effective public relations, participation by ranchers, and control of the burns. Citation from J. Studdendieck & G. Wilson, "An Identification of Prairie in National Park Units in the Great Plains," p. 173, NPS 1986 (BEOL). Did You Know? The scientific name for the Stemless Hymenoxys is Hymemoxys acaulis. Acaulis means "stemless" and referes to the leafless stalks which bear the flower heads. More...	3.081415
The Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority (NRPA) is the competent national authority in the area of radiation protection and nuclear safety in Norway. The NRPA was created in 1993 through the consolidation of the former Nuclear Energy Safety Authority with the National institute of Radiation Hygiene. The NRPA is responsible for: - overseeing the use of radioactive substances and fissile material - coordinating contingency plans against nuclear accidents and radioactive fallout - monitoring natural and artificial radiation in the environment and at the workplace - increasing our knowledge of the occurrence, risk and effects of radiation The Radiation Protection Authority is organized under the ministry of Health and Care Services. It provides assistance to all ministries on matters dealing with radiation, radiation protection and nuclear safety.	3.158279
- Dietary Supplements - Health Conditions - Healthy Nutrition - Cardiovascular Health - Skin Care - Natural Remedies Blood Sugar as One of Blurred Vision Causes – Updated Article With Extra Information Diabetes is a disease with many side effects. Many people refer to diabetes as the ‘slow poison’. It causes a lot misbalance in life, affecting the whole body of the sufferer. Diabetes occurs when the sugar level in the blood is too high and remains untreated for a very long time. When the sugar level is too low, hypoglycemia may result. This usually occurs when a person is suffering from diabetes and has taken too many diabetic medicines or has injected too much insulin. Hypoglycemia is more dangerous than hyperglycemia. The treatment for someone with hypoglycemia is typically address in a temporary situation, by providing the patient with something that contains higher glucose (ie: orange juice). Blurred vision in diabetes is caused by hyperglycemia which is higher levels of sugar in the body. Some of the symptoms of high blood sugar are frequent urination, increased hunger and thirst, lethargy and headache. If a person is suffering from any of these symptoms he or she should immediately contact the doctor. Diabetes is a major culprit for blurred vision or even vision loss. Studies have shown that if you are diabetic, you have 25 times more chance than a non sufferer of losing your sight. This disorder is known as diabetic retinopathy. Retinopathy has two types; non-proliferative and proliferative. Non-proliferative retinopathy is associated with the early stages of the disorder. It causes the small retinal blood vessels to break and leak. It does not call for any medical action unless the central vision of a diabetic person becomes hazy, or if straight lines appear curved. Proliferative retinopathy is a severe disorder. It causes the unusual growth of retinal blood vessels inside the eye which leads to bleeding. If not detected and treated in the early stages this disorder can even cause blindness. Blood sugar is a chronic disease and it affects each and every organ of the body which is why it is referred to as the ‘slow poison’. If diabetes has not been diagnosed yet in a person, then blurred eye vision may come and go as the sugar level will increase and decrease, but once a person experiences this he or she should not take it lightly. They should immediately consult a doctor and get the necessary tests done. If you delay and do not see a doctor, the sugar levels will damage the blood vessels which are in the back of your eye. The longer diabetes remains undiagnosed the higher the chances of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetics can lead normal, constructive lives and if the diet is monitored carefully, will not experience any eye problems. Since the body of the diabetic processes sugars differently, the intake of anything that contains glucose or that converts to sugars during digestion should be maintained. A combination of diet and medication can keep vision problems as well as circulatory problems that are associated with diabetes from afflicting the patient. For the original article, go to, click hereClick here to discuss this article on forum. The information supplied in this article is not to be considered as medical advice and is for educational purposes only. \|Diabetes Prevention19 Nov 2010\|	3.134723
Neha Vapiwala, MD Updated by Christine Hill-Kayser, MD Abramson Cancer Center of the University of Pennsylvania Last Modified: March 22, 2012 Sarcoma is a general medical term that refers to any cancer of the bone, muscle, or other connective tissue, such as cartilage and tendons. Sarcoma has sometimes been defined as a "tumor of fleshy consistence", made up of cells similar to those of the growing fetus, but without proper development. Sarcomas can occur in both children and adults, both males and females. In fact, there are many different types of sarcomas, depending on where the cancer cells grow and how they appear under a microscope. These different types are in turn associated with different clinical behavior, which naturally influences how they are treated. Rhabdomyosarcoma is the most common type of soft tissue sarcoma found in children. It is still a rare cancer overall, accounting for about 3.5% of all childhood cancers. About 250 new cases of rhabdomyosarcoma are diagnosed in the United States every year. The name itself comes from a combination of 3 smaller words: rhabdo means "rod-shaped", myo is muscle, and sarcoma is the type of cancer, as described above. Rhabdomysarcoma cells tend to look rod-shaped under a microscope, and they have several features of muscle cells. Normally, as a fetus develops in the womb, cells called rhabdomyoblasts "grow up" to become the skeletal muscles of the body. When these cells do not mature correctly, but continue to multiply abnormally, a rhabdomyosarcoma results. Rhabdomyosarcomas can occur essentially anywhere in the body, but usually occur in the head, neck, bladder, vagina, extremities and the trunk. Over 85% of all rhabdomyosarcomas occur in infants, children, and teenagers. There is no specific geographic location or racial background that has been associated with higher rates of rhabdomyosarcoma. However, Asian and black children have a lower annual incidence than do white children. There also appears to be a male predominance, as boys are about 1.5 times more likely than girls to get rhabdomyosarcoma. It is known that rhabdomyosarcomas are associated with specific chromosomal abnormalities. The exact cause of these mutations, however, is not known. Some children who develop rhabdomyosarcomas also have congenital anomalies of various organ systems (abnormal development of heart, gut, brain, etc). The risk of rhabdomyosarcoma may be elevated for children who also have certain rare genetic disorders, such as neurofibromatosis type 1. Unlike many adult cancers, there are no known definitive environmental conditions that increase the chance of a person developing rhabdomyosarcoma. No connection has ever been found between rhabdomyosarcoma and exposure to toxic substances, environmental pollution, radiation (eg: x-rays during pregnancy), or physical injury (trauma). Not even tobacco smoke has been linked with development of this or any other childhood cancers, although cigarette smoke is clearly and certainly harmful to children in many other ways. No. Just as there are different types of sarcomas, there are different types of rhabdomyosarcomas, as well. The 2 major types of rhabdomyosarcomas are described below. The classification is based on unique microscopic appearance, genetic mutations, and clinical behavior. This is the most common type of rhabdomyosarcoma. It tends to occur in the head and neck, bladder, vagina in girls, and around the prostrate and testes in boys. This type usually affects infants and young children. As the name implies, the cells, as the name implies, have an "embryo-like" appearance, meaning they resemble the developing muscle cells of a 6- to 8-week-old fetus. Embryonal rhabdomyosarcomas have a relatively good to intermediate prognosis depending on other individual aspects of the disease. This type is found more often in large muscles of the trunk, arms, and legs, and typically affects older children or teenagers. It is called alveolar because the cancer cells form little hollow spaces, or "alveoli" (Latin for small hollow spaces). Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma cells resemble the normal muscle cells seen in a 10-week-old fetus. Most alveolar rhabdomyosarcomas have specific genetic mutation, called a 2;13 translocation. Tumor tissue is usually tested for this mutation before a diagnosis of alveolar disease is made. Alveolar rhabdomyosarcomas may be more aggressive than embryonal tumors, and their treatment may be longer and more intense. Again, this depends on individual disease aspects as well as the tumor diagnosis. The answer to this question really depends on the location of the tumor. As mentioned earlier, rhabdomyosarcomas can arise from any skeletal muscle in the body, but the most common sites are the head and neck region, the genitourinary organs (GU), and the extremities. Tumors in the head and/or neck region can cause headaches, nausea, vomiting, visual problems (double vision), facial drooping, and airway obstruction, among other things. Tumors in the GU area can cause blockage of the bladder or bowels, which can be a medical emergency depending on the degree of obstruction. Growths on the extremities can be painful and limit the use and motion of the affected arm or leg. Sometimes, the rhabdomyosarcoma is not diagnosed until after the tumor cells have spread to other parts of the body. The most common areas they spread to are the lungs, bones, bone marrow, and lymph nodes. The workup of these tumors typically includes the following studies: The staging system for rhabdomyosarcoma is very complicated. All rhabdomyosarcomas are assigned a group, a stage, and a risk category. In order for stage to be assigned, the disease must be determined to be in either a "favorable" or an "unfavorable" site. Favorable sites include: All other sites of disease are classified as "unfavorable." Group assignments are made based on the amount of tumor, if any, that is removed surgically. The staging uses the classic TNM system, defined as follows: Treatment of these tumors truly requires a multidisciplinary approach, with important contributions from all 3 major fields of cancer therapy: surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. However, general clinical guidelines that apply to the majority of cases are very difficult to make because rhabdomyosarcomas behave extremely differently, depending on the type and location of involvement. Chemotherapy has been studied extensively in rhabdomyosarcoma patients. Some of the most active and studied chemotherapy drugs include: vincristine (V); actinomycin D (A); cyclophosphamide (C); and doxorubicin (Adr). We know that, even when a rhabdomyosarcoma is completely removed, the child remains at high risk for development of metastatic disease. For this reason, chemotherapy is used for all patients to treat any microscopic cells that may be present in lymph nodes or the bloodstream. With use of aggressive chemotherapy, the risk of metastatic disease is reduced dramatically. In addition to chemotherapy, patients require surgery, radiation, or a combination of these two for a phase of treatment called "ocal control." Although all rhabdomyosarcomas are biopsied surgically at the time of diagnosis, some are then completely removed surgically. Others are mostly or partly removed. Still others can't be removed safely. If the tumor can be removed completely, often only surgery and chemotherapy are employed. If the surgeon or pathologist are concerned that microscopic cells may have been left behind after surgery, either at the tumor margin or in the lymph nodes, post-operative radiation will likely be recommended. If the tumor cannot be removed at all, higher-dose radiation is utilized. Delivery of radiation may be done with x-rays, often using a technique called intensity modulated radiation treatment (IMRT), or with proton therapy. Proton therapy is available at some specialized centers around the world, and may offer advantages during treatment of rhabdomyosarcomas through reduction of radiation to normal, growing tissues. Finally, here are some general facts and treatment guidelines on specific disease sites.	3.896334
\|Sponsored by the HealthcareTrainingInstitute.org providing Quality Education since 1979\| Substance Abuse: Treating the Addicted Teen Client There have been numerous reports that substance abuse is more prevalent among gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents than among their heterosexual counterparts. For example, Remafedi (1987) found that 58% of his small sample of Minneapolis gay and bisexual youth met criteria for substance abuse. Another study found high rates of alcohol abuse (76%), marijuana use (42%), and cocaine/crack use (25%) among a sample of predominantly Hispanic and African-American gay and bisexual males in New York City (Rotheram-Borus et al., 1994). Estimates for substance abuse in heterosexual youth vary widely (and often include sexual minority youth because studies neglect to ask questions about sexual orientation), but estimates are that 4% of youth drink alcohol daily, 33% have had 5 or more drinks at one time within the past two weeks, and more than 90% of high school seniors have experimented with alcohol at some time in their life (Adger, 1991). A recent study that surveyed students in 59 schools in Massachusetts found that gay, lesbian, and bisexual students (who represented 2.5% of the population) were more likely than students who did not report they were gay, lesbian, or bisexual to engage in 24 substance-use related behaviors including using alcohol before age 13 (59% vs. 30%), binge drinking (46% vs. 33%), using marijuana (69% vs. 47%), using cocaine (33% vs. 7%), and sharing needles (16% vs. 1%) (Garofalo et al., 1998). Minimal information exists for substance abuse patterns among lesbian and bisexual female adolescents. However, at least two reports have indicated that similar patterns exist among adult lesbians and adult gay men (Anderson, 1996; Glaus, 1988). McKirnan & Peterson (1989) found slightly lower rates of alcoholism in lesbians than gay men (9% vs. 17%), rates which were similar to those for heterosexual women (7%) and men (21%). These statistics must be interpreted with caution because the youth included in the studies are not a representative sample of sexual minority youth. Rather, they are youth that have been willing to identify themselves as gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender or questioning youth to researchers or participate in some organized activity for sexual minority youth. Furthermore, the samples are predominantly male. It should be noted, as well, that youth with poor coping skills and poor networks of social support are at a greater risk of engaging in self-destructive behavior, regardless of their sexual orientation. Thus, youth with good coping skills will be at less risk of succumbing to substance abuse, even though the stress of "coming out" is great. This is supported by research findings mat many sexual minority youth are engaged in healthy, positive activities (e.g., Jordan, Vaughan, & Woodworth, 1997). Two additional life-threatening issues associated with drug and alcohol abuse are frequent unprotected sexual encounters and suicide attempts. Both of these behaviors have been noted to increase when substance use is present (e.g., Rotheram-Borus et al., 1994). Gibson (1989) reported that as many as 20% to 35% of gay youth have experienced suicidal ideation. Studies have found that substance abuse may be linked to higher levels of suicidal ideation and attempts (Roles, 1983) and that gay-related stressors are more common among adolescents who had attempted suicide than those who had not (Rotheram-Borus, Hunter, & Rosario, 1994). Use of drugs and alcohol may impair judgment and lead youth to engage in more risky sexual behaviors such as sex with multiple partners or unsafe sex practices (Rotheram-Borus et al., 1994). School psychologists are in a unique position to respond to and affect this problem. One growing phenomenon is the presence of gay, lesbian, and bisexual groups or clubs in high schools, often supported by faculty and administration. These groups offer age-appropriate opportunities for socialization and for meeting other gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, questioning, or supportive teens thereby providing social support and furnishing opportunities for developing social skills. In addition, these programs may offer avenues for addressing the prevalent harassment of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, and questioning teens in schools, thereby reducing stimuli for substance abuse. In one study of sexual minority youth in the Chicago area, gay, lesbian, and bisexual high school students reported that school-based groups or clubs for gay, lesbian and bisexual students and straight supportive allies, with administrative support and assistance, were an important part of making the school environment amenable to sexual minority students and alleviating their sense of alienation and differentness (Jordan, Vaughan, & Woodworth, 1997). Reflection Exercise #5 Others who bought this Addictions Course Email yourself a link to this page and start a "Professional Reference Folder of Interventions" for your future use. Or email a link to this page to Mental Health Professionals. No further emails will be sent to them. * Required Field Thanks ahead of time... for paying us the compliment of sharing our information with others! We strive to provide practical quality information and interventions in an affordable and easy to use format.	3.023925
Ankle-Brachial Index Test This test is done by measuring blood pressure at the ankle and in the arm while a person is at rest. Measurements are usually repeated at both sites after 5 minutes of walking on a treadmill. The ankle-brachial index (ABI) result is used to predict the severity of Reference peripheral arterial disease Opens New Window (PAD). A slight drop in your ABI with exercise means that you probably have PAD. This drop may be important, because PAD can be linked to a higher risk of heart attack or stroke. Why It Is Done This test is done to screen for peripheral arterial disease of the legs. It is also used to see how well a treatment is working (such as medical treatment, an exercise program, angioplasty, or surgery). The ABI result can help diagnose peripheral arterial disease (PAD). A lower ABI means you might have PAD. A slight drop in the ABI with exercise, even if you have a normal ABI at rest, means that you probably have PAD. A normal resting ankle-brachial index is 1.0 to 1.4. This means that your blood pressure at your ankle is the same or greater than the pressure at your arm, and suggests that you do not have significant narrowing or blockage of blood flow.Reference 1 An abnormal resting ankle-brachial index is 0.9 or lower. If the ABI is 0.91 to 0.99, it is considered borderline abnormal.Reference 1 What To Think About You may experience leg pain during the treadmill portion of the test if you have peripheral arterial disease (PAD). Undiagnosed arterial disease in the arms can cause inaccurate test results. Blood pressure readings may not be accurate when the blood vessel being measured is hardened by calcium (calcified). Arteries may calcify more than usual if you have Reference diabetes Opens New Window or kidney problems (renal insufficiency). A very abnormal ABI test result may require more testing to determine the location and severity of PAD that might be present. Rooke TW, et al. (2011). 2011 ACCF/AHA Focused update of the guideline for the management of patients with peripheral artery disease (updating the 2005 guideline): A report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 58(19): 2020–2045. \|By:\|\|Reference Healthwise Staff\|\|Last Revised: October 18, 2011\| \|Medical Review:\|\|Reference Rakesh K. Pai, MD, FACC - Cardiology, Electrophysiology Reference David A. Szalay, MD - Vascular Surgery	3.32488
What is craniosynostosis? Craniosynostosis (say "kray-nee-oh-sih-noh-STOH-sus") is a problem with the skull that causes a baby's head to be oddly shaped. In rare cases it causes pressure on the baby's brain, which can cause damage. It is also called craniostenosis. A baby's skull is not just one bowl-shaped piece of bone. It is made up of five thin, bony plates that are held together by fibrous material called Reference sutures Opens New Window Reference Opens New Window. The sutures let the skull expand as the brain grows. Over time, the sutures harden and close the skull bones together. When a baby has craniosynostosis, one or more of these sutures close too soon. How the problem affects your baby depends in part on how many of the sutures close too soon: - If only one suture closes too soon, the baby's brain usually develops normally, but the head has an odd shape. This is what happens in most cases. - If more than one suture closes too soon, the baby's brain may not be able to grow as fast as it should. If severe pressure builds up around the brain, it may cause brain damage, seizures, blindness, and Reference developmental delays Opens New Window. But this severe pressure is rare. What causes craniosynostosis? Experts aren't sure what causes this problem. In some cases, it runs in families. If you've had a baby with craniosynostosis and are planning another pregnancy, you may want to talk to your doctor about genetic counseling. Craniosynostosis is more likely in: - Babies who lie in a Reference breech position Opens New Window while in the uterus. - Babies whose mothers smoke or live at a high altitude during pregnancy. - Babies who are twins. What are the symptoms? The most common sign is an oddly shaped head at birth or by the time the child is a few months old. For example, the skull may become long and narrow. Or it may be very flat and broad in front or back or on the sides. The baby may have a misshapen nose or jaw. An oddly shaped head may be the only sign of craniosynostosis. In rare cases, the disease causes pressure to build up on the baby's brain. This can cause brain damage and can make the baby develop more slowly than other children. If you know that your baby has this condition, call your doctor right away if your baby: - Starts vomiting. - Becomes sluggish and sleeps more and plays less. - Becomes crankier than usual. - Has swollen eyes or has problems moving the eyes or following objects. - Has problems hearing. - Breathes noisily or doesn't breathe for short periods of time. How is craniosynostosis diagnosed? You or your doctor may notice that your baby has an odd-shaped head at birth, shortly after birth, or later at a well-child checkup. Just because your baby has an oddly shaped head doesn't mean that he or she has craniosynostosis. Head shape may be affected by how your baby was positioned in your uterus, the birth process, or your baby's sleep position. Talk to your doctor if you are concerned about the shape of your baby's head. Your doctor will: - Look at each side of your baby's face and head. - Measure your baby's head. - Feel the sutures and soft spots (Reference fontanelles Opens New Window) on the skull. - Feel the top and sides of the head, where sutures are located, for unusual ridges or bumps. How is it treated? Surgery is the usual treatment to correct craniosynostosis. It's usually done in the first year of life. The surgeon removes strips of bone in the skull to create artificial sutures. This surgery prevents or relieves pressure on the brain and allows the skull to expand normally. It also corrects the shape of your baby's head. The earlier your child has surgery, the better the results. If there is pressure on the brain, your child needs surgery right away. If your baby doesn't seem to have pressure on the brain, your doctor may advise you to wait and see if the head shape returns to normal without surgery. Your child may wear a special helmet or other device to help reshape the skull. But your child may still need surgery later. If your child needs surgery, talk with your doctor about what to expect. It may help to see some before-and-after pictures of other children who have had the same type of surgery so that you are prepared for how your child will look right after the surgery. There may be a lot of swelling and bruising at first. Being involved in your baby's care while he or she is in the hospital may help you feel more comfortable when you take your baby home. You'll need to know how to care for your baby's incision and what problems to watch for. Problems after surgery aren't common. It's normal to feel a wide range of emotions when your child has a problem like craniosynostosis. Counseling or a support group can help. \|By:\|\|Reference Healthwise Staff\|\|Last Revised: Reference May 11, 2012\| \|Medical Review:\|\|Reference John Pope, MD - Pediatrics Reference Chuck Norlin, MD - Pediatrics	3.808979
Use these simple activities to get beyond the bubble and into some cool science. 1. Blow Bubbles: Take your bubble stuff outside or into the tub. Play around and notice what catches your child's interest. Watch, wonder, and experiment together. 2. Observe Bubbles: Look carefully at a bubble on your child's wand. Ask: How does the shape change as you blow? What shape is the bubble when it floats into the air? What happens when the bubble lands? 3. Chase and Catch Bubbles: Notice how bubbles move in the air. Are they all moving in the same direction? Invite your child to blow at a bubble or fan it. What happens? Let your child try to catch a bubble on a bubble wand. Ask: Can you catch a bubble on top of another bubble? What happens when two bubbles touch each other? Gather items with holes to use as bubble wands: slotted spoons, funnels, fly swatters, plastic soda can six-pack holders, etc. Wave or blow through the "wands" and look at the bubbles. Ask: How are the bubbles from each wand the same? How are they different? Are the bubbles connected or single? Does the size of the openings in the wand make a difference in the size of the bubbles? Age Range: 3-5 Curious George is a production of Imagine, WGBH and Universal. Curious George and related characters, created by Margret and H.A. Rey, are copyrighted and trademarked by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company and used under license. Licensed by Universal Studios Licensing LLC. Television Series: ©2013. Universal Studios. All Rights Reserved. The PBS KIDS logo is a registered mark of PBS and is used with permission. Proud sponsors of Curious George® on PBS KIDS® are Stride Rite Children's Group, LLC., and ABCmouse.com. FOR PROMOTIONAL USE ONLY. For more fun and games, check out curiousgeorge.com	3.890889
Are you taking your PPI consistently, but still not having complete relief of your symptoms? Maybe it's what you’re putting in your mouth. Your diet and eating habits can actually make your digestive condition worse. There are a couple of ways certain foods can cause problems. Some may relax the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) — a muscle that acts as a valve between your esophagus and stomach. If this muscle relaxes and doesn’t close properly, acid can reflux back up into the esophagus. Also, some foods may irritate the damaged lining of the esophagus or stomach. Learn about foods and ways of eating that may be causing you to reach for those extra antacids. You may want to think twice before sitting down for a big pasta dinner or an all-you-can-eat pizza buffet. Tomato-based products, such as sauces, are acidic foods that may increase reflux symptoms and cause stomach irritation. Other acidic culprits include citrus fruits like grapefruits, lemons, oranges, and their juices. Eating large portions of food can lead to indigestion and increase the pressure in the stomach, pushing acid into the esophagus. To avoid this discomfort, eat smaller, more frequent meals. Spearmint and peppermint extracts are used in many foods, but unfortunately, they may exacerbate the symptoms of GERD. Mint may relax the muscles in the gastrointestinal tract, including the LES. But don’t put away your mint-flavored gum just yet! Studies show that chewing gum for one hour after a meal reduces acid reflux. Gum is thought to work by increasing saliva production, which helps to neutralize acid. Caffeine and Carbonation That morning cup of coffee or afternoon soda may be causing you discomfort. Caffeine is thought to increase acid levels and relax the LES, which can aggravate an existing ulcer or worsen acid reflux. Some studies show that even decaf coffee may relax the LES. Carbonated beverages, such as sodas or carbonated waters, may lead to acid reflux by increasing the pressure in your stomach. Fatty foods trigger reflux symptoms by decreasing the pressure of the LES. Eating too many fatty foods can increase digestive symptoms and may lead to weight gain. There is a link between being overweight and GERD. Studies show that obese people with GERD who lose weight have significant improvement in their symptoms. If you have recently gained weight and your clothes are too tight, this too may be making your symptoms worse. Tight-fitting clothes put pressure on the stomach, causing acid to flow into the esophagus. Hot, Hot, Hot! Spicy foods can make your heartburn and stomach pain sizzle. Foods with a little kick are often responsible for GERD symptoms. Although spicy fare may irritate the stomach of people with ulcers, it does not cause ulcers. Actually, people with ulcers do not need to follow a bland diet, as previously thought. However, if a specific spicy item does cause problems, it may be a good idea to avoid that food. Are you a chocoholic? Be careful, because those little treats you are allowing yourself could wreak havoc on your esophagus. Chocolate aggravates GERD by relaxing the LES. That chocolate snack may be particularly problematic at night time. Snacking late may increase the risk of nighttime heartburn. To avoid this nocturnal discomfort, don’t eat two to three hours before lying down to sleep. Raising the head of your bed may also help to keep the acid in your stomach where it belongs. Having a few drinks this weekend? Before mixing that martini, think about the consequences. Alcohol may trigger GERD symptoms in three ways: - Increasing acid secretion - Relaxing the LES - Slowing the movement of food through the gut One study showed that men who drank alcohol and smoked were more likely to have GERD. Smoking contributes to digestive problems by increasing acid secretion, relaxing the LES, and decreasing saliva (saliva neutralizes acid). Smokers are more prone to ulcers, and smokers and drinkers may take longer to heal when they have an ulcer. Know Yourself and Communicate With Your Doctor We are all individuals. Not everyone will have the same reaction to each food. The best way to determine your food triggers is to keep a food and symptom journal--write down what you eat, how much you consume, and how you feel afterward. You may soon be able to identify the foods or habits causing you to take those extra antacids. Make sure to talk to your health care provider if you are not experiencing relief from your symptoms despite being on a PPI.	3.279331
Gamma ray bursts are believed to be the most energetic phenomena in the universe. In one second they can emit more than 100 times the energy that the sun does throughout its entire 10 billion year life. This energy output is short lived, however, and within days the burst has faded forever beyond the reach of our telescopes. 3000 bursts having been detected through their gamma ray emission, only 30 have been seen with ground-based telescopes, and only one of these has been observed within an hour. In an ambitious project to detect the gamma ray bursts in the crucial first minute of their occurence, the School of Physics has entered a collaboration with the University of Michigan, Los Alamos National Laboratories, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, to place a robotic telescope, ROTSE-III, at Siding Spring Observatory. triggered into action by a signal relayed through the Internet from an earth-orbiting satellite. The specially designed mounting for ROTSE-III allows it to point to any position in the sky and take an image within 5-10 seconds. The images are then automatically analysed for any new or rapidly varying sources, and this information is made available to other observatories throughout the world within minutes. The precise positions provided by ROTSE-III are essential to allow the worlds largest telescopes to observe the gamma for the new telescope occurred in March 2001. The enclosure and weather station were installed in April 2001, with the telescope itself to be delivered in mid-2002.	3.88584
During this tutorial you will be asked to perform calculations involving trigonometric functiions. You will need a calulator to proceed. \| The purpose of this tutorial is to review with you the elementary properties of the trigonometric functions. Facility with this subject is essential to success in all branches of science, and you are strongly urged to review and practice the concepts presented here until they are mastered. Let us consider the right-angle triangle shown in Panel 1. The angle at C is a right angle and the angle A we will call θ. The lengths of the sides of the triangle we will denote as p, q and r. From your elementary geometry, you know several things about this triangle. For example, you know the Pythagorean relation, q² = p² + r². That is, the square of the length of the side opposite the right angle, which we call the hypotenuse, is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides. We know other things. For example, we know that if the lengths of the three sides of any triangle p, q and r are specified, then the whole triangle is determined, angles included. If you think about this for a moment, you will see it is correct. If I give you three sticks of fixed length and told you to lay them down in a triangle, there's only one triangle which you could make. What we would like to have is a way of relating the angles in the triangle, say θ, to the lengths of the sides. It turns out that there's no simple analytic way to do this. Even though the triangle is specified by the lengths of the three sides, there is not a simple formula that will allow you to calculate the angle θ. We must specify it in some new way. \|To do this, we define three ratios of the sides of the triangle. One ratio we call the sine of theta, written sin(θ), and it is defined as the ratio of the side opposite θ to the hypotenuse, that is r/q. The cosine of θ, written cos(θ), is the side adjacent to θ over the hypotenuse, that is, p/q. This is really enough, but because it simplifies our mathematics later on, we define the tangent of θ, written tan(θ), as the ratio of the opposite to the adjacent sides, that is r/p. This is not an independent definition since you can readily see that the tangent of θ is equal to the sine of θ divided by the cosine of θ. Verify for yourself that this is correct. All scientific calculators provide this information. The first thing to ensure is that your calculator is set to the anglular measure that you want. Angles are usually measured in either degrees or radians (see tutorial on DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS). The angle 2º is a much different angle than 2 radians since 180º = π radians = 3.1416... radians. Make sure that your calculator is set to degrees. Now suppose that we want the sine of 24º. Simply press 24 followed by the [sin] key and the display should show the value 0.4067. Therefore, the sine of 24º is 0.4067. That is, in a triangle like panel 1 where θ = 24º, the ratio of the sides r to q is 0.4067. Next set your calculator to radians and find the sine of 0.42 radians. To do this enter 0.42 followed by the [sin] key. You should obtain a value of 0.4078. This is nearly the same value as you obtained for the sine of 24º. Using the relation above you should confirm that 24º is close to 0.42 radians Obviously, using your calculator to find values of sines is very simple. Now find sine of 42º 24 minutes. The sine of 42º 24 minutes is 0.6743. Did you get this result? If not, remember that 24 minutes corresponds to 24/60 or 0.4º. The total angle is then 42.4º \| The determination of cosines and tangents on your calculator is similar. It is now possible for us to solve the simple problem concerning triangles. For example, in Panel 2, the length of the hypotenuse is 3 cm and the angle θ is 24º. What is the length of the opposite side r? The sine of 24º as we saw is 0.4067 and it is also, by definition, r/3. So, sine of 24º = .4067 = r/3, and therefore, r = 3 x 0.4067 = 1.22 cm. \|Conversely, suppose you knew that the opposite side was 2 cm long and the hypotenuse was 3 cm long, as in panel 3, what is the angle θ? First determine the sine of θ You should find that the sine of θ is 2/3, which equals 0.6667. Now we need determine what angle has 0.6667 as its sine. If you want your answer to be in degrees, be sure that your calculator is set to degrees. Then enter 0.6667 followed by the [INV] key and then the [sin] key. You should obtain a value of 41.8º. If your calculator doesn't have a [INV] key, it probably has a [2ndF] key and the inverse sine can be found using it. \|One use of these trigonometric functions which is very important is the calculation of components of vectors. In panel 4 is shown a vector OA in an xy reference frame. We would like to find the y component of this vector. That is, the projection OB of the vector on the y axis. Obviously, OB = CA and CA/OA = sin(θ), so CA = OA sin(θ). Similarly, the x-component of OA is OC. And OC/OA = cos(θ) so OC = OA cos(θ).\| \|There are many relations among the trigonometric functions which are important, but one in particular you will find used quite often. Panel 1 has been repeated as Panel 5 for you. Let us look at the sum cos² + sin². From the figure, this is (p/q)² + (r/q)², which [(p² + r²) / (q²)]. The Pythagorean theorem tells us that p² + r² = q² so we have [(p² + r²) / q²] = (q²/q²) = 1. Therefore, we have; Our discussion so far has been limited to angles between 0 and 90º. One can, using the calculator, find the the sine of larger angles (eg 140º ) or negative angles (eg -32º ) directly. Sometimes, however, it is useful to find the corresponding angle betweeen 0 and 90º. Panel 6 will help us here. \|In this xy reference frame, the angle θ is clearly between 90º and 180 º, and clearly, the angle a, which is 180 - θ ( a is marked with a double arc) can be dealt with. In this case, we say that the magnitude of sine, cosine, and tangent of θ are those of the supplement a and we only have to examine whether or not they are positive or negative. For example, what is the sine, cosine and tangent of 140º? The supplement is 180º - 140º = 40º. Find the sine, the cosine and the tangent of 40º.	4.068564
Hops is native to a great part of the northern half of the world, customarily located in northern European, west central Asian, and North American regions. The earliest reported case of growing hops was in central Europe in 736, with the ensuing centuries seeing hops grown extensively in Bavarian, Bohemian and Slovenian regions, and later in England. Hops was first cultivated in North America in 1629; cultivation began in Japan, China and Korea in the 1860s. Hops is produced in many different regions these days, but roughly three quarters of all hops originates from Germany, North America, and China. Traits and properties: The most widely recognized use of hops is to flavor beer, leading to its significance globally as a commercial agriculture product. While hops is a comparatively minimal component of beer, quantity-wise, it is a significant one since it imparts the unique bitter taste of beer, a property possessed uniquely by hops. Initially, hops was utilized in making beer since it not only imparts taste, but acts to naturally preserve beer, keeping it from turning sour and increasing its shelf life dramatically. This permitted beer to be shipped a long way, instead of having to be used near the brewery, allowing brewers to greatly expand operations. The earliest reported use of hops for medicinal purposes was by ancient Egyptians and Babylonians who were convinced it safeguarded against leprosy and plague. European medicinal use of hops goes as far back as its ninth century use to treat 'melancholy', acquiring the name vermifuge and effective for eradicating parasites. When the twelth century rolled in hops were recognized as an aperitif, a depurative, and a laxative and was applauded for its properties of sedating and relaxing. Later this was used as a treatment for people with liver problems and any general digestive complaints. On the North American continent, hops was widely utilized in native remedies, especially among Cherokee people who used it to treat rheumatism, swelling, pain, breast and female reproductive organ issues, kidney stones, and so on. In traditional Chinese medicine, hops is used for all sorts of different ailments like sleeplessness, restlessness, and for bad cramps; it is also used to treat lack of appetite. Chinese lab research has documented effective results with hops for treating conditions of TB, leprosy, bacillary dysentery, silicosis as well as asbestosis. The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India suggests the use of hops for anxiousness related to nervous stress, headache, and poor digestion, reporting it works primarily for sedation, hypnosis, and fighting bacteria. Nowadays, hops is used most often for its relaxing effect on nerves, and its properties of sedation to improve sleep habits. Positive effects on the female endocrine system have been noted, specifically in Europe, from hops. There is a high content of flavonoids, which is a form of phytoestrogens, and this has become a very common ingredient for natural breast enhancements. Clinical studies have shown that consumption of hops alone promotes breast development. In fact, beer which has a high hop content, has even been touted by some doctors as being a breast enhancer if consumed in large quantities. Yet other contemporary uses for hops are to treat IBS and premature ejaculation, along with its characteristics as a diuretic to help those retaining water or suffering excessive uric acid. Hops tea is apparently a wonderful remedy for delirium tremens, and you can add honey to it to ease the symptoms of bronchitis. In order to reduce the pain due to the inflammation of abscesses, boils, swellings, and neuralgic and rheumatic complaints including easing skin infections, eczema, herpes, and ulcers, Hops tea is used as an external application in the form of a poultice. Dried hops has long been sewn into pillows to combat insomnia and nightmares. Hops is used in shampoos to treat dandruff and oiliness due to its anti-septic and sebhorrheic traits, and has lately been considered beneficial for growing and conditioning hair and scalp, leading to its use in a lot of hair growth items. Hops is actually good for the skin in general as it stimulates the cutaneous metabolism, so you'll often find it listed as an ingredient in toiletries and cosmetics. Natural Breast Enhancement Without Surgery	3.569726
Email : [email protected] Pinguicula can be found in north, central and south America, in Greenland, in most parts of Europe, at the very north-western tip of Africa and in some scattered areas in Asia. They are not present in many parts of Asia, the middle east, most parts of Africa and southern Asia including Oceania. The two main centres of diversity are found in central America/Caribbean and in Europe. North and east Siberia as well as far north east Asia are home to a small group of species which are either endemic (P. algida, P. ramose and P. variegata) or widespread (P. villosa, P. alpina, P. macroceras and P. vulgaris). The Himalaya in southern Asia is also hosting P. alpina. Large stretches of land in Canada and the north eastern and western coats of the USA are colonised by 3 species that can also be found in Europe or Asia (P. vulgaris, P. villosa and P. macroceras). The south eastern tip of the USA is also host to a group of related and endemic species. A few additional and endemic species are scattered on the slopes of the Andes mountains of south America from Columbia to Terra del Fuego in Argentina. Even though Pinguicula can be found on many continents, most species have very restricted distribution ranges and can actually exist as just a few isolated colonies. On the same way, plant density may be high on a limited surface of land but individual colonies may be separated by large distances. Few species make exception to this rule. P. vulgaris has the largest distribution range, covering most of northern America, Greenland, Iceland, many parts of Europe and north western Russia. A closely related species, P. macroceras, covers the coats of north eastern Asia and north western America. P. villosa can be found on most of the arctic circle (except in western Canada). Finally P. alpina can be found in several parts of Europe, the Himalaya, north western Russia and northern Siberia. Species with mid-size distribution ranges include P. lusitanica and P. grandiflora in western Europe. Most Pinguicula species originate from cold to very cold habitats at high latitudes or altitudes. Only the south eastern USA and Caribbean species live under warm climatic conditions. P. lusitanica on the western coast of Europe, P. crystallina on the northern part of the Mediterranean ocean and some Mexican species will be intermediate in their temperature requirements since they will need non-freezing winters and will appreciate warmer conditions during the summer. The only climatic conditions that are common to all Pinguicula are a very humid air, air temperatures that do not change too fast and a very wet soil during their growing season (often with flowing rather than standing water). Most Pinguicula will be found growing in calcareous and rocky soils. However, some species are found in acidic bogs (P. lusitanica, P. corsica), some in sphagnum moss (P. villosa) and some on tree branches (P. casabitoana, P. lignicola). Previously published groupings of Pinguicula species distinguished species on their ability to form an hibernaculum in the winter (temperate versus tropical types). The species of each type were subsequently divided into two subgroups on their ability to produce different leaves early in the spring and in the summer (homophyllous versus heterophyllous). Recent genetic studies do not totally support such views. Nevertheless, such clustering of species translates well into individual growing requirements. The rosette of temperate species (homophyllous and heterophyllous) reduces to a tight bud made of scale-like non-carnivorous leaves in the winter. Such buds bear no roots with the exception of P. alpina (Asian species still need to be examined for this criterion). They should all be kept near or below freezing temperatures as long as they are formed. They indeed need to stay cold for a certain time before being able to sprout in response to higher temperatures. They are also sensitive to rotting if in contact with a non-frozen damp organic substrate. Tropical species can either form carnivorous leaves all year long (homophyllous group) or develop a more or less compact winter bud made of succulent, non-carnivorous leaves (heterophyllous group). Most tropical homophyllous species experience cold, even near, or periodically below freezing, temperatures in the winter. However, such cold periods do not last long and are quickly replaced by warmer conditions. Rosette sizes rarely diminish during such times. Growth may simply cease to resume as soon as temperatures warm up. Plants keep their roots all through the winter season and need to be kept wet all year long. Prolonged near-freezing conditions never result in healthy individuals. Tropical heterophyllous species only form carnivorous leaves in the warm seasons. In the winter, they form more or less tight hibernacula made of succulent leaves. Winter hibernacula contain few or no root. They are very sensitive to rotting and should be kept dry until they resume growth. They should also be kept cold (below 10°C) and can stand below freezing temperatures is their substrate is totally dry. Carnivorous Pinguicula leaves exhibit many tiny glands on their surface to glue, digest and eat insects and plant debris that are small enough not to escape. After catching a prey, the leaf rolls slowly around its catch to form a bowl below it or increase contact. Pinguicula leaves harbour 2 types of glands: pedunculate glands that bear a drop of mucilaginous secretion (these are the tiny ones we see on the surface of the leaves and that generate rainbows when the sun shines on them), and sessile glands that lay flush on the leaf surface. The peduncles are made of only one cell and are therefore very small. The sessile glands do not generate large enough bodies of liquids to be seen by the human eye. For most species, the glands are only present on the upper surface of the leaves. But, in a few examples, they can be found on both sides of the leaves (P. gigantea, P. longifolia subsp longifolia). In that later case, the leaves are permanently erect or hanging in the air to prevent contact of the carnivorous underside of the leaves with the substrate. The density of glands on a leaf surface is purely related to the species and not to the state of feeding of the plant. The pedunculate glands are involved in mucilage production (to glue preys). They secrete few digestives enzymes that are mostly produced by the non-mucilaginous sessile glands. Upon prey capture, the movement of the prey will trigger a large secretion of fluid from the pedunculate gland. This water comes from a reservoir cell located below the peduncle. As the reservoir empties itself, the gland sinks in the epidermis, therefore creating the curling effect. Together, bowl-formation and the mucilage will prevent the digested matter from escaping before being taken up. The small enzymatic activity of the early secretion will initiate prey digestion. The first nitrogenous compounds leaking from the digested prey will trigger a large enzyme production by the sessile gland. This secretory system is a ‘one-off’ system that will fire itself completely in one go and will not function again a second time if a second prey were to fall on the same spot. Secretion and absorption through the glands is made possible thanks to the presence of holes (called cuticular gaps) in the cuticle (protective wax cover of the leaf) on top of the glands. These holes are like wounds through which the plant ‘bleeds’ (hence the droplets we see) permanently, placing its interior in direct contact with the outside world. Such cuticular holes are very rare for plants since they lead to dehydration and represent entry gates for infectious organisms. Luckily for Pinguicula, the digestive secretions prevent infectious organisms from developing. However, dehydration is a problem for Pinguicula which dehydrate faster than normal plants and will only perform best in very humid environments when they express carnivorous leaves. This phenomenon is worsened by the weak root system of Pinguicula which cannot pump much water quickly. In their non-carnivorous state (winter bud of most species), drier conditions can be supported. The lack of roots of winter resting plants will still require a fairly humid air. Laws of physics reveal that water vapour pressure at a given relative humidity value (RH) increases exponentially as the temperature is raised. Lower exponential curves are obtained for lower relative humidity values so that the curves are very close to each other at low temperatures and far from each other at high temperatures. Fig 3 : Psychrometric charts The above laws of physics also reveal that the sudden lowering of air temperature will lead to leaf dehydration even of the air is saturated in humidity. In this scenario, the plant is warmer than its environment. This will create a water vapour pressure deficit between the plant and its environment because water vapour pressures change with temperature. This dehydration effect will be more pronounced if the outside air is dry, if the original temperature is high or if the drop in temperature is severe. This may explain why Pinguicula in their native habitat and in cultivation do best in an environment where temperature does not fluctuate too fast or too much during the day. The curling of leaves or hiding behind grasses are things Pinguicula naturally do and that will lead to a buffering of external changes.	3.129655
