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Nucleic acid binding proteins are required for many processes in living organisms. Transcription factors play an important role in regulating transcription of DNA by binding to specific recognition sites on the chromosome. This regulation is required for cell viability, differentiation and growth(1)
. The ability to detect and confirm the interaction of such proteins with various nucleic acid targets provides valuable information about the cell signaling cascades that govern the ability of a cell to divide, migrate, interact with its neighbors, develop and maintain specialized functions, and terminate viability at the appropriate time.
Two common techniques used to detect the interaction of nucleic acid binding proteins with nucleic acids are the electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and fluorescence anisotropy assay(3)
. EMSA involves binding protein to a radiolabeled DNA probe followed by resolution on a polyacrylamide gel. Due to the increase in mass, protein:probe complexes migrate slower than free probe, allowing comparison of free versus bound probe. The specificity of such complexes is determined using competition experiments with unlabeled specific and nonspecific oligos. This method works best with purified protein and can be quite labor intensive, particularly when numerous samples are being processed. In fluorescence anisotropy, a DNA binding protein is bound to a DNA substrate containing a fluorophore. Polarized light is shined onto the sample and then the emitted light is detected. Because a DNA:protein complex tumbles in solution more slowly than the free DNA, there is less deflected light. This method works best with purified protein and requires special equipment.
Protein chips have emerged as an approach for identification of DNA:protein interactions(5)
. Functional protein microarrays are composed of arrays containing full-length functional proteins or protein domains. Fluorescently labeled DNA is used to probe the array and identify proteins that bind to that specific probe. Protein microarrays provide a method for high-throughput identification of DNA:protein interactions. However, microarrays are not easily adaptable. The HaloLink™ Protein Array System offers solutions to these challenges, as described in following paragraph, and certain issues have been specifically addressed. These include preventing false positives.
The HaloLink™ Array System is an alternative approach for analysis of DNA:protein interactions. This system captures nucleic acid binding proteins on a slide surface (Figure 1) and previously has been shown to be a successful method for studying protein:protein interactions and enzymatic reactions(8)
. The system requires the generation of a fusion protein between the DNA-binding protein and the HaloTag® protein(8)
. The HaloTag® protein is a 34kDa modified hydrolase enzyme that can form a rapid, specific and covalent bond with its chloroalkane ligand(10)
. Synthesizing the HaloTag® fusion-DNA-binding protein in cell-free systems adds to the speed and flexibility of the assay. The HaloLink™ Protein Array slides are hydrogel-coated glass slides containing immobilized HaloTag® ligand. Fifty individual wells are created by adding a silicon gasket to the slide. The expressed fusion protein can be bound to the surface covalently, allowing stringent washing and subsequent analysis of DNA binding by adding a DNA probe. This technique is rapid, requires no purified protein, provides a moderate data set (n = 50) and is adaptable to different throughputs.
We used the Rel/NF-κB transcription factor, p50(11)
, as a model DNA binding protein to show that the HaloLink™ Protein Array slide provides a tool for analyzing DNA-binding protein:DNA interactions. Dimers of NF-κB proteins regulate transcription by directly binding enhancer sequences, referred to as κB DNA sequences, which are located in the regulatory regions of numerous genes.
HaloLink™ Protein Array Experimental Design
Figure 1 outlines the experimental design of the HaloLink™ Protein Array System. A HaloTag® fusion protein is expressed with a cell-free expression system and then covalently attached to the slide surface through the HaloTag® protein’s interaction with the HaloTag® ligand (see supplementary information for details). After washing and drying, the slide is processed to determine protein concentration, and is then used to analyze the DNA: protein interaction. To detect the HaloTag® fusion protein, certain wells of the slide are probed with anti-HaloTag® antibody (Cat.# G9281). After a second wash followed with a drying step, the slide is probed with Alexa Fluor® 647 anti-rabbit antibody and analyzed on a Typhoon® 9410 slide scanner to detect the HaloTag® fusion protein. In addition, other wells have a fluorophore-labeled DNA probe added to them. After incubation, the slide is washed, dried, and scanned to detect the DNA:protein interaction.
HaloTag®-p50 binds to the HaloLink™ Protein Array slide and has DNA binding activity.
Two human p50 proteins were expressed as N-terminal HaloTag® fusion proteins in a high-yield wheat germ cell-free protein expression system. One p50 protein contains the DNA binding domain, dimerization domain, and the nuclear localization sequence of the human p50 protein, while the second p50 protein (–DNA BD) has the DNA binding domain removed. Expression of the correctly sized fusion proteins was verified using the HaloTag® TMR Ligand (Cat.# G8251)(12)
followed by SDS-PAGE (Figure 2, Panel A).
Figure 2. HaloTag®-p50 fusion protein attaches to the HaloLink™ Protein Array slide and shows DNA binding activity.
Panel A. TMR-labeled SDS-PAGE of HaloTag® fusions. One microliter of both HaloTag®-p50 and HaloTag®-p50 (–DNA BD) fusion proteins expressed in a cell-free system was labeled with the HaloTag® TMR Ligand and separated using SDS-PAGE. A marker was used to assay for size. Panel B. HaloLink™ Protein Array slide. The numbers correspond to wells, and the letters correspond to columns. Column A: wells 1–10, 5μl of HaloTag®-GST Standard Protein at 0, 1.3, 2.6, 5.2, 10.5, 21, 42, 83, 166, and 332nM, respectively, was added to each well. Each well was then probed with Anti-HaloTag® pAb followed by Alexa Fluor® 647 anti-rabbit IgG antibody. Column B: wells 1–3, 5μl of lysate expressing HaloTag®-p50 fusion protein was added to each well; wells 5-7, 5μl of lysate expressing HaloTag®-p50 (–DNA BD) fusion protein was added to each well. These wells were then probed with Anti- HaloTag® pAb followed with the Alexa Fluor® 647 anti-rabbit IgG antibody. Column C: wells 1–10, 5μl of lysate expressing the HaloTag®-p50 fusion protein was added to each well. WT-DNA was added to the wells at 0, 1, 1.9, 3.9, 7.8, 15.6, 31.25, 62.5, 125, 250nM, respectively. Column D: wells 1–10, 5μl of lysate expressing the HaloTag®-p50 fusion protein was added to each well. Mut-DNA was added at the same concentrations as those in Column C. Column E: wells 1–10, 5μl of lysate expressing the HaloTag®-p50 fusion protein (–DNA BD) added to each well. WT-DNA was added at the same concentrations as those in Column C. Panel C. Graph showing binding of HaloTag®-p50 fusion proteins to DNA. Densities for each well were determined using GenePix® software. The concentration of the DNA was plotted versus the density of each well.
To test DNA binding activity of p50, we used the HaloLink™ Protein Array System. Extract expressing HaloTag®-p50 and HaloTag®-p50 (–DNA BD) were added to the slide (Figure 2, Panel B). Three wells for each protein were probed with anti-HaloTag® antibody followed by Alexa Fluor® 647 anti-rabbit IgG antibody to verify that each protein was bound to the slide (Figure 2, Column B; wells 1–3 for HaloTag®-p50 and wells 5–7 for HaloTag®-p50 [–DNA BD]). A dilution series of the HaloTag®-GST Standard Protein at known concentrations was added to the slide to make a titration curve for bound HaloTag® protein (Figure 2, Panel B; Column A). A titration series of wild-type-DNA (WT-DNA) and mutated-DNA (Mut-DNA) both containing Alexa Fluor® 647 was added to the slide. Following scanning, the fluorescence intensity of each well was determined and plotted (Figure 2, Panel C). The HaloTag®-p50 protein bound the WT-DNA to near saturation levels, and did not significantly bind the Mut-DNA. The HaloTag®-p50 (–DNA BD) protein had no detectable DNA binding activity. Probing with a 32P-labeled nucleotide gave similar results (data not shown). This experiment shows that the HaloLink™ Protein Array slide is able to bind HaloTag®-fusion proteins and is capable of analyzing DNA:protein interactions.
To test further the specificity of the HaloTag®-p50/WT-DNA interaction, we performed a competition assay using unlabeled WT-DNA. Replicates of the HaloTag®-p50 protein expressed in a wheat germ cell-free protein expression system and the HaloTag®-GST Standard Protein (20μg/ml) were bound to a HaloLink™ Protein Array slide (Figure 3, Panel A). The slide was then probed with Alexa Fluor® 647-labeled WT-DNA and mixed with increasing amounts of unlabeled WT-DNA. The binding signal decreased as the amount of unlabeled competitor increased. A plot of the fluorescent intensity of each HaloTag®-p50 well versus the percent of competitor DNA shows a linear decrease in signal (Figure 3, Panel B). The HaloTag®-GST Standard Protein did not bind the WT-DNA. This competition assay shows that the HaloTag®-p50 interaction is specific for the WT-DNA and that competition assays can be performed on the HaloLink™ Protein Array slides.
IκBα Interferes with the DNA Binding Activity of HaloTag®-p50
IκBα is an ankyrin repeat protein that inhibits NF-κB transcriptional activity by sequestering NF-κB outside of the nucleus in resting cells. IκBα forms a very stable complex with NF-κB by binding tightly to the nuclear localization sequence (NLS) and weakly to the DNA-binding domain(13)
. In the absence of IκBα, we have shown that the p50 protein can bind the WT-DNA using the HaloLink™ Protein Array slide. We hypothesized that there will be a decrease in the binding of the p50 protein to the WT-DNA when IκBα is bound to the p50 protein.
To detect IκBα, a T7 epitope tag was added to the N-terminus. We expressed both the p50 protein and p50 co-expressed with IκBα in a wheat germ cell-free protein expression system. A Western blot using the T7 antibody verified the expression of IκBα (Figure 4, Panel A). A dilution series of the HaloTag®-GST Standard Protein, the HaloTag®-p50 lysate, and the HaloTag®-p50 + IκBα lysate were added to three HaloLink™ Protein Array slides (Figure 4, Panel C). One slide was probed for HaloTag® fusion protein binding using the Anti-HaloTag® pAb. Another slide was probed for IκBα using the anti-T7 epitope antibody. The third slide was probed with WT-DNA at a concentration of 100nM. After scanning each slide, fluorescent intensities for each well were determined. The concentrations of HaloTag®-p50 in columns B and C were calculated from a titration curve determined using the HaloTag®-GST Standard Protein. These concentrations were plotted versus fluorescent intensities of each spot on slide 3. DNA binding was normalized to compensate for a small decrease in HaloTag®-p50 in column 3 versus column 2 on slide 1. Probing with anti-T7 antibody shows the presence of IκBα in column 3. DNA binding of p50 decreased about threefold when IκBα was present, which is consistent with the reported values(13)
Figure 4. IkappaBalpha inhibits the binding of p50 to DNA.
Panel A. Western Blot analysis of lysate expressing both HaloTag®-p50 fusion protein and IκBα. IκBα contains a T7 epitope tag, which was used for analysis. Panel B. HaloLink™ Protein Array slides. Three slides were imprinted identically with HaloTag®-GST Standard Protein and lysate expressing either HaloTag®-p50 or HaloTag®-p50 + IκBα proteins. Column A: wells 1–9, 5μl of HaloTag®-GST Standard Protein at 0, 2.6, 5.2, 10.5, 21, 42, 83, 166 or 332nM, respectively, was added to the wells. Column B: wells 1–9, 0, 0.039, 0.078, 0.156, 0.3125, 0.625, 1.25, 2.5 or 5μl of lysate expressing HaloTag®-p50, respectively, was added to the wells. Column C: rows 1–9 had 0, 0.039, 0.078, 0.156, 0.3125, 0.625, 1.25, 2.5, or 5μl lysate expressing HaloTag®-p50 + IκBα, respectively, was added to the wells. Slide 1 was then probed Anti-HaloTag® pAb followed by Alexa Fluor® 647 anti-rabbit IgG antibody. Slide 2 was probed with anti-T7 antibody followed by Alexa Fluor® 647 anti-mouse IgG antibody. Slide 3 was probed with WT-DNA (100nM). Panel C. DNA binding of HaloTag®-p50 fusion protein with and without IκBα was plotted. Densities for each well were determined using GenePix® software. The concentration of the HaloTag®-p50 fusion protein in each well was determined using a calibration curve of HaloTag®-GST Standard Protein. The concentrations were plotted versus the density of each well. The DNA binding signal of HaloTag®-p50 + IκBα proteins was normalized to that of HaloTag®-p50 fusion protein alone to compensate for the small decrease in HaloTag®®-p50 in Column C.
HaloTag®-p50 binds WT-DNA with a greater affinity than HaloTag®-p65
To compare the binding of a similar DNA binding protein, p65, to p50, we expressed p65 (amino acids 19–325) and p50 as HaloTag® fusion proteins in a cell-free protein expression system. Expression of the correctly sized fusion proteins was verified using the HaloTag® TMR Ligand followed by SDS-PAGE (Figure 5, Panel A). To test the ability of these proteins to bind DNA while bound to the HaloLink™ Protein Array slide, we first added lysates expressing HaloTag®-p50 or HaloTag®-65 to the slide (Figure 5, Panel B). Three wells for each protein were probed with Anti-HaloTag® pAb followed by Alexa Fluor® 647 anti-rabbit IgG antibody to verify that each protein was properly bound to the slide (Figure 5, Column B, wells 1–3 for HaloTag®-50 and wells 5 and 6 for HaloTag®-p65). The concentrations of the HaloTag®-p50 and HaloTag®-p65 proteins were calculated to be nearly identical on the slide. Varying concentrations of WT-DNA were added to the slide as shown in Figure 5. After scanning the slide, the densities of each well were determined and fit to a graph. Both proteins bound the WT-DNA, with HaloTag®-p50 binding about twofold better than HaloTag®-p65. These results agree with those reported previously (using fluorescence anisotropy and EMSA)(13)
Figure 5. Binding affinity of p50 and p65 proteins for wildtype DNA.
Panel A. TMR-labeled SDS-PAGE of HaloTag® fusion proteins. One microliter of both HaloTag®-p50 and HaloTag®-p65 fusion proteins expressed in a cell-free expression system was labeled with the HaloTag® TMR Ligand and separated using SDS-PAGE. A marker was used to assay for size. Panel B. HaloLink™ Protein Array slide. Column A: wells 1–10, 5μl of HaloTag®-GST Standard Protein at 0, 1.3, 2.6, 5.2, 10.5, 21, 42, 83, 166 or 332nM, respectively, was added to each well. Each well was then probed with Anti-HaloTag® pAb followed by Alexa Fluor® 647 anti-rabbit IgG antibody. Column B: wells 1–3, 5μl of lysate expressing HaloTag®-p50 was added to each. Wells 5–7, 5μl of lysate expressing HaloTag®-65 was added to each well. Wells 1–3 and 5–7 were then probed with Anti-HaloTag® pAb followed by Alexa Fluor® 647 anti-rabbit IgG antibody. Column C: wells 1–10, 5μl of lysate expressing HaloTag®-p50 was added to each well. WT-DNA was added at to the rows as 0, 1, 1.9, 3.9, 7.8, 15.6, 31.25, 62.5, 125 or 250nM, respectively. Column D: wells 1–10, 5μl of lysate expressing HaloTag®-p65 added to each. WT-DNA was added at the same concentrations as Column C. The slide was scanned with a GenePix® slide scanner at a wavelength of 635nm. Panel C. The densities for each well were determined using GenePix® software. The concentration of the DNA was plotted versus the density of each well.
The three main components of the HaloLink™ Protein Array system are cell-free expression, the HaloTag® protein and the HaloLink™ Slides. All three contribute to the efficiency, robustness and overall speed of the assay. This system can also be used for functional characterization of purified recombinant protein. In a previous study, the Halolink Protein array system was used to study protein: protein interactions found in the NF-kB complex(17)
. We have shown that the HaloLink™ Protein Array System can be used to analyze Protein: DNA interactions using p50 and p65 transcription factors as model DNA-binding proteins.
First, cell-free translation systems, such as the TNT® SP6 High-Yield Wheat Germ Protein Expression System or the TNT® Rabbit Reticulocyte System, allow for rapid protein production directly from DNA. In addition, protein can be produced in less than two hours using cell-free systems, versus days for production from E. coli-based systems. Cell-free systems also eliminate the expression difficulties some transcription factors have in E. coli-based systems. This adds the flexibility of quickly expressing protein truncations, mutations, or fusions and testing them for activity.
Second, the HaloTag® protein enables covalent and oriented capture of proteins on solid surfaces directly from the cell-free expression system without any prior purification step. The HaloTag® protein forms a covalent bond with its HaloTag® ligand. A HaloTag® ligand with reactive end group is used to activate hydrogel-coated glass slides and, subsequently, to capture proteins of interest expressed as HaloTag®-fusion proteins in cell-free protein expression systems. This approach eliminates the need for protein purification, and allows the fused protein of interest to be oriented for maximum biological activity.
Third, polyethylene glycol (PEG)-coated glass slides are known to resist nonspecific adsorption of unwanted protein and to prevent surface-induced denaturation of specific proteins. The low-background binding of the HaloLink™ Slides allows the detection of low abundant binding proteins. A silicone gasket creates 50 wells on the glass slide, so that multiple assays can be performed manually on the same slide without any specialized equipment. This offers an improvement over EMSA, which generally allows approximately 15 reactions per gel.