Let's Talk About: Cosmic collisions Share with others: It has been almost 100 years since Edwin Hubble measured the universe beyond the Milky Way Galaxy. Today, astronomers believe that as many as 100 billion other galaxies are sharing the cosmos. Most of these cosmic islands are classified by shape as either spiral or elliptical, but stargazing scientists have discovered galaxies that don't quite fit these molds. Common to this "irregular" category are galaxies that interact with other galaxies. These gravitational interactions are often referred to as mergers, and their existence invites the question: Is the Milky Way collision-prone? To evaluate the probability, look to the Andromeda Galaxy. Located more than 2.5 million light-years away, Andromeda appears as a small fuzzy patch in the sky. However, there is nothing miniature about it. Similar to the shape (spiral), size and mass of the Milky Way, Andromeda is home to a trillion other stars. Astronomers have known for decades that our galactic neighbor is rapidly closing in on us -- at approximately 250,000 miles per hour. They know this because of blueshift, a measured decrease in electromagnetic wavelength caused by the motion of a light-emitting source, in this case Andromeda, as it moves closer to the observer. Recently, data collected from the Hubble Space Telescope has allowed astronomers to predict a merger with certainty, in 4 billion years. Our sun will still be shining, and Earth will most likely survive the impact. Reason being, galaxies, although single units of stars gravitationally tied together, are mostly gigantic voids. One can compare a galaxy-on-galaxy collision to the pouring of one glass of water into another. The end result is a larger collection of water, or in the case of a cosmic collision, a larger galaxy. Future Earth inhabitants, billions of years from now, could look up and observe only small portions of such an event because it will take 2 billion years for these cosmic islands to become one. First Published November 29, 2012 12:00 am	3.941996
Modeling is the process of taking a shape and molding it into a completed 3D mesh. The most typical means of creating a 3D model is to take a simple object, called a primitive, and extend or “grow” it into a shape that can be refined and detailed. Primitives can be anything from a single point (called a vertex), a two-dimensional line (an edge), a curve (a spline), to three dimensional objects (faces or polygons). Using the specific features of your chosen 3D software, each one of these primitives can be manipulated to produce an object. When you create a model in 3D, you’ll usually learn one method to create your model, and go back to it time and again when you need to create new models. There are three basic methods you can use to create a 3D model, and 3D artists should understand how to create a model using each technique. 1. Spline or patch modeling: A spline is a curve in 3D space defined by at least two control points. The most common splines used in 3D art are bezier curves and NURBS (the software Maya has a strong NURBS modeling foundation.) Using splines to create a model is perhaps the oldest, most traditional form of 3D modeling available. A cage of splines is created to form a “skeleton” of the object you want to create. The software can then create a patch of polygons to extend between two splines, forming a 3D skin around the shape. Spline modeling is not used very often these days for character creation, due to how long it takes to create good models. The models that are produced usually aren’t useful for animation without a lot of modification. Spline modeling is used primarily for the creation of hard objects, like cars, buildings, and furniture. Splines are extremely useful when creating these objects, which may be a combination of angular and curved shapes. When creating a 3D scene that requires curved shapes, spline modeling should be your first choice. 2. Box modeling: Box modeling is possibly the most popular technique, and bears a lot of resemblance to traditional sculpting. In box modeling, one starts with a primitive (usually a cube) and begins adding detail by “slicing” the cube into pieces and extending faces of the cube to gradually create the form you’re after. People use box modeling to create the basic shape of the model. Once practiced, the technique is very quick to get acceptable results. The downside is that the technique requires a lot of tweaking of the model along the way. Also, it is difficult to create a model that has a surface topology that lends well to animation. Box modeling is useful as a way to create organic models, like characters. Box modelers can also create hard objects like buildings, however precise curved shapes may be more difficult to create using this technique. 3. Poly modeling / edge extrusion: While it’s not the easiest to get started with, poly modeling is perhaps the most effective and precise technique. In poly modeling, one creates a 3D mesh point-by-point, face-by-face. Often one will start out with a single quad (a 3D object consisting of 4 points) and extrude an edge of the quad, creating a second quad attached to the first. The 3D model is created gradually in this way. While poly modeling is not as fast as box modeling, it requires less tweaking of the mesh to get it “just right,” and you can plan out the topology for animation ahead of time. Poly modelers use the technique to create either organic or hard objects, though poly modeling is best suited for organic models. A Workflow that Works The workflow you choose to create a model will largely depend on how comfortable you are with a given technique, what object you’re creating, and what your goals are for the final product. Someone who is creating an architectural scene, for example, may create basic models with cubes and other simple shapes to create an outline of the finished project. Meshes can then be refined or replaced with more detailed objects as you progress through the project. This is an organized, well-planned way to create a scene; it is a strategy used by professionals that makes scene creation straightforward. Beginners, on the other hand, tend to dive in headfirst and work on the most detailed objects first. This is a daunting way to work, and can quickly lead to frustration and overwhelm. Remember, sketch first, then refine. Likewise, when creating an organic model, beginners tend to start with the most detailed areas first, and flesh out the remaining parts later, a haphazard way to create a character. This may be one reason why box modeling has grown to be so widely popular. A modeler can easily create the complete figure before refining the details, like eyes, lips, and ears. Perhaps the best strategy is to use a hybrid workflow when creating organic models. A well planned organic model is created using a combination of box modeling and poly modeling. The arms, legs, and torso can be sketched out with box modeling, while the fine details of the head, hands, and feet are poly modeled. This is a compromise professional modelers seek which prevents them from getting bogged down in details. It can make the difference between a completed character, and one that is never fleshed out beyond the head. Beginners would be wise to follow this advice. Another aspect of proper workflow is creating a model with an ideal 3D mesh topology. Topology optimization is usually associated with creating models used in animation. Models created without topology that flows in a smooth, circular pattern, may not animate correctly, which is why it is important to plan ahead when creating any 3D object that will be used for animation. The most frequently discussed topology is the proper creation or placement of edgeloops. An edgeloop is a ring of polygons placed in an area where the model may deform, as in the case of animation. These rings of polygons are usually placed around areas where muscles might be, such as in the shoulder or elbow. Edegeloop placement is critical when creating faces. When edgeloops are ignored, models will exhibit “tearing” when animated, and the model will need to be reworked or scrapped altogether in favor of a properly-planned model. The next step to creating great models is simply to practice and examine the work of artists you admire. Some of the best 3D modelers are also fantastic pencil-and-paper artists. It will be well worth your time to practice drawing, whether you’re a character creator or a wanna-be architect. Good modeling requires a lot of dedication. You’ll need to thoroughly understand the software you’re using, and the principles of good 3D model creation laid out above. Character artists will need to learn proportion and anatomy. By understanding these basics of modeling you’ll save yourself a lot of frustration and discouragement, and you’ll be well on your way to becoming a prolific 3D artist.	3.894702
Is there such a thing as too much money? by Fred E. Foldvary, Senior EditorWhat is inflation? There are two economic meanings of inflation. The first meaning is monetary inflation, having to do with the money supply. To understand that, we need to understand that the impact of money on the economy depends not just on the amount of money but also on its rate of turnover. We all know that money circulates. How fast it circulates is called its velocity. For example, suppose you get paid $4000 every four weeks. You are circulating $4000 13 times per year. Then suppose you instead get paid $1000 each week. Your total spending is the same, but now you are circulating $1000 52 times per year. The velocity of the money is 52, but the money you hold has been reduced to one fourth its previous amount, although the money held times the velocity is the same. The effect on the economy is the money supply times the velocity. Monetary inflation is an increase in the money supply, times the velocity, which is greater than the increase in the amount of transactions measured in constant dollars. Simply put, if velocity does not change, monetary inflation is an increase in money that is greater than the increase in goods. Price inflation is an on-going increase in the price level. The level of prices is measured by a price index, such as the consumer price index (CPI). Usually, price inflation is caused by monetary inflation. So let’s take a look at recent monetary inflation. The broadest measure of money is MZM, which stands for money zero maturity, funds which can be readily spent. The Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis keeps track of various measurements of money. Its data show that on an annual basis, MZM increased by 13 percent in January 2008, 36 percent in February, and 23 percent in March. These are huge increases, since gross domestic product, the total production of goods, increased at an annual rate of only .6 percent during these months. In 2006, MZM grew at an annual rate of only 4 percent. High monetary inflation results in high price inflation. Indeed, in May 2008 the consumer price index rose by 4.2 percent from the level of May 2007. For the month, the increase for May was .6 percent, an annual rate of 7.2 percent. The “Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers” (CPI-U) increased 0.8 percent in May, before seasonal adjustment, for an annualized increase of 9.6 percent. The “Consumer Price Index for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers” (CPI-W) increased 1.0 percent in May, prior to seasonal adjustment, for a whopping annual increase of 12 percent. The rapid rise in oil prices fueled the increase in the price of gasoline, while the greater demand for grains made food prices rise, but beneath these rises is the monetary inflation that creates a higher demand for goods in general. The government reports that “core inflation,” not counting gasoline and food, is lower, but what counts for people is everything they buy, including food and fuel. If you have to pay much more for food and gasoline, there is less money for other things, so of course these will not rise in price as much. In making monetary policy, the Federal Reserve targets the federal funds interest rate, which banks pay when they borrow funds from one another. During the financial troubles during the first few months of 2008, the Fed aggressively lowered the federal funds rate to 2 percent and also indicated that it would supply limitless credit to banks that borrowed directly from the Federal Reserve. The Fed lowers the interest rate by increasing the supply of money that banks have to lend; to unload it, banks charge borrowers less interest. To start, the Fed buys U.S. Treasury bonds from the public. The Fed pays for the bonds not by using old money it has lying around but by increasing the reserves held by the banks in their accounts at their local Federal Reserve Bank then using that new money. This increase in reserves or bank funds is a creation of money out of nothing. Actually, this does not violate the law of conservation, because this creation of money is at the expense of the value of all other money holdings. Every extra dollar created by the Fed decreases the value of the dollars you hold by a tiny amount. Most monetary reformers stop there, but that is not enough. The current financial instability is also caused by the real estate boom-bust cycle, since even with sound money, an economic expansion would spark a speculative boom in land values. In a competitive market, when produced goods rise in price, producers usually supply more, bringing the price back down or limiting the rise. But land is not produced, so with increased demand, the price has nowhere to go but up. Speculators drive the price of land based on expectations of even higher future prices, but at the peak of the boom, the price becomes too high for those who want to use the land. Real estate stops rising and then falls, and that brings the financial system down with it, as we have witnessed during the past year. To prevent the inflation in land prices, we need to remove the subsidy, the pumping up of land value from the civic benefits paid by returns on labor and capital goods. We can remove the land subsidy by tapping the land value or land rent for public revenue. Land-value tapping or taxation plus free-market money and banking would provide price and financial stability. Only the free market can know the right money supply. Some people think the government could just print money and spend it. That is what is happening in Zimbabwe, which has an inflation rate of one hundred thousand percent. Much of the population has fled the country. Once government can create money at will, there is really no way to limit it, and if there is some limiting rule, then the money supply becomes too rigid. Only free market competition and production can combine price stability with money-supply flexibility. -- Fred Foldvary Copyright 2008 by Fred E. Foldvary. All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, which includes but is not limited to facsimile transmission, photocopying, recording, rekeying, or using any information storage or retrieval system, without giving full credit to Fred Foldvary and The Progress Report. Part III, The Trouble With Money and its Cure A Better Way to Pay for Railways? How Economic Systems Really Work Email this article Sign up for free Progress Report updates via email What are your views? Share your opinions with The Progress Report: Page One Page Two Archive Discussion Room Letters What's Geoism?	4.126881
The most romantic way I have ever heard Chaos Theory described is, “there are patterns, and even great beauty, in seemingly chaotic events.” Formally, Chaos Theory is defined as a sub-discipline of mathematics that studies complex, or dynamic, systems. These complex systems contain so many moving parts that it takes computers to calculate and model all of the movements of the system. In fact, it has been said that the emergence of this theory could not have happened without the invention and proliferation of the computer. Up until what is called the Quantum Mechanical Revolution, “people believed that things were directly caused by other things.” In Latin it is referred to as post hoc ergo propter hoc, or after, therefore, because of it. In essence, if one thing follows another, it must have been caused by it. It is the basis of Freudian psychoanalysis, “a belief that malfunctions in the mind are the results of traumas suffered in the past” and that Regression Therapy—pinpointing when and how these traumas occurred—would allow us to heal. It is called linear cause and effect. Chaos Theory, however, tells us that it is less about linear effect and more the existence and production of patterns caused by many different forces, the most important of which are initial conditions, popularly referred to as The Butterfly Effect. The Butterfly Effect posits that the flapping of a butterfly’s wings in South America could affect the weather in Texas, meaning that the smallest, seemingly inconsequential part of a system can have a huge effect on all the other parts. Simply said, “unless all factors can be accounted for, large systems would be impossible to predict with total accuracy because there are too many unknown variables to track.” The study of Chaos Theory has helped us understand simple, or everyday, phenomena such as water boiling on a stove and complex events such as how birds migrate, how vegetation spreads and the structure of stars in the night sky, but its origins stem from the study of weather systems. It all started in 1960 when Edward Lorentz created a weather-model on his computer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Lorentz’s weather model consisted of an extensive array of complex formulas that successfully modeled, and later helped predict, the weather and turned a large, unpredictable system into one of those everyday phenomena, the daily weather forecast. This month’s Quality continues in the tradition of Mr. Lorentz with Michelle Bangert’s analysis of our annual spending study, “Quality Spending Stays Strong,” and a roundtable discussion on the importance of the budget process titled, “The Budget Process Revealed.” Also, check out Genevieve Diesing’s feature, “A Closer Look at the Skills Gap.” Enjoy and thanks for reading!	3.293154
A world first study has found smoking prevention advertisements sponsored by tobacco companies targeted at parents do not work and may encourage teenagers to take up smoking. The study published online today by the American Journal of Public Health in the United States examined youth exposure to tobacco company television advertising campaigns and how that exposure influenced smoking-related beliefs and behaviour. The study's lead author, Professor Melanie Wakefield, from The Cancer Council Victoria and an NHMRC Principal Research Fellow, began the U.S. funded research while working at the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC). Professor Wakefield and her team of researchers from Bridging the Gap, a policy research program based at the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC) and the University of Michigan, found that among 16 to 18 year olds, higher youth exposure to parent-targeted ads was, on average, associated with lower perceived harm of smoking, stronger approval of smoking, stronger intentions to smoke in the future, and a greater likelihood of having smoked in the past 30 days. They also found that 14 to 18 year olds were generally not influenced by increasing exposure to tobacco industry youth-targeted ads, which stressed that it is not cool for young people to smoke. The final sample size for the report was 103,172 students. "This research provides the clearest evidence to date that tobacco industry-sponsored smoking prevention ads don't work and that they are acting as a marketing smokescreen to promote tobacco to youth," Professor Wakefield said. "Tobacco-sponsored ads targeted at youth have no impact and those targeted at parents seem to have an adverse effect on students who are in their middle and later teenage years. The ads give the impression that youth should not smoke because they are too young - and that's not a good enough reason. There is no mention in these ads of the serious health risks of smoking," she said. Quit and VicHealth Centre for Tobacco Control Director, Mr Todd Harper, said despite the tobacco industry's attempts at an image makeover, they remain the perennial wolf in sheep's clothing. "The tobacco industry claim to do all they can to discourage youth smoking, but these tobacco industry sponsored advertisements appear to be priming teens to take up a habit that will eventually kill two out of three lifetime smokers. "The tobacco industry admit they are simply trying to delay youth smoking as opposed to preventing uptake all together, implying young people are fair game in a deadly recruitment drive for customers. "We must not forget that this is an industry whose objective is to sell more products, and therefore addict more smokers and this has not changed over time, " he said. Mr Harper said the success of the current tobacco control campaign in Australia illustrates an advertisement doesn't need to explicitly suggest that parents talk to their kids about smoking for that discussion to take place. "The recent campaign in Australia, focusing on the graphic health warnings on cigarette packs, inspired discussion about the health effects of smoking within families, supporting the idea a media campaign does not have to be targeted at youth, to have a positive impact on youth. "An effective tobacco control message will generate conversation and debate without that specific instruction from the advertisement," Mr Harper said. ph: (03) 9635 5400 mob: 0417 303 811	3.04671
Slavery's effects live on As of the 1860 census, the last before the American Civil War, 2.3 million slaves lived in the Lower Southern states—nearly 50 percent of the entire Lower Southern population at that time. The numbers for the Upper South didn’t fare much better, with 1.2 million slaves, about a third of the population. All told, Southern and Border States totaled four million slaves, or half the population of today’s New York City. These mind-boggling numbers reveal the tremendous effect of slavery on the African population in the 19th century. Slavery continues to effect today’s African American population, as Dr. Patricia Newton’s presentation for African-American Heritage month on Post-Traumatic Slavery Disorder will attest. Newton wants to explore the long-term effects of the chattel slavery experience on African populations. Chattel, as defined on dictionary.com, is “another form of cattle; any item of movable or immovable property except the freehold.” While Post-Traumatic Slavery Disorder may be a new term to many of us, Newton is an expert on the topic and makes an interesting case for the correlation between the Disorder and emerging patterns in African-American life. With control groups in the Caribbean and the North American continent, Newton explores clinical case histories and makes comparisons between the trauma experienced by Africans forced into the United States and slavery, Jewish Holocaust victims, and veterans of the Gulf and Vietnam wars. In addition, neurological data relative to the effect of trauma on the brain, psyche, and body will also be explored. Identification of the problems and suggestions for healing will be discussed in an attempt to clarify the direction that African-Americans must take in the 21st century. Newton’s speech is a prestigious one during African-American Heritage Month and investigates an important and timely topic. But slavery in its many forms occurs around the world each day, and must be recognized and fought against year round. Dr. Patricia Newton will present on Post-Traumatic Slavery Disorder on Tuesday, February 19 at 7pm at UVA’s Clark Hall, Room 147. The event is free and open to the public and is sponsored by the Office of African-American Affairs. Please call La Tasha Levy at 924-7923 for more information.	3.789571
Network With Us Join us on Facebook to get the latest news and updates. Lauren Boulden's Story Using Think-Alouds to Get Inside Langston Hughes' Head Over my past few years of teaching, there have been multiple occasions where I have been stumped on how to present a particular concept to my students. I've always been able to turn to ReadWriteThink.org for hands-on, engaging lessons. For example, I knew I wanted my students to develop their skills when it came to interacting with text, particularly with poetry. While searching through the myriad options on ReadWriteThink, I came upon "Building Reading Comprehension Through Think-Alouds." At first, I planned to use the lesson exactly as written: Read Langston Hughes's poem "Dream Variation" and model a think-aloud with students; then have the students try their hand at some think-alouds using other poetry. After working out all of the details, I realized I could develop some additional skills, which would fit perfectly into the scope and sequence of my class. After completing the think-aloud to "Dream Variation," I broke students into selected groups. Each group was given a different Langston Hughes poem and asked to complete a think-aloud. The next day, the students were put into a new jigsaw group where they were solely responsible for sharing what their Langston Hughes poem conveyed. Based on the meanings behind their group mates' poems, along with using the knowledge of both their poem and "Dream Variation," students were asked to figure out who Langston Hughes was as a man. What did he stand for? What were his beliefs? What did he want out of life? Students used clues from the various poems to fill in a head-shaped graphic organizer to depict their understanding of who Hughes could be. This simple lesson of working with poems and think-alouds turned into a few days of group communication, text deciphering, inferences, and even an author study! Without great lessons available on ReadWriteThink.org, such as "Building Reading Comprehension Through Think-Alouds," my students would never have been able to tackle so many key reading strategies in such a short amount of time. Grades 6 – 8 \| Lesson Plan \| Standard Lesson Students learn components of think-alouds and type-of-text interactions through teacher modeling. In the process, students develop the ability to use think-alouds to aid in reading comprehension tasks. Lauren describes how she used ReadWriteThink in her classroom. I have been teaching seventh- and eighth-grade language arts in Delaware for the past five years. I grew up in Long Island, New York, but have called Delaware my home since completing my undergraduate and master’s work at the University of Delaware. Teaching and learning have become my prime passions in life, which is why my days are spent teaching English, directing plays, organizing the school newspaper, and teaching yoga in the evenings.	3.561649
The book of Job, especially chapter 39, implies that God created the nephesh creatures (“soulish” animals like birds and mammals) to serve and/or to please human beings. They are termed soulish because God has endowed each of them with a mind, a will, and the capacity to express and experience emotions. These animals are equipped and motivated to emotionally bond with and to nurture, serve, and please other members of their species and human beings. Moreover, these nephesh species were evidently endowed with this capacity before any human even existed, a characteristic that appears problematic for evolutionary or naturalistic scenarios. Recently, a British team of research psychologists has published a paper announcing the discovery of a new bonding feature between humans and nephesh creatures. Their study demonstrates for the first time that human yawns are contagious to domestic dogs. For their experiment they tested twenty-nine dogs from twenty-four different breeds spanning ages two to fifteen.1 Twenty-one of the dogs yawned when they observed a human do so. Some dog breeds were better at catching human yawns than others. For example, the Labrador breeds, known to form especially strong bonds with humans, seemed especially adept. Such behavior indicates that dogs possess the capacity for empathy towards humans. However, the yawning response may reveal more. In human-human interactions contagious yawning is known to modulate levels of arousal. Thus, in the words of the researchers, “yawn contagion [between humans and dogs] may help coordinate dog-human interaction and communication.” The study provides yet one more piece of scientific evidence that birds and mammals really were pre-designed before humans even existed to form emotional relationships with human beings in such a manner that they could enhance humanity’s well being. These animals serve and please us. More amazing still, each soulish species appears designed to serve and/or please us in a manner distinct from all others. - M. Ramiro et al., “Dogs Catch Human Yawns,” Biology Letters 4 (October 23, 2008): 446-8.	3.631839
The Federal Budget and Appropriations Process The budget and appropriations process are the steps through which the U.S. decides annual spending. Learn about these inter-related process. Federal Budget Process Step 1: President’s Budget Request The budget process begins with the president’s submission to Congress of the administration’s proposed budget for the coming fiscal year, which begins on October 1. The budget must be submitted by the first Monday in February. The president’s proposal does not have the force of law, but includes detailed spending levels for all programs. Though only input to the budget process, it generally sets the tone for the process in three ways: - It reveals the president’s beliefs about how much money the federal government should spend (not only in the coming fiscal year, but also in the following five years or more) as well as how much it should tax. - It sets the president’s priorities for spending, such as how the president would like to fund issues including education, defense, and health. - It suggests changes to spending and tax policies. The president’s proposal is formally written up by the White House’s Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and it usually includes thousands of pages of supporting information, such as historical tables of past budget statistics. Step 2: Congressional Action The Congressional Budget Act of 1974 directs that, following the submission of the president’s budget proposal, the House and Senate Budget Committees (with assistance from the Congressional Budget Office, a nonpartisan body) create the budget resolution. A budget resolution serves as the general framework within which Congress will make its decisions about specific spending and taxing levels. Budget resolutions are concurrent congressional resolutions — they do not have the force of law and they do not require the president’s signature. They do not directly provide funding to any organization or program, but establish the structure of the budget. To create a budget resolution, the Budget Committees gather reports and hold public hearings to question administration officials about the budget as a means of gaining input. They also receive “views and estimates” from congressional committees regarding details on budget issues that relate to each committee’s particular area of focus. This information usually takes the form of letters submitted to the chairman and ranking member of the Budget Committee within 6 weeks of the president’s budget proposal; these letters provide the Budget Committees with general direction and advice. Each Budget Committee then compiles all of this information to formulate the budget resolution, which it does in a series of meetings called “markup” sessions; these sessions allow for discussion and consideration of the information, while committee members may offer their own input into the budget framework being created. Upon completion of the markups, the Budget Committee will present its budget resolution to its respective house, “on the floor.” A rule under the Congressional Budget Act of 1974 requires the full Senate to consider the budget resolution by April 1 each year. The House and Senate independently proceed to debate, offer amendments, and vote upon their respective budget resolutions; amendments may be enacted by a majority vote. The House and Senate pass budget resolutions that differ from each other, so the two versions of the resolution go to a conference committee that meets to resolve differences and formulate a single budget resolution. The committee sends this version back to the House and Senate as a conference report. Both chambers consider the report, and once they have agreed to it through a majority vote (which they generally do, without making changes), the final version of the budget resolution takes effect. This is supposed to happen by April 15, but the process often takes longer to complete. Step 3: The Budget Resolution — A Closer Look The budget resolution is a crucial component of the budget process because it lays out the plan for spending and taxes for the following fiscal year. While the president’s budget proposal is very detailed, the budget resolution simply consists of a set of numbers dictating the specific amounts of money that Congress is permitted to spend in each of the 20 “budget functions” or “functional allocations,” categories of spending including transportation, agriculture, and health. Thus, the budget resolution does not set the annual spending levels for specific programs (this is done by the Committees on Appropriations — see the Appropriations Process), but rather sets targets. The budget resolution also distributes among the congressional committees the total spending figures that it has laid out for each budget function. The budget resolution lists these figures in a table called the 302(a) allocation. Within the budget resolution, Congress also includes directions as to how it wishes to appropriate (spend) the money, either through discretionary or mandatory spending: Discretionary spending refers to the funds allocated each year in the annual appropriations bills that are set by Congress for the purpose that it chooses. RESULTS Global focuses most of its efforts upon influencing discretionary spending through the appropriations process. See the next step in the Federal Budget Process, Discretionary Spending and the Appropriations Process, for more information. The discretionary budget accounts for about one-third of the federal government’s total spending. Money in this category of spending is generally used for such programs as housing, education, and foreign aid. The president and Congress must act each year to ensure that spending on these programs continues. The House and Senate Appropriations Committees determine the discretionary spending levels for the programs funded by the federal government on an annual basis. Mandatory spending is enacted by law and does not depend on any annual appropriations bill. This type of spending makes up two-thirds of the total federal budget per year. It mostly includes entitlement programs that are consistently funded each year based upon the rules set forth by them. When Congress creates a program, such as Medicaid, it determines who will be eligible to receive financial benefits under the program, often determined by such criteria as age or income. Congress then estimates the number of people each year that will be eligible for the program, using this number to formulate its spending for the program. The president and Congress can change the level of mandatory spending for a program by altering the criteria for eligibility or the formula for payment. However, the government does not need to take action annually to ensure that the program continues to be funded. The committees that set policy and the maximum funding levels allowed for these types of entitlement programs are called Authorizing Committees. Measuring Federal Spending: The government measures the amount of money it spends each year in two ways: budget authority and outlays. Budget authority (BA) refers to the amount of money that Congress will authorize the government to spend on certain activities or programs. Outlays, also known as expenditures, are what the government actually spends in any given year. For instance, a bill could be passed that appropriates $75 million to build a hospital — this $75 million is provided in budget authority. However, the hospital may take several years to build and therefore, the money would not all be spent in the year during which it was originally appropriated. Thus, $75 million in outlays would not be used until the following year or more, when the hospital is built. Note: In addition to setting spending levels, the budget resolution determines how much money the government will collect in revenue (the income of the government from taxation and other sources) for the following five years. The difference between the spending and revenue levels resolves whether there will be a surplus or a deficit, for which the budget resolution sets target levels as well; these targets are detailed in the “budget aggregates” section of the resolution. Step 4: Discretionary Spending and the Appropriations Process After the plan for the budget has been laid out in the president’s budget request and the budget resolution, the appropriations process — whereby money is finally distributed through appropriations bills — must take effect. Appropriations bills provide the funding that governmental programs such as national defense, education, homeland security, and foreign aid need to continue their activities. Thus, while the budget resolution has set goals for spending levels, appropriations bills actually provide this money to agencies. Spending through the appropriations process is considered discretionary spending. Appropriations bills are created by the House and the Senate Appropriations Committee under the general direction of the budget resolution. There are 12 appropriations bills considered annually in the Committees on Appropriations for FY 2008 (this number can change from year to year). Both the House and the Senate Committees on Appropriations include 12 subcommittees, each of which has the responsibility of developing one appropriations bill. The Appropriations Committee determines its spending levels for its appropriations bills based upon the 302(a) allocation it receives from the budget resolution (the budget resolution divides the money it is appropriating to each of the 20 budget functions among the congressional committees). In other words, the allocation sets the limit of the funding level allotted to the appropriations bills. The 302(a) allocation is mandated in Section 302(a) of the Congressional Budget Act of 1974. The Congressional Budget Act of 1974 also includes a Section 302(b), termed the 302(b) sub-allocation. Under this section, the House and Senate Appropriations Committees must divide among its 12 subcommittees the total funding allotted to its programs; i.e., it must sub-allocate the money it has received in the 302(a) allocation. View the sub-allocations for the appropriations process of FY 2010. Subcommittees on Appropriations Set Funding Levels for the 12 Appropriations Bills When the subcommittees have received directions about the total amount of money that has been sub-allocated to them, they may proceed with work upon their respective appropriations bill. The subcommittees base their determinations of funding levels upon information gathered through public hearings, while also considering the previous year’s funding levels and the president’s budget request. The appropriations subcommittee members weigh in on their priorities and provide essential input to their subcommittee’s key decision makers —the chairman and ranking minority member — through “wish list” letters. The chairman and ranking minority member use these letters to determine funding levels for the agencies under their subcommittee’s jurisdiction. The subcommittee proceeds to vote upon these levels. When its members have come to an agreement, the subcommittee sends these bills to its Appropriations Committee (either for the House or the Senate). This committee begins a markup session to discuss, consider, and offer amendments (alterations) to the bill. Appropriations Committees Send Bills to Full Chambers (the House or the Senate) Once the Appropriations Committee has completed its work upon a bill, this legislation must be sent to its full chamber, either the Senate or the House. Traditionally, the consideration of the appropriations bills begins in the House of Representatives. Therefore, the Appropriations Committee will present the appropriations bill along with its report to the House of Representatives for floor consideration. The Budget Act of 1974 sets June 10 of each year as a target date to have completed the House Appropriations Committee’s work on its appropriations bills; however, the committee usually begins to report its bills in May or June, finishing all or most of the bills by July or by the annual recess in August (the Senate’s Committee on Appropriations works to follow the same timetable). When the appropriations bill is “on the floor,” representatives debate the bill and offer amendments after hearing opening statements from the chair and the ranking minority member of the subcommittee for which the bill applies. After the bill is passed in the House, it is sent to the Senate, which also considers the bill and amendments it wishes to make. Once the Senate has made its changes, a conference committee must be formed to reconcile the differences between the House and the Senate versions of the bill. These negotiations usually take place between the chair and ranking minority members of the full Appropriations Committees, as well as the members of the subcommittee with jurisdiction over the bill. Upon reaching an agreement, the bill is once again sent to the chambers, both of which generally accept the conference report. Congress Sends Reconciled Appropriations Bills to the President Just as for any bill, the president may: - approve the bill by signing it so that it becomes a law - veto (or strike down) the bill - take no action for ten days; if Congress is in session, it automatically becomes a law; if Congress has adjourned its second session, the bill has been “pocket-vetoed” and dies. Should the president veto the bill, Congress can attempt to override the veto (which would enable the bill to become a law) with at least a two-thirds majority vote by a quorum, i.e., a minimum number of members that need to be present in order for Congress to do business. Congress must pass and the president must sign every appropriations bill before October 1, which is the start of the federal fiscal year. Often, Congress and the president are unable to complete action on every bill before this date. Thus, a continuing resolution (CR) must take effect. A continuing resolution will continue to fund the appropriations bills from the previous year as a temporary solution, so that funding is not completely cut off to a program or agency. [Emergency] Supplemental Appropriations Bills At times, the government must respond to an unanticipated circumstance that arises during the middle of a fiscal year and requires funding. In this case, a supplemental appropriations bill (or an emergency supplemental appropriations bill) is employed. For example, a supplemental spending bill might be needed in order to respond to natural disasters such as Hurricane Katrina. These emergency supplemental spending bills were once a rarity but have now become much more common, especially since the U.S. military invasion of Iraq. Many criticize these spending bills, as they have grown dramatically in size and often include money for unrelated programs that do not appear urgent; because they have been used for predictable, as opposed to emergency, spending; and because they reduce transparency of the overall budget process. Omnibus Appropriations Bills At the end of the legislative cycle, the Appropriations Committee may decide to consolidate several appropriations bills into one, which is known as an omnibus appropriations bill. The committee will generally create this type of bill when they are struggling to pass all the appropriations bills by October 1, perhaps due to disagreements among Congressmen or to a large amount of work being done on another spending bill. Federal Appropriations Process The appropriations process is critical to the creation of a budget in Congress each year — it provides the money! Specifically, there are 12 annual appropriations (spending) bills that must be passed annually to keep programs and agencies of the government running; each is considered by a different appropriations subcommittee. By working to influence these bills, RESULTS can influence the funding of the programs related to our issues of focus. The steps that RESULTS takes to influence the appropriations process are illustrated by this example of the Basic Education funding requests in the Foreign Operations Appropriations Bill for Fiscal Year (FY) 2005. January through May: Appropriations Bills are Considered by the Appropriations Subcommittees RESULTS’ work began immediately in January 2004, when the House and Senate Appropriations Committees began consideration of the following year’s budget (FY 2005). The president submitted his budget request in the beginning of February, which the House and Senate Budget Committees used to create a budget resolution (a blueprint for government spending levels). From January through May, the appropriations committees compiled their own requests for the funding levels of the twelve appropriations bills, using input from civil society. The appropriations committees then finalized these funding levels after receiving directions from the budget resolution. Specifically, the budget resolution determines the amount of money to be allocated to each committee (called “302(a) allocations”). Once the Committees on Appropriations receive their overall spending level, the “302(b) sub-allocations” then direct the chairmen of the Appropriations Committees to decide how much each of their twelve subcommittees should receive. These twelve subcommittees in turn must determine how to distribute their money among the programs funded within their appropriations bills. Funding for basic education is included in the appropriations bill of the Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Affairs (“Foreign Ops”). First, the House Foreign Ops Subcommittee would consider funding requests for basic education. Therefore, RESULTS urged members of this subcommittee to include our funding requests in their “wish lists” letters to their chairman and ranking minority member (the key decision-makers). Wish list letters allow members to weigh-in on their key funding priorities. We asked our grassroots volunteers to meet with or write letters to their members of Congress on the subcommittee, passing along a draft wish list letter provided by RESULTS staff that included our requests. When determining funding levels, the chairman and ranking minority member will consider input not only from their subcommittee members but also from those congressmen not on their subcommittee. Therefore, RESULTS also asked all of its grassroots volunteers to meet with or write to their members of Congress, urging their member to send a letter to the chairman or ranking minority member to bring attention to our issues (these letters are not called “wish lists,” since the congressmen are not part of the subcommittee itself). Depending on the representative that writes, these letters can be of great importance to the chairman and ranking member, and they can reinforce the requests made by subcommittee members. Another way for members of Congress to express their support for an issue is by adding their name to a congressional sign-on letter. RESULTS generates sign-on letters to be sent to key decision-makers, for instance, of the Committee on Appropriations or one of its subcommittees. In general, our best chance to influence legislation is at this stage, when it is being considered by a subcommittee of appropriations. Mid-May through June: Appropriations Committees Complete Work and Send Bills to Full House and Senate The State, Foreign Operations, and Related Affairs Subcommittee completed its work and set the funding level request for Basic Education at $400 million. The subcommittee then sent the bill to the full Committee on Appropriations. During this stage, RESULTS re-emphasized our requests to the chairman and ranking minority member of the Committee on Appropriations, who determine final appropriations levels among the different foreign affairs accounts and programs (though the Committee on Appropriations and the full House usually do not change the subcommittee’s recommended funding level). The Committee on Appropriations passed the Basic Education funding request, and the bill was sent to the full House of Representatives for consideration on the floor. Following the recommendations of the Committee on Appropriations, the House approved the subcommittee’s $400 million funding level request for Basic Education. The bill was then considered in the Senate by its Committee on Appropriations, specifically its Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Affairs (“Foreign Ops”). RESULTS next worked with Senate members of this committee to request an even higher level of funding for Basic Education funding than the amount requested by the House. After June 30, But Before October 1: Conference Committee Reconciles Both Versions of the Bill, and It Is Sent To the President for Final Approval After consideration by the Senate Appropriations Committees and subsequently the full Senate, the Senate set its level of funding for Basic Education at $335 million. A conference committee was then formed to reconcile the differences between the House and Senate versions of the bill. At this point, RESULTS again went to members of both chambers, asking the House to continue to support the $400 million it had originally requested while also asking the Senate to support $400 million (since the House had proposed a larger level of funding than the Senate). Ultimately, the conference committee settled on the House’s request of $400 million for Basic Education funding; this was a great success, since the funding level was set at the higher House level. The conference committee sent the final version back to both the House and the Senate for one last approval before it was presented to and signed by the president. What is the Foreign Operations Appropriations Bill? The Foreign Operations Appropriations Bill is perhaps the most relevant appropriations bill for our global work to end hunger and poverty. This bill is considered in the Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Affairs and provides funding to Basic Education, HIV/AIDS, child survival programs, tuberculosis, UNICEF, microfinance programs, and other foreign assistance activities. Within the Foreign Ops Appropriations Bill, Basic Education and microenterprise are funded under the Development Assistance Account (DA), while most of our health programs are funded within the Child Survival and Health Programs Fund.* RESULTS also works to influence the appropriations bill considered by the Subcommittee on Labor, Health, and Human Services, Education, and Related Agencies (“Labor HHS”) because domestic TB programs are funded through this subcommittee’s appropriations bill; for FY 2008, President Bush requested money for the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, TB, and Malaria in this bill as well (the Global Fund is usually funded through the Foreign Ops subcommittee). *The Development Assistance Account (DA) and Child Survival and Health Programs Fund (CSH) are two of the many accounts within a bill to which money is allotted to support specific programs. Another such example is the Economic Support Fund (ESF). Visit our Skills Center to learn more about how RESULTS influences the legislative process. The Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, Introduction to the Federal Budget Process. Committee on the Budget, United States Senate, The Congressional Budget Process: An Explanation (pdf). The U.S. Government Printing Office, Citizen’s Guide to the Federal Budget: Fiscal Year 2001 (pdf). CRS Report for Congress, The Congressional Appropriations Process: An Introduction (pdf).	3.224769
Wind Energy Technology photo of Judith Gap Wind Project by Pat Judge Harnessing the wind for our power is cost-competitive today. The region has a good start in develooping wind projects, but we could be doing much more with very little effort. Download this Wind fact sheet here. (536kB PDF file) As the above table shows, the Pacific Northwest has the potential to generate over 137,000 aMW of electricity from wind power. This is enough to provide nearly four times the current electricity consumption in the region. The majority of the region’s potential wind resources are in Montana, which alone has enough potential wind resources to supply one quarter of the electricity needs of the United States.2 Nearly 2,300 MW of nameplate wind power capacity is currently generated at Northwest wind farms and projects currently in development could triple that figure over the next several years.3 Texas leads the United States in wind development with over 4,350 MW of currently installed capacity each. California, has nearly 2,500 MW of installed capacity and Colorado, Minnesota, and Iowa are also making rapid investments in wind power, with over 1,000 MW currently in service in each state.4 Between 2001 and 2007, the U.S. wind generating capacity expanded at a remarkable rate of 49% per year on average. By the end of 2007, the U.S. had over 16,800 MW of wind capacity online, enough to power over 1.5 million homes for the entire year!5 However, Europe currently remains far ahead of the U.S. in wind development, with 56,535 MW of wind capacity online as of the end of 2007.6 Advances in technology and increased experience have made wind power competitive with many traditional sources of electricity, especially when factoring in risk factors for traditional generation resources such as fuel volatility and future environmental regulation. The price of wind-generated electricity has decreased approximately 90% from the early 1980s; modern wind farms now generally have levelized costs in the range of 4-7 cents per kilowatt-hour over the life of a project (excluding any tax credits) making them competitive with many new coal or natural gas facilities. Costs for individual projects vary and depend on the strength and consistency of the wind, financing terms, and transmission infrastructure. All else being equal, the cost effectiveness of wind farms generally increases with the turbines’ capacity factor, the size of the turbines, and number of turbines installed.7 Tapping our domestic wind resources brings a host of economic benefits. Since the strongest wind resources are often located in rural areas, rural counties and landowners can benefit from wind power. Wind farms are capital intensive, infusing money into the local economy during construction phases and paying property taxes to the host county and royalties to local landowners during operation. At the 24 MW Klondike Phase I Wind Farm in Sherman County, Oregon, the wind project contributes 10% of the county’s property tax base. Wind turbines are also compatible with rural land uses like farming and ranching and can provide extra income to property owners via power sales or royalty payments. On average, landowners make between $2,000 and $7,000 annually for each modern wind turbine located on their land. In contrast, a natural gas plant drains an estimated $200,000-$350,000 per MW of capacity out of the regional economy annually for fuel imports. Additionally, wind energy produces 27% more jobs per kilowatt-hour than coal plants, and 66% more jobs than natural gas plants.9 Wind energy is clearly a homegrown energy source that strengthens the economy and increases the nation’s energy security. Turbine blades, modeled after airplane wings, rotate due to a pressure differential caused by air moving over the surface of the blade. The blades cause a rotor to turn, which drives an electrical generator. Turbines can adjust so that they always face toward the wind. Wind turbines can be designed to operate either at variable speeds or at a single, fixed speed. The variable speed designs are more complex but they convert wind power into electricity more efficiently. Most wind turbines are designed to use wind blowing anywhere from 8 to 56 mph. Sizes for new U.S. utility-scale turbines for onshore sites range from 850 kW to 2.5 MW and turbines rated 3.5 MW and larger are being used in offshore wind projects. While variable, wind energy can be integrated into a utility system using existing load-matching capabilities for a minimal cost of 0-0.5 cents/kWh.10 Weather forecasting can predict wind power output with a fair degree of confidence. Additionally, multiple wind sites in different locations can be combined to create a relatively stable power supply curve. Wind turbines generate electricity without producing any pollutant emissions. In contrast, fossil fuel plants emit toxic mercury, nitrous oxides that cause smog, sulfur dioxide that causes acid rain and large quantities of carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse gas. Although wind is one of the most benign power sources, if not properly sited, it too may have environmental impacts. Wildlife and avian impacts are often the greatest concern. New tower, blade and turbine designs and careful siting help minimize environmental impacts. The federal production tax credit offers an important tax credit to new wind production. Each state in the region offers several additional incentives for wind development, from residential projects to utility-scale developments. Oregon, for example, provides personal and business tax credits and low-cost financing for renewable energy projects, while Washington provides small wind turbine owners a strong production incentive and grants sales tax exemptions for renewable energy equipment. Idaho offers a residential tax deduction and a sales tax exemption for renewable energy sys-tems as well as low-interest loans for small-scale wind installations and state-backed bonds for utility-scale wind projects. Finally, Montana offers corporate income and property tax incentives and a residential tax credit for renewable energy installations. Additional incentives are offered as well. See AWEA's map of wind projects in the US: Updated February 19, 2008 Sources and Notes: 1. Wind potential from Renewable Energy Atlas of the West, Land and Water Fund of the Rockies, et al. (July 2002). - Installed capacity from RNP's list of Northwest renewable energy projects, ((add link to project list here)). - Capacity factor from Fifth Northwest Electric Power and Conservation Plan, Northwest Power and Conservation Council (NWPCC) (May, 2005). See Appendix I. - Levelized costs include transmission and integration costs and the federal Produc-tion Tax Credit. 2. 2005 Northwest consumption from NWPCC, op. cit. note 1. - 2004 total U.S. electricity generation from Annual Energy Outlook 2006, Energy Information Administration (Feb. 2006). See Table A8. 3. Installed capacity and projects in development from RNP, op. cit. note 1. 4. “U.S. Wind Energy Projects”. American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) (Jan 16, 2008). www.awea.org/projects/ accessed 2/19/08 5. Annual growth figures from “Wind Power, U.S. Installed Capacity”, AWEA, www.awea.org/faq/instcap.html, accessed 2/19/08. - 2007 year-end installed capacity from “Installed US Wind Power Capacity Surged 45% in 2007”, AWEA (Jan 17, 2008). 6. “Statistics”, European Wind Energy As-sociation, www.ewea.org/index.php?id=180, accessed 2/19/09. 7. Cost trends from “The Economics of Wind Energy”, AWEA (Feb 2005). - Levelized costs include transmission and integration costs and the federal Production Tax Credit. 8. Graphic from “Renewable Energy”, New South Wales Department of Energy, Utilities and Sustainability. www.seda.nsw.gov.au/ren_wind_body.asp, accessed 9/27/06 . 9. Natural gas fuel cost assumes a 55% efficient combined cycle plant with a 90% capacity factor using natural gas at $4-$7/mmBtu. - Jobs figures from “Wind Energy for Rural Economic Development”, US Department of Energy, EERE (2003). 10. Wind Taskforce Report, Western Governor’s Association (March 2006). 11. U.S. from “U.S. Installed Capacity”, AWEA. NW from RNP, op. cit. note 1. "Montana … alone has enough potential wind resources to supply one quarter of the electricity needs of the United States."	3.058493
Would it really be so difficult to determine how chapter divisions are marked in all surviving ancient books? The question of chapter divisions and headings in ancient literary and technical texts is a long term interest of mine, as anyone who chooses to look may discover by clicking on the tag at the end of this post. We find, in later medieval texts, that these ancient texts are often divided, not merely into books, but also into chapters, with chapter headings. It does not seem well known or classified, just how often we find this. Chapter divisions and titles are a cinderella subject, largely ignored or treating in passing. In my last post, I looked at what chapter divisions and titles there were in a renaissance manuscript of Pliny the Elder’s Natural History. The NH is an interesting work to investigate, for this subject, since the author states in the preface that book 1 of the work is a list of capituli. So we do know that these items existed in the autograph, whereas we generally have no such certainty in other works. Capituli, or “subject headings”, are perhaps just a list of topics covered, in the order in which they appear in the text. There is no necessity to suppose that the text was formally divided into “chapters”, in the manner of a modern work –indeed some of the capituli refer to no more than a handful of lines of text, before the next capitulum appears in the margin, so we might better say “sections” — and we can see that in the Pliny ms. it is not. So while the English word “chapter” perhaps derives from the Latin capitulum — or does it? Do we know this, and if so, how? — the term is perhaps one that is rather different. Perhaps we need a word study of the appearance of the English word, and how it was originally used, and how it came to mean what it means today. Is it used to translate capitulum in medieval English texts? There is clearly a research project here. Likewise we ought to locate all uses of the term capituli in ancient literature — and likewise the Greek kephalaia — and from this determine its meaning or meanings, and any change that they underwent during the ancient and medieval period. This might begin with an electronic search, and it really should not take more than a couple of weeks to do. But finally … we need to look at ancient books themselves, and see just what is in the margins, or gathered at the start of books, or whatever. Do we have chapter titles marked? Are they numbered? Are there collections of them at the start of the book, in a multi-book history? Or is it a case that the early mss just have a list of topics at the start of each book, and that these are mirrored in the body of the work, gradually, by subsequent readers and copyists? Which works have these elements? It sounds like a large task. But is it? A commenter on my last post pointed out that, in some ways, it is a superficial task. All we have to do is look through the manuscript at a high level. And that may not be so hard to do. For the number of actual ancient books is not that great. The Codices Latini Antiquiores of E. A. Lowe lists all the fragments of ancient Latin books. The number of codices which are more or else intact is probably not that great. I don’t know about Greek mss from antiquity, but surely there is a list somewhere? Nor does it necessarily involve a lot of travel. The IRHT in France has a huge collection of microfilms of manuscripts. Admittedly this is not nearly as good as colour images — and whether a link is in red ink or black might well be important here — but a couple of weeks work at a microfilm reader in Orleans might well answer many of these questions, and provide a base of data from which some solid conclusions might be drawn. It sounds like a solid piece of work for a PhD thesis, for a student who is prepared to work hard. I feel tempted myself; but of course I am not an academic, and I don’t have the time. Sadly, I fear, I don’t have the energy any more either! But the whole question of chapter divisions, titles, etc, is one that simply needs a pioneer to go into it. It’s not that hard to do; just that no-one has really attacked it. I’ve always thought of the task of working out the history of the chapter titles for endless different literary and technical works was one that would require an army of scholars. Indeed a great manuscript scholar once wrote to me that it would require scholarly collaboration. But why not simply examine what is in all the surviving ancient codices, up to the 8th century, and publish details of what is to be found therein? How long would that really take?	3.171353
King James II of England (who was also James VII of Scotland) inherited the throne in 1685 upon the death of his brother, Charles II. James II was unpopular because of his attempts to increase the power of the monarchy and restore the Catholic faith. Deposed in the "Glorious Revolution" of 1688-89, he fled to France. His daughter and son-in-law succeeded him as Queen Mary II and King William III. James II died in 1701. Unless otherwise noted, these books are for sale at Amazon.com. Your purchase through these links will help to support the continued operation and improvement of the Royalty.nu site. James II by John Miller. Biography from the Yale English Monarchs series. James II: The Triumph and the Tragedy by John Callow. Charts James' life using little-known material from the UK National Archives. Includes James' own description of the Battle of Edgehill, his reasons for his conversion to Catholicism, and his correspondence with William of Orange. A Court in Exile: The Stuarts in France, 1689-1718 by Edward Corp. After James II was deposed, he established his court in France. The book describes his court and the close relationships between the British and French royal families. King in Exile: James II: Warrior, King and Saint by John Callow. Reassesses James's strategy for dealing with his downfall and exile, presenting a portrait of a man who planned for great political rewards and popular acclaim. James II and the Trial of the Seven Bishops by William Gibson. The trial of seven bishops in 1688 was a prelude to the Glorious Revolution, as popular support for the bishops led to widespread welcome for William of Orange's invasion. The Making of King James II by John Callow is about the formative years of the fallen king. Out of print, but sometimes available from Alibris. The Countess and the King: A Novel of the Countess of Dorchester and King James II by Susan Holloway Scott. Novel about Katherine Sedley, a royal mistress forced to make the most perilous of choices: to remain loyal to the king, or to England. The Crown for a Lie by Jane Lane. Novel about how James II lost his throne. Out of print, but sometimes available from Alibris.	3.534797
RWJF Priority: Use pricing strategies—both incentives and disincentives—to promote the purchase of healthier foods Prices can significantly affect family food choices and are emerging as an important strategy in the movement to reverse the childhood obesity epidemic. For example, when healthy foods like fruits and vegetables are more affordable, children are less likely to gain excess weight. And leading health authorities, including the Institute of Medicine, recommend new policies to reduce overconsumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, which are one of the top sources of calories in the American diet. The resources below, from RWJF grantees and partners, explore the possible health and economic impacts of using pricing strategies to promote consumption of healthy foods and beverages and discourage consumption of unhealthy products.	3.149504
Standard DefinitionStandard-definition television (SDTV) is a television system that uses a resolution that is not considered to be either high-definition television (HDTV 720p and 1080p) or enhanced-definition television (EDTV 480p). The two common SDTV signal types are 576i, with 576 interlaced lines of resolution, derived from the European-developed PAL and SECAM systems; and 480i based on the American National Television System Committee NTSC system. High DefinitionHD video has higher resolution than SD video, which results in a sharper picture. Typical HD display resolution will be 1,280×720 pixels (720p) or 1,920×1,080 pixels (1080i/1080p). For our latest tips, offers and competitions join us on	3.011211
Coincidentally, 2012 saw the largest acreage of corn in the U.S. planted since WW II, and subsequently the worst drought since the 1950′s, affecting 80% of agricultural land. This will cause price increases in meat and dairy, ethanol, and to a much lesser extent processed foods, since that is what virtually all of the cropland land is used for. Government subsidies and crop insurance go primarily to commodity crops, not human food ones, so the U.S. Government will be paying along with us for that drought. In the U.S. 45% of all land is pasture or cropland. Cropland = 408 million acres. Of this: Commodity crops – corn and soybeans, 170 million acres; wheat 57 million acres, oats 16 million acres, cotton 10 or more million acres, less for rice, oats and sorghum and others. Specialty crops – vegetables, fruits and nuts, flowers, Christmas trees, etc. 14 million acres, most of these for food crops . (Until recent farm bills, these food crops were not subsidized, farmers were even penalized for growing them. Now a small percentage of subsidies goes towards them.) This is why a salad costs more than a Big Mac.	3.123935
LA JOLLA, Calif., July 18, 2012 – In their quest to treat cardiovascular disease, researchers and pharmaceutical companies have long been interested in developing new medicines that activate a heart protein called APJ. But researchers at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute (Sanford-Burnham) and the Stanford University School of Medicine have now uncovered a second, previously unknown, function for APJ—it senses mechanical changes when the heart is in danger and sets the body on a course toward heart failure. This means that activating APJ could actually be harmful in some cases—potentially eye-opening information for some heart drug makers. The study appears July 18 in Nature. "Just finding a molecule that activates APJ is not enough. What's important to heart failure is not if this receptor is 'on' or 'off,' but the way it's activated," said Pilar Ruiz-Lozano, Ph.D., who led the study. Ruiz-Lozano, formerly assistant professor at Sanford-Burnham, is now associate professor of pediatrics in the Stanford University School of Medicine and adjunct faculty member at Sanford-Burnham. Stretching the heart APJ is a receptor that sits on the cell surface in many organs, where it senses the external environment. When a hormone called apelin comes along and binds APJ, it sets off a molecular chain reaction that influences a number of cellular functions. Many previous studies have shown that apelin-APJ activity directs beneficial processes such as embryonic heart development, maintenance of normal blood pressure, and new blood vessel formation. According to Ruiz-Lozano's latest study, however, APJ can also be activated a second, more harmful, way that doesn't involve apelin. In this pathway, APJ senses and responds to mechanical changes in the heart. To better understand these mechanical changes, let's look at a person with high blood pressure. In this case, the person's heart has to work harder to pump the same amount of blood at the same rate as a healthy person. To meet the increased demand, individual heart muscle cells start making more proteins, making the cells bigger. Eventually, cell membranes stretch and each cell begins to pull away from its neighbor. This leads to an enlarged heart—a condition known as hypertrophy. In pathological (disease) conditions, hypertrophy can lead to heart failure. APJ and heart failure The best way to determine the role a protein plays in a particular cellular process is to see what happens when it's missing. To do this, Ruiz-Lozano's team, including co-first authors Maria Cecilia Scimia, Ph.D. and Cecilia Hurtado, Ph.D., used mice that lack APJ. Under everyday conditions, the APJ-deficient mice appeared perfectly normal. However, unlike their normal counterparts, the mice lacking APJ couldn't sense danger when their hearts enlarged. As a result, mice were actually healthier without APJ—none succumbed to heart failure. "In other words, without APJ, ignorance is bliss—the heart doesn't sense the danger and so it doesn't activate the hypertrophic pathways that lead to heart failure," Ruiz-Lozano said. "This tells us that, depending on how it's done, activating APJ might make matters worse for heart disease patients."	3.498502
Mar. 4, 2013 Behind locked doors, in a lab built like a bomb shelter, Perry Gerakines makes something ordinary yet truly alien: ice. This isn't the ice of snowflakes or ice cubes. No, this ice needs such intense cold and low pressure to form that the right conditions rarely, if ever, occur naturally on Earth. And when Gerakines makes the ice, he must keep the layer so microscopically thin it is dwarfed by a grain of pollen. These ultrathin layers turn out to be perfect for recreating some of the key chemistry that takes place in space. In these tiny test tubes, Gerakines and his colleagues in the Cosmic Ice Lab at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md., can reproduce reactions in ice from almost any time and place in the history of the solar system, including some that might help explain the origin of life. "This is not the chemistry people remember from high school," says Reggie Hudson, who heads the Cosmic Ice Lab. "This is chemistry in the extreme: bitter cold, harsh radiation and nearly non-existent pressure. And it's usually taking place in gases or solids, because generally speaking, there aren't liquids in interstellar space." The Cosmic Ice Lab is one of a few laboratories worldwide where researchers have been studying the ultracool chemistry of cosmic ice. With its powerful particle accelerator, the Goddard lab has the special ability to mimic almost any kind of solar or cosmic radiation to drive these reactions. And that lets them dig deep to study the chemistry of ice below the surface of planets and moons as well as ice in space. Recipe for disorder In a vacuum chamber about the size of a lunchbox, Gerakines recreates a little patch of deep space, in all its extremes. He pumps out air until the pressure inside drops to a level a billion times lower than normal for Earth, then chills the chamber to minus 433 degrees Fahrenheit (15 kelvins). To get ice, all that remains is to open a valve and let in water vapor. The instant the sprightly vapor molecules enter the chamber they are literally frozen in their tracks. Still pointing every which way, the molecules are transformed immediately from their gaseous state into the disorderly solid called amorphous ice. Amorphous ice is exactly the opposite of the typical ice on Earth, which forms perfect crystals like those that make up snowflakes or frost needles. These crystals are so orderly and predictable that this ice is considered a mineral, complete with a rating of 2.5 on the Mohs scale of hardness -- the same rating as a fingernail. Though almost unheard of on Earth, amorphous ice is so widespread in interstellar space that it could be the most common form of water in the universe. Left over from the age when the solar system was born, it is scattered across vast distances, often as particles no bigger than grains of dust. It's also been spotted in comets and icy moons. The secret to making amorphous ice in the lab, Gerakines finds, is to limit the layer to a depth of about half a micrometer -- thinner than a strand of spider's silk. "Water is such a good insulator that if the ice gets too thick, only the bottom of the sample, closer to the cooling source, will stay sufficiently cold," says Gerakines. "The ice on top will get warm enough to crystallize." The superthin ice can be spiked with all kinds of interesting chemicals found in space. One set of chemicals that Gerakines works with is amino acids, which are key players in the chemistry of life on Earth. Researchers have spent decades identifying a whole smorgasbord of amino acids in meteorites (including some involved in life), as well as one found in a sample taken from a comet. "And because water is the dominant form of frozen material in the interstellar medium and outer solar system," says Gerakines, "any amino acids out there are probably in contact with water at some point." For his current set of experiments, Gerakines makes three kinds of ice, each spiked with an amorphous form of an amino acid (either glycine, alanine or phenylalanine) that is found in proteins. The real action begins when Gerakines hits the ice with radiation. Earlier studies by other researchers have looked at ice chemistry using ultraviolet light. Gerakines opts instead to look at cosmic radiation, which can reach ice hidden below the surface of a planet or moon. To mimic this radiation, he uses a proton beam from the high-voltage particle accelerator, which resides in an underground room lined with immense concrete walls for safety. With the proton beam, a million years' worth of damage can be reproduced in just half an hour. And by adjusting the radiation dose, Gerakines can treat the ice as if it were lying exposed or buried at different depths of soil in comets or icy moons and planets. He tests the three kinds of water-plus-amino-acid ice and compares them to ice made from amino acids only. Between blasts, he checks the samples using a "molecular fingerprinting" technique called spectroscopy to see if the amino acids are breaking down and chemical by-products are forming. As expected, more and more of the amino acids break down as the radiation dose adds up. But Gerakines notices that the amino acids last longer if the ice includes water than if they are left on their own. This is odd, because when water breaks down, one of the fragments it leaves behind is hydroxyl (OH), a chemical well-known for attacking other compounds. The spectroscopy confirms that some OH is being produced. But overall, says Gerakines, "the water is essentially acting like a radiation shield, probably absorbing a lot of the energy, the same way a layer of rock or soil would." When he repeats the experiments at two higher temperatures, he is surprised to find the acids fare even better. From these preliminary measurements, he and Hudson calculate how long amino acids could remain intact in icy environments over a range of temperatures. "We find that some amino acids could survive tens to hundreds of millions of years in ice near the surface of Pluto or Mars and buried at least a centimeter [less than half an inch] deep in places like the comets of the outer solar system," says Gerakines. "For a place that gets heavy radiation, like Europa, they would need to be buried a few feet." (These findings were reported in the journal Icarus in August 2012.) "The good news for exploration missions," says Hudson, "is it looks as if these amino acids are actually more stable than anybody realized at temperatures typical of places like Pluto, Europa and even Mars." The Cosmic Ice Lab is part of the Astrochemistry Laboratory in Goddard's Solar System Exploration Division and is funded in part by the Goddard Center for Astrobiology and the NASA Astrobiology Institute. 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View The Sky And Celestial Bodies Just As Galilieo Did 400 Years Ago The Galileoscope is 400 years of product development in the making - this high-quality telescope kit was developed by leading astronomers, optical engineers, and science educators to showcase how early astronomers made their discoveries. Once assembled, the telescope will offer views of lunar craters and mountains, four moons circling Jupiter, the phases of Venus, Saturn's rings, and countless stars invisible to the unaided eye. The 50mm diameter telescope offers 25X to 50X magnification. The kit is easy-to-assemble and includes standard components such as a base that fits most tripods and a 1.25 focuser. Educational activities and observing guides for use with your Galileoscope are available for free at www.TeachingWithTelescopes.org. “The father of modern observational astronomy,” Galileo Galilei was an Italian physicist and astronomer whose ideas and inventions were an important part of the Scientific Revolution. Supporting Copernicus’s heliocentric theory of the earth’s revolution around the sun, Galileo made several contributions to modern astronomy, with his telescopic observations WARNING: Use with adult supervision only. WARNING: Do not look at the Sun with the Galileoscope; severe eye damage will occur.	3.356769
Our bodies create a tremendous amount of internal heat. We normally cool ourselves by sweating and radiating heat through our skin. Under certain circumstances, such as unusually high temperatures, high humidity, or vigorous exercise in hot weather, this natural cooling system may begin to fail, allowing internal heat to build up to dangerous levels. The result may be heat illness, which can come in the form of heat cramps, heat exhaustion, or heatstroke. Heat cramps are brief, severe cramps in the muscles of the legs, arms, or abdomen that may occur during or after vigorous exercise in extreme heat. The sweating that occurs with vigorous exercise causes the body to lose salts and fluids. And the low level of salts causes the muscles to cramp. Children are particularly susceptible to heat cramps when they haven't been drinking enough fluids. Although painful, heat cramps aren't What to Do: Most heat cramps don't require special treatment. A cool place, rest, and fluids should ease your child's discomfort. Massaging cramped muscles may also help. Heat exhaustion is a more severe heat illness that can occur when a person in a hot climate or environment hasn't been drinking enough fluids. Symptoms may include: - clammy skin - nausea and/or - hyperventilation (rapid breathing) What to Do: - Bring your child indoors or into the shade. - Loosen or remove your child's clothing. - Encourage your child to eat and drink. - Give your child a bath in cool (not cold) water. - Call your child's doctor for further advice. If your child is too exhausted or ill to eat or drink, intravenous fluids may be necessary. If left untreated, heat exhaustion may escalate into heatstroke, which can be fatal. The most severe form of heat illness, heatstroke is a life-threatening medical emergency . The body loses its ability to regulate its own temperature. Body temperature can soar to 106 degrees Fahrenheit (41.1 degrees Celsius) or even higher, leading to brain damage or even death if it isn't quickly treated. Prompt medical treatment is required to bring the body temperature under control. Factors that increase the risk for heatstroke include overdressing and extreme physical exertion in hot weather with inadequate fluid intake. Heatstroke can also happen when a child is left in, or becomes accidentally trapped in, a car on a hot day. When the outside temperature is 93 degrees Fahrenheit (33.9 degrees Celsius), the temperature inside a car can reach 125 degrees Fahrenheit (51.7 degrees Celsius) in just 20 minutes, quickly raising a child's body temperature to dangerous levels. What to Do: Call for emergency medical help if your child has been outside in the sun exercising for a long time and shows one or more of the following symptoms of heatstroke: - flushed, hot, dry skin with no sweating - temperature of 105 degrees Fahrenheit (40.6 degrees Celsius) - severe, throbbing headache - weakness, dizziness, or confusion - sluggishness or fatigue - decreased responsiveness - loss of consciousness While waiting for help: - Get your child indoors or into the shade. - Undress your child and sponge or douse him or her with cool An Ounce of Prevention Some ways you can prevent your child from experiencing heat - Teach your child to always drink plenty of fluids before and during an activity in hot, sunny weather - even if he or she - Make sure your child wears light-colored loose clothing. - Make sure your child only participates in heavy activity outdoors before noon and after 6 PM. - Teach your child to come indoors immediately whenever he or she feels overheated. Updated and reviewed by: Steven Dowshen, MD Date reviewed: March 2007 Note: All information is for educational purposes only. For specific medical advice, diagnoses, and treatment, consult your doctor. © 1995-2009 The Nemours Foundation/KidsHealth. All rights reserved.	3.724696
Indian removal had been taking place in the United States since the 18th Century as more Americans made the move westward. In the early 19th Century, Andrew Jackson and the majority of white Americans like him, wanted the Indians to move west of the Mississippi, out of the way from white expansion. Popular thought was that the Indians were savages who could not be civilized, and integration with the white culture was not a possibility. Through the next several years, Indian tribes all over the eastern front were forced to reservations of proportional inequality compared with land once owned. The United States bought the land from the Indians while using its brute power to force unruly tribes west. No matter how much they tried, the Indians were no match for the strength of the United States. Indians of the Sauk and Fox tribes tried to take back land that was ceded to the United States wrongfully. When they inhabited the vacant land, Americans saw them as a threat to the white settlements close-by. Illinois state militia was sent in to destroy the so-called "invaders." The Indians retreated back and the militia continued to attack until most had been killed. Were Americans justified in the mass movement of Indian tribes? I would have to say they were not. I cannot see the logic in their assumptions of the Indians. For the most part, little interaction took place with the Indians. Yet, Americans still believed they were uncivilized. Perhaps the problem was in terms of envy. Indians had been capable of adapting to land and using the land efficiently for years at a time. I think Americans saw how the Indians were able to do this, and became jealous of their superior farming abilities. Land was becoming useless in the east, and Indians had been able to use their land repeatedly. Americans saw this fertile land as rich in potential profit and were willing to go to any length in acquiring it. Evidence of the two cultures working together in a society was apparent in New Mexico, Texas, and California. If these people were able to survive and live off each other, I would have to assume that had the United States made an effort, they could have resolved this situation in an easier manner. Unless it was jealousy that was driving them to take the Indian land. Something tells me it was exactly that which caused such a debacle. Superior in farming techniques and land use, the Indians efficient ways were the downfall of their land availability.	3.745114
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom during the period covered by this report, and government policy continued to contribute to the generally free practice of religion. The Government and the religious communities historically have had good relations; however, as in previous years, the Government was critical of and harassed religious leaders who spoke out against the Government's ongoing campaign of violent intimidation against opposition supporters. Church leaders and members who criticized the Government faced arrest and detention. The generally amicable relations between the various religious communities contributed to religious freedom. The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights. Section I. Religious Demography The country has a total area of 240,122 square miles, and its population is estimated at 11.6 million. Between 60 and 70 percent of the population belong to the mainstream Christian denominations, with between 17 and 27 percent of the population identifying themselves as Roman Catholic. There are no reliable statistics on the exact number of Christian churches or religious movements in the country. The evangelical denominations, mostly Pentecostal churches, and Apostolic groups are the fastest growing religious groups in the country. They appeal to large numbers of disillusioned members from the established churches who reportedly are attracted by promises of miracles and messages of hope at a time of political, social and economic instability. The country's small Muslim population is estimated at 1 percent. The remainder of the population consists of practitioners of Greek Orthodoxy, Judaism, and traditional indigenous religions and indigenous syncretistic religions that mix Christianity and traditional African culture and beliefs; there also are small numbers of Hindus, Buddhists, Baha'is, and atheists. The dominance of Christianity dates to the early contact of Portuguese traders and Jesuit priests with Africans in the region in the late 1500s. The Jesuits established churches and educational institutions in the Zambezi Valley at that time. Several centuries later, Catholic, Methodist, Anglican, Dutch Reformed, and Salvation Army missionaries began to compete aggressively for territorial and spiritual monopolies throughout the country, resulting in "areas of interest" for each of these churches. As a result, many persons identify with the Christian denomination that has had the longest historical connection to their area. President Robert Mugabe is a Roman Catholic who professes to practice his faith actively, and many of those who make up the elite of society tend to be associated with one of the established Christian churches, especially the Anglican and Methodist churches. Due to the country's colonial and apartheid-like history, the vast majority of the country's black population was prevented from attending government schools, which were restricted to white students. Christian mission schools taught the few blacks who were able to obtain a formal education. Consequently the vast majority of the country's liberation war leadership, who later became the Government's senior officials, were instructed by Christian educators. The Muslim community consists primarily of South Asian immigrants (Indian and Pakistani), migrants from other southern and eastern African countries (Mozambique and Malawi), and a very small number of North African and Middle Eastern immigrants. There are mosques located in nearly all of the larger towns, and there are a number of mosques in rural areas. There are 18 mosques in the capital Harare and 8 in Bulawayo. The Muslim community generally has been somewhat insular; however, in the past several years, the Islamic community has expanded its outreach efforts, and is having increasing success proselytizing among the majority black indigenous population. A variety of indigenous churches and groups have emerged from the mainstream Christian churches over the years. Some, such as the Zimbabwe Assembly of God (ZAOG), continue to adhere strictly to Christian beliefs; in fact, they oppose the espousal of traditional religions. Other indigenous groups, such as the Seven Apostles, combine elements of established Christian beliefs with some beliefs based on traditional African culture and religion. These latter groups tend to be centered on a prophetic figure, with members of the congregation identifying themselves as "apostles." These church members wear long white robes and head coverings. Many of these churches date from the early 1920s, when there was widespread racial and religious segregation. Many of the founders of African indigenous churches broke away from Christian missionary churches, and some of their teachings incorporate what has become known as "black consciousness." To a large extent, these churches grew out of the Christian churches' failure to adapt to traditional African culture and religion. These indigenous churches have proliferated as a result of splits among the followers of the different "prophets." Many persons continue to believe, in varying degrees, in traditional indigenous religions. These persons may worship in a westernized Christian church on Sundays but consult with traditional healers during the week. Belief in traditional healers spans both the rural and urban areas. Traditional healers are very common and are licensed and regulated by the Zimbabwe National African Traditional Healers' Association (ZINATHA). Foreign missionaries operate in the country, including members of the Roman Catholic Church and the Anglican Church. Section II. Status of Religious Freedom The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in practice; however, a law that criminalizes both purporting to practice witchcraft and accusing persons of practicing witchcraft reportedly was viewed as restrictive by some practitioners of indigenous religions. There is no state religion. The Government generally recognizes all religions. The Government does not require religious institutions to be registered. Religious organizations that operate schools or medical facilities are required to register those specific institutions with the appropriate ministry regulating those areas. Similarly, religious institutions may apply for tax-exempt status and duty-free privileges with the Customs Department, which generally grants such requests. The Government permits religious education in private schools. There are Islamic and Hebrew primary and secondary schools in the major urban areas, primarily Harare and Bulawayo. The country has had a long history of Catholic, Anglican, and Methodist primary and secondary schools. Since independence there also has been a proliferation of evangelical basic education schools. The Christian schools constitute one-third of the schools in the country, with the Catholic Church having the majority. In addition there are several institutions of higher education that include religious studies as a core component of the curriculum. Christian missions provided the first hospitals to care for black citizens. There are 126 hospitals and clinics in the country that fall under the Zimbabwe Association of Church Related Hospitals (ZACH), an association that consists largely of mainstream Christian churches. The individual churches are the predominant source of funding for maintaining these hospitals because of the Government's increasing inability to provide essential services. The Government does provide small subsidies to cover some hospital staff salaries, but these make up only a small percentage of the hospitals' operating budgets. Restrictions on Religious Freedom Witchcraft--widely understood to encompass attempts to harm others not only by magic but also by covert means of established efficacy such as poisons--traditionally has been a common explanation for diseases of which the causes were unknown. Although traditional indigenous religions generally include or accommodate belief in the efficacy of witchcraft, they generally approve of harmful witchcraft only for defensive or retaliatory purposes and purport to offer protection against it. In the past several years, interest in healing through traditional religion and through prayer reportedly has increased as HIV/AIDS has infected an estimated one-third of the adult population, and affordable science-based medicines effective in treating HIV/AIDS have remained unavailable. The Witchcraft Suppression Act (WSA) criminalizes purporting to practice witchcraft, accusing persons of practicing witchcraft, hunting witches, and soliciting persons to name witches; penalties include imprisonment for up to 7 years. The law defines witchcraft as "the use of charms and any other means or devices adopted in the practice of sorcery," and provides punishments for intending to cause disease or injury to any person or animal through the use of witchcraft. Since 1997 ZINATHA has proposed amendments to the law that would redefine witchcraft only as the practice of sorcery with the intent to cause harm, including illness, injury, or death; however, mainstream Christian churches reportedly have opposed such legislation. Human rights groups also generally supported the existing WSA; the Act has been used since independence primarily to protect persons, primarily women, who have been accused falsely of causing harm to persons or crops in rural areas where traditional religious practices are strong. In March 2002, the Traditional Medical Practitioners Council, formed from members of ZINATHA to oversee traditional healers, called for amendments to the WSA that would authenticate the existence of witches and wizards and remove penalties for accusing persons of practicing witchcraft. There is some tension between the Government and some indigenous African churches because of the latter's preference for prayer over science-based medical practices that result in the reduction of avoidable childhood diseases and deaths in those communities. Some members of the indigenous churches and groups believe in healing through prayer only and refuse to have their children vaccinated. The Ministry of Health has had limited success in vaccinating children against communicable childhood diseases in these religious communities. Human rights activists also have criticized these indigenous churches for their sanctioning of marriages of underage girls. President Mugabe has expressed skepticism about the increasing membership in evangelical and indigenous churches and has indicated that he believes that they could be subversive. According to press reports, he has refused to meet with bishops from indigenous churches since 1997. The Government maintains a monopoly on television broadcasting through the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation (ZBC), despite a broadcasting law passed in 2001 that permits one independent television broadcaster but imposes stringent licensing requirements. The Government permits limited religious broadcasting on ZBC and advertising in the government-controlled press by the older, established Christian churches, as well as new evangelical churches and institutions, such as The 700 Club and World Vision. Programming produced by the U.S.