Using the HaloLink™ Protein Array System, we found that p50 bound WT-DNA specifically, and p50 that is lacking its DNA binding domain had no DNA binding activity. This highlights one advantage of using cell-free lysates, truncation and expression is quick, and many different mutations can be tested. The DNA probes used in the experiments were generated synthetically, adding to the speed of the assay. Multiple DNA probes can be tested quickly for binding to one protein, or multiple proteins can be tested for binding to one probe. The DNA can be detected using a fluorophore (as shown in these experiments) or a radiolabeled DNA probe. Both detection methods have similar sensitivity. Using a mutated DNA in a competition assay with wild-type, unlabeled DNA, we showed that the interaction is specific and the HaloLink Protein Array slides have little background binding to the DNA probes.
Furthermore, we compared the binding of two different DNA binding proteins, p50 and p65 and showed that the HaloLink™ Protein Array slide has the sensitivity to show binding differences between different nucleic acid binding proteins and target binding sites, which agrees with previous studies(11)
The HaloLink™ Protein Array slides also provide a platform to study protein:protein:nucleic acid binding. Using the p50 protein and its inhibitor IκBα, we were able to show a decrease in p50 binding to WT-DNA when the inhibitor was present and showed that the HaloLink™ Protein Array slide has the sensitivity to show binding differences between different nucleic acid binding proteins and target binding sites. This decrease in binding was previously observed(13)
. The HaloLink™ Protein Array slide system can be used to analyze the effect that one protein has on the DNA binding activity of another protein.
HaloLink™ Protein Array slides provide a medium-throughput assay for analyzing protein:protein, protein:nucleic acid, and protein:small molecule interactions. Unlike conventional protein arrays, HaloLink™ Protein Array slides allow flexibility of content printing. The user can easily create protein mutations and truncations to assay important binding regions on a protein. Using these slides, a user can screen quickly a number of different potential targets, determine important binding regions and determine the even amino acids required for the interaction.
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Far north within the Arctic Circle off the northern coast of Norway lies a small chain of islands known as Svalbard. These craggy islands have been scoured into shape by ice and sea. The effect of glacial activity can be seen in this image of the northern tip of the island of Spitsbergen. Here, glaciers have carved out a fjord, a U-shaped valley that has been flooded with sea water. Called Bockfjorden, the fjord is located at almost 80 degrees north, and it is still being affected by glaciers. The effect is most obvious in this image in the tan layer of silty freshwater that floats atop the denser blue water of the Arctic Ocean. The fresh water melts off land-bound glaciers and flows over the sandstone, collecting fine red-toned silt. In this image, the tan-colored fresh water flows northward up the fjord and is being pushed to the east side of the fjord by the rotation of the Earth.
Glaciers here and elsewhere on Spitsbergen are cold bottom glaciers, which means that they are frozen to the ground rather than floating on top of a thin layer of melt water. The glaciers are also land glaciers since their terminus (end) lies on land, rather than floating on the water (a tidewater glacier). Land glaciers grow and retreat slowly, balancing fresh snow with the melting and draining of old ice. Their rate of growth or retreat can be affected by global warming. In most cases, including the glaciers around Bockfjorden, global warming has caused glaciers to retreat from increased melting. On the eastern side of Svalbard, however, glaciers are growing from enhanced snowfall. The reason for this pattern remains only one of many intriguing unanswered questions of Arctic science in the islands.
The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer, (ASTER) on NASA's Terra satellite captured this false-color image on June 26, 2001.
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The Future of Baseload Power Generation
Michael Crumbliss for RedOrbit.com
The annual MIT Energy Conference has grown to be the premier energy conference of its kind, drawing participants from around the world to discuss the current and future state of energy production, use, and technology. The conference in its seventh year still entirely planned, managed, and led by students from the college. In my opinion the students’ direct involvement keeps the conference honest, progressive, and productive. Every talk or panel I attended was at full capacity with young inventors, entrepreneurs, and college freshman sitting beside CEO’s of multinational corporations and industry veterans of all types.
The first panel of the MIT Energy Conference met on Friday March 16 on the MIT Campus to discuss “The Future of Baseload Power Generation.” Included In the panel were representatives from large regional power companies, General Electric in their capacity as a worldwide power generator, and academia.
Baseload power refers to the minimum amount of power that must be produced to maintain power to the grid at all times. Baseload is what makes the lights come on when you hit the switch first thing in the morning after the typically low power use early in the AM hours. The grid is constantly energized at a pre-determined minimum level. Failure to maintain this level leads to brown-outs and black-outs.
In almost all current cases baseload power is produced using coal, gas, oil, and nuclear facilities. These power plants are large and meant to operate with a stable output. Increasingly as intermittent sources of power like wind and solar are added it becomes important for baseload plants to be capable of ramping production up and down more than in the past, and turning on and off in some cases.
Chief among concerns about these plants are known levels of pollution, especially in the case of coal upon which much of the world’s baseload depends. In the case of nuclear power, catastrophic meltdowns are possible. All these plants produce large amounts of toxic waste. Providing fuels requires extensive and ongoing mining, drilling and transport.
The members of the panel discussed the future of baseload under increased environmental scrutiny. All agreed that gas is the only near term solution with nuclear plants taking too long to build, and with coal is on the way to much reduced use. Coal causes 40% of harmful emissions in the US alone:
The Representative from the Southern Company spoke of a new 500MW coal plant in Mississippi. This was the only new coal plant mentioned in the panel. Southern is currently constructing the Vogtle nuclear plants #3 and #4 in Georgia. Each of these two new units will produce 1100MW.
The representative from PSEG spoke of the company’s involvement with wholesale, retail, and renewable power in the Northeast (NJ, PA, NY, DE, MD). PSEG uses nuclear, coal, and combined cycle plants, and relatively small but growing renewable input. PSEG is building no more coal plants and closing down old ones. 1500 MW will be taken off-line in the near future. Gas and possibly nuclear is the future for PSEG. The proposed nuclear site is in Southern New Jersey. On a national scale the speaker states that 30-35 GW of coal will be retired.
The representative from IHS used Texas as an example of the future of energy consumption. Texas has a separate power grid and can be seen as a single customer. Texas has also led the way with integration of new power sources and updating of its grid and power management systems. This speaker confirmed mentioned that gas is going to replace coal in some large portion in the near future. He also spoke to the possibilities of emerging large-scale storage technology (batteries).
The panel agreed that technology and fuel choice can effect carbon release in the United States and other developed countries, but have little or no confidence that China, India, and third world countries will make any effort at all in reducing emissions.
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Race Relations Act 1976
The act provides the basis of the law in Great Britain that defines and outlaws racial discrimination and gives individuals the right to seek legal redress for acts of racial discrimination. The RRA makes it unlawful to discriminate against a person directly or indirectly on racial grounds. It is unlawful to discriminate in either employment matters or in the provision of goods, facilities or services. The Act defines racial grounds as related to race, colour, ethnic origin, national origin or nationality (including citizenship). Everyone is protected and no one is exempt.
All pages in this section:
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© Duane A. Cline 2002
Click here to return to the Main Page of The Pilgrims &
Following the decimation of the Native American population in King Philips War in 1675, the Native population was so reduced and dispersed that their language was finally lost. The Native Americans who survived were so fearful of the European settlers that they tried to conceal their Native American heritage and take on the appearance and speech of the settlers.
PRESERVATION OF THE INDIAN LANGUAGE
As a result, the Native American language of the Wampanoag people slowly became extinct. The language of the Wampanoag people has not been spoken as a common language for about seven generations. Only recently has there been a renewed interest in trying to retrieve the language of the Wampanoag – a daunting task, indeed. Fortunately the entire Bible and a few other writings had been translated into the Massachusett language by John Eliot while it was still a vital language. Through great effort, it is hoped the language can be revived.
John Eliot was born about 1604 in Widford, Hertfordshire, England, the son of Bennett Eliot, a yeoman who was a landholder in the parishes of Ware, Widford, Hansdon and Estweeke. John was baptized on 5 August 1604.
He matriculated at Jesus College Cambridge University on 20 March 1619 as a “pensioner,” which meant he paid his own expenses at Jesus College. His father died the year before John received his A.B. degree from Cambridge in 1622. In his father’s will John was provided financial assistance for his maintenance at Cambridge, “where he is a Scholar.”
After leaving Cambridge, John taught for nine years in a grammar school which had been established by Rev. Thomas Hooker at Little Braddow, near Chelmsford, England. There he came under the Puritan influence and decided to become a minister.
Since the Church of England was still dealing harshly with anyone who did not conform to its doctrines and ordinances, John emigrated to New England, landing in Boston on 4 November 1631. On his arrival in New England John pastored a church in Boston for a while before he was ordained to serve the church at Roxbury, Mass.
Apparently, John had become engaged to a woman before leaving England. She came to New England in 1632 and they were married at Roxbury on 4 September 1632.
During the next few years, John developed a deep interest in the neighboring Indians, their language and their culture. In collaboration with his colleague, Rev. Thomas Mather, and neighbor, Rev, Richard Mather, of nearby Dorchester, Eliot translated “The Psalms of David” into the Indian language. He began to preach to the Indians in 1646.
There is an account of his first meeting with the Indians in his book, “The Daybreaking, if not Sunrising, of the Gospel with the Indians in New England,” London, 1647. He tells how on 28 October 1646 four of them went to the wigwam of Waaubon at Nonantum, which was located in the northeast corner of Newton (about five miles from Roxbury). There they met with a group of Indian men, women and children who had gathered from the surrounding area. John opened the meeting with a prayer in English and proceeded to preach for an hour and a quarter in their own language, following which there was a period of questions and answers. The meeting lasted about three hours, during which apples were given to women and children and tobacco to the men.
By 1651 Natick had been selected as the place for an Indian church and community to be organized for the settlement of the “praying Indians” from the surrounding area. It was seventeen miles from Boston and some distance from the groups of early settlers. In 1653 or 1654 Eliot produced his “Catechism,“ which was probably the first book to be printed in the Indian language. By 1655 Eliot had prepared the “Book of Genesis” and the “Gospel of Matthew.” They were printed at Cambridge in 1662.
The Natick church was formed and a civil government established in 1660. The new Indian community was opposed by a number of Indians and colonists alike. Eliot organized towns for Indian converts where they could preserve their own language and culture and live by their own laws. Through the next few years fourteen of those towns were established with the total converts numbering about four thousand. By 1674 each of the communities had a school where the Indians were taught English and handicrafts. While the towns prospered, Eliot prepared Indians to become missionaries to their own people. Daniel Takawambpait became the first Indian minister in New England when he was ordained at Natick in 1681.
The establishment of those Indian towns met with angry opposition from many of the Indians and settlers alike. However, they prospered until 1675 when King Philip’s War created havoc. After the war four of the communities were re-established, but did not continue long. The Natick church, which was originally established in 1660, managed to continue until the death of their last pastor, Daniel Takawambpait, in 1716.
In 1660 Thomas Thorowgood made the first reference to John Eliot as the “Indian Apostle,” a designation which has continued to be associated with Eliot to this day.
The entire New Testament was printed at Cambridge in 1661, and the next year a second edition of the “Catechism” was printed there.
A small edition of “The Psalms of David” was published at Cambridge in 1662 , and the same year a second edition of the “Catechism” was printed.
In 1663 “The Old Testament” was printed and bound together with a metrical version of the “Psalms.” This has been considered the first Bible printed in America. A second edition of “The New Testament” was printed in 1680, and in 1685 it was printed and bound with the “Old Testament.”
Other books written by Eliot were: “The Christian Commonwealth,” 1659; “The Communion of the Churches,” 1665; The Indian Primer” 1669; “Harmony of the Gospels,” 1678; and in 1689 his Indian translation of “The Sincere Convert” by Rev. Thomas Shepard was published.
He had also been a major contributor to the “Bay Psalm Book.”
After a long illness, John Eliot died at Roxbury, Mass., on 21 May 1690. In Eliot’s honor, May 21 is celebrated by some as “Saint Day of John Eliot.”
Last modified October 2, 2002
Webmaster Dave Lossos
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|The Open Door Web Site|
Whigs and Tories
Gradually there emerged a group of MP's and Lords who wanted Parliament to be stronger than the king. They hated and feared Catholics and sympathised with Puritan Non-conformists. They began to call themselves the Country Party (opposed to the Court Party). Their enemies nicknamed them "Whigs" after some Scottish Puritan outlaws.
The other political group, the Court Party, were for the king and believed in Divine Rights. They were also in favour of the Church of England with all its ceremonies and bishops. They hated Non conformists. The Whigs suspected that they were pro-Catholic and nicknamed them after Irish Catholic outlaws : the "Tories".
The Whigs and Tories were the world's first political parties and over the years to come they were to share government and opposition in a dual party system. The Whigs became the Liberal Party in the 19th century and the Tories became the Conservative Party. Both still exist today, although the Liberal Party is now called the Social Democratic Party.
The Habeas Corpus Act
This Act, passed in May 1679, allowed a prisoner to demand that he should be brought before a court and have his case examined. It was passed during the reign of Charles II and meant that even a political prisoner, an opponent of the king, as well as a common criminal, could have a fair trial and not just be thrown into prison to be forgotten about. It provided a dramatic contrast to the notorious "lettres de cachet" of Louis XIV which existed in France at the same time and allowed the French king to imprison someone indefinitely, without any legal redress.
Habeas Corpus literally means "bringing the body of an individual before a court of justice". This right had existed in England in early Norman times. (Article 36 of the Magna Carta of 1215 says that this right should "not be refused". At that time it meant that an accused person could avoid a terrible trial by ordeal.) Once before a court, an accused person has his case examined and is then allowed bail (is freed on condition that he leaves a sum of money and promises to return for further hearings), or he is imprisoned again because the evidence against him is so great.
By the time of Charles I kings were saying that a simple royal order was sufficient to overrule a writ of Habeas Corpus. It was for this reason that, in the late 17th century, Parliament wanted the law clearly and irrevocably written down.
The Habeas Corpus Act of 1679 was largely the work of Lord Shaftesbury, after whom it was named. Occasionally, it is suspended, for example in time of war or when there is a terrorist threat, but suspension of Habeas Corpus has to be voted by Parliament and for a limited period only.
All modern democracies have a law equivalent to Habeas Corpus written into their constitutions.
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© Mamoun Sakkal 2000/2008
There have been many attempts to modify the Arabic script in the 20th century.
The purposes of these attempts were usually stated to be:
1. To make reading Arabic easier by fixing in the written text all vowels and sounds of the spoken language.
2. To make writing Arabic easier by reducing the number of letter form variations. This always referred to letter form variations based on the letter position in the word, but also referred sometimes to the different styles of Arabic calligraphy.
3. To make typesetting Arabic easier by reducing the number of letter form variations. Different solutions were sought for different technologies.
4. To make Arabic more responsive to expressing new words resulting from inventions, products, and technologies.
5. To make Arabic more contemporary and modern. This usually included vague notions of what is modern or contemporary, and in many cases did not include any notions of these concepts at all, as if they were defined and accepted in the minds of the writers and readers of such proposals.
Some of the early attempts were initiated by the Academy of Arabic Language in Egypt (Majmaa al-Lughah al-Arabiyyah, Cairo) in 1938 in its desire to solve the problem of typesetting Arabic in an efficient way, that would also allow for accurate rendering and reading of the language. Proposals by Ali al-Jarem, Mahmoud Taimour, and Elias Akkawi, among others, focused on devising a method to incorporate the tashkeel vowel marks into the writing of the words on a consistent basis, and reducing the number of letter forms to a minimum, which meant getting rid of the different forms of each letter based on its location in the word. Abdul Aziz Fahmi suggested replacing the Arabic script with the Latin script as was done in Turkey a few years earlier. This proposal to use the Latin script to write Arabic has been already advanced in Egypt in 1880 by Wilhelm Spitta [An Egyptian 2], in 1890 by Karl Vollers, both directors of the Egyptian National Library (Dar Al-kutub al-misriyya).
In 1947 the Lebanese-born architect and artist Nasri
Khattar designed a simplified script for printing he named the Unified Arabic
(al abjadiah al muwahhadah). His work on this project for more than thirty years was supported by a Ford Foundation grant to promote his proposal. Khattar described
his project as follows:
Unified alphabet is not a new alphabet. It may be described as a new style, which as such does not exhibit any greater differences than those found among the traditional and current Arabic styles in use... It does not alter or replace, but complements the styles of handwriting and the beautiful art of calligraphy, which remain in their present form. Arabic, like English, will now have a method of writing in which the letters of a word are attached to each other, and a different method for printing in which the letters of a word appear disconnected... For the non-Arab, as well as for the child or the illiterate, the greatest obstacle in learning Arabic has been the complicated script.