-based Christian Broadcasting Network is shown on ZBC. The Government generally follows the recommendations of the Religious Advisory Board, an umbrella grouping of Christian denominations, on appropriate religious material to broadcast. Muslims, who are not represented on the board, have approached the advisory board about obtaining access to airtime. The chairman of the Religious Advisory Board believes that Muslims represent too small of a percentage of society to take up minimal religious airtime or to merit membership on the advisory board. Other evangelical church groups are more hostile to Islam and are unlikely to support the inclusion of Islamic programming in the already limited religious broadcasting block. However, during the period covered by this report, Muslims occasionally were allowed to conduct the daily opening prayer on ZBC. In the last few years, due to inadequate resources, the Government has returned several former church schools that it had taken over at independence to their respective churches. The Government has returned nearly all of the secondary schools and a few of the primary schools that it seized from the churches after independence. Most former church schools remaining under Government control are used as primary schools in the rural areas. Abuses of Religious Freedom The Government and government supporters targeted some clergymen because they strongly criticized the state-sanctioned, politically motivated crimes and violence during the period prior to the 2000 parliamentary elections and the March 2002 presidential election and urged the Government to restore peace in the country (see Section III). Church leaders and members who criticize the Government continue to face arrest, detention, and possible deportation. On February 28, police harassed, arrested and detained 21 pastors as they attempted to deliver a petition against the misuse of police power to Police Commissioner Augustine Chihuri. On February 14, police arrested and detained a blind Roman Catholic nun in Harare along with thirty-nine other women for participating in a Valentine's Day March for Peace sponsored by Women of Zimbabwe Arise! (WOZA). Police also beat and arrested a priest, Fr. Nigel Johnson, for filming a similar march on the same day in Bulawayo. On February 13, police prevented a public meeting at the Northside Community Church in Harare, which was supposed to address churches' role in the country's political crisis. Police arrested the president of the Evangelical Fellowship of Zimbabwe (EFZ), Bishop Trevor Manhanga, along with seven other people and detained them for several hours. In late May 2002, local government minister Ignatius Chombo prompted war veterans in Binga district, Matabeleland North province, to close down the food distribution efforts of the Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace (CCJP), which was the only source of food for many rural residents in the Binga district. Chombo criticized the CCJP for establishing local structures parallel to the Government's structures. War veterans continued to block the food from leaving CCJP's warehouse at the end of the period covered by this report, preventing food deliveries to hospital patients and school children. In February 2002, police arrested Father Kevin O'Doherty and eight others participating in a prayer processional to police headquarters in Bulawayo. They were charged with contravening the newly-passed Public Order and Security Act, but the charges later were dropped. During the 2002 presidential election campaign, the state-controlled daily newspaper in Bulawayo printed false accusations against Archbishop Pius Ncube, including that he distributed sexually explicit material to prisoners, following his remarks criticizing the Government's violent campaign tactics. At a campaign rally in February 2002, President Mugabe claimed Ncube had "political tentacles" and supported the opposition after the Archbishop resisted government attempts to take over the Catholic-run St. Luke's hospital. During the period covered by this report, Ncube reportedly received anonymous death threats, and intimidating visits by suspected officers from the Central Intelligence Organisation (CIO). In August 2001, Gabriel McGuire, an Irish Catholic priest in Harare, was declared a prohibited person and deported. No official reason was given; however, church members speculated that the Government took exception to his sermons in which he made generic statements about citizens' "right to have a voice." Paul Andrianatos, a Greek Orthodox priest with South African citizenship who was ordered to leave the country in March 2001, remained outside the country at the end of the period covered by this report. There were no reports of religious prisoners or detainees. Forced Religious Conversion There were no reports of forced religious conversion, including of minor U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United States, or of the refusal to allow such citizens to be returned to the United States. Section III. Societal Attitudes The generally amicable relations between the various religious communities contributed to religious freedom. The Muslim, Jewish, Hindu, Baha'i, and Buddhist religious communities are relatively small and generally are not in competition with Christian denominations for converts. Catholic Church officials say that they welcome interfaith dialog with Muslims. There are at least four umbrella religious organizations primarily focused on interdenominational dialog among Christians and other inter-religious activities. Muslims are not represented in any of these organizations, and there is no vehicle for formal Christian-Muslim dialog; however, informal dialog occurs from time to time. A few Muslims have complained of discrimination by private employers who refuse to allow them sufficient time to worship at their mosques on Fridays. The Zimbabwe Council of Churches (ZCC) is an umbrella organization of all non-Catholic ecumenical Christian missionary churches except for evangelical organizations. It maintains a secretariat in Harare, conducts development programs, has a Justice and Peace desk, and collaborates with the much older CCJP. The Catholic Church and the Zimbabwe Catholic Bishops' Conference have observer status within the ZCC, and relations generally are cooperative. Some members of the Christian community are hesitant to support Catholics joining the ZCC because of memories of the inability of religious leaders to work together during the liberation war era, and they fear a repeat of that experience. The ZCC also has worked with other church groups and civil society organizations on social issues. The ZCC traditionally was supportive of President Mugabe, but it has become more critical as a result of the Government's politicization of food distribution and campaign of violent intimidation against opposition supporters. The Heads of Denominations (HOD) is a pragmatic association of Catholic and other Christian denominations that has no spiritual or theological emphasis. It was created to enable collaboration among Christian groups and the Government in the operation of religious schools and hospitals. The HOD provides a vehicle for Christian churches to speak to the Government with a common voice on policy issues and includes the Catholic Church, which operates a significant number of the rural hospitals and schools in the country. The HOD has a loose structure and no office. The HOD's secretarial support is provided by the general secretariat of the Zimbabwe Catholic Bishops' Conference (ZCBC), and its secretary general holds the same position in the ZCBC. The education secretaries of the various churches work together under the HOD, as does the religious advisory board to the ZBC. This broad grouping of churches under the HOD also collaborates on a wide range of social issues including HIV/AIDS education, and, in conjunction with the ZCC, the Christian churches have addressed the declining economic conditions affecting their members across the country. The HOD continues to deliberate over the role religious institutions should play in combating the HIV/AIDS crisis. Many churches already operate programs designed to help the victims of HIV/AIDS; for example, the Catholic Church and other religious and lay persons operate a center for persons infected with HIV/AIDS called "Mashambanzou" in Harare. The Evangelical Fellowship of Zimbabwe (EFZ) is an umbrella organization of loosely affiliated evangelical churches that was established in the early 1980s. The fellowship has observer status with the HOD but in general does not work closely with either the ZCC or Catholic Church. However, the evangelical and Catholic churches do collaborate in the broadcasting of religious programs. During the period covered by this report, the ZCC, ZCBC and EFZ issued public statements strongly critical of the Government for its campaign of violent intimidation against opposition supporters, campaign to politicize food distribution, corruption, and failure to guide Zimbabwe out of crisis, also calling for leadership and a spirit of tolerance and reconciliation. Privately the leaders of those organizations lamented that the Government prevented them from using existing regional church structures to import and distribute food aid in the midst of a famine. Several key church leaders and organizations strongly criticized the state-sanctioned, politically motivated crimes and violence during the period before and after the March 2002 presidential election and urged the Government to restore peace in the country. Since the 2000 parliamentary elections, church groups throughout the country gradually have become more vocal in their criticism of the Government for the continuation of politically motivated violence. In a July 30, 2001, address to regional Catholic bishops, President Mugabe stated that the Roman Catholic Church should support the Government's land acquisition program and criticized it for "equivocating in the face of racial injustice." In January 2002, Zimbabwe Council of Churches General-Secretary Denison Mafinyane severely criticized the Government for unleashing a "reign of terror" against innocent citizens. In a May 5, 2002, address to the 10th Synod session of the Anglican Diocese of Manicaland, Bishop Sebastian Bakare criticized politicians who say there is peace in the country when citizens continue to suffer from political violence at the hands of ruling party supporters. In late 2000 and early 2001, Pius Ncube, the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Bulawayo, stayed in Germany for several months after receiving numerous death threats for writing public letters accusing the Government of fueling political violence and urging citizens to exercise their right to vote. The Vatican reportedly demanded that the Government take steps to ensure the Archbishop's safety. In 2000 Anglican priest Tim Neill of Harare received a death threat letter signed by Ngonidzashe Mutasa, the secretary general of the Revival of African Conscience, a previously unknown organization with no established following or platform. The police later apprehended Mutasa, who was tried and found guilty in September 2000; however, Mutasa was released in October 2000 under a general presidential amnesty for politically motivated crimes. Father Neill left the priesthood in July 2001 after the Government forced him to resign as Vicar General of Harare and bypassed canonical law to install Norbert Kunonga, a staunch Mugabe supporter, as Anglican Bishop of Harare. Other priests reportedly have left the diocese because of Kunonga's sermons supporting Mugabe's reelection and the sometimes violent expulsion of mostly white commercial farmers from their land. In late February 2002, ZANU-PF supporters beat three Catholic priests, two Catholic nuns, and a Catholic brother in Zaka after they met with U.S. officials. The perpetrators said the fact that the religious figures had met with U.S. diplomats suggested they were opposition supporters. Although local ruling party officials later apologized to the victims, the perpetrators were not charged with any crime. Several prominent evangelical, Roman Catholic and Protestant bishops, however, did collaborate in an attempt to bring the ruling and opposition parties back to the negotiating table to re-start dialog aimed at resolving the country's political crisis during the period covered by this report. Another area of ecumenical collaboration has been translation of the Bible into the majority language, Shona. Several priests and ministers have worked on this project since 1987. Fambidzano, which means "walking together," is a relatively new grouping of indigenous churches. A South African Dutch Reformed Church theologian and social anthropologist, Inus Daneel, who has researched these churches in South Africa and Zimbabwe, founded the organization in the mid-1970's. Fambidzano was created to give the leaders of these churches more theological and biblical education, according to Daneel. There is little dialog between Fambidzano and the Catholic Church; however, the two organizations are discussing the need to work with the indigenous churches, to which many persons are turning because of their emphasis on physical healing and spiritual salvation. ZINATHA is an organization that represents traditional indigenous religions. The head of that organization is a university professor and vocal Anglican who is working to increase interreligious dialog between ZINATHA and mainstream Christian churches. In 2002 ZINATHA members formed the Traditional Medical Practitioners Council to certify and oversee traditional healers. There were continuing reports of tensions between mainstream Christian churches and practitioners of traditional indigenous religions. A notable feature of some of the indigenous churches is the acceptance of polygamy among some of its members. Sexual abuse, the spread of HIV/AIDS, and the avoidance of modern medicines also are growing problems within these churches. In addition leaders of the Christian churches reportedly opposed the repeal or modification of the WSA sought by practitioners of traditional indigenous religions. There were no reports of ritual murders associated with traditional religious practices during the period covered by this report, and the Government generally enforces the law against murder in the case of ritual murders. Gordon Chavanduka, chairman of ZINATHA, reportedly has stated that the black-market demand for human body parts used in making potions has increased greatly in recent years. During the period covered by this report, there were no reports that persons killed children for body parts for use in healing rituals associated with traditional religions. In 1999 Faber Chidarikire, a Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) official and mayor of the northern town of Chinhoyi, was charged with murdering a 13-year-old girl in 1987, but he was released on bail shortly thereafter following intervention by the Attorney General. Chidarikire was tried for the murder of the girl in June 2001, and on July 22, 2002 the High Court acquitted him. Section IV. U.S. Government Policy The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights. The U.S. Government further supports religious and other constitutionally protected freedoms through demarches to the Government; nondenominational financial support for community development projects, which often are associated with religious institutions; and regular dialog with and support for civil society organizations that advocate and monitor respect for human rights, including freedom of religion. The Embassy meets regularly with leaders of religious communities, including minority groups, and with nongovernmental organizations that work on issues of religious freedom.	3.085478
A Geological Tour of Tumbledown Mountain On any given fine-weather day in any of the four seasons, Tumbledown Mountain in Township 6 North of Weld (Figure 1), is visited by scores of people; most in pursuit of the excellent views afforded by the bald peaks, and perhaps a few mistakenly seeking the solitude of a wilderness experience. While a few individuals may come specifically to look at the beautifully exposed bedrock here, over the course of an outing almost every visitor will develop some interest in the rocks if for no other reason than its near constant exposure along some of the popular summit trails. It is easy to guess the origin of the name "Tumbledown" simply by viewing the south side of the mountain from any of the trails that lead to the summit. Cliffs of several hundred feet bear the scars, old and new, of rock slides that have left piles of rubble (talus) at their bases (Figure 2). Western Maine is underlain by a regular sequence of layered metamorphic rocks which began their existence as layers of sand and mud on the edge of an ocean basin about 430 million years ago. As these sediments accumulated over millions of years, through a number of processes they gradually hardened into sandstone and shale. During the last great mountain building event that helped form the northern Appalachians about 415 million years ago, these layers were folded, thrust upward, and heated. Great masses of molten rock formed at depth and moved upward through the contorted layers of rock, cooling into solid rock some distance below the surface. Hundreds of millions of years of erosion have now exposed the resulting granites and granodiorites at the surface of the earth. \|Let's look at some examples of these rocks. Figure 3 is a photograph showing some of the thinner layers of schist and granofels that can be found near Tumbledown Pond. The lighter layers are quartz-feldspar granofels, and the darker layers are andalusite schist. Note that while each light layer begins with a very sharp boundary on the right, there is only a gradual change to the corresponding dark layer on the left. This is a characteristic carried over from the sedimentary origins of the rock and is referred to as graded bedding. When the sediments that formed this rock were deposited, the actions of water flow were such that the coarser sand grains (quartz and feldspar) fell to the bottom first, followed by progressively smaller grains. Deposited last during each sedimentary event were very small grains of clay, before the next slug of sediment came down and the process began anew. Geologists use graded beds to determine which direction was originally up in the layers. This is important in determining which are the younger rocks in a sequence. Through the process of metamorphism, the quartz and feldspar grains changed little, but the clay grains changed into a variety of minerals including micas, staurolite, and andalusite, the coarsest grains in the rocks today. So, while the grain size of the sediment originally changed from coarse to fine as one moved from right to left in each bed, the grain size change of the metamorphic minerals is just the opposite. There is a good deal of variability in the thickness of layers at Tumbledown. Figure 4 shows some of the most striking layering exposed near the summit. In many places the layers are several feet thick and continuous for hundreds of feet. In several places on the mountain, large folds are exposed. One of the best examples is between Tumbledown Pond and the eastern summit of Tumbledown Mountain (Figure 5). These folds developed at the time the northern Appalachians were forming, when the rocks today at the surface were at considerable depth and subject to higher temperatures and pressures which were not uniform in all directions. Both sides (limbs) of the fold are inclined in the same direction in what geologists term an overturned Some who have ventured to Tumbledown have interpreted the shape of the mountain and the pond nestled among the peaks to be volcanic in origin. While this certainly is an exciting idea, it simply isn't true. As we've already explained, the rocks were formed in a sedimentary basin and are not at all volcanic in nature. The landscape or topography is also not of volcanic origin but formed through the interaction of several processes. \|The first important factor in defining the topography is the nature of the bedrock, here composed of metamorphic rocks and granite intrusions. From the top of Tumbledown, a most striking feature of the landscape is the ring of mountains the completely encircle Webb Lake to the south (Figure 6). Webb Lake is underlain by granite while the ring of mountains is underlain by metamorphic rocks. In particular, these metamorphic rocks were subjected to even greater heat as the originally molten granite was intruded into them. One consequence of this process is that the metamorphic rocks immediately surrounding the granite are slightly more resistant to erosion than any of the other rocks. Granite, with its large crystals and abundant feldspar, is actually fairly susceptible to erosion. The result of all this is the ring of mountains underlain by metamorphic rocks, and the basin of Webb Lake, underlain by easily eroded granite. At the Mount Blue State Park visitor's center there is a plaster model of the landscape which illustrates this ring of mountains well. \|The greatest agent of erosion is the glaciers which swept over the landscape just a few tens of thousands of years ago and represent the second most important factor in defining the topography. As the glaciers progressed across the landscape in a southeasterly direction, they scraped soils and weathered rock off the less erodable rock units and deeply gouged the earth in the more erodable rock units. Due to the complex processes of glacial flow, in many places the glaciers polished the northern slopes of mountains into rounded shapes, while they plucked broken rock without any polishing on the southern slopes of mountains. This is readily apparent in the landscape at Tumbledown. On the summit the rocks are well polished, and there are numerous knobs with smoothly rounded surfaces facing north and steep, unrounded surfaces facing south (see Figure 4). Tumbledown Pond itself (Figure 7) was produced by this gouging and plucking action. In many places on the summit, scratches formed by rocks imbedded in the base of the glacier as it advanced across the landscape, point to the northwest from whence the \|Many trails (Figure 8) provide free public access to the summit and Tumbledown Pond through the auspices and stewardship of the Hancock Timber Resources Group, Inc. Originally published on the web as the April 1998 Site of the Month. Last updated on April 19, 2012	3.498307
Millions of Americans travel abroad each year. Safety should be a prime consideration for anyone traveling outside the United States. There are certain precautions that travelers can take to improve their safety while abroad. Motor vehicle safety while traveling Injuries from motor vehicle crashes pose the greatest risk of injury to international travelers, according to the CDC. The risk of death from motor vehicle crashes is many times higher in other countries than in the U.S. Inadequate roadway design, hazardous conditions, lack of appropriate vehicles and vehicle maintenance, unskilled or inexperienced drivers, inattention to pedestrians and cyclists, and impairment due to alcohol and drugs all contribute to the increased risk of being involved in a vehicle-related crash while visiting other countries. Important safety measures you can take include the following: Request a vehicle with safety belts and use them. Inspect cars and trucks to make sure that tires, windshield wipers, brakes, and headlights are in good condition. Request a vehicle equipped with air bags, where available. Avoid nonessential night driving, alcohol, and riding with persons under the influence of alcohol. Sit in the back seat, whenever possible, to minimize the risk of death if an accident should occur. Bring a car safety seat when traveling with young children. Use a safety helmet when riding a bicycle or motorcycle. Avoiding animal- or insect-associated hazards In areas where rabies is endemic (constantly present), domestic dogs, cats, or other animals should not be petted. Wild animals should always be avoided. Bites and stings from insects can cause unpleasant reactions, and medical attention should be sought immediately for any bite or sting that causes redness, swelling, bruising, or persistent pain. Take extra precautions when camping or staying in rustic or primitive areas by using insect repellents, protective clothing, and mosquito netting. Poisonous snakes are another hazard in certain parts of the world, although death from snake bites are rare. Never attempt to handle, harass, or kill a snake because bites often occur as a snake's defensive reaction. Avoiding swimming hazards For infectious disease prevention, only swimming pools that contain chlorinated water are considered safe for swimming. Swimming in contaminated water can result in skin, eye, ear, and certain intestinal infections. In certain areas, a fatal form of encephalitis has occurred after swimming in warm, dirty water. Other infectious diseases can develop from swimming in freshwater streams, canals, and lakes. To avoid drowning accidents, avoid swimming alone or in unfamiliar waters.	3.233326
Pancreatic carcinoma is cancer of the pancreas. Pancreatic cancer; Cancer - pancreas Causes, incidence, and risk factors The pancreas is a large organ located behind the stomach. It makes and releases enzymes into the intestines that help the body absorb foods, especially fats. Hormones called insulin and glucagon, which help your body control blood sugar levels, are made in special cells in the pancreas called islet cells. Tumors can also occur in these cells, but they are called islet cell tumors. The exact cause of pancreatic cancer is unknown. It is more common in: - People with diabetes - People with long-term inflammation of the pancreas (chronic pancreatitis) Pancreatic cancer is slightly more common in women than in men. The risk increases with age. A small number of cases are related to genetic syndromes that are passed down through families. A tumor or cancer in the pancreas may grow without any symptoms at first. This means pancreatic cancer is often advanced when it is first found. Early symptoms of pancreatic cancer include: - Dark urine and clay-colored stools - Fatigue and weakness - Jaundice (a yellow color in the skin, mucus membranes, or eyes) - Loss of appetite and weight loss - Nausea and vomiting - Pain or discomfort in the upper part of the belly or abdomen Other possible symptoms are: Signs and tests This disease may also affect the results of the following tests: Because pancreatic cancer is often advanced when it is first found, very few pancreatic tumors can be removed by surgery. The standard surgical procedure is called a pancreaticoduodenectomy (Whipple procedure). This surgery should be done at centers that perform the procedure often. Some studies suggest that surgery is best performed at hospitals that do more than five of these surgeries per year. When the tumor has not spread out of the pancreas but cannot be removed, radiation therapy and chemotherapy together may be recommended. When the tumor has spread (metastasized) to other organs such as the liver, chemotherapy alone is usually used. The standard chemotherapy drug is gemcitabine, but other drugs may be used. Gemcitabine can help about 25% of patients. Patients whose tumor cannot be totally removed, but who have a blockage of the tubes that transport bile (biliary obstruction) must have that blockage relieved. There are two approaches: - Placement of a tiny metal tube (biliary stent) during ERCP Managing pain and other symptoms is an important part of treating advanced pancreatic cancer. Palliative care tams and hospice can help with pain and symptom management, and provide psychological support for patients and their families during the illness. You can ease the stress of illness by joining a support group with members who share common experiences and problems (see cancer - support group). Some patients with pancreatic cancer that can be surgically removed are cured. However, in more than 80% of patients the tumor has already spread and cannot be completely removed at the time of diagnosis. Chemotherapy and radiation are often given after surgery to increase the cure rate (this is called adjuvant therapy). For pancreatic cancer that cannot be removed completely with surgery, or cancer that has spread beyond the pancreas, a cure is not possible and the average survival is usually less than 1 year. Such patients should consider enrolling in a clinical trial (a medical research study to determine the best treatment). Ninety-five percent of the people diagnosed with this cancer will not be alive 5 years later. - Blood clots - Liver problems - Weight loss Calling your health care provider Call for an appointment with your health care provider if you have: - Abdominal pain that does not go away - Back pain - Loss of appetite - Unexplained fatigue or weight loss - Other symptoms of this disorder - If you smoke, stop smoking. - Eat a diet high in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. - Exercise regularly. National Cancer Institute. Pancreatic cancer treatment PDQ. Updated August 13, 2010. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Clinical practice guidelines in oncology: Pancreatic adenocarcinoma. 2011. Version 2.2011. Tempero M, Brand R. Pancreatic cancer. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier;2011:chap 200. David C. Dugdale, III, MD, Professor of Medicine, Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, Uniersity of Washington School of Medicine; and Yi-Bin Chen, MD, Leukemia/Bone Marrow Transplant Program, Massachusetts General Hospital. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.	3.583199
The purpose of this section is to provide a broad overview of the methodology used to construct the four separate Indices of Deprivation. Those wishing to access more detailed information should follow the links to the Indices' technical reports shown in the 'Useful links' section. The methodologies used to derive the separate indices of multiple deprivation are broadly similar. In each case, the index measures the level of multiple deprivation experienced by individuals in small areas. Firstly, levels of deprivation are measured for a number of separate dimensions or 'domains'. The number and title of domains varies between each index but each measures deprivation across key themes of income, employment, education and health. For each domain, deprivation is calculated according to a series of summary statistics or 'indicators'. These indicators are designed to measure key features of a particular deprivation theme. The choice of indicators is agreed through consultation and varies between each index. Typically there are between two and six indicators per domain. For each index, the indicators are combined in broadly the same way to provide a domain level measure of deprivation. Where possible and most notably in the income and employment domains, indicators are summed and divided by the 'at risk population' (for example, the number of income support claimants as a proportion of the total population) to give an overall area rate of deprivation. Where rates are not possible, appropriate weights for combining indicators into a single deprivation score are selected using a range of techniques including Maximum Likelihood factor analysis. The domain level scores which represent specific dimensions of deprivation are then ranked and transformed to an exponential distribution. Weights are then applied to provide the overall Index of Multiple Deprivation for each country in the UK. The weights are selected according to a number of criteria which are used to assess the level of importance attached to each domain theme in the overall measurement of deprivation. As each index uses different indicators and domains, the weights applied to aggregate domain scores are different.	3.016942
Mapping the disease Devil Facial Tumour Disease (DFTD) is one of only three recorded cancers that can spread like a contagious disease. The cancer is passed from devil to devil through biting. The live tumour cells aren’t rejected by the animal’s immune system because of a lack of genetic diversity among Tasmanian devils. For this reason, cases continue to occur in areas where the disease had not previously been recorded. As at February 2011, there has been an 84% decline in average sightings of devils across Tasmania during the annual spotlight surveys. In the north-east region, where signs of DFTD were first reported, there has been a 96% decline of average sightings. While the majority of diseased populations studied have shown a standard response to DFTD (loss of abundance, loss of older age classes, females breeding earlier), there is a population that has been studied for the past 5 years by a PhD student that is showing a different pattern of responses to the disease. Although DFTD has spread through this population at the same rate that it is spreading elsewhere, abundance throughout the population has not plummeted, the full age structure is still intact and tumours appear to grow slower, regress and take longer to kill the animal. The STDP, in collaboration with UTas, will begin trapping a neighbouring and similar population to determine whether this atypical response occurs in more than one population and whether it is the disease or the devil population that is different. Disease front and DFTD distribution as at June 2012 The STDP continues to monitor devil populations across Tasmania to determine how far DFTD has spread and the impact that it is having. The disease now affects 75% of the state. In November 2011 STDP staff and volunteers spent 10 days in the forestry coupes around Takone for this annual activity. 65 animals were caught during the trip, including 63 devils and 2 spotted tailed quolls. There were 38 new devils and 25 recaptured devils. The 63 devils were made up of 37 females and 26 males. More than half of the females were lactating. Three devils were caught with tumours consistent with DFTD, and were given a DFTD score of 5. All 3 animals tested positive. It seems that the disease is moving further into the population but prevalence (0.05%) is still very low, suggesting the fairly recent arrival of the disease into the area. The disease front trapping work supports a range of activities including planning for saving populations, managing diseased populations and monitoring any changes in the disease. Disease front and DFTD distribution - 2010 Following the success of the ‘snapshot' surveys conducted in 2009 to find the westerly extent of DFTD (see below), further surveys were conducted in October and November 2010 to update our knowledge on where the disease front currently lies. Some lessons were learnt about the efficacy of snapshot-type surveys in areas of varying devil abundance, so the surveys this year were concentrated in an area to the west of the Murchison Highway, between Wynyard in the north and just below Waratah in the south where devil abundance was high. Areas of low devil abundance will be targeted with the use of remote-sensing cameras. Four teams conducted 7-day trapping trips, following the same protocol used in 2009. All animals caught with a possible DFTD tumour had the disease confirmed using histology. A total of 234 individual animals were caught and inspected for DFTD, with 8 animals confirmed with the disease. A single animal with a high probability of carrying DFTD was located 5km due-west of the most westerly confirmed disease from 2009, but this could not be confirmed. Unfortunately this animal was located at the most westerly extent of the front, suggesting that the disease may have moved as much as 7km in the past year. The Program hopes to set sentinel cameras on the disease front in the coming months so that disease spread on the front can be monitored throughout the year. Locating the western extent of Devil Facial Tumour disease - 2009 During September and October 2009, surveys were conducted in western Tasmania with the objective of locating the western extent of Tasmanian devil facial tumour disease (DFTD). Knowing the location of the disease ‘front' is essential to inform other management projects aimed at preserving the species in the long term, including the potential fencing off of disease free areas and the development of free range captive enclosures. Prior to these focused trips, there had been no intensive, focused trapping trips to find the location of the disease front. Six teams surveyed sites between Burnie in the north and Kelly basin in the south. A roving veterinary team responded to reports of potential disease in captured animals, and collected biopsies and blood samples for confirmation of the disease. As the principle aim of these trips was to catch as many unique animals as possible, it was decided to use a ‘snapshot' technique where traps would be moved to a new site each day to maximise the number of new devils caught and reduce the number of re-captures. In sites of high devil abundance two nights trapping maximised the chances of catching any possible diseased animals. Likewise, in sites of very low devil abundance trapping was extended to two nights to maximise chances of catching any devils in the area. Prior to the beginning of the disease front trips, two 5-day reconnaissance trips were conducted to determine the best areas to locate transects. Map 1 indicates the locations of traps deployed by each team. A total of 231 individual Tasmanian devils were captured and inspected for presence of devil facial tumour disease. Of these at least thirteen devils have been confirmed as diseased by histology. Three devils were captured by remote cameras clearly showing signs of what appeared to be DFTD - however these cannot be confirmed by histology. The most western extent of DFTD recorded in this survey was approximately 15km west of the last known location of DFTD (Surrey Hills, recorded in 2008). However, the high prevalence of DFTD at Surrey Hills in 2008 suggests that DFTD will have been present further to the west at that time, and the distance travelled from 2008 to 2009 would not have been as great as 15km. The current most westerly point of confirmed disease is just to the east of the Murchison Highway. To date no confirmed cases of DFTD have been recorded west of the Murchison Hwy. There was an obvious gradient of devil abundance from the north to the south, with 50 devils caught by one team in the north and 11 by another team over the same period of time in the south. The very different habitat and the difficulty of access in the southern regions makes it difficult to catch devils and even harder to locate the disease. Our ‘snapshot' method of trapping for these trips will need to be revised for these areas of lower devil abundance before we re-trap in any of these areas.	3.320096
Quantum Teleportation Leaps to New Distance Record A new record of roughly 60 miles has been set in the field of qubit transmission. "This is just a transmission method, so it could have wide utility, though I expect the cost will initially make it best for huge data streams," said analyst Rob Enderle. "Something like this could turn us into a SaaS world." Scientists in China have transmitted quantum bits, or qubits, over a record distance of 97 km, or roughly 60 miles. This is more than six times the distance of the previous record of 16 km, set by another team of Chinese researchers in May of 2010, as reported in Nature.com. The results represent a step toward the establishment of a global quantum network, and the methods used in the experiment could be utilized for satellite-based quantum communications, the scientists said. "This is just a transmission method, so it could have wide utility, though I expect the cost will initially make it best for huge data streams," Rob Enderle, principal analyst at the Enderle Group, told TechNewsWorld. This technology "could end up changing much of the world" because it's both potentially higher bandwidth and lower latency, approaching zero, and these factors "could drive massive computer centralization on a world scale and force a massive shakeout of security, networking and computer companies," Enderle continued. "Something like this could turn us into a SaaS (Software as a Service) world." The Theory Behind the Experiment The latest experiment demonstrated quantum teleportation of an independent unknown state between two optical free-space links 97 km apart with multi-photon entanglement. Quantum teleportation is a process for transmitting information using quantum physics to, in effect, encrypt the data transmitted. It's also known as entanglement-assisted teleportation. In quantum teleportation experiments, beams of lights are used to encode qubits. The encoded beam of light, which is described as quantum entangled, is split into two and transmitted. When a qubit at one receiver is observed and take a defined form, the other half of the qubit at the other receiver takes the same defined form. Quantum entanglement results when particles such as photons or electrons interact physically and then become separated but remain in the same quantum state. A quantum state is a set of mathematical variables, including position, momentum and spin, that fully describes a quantum system. What the Researchers Did The researchers used an ultra-bright entangled photon source based on Type-II spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC). The SPDC process involves using a non-linear crystal to split photons into two. Those photons in a pair whose polarizations are perpendicular to one another are termed "Type II" photons. In an SPDC apparatus, a strong laser beam, called the "pump" beam, is directed at a beta-barium borate (BBO) crystal. That's exactly what the researchers did. This generated the beam of light, which was split and sent across Lake Qinghai in China.	3.176125
Even with these advances, the fuel cell wouldn’t come on instantly, and turning it on and off with every short trip in the car would cause a lot of wear and tear, reducing its lifetime. Instead, it would be paired with a battery pack, as a combustion engine is in the Volt, Wachsman says. The fuel cell could then run more steadily, serving to keep the battery topped without providing bursts of acceleration. The researchers achieved their result largely by modifying the solid electrolyte material at the core of a solid-oxide fuel cell. In fuel cells on the market, such as one made by Bloom Energy, the electrolyte has to be made thick enough to provide structural support. But the thickness of the electrolyte limits power generation. Over the last several years, researchers have been developing designs that don’t require the electrolyte to support the cell so they can make the electrolyte thinner and achieve high power output at lower temperatures. The University of Maryland researchers took this a step further by developing new multilayered electrolytes that increase the power output still more. The work is part of a larger U.S. Department of Energy effort, over the past decade, to make solid-oxide fuel cells practical. The first fruits of that effort likely won’t be fuel cells in cars—so far, Wachsman has only made relatively small fuel cells, and significant engineering work remains to be done. The first applications of solid oxide fuels in vehicles may be on long-haul trucks with sleeper cabs. Equipment suppliers such as Delphi and Cummins are developing fuel cells that can power the air conditioners, TVs, and microwaves inside the cabs, potentially cutting fuel consumption by 85 percent compared to idling the truck’s engine. The Delphi system also uses a design that allows for a thinner electrolyte, but it operates at higher temperatures than Wachsman’s fuel cell. The fuel cell could be turned on Monday, and left to run at low rates all week and still get the 85 percent reduction. Delphi has built a prototype and plans to demonstrate its system on a truck next year.	3.515398
Museum Collections - Mesoamerica - Maya (Before A. D. 1520) - Artifact #3 WHO: Maya culture WHEN: Late Classic Period, A.D. 550-800 WHAT: This vase (tall dish form) features a seated jaguar. The jaguar was an important symbol of power to the ancient Maya. The jaguar, as the most powerful and feared animal in the jungle, was the natural symbol for the authority of Maya rulers. HOW: Hand-formed earthenware, polychrome slip decoration. MUSEUM: Gardiner Museum of Ceramic Art. G83.1.140 Zoomify Interactive: To see an image of this artifact that you can zoom in on, click on this link: Front (Warning: This link will open in a new window)	3.247016
There are many techniques available to help students get started with a piece of writing. Getting started can be hard for all levels of writers. Freewriting is one great technique to build fluency. That was explored in an earlier lesson plan: http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/adulted/lessons/lesson18.html This unit offers some other techniques. These techniques may be especially helpful with students who prefer a style of learning or teaching that could be described as visual, spatial, or graphic. Sometimes those styles or overlooked in favor of approaches that are very linguistic or linear. The approaches here will attend to a broader range of learning styles as they add variety. - Writing: Writing Process, Pre-Writing, Autobiography, Exposition, Personal Narrative, Argumentation, Comparison and Contrast, Description. Students will be able to: - Write more fluently (writing more with greater ease) - Generate writing topics - Select topics that will yield strong pieces of writing - Connect personal experience, knowledge, and examples to an assigned - Produce better organized pieces of writing National Reporting System of Adult Education standards are applicable here. These are the standards required by the 1998 Workforce Investment Act. See Pencils, colored pencils, pens, markers, crayons, unlined paper, magazines and newspapers with pictures inside, glue or paste, and paper. Big paper or poster board can make the pre-writing exercises more eye-catching, more of a project, and better for display. Video and TV: Prep for Teachers Make sure you try each of the activities yourself before you ask students to do them. That will give you a better understanding of the activities and help you recognize any potential points that may be confusing or difficult. This also gives you a sample to show the students. Its much easier to create a diagram if you are shown an example of one. Here are some Web sites that give background and even more ideas about you pre-writing, diagrams, graphic organizers, and other ideas to get started with writing. There is some repetition here. You dont have to read them all. But check them out and see what you think.	4.289028
No one knows how the first organisms or even the first organic precursors formed on Earth, but one theory is that they didn't. Rather, they were imported from space. Scientists have been finding what looks like biological raw material in meteorites for years, but it's usually been shown to be ground contamination. This year, however, investigators studying a dozen meteorites that landed in Antarctica found traces of adenine and guanine two of the four nucleobases that make DNA. That's not a big surprise, since nucleobases have been found in meteorites before. But these were found in the company of other molecules that were similar in structure but not identical. Those had never been detected in previous meteorite samples and they were also not found on the ground where the space rocks landed. That rules out contamination and rules in space organics. A little adenine and guanine in the company of other mysterious stuff is a long, long way from something living but it's closer than we were before. Next Star Wars Gets Real	3.778132
It's time to talk... About Underage Drinking April is Alcohol Awareness Month. Are you talking to your teen about alcohol? For many parents, bringing up the subject of alcohol is no easy matter. Your young teen may try to dodge the discussion, and you yourself may feel unsure about how to proceed. To make the most of your conversation, take some time to think about the issues you want to discuss before you talk with your child. Consider too how your child might react and ways you might respond to your youngster’s questions and feelings. Then choose a time to talk when both you and your child have some “down time” and are feeling relaxed. You don’t need to cover everything at once. In fact, you’re likely to have a greater impact on your child’s decisions about drinking by having a number of talks about alcohol use throughout his or her adolescence. Think of this talk with your child as the first part of an ongoing conversation. And remember, do make it a conversation, not a lecture! You might begin by finding out what your child thinks about alcohol and drinking. Your Child’s Views About Alcohol. Ask your young teen what he or she knows about alcohol and what he or she thinks about teen drinking. Ask your child why he or she thinks kids drink. Listen carefully without interrupting. Not only will this approach help your child to feel heard and respected, but it can serve as a natural “lead-in” to discussing alcohol topics. Important Facts About Alcohol. Although many kids believe that they already know everything about alcohol, myths and misinformation abound. Here are some important facts to share: Alcohol is a powerful drug that slows down the body and mind. It impairs coordination; slows reaction time; and impairs vision, clear thinking, and judgment. Beer and wine are not “safer” than hard liquor. A 12-ounce can of beer, a 5-ounce glass of wine, and 1.5 ounces of hard liquor all contain the same amount of alcohol and have the same effects on the body and mind. On average, it takes 2 to 3 hours for a single drink to leave a person’s system. Nothing can speed up this process, including drinking coffee, taking a cold shower, or “walking it off.” People tend to be very bad at judging how seriously alcohol has affected them. That means many individuals who drive after drinking think they can control a car—but actually cannot. Anyone can develop a serious alcohol problem, including a teenager. Good Reasons Not to Drink. In talking with your child about reasons to avoid alcohol, stay away from scare tactics. Most young teens are aware that many people drink without problems, so it is important to discuss the consequences of alcohol use without overstating the case. Some good reasons why teens should not drink: You want your child to avoid alcohol. Clearly state your own expectations about your child’s drinking. Your values and attitudes count with your child, even though he or she may not always show it. To maintain self-respect. Teens say the best way to persuade them to avoid alcohol is to appeal to their self-respect—let them know that they are too smart and have too much going for them to need the crutch of alcohol. Teens also are likely to pay attention to examples of how alcohol might lead to embarrassing situations or events—things that might damage their self-respect or alter important relationships. Drinking is illegal. Because alcohol use under the age of 21 is illegal, getting caught may mean trouble with the authorities. Even if getting caught doesn’t lead to police action, the parents of your child’s friends may no longer permit them to associate with your child. Drinking can be dangerous. One of the leading causes of teen deaths is motor vehicle crashes involving alcohol. Drinking also makes a young person more vulnerable to sexual assault and unprotected sex. And while your teen may believe he or she wouldn’t engage in hazardous activities after drinking, point out that because alcohol impairs judgment, a drinker is very likely to think such activities won’t be dangerous. You have a family history of alcoholism. If one or more members of your family has suffered from alcoholism, your child may be somewhat more vulnerable to developing a drinking problem. Alcohol affects young people differently than adults. Drinking while the brain is still maturing may lead to long-lasting intellectual effects and may even increase the likelihood of developing alcohol dependence later in life. If you would like to learn more about how underage alcohol consumption affects teens, and how you can prevent your teen from using, join us for our next Community Forum on Underage Drinking at the Community Services Buildign on May 14th at 7:00pm. If you have questions about the event contact Holly Zweizig at 937-645-2016	3.189398