The work of Ahmad Lakhdar Ghazal also started in
the 1950s in Morocco. With the support of the Moroccan government he developed
a Standard alphabet where each letter has one form that can be modified by simple
endings, but remained very close to the forms of traditional Naskh used for
typesetting Arabic books and magazines. Lakhdar Ghazal believes that part of
the problems of Arabic stem from misunderstanding the printing requirements,
and the difference between written and typeset text. His work in adapting the
Arabic script to printing demands was based on four principles:
1. No major changes to the form of traditional Arabic letters.
2. Use of only one shape for each letter in the different positions of the word.
3. Allowing tashkeel (vocalization) marks to be an essential part of the typeset text.
4. Adapting this reform to all printing technologies from typesetting, to typing, to wire transfers. [Tarabieh 77].
A somewhat similar approach was proposed by Roberto Hamm in 1975 where the letters have two forms each instead of the typical four, and connected to each other with Kashida extensions to allow for the presentation of connected text. These connections also carry the tashkeel vowel marks and are used as tails to indicate final or isolated letter forms. [Hamm]. However, the font designs proposed by Hamm were foreign looking and not very successful, consequently his proposal did not did not have a lasting impact.
Mohammrd Said al Saggar from Baghdad and my own work in Aleppo, Syria, in the 1970s also aimed at producing simplified typefaces with a limited number of letter forms. Saggars work retained many qualities of the traditional scripts both in Kufi and Naskhi, and continued to develop his typeface designs until the 1990s with Diwan of London. My own work started in a minimalist way where all the letters have uniform shapes, the same height, large x-height, separate rather than connected letters. This work developed into my typeface Shilia which is more traditional.
Murad Boutros published an article about his Arabic Simplified Typeface in Apple Magazine in Nov. 1993. Again using one form for each letter, and allowing for either connecting or separating the letters when typeset. His font has a traditional Naskhi character.
In recent years, a number of proposals connected one way or another with computers
have also been advanced. Abdelmalek Bouhadjera,
an Algerian engineer, used Square Kufi to design a printing alphabet with separate
letters he named El-Abdjadia El-Mouwahada which means Standardised or Unified
Alphabet. Although his early work deviated substantially from traditional forms,
his later proposal comes very close to the typical shapes of letters in Square
Kufi calligraphy used mostly to decorate buildings.
Other proposals include Dawud Chalabis invitation to use separated letters in Iraq in 1885, a book published using separated letters in London in 1890 by the Ambassador of Iran to England, and Ibrahim al Yaziji and Kamel Marwas work on simplifying letter shapes. Albashir Bin Salamah presented a proposal in his book Arabic Language and Writing Problems in 1971, Afif Bahnasi presented another proposal in his book Arabic Calligraphy: its Origins, Rise, and Spread in 1984, still another proposal was made in a book titled Arabic Calligraphy.
Other work related to simplification of Arabic script include:
A proposal to use the Latin script by the Lebanese Sa'eed Aql in his book Yara published in Beirut in 1961. He published his book "Al-Khumasiyyat" using his proposal, Qadmus Publishing, Beirut, 1978.
A proposal to write vowels as letters included always in written text by Abdul Almajeed Al-Taji Al-Farouki published in his book "Tatawuru dabti al-kitabati al-Arabiyati" (The Evolution of Regulating Arabic Writing), Newcastle upon Tyne, England, 1962. The same author published another book on the same proposal in 1959 mentioned in Sabri book below.
A proposal to use Latin script by Uthman Sabri published in his book "Nahwa Abjadiyaten Jadida" (Towards a New Alphabet), 1964.
Proceedings of 8th conference for Standards in the Middle East, Cairo 1/30/1961. Reference from Zain al Din, Naji: Badaii al-Khatt al-Arabi (The Beauties of Arabic Calligraphy), Baghdad 1971.
Final report on the experiment to simplify Arabic writing by The Arab League Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization published in October, 1978 in Cairo.
"The Mutamathil Script" a proposal by Saad Abulhab for symmetrical Arabic letters that can be typed from right to left of left to right.1998. http://arabetics.com/mutamathil/
Although the list above may give the impression that Arabic typography indeed needs reform, the fact that most of the proposals above did not meet with users' acceptance for the past seventy years clearly indicates that none produced a better way of writing than the system already in place. Some simplification of the script is adapted in various modern printing and computer fonts, however, much of the arguments about the technical difficulties of typesetting Arabic are now irrelevant due to the developments in contemporary type technology including the adaptation of OpenType standards. Most of the above proposals are reviewed and critiqued by Imil Ya'qub in his excellent book: "Al-khatt al-Arabi: nash'atuhu, tatawuruhu, mushkilatutu, da'awat islahihi" (Arabic Script: Origin, Development, Problems, and Solutions), Jarus Press, Tripoli, Lebanon, 1986.
For relevant articles please see:
Modern Arabic Typography: Challenges and Opportunities
OpenType for Fine Arabic Typography
| Bibliography |
| Arabic Calligraphy |
Dr. Mamoun Sakkal is a calligrapher and type designer. He lived and worked in Aleppo, Syria, and now resides in the State of Washington, USA. He taught courses on Islamic art and architecture at the University of Washington.
SAKKAL DESIGN 1523 175th Place SE, Bothell, WA 98012,USA Updated 10/23/2008
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Hypotonia is a state of reduced muscle tone, usually related to the skeletal muscles. Hypotonia ranges from mild to severe in people who have Down syndrome, although muscles tend to strengthen with age.
Young children with Down syndrome often have hypotonia throughout their bodies.
Babies with Down syndrome often have delays in reaching physical developmental milestones, such as rolling over, sitting up, crawling, or walking. Constipation may also frequently occur, caused by weak intestinal muscles that move stools more slowly through the digestive tract.
Last Revised: March 29, 2012
Author: Healthwise Staff
Medical Review: Susan C. Kim, MD - Pediatrics & Louis Pellegrino, MD - Developmental Pediatrics
To learn more visit Healthwise.org
© 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
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The " Generale Verenigde Geoktrooijeerde Nedelandse Oos - Indiese Compagnie " later called the " V O C " ( Verenigde Oos-Indiese Compagnie ) was formed in Amsterdam in 1602. It was managed by 17 directors known as Here XVII. Their achieved aim was the gain of political, cultural and economic influence in the Indian Ocean Areas from the Cape to Japan. They were very successful and gathered enormous riches.
During 1651, the VOC decided to start an outpost at the Kaap de Goeie Hoop resulting in Jan van Riebeeck arriving at Table Bay on 6 April 1652, with his three sail ships - Dromedaris, de Rijger and de Goede Hoop . The outpost was successful and they became aware of the mineral riches of AFRICA and subsequently decided to extend their domain.
On 25 July 1719, a decision was made in Amsterdam to take occupation of Delagoa Bay. Two ships the Gouda and Zeelandia were sent of and arrived at the now Maputo bay on 21 March 1721, loaded with whatever they thought that may be required for establishing a base at Monomotapa for the treasure trade, of gold and ivory.
A suitable site was selected and the building of a earth and wood fort commenced. Fort de Lagoa later renamed to Fort Lijdzaamheid was completed within a few months, in the meantime treaties were agreed upon and signed with the local native leaders.
With the fort completed, the gardens flourishing, the plans for an inland expedition started taking shape.
The first group to move inland was under the leadership of Sergeant J.C. Steffler and 19 other soldiers. They moved to the Lebombo Mountains bordering Swaziland. While crossing, the group was attacked by a Swazi Impi and in the skirmish Steffler and another NCO were killed. The survivors withdrew to Fort de Lagoa.
The de Cuiper Expedition - Part 1
Jan van de Capelle was appointed Comander of the Fort de Lagoa base in 1725, being ambitious and very patriotic he made plans for an expedition into the interior which was put to the Here XVII, to investigate the mineral riches of Monomotapa.
The proposal was accepted and preparations commenced, 31 men were selected, the expedition under comand of Frans de Cuiper, set off on 27 June 1725. The supplies packed onto oxen. Eight natives who would act as interpreters also joined the group.
They moved in a northwesterly direction along the Matola River, through the sandy hot East African soil. after about four days, they reached the Inkomati River at Moamba. The expedition reached the now Rezano Garcia on 4 July 1725 where camp was pitched.
A small group was sent out on 5 July 1725 - the first Europeans to enter the Transvaal, to make contact with of the local native chiefs .
The expedition struck camp and set off on 6 July 1725, the Inkomati was crossed the same day. They soon realised that they were not welcome. They tried to get a local guide, but were not successful as Chief Coupanne had given strict instructions that no assistance may be rendered.
On 9 July the expedition arrived at a big kraal consisting of about 100 huts. After long negotiations with Chief Sweni, the latter appointed a guide to accompany the expedition. A second was recruited from the kraal of Alari Motsari ( chief Coupanne's father ) on the Moetji River, a branch of the Monganje ( now Crocodile ) River south of Komati Poort.
The expedition crossed the Monganje River on 10 July 1725 about 3 km east of the now Crocodile Bridge Rest Camp in the KRUGER NATIONAL PARK - the first Europeans to put foot to the now KRUGER NATIONAL PARK. Here on the northern banks the expedition met Chief Pande.
Very soon an Impi of about five hundred warriors, shouting war cries and drumming on their shields, surrounded the little group, claiming that the guides be relieved of their duties. De Cuiper realised that trouble was brooding and agreed that the guides could return, the Impi then dispersed.
The expedition then set off, soon a native approached them, offering to guide them to the kraal of Chief Dawano on the banks of the Vurhami River.
They camped and rested on 11 July, here one of their oxen died of a mysterious disease. They questioned the locals about the route to Ciremandelle ( Phalaborwa ) and Thowelle ( Zimbabwe ), everyone questioned, had a different story and it was then realised that they either did not know or were deliberately trying to mislead them.
That evening an old man came to the encampment and informed de Cuiper that he knew the two routes and explained that a day's trek would bring them to the Sabe ( River of Fear ) River, a further day would bring them to the kraal of Massawane, a further day to Matonie and a further two days to Ciramandelle where there was no gold but plenty of copper to exchange. There was plenty of gold, copper and ivory for exchange at Simangale in the Thowelle Area.
He explained that Thowele was about eight days of hard trekking from the kraal of Dawano and that many traders came up the Great Zambezi River, to barter the riches in the land of Tsouke.
Of the Rivers mentioned were the Sabe, Matintonde ( Nwasintsontso - river that flows into the sand ), Matiwati ( Timbavati - Bitter water ), Moutomme ( Ntomene - Jackalberry), Imbaloele ( Balule - faraway river, now the Olifants ) .
Frans de Kuiper now realised that they were not sufficiently equiped for an expedition to either Ciremandelle or Thowelle.
Suddenly on 12 July the group was surrounded by an aggressive mass of shouting, horn blowing natives, from Chief Dawano, comand was given to form a battle formation and defend themselves. The Impi attacked with their assegais, during the initial onslaught, two of de Cuiper's men were wounded, while six of the Impi were killed and ten wounded. All their cattle had been killed. The expedition realised that they had better retreat, they were followed up to sunset while many more of the Impi were shot and killed. De Cuiper ordered that they were to retreat untill they had crossed the Lebombo Mountains. A commemorative plaque has been erected at Gomondwane on the site of this battle, and is still to be viewed.
The Following morning 13 July the troops were again confronted by an Impi threatening to kill them ,for moving through their land. In the ensueing battle a few more members of the Impi were wounded and killed. Eventually the troops reached and crossed the Inkomati River ( estimated at the now Incomati station in Mozambique ), while being followed by a threatening Impi.
I participate because I care - CUSTOS NATURAE
Convenor of the AIKONA Group.
No to Hotels in and commercialization of our National Parks.
Done 141 visits to National Parks.
What a wonderful privilege.
Last edited by gmlsmit on Thu Apr 16, 2009 5:12 pm, edited 3 times in total.
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THE HISTORY OF THE AREA
Before the Park’s inception.
Of the first black tribes to penetrate the northern Kalahari were the Kgalagadi who lived in comparative peace with the San. They were eventually out but the name gave the area was to remain. (Kalahari is derived from the Kgalagadi work Makgadikgadi, meaning saltpans or the great thirstland). The first white people entering the area came to trade with the Kalahari people, usually paying for their goods with livestock.
In 1891, the Park area as well as the area to the southwest presently known as The Mier, was annexed to British Bechuanaland. Approximately ten years later, just across the border, the Hottentots rebelled against the German colonial rule in South West Africa (Present-day Namibia). Although well inside British territory, German troops had set up a station at Groot Kolk to transmit messages to South West Africa. An enormous camel thorn tree served as an ideal lookout post but despite the Hottentots, under leader Captain Dirk Filander, attacked at daybreak killing the Germans as they rose from their beds. Unfortunately, the tree, still bearing horseshoes, which the Germans nailed to the trunk as a ladder, burnt down in a large veldfire in 1976. After World War 1 was over, Scottish born Rodger “Malkop” Jackson surveyed the region and a theoretical subdivision was made into farms of 10 200 and 12 800 hectares. Jackson named many of the farms after landmarks in homeland Scotland, most of which are still in use today as boreholes in the Park. Several white farmers settled as borehole caretakers along the Auob River and they stayed rent-free as long as the boreholes were kept in good repair.
Additional farms were allocated to more white farmers along the Auob and along the Nossob River. However, this is a harsh environment and neither these farmers nor their coloured counterparts, to whom the land was eventually given, could make a comfortable living. If not for the tsama melons, an essential plant in this semi-arid ecosystem, which in dry times are the principle source of water, many would not have survived. Under very dry conditions, even the tsamas disappear and only animals that are well adapted to the harsh conditions survive.
They therefore took to hunting and they, and biltong hunters from further a field, gradually denuded the game.
Only in the more remote reaches of the upper Nossob River was the balance of nature maintained, for here the San lived in harmony with animals and plants.
If this remarkable eco-system was to survive a conservation plan of action had to come into play……
A short history of the Park
A short history would give some perspective on the sequence of events that relate to the history of the farms. It is necessary to briefly underline the historic events and dates leading up to the proclamation of the park (in 1931) and the events that happened after the Park’s proclamation. These events had bearing on time frames and may suggest the origins of the structures along the Auob River, artefacts and ruins in the Park.
Before White settlements, or exploitation, of the Area now included in the Park, the land was part of the San people’s domain for hunting and gathering food. During the 19th century, explorers discovered that the riverbeds of the Auob and Nossob were easier to follow by wagon, than trying to cross the sand dunes. For years, no government claimed the land and the San were the only people residing here. One of the last and oldest sources on the times relating to that era is Regopstaan Kruiper who died in 1996 at the age of 96. Eventually the land became attached to the Cape Colony. The government, from 1897, began to survey the land and subdividing it into farms for White settlers.
In 1904, the authorities in German South West Africa (Namibia) sent soldiers to blockade the water holes in the Nossob and force Khoikhoi rebels into submission. Unfortunately for them, at Grootkolk, an entire German patrol was slaughtered. The White settlers were slow to take advantage of the newly surveyed farms and the Cape Government decided to give them to Coloured (“Basters”) farmers instead. The farms had names like KoKo, Kameelsleep, Kaspers Draai en Kwang.
In 1884, the Germans occupied South West Africa and it was during these years that Stoffel (Christoffel) le Riche first ventured into the Kalahari. In 1899, he and his wife Martie moved from Rietfontein, just south of the existing Park. In 1899 there first son Johannes and in 1904 their second son Joseph (Later known as Joep) was born.
With the outbreak of World War 1 in 1914, the (Union of) South Africa (n) Government drilled a series of boreholes along the Auob to provide their troops with water in case South Africa wanted to use corridor to invade South West Africa. Guards were recruited mainly from the local community and hired to protect and maintain the boreholes. They were permitted to settle next to the holes with their families and livestock. It was expected that they would live of the veld (with dire consequences to the environment). Because of lack of firewood and appropriate clay
To make bricks they erected timber frame structures as dwellings and stock shelters. Dwellings that are more permanent were erected with the locally abundant calcrete stone. None of the timber frame shelters were recorded and nothing remained. The only evidence of these times are the calcrete walls of circular cattle kraals, the foundations of square and rectangular huts and some larger multi roomed dwellings.
This corridor was never used to invade South West Africa and the borehole guards stayed on, largely forgotten by the authorities. Instead, the Government appointed a Scottish land surveyor Rodger “Malkop” Duke Jackson to survey the area and divide it into farms. About this time, six farms were purchased by the South African Government, but were not occupied before the Government decided that Coloured people should rather settle the region. The British Government, then already in control of Bechuanaland, had already settled Coulred people on the east bank of the Nossob between Rooiputs and its confluence with the Auob River (the ruins of an old dwelling is still located at Rooiputs).
Biltong hunters penetrated the area and by the late 1920s, several species were in danger of becoming extinct. Two conservationists invited the then Minister of Lands, Piet Grobler to inspect the region. Grobler piloted the National Parks Act through parliament and played a major role in the proclamation of Kruger National Park in 1926. By 1931, Piet Grobler had decided to proclaim the area between the Nossob River and the Auob River and the SWA Border a national park. Land was purchased south of the Park to resettle “Coloured” people and the borehole structures were abandoned. All but a few farms that had been sold by the Government were brought back and the Park was finally proclaimed in 1931.
Johannes le Riche (the son of a local trader Christoffel, Francois, Albertyn Le Riche), the first warden of the Park (and his family), settled at Gemsbok Plain (later referred to as Gemsbok plein) in a house, which had been abandoned by a borehole guard. From this point, onwards Le Riche and his assistant Gert Januarie became involved in the protection of wildlife in the area. For three years, they patrolled the Park on horseback. In 1934, the park experienced an exceptional rainy season and both the Nossob and Auob came down in flood. This was followed by an epidemic of malaria and both Le Riche and Januarie died of this illness. A few days later after their death Le Riche’s brother Joep was appointed ranger in his place.
In 1935, a row of farms along the southern bank of the Auob River was purchased by the Union Government to ensure that both banks of the river would have national conservation protection. Twee Rivieren was also bought to include the confluence of the rivers into the Park. The resulting jagged boundary was straightened through “give-and-take” between the Government and neighbouring farmers.
In 1935, a corrugated iron house was built for the Warden at Samevloeiing and shortly afterwards a brick house built at Twee Rivieren. Joep le Riche who was supposed to be appointed temporarily eventually stayed in the post for 36 years. He and his assistant Gert Mouton re-commissioned the old boreholes in the riverbeds in order to “persuade” the animals to remain in the Park instead of leaving the unfenced boundaries where they were poached and killed.
In 1938 the British Government proclaimed a new game reserve across the Nossob in what is today Botswana. Joep le Riche was put in charge. During World War 11
Poachers were short of bullets and game numbers increased dramatically. After the War, game fences were erected along the Park’s western and southern boundaries. The eastern boundary remained unfenced leaving this border open to animals that needed to migrate from east to west. From the 1950s, more emphasis was put in 1940 near the confluence of the Nossob and Auob.
The Botswana Gemsbok National Park was proclaimed in 1938 by what was then called Bechuanaland. Mabuasehube Game Reserve was added in 1971 and was incorporated into Gembok National Park in 1992.
Head: Field Guiding
Kgalagadi Transfrontier [email protected]
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May 24, 2004 PROVIDENCE, R.I. -- Male bullfrogs communicate with other bullfrogs through calls made up of a series of croaks, some of which contain stutters, according to a new Brown University study which describes a pattern not previously identified in scientific literature.
Researchers recorded 2,536 calls from 32 male bullfrogs in natural chorus and analyzed the number of croaks in each call and the number of stutters in each croak. It is known that the male bullfrog's call attracts females for mating, maintains territorial boundaries with other males, and indicates that the frog is healthy and aggressive.
"Some animals have evolved large, complex vocabularies to communicate, while others say a lot with very limited numbers of calls," said Andrea Simmons, professor of psychology, who presented the findings at 75th meeting of the Acoustical Society of America Monday, May 24, 2004. "A fundamental question in the study of communication by sound is 'how much information can a sender convey in a single sound'?"
Within a single vocalization, the frogs exhibited a pattern of croaks with and without stutters that appeared to have a communication function and did not simply represent that a male was getting tired, Simmons said.
An acoustic analysis showed the stutters followed certain rules: 100 percent of the recorded calls began with a croak containing no stutters; when the frogs started stuttering they generally did so within a croak that contained one stutter only; when they increased or decreased stutters from croak-to-croak, they did so by only a single stutter.
Stuttering did not occur because a frog was "running out of breath," said the researchers. If that were the case, a less structured pattern of stutters would occur. More likely, the frog inserted stutters in the call to extend the length of his individual calls while reducing the amount of air exchange needed, similar to what occurs when opera singers insert vibrato in extended notes.
To determine how the frog's calls were perceived, researchers played pre-recorded stuttering and non-stuttering calls through a loudspeaker to individual males. The frogs appeared to use non-stuttered calls for aggressive or territorial purposes. Males produced the stuttered calls more frequently at certain points during the breeding season, indicating the stuttering may be involved in attracting a mate.
Simmons conducted the study with Dianne Suggs, a graduating senior in psychology, who used it as the basis of her undergraduate honors thesis. Suggs was supported by a grant through the Undergraduate Teaching and Research Assistantship (UTRA) program. Simmons' laboratory is supported by a research grant from the National Institutes of Health.
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Jan. 31, 2008 Drugs derived from cinchona bark, known as cinchona alkaloids, have been used in healing from ancient times. The most prominent representative of this group is quinine, a bitter substance contained in beverages such as tonic water and used in modern medicine to combat malaria. As early as 1945, Robert Burns Woodward and William von Eggers Doering (Harvard University) described how to synthesize quinine in the laboratory.
The last step of this “formal” total synthesis, a three-step reaction procedure previously described by Paul Rabe and Karl Kindler in 1918, has continued to be the subject of much controversy to this day. Aaron C. Smith and Robert M. Williams at Colorado State University (USA) have now successfully reproduced the Rabe–Kindler protocol. As described in an Angewandte Chemie article dedicated to Doering on his 90th birthday, they repeated the entire procedure without employing any modern methods.
Had they done it or not? That has been the question for decades. Woodward and Doering published the synthesis of d-quinotoxine in 1944. Based on the conversion of d-quinotoxine into quinine described by Rabe and Kindler in 1918, they claimed to have derived the total synthesis of quinine, though they had not actually completed this last step themselves before publishing. Their “formal” total synthesis was strongly challenged and was even dismissed as a “myth” by Gilbert Stork (Columbia University) in 2001.
“Quinine and the cinchona bark alkaloids play an important role in modern medicine. It is thus amazing that no attempts to reproduce the Rabe–Kindler conversion of quinotoxine into quinine have been published,” marvels Williams. Smith and Williams reviewed the old publications, researched further references, and set themselves the task of repeating the procedure outlined by Rabe and Kindler—and with techniques available at the time. Initially, the yield of quinine they obtained was far too low.
The key turned out to be the aluminum powder used as a reducing agent in the last step. It must not be too fresh, instead it must be exposed to air for a while first to produce a small amount of aluminum oxide. This results in yields of quinine in agreement with those in the old publications.
“Analytically pure quinine can be isolated from this reaction by the selective crystallization of the corresponding tartrate salt, just as described by Rabe in 1939,” says Williams. “We have thus corroborated Rabe and Kindler’s 1918 publication. Woodward and Doering could theoretically also have followed this procedure in 1944.”
Journal article: Rabe Rest in Peace: Confirmation of the Rabe-Kindler Conversion of d-Quinotoxine to Quinine: Experimental Affirmation of the Woodward-Doering Formal Total Synthesis of Quinine. Angewandte Chemie International Edition , doi: 10.1002/anie.200705421
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Antimatter came about as a solution to the fact that the equation describing a free particle in motion (the relativistic relation between energy, momentum and mass) has not only positive energy solutions, but negative ones as well! If this were true, nothing would stop a particle from falling down to infinite negative energy states, emitting an infinite amount of energy in the process--something which does not happen. In 1928, Paul Dirac postulated the existence of positively charged electrons. The result was an equation describing both matter and antimatter in terms of quantum fields. This work was a truly historic triumph, because it was experimentally confirmed and it inaugurated a new way of thinking about particles and fields.
In 1932, Carl Anderson discovered the positron while measuring cosmic rays in a Wilson chamber experiment. In 1955 at the Berkeley Bevatron, Emilio Segre, Owen Chamberlain, Clyde Wiegand and Thomas Ypsilantis discovered the antiproton. And in 1995 at CERN, scientists synthesized anti-hydrogen atoms for the first time.
When a particle and its anti-particle collide, they annihilate into energy, which is carried by "force messenger" particles that can subsequently decay into other particles. For example, when a proton and anti-proton annihilate at high energies, a top-anti-top quark pair can be created!
An intriguing puzzle arises when we consider that the laws of physics treat matter and antimatter almost symmetrically. Why then don't we have encounters with anti-people made of anti-atoms? Why is it that the stars, dust and everything else we observe is made of matter? If the cosmos began with equal amounts of matter and antimatter, where is the antimatter?
Experimentally, the absence of annihilation radiation from the Virgo cluster shows that little antimatter can be found within ~20 Megaparsecs (Mpc), the typical size of galactic clusters. Even so, a rich program of searches for antimatter in cosmic radiation exists. Among others, results form the High-Energy Antimatter Telescope, a balloon cosmic ray experiment, as well as those from 100 hours worth of data from the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer aboard NASA's Space Shuttle, support the matter dominance in our Universe. Results from NASA's orbiting Compton Gamma Ray Observatory , however, are uncovering what might be clouds and fountains of antimatter in the Galactic Center.
We stated that there is an approximate symmetry between matter and antimatter. The small asymmetry is thought to be at least partly responsible for the fact that matter outlives antimatter in our universe. Recently both the NA48 experiment at CERN and the KTeV experiment at Fermilab have directly measured this asymmetry with enough precision to establish it. And a number of experiments, including the BaBar experiment at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center and Belle at KEK in Japan, will confront the same question in different particle systems.
Antimatter at lower energies is used in Positron Emission Tomography (see this PET image of the brain).
But antimatter has captured public interest mainly as fuel for the fictional starship Enterprise on Star Trek.
In fact, NASA is paying attention to antimatter as a possible fuel for interstellar propulsion. At Penn State
University, the Antimatter Space Propulsion group is addressing the challenge of using antimatter
annihilation as source of energy for propulsion. See you on Mars?
Answer originally posted October 18, 1999
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- Nostalgia, a sentimental yearning for the past, consists of particularly intense, complex and vivid memories.
- Although nostalgia was once considered an unhealthy preoccupation, new research reveals that it improves people’s moods and is a sign of emotional well-being.
- Nostalgia can promote a sense of social integration in people who are sad or feel alone.
Do you have wistful memories of the cookies that came from your grandmother’s oven? Do you enjoy recalling the jokes and pranks that you and your school friends used to find hilarious? On a restless night, does the whoosh of a train on a long-ago journey linger in your mind? If your recollections sometimes evoke a sentimental yearning for the past, then you know what it means to experience nostalgia.
You are in good company, too. In a 2006 study conducted at the University of Southampton in England, 79 percent of the 172 students surveyed said that they have nostalgic thoughts at least once a week; 16 percent reported having such moments every day. Nostalgia is not limited to any culture, stage of life or state of mental health. Our Southampton team has found the emotion in healthy adults and children, as well as patients suffering from dementia.
This article was originally published with the title Yearning for Yesterday.
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Exceptional Beginner Chemistry Set
Can you make dazzling colors in flame tests? Create your own mini fire extinguisher? With these hands-on lab sets, you will perform highly rewarding experiments while building a strong foundation in chemistry. The 80-page, full-color experiment manual guides aspiring young chemists through each of the 125 experiments. Kit includes safety glasses, professional-quality equipment and enough chemicals for repeated experiments. Uses a 9-volt battery (not included).
Learn about indicators with litmus solution and write a secret message in invisible ink. Test the inks from your colored markers on the chromatography racetrack to reveal their different color components. Experiment with air pressure, surface tension, and the physical properties of fluids.
Experiment with two well-known metals, iron and copper. Investigate carbon dioxide. Dissolve metals with electrochemical reactions. Explore water and its elements, saturated and unsaturated solutions, and crystals. Split water into hydrogen and oxygen with electrolysis, and form oxygen from hydrogen peroxide.
Experiment with soaps, detergents, and emulsions of water and oil. Investigate chemistry in the kitchen by experimenting with sugar, honey, starch, eggs and proteins, fatty acids, and calcium.
Begin to build a strong foundation in chemistry with exposure to a broad range of chemical phenomena and hands-on laboratory experiences. This kit provides clear instructions for preparing and performing the experiments, offers safety advice, offers explanations for the observed occurrences, and asks and answers questions about the results.
Ages 10 and up.
- Protective goggles
- Two dropper pipettes
- Clip for 9-volt battery
- Safety cap with dropper insert for litmus bottle
- Copper wire
- Two large graduated beakers
- Two lids for large graduated beakers
- Four test tubes
- Test tube brush
- Rubber stopper with hole
- Rubber stopper without hole
- Sodium carbonate
- Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II)
- Calcium hydroxide
- Ammonium iron(III) sulfate
- Copper(II) sulfate
- Citric acid
- Litmus powder
- Small bottle for litmus solution
- Lid opener
- Double-headed measuring spoon
- Angled tube
- Experiment station (part of the polystyrene insert)
WARNING! — This set contains chemicals that may be harmful if misused. Read cautions on individual containers carefully. Not to be used by children except under adult supervision.
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Also known as: Chest PET scan, Lung nuclear medicine scan, Lung positron emission tomography, PET - chest, PET - lung or PET - tumor imaging
- To diagnose lung cancer
- To see if lung cancer has spread to other areas of the body. This is called staging. Staging helps guide future treatment and follow-up and gives you some idea of what to expect in the future.
- To determine whether a growth in the lungs seen on a CT scan is cancerous or noncancerous.
- To determine how well you're responding to cancer treatment.
A lung positron emission tomography (PET) scan is an imaging test that uses a radioactive substance (called a tracer) to look for disease in the lungs, especially lung cancer.
How the test is performed
The health care provider will inject a small amount of a radioactive material into one of your veins, usually on the inside of the elbow. The substance travels through the blood and collects in the tissues of the lungs.
You will be asked to wait nearby as the radioactive substance is absorbed by your body. This usually takes about 1 hour.
Then, you will lie down on a table that slides into a tunnel-shaped hole in the center of the PET scanner.
The PET machine detects energy given off by the radioactive substance and changes it into 3-dimensional pictures. The images are sent to a computer, where they are displayed on a monitor for the health care provider to read.
You must lie still during the PET scan so that the machine can produce clear images of your lungs.
The test takes about 90 minutes.
How to prepare for the test
You must sign a consent form before having this test. You will be told not to eat anything for 4 - 6 hours before the PET scan, although you will be able to drink water.
Tell your doctor if you are pregnant or think you might be pregnant.
Also tell your doctor about any prescription and over-the-counter medicines that you are taking, because they may interfere with the test.
Be sure to mention if you have any allergies, or if you’ve had any recent imaging studies using injected dye (contrast). Tell the PET center if you have diabetes and are taking insulin.
During the test, you may need to wear a hospital gown. Take off any jewelry, dentures, and other metal objects because they could affect the scan results.
How the test will feel
You will feel a sharp prick when the needle with the radioactive substance is inserted into your vein. You shouldn’t feel anything during the actual PET scan.
Why the test is performed
Your doctor may order this test:
There are no problems detected in the size, shape, or function of the lungs. There are no areas in which the radiotracer has abnormally collected.
What abnormal results mean
Abnormal results may be due to:
What the risks are
The amount of radiation used in a PET scan is low. It is about the same amount of radiation as in most CT scans. Also, the radiation doesn’t last for very long in your body.
However, women who are pregnant or are breastfeeding should let their doctor know before having this test. Infants and fetuses are more sensitive to the effects of radiation because their organs are still growing.
It is possible, although very unlikely, to have an allergic reaction to the radioactive tracer. Some people have pain, redness, or swelling at the injection site.
It is possible to have false results on a PET scan. Blood sugar or insulin levels may affect the test results in people with diabetes.
Most PET scans are now performed along with a CT scan. This combination scan is called a PET/CT.
Other tests that may be done instead of a PET scan include a gallium scan, CT scan, or MRI scan.
Silvestri GA, Jett J. Bronchogenic carcinoma. In: Mason RJ, Murray JF, Broaddus VC, Nadel JA. Murray and Nadel’s Textbook of Respiratory Medicine. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa:Saunders Elsevier; 2005:chap 44.
Gould MK, Fletcher J, Iannettoni MD, Lynch WR, Midthun DE, Naidich DP, Ost DE. Evaluation of patients with pulmonary nodules: When is it lung cancer? ACCP Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (2nd Edition). Chest. 2007;132:208S-130S.
Wahl RL. Imaging. In: Abeloff MD, Armitage JO, Niederhuber JE, Kastan MB, McKenna WG, eds. Abeloff's Clinical Oncology. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier Churchill Livingston;2008:chap 21.
Kieninger AN, Welsh R, Bendick PJ, Zelenock G, Chmielewski GW. Positron-emission tomography as a prognostic tool for early-stage lung cancer. Am J Surgery. 2006;191:433-436.
- Review date:
- March 24, 2009
- Reviewed by:
- Benjamin Taragin, MD, Department of Radiology, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.
The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997- 2008 A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
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Henri MatisseFrench (Le Cateau-Cambrésis, France, 1869 - 1954, Nice, France)
Along with Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse was one of the pillars of the Parisian avant-garde, whose formal innovations in painting would dominate much of modern art. Matisse initially worked in law, but discovered a passion for art when he began painting as an amateur. He went on to study traditional academic painting. In the early years of the twentieth century, however, he rejected the idea that painting had to imitate the appearance of nature. His characteristic innovations were the use of vibrant, arbitrary colors; bold, autonomous brushstrokes; and a flattening of spatial depth. This anti-naturalistic style inspired the critical name "fauves," or "wild beasts," for the group of painters around Matisse.