Protein critical for insulin secretion may be contributor to diabetes October 26, 2009 A cellular protein from a family involved in several human diseases is crucial for the proper production and release of insulin, new research has found, suggesting that the protein might play a role in diabetes. Mice lacking the ClC-3 channel, a passageway that allows negatively charged chloride ions to pass through cell membranes, have only one-fifth the circulating insulin of normal mice, according to research published this month in the journal Cell Metabolism. Researchers Deborah Nelson and Louis Philipson of the University of Chicago, senior authors on the paper, argue that the finding may explain a portion of what goes wrong in Type 2 diabetes and could help doctors find rare patients whose diabetes has a previously-undetected genetic origin. "Chloride regulation is not really well understood, but it's at the heart of cystic fibrosis, and it is related to the regulation of how insulin gets made," said Philipson, professor of medicine and medical director of the Kovler Diabetes Center at the University of Chicago. "Now we see that it's a critical feature of how insulin gets converted from a precursor form to its most active form." Insulin is made and released by specialized pancreas cells called Beta-cells. The cell first synthesizes a protein called pro-insulin, discovered forty years ago at the University of Chicago by Donald Steiner, which is then put inside structures called secretory granules. Inside the secretory granule, proinsulin is chemically converted into insulin, and the granule moves to the cell surface where it can release insulin into the blood. Steiner discovered that the conversion of proinsulin to insulin must happen in an acidic environment, but how the granules make themselves acidic was unknown. A team lead by Ludmila Deriy, a research assistant professor in Nelson's laboratory, studied genetic knockout mice missing the ClC-3 chloride channel. The blood of those mice contained lower levels of insulin and cellular measurements discovered that fewer granules were released by Beta-cells from ClC-3 knockouts and that the granules of ClC-3 knockout mice were less acidic than those from normal mice. High-powered electron microscope images allowed researchers to observe that the granules of ClC-3 knockout mice contained higher amounts of proinsulin than granules from normal mice. Missing ClC-3 therefore appears to cause a dramatic slowdown of the conversion of proinsulin to insulin inside the granules, said Nelson, professor of neurobiology at the University of Chicago. "Not only is release down, but what is released is not as efficacious a molecule," Nelson said. "It's pro-insulin rather insulin, if anything's released at all." A mutation in the function of ClC-3 in humans could very well be the cause of a select few cases of juvenile diabetes, Nelson and Philipson said. However, while other ClC proteins have been linked to bone, muscle and kidney disease, no human case of diabetes has yet been linked to the function of this specific protein. Because ClC-3 knockout mice also experience epileptic seizures, a patient diagnosed with both epilepsy and diabetes could potentially have an undetected defect in their ClC-3 channel. "If it happens that there's epilepsy and diabetes, it's not currently recognized as a syndrome," Philipson said. "We would be extremely interested in cases like that." Finding a patient with this rare form of genetically-caused diabetes could be aided by efforts such as Lilly's Law, an Illinois legislation signed in August that created a statewide diabetes registry. The law requires that doctors report all diagnoses of children younger than 12 months to the state Department of Public Health. Scientists can then test those children to see if their disease is caused by a genetic mutation, knowledge that can improve the child's treatment. The law is named for Lilly Jaffe, a girl diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes that was treated by Philipson and University of Chicago Medical Center colleagues in 2006. Lilly was found to have a rare genetic mutation in a different cellular protein, meaning her disease was treatable with oral medication rather than insulin injections. A mutation of the ClC-3 channel would probably still be treated with insulin rather than an oral medication. But observing ClC-3 function in humans may provide insight into Type 2 diabetes as well, Philipson said, as the disruption of insulin production and secretion resembles cellular effects seen in adult-onset diabetes. "We know that Type 2 diabetes is a progressive illness where insulin secretion is high and then goes down over time, but why does it do that? This ties some connection between chloride channels and granular function to the ability of insulin to come out of the cell," Philipson said. "This could be an important pathway in Type 2 diabetes, so it's not just the rare patient that's affected, it's 25 million people in the United States." The study, "The Granular Chloride Channel ClC-3 Is Permissive for Insulin Secretion," was published in the journal Cell Metabolism on October 7. Alongside Deriy, Philipson, and Nelson, Erwin Gomez, David Jacobson, XueQing Wang, Jessika Hopson, Xiang Liu, Guangping Zhang, and Vytautas Bindokas are listed as authors. All authors come from the University of Chicago. Funding for the research was provided by the National Institutes of Health and by the University of Chicago Diabetes Research and Training Center. The University of Chicago Medicine 950 E. 61st Street, Third Floor Chicago, IL 60637 Phone (773) 702-0025 Fax (773) 702-3171	3.212416
Get answers to your heart disease prevention questions. First aid - heart attack; First aid - cardiopulmonary arrest; First aid - cardiac arrest A heart attack is a medical emergency. Call 911 or your local emergency number if you think you or someone else is having a heart attack. The average person waits 3 hours before seeking help for symptoms of a heart attack. Many heart attack patients die before they reach a hospital. The sooner the person gets to the emergency room, the better the chance of survival. Prompt medical treatment reduces the amount of heart damage. This article discusses what to do if you think someone may be having a heart attack. For more information on the condition itself, see: Heart attack. A heart attack occurs when the blood flow that carries oxygen to the heart is blocked. The heart muscle becomes starved for oxygen and begins to die. See: Heart attack Symptoms of a heart attack can vary from person to person. They may be mild or severe. Women, the elderly, and people with diabetes are more likely to have subtle or unusual symptoms. Symptoms in adults may include: Call 911 or your local emergency number immediately if the person: Adults should take steps to control heart disease risk factors whenever possible. Hollander JE. Acute coronary syndromes. Acute myocardial infarction and unstable angina. In: Tintinalli JE, Kelen GD, Stapczynski JS, Ma OJ, Cline DM, eds. Emergency Medcinie: A Comprehensive Study Guide. 6th ed. New York, NY:McGraw-Hill;2004:chap 50. Anderson JL, Adams CD, Antman EM, Bridges CR, Califf RM, Casey DE Jr., et al. ACC/AHA 2007 guidelines for the management of patients with unstable angina/non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Revise the 2002 Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Unstable Angina/Non-ST-Elevation Myocardial Infarction) developed in collaboration with the American College of Emergency Physicians, the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons endorsed by the American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation and the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;50:e1-e157. Brady WJ, Harrigan RA, Chan TC. Acute coronary syndrome. In: Marx JA, Hockberger RS, Walls RM, et al, eds. Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 7th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier; 2009:chap 76. In: Marx JA, Hockberger RS, Walls RM, et al, eds. Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 7th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Mosby Elsevier; 2009. © 2011 University of Maryland Medical Center (UMMC). All rights reserved. UMMC is a member of the University of Maryland Medical System, 22 S. Greene Street, Baltimore, MD 21201. TDD: 1-800-735-2258 or 1.866.408.6885	3.072143
WASHINGTON, D.C. -- A panel of governmental, academic and non-profit scientists speaking today at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) unveiled research suggesting that diseases found in dolphins are similar to human diseases and can provide clues into how human health might be affected by exposure to contaminated coastal water or seafood. “Dolphins and humans are both mammals, and their diet includes much of the same seafood that we consume. Unlike us, however, they are exposed to potential ocean health threats such as toxic algae or poor water quality 24 hours a day,” said Carolyn Sotka of the NOAA Oceans and Human Health Initiative and lead organizer of the session. “Our ecological and physiological similarities make dolphins an important ‘sentinel species’ to not only warn us of health risks, but also provide insight into how our health can benefit from new medical discoveries.” “Marine animal and ecosystem health are connected to public health and well-being,” said Jane Lubchenco, Ph.D., under secretary of commerce for oceans and atmosphere and NOAA administrator. “NOAA is committed to better understanding these connections and building the partnerships necessary to have healthy oceans, including healthy dolphins.” NOAA is the principal stewardship agency responsible for protecting dolphins in the wild and supports a network of national and international projects aimed at investigating health concerns. A few of these case studies highlighted today at AAAS illustrate how studying disease processes, or pathologies in dolphins, could lead to future prevention or treatment of some diseases in humans. Equally important is the knowledge gained with regards to overall population health, which can lead to improved management and science-based guidelines to mitigate disease outbreak in both people and animals. Unprecedented Contaminant Levels in Coastal Dolphins Warn of Potential Health Risks Researchers from NOAA and its partner institutions recently discovered that bottlenose dolphins inhabiting estuaries along the Georgia coast have the highest levels of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) ever reported in marine wildlife. The term PCB encompasses a suite of persistent contaminants that have been banned in the United States since the late 1970s due to documented adverse health effects. The extraordinarily high levels of PCBs measured in the dolphins, a maximum concentration of 2900 parts per million, may be suppressing their immune function. The unique signature of the PCB compounds found in these dolphins is consistent with contaminants of concern at a Superfund site near Brunswick, Ga. Scientists are equally concerned about the high PCB levels in dolphins sampled near a marine protected area approximately 30 miles from Brunswick. This suggests that the contaminants are moving along the coast through the marine food web. “When we received the lab results for the Georgia dolphins, we were alarmed by the contaminant levels and set out to investigate how these heavy chemical burdens were affecting their health,” states Lori Schwacke, Ph.D., with NOAA’s Center for Oceans and Human Health at the Hollings Marine Lab and co-lead investigator on the team. Last August, the team conducted a dolphin ‘capture-release medical physical’ on this population and found decreased levels of thyroid hormones, elevated liver enzymes and indications of suppressed immune function. A pilot study is being undertaken by the National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), to examine potential environmental contaminants in residents of nearby coastal communities. The researchers are investigating whether coastal dolphin populations and human communities sharing the same seafood resources experience similar exposures. Dolphins May Offer Clues to Treating Diabetes in Humans Research conducted in part by the non-profit National Marine Mammal Foundation (NMMF) has uncovered evidence that bottlenose dolphins may be the first natural animal model for type II diabetes. Further study of their genome may elucidate a possible treatment for a disease that accounts for an estimated 5 percent of all human deaths globally, according to the World Health Organization. These studies have found that healthy dolphins appear to readily turn on and off a diabetes-like state as needed. This “switch” mechanism is likely driven by the dolphins’ very high-protein and very low-carbohydrate fish diet. Analyses have revealed that a fasting mechanism in dolphins may trigger a series of changes in serum chemistries that matches those seen in humans with diabetes. “While some people may eat a high protein diet to help control diabetes, dolphins appear to have developed a diabetes-like state to support a high protein diet,” according to Stephanie Venn-Watson, Ph.D., director of clinical research for NMMF. “Shared large brains that have high blood glucose demands may explain why two completely different species - humans and dolphins - have developed similar physiological mechanisms to handle sugar.” Additional evidence collected from this study shows that humans and dolphins may share similar chronic disease outcomes associated with diabetes such as insulin resistance, hemochromatosis (iron overload) and kidney stones. Model for Epilepsy Discovered from Marine Exposure to Toxic Algae NOAA researchers found that for the first time exposing laboratory animals to a toxin produced by blooms of microscopic ocean algae can induce seizures and eventually lead to epilepsy in almost all of the animals tested. Establishing this novel linkage of oceans and health offers a new perspective to researchers and clinicians studying human epilepsy. Working with the Marine Mammal Center in Sausalito, Calif., and other partners, scientists initially suspected a marine environmental cause of epilepsy by studying marine mammals and other wildlife with seizures that washed up on California beaches over the past decade. The seizures were found to be caused by exposure to domoic acid, a neurotoxin produced by the Pseudo-nitzschia australis alga. After realizing thatsome sea lions were stranded with seizures when there were no harmful algal blooms, researchers started to believe that domoic acid poisoning may have progressed to chronic epileptic disease. Chief of Harmful Algal Blooms & Analytical Response at NOAA's National Centers for Coastal Ocean Science, John Ramsdell, Ph.D., conducted laboratory experiments to validate the field observations seen in sea lions. His research team exposed laboratory rats to domoic acid at levels similar to what a sea lion or dolphin might ingest in the wild by eating contaminated fish. “Within six months of the initial exposure, 92 percent of laboratory rats tested developed epileptic disease that worsened over their lifetime,” said Ramsdell. “The domoic acid itself is not directly causing the epilepsy, but triggers a brief period of seizures that leads to changes in the brain, resulting in spontaneous and reoccurring seizures, the hallmark of epilepsy.” The type of epilepsy in the rat model resembles human Temporal Lobe Epilepsy, as confirmed by at least one human case traced back to eating mussels contaminated with the domoic acid toxin. This research could provide important insight into how dolphins and other species, including humans, respond to domoic acid poisoning. Stranded dolphins with high domoic acid levels do not survive long enough for treatment and study. It is possible that the acute initial poisoning may lead to sudden death; however, these new findings indicate those animals that survive an initial bout of seizures are likely to develop neurological disease with changes in behavior and increasing severity of spontaneous seizures. This new information can help guide future research and emergency response efforts during the next harmful algal bloom event. Dolphin Viruses May Have Human Health Implications A team of researchers and veterinarians from the Marine Animal Disease Lab at the University of Florida have discovered at least 50 new viruses in dolphins, the majority of which have yet to be reported in any other marine mammal species. “We know that the ocean harbors a huge diversity of viruses; but we have very limited knowledge as to which viruses dolphins are susceptible to and how they develop the disease,” said Hendrik H. Nollens, Ph.D., research lead of the UF team. “By studying dolphin viral ecology, we learned more about how viruses infect human and land animals. This research could lead to preventing outbreaks of disease.” One of these viruses, the human papillomavirus, was found to be common in bottlenose dolphins and likely represents the first natural model of papillomavirus outside the human species. Commonly known as HPV in humans, the virus has historically produced great health risks including cervical tumors or cancer in women, especially women with multiple types of the papillomavirus. This new study shows that while dolphins also host multiple types of papillomaviruses they don’t appear to get cancer, only genital warts. Further research into the genome of this virus in dolphins may help understand, manage and prevent cervical cancer in humans. Thirteen additional RNA-based viruses that cause intestinal disease and encephalitis in humans have also recently been discovered in dolphins, whales and other marine life. Much like West Nile, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and influenza, RNA-based viruses have the ability to quickly adapt, rapidly mutate and jump from animals to people, posing potential threats to public health. Another virus identified in the dolphins had incorporated part of a similar human virus into its DNA make-up, making it a very probable candidate to infect humans. Views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect those of UnderwaterTimes.com, its staff or its advertisers.	3.075411
elcome to historic Germantown! George Washington and the capital were here in 1793. During the Revolution, the Battle of Germantown was fought up and down the main street, with muskets firing from house windows. The first American Bible was published here, and the first kidnapping in the United States also took place in Germantown. The writer Louisa May Alcott was born here and the painter Gilbert Stuart worked in a small barn in Germantown. merica's history lies in the cobblestones of Germantown Avenue, echoes through the halls of Stenton and Cliveden, and is forever captured in Germantown's historic buildings, homes, and cemeteries. An incredible amount of history took place in the distance of a few miles in this historic town, now part of Philadelphia. ermantown became a big industrial town in the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Then in the 1940's and 50's the area's affluent citizens began to leave for the suburbs. Today, Germantown is undoubtedly a very urbanized region; however, the historical sites have been very well preserved by the active Historical Society and the National Park Service. Most are open to the public. Explore historic Germantown with this virtual tour.	3.005363
Dangling Modifiers are words or phrases which “dangle” because they have no word in the sentence to describe: While taking a shower, the doorbell rang. --The doorbell was taking a shower? Revise dangling modifiers by adding a headword—a noun or pronoun that is described: While I was taking a shower, the doorbell rang. OR While taking a shower, I heard the doorbell ring. A Misplaced Modifier is placed too close to some other word that it does not intend to modify: I only speak one language. --All you ever do is speak one language? Revise misplaced modifiers by placing the modifier next to its headword: I speak only one language. Split Infinitives are misplaced modifiers which are placed between the preposition to and the verb in an infinitive--a grammatical unit consisting of the word to plus a verb (to eat, to sleep, etc.): Dentists encourage children to regularly brush their teeth. --The modifier regularly is splitting the infinitive to brush. Revise split infinitives by moving the modifier to another part of the sentence: Dentists encourage children to brush their teeth regularly. Squinting Modifiers are misplaced modifiers that seem to modify two words: Patty who was walking quickly reached the disco. --Is Patty walking quickly, or is she quickly reaching the disco? Revise squinting modifiers by changing the word order so there is no ambiguity: Patty, who was quickly walking, reached the disco. OR Patty who was walking...	3.693583
What is feline diabetes? Diabetes mellitus, the clinical name for "sugar diabetes," is a condition that affects the concentration of glucose, a type of sugar, in a cat's blood. Diabetes in cats is rarely the result of a shortage of insulin (Type I Diabetes). More commonly, diabetes results when a cat's body has trouble using the insulin it has made properly (Type II Diabetes). Insulin affects the way a cat's body uses food. When a cat eats, food is broken down into very small components that the body can use. One component, carbohydrate, is converted into several types of sugars, including glucose. Glucose is absorbed from the intestines into the blood. Once in the bloodstream, glucose travels to cells where it can be absorbed and used as a source of energy-if insulin is present. Without enough insulin, glucose can't enter cells and builds up in the bloodstream. So a cat may act hungry all the time and eat constantly, but still lose weight because its cells can't absorb glucose. Most cats develop Type II Diabetes, in which their cells no longer respond normally to the amounts of insulin produced by the pancreas. While many cats initially require daily insulin injections, the treatment goal is to correct the factors or conditions causing insulin resistance. If these factors, such as obesity, can be adequately controlled, many cats will experience temporary remission or permanent resolution of their diabetes. Many cats with Type II Diabetes will experience marked improvement in their insulin sensitivity when changed to a species-appropriate high protein, low carbohydrate food. However, not all cats with diabetes are suited to this type of diet. Your veterinarian will conduct a thorough evaluation and recommend the most appropriate diet and treatment for your cat's diabetes. - Older Cats - Neutered Male Cats - Physical Inactivity - Medications (Steroids and Progestins) If you think your cat may be at risk, make an appointment today to get your cat checked for diabetes. Diabetes is one of many conditions that can affect your cat and cause visible changes in behavior and other signs. That's why it's important your cat be thoroughly examined by a veterinarian at least once a year or more frequently, if your veterinarian advises. - Drinks more water than usual (polydipsia) - Urinates more frequently, produces more urine per day, or has "accidents" outside the litter box (polyuria) - Always acts hungry (polyphagia), but maintains or loses weight - Is less active or sleeps more (lethargic) - Has thinning, dry, or dull hair When evaluating your cat for diabetes, your veterinarian may ask about these signs and will check your cat's general health to rule out the possibility of other conditions or infections. A sample of your cat's urine may be tested first for the presence of glucose, ketones, and/or a urinary tract infection. If glucose is present in your cat's urine, your veterinarian will want to determine your cat's blood glucose concentration and fructosamine concentration. If the blood glucose concentration is consistently higher than normal, your cat's pancreas may not be secreting enough insulin or your cat's body is "resistant" to the insulin being produced. Regardless of the cause for increased blood sugar, your pet is suffering from diabetes mellitus. A diabetes diagnosis is considered definite when glucose is found at a persistently high concentration in blood and in urine. - Diet–determining the best type of food for your cat. Cats, as carnivores, often have significant improvement in their blood sugar levels when placed on a high protein, low carbohydrate food. This is also the perfect time to address weight loss if your cat is overweight or obese - Insulin–how to store and administer it properly - Hypoglycemia–how to identify and treat potentially life-threatening low blood sugar - At-home monitoring you should perform and when you should alert your veterinarian. Ask how you should monitor your cat for the possibility of diabetes remission - Recommended veterinary rechecks - Diabetes Mellitus in Cats Diabetes Mellitus is a disease of the pancreas. In simple terms, it is caused by the failure of the pancreas to regulate blood sugar. Click on the link to learn more. - Diabetes in Cats – Testing and Monitoring There are several recommended tests to have done on your cat when Diabetes Mellitus is suspected. Cats can live happily and healthfully with diabetes if proper monitoring is performed by you at home and your cat has regularly scheduled visits with your veterinarian. For the best monitoring of a diabetic cat and the highest chance of diabetic remission, blood glucose can be checked by you at home. Ask your veterinarian if this monitoring approach might be right for you and your cat. Click on the link to learn more. - Giving Injections to Cats Diabetes Mellitus can be controlled in cats by administering daily insulin injections. Click on the link to learn more. To learn more about diabetes in dogs and cats, check our Pet Health Library. Special thanks to our partners	3.397941
Study: Most Plastics Leach Hormone-Like Chemicals Most plastic products, from sippy cups to food wraps, can release chemicals that act like the sex hormone estrogen, according to a study in Environmental Health Perspectives. The study found these chemicals even in products that didn't contain BPA, a compound in certain plastics that's been widely criticized because it mimics estrogen. Many plastic products are now marketed as BPA-free, and manufacturers have begun substituting other chemicals whose effects aren't as well known. But it's still unclear whether people are being harmed by BPA or any other so-called estrogenic chemicals in plastics. Most studies of health effects have been done in mice and rats. The new study doesn't look at health risks. It simply asks whether common plastic products release estrogen-like chemicals other than BPA. To Fear Or Not To Fear Plastics? Exactly how BPA affects humans, and how serious its effects are, are still very much up for debate. The U.S. government generally advocates caution and more research, but agencies have issued a range of hesitant warnings. The National Toxicology Program, a division of the National Institutes of Health, says it has "some concern" about potential BPA exposures to the brains and prostate glands of fetuses, infants and children. Other agencies say they have lingering, unresolved "questions" about the chemical. Those questions largely circle around how prolonged exposure to the chemical in childhood or adulthood could affect reproduction and growth; how low-dose exposure at sensitive developmental stages could affect children and babies later in life; and how parental exposure could affect the next generation. Studies have shown links between BPA and cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and a host of other illnesses. One major sticking point for scientists is the challenge of drawing conclusions from hundreds of studies, each using different animals (mice and rats among them), doses, and routes of exposure. As the Environmental Protection Agency has noted, "there is controversy about whether effects seen at lower doses in animals are meaningful and relevant to humans." And scientists have also wondered whether rodents are more sensitive to the chemical than us because they metabolize it differently. Last year, the NIH launched a new round of studies, all with the same methodology, designed to answer the some of the niggling questions and help the government provide clearer guidance than it's been able to so far. -- Eliza Barclay The researchers bought more than 450 plastic items from stores including Walmart and Whole Foods. They chose products designed to come in contact with food — things like baby bottles, deli packaging and flexible bags, says George Bittner, one of the study's authors and a professor of biology at the University of Texas, Austin. Then CertiChem, a testing company founded by Bittner, chopped up pieces of each product and soaked them in either saltwater or alcohol to see what came out. The testing showed that more than 70 percent of the products released chemicals that acted like estrogen. And that was before they exposed the stuff to real-world conditions: simulated sunlight, dishwashing and microwaving, Bittner says. "Then, you greatly increase the probability that you're going to get chemicals having estrogenic activity released," he says, adding that more than 95 percent of the products tested positive after undergoing this sort of stress. But what about all those products marketed as BPA-free? That's a claim being made for everything from dog bowls to bento boxes these days. The team concentrated on BPA-free baby bottles and water bottles, Bittner says, "and all of them released chemicals having estrogenic activity." Sometimes the BPA-free products had even more activity than products known to contain BPA. The testing didn't show which chemicals are to blame, which is likely to be frustrating to manufacturers. But Bittner says consumers should be encouraged that at least some plastic products had no estrogen-like activity. He says that shows it is possible to make these products. Early reaction to the study was mixed. Some scientists wondered about the test's reliability. Others noted that wine and many vegetables also can act like estrogen. And a few observed that Bittner has a financial interest in the testing lab and in a company involved in making plastic products that don't release estrogenic chemicals. On the other hand, groups that have warned about the potential dangers of BPA in the past seemed to welcome the new research. "This is really helpful because they took a look at very common products," says Sonya Lunder, a senior analyst at the Environmental Working Group. But the results suggest that concerns about plastics can't be solved by worried consumers at the checkout counter, Lunder says. It's a problem for government, she says. "Regulatory agencies need to study the effect of chemicals leaching out of plastic," Lunder says, adding that an EPA program formed more than a decade ago to do this sort of research still hasn't produced many results. Until scientists come up with more definitive answers, Lunder says, worried consumers can follow the old advice to avoid putting those baby bottles and other plastic products in dishwashers or microwaves. "We've long cautioned consumers to avoid extreme heat and cooling for plastics, to discard scratched and worn plastics and we feel like this [study] validates one of our many concerns," she says. MICHELE NORRIS, host: Many of you have been clearing your house of baby bottles and other plastic products because they're made with the chemical BPA. Research has shown that BPA can act like the hormone estrogen, at least in mice and in rats. Now, as NPR's Jon Hamilton reports, a new study finds that even plastics without BPA can release estrogen-like chemicals. JON HAMILTON: Before you toss out your Tupperware, it's worth noting that scientists still don't know whether people are harmed by any of the chemicals coming from plastics. It's just not clear. And the new study doesn't look at health risks. It simply asks whether common plastic products release estrogen-like chemicals other than BPA. That's something George Bittner, a biologist at the University of Texas in Austin, had been wondering for a long time. So he sent a research team to stores, including Wal-Mart and Whole Foods. Their mission: buy a whole bunch of stuff made of plastic, the kind of stuff that might come in contact with food. Mr. GEORGE BITTNER (Biologist, University of Texas at Austin): Baby bottles, deli packaging, flexible bags. HAMILTON: The team came back with more than 450 products. Then CertiChem, a testing company that Bittner founded, chopped up pieces of each product and soaked them in either salt water or alcohol to see what leeched out. Bittner says the tests made one thing clear. Mr. BITTNER: Most plastic products on the market today release chemicals having easily detectible estrogenic activity. HAMILTON: Estrogenic activity means they act like estrogen. Bittner says about 70 percent of the stuff the lab tested released these chemicals, and Bittner says that was before they exposed the stuff to real-world conditions: simulated sunlight, dishwashing and microwaving. Mr. BITTNER: Then, you greatly increase the probability that you're going to get chemicals having estrogenic activity released, in fact, maybe somewhere between 95 to 98 percent. HAMILTON: But what about all those things marketed as BPA-free - you know, dog bowls, bento boxes? Mr. BITTNER: In particular, we've concentrated on baby bottles and water bottles. We've tested them and all of them released chemicals having estrogenic activity. HAMILTON: Sometimes even more than products known to contain BPA. The testing didn't show which chemicals are to blame. That's likely to be frustrating to manufacturers, but Bittner says consumers should be encouraged that at least some plastic products had no estrogen-like activity. He says that shows it can be done. Early reaction to the study was mixed. Some scientists wondered about the test's reliability. Others noted that wine and many vegetables also have estrogenic activity. And they note that Bittner has a financial interest in the testing lab and in a plastics company. But groups that have warned about BPA in the past seemed to welcome the new research. Ms. SONYA LUNDER (Senior Analyst, Environmental Working Group): This is really helpful because they took a look at very common products. HAMILTON: Sonya Lunder is from the Environmental Working Group. She says the results suggest the concerns about plastics can't be solved by worried consumers at the checkout counter. It's a problem for government. Ms. LUNDER: Regulatory agencies like the FDA need to study the effect of chemicals leeching out of plastic. We know the EPA first proposed its hormone disrupter screening program 15 years ago and has made virtually no progress. HAMILTON: Lunder says that until there are more definitive answers, worried consumers can follow the old advice to avoid putting those baby bottles in dishwashers or microwaves. Ms. LUNDER: See, we've long cautioned consumers to avoid extreme heat and cooling for plastics, to discard scratched and worn plastics, and we feel like this validates one of our many concerns. HAMILTON: The new study appears in the online edition of the journal Environmental Health Perspectives. Jon Hamilton, NPR News. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR.	3.27778
Search: Nuclear chemistry, Darmstadtium, Germany In honour of scientist and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), the discovering team around Professor Sigurd Hofmann suggested the name copernicium with the element symbol Cp for the new element 112, discovered at the GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung (Center for Heavy Ion Research) in Darmstadt. It was Copernicus who discovered that the Earth orbits the Sun, thus paving the way for our modern view of the world. Thirteen years ago, element 112 was discovered by an international team of scientists at the GSI accelerator facility. A few weeks ago, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, IUPAC, officially confirmed their discovery. In around six months, IUPAC will officially endorse the new element's name. This period is set to allow the scientific community to discuss the suggested name copernicium before the IUPAC naming. "After IUPAC officially recognized our discovery, we – that is all scientists involved in the discovery – agreed on proposing the name copernicium for the new element 112. We would like to honor an outstanding scientist, who changed our view of the world", says Sigurd Hofmann, head of the discovering team. Copernicus was born 1473 in Torun; he died 1543 in Frombork, Poland. Working in the field of astronomy, he realized that the planets circle the Sun. His discovery refuted the then accepted belief that the Earth was the center of the universe. His finding was pivotal for the discovery of the gravitational force, which is responsible for the motion of the planets. It also led to the conclusion that the stars are incredibly far away and the universe inconceivably large, as the size and position of the stars does not change even though the Earth is moving. Furthermore, the new world view inspired by Copernicus had an impact on the human self-concept in theology and philosophy: humankind could no longer be seen as the center of the world. With its planets revolving around the Sun on different orbits, the solar system is also a model for other physical systems. The structure of an atom is like a microcosm: its electrons orbit the atomic nucleus like the planets orbit the Sun. Exactly 112 electrons circle the atomic nucleus in an atom of the new element "copernicium". Element 112 is the heaviest element in the periodic table, 277 times heavier than hydrogen. It is produced by a nuclear fusion, when bombarding zinc ions onto a lead target. As the element already decays after a split second, its existence can only be proved with the help of extremely fast and sensitive analysis methods. Twenty-one scientists from Germany, Finland, Russia and Slovakia have been involved in the experiments that led to the discovery of element 112. Since 1981, GSI accelerator experiments have yielded the discovery of six chemical elements, which carry the atomic numbers 107 to 112. The discovering teams at GSI already named five of them: element 107 is called bohrium, element 108 hassium, element 109 meitnerium, element 110 darmstadtium, and element 111 is named roentgenium. The new element 112 discovered by GSI has been officially recognized and will be named by the Darmstadt group in due course. Their suggestion should be made public over this summer. The element 112, discovered at the GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung (Centre for Heavy Ion Research) in Darmstadt, has been officially recognized as a new element by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). IUPAC confirmed the recognition of element 112 in an official letter to the head of the discovering team, Professor Sigurd Hofmann. The letter furthermore asks the discoverers to propose a name for the new element. Their suggestion will be submitted within the next weeks. In about 6 months, after the proposed name has been thoroughly assessed by IUPAC, the element will receive its official name. The new element is approximately 277 times heavier than hydrogen, making it the heaviest element in the periodic table. “We are delighted that now the sixth element – and thus all of the elements discovered at GSI during the past 30 years – has been officially recognized. During the next few weeks, the scientists of the discovering team will deliberate on a name for the new element”, says Sigurd Hofmann. 21 scientists from Germany, Finland, Russia and Slovakia were involved in the experiments around the discovery of the new element 112. Since 1981, GSI accelerator experiments have yielded the discovery of six chemical elements, which carry the atomic numbers 107 to 112. GSI has already named their officially recognized elements 107 to 111: element 107 is called Bohrium, element 108 Hassium, element 109 Meitnerium, element 110 Darmstadtium, and element 111 is named Roentgenium. Recommendation for the Naming of Element of Atomic Number 110 Prepared for publication by J. Corish and G. M. Rosenblatt A joint IUPAC-IUPAP Working Party confirms the discovery of element number 110 and this by the collaboration of Hofmann et al. from the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung mbH (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany. In accord with IUPAC procedures, the discoverers have proposed a name and symbol for the element. The Inorganic Chemistry Division Committee now recommends this proposal for acceptance. The proposed name is darmstadtium with symbol Ds. This proposal lies within the long established tradition of naming an element after the place of its discovery.	3.66816
Luteinizing hormone (LH) is produced by the pituitary gland. In women, LH helps regulate the menstrual cycle and egg production (ovulation); in men, LH stimulates the production of testosterone, which plays a role in sperm production. Women's LH levels normally vary with the phase of the menstrual cycle, rapidly increasing just before ovulation occurs. This "LH surge" is a dependable sign that a woman is in a fertile time of her cycle. Men's LH levels normally remain constant. Abnormally high or low LH levels can be a sign of an inability to produce eggs or sperm. WebMD Medical Reference from Healthwise	3.068752
Has smallpox really disappeared from The International Vaccination Newsletter, Dec 1997 In 1982, the WHO advised a global vaccination moratorium against the smallpox vaccination because, they said, the disease appeared to have vanished from the earth. For another thing, the side-effects had become too obvious to maintain the traditional guidelines in favour of mass vaccination. There are many questions about the role of the vaccine in the decline of the disease, a point which may be clarified in a later issue of IVN. However, it is questionable whether smallpox really was eradicated as we have been told. Some publications stated that the last smallpox virus had disappeared from this globe. But had it really? Certainly not, since viruses were stored and even used in later experiments as carrier molecules for an experimental AIDS vaccine. Some of the volunteers engaged by the Pasteur Institute died during the experiment from a smallpox-like illness (1). The institute managed to keep the information out of the front pages. A new and embarrassing development was the resurgence of pox-family viruses in Africa, known as the monkeypox. This fact has been known for many years but the public was reassured that this had nothing to do with smallpox and that the human species was safe. Not as safe as we were told, though, since in the Congo in 1970, pox viruses were isolated from humans2 corresponding to the pox viruses found in captive monkeys in 1958 and identified the next year (3). It was baptised monkeypox~. The same virus was isolated from 6 humans in 1959 by Foster. In 1976, Gipsen reported on more cases in Nigeria (4). The terminology of the disease became ever more confusing, since what were at first simply monkeypox are now introduced into literature ashuman monkeypox. What, now, is the difference between smallpox and human monkeypox? It is interesting to read in a recent article in the Lancet that "Human monkeypox is a systemic exanthem, resembling smallpox, that occurs as a sporadic zoonosis in rural rainforest villages of western and central Africa. The disease is caused by an orthopoxvirus, which is transmitted to human beings by handling infected animals; serosurveys have implicated squirrels ... as the probable reservoir. Secondary human-to-human spread by aerosol or direct contact accounts for about 28% of cases..." (my emphasis) So, let us make a simple addition. This virus is an orthopox virus, which means, literally translated, a real pox virus. This virus spreads among humans causing an exanthem resembling smallpox, and causing disease and death among the infected (between February and August 1996, 71 cases were notified in the Katako-Kombe area in Zaire, 6 of which 4 died from the disease (5). So what is the difference between smallpox and human monkeypox? The difference is a difference in protein structure. Nucleotide sequence analysis revealed different structures. But what does this really matter it both viruses affect us in the same way, spread in the same way, and cause the same eruptions and the same clinical disease? Scientists do, the victims dont! It is quite odd that the authors do not mention the smallpox vaccination status of the infected. All they mention is that in a preliminary study none of the examined had a scar of smallpox vaccination. Which does not mean that they had not been vaccinated as the vaccine may not have taken. No figures are available about antibodies against smallpox, so that we have no real clue whether, in this study, the vaccine showed any protection against monkeypox or not. Many of the patients described elsewhere were vaccinated. Arita and Henderson (6) found 94 children with facial scarring caused by monkeypox; all except two who also showed scars typical for smallpox vaccination. So the least one can do is to question the protection offered by smallpox vaccination against the new monkey-pox virus. Apparently the new virus is quite infectious, since 42 cases, including 3 deaths, were reported in a small village with only 346 inhabitants. The article further states that "present cluster of cases constitutes a reemergence of human monkeypox on a scale greater in magnitude than the approximate 65 annual cases previously indicated for Kasai Oriental, Bandundu, and Equateur regions from 1981 to 1986" and also that "it contains a more extensive occurrence of person-to-person transmission than previously recognised." The conclusion of the authors is that" Because sequence analyses have indicated that Zairian monkeypox strains have not diverged greatly from the first isolate from the area in 1970 and monkeypox and smallpox variola viruses are independently evolved species (7), notions of monkeypox virus mutating into variola virus are unfounded." This does not sound very reassuring. Former suggestions that "prolonged episodes or sustained cascades of transmission of human monkeypox would be unlikely" (8) do not hold up. Although the smallpox VIRUS appears to have died down a few decades ago, obviously the DISEASE is still present on this earth and able to make a come-back. Whether this is due to the mutation of the original virus or to a new virus that generates the same disease is a question that remains unanswered. Another pillar of the vaccine dogma, its victory over smallpox, has fallen into pieces. 1. Personal communication with a staff member. 2. Mukinda, V.B.K.; et al Reemergence of human monkeypox in Zaire in 1996. Lancet, 1997; 349:1449-50 3. von Magnus, P.; et al A pox-like disease In cynomolgus monkeys. Acta Pathologica et Microbiologica Scandinavica, 1959; 46/2:156-76 4. Gipsen, R.; et al Monkeypoxspecific antibodies in human and simian sera from the ivory Coast and Nigeria. Bull, WHO, 1976; 53; 355-60 5. WHO. Monkeypox, Zaire. Widy Epidemiol Aec, 1996; 71:326 6. Arita, I.; Henderson, D.A.; Monkey-pox and whitepox viruses in West and Central Africa.Bull WHO, 1976; 53:347-53 7. Douglass, N.; Dumbell, K.R.; Independent evolution of monkeypox and variola viruses. J Virol, 1992; 66:7565-7 8. Jezek, Z.; Fenner, F.; Human monkeypox. Monographs In Virology Vol 17, J.L.Melnick, ed. Basel, Switzerland:Karger, 1988 [Vaccination] [Gaublomme] [Smallpox]	3.095696
The National Park Service maintains a number of historic sites associated with black history. Ten of those sites are featured here, each with a link to visitors information from the park service. Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site commemorates the Supreme Court's landmark decision to end segregation in the country's public schools. The Black Heritage Trail on Boston's Beacon Hill pieces together the story of the free African American community that lived here during the decades leading up to and during the Civil War. Fort Davis is important in understanding the presence of African Americans in the West and in the frontier military because the 24th and 25th U.S. Frederick Douglass was born into slavery on the Eastern Shore of Maryland in 1818, and was given the name Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey (Baly), after his mother Harriet Bailey. On October 16, 17, and 18, 1859, John Brown and his "Provisional Army of the United States" took possession of the United States Armory and Arsenal at Harpers Ferry.	3.735477
Background Information for Morocco Background: In 788, about a century after the Arab conquest of North Africa, successive Moorish dynasties began to rule in Morocco. In the 16th century, the Sa'adi monarchy, particularly under Ahmad AL-MANSUR (1578-1603), repelled foreign invaders and inaugurated a golden age. In 1860, Spain occupied northern Morocco and ushered in a half century of trade rivalry among European powers that saw Morocco's sovereignty steadily erode; in 1912, the French imposed a protectorate over the country. A protracted independence struggle with France ended successfully in 1956. The internationalized city of Tangier and most Spanish possessions were turned over to the new country that same year. Morocco virtually annexed Western Sahara during the late 1970s, but final resolution on the status of the territory remains unresolved. Gradual political reforms in the 1990s resulted in the establishment of a bicameral legislature, which first met in 1997. The country has made improvements in human rights under King MOHAMMED VI and its press is moderately free. Despite the continuing reforms, ultimate authority remains in the hands of the monarch. The information here has been derived from Public Domain Sources such as the CIA World Factbook. No liability can be taken for any inaccuracies. You can use the maps, flags and facts presented here however you choose.	3.754159
CHARLESTON, W.Va. -- Dear Cindy, What is a resting heart rate, and how do I determine mine? -- Corinne A resting heart rate is the number of heartbeats each minute you are at rest and completely still. The RHR can tell you how strong and efficient your heart is and, based on that number, indicate whether your heart is getting stronger or weaker as time goes by. The lower the number, the more powerful your heart probably is, and the higher the number, the less able your heart is to efficiently pump the blood from the tip of your toes to the top of your head. Certain medications can skew these numbers, but generally your RHR is a great way to see if your cardio workouts are challenging your system enough to make a healthy difference over time. The most accurate way to determine your RHR is to plan to take your pulse in advance because it must be taken before you rise. Once you get out of bed and move, the heart rate increases. Place a timepiece with a second hand near your bed so that when you wake, you can easily begin counting your heartbeats. You must record it for a full minute and repeat the count daily for five days. The average will be your RHR. This is a great question, and because February is American Heart Month, I want to share some information vital to your heart health. Care for your sweet heart According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the United States. One in three deaths is from heart disease and/or stroke, which equates to 2,200 deaths every day. It's also quite costly. In fact, hospitalizations because of heart disease and stroke cost the nation more than $444 billion in health-care expenses and lost productivity. Pretty depressing statistics, considering it doesn't have to be this way. These numbers are out of control because we are out of control. Physical activity and better nutrition are life-changing choices we need to make a priority if we want to save lives and to reduce the insane financial burden heart disease is putting on our nation. Recently, the CDC and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services launched Million Hearts, a simple yet powerful initiative that aims to empower everyone to make heart-healthy choices and to reduce the 1 million heart attacks and strokes in the U.S. over the next five years. Granted, conquering the nation's biggest killer is not a simple task. After all, some risk factors are not within our control. But most are, so you actually have the power to add quality years to your life. The goal of Million Hearts is reachable and can be as easy as ABC. The ABCs of saving a heart	3.029622
Supplemental Student Aid Early Literacy Development Charter School Facilities Quotes to Note On January 8, in his last policy speech, President Bush discussed his record on education and pressed Congress to reauthorize a robust No Child Left Behind Act at General Philip Kearny School in Philadelphia. "Seven years ago, today, I had the honor of signing a bill that forever changed America's school systems," he said. "I firmly believe that, thanks to [the No Child Left Behind Act], more students are learning and the achievement gap is closing. And, on this anniversary, I have come to talk about why we need to keep the law strong." In his remarks, the President addressed common complaints about the law, but he stressed that there was "no debate about the results." Specifically, he cited having accountability plans in place in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, disaggregated data, a clear focus on the achievement gap, highly qualified teachers, and research-proven strategies for reading instruction. As evidence of success, he also referenced the new Teacher Incentive Fund, supplemental educational services, and increased numbers of charter schools. "The most important result of No Child Left Behind is this: fewer students are falling behind, and more students are achieving high standards." Then, in closing, the President urged Congress to reauthorize the lawwithout undermining its core principles. "There is a growing consensus across the country that now is not the time to water down standards or roll-back accountability," he said. "And, I call upon those who can determine the fate of No Child Left Behind... to stay strong in the face of criticism, to not weaken the lawbecause, in so weakening the law, you weaken the chance for a child to succeed in Americabut to strengthen the law for the sake of every child." For more information, please go to http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2009/ 01/20090108-2.html. (Note: A White House fact sheet on education is available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2009/ Joining President Bush in Philadelphia, Secretary Spellings released Great Expectations, a new, well-referenced document which examines the history of public education in the U.S. and how students once left behind are now making progress. "Great Expectations explores education's evolution in America from a privilege for a few to a necessity for all. It tells the story of a remarkable comeback by our nation's students, who are achieving record high test scores in reading and math and reveals the reforms that have led to these results," she stated. "Most importantly, Great Expectations reminds us that our work has just begunwe cannot turn back or slow down. In fact, we must pick up the pace to ensure a quality education for all." The publication is divided into the following eight sections: (1) History of Expectations, (2) Search for Accountability, (3) Education as Civil Right, (4) Doing What Works, (5) Recognizing and Rewarding Teachers, (6) Higher Education That Aims Higher, (7) New Choices for a New Century, and (8) What's Next? For more information, please go to http://www.ed.gov/nclb/overview/importance/greatexpectations/. (Note: A Department fact sheet on Great Expectations is available at http://www.ed.gov/nclb/overview/importance/greatexpectations/ Meanwhile, in the Washington Post, the Secretary penned a letter to her successor. Her concluding advice? "Many in Washington will judge you on your popularity with adults. If some adults are made uncomfortable by your policies, so be it. The needs of children must come first." For more information, please go to http://www.ed.gov/news/opeds/edit/2009/01132009.html. Tying up some loose ends, the Department issued official letters to every state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico on the status of some No Child Left Behind cornerstones, including assessments, accountability, and flexibility. In addition, states received a spreadsheet, specifying where each state stands on these issues, and an updated fact sheet on state standards and assessments. To date, 39 states have implemented high-quality standards and assessment systems that have received either "full approval" or "approval with recommendations" from the agency. For more information, please go to http://www.ed.gov/admins/lead/account/cornerstones/. At the same time, the Secretary announced the approval of several state proposals under the Department's growth model and differentiated accountability pilot programs. First, four additional states (Colorado, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Texas) are approved to implement growth-based accountability models (see http://www.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2009/01/01082009a.html). Colorado and Minnesota are immediately approved to use their models this school year, while Pennsylvania and Texas are conditionally approved, assuming they satisfy requirements related to their assessment and accountability systems. Growth models allow states to receive credit for improving individual students' performance over timebut retain the No Child Left Behind core principles of annual assessment, disaggregation of data, and grade-level proficiency for all students by 2013-2014. Fifteen states have now been approved to implement growth models. Second, three additional states (Arkansas, Louisiana, and New York) may differentiate between underperforming schools in need of dramatic interventions and those that are closer to meeting the goals of No Child Left Behind (see http://www.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2009/01/01082009b.html). The law currently treats all schools in improvement similarly. Differentiated accountability permits states to vary the intensity and type of interventions to match the academic reasons that led to a school's identification. Nine states have now been approved to implement differentiated accountability. For both pilots, the Department used a rigorous peer review process to ensure that the selections were fair and transparent. Also, the Department's Policy and Program Studies Services recently published new evaluation studies on state and local implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act: - "Targeting and Uses of Federal Education Funds" (http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/disadv/nclb-targeting/) examines how well federal funds are targeted to schools and school districts serving economically disadvantaged students, how Title I targeting has changed over the past seven years, how districts have spent federal funds, and the base of state and local resources to which federal funds are added. Key finding? Federal funds were more strongly targeted to high-poverty districts than were state and local funds. However, the higher level of federal funding in high-poverty districts was not sufficient to close the funding gap between high- and low-poverty districts. - "Title I School Choice and Supplemental Educational Services" (http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/choice/nclb-choice-ses-final/) supplies updated information on the implementation and usage of choice options offered to students in Title I schools identified for improvement. Key finding? The number of students eligible for and participating in public school choice or supplemental educational services (SES) have increased substantially, although, nationwide, participation rates remained stable at 1% and 17%, respectively. (Note: The Department just released non-regulatory guidance on implementing public school choice and SES. This guidance updates and expands upon previous versions of guidance, covering issues related to the new Title I regulations and including information on other major policy guidance the agency has released during the last few years. See http://www.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2009/ - "Implementation of the [Students with Disabilities] 1% Rule and 2% Interim Policy Options" (http://www.ed.gov/rschstat/eval/disadv/nclb-disab/) presents findings about the implementation of regulations and guidelines issued under No Child Left Behind providing greater flexibility for the treatment of certain students with disabilities in state assessment and accountability systems. Key finding? Most states with sound data reported that less than 10% of tested students with disabilities participated in an alternate assessment based on alternate achievement standards. Supplemental Student Aid Participation in the Department's Academic Competitiveness (AC) and National Science and Mathematics Access to Retain Talent (SMART) grant programs grew by 28% in the 2007-08 academic year, with 95,000 more students receiving grants than in 2006-07. For 2007-08, a total of 401,372 students received $297,604,911 in AC grants and 66,120 students received $195,474,710 in SMART grants. Both of these programs were created in 2006 as part of the President's American Competitiveness Initiative. They aim to increase college access and completion for low-income students by providing additional funds to students eligible for a Pell Grant. First-year students who have fulfilled a rigorous high school course of study are eligible to receive an AC grant up to $750; students who attain a 3.0 grade point average as freshman are eligible to receive up to $1,300 as a sophomore. SMART grants up to $4,000 are awarded to juniors and seniors studying math, science, technology, engineering, or a critical foreign language and sustaining a 3.0 grade point average in their major. For more information, please go to http://www.ed.gov/programs/smart/performance.html. Early Literacy Development Last week, at the National Press Club, the National Institute for Literacy released "Developing Early Literacy." This report, developed by the nine-member National Early Literacy Panel (NELP), bridges the large gap in the early literacy research knowledge base. By synthesizing research on language, literacy, and communication, it clearly identifies which critical early skills/abilities and proven instructional practices are precursors of later literacy achievement. (According to the findings, among the best early predictors of literacy are alphabet knowledge, phonemic awareness, rapid naming skills, writing [such as writing one's own name], and short-term memory for words said aloud.) It also tenders clues and insights into emergent literacy from birth through age 5 and points the way for future literacy research and scientific inquiry. The National Institute for Literacy convened the NELP in 2002 with support from the Departments of Education and Health and Human Services. For more information, please go to http://www.nifl.gov/nifl/NELP/NELP09.html. Also: Turning the issue of literacy development on its head, the Department's National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) has unveiled a new web tool with estimates of the percentage of adultsfor all states and counties in the U.S.who lack basic prose literacy skills. The web tool allows for comparisons to be made between two states, two counties, and across data years. Estimates were developed using statistical models that related estimated percentages of adults lacking basic literacy skills in counties sampled for the 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey and the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy to county characteristics, such as levels of educational attainment. For more information, please go to http://nces.ed.gov/naal/estimates/. Charter School Facilities Earlier this week, the Department's Office of Innovation and Improvement (OII) released the latest guide in its popular "Innovations in Education" series, "Making Charter School Facilities More Affordable: State-Driven Policy Approaches." This guide, which complements earlier charter school guides, profiles policy interventions from eight states and the District of Columbia that have been developed to help charter schools address various facilities-related challenges. While the guide does not describe every effort, it details how some jurisdictions have dedicated funding streams to support charter facilities and how others have helped charter school operators access relatively low-cost financing to buy, lease, or renovate school buildings. For more information, please go to http://www.ed.gov/admins/comm/choice/charterfacilities/. On January 20, our nation will observe the transition from one presidential administration to the next. Like all other recurring publications of the Department, ED Review will be on hiatus as it is evaluated by the incoming administration. We expect either ED Review or another resource will be available in the near future to provide you updates on Department activities. In the interim, we strongly encourage you to visit http://www.ed.gov/ and check the headlines. Thank you for your patience. Quotes to Note "I have seen the resolve for reform and the belief in high standards in Chicago, where reading and math scores are soaring, and where every child still has time to study a foreign language and the fine arts. The school in Chicago we went to [Horace Greeley Elementary School], like other schools across the city, have benefited from the vision and leadership of a person named Arne Duncan. And, he is going to be the next Secretary of Education. We are fortunate he has agreed to take on this position. We wish him all the very best." \|\|\|President George W. Bush (1/8/09), on the seventh anniversary of the No Child Left Behind Act\| "You need no lessons from me on toughness and tenacity. Not only did you achieve results for Chicago's schoolchildren, but you did it in the face of steady criticism. You stuck to your guns on merit pay for teachers who showed results. You expanded charter schools when others wanted to limit them. And, you closed chronically underperforming schools so that they could be restructured. I am confident that you will bring this attitude to Washington." \|\|\|Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings (1/9/09), in a letter to the Secretary of Education-Designate\| Don't forget! The next "Education News Parents Can Use" broadcast (January 20, 8:00-9:00 ET) will look back at some of the most engaging topics explored on recent shows from the "fresh" point of view of the Teaching Ambassador Fellows. For more information, please go to http://www.ed.gov/edtv/. (You can watch archived webcasts at http://www.connectlive.com/events/ednews/.) Next month, the Department will exhibit at the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education's Annual Meeting in Chicago (February 6-8); the National Association for Bilingual Education's Annual Conference in Austin (February 18-21); the American Association of School Administrators' National Conference in San Francisco (February 19-21); the National Title I Conference in San Antonio (February 19-22); and the National Association of Secondary School Principals' Annual Convention in San Diego (February 26-28). If you are attending any of these events, please stop by the Department's booth. Credits, Subscribe & Unsubscribe Please feel free to contact the Office of Communications and Outreach with any questions: Director, Intergovernmental AffairsRogers Johnson, (202) 401-0026, [email protected] Deputy DirectorKeith Brancato, (202) 401-6178, [email protected] Program AnalystAdam Honeysett, (202) 401-3003, [email protected] To be added or removed from distribution, or submit comments (we welcome your feedback!), please contact Adam Honeysett. Or, visit http://www.ed.gov/news/newsletters/edreview/index.html. This newsletter contains hypertext links to information created and maintained by other public and private organizations. These links are provided for the user's convenience. The U.S. Department of Education does not control or guarantee the accuracy, relevance, timeliness, or completeness of this outside information. Furthermore, the inclusion of links is not intended to reflect their importance, nor is it intended to endorse any views expressed, or products or services offered, on these sites, or the organizations sponsoring the sites.	3.040962
Developing Cultural Diversity in Teaching What is Cultural Diversity? The phrase 'Cultural Diversity'means a range of different societies or peoples with different origins, religions and traditions all living and interacting together. To be culturally diverse is to accept and celebrate difference. For tutors that means finding a way of ‘bringing the world into classroom’ to reflect the diversity of our community and to enrich the learning experience of all our learners as well as creating an inclusive learning environment. To help tutors create more culturally diverse programmes we have put together the following guidance with a down-loadable Cultural Diversity resource 121kb for subject specific ideas. Re-examine your teaching materials and planning, to identify where you can incorporate a broader view of the world. - How outward looking are you expecting your learners to be? Are you encouraging learner autonomy? - Do you expect them to research, and explore the subject outside the classroom? Are they dependant on you for everything? - Do you draw learner attention to related activities happening locally, nationally and globally? - Examine your own source of your inspiration, ideas, knowledge – how culturally diverse are they? - Be pro-active and consider cultural diversity at the planning stage, otherwise it won’t happen! - Be aware of individual rights and responsibilities (e.g. gender, age-related issues) - Consider the differences in your learners i.e. age, sex, race etc and plan resources to include all. - Share good practice – Make this resource useful to ev.eryone by sending your contributions to: [email protected].	3.909698
The Journal of American Medical Association did a study on “e-mobile technology”, for example sending text messages on phones to try to increase immunization rates, in this case flu rates of children. The research was done at the University of Rochester where about 8,000, mostly low-income kids, and parents got a series of text messages regarding flu shots starting at the beginning of the 2010-2011 flu season, and then received an additional reminder. About half the parents got weekly text messages, educating them about the flu and the importance of immunizing their children. They also got weekly text messages reminding them about flu clinics that were being held. Researchers found that about 44% of the kids and teens that were in the text message group were vaccinated and about 40% of those parents who did not receive texts were vaccinated. Statistically, there’s not much difference, but clinically this is important, and here’s why. These authors pointed out that if these results were applied to the entire population you would have several million more kids getting vaccinated. One of the concerns we should consider is cost and even potentially, some privacy issues. But despite the possible downsides, even if it’s only a 4% difference, if you apply that, it could result in lives saved. I think we should continue to pursue this area of research of using text message reminders as a potential to make a difference from the public health perspective. In the meantime though, make sure your children are getting their flu shots every year!	3.029083
A Beautiful Way to Communicate - Languages of Love and Understanding Making English the official language, is exclusionary, elitist, and demeaning to hardworking, striving individuals. It is politically destructive to limit the use of languages. Sharing languages is a means of creating harmony and understanding between people of different cultures and a way to foster cooperation. It is a growth experience for individuals, an enhancement in strengthening communities, and eventually a benefit for government for languages to be recognized and shared, and for groups of people to be respected. English will always be considered the first language of the United States. It should not have to be legislated as such. By recognizing the use and importance of other languages in the United States, English will take priority. In lieu of disenfranchising and discouraging others, the idea here would be to take the positive approach of recognizing the second most commonly used language, Spanish, as a second , or, sister language. English, therefore, remains 1	3.239262
Given all the evidence presently available, we believe it entirely reasonable that Mars is inhabited with living organisms and that life independently originated there The conclusion of a study by the National Academy of Sciences in March 1965, after 88 years of surveying the red planet through blurry telescopes. Four months later, NASA’s Mariner 4 spacecraft would beam back the first satellite images of Mars confirming the opposite. After Earth and Mars were born four and a half billion years ago, they both contained all the elements necessary for life. After initially having surface water and an atmosphere, scientists now believe Mars lost it’s atmosphere four billion years ago, with Earth getting an oxygenated atmosphere around half a billion years later. According to the chief scientist on NASA’s Curiosity mission, if life ever existed on Mars it was most likely microscopic and lived more than three and a half billion years ago. But even on Earth, fossils that old are vanishingly rare. “You can count them on one hand,” he says. “Five locations. You can waste time looking at hundreds of thousands of rocks and not find anything.” The impact of a 40kg meteor on the Moon on March 17 was bright enough to see from Earth without a telescope, according to NASA, who captured the impact through a Moon-monitoring telescope. Now NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter will try and search out the impact crater, which could be up to 20 metres wide.	4.180758
As the years tick by with most of the planet doing little in the way of reducing carbon emissions, researchers are getting increasingly serious about the possibility of carbon sequestration. If it looks like we're going to be burning coal for decades, carbon sequestration offers us the best chance of limiting its impact on climate change and ocean acidification. A paper that will appear in today's PNAS describes a fantastic resource for carbon sequestration that happens to be located right next to many of the US' major urban centers on the East Coast. Assuming that capturing the carbon dioxide is financially and energetically feasible, the big concern becomes where to put it so that it will stay out of the atmosphere for centuries. There appear to be two main schools of thought here. One is that areas that hold large deposits of natural gas should be able to trap other gasses for the long term. The one concern here is that, unlike natural gas, CO2 readily dissolves in water, and may escape via groundwater that flows through these features. The alternative approach turns that problem into a virtue: dissolved CO2 can react with minerals in rocks called basalts (the product of major volcanic activity), forming insoluble carbonate minerals. This should provide an irreversible chemical sequestration. The new paper helpfully points out that if we're looking for basalts, the East Coast of the US, home to many of its major urban centers and their associated carbon emissions, has an embarrassment of riches. The rifting that broke up the supercontinent called Pangea and formed the Atlantic Ocean's basin triggered some massive basalt flows at the time, which are now part of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, or CAMP. The authors estimate that prior to some erosion, CAMP had the equivalent of the largest basalt flows we're currently aware of, the Siberian and Deccan Traps. Some of this basalt is on land—anyone in northern Manhattan can look across the Hudson River and see it in the sheer cliffs of the Palisades. But much, much more of it is off the coast under the Atlantic Ocean. The authors provide some evidence in the form of drill cores and seismic readings that indicate there are large basalt deposits in basins offshore of New Jersey and New York, extending up to southern New England. These areas are now covered with millions of years of sediment, which should provide a largely impermeable barrier that will trap any gas injected into the basalt for many years. The deposits should also have reached equilibrium with the seawater above, which will provide the water necessary for the chemical reactions that precipitate out carbonate minerals. Using a drill core from an onshore deposit, the authors show that the basalt deposits are also composed of many distinct flows of material. Each of these flows would have undergone rapid cooling on both its upper and lower surface, which fragmented the rock. The core samples show porosity levels between 10 and 20 percent, which should allow any CO2 pumped into the deposits to spread widely. The authors estimate that New Jersey's Sandy Hook basin, a relatively small deposit, is sufficient to house 40 years' worth of emissions from coal plants that produce 4GW of electricity. And the Sandy Hook basin is dwarfed by one that lies off the Carolinas and Georgia. They estimate that the South Georgia Rift basin covers roughly 40,000 square kilometers. The authors argue that although laboratory simulations suggest the basic idea of using basalts for carbon sequestration is sound, the actual effectiveness in a given region can depend on local quirks of geology, so pilot tests in the field are absolutely essential for determining whether a given deposit is suitable. So far, only one small-scale test has been performed on any of the CAMP deposits. Given the area's proximity to significant sources of CO2 and the infrastructure that could be brought into play if full-scale sequestration is attempted, it seems like one of the most promising proposals to date. PNAS, 2010. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0913721107	3.904217
April is national Autism Awareness Month. To many of you, that won't mean more then a new colorful ribbon that you might see people wearing or some information on the TV talk shows or news, but for many others this is an important time to raise awareness about our loved one's autism. Autism is a lifelong neurological spectrum disorder that affects a person's social communication and behavior. There has been more information in the news recently about Autism Spectrum Disorder because of the data that the Centers for Disease Control released in February 2007. The CDC found that the prevalence of autism in the USA is now affecting one in every 150 children. That means that every day 50 new families face a diagnosis of autism, and one in every four American families have a loved one with autism. Alarming, yes! The diagnosis is growing at an incredible rate of 10 to 17 percent each year.	3.106291
Seventh Grade - Practice Vocabulary Word List A / B / C / D / E / F / G / H / I / J / K / L / M / N / O / P / Q / R / S / T / U / V / W / X / Y / Z Vocabulary Words - Seventh Grade - E: 1 - 25 (of 26) (adj.) Honest and polite; serious. (adj.) Related to the economy. (adj.) Using time, money, or goods carefully and without wasting any. (n.) The financial situation in an area. (n.) A group of plants, animals and their environment that work together as a unit. (n.) A change that is made on a person or thing. (adj.) Doing something without wasting time and doing it well. (adj.) Something that can be stretched. (n.) Energy carried by wires that you use to provide heat or light or to make machines work. (v.) To put into another substance. (v.) To do something to the surface of an object. (v.) To make something possible. (n.) A set of books that give information on many topics. (n.) The area where people or animals live. (v.) To wish for someone else's talents or possessions. (adj.) Needed; important. (v.) To judge how well something or someone works. (v.) To surpass or go beyond what was expected. (n.) Something left out of the usual rule. (n.) A short trip. (n.) A manager or supervisor. (adj.) Related to the job of a manager or supervisor. (n.) A display in public. (v.) To make a public display. (v.) To increase. (v.) To treat someone unfairly to make money. (n.) When something is made bigger or longer. We've taken all of the words found in our Practice Vocabulary Word Lists and created an online vocabulary building game that anyone can play. We call it Lemons for Literacy. This vocabulary building game is meant to be a fun way to improve vocabulary comprehension, spelling and reading skills, but it is also tool for people to help in the cause of literacy. As you play, and match vocabulary words with their definitions, Reading Horizons will donate money and it's award winning reading software to people in need.	3.695168
For the first time ever, scientists have mapped out the underground reservoirs of water throughout Africa and found that the northern part of the continent has the most groundwater stored. Contrary to the common notions, beneath Africa's vast desert landscapes there exists about 0.66 million km3 of groundwater, a hundred times more than can be found on the surface and twenty times more than in Africa's lakes. Researchers from the British Geological Survey (BGS) and University College-London mapped out the groundwater reservoirs, also known as aquifers, by cross-referencing a geological base map of the African continent with previously published maps of the African continent's aquifers, in addition to conducting studies of 283 African aquifers. The results were the first "quantitative groundwater maps for Africa." As the climate became drier, transforming the Sahara into a desert, water was trapped underneath the surface in these aquifers more than 5,000 years ago. In Africa, more than 300 million people do not have access to safe drinking water. The discovery of these reservoirs offer hope for the continent, provided that the water resources are not exhausted by recurrent droughts. "Much lower storage aquifers are present across much of sub-Saharan Africa. However, our work shows that with careful exploring and construction, there is sufficient groundwater under Africa to support low-yielding water supplies for drinking and community irrigation," Helen Bonsor, co-author of the BGS report, told the BBC. However, these underground acquifers have not been replenished for an estimated 5,000 years due to the lack of rain, meaning that the stored groundwater is of limited supply. This fact has raised debate over how to best extract the water for drinking purposes. Generally, groundwater is accessed by drilling boreholes, deep and narrow holes. However, caution must be exercised given the limited supply. Wide developments of boreholes could actually deplete the aquifers. "It is not as simple as drilling big bore-holes and seeing rice fields spring up everywhere. In some places it could be economically and technically feasible to use groundwater to reduce crop loss, but I would question whether that is true everywhere. It will need detailed evaluation," Dr Stephen Foster, a London-based senior adviser for aid group Global Water Partnership told Reuters. In addition the yield of boreholes, as in how much water is delivered from pumping, might not be enough for large-scale irrigation. The uneven groundwater distribution is another cause for debate and potentially violent conflict between African countries as they become more desperate for water. The discovery of groundwater under the notoriously dry continent Africa could dramatically affect its population, but practical access and extraction of the water could further delay the thirst relief. To contact the editor, e-mail:	3.732921
Michel Pastoureau begins his book Black: The History of a Color with a Biblical quote: “In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was without form and void. Darkness was upon the face of the deep… God said, ‘Let there be light”. The color black has been a part of our collective pysche since the beginning of time. With a thorough text and a beautifully curated set of images, Pastoureau, a Historian at the Sarbonne, examines how over the centuries, the meaning and influence of the color has fluctuated in relation to culture, art and dress. Prior to the year 1000, black was easily accepted as clothing. But in the early Christian period, black became less a color for everyday life and took on an association with the devilish and infernal. In medieval times, black was symbolic of wealth, royalty and luxury, before swinging back to the gloom and depression of the Romantic Period (think Edgar Allen Poe’s The Raven). In the 20th century, black and white film, photography and print elevated black once again. As acceptability and perception have shifted over time, today we see black as a dual personality: the proper, businesslike, modern, sleek color of the little black dress and the business suit is the same as the dark, rebellious, dangerous color of the gothic and the undergound. Black reflects the duality of human values in our modern society. Much like Pastoureau looks at broad historical periods to identify how perceptions of black have changed over time, designers are also required to look at trends in society each season and determine how to use the color black in a collection. Keep your eye on the runway during fashion week and you’ll start to see exactly how this translates into fashion.	3.078496
If you’ve ever been told to eat your fruits and vegetables, it might be because they are an abundant natural source of vitamin C. Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, is well-known as an essential vitamin and nutrient. Found in fruits, vegetables, and supplements like multivitamins and lozenges, vitamin C is everywhere and with good reason. Vitamin C can make a difference between good health and illness because of its powerful antioxidant effects inside the body. This article will discuss: - Vitamin C’s functions - Deficiency in vitamin C - Where to get vitamin C Vitamin C’s functions Vitamin C provides a host of benefits, most of which play an important role in the proper functioning of the body. What are some of these functions? Boosts the immune system. Vitamin C strengthens white blood cells, which are responsible for fighting off bacteria and viruses. People who don’t get enough vitamin C are vulnerable to many of health problems, ranging from colds to scurvy to cancer. Gives energy. Vitamin C aids in the production of other important substances like L-carnitine, a chemical involved in chemical energy production. L-carnitine works by transporting fats to the mitochondria, which provide the cell with energy. Mitochondria take fats and convert them into much needed energy. Without enough vitamin C, L-carnitine levels can drop, making it harder for cells to oxidize fat and get the energy they need to function. Is essential to the nervous system. Vitamin C helps to produce neurotransmitters, which are responsible for the communication between the brain and nerves. Without neurotransmitters, people can’t think clearly or move properly. Vitamin C is responsible for aiding in the production of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine, one of the hormones responsible for the “fight or flight” response. Aids in the formation of collagen. Collagen is the strong connective tissue that give our bodies structure. It holds the skeleton together, attaches muscles to bones, and keeps skin and organs in place. Without collagen, our bodies would literally fall apart. Is an antioxidant. Vitamin C protects the body by neutralizing free radicals, unstable cells that create a chain reaction of further cellular damage. Finally, studies have connected vitamin C with preventative effects, including that it significantly lowers the incidence of diseases like: - High cholesterol - Heart disease Deficiency in vitamin C Historically, the most common disease associated with vitamin C deficiency is scurvy. Although scurvy is often thought of as a disease that sailors used to get, it can still happen to anyone who is deficient in vitamin C. Scurvy causes many problems including: - Slow wound healing - Bleeding gums - Tooth loss - Eventual death That’s a serious disease for just one vitamin deficiency to cause. It was hard to provide fresh fruits and vegetables during a voyage. Preserved meats, which contain no vitamin C, remained edible for the entire trip, and thus became sailors’ main source of nutrition. Without vitamin C sources on board, an entire crew could be wiped out from scurvy on long voyages. However, scurvy is immediately reversible by eating foods containing vitamin C. Once sailors figured out what caused scurvy, they began bringing fruits like oranges and limes on their journeys. Now, sailors bring foods with essential vitamins with them, making it easier to avoid vitamin deficiencies. Although the most common, scurvy isn’t the only problem that a vitamin C deficiency can cause. Not getting enough vitamin C can leave the body unprotected and undernourished, which weakens the immune system and makes you more vulnerable to disease. Even though scurvy is an uncommon disease in a society with abundant fruits, vegetables, and fortified products, you still need to be conscientious of your vitamin C intake to ensure your body gets enough of this essential vitamin. Where to get vitamin C Most animals produce vitamin C naturally in their liver. However, humans lack the liver enzyme that is necessary to do this, so vitamin C must come from the diet. Vitamin C has a reputation as an at-home remedy for curing colds. However, even if you aren’t sick, you need vitamin C in your daily diet in order to stay healthy. The recommended daily dosage is different depending on age, sex and lifestyle, so make sure to check dietary guidelines for how much vitamin C you should consume. Some good sources of vitamin C include: - Fruits like oranges, apricots, lemons, limes, mangos, bananas, berries, grapefruit, cantaloupe, and others - Vegetables like brussel sprouts, asparagus, broccoli, greens, peas, peppers, tomatoes, and others - Vitamin C supplements in multivitamins or as a standalone supplement Dr. Perricone has formulated supplements that include vitamin C and vitamin C ester, both in combination with other vitamins and also as a separate supplement. Vitamin C is an important part of the everyday diet as it both prevents disease and makes the body healthier. By adding fruits, vegetables, and vitamins to your diet, your body will get all the vitamin C it needs to function at its best. Vitamin C ester creams are another Perricone-developed method to strengthen collagen and reduce irritation. Watch this video for Dr Perricone‘s suggestion to eating healthy:	3.663108
As we stomp our empty Natty Lites flat to make room in the blue-bin, wrap our Costco chicken wings in foil, and enjoy cheap high-speed air travel – it is easy to forget that just outside of living memory, aluminum was considered a precious metal. According to Jefferson Lab, “Scientists suspected than an unknown metal existed in alum as early as 1787, but they did not have a way to extract it until 1825. Hans Christian Oersted, a Danish chemist, was the first to produce tiny amounts of aluminum. Two years later, Friedrich Wöhler, a German chemist, developed a different way to obtain the metal. By 1845, he was able to produce samples large enough to determine some of aluminum’s basic properties. Wöhler’s method was improved in 1854 by Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville, a French chemist. Deville’s process allowed for the commercial production of aluminum. As a result, the price of the metal dropped from around $1200 per kilogram in 1852 to around $40 per kilogram in 1859. Unfortunately, the metal remained too expensive to be widely used.” Although aluminum is the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust, it is never found free in nature. All of the earth’s aluminum has combined with other elements to form compounds. Two of the most common compounds are alum, such as potassium aluminum sulfate (KAl(SO4)2·12H2O), and aluminum oxide (Al2O3). About 8.2% of the earth’s crust is composed of aluminum.” Pure aluminum was so rare at that time it was considered a precious metal. Charles Martin Hall’s method of processing the metal ore was to pass an electric current through a non-metallic conductor (molten sodium fluoride compound was used) to separate the very conductive aluminum. In 1889, Charles Martin Hull was awarded U.S. patent #400,666 for his process. In 1888, together with financier Alfred E. Hunt, Charles Martin Hall founded the Pittsburgh Reduction Company now know as the Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA). By 1914, Charles Martin Hall had brought the cost of aluminum down to 18 cents a pound and it was no longer considered a precious metal. 1914. Sound familiar? The start of WWI. In roughly the same distance in time as from DESERT STORM to now, Aluminum went from a rarely used metal in the military with only the German Junkers J.I making it to war, to being a strategic commodity ubiquitous in its use from eating utensils to intercontinental bombers. Were the fathers of economic aluminum Charles Martin Hall, Paul Heroult, and Karl Joseph Bayer thinking about how aluminum would change the way war would be fought? No. Did the military know right away the way aluminum would transform the strength and performance of established technology? No … but some had an idea. I thought of the story of aluminum earlier today when another funny sounding word came in my ear; graphene. Do you know what graphene is? Well, I think you will more and more – just as Teddy Roosevelt’s generation started to hear aluminum and bauxite more and more as it slowly transformed their world. Not overnight, but year by year with a quickening as smart minds saw new ways to take advantage of this new advance. Back to the Navy. What gets a lot of futurists excited as they look for the next kinetic and/or weaponeering leap? That is easy; rail guns, lasers, and particle beam weapons. In our early 21st Century tool box, what is holding these promising technologies back? What is the long pole in the tent that everything else requires to be there? In a word, energy. Many more cards need to come out of the deck – but if you are interested in the offensive potential of rail guns, and the defensive promise of lasers and particle beam weapons – but are humbled by the very real limitations there are to making them operational – then I offer you the below. Not revolution, but evolution. Evolution with the possibility of a quickening that 100 years ago the world saw with aluminum. Graphene based super-capacitors? Use the next generation of the DDG-1000 engineering plant? Watch the below if you can or click here, and ponder with me. Yes, we live in interesting times as our Chinese friends might say – but rejoice dear hearts; the future has potential. No, I not writing words of encouragement to veterans suffering with PTSD; though they are out there and probably need it. No, I am not writing to veterans who are suicidal; though they are out there and probably need it. No, I am writing to those who are sick of the drumbeat of articles, news stories, or listening to the empathy addict down the street that just won’t shut up about how much she cares and only wants to hear things that validate her preconceived notions. If you are irritated, skeptical, and suspicious of the whole chattering – you’re in good company, and history and facts are on your side. Ignore the compassion trolls, it is ok to push back. We are not broken vessels, and those who maliciously imply that we are such things are no better than those who would spit in your face, as their goals are the same – to degrade your status as a equal. A starting point for any post on this topic has to be B.G. Burkett’s book, Stolen Valor : How the Vietnam Generation Was Robbed of Its Heroes and Its History. There was a pattern set after the Vietnam War that tried to paint veterans as broken vessels. If you have not read Stolen Valor, then go order your copy now. What was done then is being done now – it even looks the same. Almost a decade ago, a lot of people heard the first few beats of what is now steady and loud. From the murder of Chief Kyle to the kidnapping of children, to the poseurs written about in the homeless articles in your local papers, it is there. It comes from two sources; one honorable and one malicious. The honorable sources are those who want to help those who serve or have served, but don’t know how to. They tend to look for things to be saved, victims to be helped – and using a legitimate case or two of veterans who have transition challenges as a template, start to see all veterans in that template. There are also those who know someone who has real PTSD or has suicidal thought, and then applies the classic logic error of applying the specific to the general (I saw a duck with a green head today; therefor all ducks have green heads). They are well meaning and should be respected for wanting to help, but if they go too far, their compassion can be counterproductive by feeding the other half of the problem; the anti-military malicious. We all know the type; the only time they have any respect for those in the military is when they can use them to attack the nation and military they were part of. They also are resentful of the respect those in the military are given in civic culture, and want to do whatever they can to bring that respect down; to marginalize the veteran. If the veteran is a victim; he is to be pitied. If he is to be pitied, then he must be helped by his betters. If he has to be helped by his betters to function in society, then he is not an equally contributing member of society. If he is not an equally contributing member of society, he can be marginalized. If he can be marginalized, he can be dismissed and his input ignored. If he can be marginalized politically and his contribution to public discourse ignored, then he cannot compete in the marketplace of ideas and influence. If he cannot compete, then he has no power. That attitude manifests itself in strange places now and then. MSNBC talking head Chris Mathews is a case in point. Reflecting on Sen. McCain’s (R-AZ) aggressive questioning of Chuck Hagel last week, Matthews reflected on McCain’s performance of his Constitutional duties thus; “Let me start tonight with this — why is John McCain so angry?” Matthews said. “Forty years after the Vietnam POWs came home, the most famous of them is angrier than ever. Why is America — why are we fighting the Vietnam War all over again in the United States Senate? The ticked-off vitriol against Chuck Hagel, what is it about? Is it for show? Is it about something Hagel said in the cloakroom?” “Is it about the basic unfairness of Vietnam itself, that some went and some didn’t?” he continued. “Is it about Lyndon Johnson’s inability to either win that war or end it? What is it that burns so deeply in John McCain these days?” “Well, tonight, we dig into the deep well of resentment burning in John McCain’s patriotic heart — a resentment not against the North Vietnamese who imprisoned and tortured him all those years, not against George W. Bush and his political henchmen who tried to stain McCain’s reputation back in 2000 — but against a guy who fought against fear and rallied against wounds, just like he did in the same army of America’s long nightmare in Vietnam, Chuck Hagel. A nightmare, by the way, whose flashbacks must haunt still the mind and heart of John Sidney McCain. … I’m absolutely convinced we’re watching a flashback.” Quod erat demonstrandum. If they will do that to a Senator and once Presidential candidate – what message does that send to other veterans? Like I mentioned earlier, a book has been written on the topic, so let me just pick one little vibe out of the zeitgeist; veterans suicides. Just googlesearch it; you’ll get the idea. In a great, fact-based reply, let’s go to Greg Jaffe’s superb article in the Washington Post. He wanders in to a few fever-swamps of the zeitgeist, but is otherwise a solid article if you read closely and critically. Every day about 22 veterans in the United States kill themselves, a rate that is about 20 percent higher than the Department of Veterans Affairs’ 2007 estimate, according to a two-year study by a VA researcher. The VA study indicates that more than two-thirds of the veterans who commit suicide are 50 or older, suggesting that the increase in veterans’ suicides is not primarily driven by those returning from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Has the war fought as of late been one fought by residents of The Villages? No. “There is a perception that we have a veterans’ suicide epidemic on our hands. I don’t think that is true,” said Robert Bossarte, an epidemiologist with the VA who did the study. “The rate is going up in the country, and veterans are a part of it.” The number of suicides overall in the United States increased by nearly 11 percent between 2007 and 2010, the study says. As a result, the percentage of veterans who die by suicide has decreased slightly since 1999, even though the total number of veterans who kill themselves has gone up, the study says. Statistics are tough; the truth is in the details. See if you catch it. The veterans’ suicide rate is about three times the overall national rate, but about the same percentage of male veterans in their 50s kill themselves as do non-veteran men of that age, according to the VA data. Ok. Females make up ~15% of the military, and for those involved in combat, then males are well in to the 90%. American males kill themselves at a rate four-times that of females. The military heavily skews male. Starting to see where their story starts to get wobbly? Sooooo….. anyone who has made even a blogger-in-PJs effort will soon see that you cannot compare veterans suicide rates to that of the general population unless you want to skew the numbers for effect. Are we also controlling for age, race, socio-economic background, etc … all highly significant factors in suicide? No, of course not. That would get in the way of a good story and/or the non-profit that pays a hefty six-figure salary. In many cases you have read, you have either lazy journalism, advocacy journalism, or the deliberate contribution to the smearing of veterans – something that has been a regular feature for the last 40 years. Yes, the compassion trolls will get grumpy at you, and the compassion addicts will think you are a cold and heartless sociopath (she will probably whisper to others that your behavior is just a manifestation of your own PTSD), but they are not the problem – only useful idiots to those who are the problem and deserve your push back – the smear merchants. Is there a problem with PTSD and veteran suicide? Sure there is – but this constant picking at a sensitive spot until you make it worse does not help fix anything. At worst, it plants seeds of ideas in to the nogg’n of the vulnerable who may act. At the least harmful it impacts the ability of veterans to get civilian jobs when they get out. After all, who wants to hire a bunch of traumatized, suicidal, time bombs? Yea, that is a topic for another day. Until then, let’s see serious studies done by serious statisticians – a study that publishes all the data and variables with the regression analysis. Age, sex, race, ethnicity, regional origin, education level, combat exposure … all those and more. While we wait for that – buy or re-read Stolen Valor – and push back some. It’s not just you What seems obvious in hindsight is not, for most, that obvious to those closest to it, distracted from it, or willfully floating along in a sea of indifference. There are times, decision or pivot points for some, where the signs become clear. That steady, darkening, and thickening line starts to burn through the ambient noise. It looks familiar, it is harmonic of what you have seen before – it cannot be ignored. It demands action You only get the Fleet your nation decides to buy, more people need to accept that … and the political and economic reality we are in. Former Senator Hagel has been nominated to be the next Secretary of Defense. In an August 2011 interview with The Financial Times’ Stephanie Kirchgaessner, he stated the following; The defence department, I think in many ways has been bloated. I think the Pentagon needs to be pared down. I think we need the Pentagon to look at their own priorities. There’s a tremendous amount of bloat in the Pentagon, and that has to be scaled back … I don’t think that our military has really looked at themselves strategically, critically in a long, long time. Every agency needs