Ironically, Matisse often applied his thoroughly modern style to traditional subjects such as still lifes, landscapes, and portraits. Such works express a sense of timeless joy and stillness that runs counter to the frenetic, technologically inspired compositions of many of his contemporaries. Although primarily dedicated to painting, Matisse was also active as a sculptor and printmaker. In the 1940s, in failing health, he embarked on a well-known group of cut-paper collages.
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New prenatal test may show inherited diseases
Blood sample from mother less invasive than current screening procedures
Doctors may soon be able to diagnose inherited diseases such as cystic fibrosis, thalassaemia and sickle cell anemia in fetuses by simply testing a blood sample taken from the mother.
Until now, prenatal diagnoses of such disorders have been possible only through invasive procedures like amniocentesis, which carry a risk of fetal miscarriage.
Amniocentesis is the extraction of a small amount of fluid from the sac surrounding a developing fetus.
But scientists in Hong Kong and Thailand may have found a way to diagnose in fetuses such "monogenic" diseases, which are caused by a single error in a single gene in the human DNA.
Such diseases can be diagnosed by a simple blood test (taken from the mother) ... and by counting the relative ratio of the mutant genes against the normal genes.
This is only possible because fetal DNA circulates in maternal blood, a discovery Lo and his colleagues made several years ago.
Many scientists have since been trying to find the best way to differentiate fetal DNA from maternal DNA, before they can even get down to looking for any anomalies in the fetal DNA. But these efforts have not met with much success.
In an article published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Lo and his colleagues said they had devised a counting system that could "bring non-invasive prenatal diagnosis of monogenic diseases closer to reality."
Using highly precise digital blood testing technology, both mutant and normal DNA sequences are counted in maternal plasma and that is then used to calculate the number of mutant genes inherited by the fetus and to determine the probability of the fetus developing any monogenic disease.
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It has been six years since the U.S. has had to worry about mad cow disease. With the recent confirmed case of the disease in a California bovine, the public is worried about food safety. Is there reason for concern?
Is our food safe?
Since 2006, the U.S. has had no positive tests for mad cow disease or bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). This new case, found in California’s Central Valley, marks only the fourth occurrence ever in the U.S., out of 40,000 tests each year. The infected cow, however, never entered the human food chain, meaning that there is no risk to beef and/or dairy products, nor is there a risk for other countries who import U.S. beef.
Read about Oprah’s connection to mad cow disease >>
"The beef and dairy in the American food supply is safe..."
No risk to humans
In an effort to quell the rising public concern, the USDA has issued a statement regarding the recent case of mad cow disease. In part, Tom Vilsack, U.S. Agriculture Secretary, said, "The beef and dairy in the American food supply is safe and USDA remains confident in the health of U.S. cattle… USDA has no reason to believe that any other U.S. animals are currently affected, but we will remain vigilant and committed to the safeguards in place."
Read more about selecting organic foods >>
To further ease our minds, John Clifford, the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s chief veterinarian, said that this particular cow died of an atypical form of mad cow disease which was caused by a random mutation and not from contaminated feed, meaning that it was a chance occurrence.
Learn more about the benefits of grass-fed beef >>
There was a time when mad cow disease was rampant, but in recent years, the numbers have dropped drastically. In 2011, only 29 cases were reported worldwide, compared to over 37,000 cases in 1992. Cattle ranchers are actually touting this recent discovery as proof that the system is working as it should.
Still in the mood for beef? Cook the perfect tenderloin >>
More food news
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Longstreet Highroad Guide to the North Georgia Mountains
The Chickamauga Valley lies between the Cumberland Plateau's Lookout Mountain to the west and the Armuchee Ridges to the east. Where it divides the "thumb" of Pigeon Mountain from Lookout Mountain is the famed McLemore Cove. The Chickamauga Valley forms a natural passageway between the high ridges on either side. Because it gives access to both Chattanooga and the Tennessee River and contains a few low ridges, it was the site of much movement and conflict during the Civil War.
The Chickamauga Valley is not just one valley but a series of northeast-southwest trending valleys with limestone floors and ridges some 200 to 300 feet high, capped with more weather-resistant rock. Down through these valleys and across the ridges between Chattanooga and Atlanta, Union army forces under General William Sherman pursued Confederate troops during the fighting which led to the Battle of Atlanta near the end of the Civil War. Visitors to the military parks at Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, and Orchard Knob, as well as other areas such as the lovely and serene McLemore Cove, will come away with a clearer understanding of how the natural geology of the region has helped shape recent human history.
From the Chickamauga Valley, especially GA 337, one can reach a variety of natural features lying at the base of the Pigeon Mountain escarpment. These include giant, dry, forest sinkholes; Blue Hole; and the entrances to the enchanting Dickson and McWhorter gulfs, deeply eroded into Pigeon Mountain's east wall.
[Fig. 5(13)] A postcard-pretty valley nestled in the V formed by Lookout Mountain and Pigeon Mountain, the McLemore Cove Historic District was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1994. The steep limestone and sandstone walls of the mountains form a dramatic backdrop for a scenic drive through the cove. The area is almost exclusively agricultural, with small dairy farms taking up most of the land. At the southwest end of the cove is a portion of the picturesque 11,500-acre Mountain Cove Farm. Red cedars which thrive on the limestone soil here are profuse throughout the cove, particularly along West Cove Road, as indicated by the names of the natural features and landmarks: Cedar Grove Creek, Cedar Grove community, and Cedar Grove Church and Cemetery. Perhaps nowhere else in Georgia are so many cedars concentrated in such a small area.
The cove, which was named for Robert and John McLemore, sons of a white trader and a Cherokee mother, is just south of Chickamauga Battlefield. One of the Civil War battles took place at Davis Crossroads.
Near Cedar Grove Methodist Church, a large number of Union soldiers spent the night of September 17, 1863, immediately prior to the historic Battle of Chickamauga. Another antebellum structure is the 130-year-old, plantation-plain style farmhouse where the Hise family has lived for generations. It is located .5 mile south of Mt. Hermon Church on Hog Jowl Road. Most of the other old houses and buildings in the cove are not antebellum but date from the 1890s, when the railroad was built through the northern part of the cove.
This park is comprised of four separate battlefield sitesChickamauga, Point Park, Orchard Knob, and Missionary Ridge. The park became the first of four military parks established by Congress between 1890 and 1899, the others being Shiloh, Gettysburg, and Vicksburg.
CHICKAMAUGA. [Fig. 5(7)] The Civil War battle of Chickamauga, in the northwest corner of Georgia, was the first of a series of decisive battles that culminated in the fall of Atlanta and brought the Civil War to a close. A Union force of about 58,000 men and a Confederate force of about 66,000 men clashed on the battlefield at Chickamauga September 1920, 1863. The result, after 34,000 casualties (3,969 dead), was that the Union army retreated north to Chattanooga, then a town of about 2,500 people, and the Southern forces occupied Missionary Ridge and Lookout Mountain, which bordered the town. Troops from 29 of the 33 states east of the Rockies engaged in the campaign; four states had troops on both sides.
The Chickamauga Battlefield visitor center has an excellent small museum containing artifacts related to the Civil War. It also houses the Fuller Gun Collection, which consists of 355 weapons dating from the Revolutionary War period through World War II. A 26-minute, multimedia show is presented daily. Books on Civil War history and four rental audiocassettes are available.
The major points of interest on the Chickamauga Battlefield, which when the battle was fought consisted of small fields, dense woods, and thick underbrush, can be reached by following a 7-mile driving tour. Monuments and markers along the road indicate the locations of units and batteries engaged in the battle.
Chickamauga contains remarkable natural environments. In the eastern portion is Georgia's best example of the remarkable cedar glades, where red cedars dominate an open forest community. The thin soil over a limestone outcrop supports rare and unique prairie plants, some found nowhere else in the state. There are late-summer displays of showy coneflowers and black-eyed susans. The only year-round stream, Cave Springs Creek, has rich aquatic fauna; large shell-bark hickories grow along it. Two quarry ponds lie just east of US 27 near its junction with Viniard Road. Several limesinks, or sagponds, occur. The most historic is Bloody Pond, near the southwestern corner of the park. The largest and most interesting limesink is just north of Alexander's Bridge over Chickamauga Creek in the southeast corner of the park. It contains huge, 36-inch-diameter willow oaks buttressed at the base. Staff is not available to assist in nature tours.
POINT PARK. [Fig. 5(3)] Point Park, although located in the Cumberland Plateau, is more conveniently discussed here, in the Chickamauga Valley section. After the Battle of Chickamauga, the Union army retreated to Chattanooga, and the Confederate army reformed battle lines around the city with the intention of starving and freezing the Union troops into submission. Point Park, strategically positioned on top of Lookout Mountain, was the location of one of those battle lines. The dominance of the location over the city below cannot be fully grasped until one stands on the edge of Point Park and looks down on Chattanooga.
A visit to this park is an opportunity to visualize the grand strategy of a major Civil War battle. During the Battle of Lookout Mountain, termed the "Battle Above the Clouds" because during the fighting a band of mist and fog hung around the middle of the mountain, the Union army drove the Confederates from their position and effectively gained control of the city.
Point Park is on the northeastern tip of Lookout Mountain. The welcome center contains a fine 13-foot-by-30-foot mural painted by James Walker, an eyewitness to the battle. A tape recording provides a narrative that describes the scene and effectively draws the visitor into the action. The small Ochs Museum in the park has an observation deck which affords a commanding view of the area.
ORCHARD KNOB. [Fig. 5(4)] This hill in front of Missionary Ridge was initially the forward position of the Confederate defense line. It was taken by Union forces, and from here General Ulysses Grant commanded the assault on Missionary Ridge. On November 25, 1863, six cannon shot from this hill signaled the beginning of the battle for the ridge. Visitors will find a half dozen state monuments and a number of cannon, but the real reason to visit Orchard Knob is the geographical perspective it gives to the fighting between Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge.
MISSIONARY RIDGE. [Fig. 5(5)] Missionary Ridge was occupied by the Confederate forces after the Battle of Chickamauga and was part of the battle line around Chattanooga. During the battle for the city, Union troops attacked and captured the ridge. Along the ridge are remarkable views of Orchard Knob, Chattanooga, and Lookout Mountain. Markers, plaques, and gun positions give details of troop positions and describe the action in which various units participated. The historical markers are dispersed among elegant houses.
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1. Definition of Reading
Many definitions of reading are explained by some specialist, some of them are complementary one another, but any others contradictory.
Reading is not simple mechanical skill: nor is it a narrow scholastic tool. Properly cultivated, it is essentially a thoughtful process. It should be developed as a complex organization of patterns of higher metal process. Reading also defines responding. The response may be at the surface level of “calling” the word. It may be the somewhat deeper level of understanding the explicit meaning of sentence, paragraph or passage. Another definition says, reading is the process of giving the significance intended by the writer to the graphic symbols by relating them to one’s own found of experience. Frank Smith in his Understanding Reading book defines that Reading is an act of communication in which information is transferred from a transmitter to a receiver.
According to Miles A. Tinker and Contance M. McCullough, Reading involves identification and recognition of printed or written symbols which serve as stimuli for the recall of meanings built up through past experience, and further the concentration of new meanings through the reader’s manipulation of relevant concepts already in his possession. Soedarsono explained, Reading is a complex activity that not gives a great amount of action separately. Daniel Hittleman in his Development Reading book, defines Reading is a verbal process interrelated with thinking and with all other communication abilities – listening, speaking, and writing.
Based on some definitions of reading by some specialists above, the writer concludes that reading is an activity to get information, increasing perception through written text and also interpreting and analyzing text.
2. Aspect of Reading
Some aspects of reading based on normal reading situation consist of three kinds. They are word recognition, comprehension and reflections.
a. Word recognition
The degree of excellence in reading is determined, to a large extent, by the ability to recognize and pronounce words. The core of view that reading is chiefly skill in recognizing words can be accurated by the form of the word itself. Decoding the printed page is one of examples of recognizing the oral equivalent of the written symbol.
Comprehension is one of competence that must be had by the readers. Reading just is not transferring the symbol printed from page to the brain but the readers have to comprehend the content of the reader’s read. Comprehension in reading becomes important because it makes the readers have meaningful in their reading. In other word, their reading is not useless.
There are three levels of reading comprehension. First: literal reading, second: Aesthetic reading, and third is Critical reading.
Literal reading is the ability to know all of the directions in the text and also understand exact words, meanings and characters. Aesthetic reading is the ability to appreciate what the reader’s read before. Critical reading consists of making factual distinction between common ideas, facts and opinion. This capability is needed for valid interpretation and analysis. It means that the readers able to analyze what the reader’s read after.
Many educators have pointed out that word recognition and comprehension does not g, reading more advantages for the readers when they apply what they read after. Globally, this aspect involves comprehension and word recognition.
Look, the process of reading necessary to be able to hold ideas they occur and to conceptualize meaningful interpretation through reflection. This process compares the written stimuli with the reader’s experiences.
From three aspects of reading above, the writer hopes to the readers that all of the readers who read any book are needed to know the aspects of reading. In order to make their reading more meaningful, of course by comprehend all of those aspects above.
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Parkinson's disease is one of the most common nervous system disorders affecting the elderly.
Parkinson's disease occurs when the nerve cells in the brain that make a checmical called dopamine are slowly destroyed. Dopamine helps control muscle movement. Without dopamine, the nerve cells in that part of the brain cannot properly send messages. This leads to the loss of muscle function. The damage gets worse with time. Exactly why these brain cells waste away is unknown.
Secondary parkinsonism may be caused by health problems, including:
There have been cases of secondary parkinsonism among IV drug users who injected a substance called MPTP, which can be produced when making a form of heroin. These cases are rare and have mostly affected long-term drug users.
The health care provider may be able to diagnose secondary parkinsonism after performing a physical exam and asking questions about your medical history and symptoms. However, the symptoms may be difficult to assess, particularly in the elderly.
Examination may show:
Difficulty starting or stopping voluntary movements
Increased muscle tone
Problems with posture
Slow, shuffling walk
Reflexes are usually normal.
Tests may be used to confirm or rule out other disorders that can cause similar symptoms.
If the condition is caused by a medication, your doctor may recommend changing or stopping the medicine. However, the benefits of the medication should be weighed against the severity of symptoms. Medications should be stopped or changed if the risks outweigh the benefits.
Treating underlying conditions such as stroke or infections can reduce symptoms.
If your symptoms make it hard to do everyday activities, your doctor may recommend medication. Many of the medications used to treat this condition can cause severe side effects. It is important that you see your doctor for check-ups. Secondary parkinsonism tends to be less responsive to medical therapy than Parkinson's disease. However, medications are worth trying if the cause of the condition is not treatable.
Discuss the situation with your health care provider if you are unable to care for the person at home (after treatment begins).
Treating conditions that cause secondary parkinsonism may decrease the risk.
People with conditions that require long-term use of antipsychotics should be carefully monitored to prevent the development of secondary parkinsonism. Newer antipsychotic medications are less likely to cause secondary parkinsonism.
Lang A. Parkinsonism. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D. Cecil Textbook of Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier;2007:chap 433.
Lang AE. When and how should treatment be started in Parkinson disease? Neurology. 2009;72(7 Suppl):S39-43.
Lewitt PA. Levodopa for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(23):2468-76.
Luc Jasmin, MD, PhD, Department of Neurosurgery at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, and Department of Anatomy at UCSF, San Francisco, CA. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.
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Vitamin D is sometimes referred to as the “sunshine vitamin.” That’s because the main source of this vitamin so necessary for good health comes from exposure to the sun. When sunlight hits the skin, vitamin D precursors present on the surface of the skin are activated and undergo further processing by the liver and kidney to create vitamin D in a form the body can use. There are two types of vitamin D. Vitamin D3 is the form of vitamin D synthesized from exposure to sunlight, while vitamin D2 is the kind in fortified foods and the type found in plants.
Unfortunately, most people don’t get enough vitamin D from sunlight or diet. Estimates are that up to 75% of the adult population has vitamin D levels that are too low for good health. Vitamin D deficiencies are common because there are few food sources of vitamin D with the exception of fatty fish like salmon, liver and egg yolks. Fortified milk, orange juice, yogurt and other products fortified with vitamin D are also good sources.
People who are older, those that consistently wear a sunscreen and those living at higher latitudes where the sun’s rays are weaker are at greater risk for vitamin D deficiency. In adults, vitamin D deficiency can cause muscle weakness and increase the risk of osteoporosis, some autoimmune disease, and some forms of cancer. It’s also important for calcium absorption by the intestines.
This creates a dilemma for some people. Is it better to jeopardize the health of their skin and increase the risk of skin cancer by exposing it to sunlight or risk not getting enough vitamin D, a vitamin that seems to reduce the risk of certain health problems including cancer? The American Academy of Dermatology takes the position that adults who wear sunscreen or avoid sun exposure should consider taking 1,000 I.U. of vitamin D daily. There’s also a blood test available to measure levels of vitamin D.
There are definite benefits to taking a vitamin D supplement for people who have low levels. Vitamin D is available in pill form. There are also topical forms of vitamin D, and some cosmetic and manufacturers of skincare and anti-aging products are adding topical vitamin D to their skin care products. Vitamin D has already shown benefits for treating certain kinds of skin problems including psoriasis.