to do that. The Department of Defence, and I’m a strong supporter of this … no American wants to in any way hurt our capabilities to national defence, but that doesn’t mean an unlimited amount of money, and a blank cheque for anything they want at any time, for any purpose. Not at all. Not at all, and so the realities are that the mess we’re in this country, with our debt and our deficits, and our infrastructure and jobless and all the rest, is going to require everybody to take a look, even the defence department, and make a pretty hard re-evaluation and review. President Obama picked Hagel for very specific reasons, and his views above are not unknown and were part of that. Good people can agree or disagree on the substance of his argument, but that is the fact both sides will have to work with. Next, let’s look to the uniformed side of the house. In a speech at SNA earlier this week, Vice Admiral Copeman stated the following; Ultimately, (Copeman) warned, “if you don’t want to get hollow, you have to give up force structure.” “Resources are going to drop. They’re going to drop significantly,” the admiral said. … “If it were my choice,” Copeman said, “I’d give up force structure to get whole. But it’s not always my choice.” There are just a few tidbits of I&W to ponder. In the last few years, we have heard a lot of talk about a Fleet of 313 and now 300. Many of us have been arguing for half a decade that neither is the number we should be looking at, that is not what the nation will fund; 270 to 240 is more likely. “If we cannot have the navy estimates of our policy, then let’s have the policy of our navy estimates.” If this is the maritime Zeitgeist for the remainder of this decade, then let’s embrace it. We can’t stomp our feet and hold our breath until the Pentagon turns blue. How do we best do it? What do we need to preserve – what should we cut – what will we have to get rid of root-n-branch? What are our priorities? The smart money on the future is on who the CINC is hiring, what that hire’s recent statements say about his ideas, and what our senior officers are starting to send out trial balloons on to test the winds. In the course of reading Robert Kaplan’s article in the Wall Street Journal, I had to back up and read this twice. The Japanese navy boasts roughly four times as many major warships as the British Royal Navy. Wait … what? OK, that reality has sunk in over the last decade – but we are still a bit of an Anglophile navy, and even with the Pacific Pivot, we still give the mother country a lot of heft for historical and emotional reasons. In their constitutional quasi-isolation, Japan’s very real power has Here is the context; … in Asia. Nationalism there is young and vibrant—as it was in the West in the 19th and 20th centuries. Asia is in the midst of a feverish arms race, featuring advanced diesel-electric submarines, the latest fighter jets and ballistic missiles. China, having consolidated its land borders following nearly two centuries of disorder, is projecting air and sea power into what it regards as the blue national soil of the South China and East China seas. Japan and other countries are reacting in kind. Slipping out of its quasi-pacifistic shell, Japan is rediscovering nationalism as a default option. The Japanese navy boasts roughly four times as many major warships as the British Royal Navy. As for Vietnam and the Philippines, nobody who visits those countries and talks with their officials, as I have, about their territorial claims would imagine for a moment that we live in a post-national age. The disputes in Asia are not about ideology or any uplifting moral philosophy; they are about who gets to control space on the map. Silly Transformationalists … dreaming is for kiddies. Get ye back to your history books! Back on topic though; yes, the facts are clear. Though you can find +/- difference depending on source, definitions, and recent com/decom; here are the numbers: Helicopter Carriers: 2 Amphibious Ships: 2 Submarines: 6-SSN, 4-SSBN We’ll call that 24. Helicopter Carriers: 2 (technically 4, all of which are helicopter carrying destroyers. The SHIRANE Class of 2 are only half decks and are really just destroyers. HYUGA Class of 2 are no-kidding helicopter carriers. Two more much larger 19,500 ton ships on the way this decade as well). Amphibious Ships: 5 We’ll call that 67. If you are what Salamander defines as “major combatants” then you have 2.8 times, not 4x, but there are lots of ways to count. Perhaps they are looking at smaller ships as well. By either definition though, it should give one pause not only to reflect about the decline of the Royal Navy – but more importantly – the latent and potential power of the Japanese Navy. Anyone who has worked with the Japanese will agree with me as well that from a professional point of view, they are an exceptionally quality force. Here is the tie in. Did you catch this little memo? Japan’s Defense Ministry will request a second boost to its military budget, according to reports, just a day after the government announced the first Defense budget increase in 10 years. The boosts, although relatively modest compared with Japan’s overall defense spending, coincide with increasing tensions in the Asia Pacific region.Japan’s Defense Ministry intends to ask for 180.5 billion yen ($2.1 billion) from a government stimulus package – on top of an increase of more than 100 billion yen ($1.1 billion) to its military budget announced earlier this week – in order to upgrade its air defenses, according to the BBC.. Good. Japan needs to continue to do this, and we should welcome the move as long overdue (though don’t get too excited, their larger budgetary problems are even greater than ours). Europe fades, Royal Navy withers … where can the USA look for its major partner at sea? We don’t have to look far. With the tweaks they are on the road to make in their Constitution – Japan is right there. With the Big E coming home for good, the NIMITZ acting a bit old and busted, there has been a lot of discussion as of late about the ability of the US Navy to do what she has become accustomed to doing; projecting power globally from the sea with almost impunity – and the large-deck carrier being the tool primarily used to do so. Through gross program mismanagement, myopic POM-centric rice bowl games, and simple parochialism – much of the nuance, depth, and flexibility of what was on those decks are gone as well, most notably the loss of the S-3, ES-3, organic tanking (fighters tanking don’t count, silly goose), and independent long range strike – gone and replaced with a deck of jack-of-all-trades-master-of-none RW and light fighters with AEW thrown in for character. Add to that the ongoing “to the right” extended deployment of our Amphib “small deck” carriers (yes, I know, I know, I know) and their ARGs, funkyesque methods of Fleet number counting, and the expected contraction in shipbuilding budgets that all but this ordered to say otherwise accept will be the new norm – then more and more smart people are trying to step back and get the larger view. What exactly are the larger Strategic implications of the clear decline in the US Navy’s global reach? As is often the case, to help break the intellectual gridlock, it is helpful to bring in outside views. Over at the UK blog Thin Pinstiped Line, Sir Huphrey speaks with big medicine. The whole post is worth a read – but everyone should ponder the below a bit. The reality is that the USN now is probably in the same place as the RN found itself in the mid-1960s – mid 1970s. Reduced budgets, elderly vessels still in service, while the new designs (T42s, 22s) were taking longer than planned to come into service, and yet operationally committed across the globe. The ability of the USN to operate with impunity across the globe, steaming where it wanted on its terms, and able to stand its ground against almost any aggressor has gone forever. Todays’ USN remains a fiercely capable and strong navy, but its ability to exert unlimited and unchallenged control of the high seas has gone, probably forever. Instead it would be more realistic to judge that the future USN will provide a capability to deploy power into some areas, but only at the cost of reducing capability and influence in others. In a classic, “over to you” moment as the Royal Navy slowly retreated West of Suez after the late 1950′s unpleasantness, and with the final moment by Prime Minister Wilson in the annus horribilis that was 1968 – the world approaching mid-21st Century is stuck with a quandary. The British at least were handing things off, indirectly, to her daughter; a relatively smooth transition to a nation that was cut from the same cloth and whose interests were more often than not those interests of Britain. If, as Sir Humphrey states, we face a future where the global capability of the US will decline in proportion to her navy – then who will be there to fill the gap? Multiple smaller regional powers? A rising power? Status quo, but thinner? Nothing? None of those three are in the interests of the US. Willfully abandoning territory – enough of the “global commons” PR stunts, please – to the whims of whatever power has the will to take it, is a classic description of a nation in decline. In our case, that would be a willful decline – but almost all declines are willful. Is everyone on board with that? It is a choice. Hat tip BJ. A couple of years ago here, I posted about the danger of getting too close to the media, I described what is the downfall of many GOFO; Vanity. Non-mission related, non-value added vanity that degraded or destroyed the “brand” of men who gave decades of service to their nation and rose to its highest levels. In his self-immolation, General Petraeus, USA, has provided, in a fashion, a very good object lesson for leaders from LPO to CNO. It is not a new lesson, it is not a unique lesson – as a matter of fact it is a lesson that echoes throughout human history. It isn’t limited to the military environment either, it is just part of the human condition; ego, power, and sex. Do we talk about this enough? Not really. Not in the direct manner we need to. We talk around it. As it can be a bit touchy for some in a socio-political context, usually we only discuss the second and third order effects after it all goes south. We are more than willing to talk about the externalized manifestation of the ego-power-sex dynamic; the person who abuses their power to gain sexual favors or to force themselves on subordinates, but we do not talk enough about the internalized version of it; the magnetic draw and seductive nature of power itself, how it warps the ego, and how it morphs in to the emotional and mammalian drive towards sex. Power is an aphrodisiac that can make even the physically or personally repulsive person attractive. It draws in certain personalities to men with power and influence. Can it happen male to female as well as female to male? Sure, I’ve see the “scalp hunters” in action – but that would be the extreme exception to the rule, and frankly silly to discuss. In the real world we are talking about the man in power and the women who are drawn to them. We see that dynamic at NJP, in the relief of Commanding Officers, and all the way to the 4-star level. Perhaps some leaders who are not fully self-aware may have missed it, but in a gender mixed environment, almost all male leaders will have females of lower status attempt to get closer than they should – in a heterosexual context via a way a male colleague cannot. We are all adults here, we know how the bouncing ball goes from that brief moment of enjoying the company of a woman’s voice a little longer than one should. About the whirlwind unleashed by General Petraeus’s very human weakness, more details will come out, and others will be writing about every aspect of this for awhile. Get used to it, as this has all the aspects of power, sex, infidelity, and intrigue that a story with legs needs. It is much more interesting to the general public than sequestration, the Afghanistan withdraw, or fiscal cliffs. Let that work its way out, but for us – what is the base lesson that should come out of this at the deckplate level – specifically for male leaders? It is simply this; you will find yourself in a place sooner more than later where a female subordinate will make herself available to you. It can cover the entire spectrum from raw and physical immediacy, to a slow growing relationship based on professional respect and friendship that intensifies with proximity. There was more than one decision point in the relationship that brought down General Petraeus where he should have diverted then-Major Broadwell back to the gym solo, but he didn’t. As a result, a reputation is in tatters, a critical agency has lost a leader, a war’s leaders are distracted, and two families are in turmoil. In time I am sure we will all know more than we want to, but one thing is clear. He is the person responsible for this. He was senior in age (almost two decades) and position (at the start we think O-4 to O-10). It was his inability to control his weakness, his ego, and his actions that brought him here. He knows this too, or at least he does now. As young leaders grow in positions of authority they need to keep simple human nature in mind. You will be tempted, even if you try to avoid it. You can end it as quickly as it comes up, and all will go along as before. We are all human, and at a weak moment, you may pause – but don’t pause long – there are too many lives, families, and careers that are riding on you being a leader and doing the right thing. If you fail, that is on you. Same with General Petraeus; this is on him. Not the woman on the other side of the story; not the media; not the FBI; not his staff; not anyone above him in the chain of command, other agencies, or political parties. There are many positive things to benchmark with General Petraeus’s career, and now you have a negative one. Don’t want to have all your hard work blow up in your face? Look at the poor decisions he made, and look for those decision points in your life where you will have to make the call – you will be there – do it right. In his twitter feed, our co-blogger here at USNIBlog and SHAPE, Admiral Stavridis, points to a link for a very nice story that really is worth your time to read, as it does represent the very best of our partnering with the ANSF – and what should have been the general condition of our relationship in 2012, vice just a specific instance; 1st Lt. Michael Molczyk had heard stories about “insider” attacks — and the Afghan soldiers and police officers who grew to see their partners as enemies. As a platoon commander, he couldn’t ignore those assaults on American troops, which during bad weeks were reported day after day. But to him, he said, the stories sounded like news from a different planet. In Molczyk’s corner of eastern Afghanistan, uniformed Afghans had saved American lives time and again. They had developed a brotherhood with their U.S. partners that felt earned and unassailable. … no relationship mattered more to Molczyk than his partnership with Jalaluddin, the head of the Afghan police in Jaji district … Sadly, that relationship between two specific individuals is not in line with the general trend in Afghanistan – and with each Green on Blue we need to look that fact square in the face. While there are always individual stories that can tell any side of an issue – it is the general trend that you need to keep an eye on. The bottom line is this; we are well along the scheduled withdraw on a calendar-based vice conditions-based OPLAN. That is a polite way of describing a retreat under fire. Those we will leave behind, and those who will fill the vacuum after we leave are acting in a rational manner, and the second and third order effects of our decision to leave the field will continue to fill your news feed as the process takes its natural course. We have been here before. As noted last month; The last of the 33,000 American surge troops sent to Afghanistan two years ago have left the battlefields of Afghanistan, Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta said. Actually, it was four years ago that the uplift of forces started – but let’s not quibble. That little note from last month was one of the critical junctures following President Obama’s 2009 West Point Speech where he announced the end of conditions based planning for AFG. Gone was the “Shape-Clear-Hold-Build”, and in was the race to slap something together with bailing wire and duct-tape until our then 2011 (and now 2014 thankfully) drive to whatever will be our version of the Friendship Bridge. Defeat, like decline, is more often than not a choice. In AFG, it is/was unquestionably a choice. We threw away a good chance for an acceptable outcome the minute we told our enemies, and more importantly our friends and those on the fence, that we lacked the strategic patience to follow through on our promises, creating in essence a self-fulfilling prophecy of failure. They have seen this before. As the cliche states, “Hope is not a plan.” In war, hope is a path to self-delusion and defeat. So it has always been, so it will always be. In the executive summary from the International Crisis Group’s, Afghanistan: The Long, Hard Road to the 2014 Transition, they cut right to the chase; Plagued by factionalism and corruption, Afghanistan is far from ready to assume responsibility for security when U.S. and NATO forces withdraw in 2014. That makes the political challenge of organising a credible presidential election and transfer of power from President Karzai to a successor that year all the more daunting. A repeat of previous elections’ chaos and chicanery would trigger a constitutional crisis, lessening chances the present political dispensation can survive the transition. In the current environment, prospects for clean elections and a smooth transition are slim. The electoral process is mired in bureaucratic confusion, institutional duplication and political machinations. Electoral officials indicate that security and financial concerns will force the 2013 provincial council polls to 2014. There are alarming signs Karzai hopes to stack the deck for a favoured proxy. Demonstrating at least will to ensure clean elections could forge a degree of national consensus and boost popular confidence, but steps toward a stable transition must begin now to prevent a precipitous slide toward state collapse. Time is running out. Yes, our timing is that bad. Quiet planning should, nonetheless, begin now for the contingencies of postponed elections and/or imposition of a state of emergency in the run up to or during the presidential campaign season in 2014. The international community must work with the government to develop an action plan for the possibility that elections are significantly delayed or that polling results lead to prolonged disputes or a run-off. The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) should likewise be prepared to organise additional support to Afghan forces as needed in the event of an election postponement or state of emergency; its leadership would also do well to assess its own force protection needs in such an event well in advance of the election. Does anyone see a ISAF, post-USA withdraw, getting involved in AFG domestic police actions? Really? No, they/we won’t. The Taliban also know we won’t. They know we have left the field for them, and they are patient. We no longer have the ability or will to break their back, and with only one more fighting season left until we are totally focused on withdraw – we can’t. I am reminded of one of the heartbreaking scenes – for a military professional – from the 1984 movie, The Killing Fields. In the background as Dith Pran and Sydney Schanberg watch the fighting between Khmer National Armed Forces and the Khmer Rouge, we see Tom Bird’s US military adviser character do what he can to push his Cambodian forces on, to let them know that the USA was with them. Pointing to himself (in bold below); 00:27:00 What did he say? 00:27:01 He said he thought all American people left already. 00:27:05 Made in the USA. 00:27:10 Are we winning? 00:27:12 No, you’re not winning. We have seen this before, and so have those who were our friends. Much more will be written about our AFG experience over the next couple of decades. Somewhere there is a young man or woman who will be the next McMaster, who will cut their PhD teeth on how this all came apart. How a conscious decision was made to slide from a position of strength and progress to one of weakness, vacillation, insecurity, and decline. Why thousands of years of sound military experience was thrown away one evening in New York State, pretending that the lessons of history didn’t apply to us. We thought that because it was spoken, so it would be done; that hope and luck would beat the calender and patience. Through it all, the silence of “make it happen” marched forward in to the maw, again. Rest assured, we won’t be leaving these problems behind in AFG. No, then enemy has a vote – and they too have seen this before. “There is this narrative coming out of Washington for the last two years,” Logan said. It is driven in part by “Taliban apologists,” who claim “they are just the poor moderate, gentler, kinder Taliban,” she added sarcastically. “It’s such nonsense!” She made a passionate case that our government is downplaying the strength of our enemies in Afghanistan and Pakistan, as a rationale of getting us out of the longest war. We have been lulled into believing that the perils are in the past: “You’re not listening to what the people who are fighting you say about this fight. In your arrogance, you think you write the script.” The Taliban and al Qaeda, she made clear, “want to destroy the West and us,” and we must fight fire with fire, She appeared to leave the assembled alternatively riveted and just a bit troubled by a critique with interventionist implications clearly drawn from her reporting. When you have the person who just tried to kill you on the ground, with your knee on his chest and your knife at his throat, but then you get off and try to walk away without finishing the job – should you be shocked when he gets up and attacks you? Should you be shocked if he does not stop his attack simply because you stopped it? Will he stop if you cry uncle? If you bow, apologize, and plead? So there we are; we have emphasized the meme of the weak horse, and the butcher’s bill will be dear because of it. What is the solution? Frankly, I think it is too late to get back to where we were in late 2009. We are almost three years in to the signal of retreat that we sent. Those allied nations in ISAF who have not already left will soon. Those AFG on the fence have already made plans and associations with our enemies to protect the interests of their families, villages, and tribes in the expectation that we will abandon them. Smart move, if I were them I would do the same thing. A precursor to the Soviet withdraw were their version of Green on Blue – the AFG remember that and are seeing it again. They have indications and warnings too. Could the NOV USA election change anything? No. With the lack of top-level support and enthusiasm for the mission, the American people lost whatever will they had to aggressively sustain operations in AFG – and with much of the uplift gone and force levels back to late-’09/early-’10 levels and falling, that momentum is gone and even if the will was there – it would be difficult to get back. We are at the point now where the die is cast. This version of the war in AFG for USA forces will soon be over regardless, by design. All that remains is to see if we drive across our version of the Friendship Bridge, or leave in a helo under fire; all the while doing our best to avoid Gandamak. Until then, there are things that can be done on the margins, but one question remains; if we are not in this to win it – do we have the political will, rules of engagement, and operational plan to create the effects on the ground to further our national interests besides just “getting out?” Is, “Do the best we can until the summer of 2014 and then wish them luck.” now by default our Mission Statement? Has the military leadership been realistic about what can be achieved inside the POLMIL guidance it has received? What Decisive Points have we achieved in our Lines of Operation? Are they in-line with expected time-line dates? What about our Effects Matrix? District by District, Province by Province – is the Afghan government on, behind, or ahead of schedule to take over security responsibilities? Are the criteria used to determine that status tighter or looser than they were three years ago? Yes, much of that is classified – but it won’t be forever. This story will be told, and people will be held to account. If history is any guide, that won’t mean much to the thousands, tens of thousands, hundreds of thousands, or millions who will die because we did not finish what we started. The last time we abandoned a nation like this, the losses were in the millions. After noting the loss of Lt. Col. Raible and Sgt. Atwellt in the attack a week ago, it is natural for many to point out the irreplaceable nature of the AV-8B+ Harriers that were destroyed – our greatest loss of aircraft since the Tet Offensive in Vietnam. While true, that is just the background. It is also true that every loss of life is significant, but in time except for those who know them – losses become a number or perhaps a thumbnail picture. It is helpful when the opportunity presents itself to look a little deeper in to a loss. What was the character of those lost? What did they represent? What impact did they have on those they served with, the organizations they led, the services they were members of, and the nation that they gave the ultimate sacrifice? Thanks to our friends over at SLD – we have a copy of Lt. Col Raible’s Command Guidance. Read it. Ponder it. Compare it to your own. If you are someone soon to take Command and are working on one; here is your benchmark. From: Commanding Officer, Marine Attack Squadron 211 To: Squadron Attack Pilots Subj: COMMANDER’S GUIDANCE FOR SQUADRON ATTACK PILOTS 1. Professional hunger. My goal is to identify those Officers who want to be professional attack pilots and dedicate the resources required to build them into the flight leaders and instructors that are required for the long-term health of our community. This is not a socialist organization. We will not all be equal in terms of quals and flight hours. Some will advance faster than others, and because this is not a union, your rate of advancement will have nothing to do with seniority. Your rate of advancement will instead be determined by your hunger, professionalism, work ethic, and performance. If flying jets and supporting Marines is your passion and your profession, you are in the right squadron. If these things are viewed simply as your job, please understand that I must invest for the future in others. Your time in a gun squadron might be limited, so it is up to you to make the most of the opportunities that are presented. 2. Professional focus. Our approach to aviation is based upon the absolute requirement to be “brilliant in the basics.” Over the last few years Marine TACAIR has not punted the tactical nearly so often as the admin. Sound understanding of NATOPS, aircraft systems, and SOPs is therefore every bit as important as your understanding of the ANTTP and TOPGUN. With this in mind, ensure the admin portions of your plan are solid before you move onto objective area planning. Once you begin tactical planning, remember that keeping things “simple and easy to execute” will usually be your surest path to success. If the plan is not safe, it is not tactically sound. I firmly believe in the phrase “hire for attitude, train for skill.” Work ethic, willingness to accept constructive criticism, and a professional approach to planning, briefing, and debriefing will get you 90% of the way towards any qualification or certification you are pursuing. The other 10% is comprised of in-flight judgment and performance, and that will often come as a result of the first 90%. Seek to learn from your own mistakes and the mistakes of others. Just as a championship football team debriefs their game film, we are going to analyze our tapes and conduct thorough flight debriefs. It has often been said that the success of a sortie is directly proportional to the caliber of the plan and brief. The other side of this coin is that the amount of learning that takes place as a result of a sortie is directly proportional to the caliber of the debrief. 4. Moral courage. Speak up if something seems wrong or unsafe. We all know what the standards are supposed to be in Naval Aviation and in the Corps. Enforce them! When we fail to enforce the existing standards, we are actually setting and enforcing a new standard that is lower. If you average one hour per workday studying, 6 months from now you will be brilliant. That is all it takes; one hour per day. As you start to notice the difference between yourself and those who are unable to find 60 minutes, I want you to know that I will have already taken note. Then, I want you to ask yourself this question: “How good could I be if I really gave this my all?” 6. When all else fades away, attack pilots have one mission: provide offensive air support for Marines. The Harrier community needs professional attack pilots who can meet this calling. It does not require you to abandon your family. It does not require you to work 16 hours per day, six days per week. It requires only a few simple commitments to meet this calling: be efficient with your time at work so that you can study one hour per day; be fully prepared for your sorties and get the maximum learning possible out of every debrief; have thick skin and be willing to take constructive criticism; find one weekend per month to go on cross country. When you are given the opportunity to advance, for those few days go to the mat and give it your all, 100%, at the expense of every other thing in your life. To quote Roger Staubach, “there are no traffic jams on the extra mile.” If you can be efficient during the workweek, give an Olympian effort for check rides and certifications, and are a team player, the sky will literally be the limit for you in this squadron. C. K. RAIBLE A half-decade after the fall of the Soviet Union, a top-down movement started to take root in the US Navy around a word; transformation. The Transformationalists gained steam as they were swept up in the mid-90s Zeitgeist; all was new and now was the time to make a new Navy. With the end of the existential threat of global Communism, technology’s promise of Moore’s Law, and with the self-esteem and optimism that their generation felt as they first gained the reins of power from the White House to the first GOFOs – this was the time where, yes, all was new – in a fashion. There were challenges though. In the pre-9/11 Pentagon, the post Cold War was one of lean budgets and an expensive to maintain legacy Fleet. Each new ship and each new program put greater demands on a already strained budgetary pie. How do you sail in to the future with, as you see it, a sea-anchor of the past holding you back? Even with a larger budget, as the Navy fed off the fat of the Cold War Fleet – how do you get the Fleet of tomorrow? With challenges comes opportunities the saying goes, all that was needed was a vision. Decades, indeed centuries, of best practices of shipbuilding and aircraft development – how to build them, maintain them, and man them – were showing one path of requirements and a way forward; but that was a hard story – one that made beloved new theories come away bruised and battered. On that path to that still undefined “there” one thing was clear – we could not get “there” from “here” with the money in hand and the numbers in mind. If experience, history, and best practice told us what we did not want to hear, there was but one thing to do – ignore that reality and create a new one. From such was born Transformationalism. By selective hearing, blinkered optimism, para-scientific concepts, faith, a dose of hope in the best case scenario, and even more importantly – the force of personality – we thought would get “there.” Our Navy would be transformed – a Navy based on New Technology, New Networks, New Manning, New Training, and New Maintenance; the PowerPoint gods had it written; therefor it would be done. There is a fine line between institutional optimism, overconfidence, and arrogance. When facts are brushed aside and history ignored, and instead you gird your future with untested theory and hope – you have to play the odds. As an institution we decided in that brief period in time that now was the time, it was a moment that a generation needed to grab hold of an institution and Transform it; to steer not in to – but away from the skid and see what the odds brought. “Don’t you want to take a leap of faith? Or become an old man, filled with regret, waiting to die alone!” — Saito, from the movie Inception. And so we threw away the charts, put the radar in to stand-by, and we sailed forth in to the sea of New Technology, New Networks, New Manning, New Training, and New Maintenance. Who was to ride the wave of Transformationalism and have a front-row seat? Naturally, those who would make it happen would be those Captains who at the turn of the century would make Flag and would spend the next dozen years doing the best they could to bring the fruits of Transformation to the Fleet. The best perspective would be from someone who spent a good quarter-century in the Cold War “legacy Navy” – one knowledgeable of the “build a little, test a little, learn a lot” philosophy & culture that brought about such programs as cruiser development in the 1920s and 1930s, and surface-to-air missiles from the 1950s through Aegis. They would have seen how it was done, knew how it was done. What have those individuals who have rode that path seen? In a moment of candor – what do they have to say at the end of their travel? What fruits have come from the tree of Transformationalism? 4-star Admirals come and go. Some leave larger footprints than others, and today one of the size-13 4-stars has re-joined the civilian world; Admiral Harvey – welcome to the other side – and thank you for your service. Like one of his predecessor 4-stars from another service – Admiral Harvey has left those who are taking over the watch a gift, if they want to take it. Earlier this month, Admiral Harvey sent out an email to the other SWO Flag Officers. I encourage you to read the whole thing; The Fundamentals of Surface Warfare: Sailors and Ships and read the embedded attachments. The past few years have been a serious wake-up call for our surface force. We discovered that the cumulative impact of individual decisions made over long periods of time, driven by unique and widely varying circumstances, had put the future readiness of our surface force at risk. Prepare yourself, because a decade of manpower, maintenance, and programmatic sacred cows are about to be brought to task by one of the ones who raised them. We shifted our primary focus away from Sailors and Ships – the fundamentals of surface warfare – to finding efficiencies/reducing costs in order to fund other important efforts such as recapitalization. We took our eyes off the ball of the main thing for which we were responsible – maintaining the wholeness and operational effectiveness of the surface force. Because readiness trends develop and evidence themselves over years and not months, shifting our primary focus to individual cost-cutting measures gave us a very myopic view of our surface force and the way ahead; institutionally, we essentially walked into the future looking at our feet. Institutionally, there was a culture that had you keep your head down, and your mouth shut. Who created that culture, and why? There is also that “f” word; “fundamentals” – that most ignored concept as of late but the record is clear; the naval gods of the copybook headings are calling for their offerings. Ignoring fundamentals in manning, maintenance, and program management were all warned of, why were they dismissed? Did we grow an appreciative and rewarding environment of operational excellence – or did we grow and reward administrative bureaucratic bloat? Did we function as a learning and self-correcting institution of critical thinkers? … we “trained” our people on the deckplates that improving efficiency trumped all other considerations – certainly an approach and a philosophy that was completely contrary to the institutional culture of ownership – “this is MY ship; this is MY gear” – and the institutional focus on operational readiness – “we are ready NOW” – that have been at the very foundation of our surface force since its beginnings. … and what did we do to those who objected to this outgrowth from the cheap grace of b-school management books and silly 2-week Outward Bound MBA seminars? Simple – they either shut up or were professionally told to follow the sign to Ausfahrt. How many people did we promote that didn’t have a deckplate culture (months at sea, hours in the cockpit) – but did have other things non-related to performance at sea or in the aircraft? What were those things we valued so much, and why? The flawed process is just a byproduct of a more critical problem, a flawed culture. When the assumptions behind the man, train, equip and maintain decisions did not prove valid, we didn’t revisit our decisions and adjust course as required. In short, we didn’t routinely, rigorously and thoroughly evaluate the products of the plans we were executing. There you have your answer. Again, the word of the day; why? Part of the answer is an undercurrent to the entire Transformationalist movement; their totalitarian opposition to dissent. They abused the very important military concept – keep your differences quiet outside closed doors. That is a great thing for war – but a recipe for failure outside a no-kidding war war. The institutional cancer of promoting a culture of loyalty to individuals over institutions, I would offer, is north of 51% of the answer to the above, “Why?” Those assumptions were evaluated and found wanting many times over the last decade … and those results were ignored and/or suppressed. Little action was taken for reasons related to needs of individuals temporarily in positions of power, not the institution’s long term viability. We shifted maintenance ashore, scaled back our shipboard 3M program and reduced our preventive maintenance requirements to fit a smaller workforce, and then failed to fully fund the shore maintenance capacity we required. The result was optimally-manned ships that we could not maintain to the performance and reliability standards we previously mandated in order to achieve mission success over service life. This result became apparent with the increase in the failure rate of the INSURV Material Inspection, the “gold standard” inspection which measures the performance of our Sailors and their ships against the established standards required to sustain wholeness and mission effectiveness over the life of the ship. How did we respond to this? We made INSURV classified in order to further hide the problem, and protect the tender egos of those who helped create the problem. That may sound a bit harsh, but it is the only answer that can survive the follow-up question. Here is one of the best parts of the email – one everyone should read twice. Now in discussing these issues with you, I want to acknowledge up front that I realize how much more I could have done to fully evaluate the impact the actions I’ve described to you had on our surface force’s overall mission effectiveness. Looking back on my time as a Flag officer, I can see that I focused too exclusively on the tasks and responsibilities immediately at hand and did not take sufficient time to “step off the pitcher’s mound” and reflect more broadly on the Navy-wide/community-wide impact of what we were doing. And, when we did gather together as community leaders, we did not get to the heart of the matter: our Sailors and our ships and their collective readiness to carry out our assigned Title 10 missions. I could have done better. We could have done better. You MUST do better, because now we know better. I was guilty too. On active duty, I allowed myself to be shut up. Why? Complicated answer for myself, so I won’t pretend to know it for someone else either – but I do know what the culture was that drove me to shut up. Even at his level, I think Admiral Harvey was in the same culture. … our TYCOMs, ISICs and ships must be focused first and foremost on EFFECTIVENESS – if it’s cheap, efficient, but doesn’t work, it does us no good. If our budgets drop, we may certainly have to do less; but whatever it is we decide to do, we must do it well. If it is expensive, inefficient, and doesn’t work – then it is doubly no good. I am not sure we were focused on “cheap.” LPD-17 and its titanium fire mains were not cheap. LCS as a littoral corvette is far from cheap. The pocket battleship sized Zumwalt “Destroyers” are not cheap. I’m not sure what we have tried to make that is cheap in the last couple of decades. F-35? No. F-18? Well, they are cheaper than the alternative … but they do work at least. Here is another quote that is valuable and deserves great reflection in our Flag Officers; The absolute accountability of our COs for the performance of their ships and Sailors is the sure foundation for the performance of our Navy under the most challenging conditions imaginable. We know that the concept works. So why did we so readily walk away from an approach that had accountability at its foundation with regards to how we deliver combat capabilities to the Fleet? Yep. Accountability up? Spotty record there. Towards the end, there is a call for an about-face to what is already the dying concept of Transformationalism; Re-establishing the fundamentals of how we train, how we equip, and how we operate and then putting those responsible to deliver on those fundamentals back under accountable officers in the chain-of-command … for the sake of our surface force and our Sailors, be ruthless in the maintenance of our standards and keep your focus where it MUST be – on our ships and Sailors. … That is a good start. Some may say that Admiral Harvey’s call is too late, perhaps – but that does not matter. Is he now an anti-transformationalist? I don’t know, but he’s trending that way at least. I will give him the benefit of the doubt, and all should welcome the message of this email. The higher you go, the larger the Sword of Damocles is … but of course no one but the person in the seat can see it. As most everyone does – he did the best he could for the country and Navy he served, and he did it better than most. We should hope that this letter is the start of an ongoing conversation, not just by Admiral Harvey as he adopts the suit and tie, but by those in uniform as well. There is a lot of ruin in a navy as big as the US Navy. Regardless of well intentioned mistakes of the past, there is still plenty of excellence left to build a better Navy from. Let us repair and redirect the damage done as we move forward from the last couple of decades of poor concepts and cultural warping. If the larger Navy community is looking for a starting point for that conversation – Admiral Harvey has provided us one to use; we should accept it in the manner it was offered and get to work. When does a leader need to backoff – and when does a leader need to get in to fine-granularity leadership? The more senior a leader gets – what is a constructive level of detail? This time around this habit gained steam with “Intrusive Leadership” and the belief in that if we have a long enough shafted screwdriver with a finely engineered head, then by-golly we can get things right! Is it people or process? A bit of both? Perhaps. Is it required, or is it simply one leader’s reaction to D&G higher up? After awhile, even the best “Intrusive Leadership”/micromanaging/helicopter-leadership/etc reaches a point of diminishing returns by either excessive detail or context. Those at the receiving end feel frozen from action and look for a point of pivot where they can get some relief, while those at the giving end believe that the more they do of the same, the further away from what is needed they find themselves. Everyone is frustrated, and results suffer. This week over at my homeblog, we’ve had a little fun with CNSL’s SHIPS ROUTINE message, but in all seriousness shouldn’t one ask; is this an efficient and effective way of doing business at that level? It brings up two broad questions; are we excessively micro-managing our leaders from the highest levels, and are we making prudent use of Record Message Traffic? As I understand it, the message we highlighted is just one of a series that’s been getting rolled out this summer (the first being about small arms), and the messages are just the highlights from the upcoming re-publication of SURFLANT Regulations. It is a good thing to update and clarify how things should be done … but do we really need CNSL to put out a messages (as opposed to regulations promulgated via different means) that prescribes details so minor they wouldn’t even make it in to the POD? Is that a good habit for others to copy? ALL COMMODES, URINALS, SINKS, SHOWERS, AND DRAINS MUST BE CLEAN AND OPERABLE. SHOWER CURTAINS, MATS, BULKHEADS, AND DECKS MUST BE CLEANED AND SANITIZED TO PREVENT MILDEW. We call it “Record Message Traffic” or “Messages,” but I always preferred the Royal Navy “Signals” – mostly because it frames the medium better. There should be very few “signals” – and those that exist should be short, direct, and of such importance that other delivery methods are inadequate – otherwise the important things get drowned out in the signal-to-noise ratio. When, as leaders, do we get too far in to the weeds to the point that we can’t do our jobs because we are too busy doing others’ job? When is too much – just too much? Well, as one of my commenters pointed out – when in doubt, benchmark the best. At the beginning of the year that would end with our nation in a World War, Admiral Ernest J. King, USN, then CINCLANT, put it well; Subject: Exercise of Command — Excess of Detail in Orders and Instructions. 1. I have been concerned for many years over the increasing tendency — now grown almost to “standard practice” — of flag officers and other group commanders to issue orders and instructions in which their subordinates are told “how” as well as “what” to do to such an extent and in such detail that the “Custom of the service” has virtually become the antithesis of that essential element of command — “initiative of the subordinate.” 2. We are preparing for — and are now close to — those active operations (commonly called war) which require the exercise and the utilization of the full powers and capabilities of every officer in command status. There will be neither time nor opportunity to do more than prescribe the several tasks of the several subordinates (to say “what”, perhaps “when” and “where”, and usually, for their intelligent cooperation, “why”), leaving to them — expecting and requiring of them — the capacity to perform the assigned tasks (to do the “how”). 3. If subordinates are deprived — as they now are — of that training and experience which will enable them to act “on their own” — if they do not know, by constant practice, how to exercise “initiative of the subordinate” — if they are reluctant (afraid) to act because they are accustomed to detailed orders and instructions — if they are not habituated to think, to judge, to decide and to act for themselves in their several echelons of command — we shall be in sorry case when the time of “active operations” arrives. 4. The reasons for the current state of affairs — how did we get this way? — are many but among them are four which need mention: first, the “anxiety” of seniors that everything in their commands shall be conducted so correctly and go so smoothly, that none may comment unfavorably; second, those energetic activities of staffs which lead to infringement of (not to say interference with) the functions for which the lower echelons exist; third, the consequent “anxiety” of subordinates lest their exercise of initiative, even in their legitimate spheres, should result in their doing something which may prejudice their selection for promotion; fourth, the habit on the one hand and the expectation on the other of “nursing” and “being nursed” which lead respectively to the violation of command principles known as “orders to obey orders” and to that admission of incapacity or confusion evidenced by “request instructions.” 5. Let us consider certain facts: first, submarines operating submerged are constantly confronted with situations requiring the correct exercise of judgment, decision and action; second, planes, whether operating singly or in company, are even more often called upon to act correctly; third, surface ships entering or leaving port, making a landfall, steaming in thick weather, etc., can and do meet such situations while “acting singly” and, as well, the problems involved in maneuvering in formations and dispositions. Yet these same people — proven competent to do these things without benefit of “advice” from higher up — are, when grown in years and experience to be echelon commanders, all too often are not made full use of in conducting the affairs (administrative and operative) of the several echelons — echelons which exist for the purpose of facilitating command. 6. It is essential to extend the knowledge and the practice of “initiative of the subordinate” in principle and in application until they are universal in the exercise of command throughout all the echelons of command. Henceforth, we must all see to it that full use is made of the echelons of command — whether administrative (type) or operative (task) — by habitually framing orders and instructions to echelon commanders so as to tell them ‘what to do’ but not ‘how to do it’ unless the particular circumstances demand. 7. The corollaries of paragraph 6 are: (a) adopt the premise that the echelon commanders are competent in their several command echelons unless and until they themselves prove otherwise; (b) teach them that they are not only expected to be competent for their several command echelons but that it is required of them that they be competent; (c) train them — by guidance and supervision — to exercise foresight, to think, to judge, to decide and to act for themselves; (d) stop ‘nursing’ them; (e) finally, train ourselves to be satisfied with ‘acceptable solutions’ even though they are not “staff solutions or other particular solutions that we ourselves prefer.” One does wonder how Admiral King would react to the goings-on in our Navy. A man whose own daughter stated, … her father was “the most even-tempered man in the Navy. He is always in a rage.” Odds are, he wouldn’t take kindly to retired CDRs commenting on his messages. Good odds, methinks. - Midrats this Sunday, May 17 2013 – Episode 167: Intellectual Integrity, PME, and NWC - Remembering our Fallen Coast Guard Shipmates and their Families - On Midrats 10 Mar 13, Episode 166: “Expeditionary Fleet Balance” - Guest Post by LTJG Matthew Hipple: From Epipolae to Cyber War - For Strength and Courage: Neptunus Lex	3.116986
May 13, 2011 In the summer of 2009, I had the pleasure of writing about John Kress, a research botanist at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History, and his efforts to create a DNA barcode for all 25o plant species on Plummers Island, a 12-acre island in the Potomac River here in Washington, D.C. At the time, Kress spoke about a day when citizen scientists, even schoolchildren, would be able to identify plants with handheld DNA sequencers. They would be able to upload the barcode to a smartphone in order to access an online encyclopedia with basics about the species, botanical art and anecdotal information, he explained. The botanist’s vision seemed so futuristic, but now, just two years later, it is beginning to come to fruition. In fact, Columbia University, the University of Maryland and the Smithsonian Institution have announced that Leafsnap, an iPhone, iPad and Android app that will identify a plant based on a leaf’s silhouette, will be released this summer. The mobile app uses visual recognition technology to identify the species of a plant based on a photograph of one of its leaves. Each leaf photograph is cross-referenced with a leaf-image library, which Kress helped compile, based on several measurements of the leaf’s outline. The user then gets a ranked list of the leaf’s closest matches, as well as other information about the species. Currently, Leafsnap’s catalog includes trees native to the northeast United States, but there are plans to expand it to make it more representative of the entire country. Quite brilliantly, the app will make good on the photographs users upload, sharing them and the trees’ location with the scientific community. From this, scientists will be able to further study the growth and decline of different tree species. “Leafsnap was originally designed as a specialized aid for scientists and plant explorers to discover new species in poorly known habitats,” says Kress, in a press release. “Now Smithsonian research is available as an app for the public to get to know plant diversity in their own backyards, in parks and in natural areas. This tool is especially important for the environment, because learning about nature is the first step in conserving it.” Sign up for our free email newsletter and receive the best stories from Smithsonian.com each week.	3.46865
August 25, 2012 5:03 pm The man who uttered the iconic phrase, “That’s one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for mankind” has died today at the age of 82 years old. As reported by the Associated Press, Armstrong died following complications resulting from cardiovascular problems. On that momentous day of July 20, 1969, Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on the Moon’s surface for three hours, collecting rock samples, taking photographs and conducting experiments. From the AP obit: “The sights were simply magnificent, beyond any visual experience that I had ever been exposed to,” Armstrong once said. The moonwalk marked America’s victory in the Cold War space race that began Oct. 4, 1957, with the launch of the Soviet Union’s Sputnik 1, a 184-pound satellite that sent shock waves around the world. Although he had been a Navy fighter pilot, a test pilot for NASA’s forerunner and an astronaut, Armstrong never allowed himself to be caught up in the celebrity and glamor of the space program. “I am, and ever will be, a white socks, pocket protector, nerdy engineer,” he said in February 2000 in one of his rare public appearances. “And I take a substantial amount of pride in the accomplishments of my profession.” The Guardian offers a nice background on his rise to NASA: Armstrong was born in Wapakoneta, Ohio, and from a young age was fascinated with aviation, experimenting with model airplanes and a home-built wind tunnel. At 15 he began flying lessons in an Aeronca Champion, and by 16 acquired his student pilot’s licence. In 1947, he enrolled at Purdue University on a Navy scholarship to pursue a degree in aeronautical engineering, but in 1949 the Navy called him to active duty in the Korean War. As a navy pilot, he flew 78 combat missions. He was shot down once and received three medals for his military service. In 1952 he returned to his studies and completed his BSc at Purdue and an MSc in aerospace engineering at the University of Southern California. In 1955 he became a civilian research pilot at the Lewis research centre of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (Naca), the forerunner of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Nasa). Later that year, he transferred to Naca’s high-speed flight station (today, Nasa’s Dryden flight research centre) at Edwards Air Force Base in California as an aeronautical research scientist, and then as a pilot. He was a test pilot on many pioneering high-speed aircraft, including the 4,000mph X-15. He flew over 200 different models of aircraft, including jets, rockets, helicopters and gliders. Armstrong was engaged in both piloting and engineering aspects of the X-15 programme from its inception. He completed the first flight in the aircraft equipped with a new self-adaptive flight control system and made seven flights in the rocket plane. In 1962 he was of the nine test pilots chosen by Nasa for its second astronaut-training programme. Here’s a round-up of some of the reactions from the Twitterverse — : A flash of some of the reactions as the space community reacts to news of Armstrong’s death Armstrong’s reticence to make public appearances or give interviews means that, for many Americans, their sole memory of Armstrong was his trip to the moon. On a related note, it also made his autograph one of the most valuable in the memorabilia market, ahead of Queen Elizabeth II, Paul McCartney and Muhammad Ali. In 2010, our sister publication Air and Space‘s Mike Klesius reported: According to his biography, [Armstrong] signed anything he was asked to for the first fifteen or so years after the moon landing. Then, dealers of collectibles began misrepresenting themselves as school teachers or children, asking for signed photos by mail. By 1993, Armstrong saw that forgeries of his signature were being sold on the Internet, and stopped giving his autograph, advice that Charles Lindbergh had given him in September 1969 at a banquet of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots. Nonetheless, Armstrong’s autograph, according to Paul Fraser Collectibles of the United Kingdom, is the most valuable in the world, and fetches more than $7,500 these days In 2010, Owen Edwards wrote in Smithsonian about the model of the Eagle lunar lander, on view at the National Air and Space Museum on the Mall: Today, visitors to the Apollo exhibition witness an artifact that looks—with a little help from artful curators—much as Eagle looked when it made that giant leap 40 years ago. When Buzz Aldrin radioed back to us riveted earthlings that “this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown,” he was talking about the overall mission. But he might as easily have been referring to the ungainly marvel that made it possible. This weekend, the lander module, the Apollo to the Moon gallery and the Apollo 11 capsule would be a good place to start to pay tribute to the American icon. Sign up for our free email newsletter and receive the best stories from Smithsonian.com each week.	3.014519
Our Changing Ocean Vast and powerful though the ocean is people have changed it. It’s a different ocean now. The ocean’s enduring surface beauty hides its plight. But the ocean today is a diminished version of a much healthier ocean of not so long ago. The ocean is the source of about half the oxygen we breathe, much of the water we drink, and much of the food we eat. (If you don’t eat fish, consider this: about a third of the world fish catch gets made into feed for chickens, pigs, and other livestock.) Changes to the ocean undermine the health and well-being of people and wildlife worldwide. These changes include depletion from overfishing, warming, ocean acidification caused by the same carbon dioxide that is warming the atmosphere and the upper sea, chemical pollution, plastic debris, loss of wetlands, coastal mangrove forests, and coral reefs, and invasive species. Each of these alone is serious. Can any particular part of the oceans survive these things happening all at once? The answer is: “it depends.” There is still time to reverse course and restore the ocean to a healthy balance. Many dedicated people and organizations, including Blue Ocean Institute, are working actively to solve the oceans’ problems. Be a part of this hopeful work. Jump in and help save the oceans! Dive into our Issues section to learn more. Being knowledgeable will help you decide what part of the solution is just for you. Why the Oceans? Simple: the ocean supports life on this planet. It feeds us, produces the oxygen we breathe, maintains our climate, cycles vital nutrients through countless ecosystems and provides food and medicines. The ocean provides jobs, food, energy, and recreation. As if that weren’t enough, the ocean is beautiful and inspiring. And that would be enough. People Climate change is the defining environmental issue of our time and our children’s time. Into one crowded elevator go conservation of nature, human health, the prospects for agriculture, international stability, national security, and of course energy policy and technology. Climate change reflects our intensifying presence on the surface of this planet. It wraps together everything Carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels is changing the oceans’ chemistry. This is ocean acidification. The head of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration calls ocean acidification global warming’s equally evil twin. The oceans are absorbing up to a million tons of carbon dioxide every hour. The good news: less carbon dioxide in the air Carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels is not only changing the oceans’ chemistry and warming the atmosphere, it is also warming the oceans. There’s a third more carbon dioxide in the air than at the start of the Industrial Revolution. The carbon acts like insulation in the atmosphere, or like glass in a greenhouse — Overfishing is depleting the world’s oceans and having a negative impact on marine biodiversity and on human health, welfare, and prosperity. Links to more complete info in our Fish as Food section. In the ocean, little fish play a big role. Small fish like sardines and anchovies are some of the most important fish in the sea. Fish such as herring, anchovies, menhaden, and sardines feed mostly on plankton all their lives. They supply calories and nourishment (food!) for many top predators including cod, tuna, salmon, and Invasive Marine Species Invasive species are animals and plants that hitchhike or ride along to places where they are not normally found. In their new homes, invasive species can sometimes create big problems for native species and ecosystems. The main source of marine invasive species is the global shipping industry, specifically through ballast water. Species can also be Marine debris comes from everyone and every source that makes every kind of garbage. Tons of trash from both land – up to 80 percent — and ships constantly finds its way to the sea. Much of this marine debris does not go away; it cannot dissolve and it lasts in the oceans for many Coastal Habitat Loss Homes, jetties, seawalls, canals, and other structures built on beaches or wetlands often destroy habitat for sea turtles, birds, fish, and other sea life. Salt and tidal marshes, wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs also suffer when development is unsustainable. Wetlands, mangroves and sea grasses are valuable natural resources as they hold sediment and nutrients, filter In addition to carbon dioxide, mercury, and marine debris, which are types of pollution, other man made pollutants constantly enter the oceans from a range of sources. These include oil, fertilizers, toxic chemicals, and sewage. OIL & CHEMICALS Oil spills may be the most infamous pollutant because popular media often vividly shows dramatic damage. The Aquaculture – Farmed Seafood Aquaculture can impact many aspects of ocean life. Visit Aquaculture in our Fish as Food section which also includes sustainable seafood choices plus discussions about genetically modified fish, seafood fraud, bycatch, and more.	3.056455
The core teaching of Buddhism is dependent origination by Zen Master Jongbeom Sunim What is the truth Buddhism expounds? What are its foundational teachings? These are essential questions for the newcomer. In a nutshell, Buddhism teaches dependent origination and the Middle Way. These two principles form the core of Buddhist philosophy-dependent origination explains the principle of Buddhism, while the Middle Way defines the practice of Buddhism. Gautama Buddha was enlightened to the principle of dependent origination, and then for the rest of his life he taught students the practice of the Middle Way. This was Lord Buddha¡¯s succinct explanation: ¡°Whoever sees dependent origination sees the Dharma; whoever sees the Dharma sees dependent origination.¡± What is dependent origination? According to the principle of dependent origination, everything in the universe, including objects, ideas, beings, events, and processes, depends on numerous causes and conditions. Nothing ever exists entirely alone or independently of others. Because causes and conditions exist, there are effects. With dependent origination, ¡°If there is this, then there is that; with the arising of this, that arises. Everything is interconnected: there is nothing separate, nothing standing alone. Things arise depending on other conditions, and then coexist with others for a while, and then disappear depending on other things. All beings are in causal relationships, for example Buddhas with sentient beings, monastic with lay communities, the wise with the foolish, and parents with their children. Causes and conditions Dependent origination came to be used interchangeably with ¡°causes and conditions,¡± and then with ¡°cause and effect.¡± In a world of dependent origination both physical and mental things arise from dependence on causal conditions. Nothing can exist outside of cause-effect linkages. The present arises from the causal conditions of the past, and the past from the further past. The link of these causal conditions extends endlessly to the past and to the future. Therefore, we need to see clearly the significance of causal conditions in our lives. Buddhists often talk about impermanence. All things appear and disappear because of the concurrence of causes and conditions. This is why the causal-conditional phenomena are said to be impermanent. For this reason Buddhism teaches us to be attached neither to existence nor to non-existence. When the smoke blows west, we feel the wind blow west, and when the smoke blows east, we feel the wind blow east. Likewise, when you encounter good causal conditions, you could conclude, ¡°I must have created good causal conditions in my previous lives.¡± The Buddha¡¯s teaching is free of the slightest error. If we are in evil causal conditions, we should get out of them as soon as possible and approach good ones. Lord Buddha said that even the Buddhas cannot save those to whom they are not linked causally. Therefore, we should refrain from making bad causes and conditions and strive to make good ones. The Twelve links of dependent origination Lord Buddha said all our sorrow, physical pain, mental agony, and suffering arise from the twelve causal conditions. Let us examine each one in sequential order. ¨ç Ignorance (Avidya-) : The sanskrit word ¡°Avidya-¡± literally means ¡°no illumination.¡± We cannot readily find our way in the dark. Likewise, when our mind is not illuminated, we tend to judge a wrong thought as a right one. ¨è Formations (Sam. ska-ra) : Once ignorance causes us to confuse wrong with right, attachment arises. Then we try to give concrete form to the concept we get attached to. That is, with Ignorance as condition, Mental Formations arise. ¨é Consciousness (Vijn~ana) : When an object takes form by our actions, we tend to discern it. There is the consciousness of seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, touching and thinking. That is, with Mental Formations as condition, Consciousness arises. ¨ê Name and Form (Namarupa) : When we discern an object through our Consciousness, we tend to judge if it is a material or nonmaterial being. ¡°Name¡± describes non-materiality and ¡°Form¡± materiality. That is, with Consciousness as condition, Name and Form arise. ¨ë Six Sense Gates (S.ad.a-yatana) : When we judge an object as a material or non-material being using Name and Form, then we have a renewed perception of it through our Six Sense Gates of eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind. That is, with Name and Form as condition, Six Sense Gates arise. From this moment we begin to see, hear, smell, taste, touch and think, and we are aware of things as they happen. ¨ì Contact (Spars¡Ça ) : When we perceive an object through our Six Sense Gates, we conceive of six-sense objects such as visible objects, sound, odor, taste, touch, and mental objects. In other words, we see, hear, smell, taste, touch and think. Contact is the encounter between the sense gates and the sensory information. That is, with Six Sense Gates as condition, Contact arises. ¨í Feeling (Vedana-) : When there arises shape, sound, smell, taste, touch and thought of an object through Contact, then one or more out of the following three feelings arise-pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral (neither pleasant nor unpleasant). All the objects we perceive in this world can generate one or more of these three feelings. With Contact as condition, Feeling arises. ¨î Craving (Tr.s.n.a-) : When one or more of the pleasant, unpleasant and neutral feelings arise depending on Feeling, we crave only for the objects that give us the pleasant feeling. Even when the objects are not the ones that can give us pleasure, we pour in blind love to make those objects render pleasure. That is, with Feeling as condition, Craving arises. This craving is far from Buddha¡¯s compassion, but rather close to love based on greed and hunger. ¨ï Clinging (Upa-da-na) : In response to Craving we attach to and pour our love on an object. When this object gives us a pleasant feeling, then naturally we engage in some kind of action to possess it. That is, with Craving as condition, Clinging arises. ¨ð Becoming (Bhava) : In response to Clinging we try to possess the object of pleasure. That is, with Clinging as condition, Becoming arises. We get to possess a certain material, object or feeling. All the objects in the world did not start out having existence from the beginning, but were made to exist because of Clinging. This is called the process of becoming - becoming someone or something other than what is. ¨ñ Birth (Jati) : When we get to possess a certain object or feeling in response to Clinging, an object or thought has been generated. Consequently, Birth refers to the birth of all beings. Ideas can also be birthed. That is, with Becoming as a condition, Birth arises. ¨ò Aging and Dying (Jara-maran.a) : When an object comes into existence in response to Birth, it will also inevitably age and die. This process is not limited to the aging and dying of the body but encompasses the suffering coming from the thought that we are born, age, and die. Whether form or formless, if a thought arises and then disappears, from the perspective of dependent origination it had a birth, lifespan, and death. That is, with Birth as condition, Aging and Dying arise. What we can learn from dependent origination Buddhism emphasizes the importance of efforts we make at this very moment. If we put in wholesome work at this moment, we will reap wholesome results, and if we put in unwholesome work, we will reap unwholesome results. Therefore, rather than begging or wishing for things from a third party, we should be mindful of the frame of mind we inhabit and the actions we produce in this moment. Then the frame of mind and action will naturally make their own results. As there can be no effect without a cause, there cannot be people we start out loving or hating from the beginning. An object or situation of confrontation will create the conditions for love or hate. Therefore, we should be introspective rather than blaming or hating others. We should think of others¡¯ hard work instead of raising the self on a pedestal. This is the Buddhist way, and the path on which we practice the truth of dependent origination as taught by Lord Buddha.	3.342653
Chandra "Hears" a Supermassive Black Hole in Perseus A 53-hour Chandra observation of the central region of the Perseus galaxy cluster (left) has revealed wavelike features (right) that appear to be sound waves. The features were discovered by using a special image-processing technique to bring out subtle changes in brightness. These sound waves are thought to have been produced by explosive events occurring around a supermassive black hole (bright white spot) in Perseus A, the huge galaxy at the center of the cluster. The pitch of the sound waves translates into the note of B flat, 57 octaves below middle-C. This frequency is over a million billion times deeper than the limits of human hearing, so the sound is much too deep to be heard. The image also shows two vast, bubble-shaped cavities, each about 50 thousand light years wide, extending away from the central supermassive black hole. These cavities, which are bright sources of radio waves, are not really empty, but filled with high-energy particles and magnetic fields. They push the hot X-ray emitting gas aside, creating sound waves that sweep across hundreds of thousands of light years. The detection of intergalactic sound waves may solve the long-standing mystery of why the hot gas in the central regions of the Perseus cluster has not cooled over the past ten billion years to form trillions of stars. As sounds waves move through gas, they are eventually absorbed and their energy is converted to heat. In this way, the sound waves from the supermassive black hole in Perseus A could keep the cluster gas hot. The explosive activity occurring around the supermassive black hole is probably caused by large amounts of gas falling into it, perhaps from smaller galaxies that are being cannibalized by Perseus A. The dark blobs in the central region of the Chandra image may be fragments of such a doomed galaxy.	4.341438
The experiences in New York, Washington and the Oklahoma City bombing illustrate the tragic impact of a building explosion. We know that the use of explosives can result in collapsed buildings, fires and loss of life. People who live or work in multi-level buildings should: - Review emergency evacuation procedures of their building - Know where fire exits are located - Keep fire extinguishers in working order. Know where they are located; and how to use them. - Learn first aid Contact the local chapter of the American Red Cross for additional information. The following items should be kept in a designated place on each floor of any building: - Portable, battery-operated radio and extra batteries - Several flashlights and extra batteries - First aid kit and manual - Several hard hats - Fluorescent tape to rope off dangerous areas. During an Explosion In a building explosion, get out of the building as quickly and calmly as possible. If items are falling off of bookshelves or from the ceiling, get under a sturdy table or desk. If there is a fire: - Stay low to the floor and exit the building as quickly as possible - Cover nose and mouth with a wet cloth - When approaching a closed door, use the palm of your hand and forearm to feel the lower, middle and upper parts of the door. If it is not hot, brace yourself against the door and open it slowly. If it is hot to the touch, do not open the door - seek an alternative escape route. - Heavy smoke and poisonous gasses collect first along the ceiling. Stay below the smoke at all times.	3.550416
Chemistry 109, Lectures 1 and 2, Fall 2011 University of Wisconsin - Madison Prof. Frank Keutsch Prof. John W. Moore There is no need to log in to use this online textbook. It is freely available to anyone Before using the textbook, go through the tutorial How To Use This Site. Useful Links to Bookmark - This page: - Chem 109 Moodle Course Management System: http://courses.chem.wisc.edu (requiresUW NetID login) - Netorials Interactive Chemistry Tutorials - CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics constants - ChemPages Laboratory Resources Online Tutorials on Laboratory Equipment and Procedures that the Lab Manual assigns for viewing before taking pre-lab quizzes. What is the difference between ChemPaths Online Resources and the printed textbook? ChemPaths has been developed as a project of the ChemEd Digital Library to bring chemistry to life using interactive molecule viewers, animations and videos. This online textbook is based on the printed textbook Chemistry by John W. Moore, William G. Davies, and Ronald W. Collins, which was published in 1978. This page is the introduction to the Chem 109-Fall 2011 Pathway through the online textbook. - A typical textbook comes with online portions through the publisher where you can access multimedia resources, whereas ChemPaths incorporates these features right into the text itself. - Just as you will notice that your daily readings skip around from chapter to chapter in the printed textbook, the same would be true of the online text which has chapters in different orders. This pathway, however, lets you read all the various portion of the textbook assigned in the order designed to coincide with the lecture materials - without skipping around. - All material is covered adequately by both the online text as well as the paper textbook - however you may find that some explanations in one version seem superior to the other. For instance - the online textbook has videos and interactive rotatable molecules. These multimedia advantages are helpful in describing 3D orbitals, molecular structures, and reactions. - Both have worked out examples. - Both have extra questions (the paper textbook has them at the end of the chapters, the online resources have additional questions available within the Moodle Course Management System as the ungraded course: Chemistry 109 Study Questions). - Both have tables of useful values. The homework, however, uses the online tables as these are known to be accurate. Textbooks go through periodic revisions as values are updated by scientists. These are done faster through the ChemPaths website than in your textbook. There are links within your homework to the necessary tables - they are also found by using the drop-down menu called "Quick Resources" on any page within ChemPaths. If you find an area thatseems to be unclear or in error on the online version - please email Professor Moore ([email protected]) to report the issue and we'll have it resolved as soon as we can!	3.089642
This section provides primary sources that document how Indian and European men and one English and one Indian woman have described the practice of sati, or the self-immolation of Hindu widows. Although they are all critical of self-immolation, Francois Bernier, Fanny Parks, Lord William Bentinck, and Rev. England present four different European perspectives on the practice of sati and what it represents about Indian culture in general, and the Hindu religion and Hindu women in particular. They also indicate increasing negativism in European attitudes toward India and the Hindu religion in general. It would be useful to compare the attitudes of Bentinck and England as representing the secular and sacred aspects of British criticism of sati. A comparison of Bentinck’s minute with the subsequent legislation also reveals differences in tone between private and public documents of colonial officials. Finally, a comparison between the Fanny Parks and the three men should raise discussion on whether or not the gender and social status of the writer made any difference in his or her appraisal of the practice of self-immolation. The three sources by Indian men and one by an Indian woman illustrate the diversity of their attitudes toward sati. The Marathi source illuminates the material concerns of relatives of the Hindu widow who is urged to adopt a son, so as to keep a potentially lucrative office within the extended family. These men are willing to undertake intense and delicate negotiations to secure a suitably related male child who could be adopted. This letter also documents that adoption was a legitimate practice among Hindus, and that Hindu women as well as men could adopt an heir. Ram Mohan Roy’s argument illustrates a rationalist effort to reform Hindu customs with the assistance of British legislation. Roy illustrates one of the many ways in which Indians collaborate with British political power in order to secure change within Indian society. He also enabled the British to counter the arguments of orthodox Hindus about the scriptural basis for the legitimacy of self-immolation of Hindu widows. The petition of the orthodox Hindu community in Calcutta, the capital of the Company’s territories in India, documents an early effort of Indians to keep the British colonial power from legislating on matters pertaining to the private sphere of Indian family life. Finally, Pandita Ramabai reflects the ways in which ancient Hindu scriptures and their interpretation continued to dominate debate. Students should consider how Ramabai’s effort to raise funds for her future work among child widows in India might have influenced her discussion of sati. Two key issues should be emphasized. First, both Indian supporters and European and Indian opponents of the practice of self-immolation argue their positions on the bodies of Hindu women, and all the men involved appeal to Hindu scriptures to legitimate their support or opposition. Second, the voices of Indian women were filtered through the sieve of Indian and European men and a very few British women until the late 19th century. - How do the written and visual sources portray the Hindu women who commit self-immolation? Possible aspects range from physical appearance and age, motivation, evidence of physical pain (that even the most devoted woman must suffer while burning to death), to any evidence of the agency or autonomy of the Hindu widow in deciding to commit sati. Are any differences discernible, and if so, do they seem related to gender or nationality of the observer or time period in which they were observed? - How are the brahman priests who preside at the self-immolation portrayed in Indian and European sources? What might account for any similarities and differences? - What reasons are used to deter Hindu widows from committing sati? What do these reasons reveal about the nature of family life in India and the relationships between men and women? - What do the reasons that orthodox Hindus provide to European observers and to Indian reformers reveal about the significance of sati for the practice of the Hindu religion? What do their arguments reveal about orthodox Hindu attitudes toward women and the family? - How are Hindu scriptures used in various ways in the debates before and after the prohibition of sati? - What is the tone of the petition from 800 Hindus to their British governor? Whom do they claim to represent? What is their justification for the ritual of self-immolation? What is their attitude toward the Mughal empire whose Muslim rulers had preceded the British? What is their characterization of the petitioners toward those Hindus who support the prohibition on sati? How do the petitioners envision the proper relationship between the state and the practice of religion among its subjects? - Who or what factors do European observers, British officials, and Indian opponents of sati hold to be responsible for the continuance of the practice of sati? - What were the reasons that widows gave for committing sati? Were they religious, social or material motives? What is the evidence that the widows were voluntarily committing sati before 1829? What reasons did the opponents of sati give for the decisions of widows to commit self-immolation? What reasons did opponents give for widows who tried to escape from their husbands’ pyres? - What are the reasons that Lord Bentinck and his Executive Council cite for their decision to declare the practice of sati illegal? Are the arguments similar to or different from his arguments in his minute a month earlier? What do these reasons reveal about British attitudes toward their role or mission in India? Do they use any of the arguments cited by Ram Mohan Roy or Pandita Ramabai? - What do these sources, both those who oppose sati and those who advocate it, reveal about their attitudes to the Hindu religion in particular and Indian culture in general?	3.723506
ChristianAnswers.Net WebBible Encyclopedia The sickle of the Egyptians resembled that in modern use. The ears of corn were cut with it near the top of the straw. There was also a sickle used for warlike purposes, more correctly, however, called a pruning-hook (Deut. 16:9; Jer. 50:16, marginal note, “scythe;” Joel 3:13; Mark 4:29).	3.202427
We have three 6th grade Science classes and two 8th grade Science classes blogging here from the Pacific Northwest in Chimacum, WA! Sixth graders are learning a bit about Mt Saint Helens, environmental science through fresh water ecology, and physical science this year. Eighth graders are learning about life science this year. Please join us as we learn Science by exploring our world. Mr. G's Blog Mr. G's Class Facebook Page what is a battry? a battery is something that powers other objects. it can also be charged, and they usually require an acidic based chemical in them. when you charge it, the battery stores chemical energy. when you use it, it puts out electrical energy. then, when it comes from the lightbulb, it is called light and heat energy. flowing electrons create electricity.	3.046795
Deductive versus Inductive Reasoning Noah D. Alper [Reprinted from Land and Freedom, March-April In his History of Civilization in England, Henry Thomas Buckle makes some interesting observations on the respective merits of the deductive and inductive methods of propagating thought in the development of civilization. In the deductive method we begin with a general conclusion and then attempt to point out the facts which support it. In the inductive method we first select our facts and then seek to lead to the acceptance of the general conclusions or principles. Buckle says: "If we take a general view of those countries where science has been cultivated, we shall find that, whenever the deductive method of inquiry has predominated, knowledge, though often increased and accumulated, has never been widely diffused. On the other hand, we shall find that, when the inductive method has predominated, the diffusion of knowledge has always been considerable, or, at all events, has been beyond comparison greater than when deduction was prevalent. If, in any civilized nation, two men, equally gifted, were to propound some new and startling conclusion, and one of these men were to defend his conclusion by reasoning from ideas or general principles, while the other man were to defend his reasoning from particular and Visible facts, there can be no doubt that, supposing all other things the same, the latter man would gain most adherents. Facts seem to come home to every one, arid are undeniable. Principles are not so obvious, and, being often disputed, they have to those who do not grasp them, an unreal and illusory appearance, which weakens their We find historically that the establishment of the modern inductive philosophy, with its varied and attractive experiments, its material appliances, and its constant appeal to the senses, has been intimately connected with the awakening of the public mind, and coincides with that spirit of inquiry, and with that love of liberty, which has been constantly advancing since the sixteenth century. . . . "In both cases [induction and deduction] there is no doubt a line of argument essentially ideal; just as, in both cases, there is an assemblage of facts essentially sensuous. No method is pure, or stands entirely by itself. But inasmuch as, in induction, the facts are more prominent than the ideas, while, in deduction, the ideas are more prominent than the facts, it is evident that conclusions arrived at "by the former plan, will, as a general rule, obtain a wider assent than conclusions arrived at by the latter plan. Obtaining a wider assent, they will produce more decisive results, and will be more likely to shape the national character and influence the course of national affairs." Buckle's penetrating observations may be taken as a guide to Georgeists in the dissemination of their principles. What is the Georgeist objective? It is to free men. Its practical goal is to abolish all forms of special privilege in order that an environment might exist in which the free enterprise system of production and distribution of wealth can operate. More specifically, it is to abolish all forms of securing public revenue save those which collect for the use of the community the publicly created rental value How are we to bring this about? We must secure favorable interest and decision on the part of a large majority of the people. We cannot hope to be the beneficiary of any dictatorship or of any totalitarian revolution. We must maintain and use the discriminating democratic processes. We must influence thought, difficult as that may be. We must educate in ways that will give understanding. The advice of Buckle comes in for consideration here. The Georgeist philosophy is adaptable to both the inductive and the deductive methods. But when we use the latter, we find that the statement of strong conclusions leads to antagonism toward them. Farther investigation is discouraged, and the prospective convert is in no mood to ask for or receive facts. But if facts are presented first, people will listen. To many self-styled practical people, a principle, however sound it seems to be, is not a fact. A fact to these observers is a figure, a measurement, an example. Facts promote curiosity, interest, inquiry. Witness our ubiquitous radio quiz programs and pictorial "believe-it-or-not" presentations. Facts, then, must be our starting point. It was my pleasure and privilege to be associated with Judge Jackson H. Ralston of California during the years 1935-1938 in his gallant effort to secure the adoption of a strong application of Georgeist principles in that State. It is from this experience that I have arrived at what I feel is a pattern of activity which can be followed to bring about the acceptance of our social and economic proposals. This pattern follows the principles of influencing thought presented by Buckle, making use largely of the inductive method, though not, of course, excluding use of the deductive. The great majority of the people must be made to feel that they will gain materially from the Georgeist proposal and that it is on the whole sound and just. Two propositions relating to our method of securing public revenue must be demonstrated factually so that they will be understood and accepted by the people. The first proposition is that the people, who should hold title to the land values of the nation, today hold little or no title to it. The second is that a tax on the value of land, or a direct levy on the rent, must be paid out of the rent now collected by the present title holder, and that he cannot shift this charge to the people in higher prices or rents and so recover an equal amount for himself. Of course, during the process of education, the other points in the Georgeist theory must also be demonstrated. People must be made to" see that rent is the measure of communal privileges; that the economic activities of all who labor and spend contribute to the rent fund; that the taxing of land values and the untaxing of labor and industry will benefit all. How is this objective to be accomplished? First, a study must be made of the land values in the community where the program is to be launched. This is a problem of research, of accumulating the facts in the given geographical area. They involve records, public sales, etc. -- facts that are familiar to people. During the Ralston campaign in California such a study was made. Because of data regularly collected, the problem in that state was not so difficult. Based on 1936 figures compiled by Prof. Alfred S. Niles, of Stanford University, it was found that over 50% of the state's land value was located in only three of the fifty-eight counties. The three counties were Los Angeles (36.02%), San Francisco (11.09%), and Alameda (5.78%). This left the vast remaining area of fifty-five counties with bat 47.01 % of the land values. In the city of San Francisco it was demonstrated that 3% of the city blocks contained over one-third of the total land value of the city. By a breakdown of the distribution of land values in this manner it can be shown where the land value is to be found. By studies of ownership of titles it can be shown what percentage of the property holders and what percentage of the total population control and enjoy the vast bulk of the rental income of the land. This is a matter of statistical effort and study which any Georgeist group that hopes for any sort of success in a political way must be prepared to make. Such facts as these the people can grasp. Further, they are facts which cannot be denied or argued by the land-title holders or their agents of agencies. Our second proposition must also be demonstrated -- the proposition that a tax on land values cannot be shifted, and that the net effect of the Georgeist proposal is to make land holders pay fairly and equally to the community for the privilege of holding land. Unless the idea of the non-shiftability of our method of raising public revenue is accepted by the majority of the people, we cannot hope to secure favorable action on our proposals. There is another important point to be remembered in the planning of an educational program -- that is, its "timing." We lost the 1938 Ralston campaign in California, not because the methods used were unsound, but simply because we did not have the time or the funds to reach the people with our information. If any group of Georgeists feel they are prepared or will one day be prepared for a political campaign, they must first and above all plan a long-range campaign of basic factual education. In far too many cases (perhaps in all cases, so far) the campaign method has never had a chance to succeed, because the correct sort of preliminary barrage of facts had not been laid down, and hence the ground was not prepared for political action. Although Georgeist campaigns have in the past failed, they have left us a precious heritage -- that is, anticipation of the probable line of attack on us by the opposition. Chief among the arguments used against the Georgeist proposal is that it will hurt the small home owner and raise rents, and that it will ruin the fanner. Preparation against such arguments should be undertaken by dissemination of facts on the case, before any political action is undertaken. A campaign should not begin with a draft of an amendment or legislative enactment. Such an action will not only interfere with the preliminary educational program, but will draw the fire of the opposition on the nature of the measure. It will place us at a disadvantage in the ensuing fight. The legislative draft, which is only able to incorporate principles, is about the last thing to be After the work of research, which is the first requirement in a Georgeist campaign, must come the work of publicizing these facts. All the attributes of the good salesman and advertising man, the radio quiz artist and the educators need to be brought into play to present the figures and facts to the people. During our California campaign, we held a meeting before the Pomona Grange, consisting of the Grange organizations of Shasta and Trinity Counties. The type of facts we presented profoundly affected those attending the meeting. The farmers of Trinity County were asked how much land value there was in their county. None of them knew. Then we presented the facts: The 1937 figures of the Controller's Report of California showed that there was $2,728,715 in land value in that county. Along with this figure we gave the figures for the land value of block 329 in the City of San Francisco. This small, triangular block of 1.54 acres had a land value of $2,766,020 -- more than all of Trinity County. The fanners of Shasta County were also asked about the land value in their county. They, too, did not know. The 1937 report gave Shasta County a land value of $12,166,890. It was shown that three large blocks between Third and Sixth Streets in San Francisco, some 17 acres, had a value of over $13,000,000 -- nearly a million more than all of Shasta County. Another presentation designed to attract attention might be in the form of weekly releases of the accumulated facts. In California we distributed such releases. One read: "Less than one acre of land under the Russ Building (in San Francisco) rents for $120,000 a year. This is paid to the title holder for .99 years. It would take 120 men, working eight hours a day, making $1,000 a year, to produce wages or salaries equal to the wealth taken by the title holders to this land each year. Here is a measure of the value of privilege and the value of wages." All the channels of publicity can be used in distributing the facts. If this policy were carried on continuously for a period of time without any concrete political proposal, it is of course to be expected that the enemies of the "to be proposed" measure would in time suspect the situation. But in the face of indisputable facts, they would be at a disadvantage as compared to their position if a legislative amendment were first drafted. Sooner or later, in the course of the educational campaign, the question of the non-shiftability of the land value tax will have to be faced. Several types of arguments can be used. It might be started on a quiz basis, a series of questions, such as the following: If the community increased the tax on the value of a vacant lot, could the owner shift the tax or would he have to pay it himself ? To whom could he shift it ? If the supply of vacant lots for sale or rent increased, due to a tax on land value, would their price go up or down? If a man is getting all the land rent he can for the use of a certain piece of land, could he collect more if the taxes on his rent were increased? If he could increase his rent, would he wait for the tax in order to do so? If a tax on land values can be shifted, why do landowners oppose it so strongly? A carefully prepared campaign, planned to run over a period of several years, could become more specific as the time came to launch a definite proposal and the actual campaign. Until some definite proposal was made, the opposition would be at a great disadvantage. If they attacked in advance of a definite proposal, it would have to be over fundamental principles, the facts being indisputable. Of course, Georgeists would welcome such an attack. If it did not come, the Georgeists should even provoke it. The best thing that can happen to our cause is to have our principles brought out into the open, discussed, argued, made into an issue. We can then be sure that we are making real advances.	3.292915
The Institute of Food Technologists (IFT) offers some advice for safely handling food when you’re dining outdoors this summer: Warm weather brings a bounty of fresh produce, and a trip to the local farmers market can make a nice addition to your outdoor meal. Food safety starts in the field. It’s important to get to know the growers selling produce at your local farm stand, and ask about their farming practices. How do they keep their products free from bacterial pathogens and other contaminants? Farmers may also have great tips for storing produce, testing for ripeness and even ways to prepare the fruits and veggies they sell. IFT spokesperson and food safety expert, Don Schaffner, PhD, says that when you’re purchasing produce, make sure it’s free of mold, bruises or blemishes where bacterial pathogens can grow. Many grocery stores offer freshly cut, packaged produce for customers seeking nutritious convenience foods. Freshly cut vegetables and fruit need proper temperature control to prevent the growth of bacteria that cause foodborne illness. Before preparing food, wash your hands thoroughly with soap and warm water for at least 20 seconds. Make sure all prep utensils such as cutting boards, dishes and countertops are clean before preparing each food item. Dirt, dust and pathogenic microbes can linger on produce. It’s important to wash fresh produce before consuming it. The only exception is are pre-bagged salads and leafy greens, as experts advise that additional washing of ready-to-eat green salads is not likely to enhance safety. Thoroughly washing in cold water will suffice for most fruits and vegetables, but some types of produce require special handling. Wash spinach or salad greens in a bowl of water and rinse them gently to remove dirt and other contaminants. Give extra attention to fruits with stems, such as apples, pears and peaches. You may be tempted to forego washing fruit with a rind, since you won’t be eating the rind. But, it’s still important to wash oranges, avocados, melons, cantaloupe, etc. – pathogens can linger in unwashed crevices and transfer to your hands or the knife you use to cut the fruit. In addition, wash items you’ll peel – such as carrots and cucumbers – for the same reason. If you’ll be grilling at home, remember to always marinate meat in the refrigerator, never on the kitchen counter or outdoors. Discard any extra marinade that’s touched raw meat. Grill food thoroughly, using a thermometer to ensure the proper internal temperature: 145 F for steaks and fish, 160 F for pork, hot dogs and hamburgers, and 165 F for poultry. Keep finished meats hot until you serve by moving them to the side of the grill rack, away from the coals or highest flame on your gas grill. Avoid cross contamination by using separate serving plates and utensils for different meats and vegetables. If you’ll be grilling away from home – in a park, tailgating at a sporting event or on a camping trip – consider purchasing pre-formed patties for burgers and pre-cut poultry. This minimizes the amount of handling meat requires and can help minimize the risk of bacteria and cross contamination. A picnic in the park can be great fun for everyone, but it’s important to assure your food arrives safely along with your family and guests. Follow smart food packing guidelines. Keep meats, including lunch meats and raw meats, cheeses and condiments cold in insulated, soft-sided bags or coolers with freezer gel packs. Food needs to be stored at 40 F or colder to reduce the risk of pathogen growth, so limit the number of times you open the cooler. Never allow food to sit for more than two hours at temperatures below 90 F, and no more than an hour when temperatures exceed 90 F. Throw away food that’s been sitting out too long. Securely package raw meat, seafood and poultry to ensure the juices don’t contaminate other foods. Pack only the amount of perishable food that you think will be eaten. Beverages and perishable foods should travel in separate containers and coolers, especially if you’ll be transporting raw meat. When it’s time to go home, don’t reuse packaging material that has touched raw meats or meat juices. Make sure perishable leftovers stay cold on the trip home. Avoid taking home uncooked leftovers.	3.045615

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