Psoriasis is a skin disease characterized by chronic inflammation. Vitamin D causes a peptide molecule called cathelicidin to bind to DNA. This blocks the inflammatory response that is responsible for many of the symptoms of psoriasis. Rosacea is another skin disease that’s driven by inflammation, and vitamin D may play a role in controlling this skin problem as well. In addition, preliminary research suggests that it may be helpful for treating symptoms of eczema. Some studies in children show that eczema is more severe in children with low vitamin D levels and that supplementation with vitamin D helps.
It’s easy to see that vitamin D is important for overall health and for healthy skin, which is why it’s an ingredient in some skin care products including anti-aging products, facial moisturizers, facial scrubs, facial cleansers and eye creams. Vitamin D is also important for hair growth, and there’s some evidence that it may stimulate hair regrowth, although more research is needed.
Is vitamin D safe? Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin, so it can be toxic if high levels build up in the body. This is unlikely to happen unless a person is taking high supplemental doses of vitamin D. Vitamin D at levels found in skin care products are too low to cause toxicity. The Environmental Working Group Skin Deep Cosmetics Database classifies vitamin D as a low hazard cosmetic ingredient.
All in all, vitamin D is an important vitamin of which most people get too little. It’s critical for overall health, for disease prevention and is a requirement for healthy skin as well.
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Posted Sunday, Feb. 24, 2013, at 8:00 AM
Years ago, in 1999, some odd pictures were returned from The Mars Global Surveyor space probe orbiting the red planet. They showed what looked for all the world(s) like trees, banyan trees, dotting the Martian landscape. They made quite a splash on the internet, and you can see why; here’s a section of one of the pictures:
Image credit: NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems
No fooling, they really do look like trees. The usual pseudoscience website went nuts—well, more nuts—claiming they were life on Mars. More rational heads knew they were formed from some sort of natural non-biological process, but what?
Over time, more and better pictures were taken, and eventually the story became clear. Hints were found when these features were detected at extreme latitudes, and only in the spring. That meant they must be related to the change in seasons, specifically to the weather warming. That, plus some high-resolution images, made it possible to eventually figure out what they are.
Mars has a thin atmosphere that’s mostly carbon dioxide. In the winter at the poles it gets cold enough that this CO2 freezes out, becoming frost or snow on the Martian surface—what we on Earth call dry ice. It gets this name because when you warm it up, it doesn’t melt: It turns directly from a solid into a gas, a process called sublimation.
Image credit: Arizona State University/Ron Miller
In the Martian spring sunlight warms the ground, which warms the layers of dry ice. They sublimate slowly, and—here’s the cool part—from the bottom up. Dry ice is very white and reflective, so sunlight doesn’t warm it efficiently. The ground is darker, and absorbs the solar warmth. This tends to heat the pile of dry ice from the sides and underneath at the edges.
The newly released gaseous carbon dioxide needs somewhere to go. It might just leak away from the side, but some will find its way deeper into the dry ice pack, toward the center. If the gas finds a weak spot in the ice it’ll burst through, creating a hole. Other trickles of CO2 under the ice will flow that way as well, and eventually find that hole. What you get, then, is dry ice on the surface laden with cracks, converging on a single spot where the gas can then leak out into the Martian atmosphere like dry geysers. The plumes of CO2 will carry with them dust from the ground under the dry ice pack, depositing the darker dust on the brighter surface ice, discoloring it.
And when you look at them from above, you see what look like trees! After a while, the carbon dioxide frost sublimates away entirely, and all you’re left with are weird looking spidery channels in the ground, up to a couple of meters deep, created by erosion as the carbon dioxide gas wended its way under the dry ice pack. These are even called araneiform features, meaning spider-like. They also kinda look like the cell bodies of neurons. Unsettling. But probably a better situation than an infestation of giant alien tree spiders.
How cool is that? While reading about this, I found various other features that have a similar origin, created from carbon dioxide gas flow. One aspect really got to me, a simple but terrifically strange observation: In some of these features on Mars, the tracks get wider as they go uphill. That’s the opposite of what you’d expect from the flow of an actual liquid; channels created by, say, water on Earth get wider as they flow downhill. This means whatever formed those channels must be flowing uphill. So the culprit must be gas, not liquid.
That is so flippin’ weird! It’s bizarre enough that a major component of a planet’s air might freeze out at all, but then to have some it flow uphill in the spring, and also to create those creepy spidery things?
Mars is a damn odd place.
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Columbia Shuttle Disaster's Tough Lesson: Spaceflight Still Dangerous
Space shuttle Columbia launches on mission STS-107, January 16, 2003.
The tragic destruction of the space shuttle Columbia 10 years ago today (Feb. 1) taught NASA and the nation a tough lesson: Despite the strides that have been made over the years, human spaceflight remains a dangerous proposition.
Columbia broke apart upon re-entering Earth's atmosphere on Feb. 1, 2003, destroying the orbiter and killing all seven astronauts on board. The accident jolted NASA out of a complacency that had developed in the 17 years since the other major shuttle disaster, the 1986 disintegration of Challenger shortly after liftoff, experts say.
"We thought we were better than we were," Wayne Hale, who served as a flight director for 40 shuttle missions at NASA's Johnson Space Center in Houston before becoming manager of the shuttle program in 2005, said of the Columbia tragedy.
"We became overconfident," Hale told SPACE.com. "We thought we had a mature vehicle flying in a well-understood environment, and nothing could have been further from the truth than that." [Columbia Shuttle Disaster Explained (Infographic)]
A tragic anniversary
Columbia blasted off for the final time on Jan. 16, 2003, carrying more than 80 scientific experiments on a 16-day research mission known as STS-107.
Though Columbia roared into space successfully that day, it suffered a mortal wound during liftoff. A chunk of foam broke off the orbiter's external fuel tank and struck the leading edge of Columbia's left wing, punching a hole in the shuttle's protective heat shield.
When Columbia tried to come home on Feb. 1, 2003, hot atmospheric gases infiltrated the wing through this weak spot, causing the orbiter to break apart high over Texas.
All seven STS-107 astronauts — commander Rick Husband, pilot Willie McCool and mission specialists Michael Anderson, Kalpana Chawla, David Brown, Laurel Clark and Ilan Ramon, who was Israel's first spaceflyer — were lost.
The Columbia accident also led to the end of the space shuttle program, whose end was announced in 2004 and finally became official in July 2011.
NASA will honor the memories of the Columbia astronauts, as well as those killed in the agency's two other spaceflight disasters — the Challenger accident, which also claimed seven lives, and the 1967 Apollo fire, which killed three — today during a Day of Remembrance ceremony.
You can watch the NASA ceremony on SPACE.com here beginning at 10 a.m. EST (1500 GMT).
"NASA's Day of Remembrance honors members of the NASA family who lost their lives while furthering the cause of exploration and discovery," agency officials wrote in a statement. "Flags across the agency will be flown at half-staff in their memory."
A wake-up call
In the early days of the shuttle program, the vehicle's advocates claimed it would make human spaceflight routine, taking much of the risk and cost out of the endeavor.
The long run of success after the Challenger tragedy led some within NASA to buy into this notion, Hale said. But the Columbia accident once again drove home the dangers of spaceflight — the tremendous energies required to lift a vehicle into orbit, for example, and the inhospitable environment far from Earth's surface.
"Space exporation is a very difficult business," Hale said. "You cannot ever assume that you've got it down to a regular travel system like an airline or a bus or something. It's just that much more difficult and takes a great deal of attention to detail."
NASA, other national space agencies and private spaceflight companies are working hard to make spaceflight as safe as possible. But as with many activities — driving a car, for example — the dangers can only ever be minimized and managed, not eliminated.
"I think there always will be risk in going to space," Dustin Gohmert, NASA Crew Survival Engineering Team Lead at Johnson Space Center, told SPACE.com. "I think it's an inherently risky endeavor."
SPACE.com assistant managing editor Clara Moskowitz (@ClaraMoskowitz) contributed to this story. Follow SPACE.com senior writer Mike Wall on Twitter @michaeldwall or SPACE.com @Spacedotcom. We're also on Facebook and Google+.
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Census Finds Unknown Young Stars of Orion
Amateur stargazers may spot the Orion Nebula as a fuzzy patch in the constellation Orion, but they cannot see an interstellar birthing ground that spans the region of sky from above Orion's head to below his feet.
Now astronomers have completed the most wide-ranging census of baby stars in and around the Orion nebula, and found a stellar nursery that's both chaotic and crowded. The work represents the first complete study of young stars, their gaseous clouds of dust and supersonic jets of hydrogen molecules shooting out from the poles of each star.
Jets arise as young stars are born from a rotating cloud of gas and dust, but usually die out once a star has fully ignited and stopped consuming the surrounding material. In this case, the jets became signals that pinpointed the location of baby stars hidden within the stellar birthing grounds.
"With such a large number of young stars, we can study the 'demographics' of star birth," said Tom Megeath, an astronomer at the University of Toledo in Ohio. "This study will give us an idea of how long it takes baby stars to bulk up by pulling in gas from the surrounding cloud, what ultimately stops a star from growing bigger, and how a star's birth is influenced by other stars in the stellar nursery."
The Orion nebula represents just a blister on the surface of the much larger cloud. Astronomers turned to the United Kingdom Infra-Red Telescope (UKIRT) and the Spitzer Space Telescope to peer through the cloud using infrared vision, and also used the Institut de Radio Astronomie Millimetrique radio telescope in France to see beyond infrared at short radio wavelengths.
Such international collaboration allowed astronomers to match up powerful gas jets with their young star origins, and find the cradles within the clouds where stars were created.
"Each jet is travelling at tens or even hundreds of miles per second; the jets extend across many trillions of miles of interstellar space," said Chris Davis, an astronomer for UKIRT in Hawaii.
UKIRT's wide field camera alone found more than 110 individual jets from the one region of the Milky Way. The results were presented on April 20 at the European Week of Astronomy and Space Science at the University of Hertfordshire, UK.
- Top 10 Star Mysteries
- Video - When Stars Collide
- Vote - The Strangest Things in Space
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Tagged 5C's, grades 5-8, middle school, Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century
Dr. David McAlpine University of Arkansas at Little Rock
The students in my Methods of Teaching Second Language class don’t believe me when I tell them that my best Spanish teaching experience in forty years was in a middle school classroom! It’s true! Those of you just beginning your career in a middle school will soon learn this, and those of you who are middle school “lifers” already know that these youngsters in grades 5-8 respond to content that is connected to their everyday lives and to instruction that actively involves them in the learning process. Your middle school Spanish students may show higher competencies in the three modes of communication than many of their high school counterparts because of their openness to learning new concepts, their curiosity about themselves and others, and their unabashed willingness to be a part of real-life situations.
How can the Standards for Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century help create an engaging atmosphere for middle school students? Let’s look at the 5Cs and try to draw some classroom ideas from them.
Tagged Activities, Restaurant
Students can learn a lot about the different cultures around the Spanish-speaking world by visiting the restaurants in your community where Spanish is spoken. At the beginning of each school year, I challenged my students to find and visit these restaurants. Of course, I offered extra credit if the students brought in a receipt and wrote one paragraph essays detailing their experience, but my students were happy to learn about the culture, so they did it for their personal enjoyment and not the extra credit (at least that’s what I like to think).
Now that I look back at the extra credit I gave out, I realized the kids mostly went to Mexican restaurants. Yes, Mexican food is delicious and yes, it is a Spanish-speaking country, but we want our students to look beyond Mexico and gain some experiences from other Spanish-speaking countries. And we want to remind students that food is a great way to incorporate cultures from the Spanish-speaking world into our everyday lives.
So I think I’d like to issue another CHALLENGE:
Tagged Authentic Texts, Literary Texts, Modern Language Association
Dr. Emily Spinelli Executive Director, American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese. Professor Emerita of Spanish, University of Michigan-Dearborne
For many years the foreign language profession viewed the teaching of language and the teaching of literature as two very separate and distinct activities. At all educational levels the reading of literary texts was often seen as a task that only very advanced students could undertake. As a result, the early years of instruction were generally devoted to learning the language so that students could study literature in upper-level courses.
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- Wednesday, January 25, 2012, 6 p.m.
- Yampa Valley Medical Center, 1024 Central Park Drive, Steamboat Springs
Eating disorders are serious and complicated mental illnesses with significant and, at times, life-threatening physical and psychological consequences, regardless of the individual’s weight.
The spectrum of eating disorders includes anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder and eating disorders not otherwise specified.
Anorexia involves a distorted body image with a fear of and refusal to gain weight resulting in severe eating restrictions and dramatic weight loss.
In contrast, patients with bulimia may not lose weight but engage in frequent binge eating followed by attempts to get rid of the food through self-induced vomiting, laxatives, diuretics or exercise.
Anorexia nervosa carries the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disorder. In females ages 15 to 24, anorexia causes 12 times more deaths than all other causes.
Anorexia is considered to be the third most common chronic illness among adolescents. Although the majority of patients who come to medical attention for eating disorders are women and girls, eating disorders are equal-opportunity illnesses that affect females and males, adults, adolescents and children as well as people of all ethnicities, socioeconomic backgrounds, body shapes, sizes and weights.
The puzzle of why an eating disorder affects one individual over another is a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Research on the risk of developing anorexia suggests that 40 to 50 percent is genetic and 50 to 60 percent is psychosocial. In fact, anorexia nervosa is as inheritable as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
Eating disorders are mental illnesses not choices. Additionally, many individuals affected by eating disorders also are affected by a secondary psychiatric condition such as depression and anxiety.
While society and environment do not cause eating disorders, they may create an atmosphere that encourages development of a disorder.
In our obsession with perfection, we convey societal and familial messages about health, weight and priorities that stand in opposition to acknowledging one’s own values and nurturing intuitive eating, self-care and compassion for oneself and others.
Eating disorder patients often remark that their behaviors initially were triggered by a simple comment about their weight, what they ate or their level of activity.
Eating disorders are about feelings and not primarily about food.
The eating disorder provides a coping mechanism to maintain a sense of control in the face of anxiety, change or conflict. An individual who develops an eating disorder initially may choose to modify his/her relationship with food but eventually feels sustained and driven by the eating disorder as an entity in and of itself.
Recognizing the warning signs of an eating disorder is of tremendous importance as the affected individual does not typically seek help independently. In children or adolescents, a delay in attaining expected growth or development should be evaluated.
Dramatic weight loss, denying hunger/making excuses for skipping meals, preoccupation with weight/food/calories/fat, rigid food or exercise rituals, disappearance of large amounts of food in short periods of time, or frequent trips to the bathroom after meals should prompt concern from family members and friends.
Overcoming an eating disorder is a complicated task that begins with recognition. It requires the active involvement of the patient, family members, a medical doctor and/or psychiatrist, nutritionist and psychotherapist.
There are medical, nutrition and psychotherapy resources available in Steamboat Springs. With early detection, it is possible for a patient to recover without inpatient or residential therapy.
If you know someone who you are concerned may be suffering from an eating disorder, voice your concern as a personal worry for them and offer support in helping them to locate treatment. If they are children or adolescents outside of your family, share your concerns with their families.
The best indicator for successful and prolonged recovery from an eating disorder is early and comprehensive intervention.
Lisa Harner, M.D., is a board-certified family medicine physician at Yampa Valley Medical Associates.
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The first thing that made non-violence work was these men’s mentalities. To be involved in such a movement, one need’s to have a stable mindset. They had to be aware of the dangers that lied ahead of them. The supporters of their movement also had to possess strong mind-sets in not retaliating to the physical struggles they endured. In Gandhi’s autobiography, it states, “I explained to a group of several hundred Africans, Indians and coloreds, that volunteering (for the defiance of Unjust Laws campaign) was a difficult and even dangerous duty, as the authorities would seek to intimidate, imprison and perhaps attack the volunteers.” With so much fighting against them, they all believed in what they were fighting for. Even those in support of the movements of King, Gandhi and Mandela, were beginning to re-think the whole “nonviolent” aspect because they were getting fed up with the abuse they were experiencing. However, they were driven by their faith in God and continued to stand their ground and fight while leaving marks on people’s minds rather than their bodies.
The second thing that made non-violence work was their consistency. These men were consistent in their fight for equality, justice and freedom. One thing, amongst many, that they have in common, is the fact that they all spent time in prison at some point. However, their time spent in prison didn’t stop them from working to stop the unjust laws, they consistently went to... [continues]
Cite This Essay
(2012, 11). History. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 11, 2012, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/History-1255848.html
"History" StudyMode.com. 11 2012. 11 2012 <http://www.studymode.com/essays/History-1255848.html>.
"History." StudyMode.com. 11, 2012. Accessed 11, 2012. http://www.studymode.com/essays/History-1255848.html.
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The hay diet involves avoiding foods that so called 'fight' with each other,
it is a food combining type of diet, which means that you avoid eating certain
foods together because it is supposedly bad for your digestion. Protein is not
eaten with starch, they can both be eaten but at separate meal occasions.
Scientifically this is impossible to achieve since most starchy foods such
as bread and potatoes contain some protein anyway. The body is well adapted
to digest both proteins and starch, and the enzymes necessary to digest them
are secreted in response to the food being in the stomach.
The diet first gained credence as a method of weight loss since most dietary
restrictions usually mean consuming less calories than the body needs. It is
not better than any other diet that is low in calories, any weight loss should
only be achieved through a sensible diet. This diet should always be avoided
by anyone who has diabetes since carbohydrate should be spread evenly throughout
the day and not kept to one meal only.
Description of the Hay System
The Hay System is primarily a normalising system. To put it in its simplest
- 70% of the food intake should be fresh fruits and vegetables, as much as
possible in their raw state.
- The remaining 30% should be made up of proteins (Meats, fish, eggs, etc)
and starches (carbohydrates, e.g., pasta, bread, etc). These two categories
of foods should be kept apart, i.e. eaten at different meals.
Generally, the effect of not eating 'foods that fight' at the same meal gives
improved digestion. Proteins 'fight' starch', and citrus fruits 'fight' carbohydrates.
You eat your fill at every meal (not over-eating, as with any sensible system)
, then you wait about four hours before taking anything else, or until your
Each day you need to aim for:
- One protein meal (lunch is best)
- One starch meal (last meal of the day is best for this)
- One purely 'alkaline forming' meal
This regime seems to suit the human digestion, and you should find your digestive
system feels much more comfortable as a result.
The Hay System will regulate body weight up or down, to a suitable healthy
weight for your body. You can do this without feeling 'starving': you should
never go hungry, yet your weight will stabilise to suit you best.
The diet is in no way 'punitive', and is based on sound nutrition. It encourages
a delight in , respect for, and greater enjoyment of good food.
While organic foods are preferred, it still works out as good value, because
your body makes full use of what you give it, and you should find there is no
need to spend large sums in order to eat well.
'Everything in moderation' is a key phrase. Very few items are discouraged,
except the obvious cakes and biscuits, etc. Even alcohol in moderation is o.k.
- gin, whiskey, beer, wine, cider, etc. All are allowed, if used in correct
combinations with other items from the correct category of meal. For example,
sweet liquors come in the category of 'starches', as you might expect, because
they have a lot of sugar in them. At the other end of the spectrum, dry white
wine, for example, goes with the 'protein' category, because it will not 'fight'
with protein, as sweet sugary substances do. This may sound a little baffling
at first, but it all makes sense, as you should find if you read more about
how to choose foods and drinks that complement each other. It comes as second
nature after a little while, and is not difficult to understand.
There have been reports of previously very stubborn medical conditions that
have unexpectedly responded to correct food combining. Widely occurring conditions
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Medical History and Physical Exam for a Fast Heart Rate
A medical history and physical exam are routinely used to evaluate an illness or disease. A medical history and physical exam can often reveal as much or more than many diagnostic lab tests because they help uncover important clues about your illness. The medical history and physical exam will often direct further testing.
The doctor may ask questions similar to the following:
- What Reference symptoms have you experienced?
- Have you ever lost consciousness?
- How long did the symptoms last?
- Have the symptoms ever occurred before?
- Did anything make the symptoms better or worse (such as slow, deep breathing or holding your breath)?
- What were you doing when you first noticed the symptoms?
- Does physical activity bring on your symptoms or make them worse?
- Did you take your pulse when you had the symptoms? If you did, how fast or slow was your heart beating? Was it beating regularly?
- What medicines are you currently taking?
- Do you have any history of thyroid problems?
- Do you have a Reference family history Opens New Window of heart disease?
- Do you drink alcohol or smoke? Do you use any illegal drugs? If so, how much?
- Do you exercise?
During a physical exam, the doctor will:
- Take your blood pressure.
- Check your pulse to see how fast your heart is beating and whether your heart rhythm is regular.
- Listen to your heart through a stethoscope.
- Check your lung sounds by listening through a stethoscope.
- Check the veins in your neck for different types of pulsations.
Why It Is Done
A medical history and physical exam are important ways to evaluate any heart problem.
Normal findings include the following:
- Blood pressure and pulse rate are normal.
- Breathing and heart rhythm and rate are normal.
Abnormal findings that may suggest a problem from a fast heart rate include:
- Low blood pressure.
- Fast or irregular pulse.
If physical findings and your medical history strongly suggest a very irregular heartbeat, further testing will be done.
What To Think About
It is important to provide your doctor with detailed information about your symptoms, past medical history, and lifestyle.
Other Works Consulted
Blomström-Lunqvist C, et al. (2003). ACC/AHA/ESC guidelines for the management of patients with supraventricular arrhythmias—Executive summary: A report of the ACC/AHA/ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines. Circulation, 108(15): 1871–1909.
|By:||Reference Healthwise Staff||Last Revised: August 9, 2012|
|Medical Review:||Reference Rakesh K. Pai, MD, FACC - Cardiology, Electrophysiology
Reference John M. Miller, MD, FACC - Cardiology, Electrophysiology
| 3.097073 |
Academic standards correlations on Teachers' Domain use the Achievement Standards Network (ASN) database of state and national standards, provided to NSDL projects courtesy of JES & Co.
We assign reference terms to each statement within a standards document and to each media resource, and correlations are based upon matches of these terms for a given grade band. If a particular standards document of interest to you is not displayed yet, it most likely has not yet been processed by ASN or by Teachers' Domain. We will be adding social studies and arts correlations over the coming year, and also will be increasing the specificity of alignment.
In this lesson, students watch a video segment from the PBS series The Supreme Court about the landmark case Maryland v. McCulloch and consider the powers of the national government and state governments. Students take on the role of news reporters to analyze and present the case decision.
This lesson is the second of two lessons that comprise a unit on balancing state and federal authority. For the first lesson, see Define and Classify the Powers Associated with Federalism Lesson Plan For extension activities to use with this unit, visit the Supreme Court website.
(1) 50 minute period
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) Unknown
1. Ask students if they have ever experienced a conflict or struggle with their friends or classmates over making a decision. Take student responses and ask them to describe their experiences. Explain that just as they might have had a clash over a decision with their classmates, the national government and the states have experienced a similar power struggle.
2. Tell students they are going to watch a video segment that illustrates the Supreme Court's first major case that attempted to help resolve a conflict between the national government and the state of Maryland. Distribute the McCulloch v. Maryland Questions. Prior to playing the video segment, review the questions students should focus on while watching the clip:
3. Play McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) Unknown. You may choose to play the clip multiple times for student understanding.
4. Ask students to discuss the following questions. The answers below are provided as a guide:
1. Assign students to work in groups of three to five and give each group several sheets of flip-chart paper and markers.
3. When students have completed their work, a representative from each group presents its news story. Ask students to compare and contrast the news stories they have heard, saw, or read. If necessary, clarify any points of fact that students were confused about.
4. For homework (or in class if time permits), ask students to respond to the following in an essay:
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What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. AI textbooks define the field as “the study and design of intelligent agents” where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it as “the science and engineering of making intelligent machines.”
The field was founded on the claim that a central property of humans, intelligence—the sapience of Homo sapiens—can be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine. This raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind and the ethics of creating artificial beings, issues which have been addressed by myth, fiction and philosophy since antiquity. Artificial intelligence has been the subject of optimism, but has also suffered setbacks and, today, has become an essential part of the technology industry, providing the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult problems in computer science.
AI research is highly technical and specialized, deeply divided into subfields that often fail to communicate with each other. Subfields have grown up around particular institutions, the work of individual researchers, the solution of specific problems, longstanding differences of opinion about how AI should be done and the application of widely differing tools. The central problems of AI include such traits as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.General intelligence (or “strong AI”) is still among the field’s long term goals.
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Hyenas cooperate, problem-solve better than primates
(NC&T/DU) Captive pairs of spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) that needed to tug two ropes in unison to earn a food reward cooperated successfully and learned the maneuvers quickly with no training. Experienced hyenas even helped inexperienced partners do the trick.
When confronted with a similar task, chimpanzees and other primates often require extensive training and cooperation between individuals may not be easy, said Christine Drea, an evolutionary anthropologist at Duke University.
Drea's research, published online in the October issue of Animal Behavior, shows that social carnivores like spotted hyenas that hunt in packs may be good models for investigating cooperative problem solving and the evolution of social intelligence. She performed these experiments in the mid-1990s but struggled to find a journal that was interested in non-primate social cognition.
"No one wanted anything but primate cognition studies back then," Drea said. "But what this study shows is that spotted hyenas are more adept at these sorts of cooperation and problem-solving studies in the lab than chimps are. There is a natural parallel of working together for food in the laboratory and group hunting in the wild."
Drea and co-author Allisa N. Carter of the Univ. of California at Berkeley, designed a series of food-reward tasks that modeled group hunting strategies in order to single out the cognitive aspects of cooperative problem solving. They selected spotted hyenas to see whether a species' performance in the tests might be linked to their feeding ecology in the wild.
|A pair of captive hyenas cooperatively solving a task to get some food. (Photo: Christine Drea)|
The first experiment sought to determine if three pairs of captive hyenas could solve the task without training. "The first pair walked in to the pen and figured it out in less than two minutes," Drea said. "My jaw literally dropped."
Drea and Carter studied the actions of 13 combinations of hyena pairs and found that they synchronized their timing on the ropes, revealing that the animals understood the ropes must be tugged in unison. They also showed that they understood both ropes had to be on the same platform. After an animal was experienced, the number of times it pulled on a rope without its partner present dropped sharply, indicating the animal understood its partner's role.
"One thing that was different about the captive hyena's behavior was that these problems were solved largely in silence," Drea said. Their non-verbal communication included matching gazes and following one another. "In the wild, they use a vocalization called a whoop when they are hunting together."
In the second and third experiments, Drea found that social factors affected the hyenas' performance in both positive and negative ways. When an audience of extra hyenas was present, experienced animals solved the task faster. But when dominant animals were paired, they performed poorly, even if they had been successful in previous trials with a subordinate partner.
"When the dominant females were paired, they didn't play nicely together," Drea said. "Their aggression toward each other led to a failure to cooperate."
When a na´ve animal unfamiliar with the feeding platforms was paired with a dominant, experienced animal, the dominant animals switched social roles and submissively followed the lower-ranking, na´ve animal. Once the na´ve animal became experienced, they switched back.
Both the audience and the role-switching trials revealed that spotted hyenas self-adjust their behavior based upon social context.
It was not a big surprise that the animals were strongly inclined to help each other obtain food, said Kay Holekamp, a professor of zoology at Michigan State University who studies the behavioral ecology of spotted hyenas.
"But I did find it somewhat surprising that the hyenas' performance was socially modulated by both party size and pair membership," Holekamp said. "And I found it particularly intriguing that the animals were sensitive to the na´vetÚ of their potential collaborators."
Researchers have focused on primates for decades with an assumption that higher cognitive functioning in large-brained animals should enable organized teamwork. But Drea's study demonstrates that social carnivores, including dogs, may be very good at cooperative problem solving, even though their brains are comparatively smaller.
"I'm not saying that spotted hyenas are smarter than chimps," Drea said. "I'm saying that these experiments show that they are more hard-wired for social cooperation than chimpanzees."
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| 3.254225 |
|Flat Head Syndrome|
|After the Birth|
|Cows Milk Allergy|
|Stillbirth And Neonatal Death|
|Food Glorious Food|
|Health and Illness|
|Money, Money, Money|
|Twins and Multiples|
|Hair and Beauty|
|8 Out Of 10 Mums Say|
The traditional childrens growth charts that parents have been familiar with since 1990 are being replaced by a new design meant to combat obesity and boost the rates of breastfeeding.
The old charts are based on growth rates for faster growing formula-fed babies.
The new charts will mean more children are classed as overweight. They are being introduced firstly in England but Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland are expected to follow soon, .
The government hopes to alleviate breastfeeding mothers' concerns that their babies are underweight.
Current government guidelines advise mothers to give their babies breast milk for the first six months of life and then supplement
The downside of the new chart system is that the number of babies classed as overweight will see a 100% increase to 6%. Many medical experts feel that this will help to identify those at risk of obesity earlier.
Dr Sheila Shribman, the government's maternity advisor, says:
"Breastfeeding is the best form of nutrition for infants.
"The new charts will not only provide more accurate measurements for infant growth of breastfed babies, but will also help healthcare professionals and parents to identify early signs of overweight or obesity and provide support."
The new charts are based on a design developed by the World Health Organisation after an extensive study of 8,500 children from across six countries, which established comprehensive and definitive data about the growth of healthy children for the first time. They are to be used on all new babies in England from 11 May with the other countries expected to adopt them in the coming months.
Belinda Phipps, chief executive of the National Childbirth Trust, welcomed the new charts and stated:.
"Now that the new charts have been introduced, the next extremely important step is for health professionals to be appropriately trained on how to work with them in order to ensure parents are given the correct information about their child's weight."
Ms Phipps said the previous charts had led to some breastfeeding mothers being advised to use formula milk, or introduce solids as a "top up" because their babies were not gaining weight fast enough.
"The introduction of formula milk or solids too early can interrupt breastfeeding and often brings it to an end earlier."
In England, eight out of 10 mothers start breastfeeding but only around one fifth continue until six months. The rates are very much lower than other European countries.
See the NHS video about the New Growth Charts here
7 May 09
'You're Having Twins' doesn't always mean you're having a Caesarean
APH Meet and Greet
Anyone who has to use airports, whether it's for business or pleasure, will be all too aware of the frustration of time and money used when taking the car to and from their flight.
Potty Training Tips From Mums
Potty training certainly isn't one of the simplest challenges that parenthood presents us with but with a few tips from those of us that have successfully weaned our toddlers out of nappies and into knickers, it can certainly become a little less daunting!
Pregnancy and Birth - The Things Men Worry About
It's not just women who need help with the labour; men need help during labour as well but are often left out for obvious reasons.
Skin Salvation - Mum's Eczema Cure For Daughter
When Lula Balmond was a little girl, she suffered from such bad eczema that she actually had to be bandaged every night just to help her sleep.
Eczema in Babies and Infants
This is a huge area in all types of medicine and often quite complex. Modern living has seen an enormous increase in many types of skin conditions in new born babies and in infants.
21 Weeks Pregnant
At 21 weeks pregnant your baby will probably start moving round much more and you may be able to notice a pattern to the movements.
| 3.116969 |
ROME, Ga. — Martin Cipollini, professor of biology at Berry College, has been working in partnership with the Georgia Chapter of the American Chestnut Foundation to restore the American chestnut tree, which nearly was wiped out in the 1950s by blight in Southeastern forests.
By cross-pollinating some remaining American chestnuts with Chinese chestnut trees — which are immune to the blight that was caused by an infectious fungus — hybrid trees were created and now are growing in an orchard on Berry College’s mountain campus.
But next year, Cipollini plans to kill them.
“We’re going to put that fungus in each of these trees,” he said as he stood between rows of chestnut trees in the orchard. “Next year we’re going to try to kill them.”
The fungal disease was introduced by frogs in New York during the early 1900s, Cipollini said, and it spread from tree to tree, infecting both Asian and American chestnuts. Only the Asian trees — particularly the Chinese chestnut — were able to resist the blight brought on by the fungus. The American chestnut was susceptible to the disease, and by the 1950s nearly all were wiped out.
“The only saving grace is that the chestnut can resprout from the roots,” Cipollini said. “As a result of that, the tree wasn’t killed entirely, instead of having large forests of trees producing nuts.”
In the Berry orchard, there are not only the hybrid trees but also pure American chestnuts and pure Chinese chestnut trees. Cipollini said they are also going to infect the American chestnuts and Chinese chestnuts with the fungus.
The Chinese should be resistant and develop a canker that will heal over. The other trees, he said, will form cankers and that canker will expand. The point is to see if the hybrid trees will form cankers that heal as the Chinese chestnuts will.
He hopes some hybrid trees will resist the disease. For the ones that do, they will in turn be bred with more American trees. This process, which could take 30 years or longer, will be continued until the trees have more than 90 percent of American in their genetic backgrounds, but still are able to resist the blight.
Berry’s orchard is “the headquarters, so to speak, for the breeding program for the state of Georgia,” said Cipollini. “We’ve helped to establish about 100 orchard sites in the state. We are principally responsible for an orchard in Armuchee called the Henry-Berry College Orchard that was established last year with help from Faye and Ralph Henry.”
Cipollini said if any of the hybrids can withstand the blight, they carry the right genes from the Chinese chestnut parent in their genetic histories. They then will look at the trees for other characteristics to see how close they are genetically to the American chestnut’s.
“If it fits everything, that one may be one of the few we keep in the orchard,” he said.
Only a few of the more than 200 trees in the orchard may remain, but that would be the next generation that would move forward in the breeding program.
“It takes four years to get the trees to the point where they can be tested, and the whole process from beginning to end takes anywhere from 10 to 12 years,” he said.
Though the process is long, Cipollini was optimistic that in future decades, the American chestnut might be able to be reintroduced into the wild with a resistance to blight.
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| 3.075934 |
The Buddha points to two mental qualities as the underlying safeguards of morality, thus as the protectors of both the individual and society as a whole. These two qualities are called in Pali hiri and ottappa. Hiri is an innate sense of shame over moral transgression; ottappa is moral dread, fear of the results of wrongdoing. The Buddha calls these two states the bright guardians of the world (sukka lokapala). He gives them this designation because as long as these two states prevail in people's hearts the moral standards of the world remain intact, while when their influence wanes the human world falls into unabashed promiscuity and violence, becoming almost indistinguishable from the animal realm (Itiv. 42).
While moral shame and fear of wrongdoing are united in the common task of protecting the mind from moral defilement, they differ in their individual characteristics and modes of operation. Hiri, the sense of shame, has an internal reference; it is rooted in self-respect and induces us to shrink from wrongdoing out of a feeling of personal honor. Ottappa, fear of wrongdoing, has an external orientation. It is the voice of conscience that warns us of the dire consequences of moral transgression: blame and punishment by others, the painful kammic results of evil deeds, the impediment to our desire for liberation from suffering. Acariya Buddhaghosa illustrates the difference between the two with the simile of an iron rod smeared with excrement at one end and heated to a glow at the other end: hiri is like one's disgust at grabbing the rod in the place where it is smeared with excrement, ottappa is like one's fear of grabbing it in the place where it is red hot.
In the present-day world, with its secularization of all values, such notions as shame and fear of wrong are bound to appear antiquated, relics from a puritanical past when superstition and dogma manacled our rights to uninhibited self-expression. Yet the Buddha's stress on the importance of hiri and ottappa was based on a deep insight into the different potentialities of human nature. He saw that the path to deliverance is a struggle against the current, and that if we are to unfold the mind's capacities for wisdom, purity and peace, then we need to keep the powderkeg of the defilements under the watchful eyes of diligent sentinels.
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2. Migraine Is the Result of a Hypersensitive Brain
Most physicians—including experts in headache medicine—used to believe that migraine was caused by cranial blood vessels expanding and contracting, Rothrock says. “It was thought that migraine-associated constriction of blood vessels reduced blood flow to the eye or brain, producing aura, and that a compensatory dilation of the blood vessels caused the throbbing, sickening head pain.”
But it turns out that migraine is actually “a genetic condition that, as with epilepsy, produces a hypersensitive brain,” Rothrock says. He notes that researchers at Harvard recently reported evidence indicating that electrical events originating in the brain itself may provoke activation of the receptors for head pain that are located “downstream,” within the meninges that cover the brain.
“It appears that a migraine attack may originate within the visual cortex of the brain,” Rothrock says, “with activity generated at that site serving to promote the trigeminal nerve to release neuropeptides that in turn induce blood vessels located in the meninges to leak pro-inflammatory proteins, which activate and further sensitize head pain receptors, which consequently send a message back to the brain that ‘there’s pain out here.’ This to-and-fro, self-reinforcing process—brain to meninges/meninges to brain—builds and builds until finally it wears itself out, or one administers a therapy that blocks the signaling of head pain.”
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Researchers with the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service have used unmanned aircraft in three trials to count the number of sandhill cranes that visit the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge and found them to be a safe alternative for both birds and scientists.
“What these systems do is they help to more quickly fly over the cranes,” said Leanne Hanson, a USGS biologist who is overseeing the use of the aircraft. “They don’t flush the birds so there’s no mid-air collision potential.”
More than 20,000 cranes typically make a stopover in the valley from late February to April.
Traditionally, wildlife biologists have used fixed-wing aircraft to count animals but those planes pose a threat to the birds and also use more fuel than their smaller, electrically-charged counterparts. The Raven small unmanned aerial vehicle, as it’s properly called, is 3-feet long and has a 55-inch wingspan. It can fly between 150 feet and 1,000 feet above ground.
The geological survey secured five of the decommissioned craft from the U.S. Army in 2009. While the army maintains ownership, an agreement allows the geological survey to use planes at no cost. Since then, the geological survey had to secure permission from the Federal Aviation Administration to fly over the refuge below 2,000 feet.
They also had to settle on the best time to fly. While the craft can fly with an attached video camera and film during the day, the cranes spend much of those hours dispersed across the valley.
But at night the birds cram into the Monte Vista refuge, which has some of the few wetlands in the valley that aren’t covered with ice in late February and March thanks to the pumping of groundwater.
“It looks like from what we did last night we got fairly good coverage of all the cranes that are on the refuge,” said Jim Dubovsky, a migratory bird specialist with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
At night a thermal, infrared sensor is attached to the craft and researchers can download the files and count what they see from their own computer screens.
Dubovsky said the cranes have a recognizable heat signature in comparison to the other birds that use the refuge, such as ducks and geese.
Meanwhile the geological survey is developing other uses for the planes.
Hanson said the agency is looking at hot springs within lake and river systems that provide unique habitat, checking historical mating areas for sage grouse and monitoring mountain pine beetle damage in northern Colorado, among other uses.
Source: Pueblo Chieftain
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Toxoplasmosis is an infection due to the parasite Toxoplasma gondii.
Toxoplasmosis is found in humans worldwide, and in many species of animals and birds. Cats are the definitive host of the parasite.
Human infection may result from:
Toxoplasmosis also affects people who have weakened immune systems.
The infection may also be passed from an infected mother to her baby through the placenta. See: Congenital toxoplasmosis
Liesenfeld O. Toxoplasmosis. In: Goldman L, Ausiello D, eds. Cecil Medicine. 23rd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2007:chap 370.
© 2011 University of Maryland Medical Center (UMMC). All rights reserved.
UMMC is a member of the University of Maryland Medical System,
22 S. Greene Street, Baltimore, MD 21201. TDD: 1-800-735-2258 or 1.866.408.6885
| 3.037267 |
FlowersAmong the many and more beautiful of our common wild flowers that grow beside the Tweed are the marsh marigold, or kingcup, loosestrife, purple and yellow, ragged robin and devil's-bit scabious.
The beautiful and rare include seven orchids: the purple dactylorrhiza - illutrated here, northern marsh and twayblade (in damp meadows and woods}; lesser twayblade (on heather moors); heath spotted (on acid soil); bird's nest (in beechwoods).
From June to August one might, with less than amazing luck, see the duck (but not the drake - the drake has absconded) leading a flotilla of up to twelve ducklings buffeting themselves like mad against the current; a memorable- sight. Buzzards can be relied on to appear, usually at a great height, mewing.
Short-eared owl, peregrine falcon, sparrow-hawk and kestrel are also often seen. And from autumn to spring great flocks of geese, pink-footed and greylag, fly from and back to the frozen north, spread against the sky in arrowhead or zig-zag order and calling to each other as they go. They too are unlikely to be overlooked.
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Constitutional FAQ Answer #5
Q5. "What do you believe are the reasons why the Constitution would not have been passed without the Bill of Rights."
A. Actually, the Constitution did pass without the Bill of Rights, as the first ten amendments are commonly known. The Constitution was ratified in 1788. Amendments 1-10 were adopted in 1791.
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Sick-Day Guidelines for People With Diabetes
What happens when you are sick
When you are sick, your body reacts by releasing hormones to fight infection. But these hormones raise blood sugar levels and at the same time make it more difficult for insulin to lower blood sugar. When you have diabetes, even a minor illness can lead to dangerously high blood sugar. This may cause life-threatening complications, such as diabetic ketoacidosis or a hyperosmolar state.
Work with your doctor to make a sick-day plan for you or your child with diabetes. Discuss your target blood sugar goal during an illness, how you should adjust your insulin dose and timing (if you take insulin), and when you need to contact your doctor for help. Also, make sure you know how often to check blood sugar and urine ketone levels. Keep your plan in a convenient place, and include contact information in case you need to reach your doctor at night or on the weekends.
Steps to take during an illness
Here are some general sick-day guidelines:
- Continue taking your diabetes medicine even if you are vomiting and having trouble eating or drinking. Your blood sugar may continue to rise because of your illness. If you cannot take your medicines, call your doctor and discuss whether you need to adjust your insulin dose or other medicine.
- Try to eat your normal types and amounts of food and to drink
extra fluids, such as water, broth, carbonated drinks, and fruit juice.
Encourage your child to drink extra liquids to prevent
- If your blood sugar level is higher than 240 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL), or the blood sugar level your doctor recommends, drink extra liquids that do not contain sugar, such as water or sugar-free cola.
- If you cannot eat the foods in your regular diet, drink extra liquids that contain sugar and salt, such as soup, sports drinks, or milk. You may also try eating foods that are gentle on the stomach, such as crackers, gelatin, or applesauce. Try to eat or drink 50 grams (g) of carbohydrate every 3 to 4 hours. For example, 6 saltine crackers, 1 cup (8 fl oz) of milk, and ½ cup (4 fl oz) of orange juice each contain approximately 15 g of carbohydrate.
- Check your blood sugar at least every 3 to 4 hours, or more often if it is rising quickly, even through the night. If your blood sugar level rises above 240 mg/dL and your doctor has told you to take an extra insulin dose for high blood sugar levels, take the appropriate amount. If you take insulin and your doctor has not told you to take a specific amount of additional insulin, call him or her for advice.
- If you take insulin, do a urine test for ketones every 4 to 6 hours, especially if your blood sugar is higher than 300 mg/dL (or the blood sugar level your doctor recommends). Call your doctor if you have more than 2+ or moderate ketones in your urine. Check your child's urine for ketones at least every 6 hours, even through the night.
- Weigh yourself and check your temperature, breathing rate, and pulse frequently if your blood sugar is higher than 300 mg/dL. If you are losing weight and your temperature, breathing rate, and pulse are increasing, contact a doctor. You may be getting worse.
- Don't take any nonprescription medicines without talking with your doctor. Many nonprescription medicines affect your blood sugar level.
When to call your doctor
Minor illnesses in people with diabetes—especially children with type 1 diabetes—can lead to very high blood sugar levels and possible emergencies. When children are sick, watch them closely for signs that they need immediate medical attention. Call 911 or other emergency services if you or your child has:
- Symptoms of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), such as abdominal pain, vomiting, rapid breathing, fruity-smelling breath, or severe drowsiness.
- Symptoms of dehydration, such as a dry mouth and very yellow or dark urine. Dehydration is particularly dangerous in children and may be caused by vomiting and diarrhea.
- A low blood sugar level that continues.
It may not be necessary to call your doctor every time you or your child with diabetes has a mild illness, such as a cold. But it is a good idea to call for advice when you are sick and:
- You have a blood sugar level that stays higher than the level the doctor has set for you, for example, 240 mg/dL for two or more readings.
- You have more than 2+ or moderate ketones in your urine.
- You still have a fever and are not feeling better after a few days.
- You are vomiting or having diarrhea for more than 6 hours.
When you are sick, write down the medicine(s) you have been taking and whether you have changed the dosage of your diabetes medicines based on your sick-day plan. Also note changes in your body temperature, weight, blood sugar, and urine ketone levels. Have this information handy when you talk to your doctor.
Last Revised: December 4, 2012
Author: Healthwise Staff
To learn more visit Healthwise.org
© 1995-2013 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
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Roundworm Infection in Dogs
Roundworms (nematodes or ascarids) are parasites that live freely in the intestine, feeding off of partially digested intestinal contents. Their name is derived from their tubular or "round" shape.
Toxocara canis and Toxascaris leonina are two important species of roundworms in dogs. Toxocara canis causes more significant disease and also may be transmitted to humans.
How did my dog get roundworms?
Infected dogs shed the microscopic roundworm eggs in their feces. Other dogs may become infected by sniffing or licking infected feces. Roundworm eggs can also be spread by other animals such as rodents, earthworms, roaches and birds. In these animals, the roundworms are merely transported, and do not mature into adults; if a dog eats this "paratenic" host, the roundworm is liberated and completes its maturation.
"In the dog, the roundworm undergoes a complicated life cycle."
In the dog, the roundworm undergoes a complicated life cycle before mature roundworms are found in the intestinal tract. This involves several stages and includes migration through various bodily tissues. Roundworm larvae (immature worms) can migrate and encyst throughout the host's body. This is important in the female dog because these encysted larvae will start to develop during pregnancy and ultimately cross the placenta into an unborn puppy. Thus puppies can be born with roundworms and can pass fertile eggs from adult worms in their stools by the time they are approximately eleven days old. Roundworm larvae may also enter the mother's mammary glands and be transmitted through the milk.
Are roundworms a threat to my dog?
"The most common consequence of roundworms is growth reduction."
Roundworms are most threatening to puppies. The most common consequence of roundworms is growth reduction. Since roundworms eat partially digested food in the intestinal tract, if there is a large burden of roundworms they will rob the growing puppy of vital nutrients.
The life cycle of Toxocara canis is more complicated than that of other nematode worms found in dogs. Roundworms can complete their life cycle in immature dogs, but as the pup's immune system matures (usually by 6 months of age), the larval stages will become "arrested" or encyst in the pup's muscles Roundworm larvae swallowed by adult dogs usually encyst in the dog's tissues. Few roundworms will mature in the bowel of infected adult dogs. Consequently few eggs are passed in the stool leading to difficulty in definitive diagnosis and treatment.
In intact female dogs, encysted Toxocara canis larvae can resume development after estrus, and she can shed eggs in the stool at that time. With dogs that have been spayed or castrated, development of a roundworm infection may indicate that there is an underlying immune system disease that has allowed the encysted larvae to complete their life cycle.
Toxascaris leonina can complete their life cycle in any age of dog, or in cats.
How are roundworms diagnosed?
"In puppies, clinical signs such as stunted growth, potbelly, and recurrent diarrhea are a good indication of roundworm infection."
In puppies, clinical signs such as stunted growth, potbelly, and recurrent diarrhea are a good indication of roundworm infection. Definitive diagnosis is made by microscopic examination of the dog's feces.
Is it true that children can get roundworm infections?
If the infective eggs of Toxocara canis are swallowed by people, the larvae can invade the tissues and become encysted in various organs. Humans act like any other paratenic or accidental host. If a young child ingests a large number of infected eggs, clinical disease may become apparent.
Very rarely, liver problems may result from roundworm larval migration (visceral larval migrans). Even less commonly, the larvae can migrate into the eye and cause blindness (ocular larval migrans). Because of the risk of roundworm infection in humans, it is recommended by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) that all dogs be de-wormed monthly. Modern monthly heartworm preventives also prevent roundworm infections and are highly recommend for all dogs and cats.
"Because of the risk of roundworm infection in humans, it is recommended by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) that all dogs be de-wormed monthly."
Because of the risk of roundworm infection in humans, it is recommended by the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) that all dogs be de-wormed monthly. Modern monthly heartworm preventives also prevent roundworm infections and are highly recommend for all dogs and cats.
How are roundworms treated?
Treatment is simple and effective. There are many safe and effective preparations available to kill adult roundworms in the intestine.
Many heartworm preventives contain medications that are effective against intestinal roundworms help prevent future infections. Some of these preparations only the adult worms and do not affect migrating or encysting larvae. New products have recently been developed that will also affect the larval stages. Your veterinarian will advise you on the best treatment and prevention plan for your pet.
What about roundworm eggs shed in the environment?
Initially the eggs are not infective. After a period, which may vary from weeks to months, the eggs develop into infective larvae. Under ideal conditions, this takes approximately four weeks. These infective larvae can remain viable in the environment for long periods of time and are particularly resistant to changes in temperature and humidity.
The best environmental treatment is prevention. Remove your dog's feces as soon as possible to prevent the spread and transmission of roundworms.
What is the most effective strategy I can use to control infection in my dogs, protect my family and reduce contamination of the environment?
Deworm pregnant dogs in late pregnancy, after the 42nd day or after six weeks of pregnancy. This will help reduce potential contamination of the environment for newborn puppies.
All puppies should be dewormed routinely, starting at about two weeks of age and repeated regularly. Your veterinarian will design the most appropriate deworming schedule for your pets.
The use of a heartworm preventative product that is effective against roundworms will stop the shedding of eggs into the environment.
Rodent control is important since rodents can serve as a source of infection.
Dogs should be prevented from defecating in children's play areas and there should be prompt disposal of all dog feces, especially in gardens, playgrounds and public parks.
"Practice strict hygiene particularly with children."
Practice strict hygiene particularly with children. Do not allow them to play in potentially contaminated environments and ensure proper and frequent hand washing.
| 3.542731 |
What is a bubble? Today’s economies often experience large movements in asset prices that have significant macroeconomic effects. Given that many of these movements in asset prices seem unrelated to economic conditions or fundamentals, they have come to be called bubbles, whether swelling or bursting. Typically, these bubbles are unpredictable and generate substantial macroeconomic effects. Consumption, the capital stock, and output all tend to surge when a bubble arises and then collapse or stagnate when the bubble bursts. Despite the recurrent nature of bubbles and their macroeconomic implications, however, we still lack a stylised model to answer the basic questions:
- What is the origin of bubbly episodes?
- Why are they unpredictable?
- How do bubbles affect consumption, the capital stock, and output?
Of course, economists have long thought about asset bubbles. To do so, they have found it useful to think of an economy with two idealised asset classes: productive assets or “capital” and pyramid schemes or “bubbles”. Both assets are used as a store of value or savings vehicle, but they have different characteristics. Capital is costly to produce but it is then useful in production. Bubbles play no role in production, but initiating them is costless. A successful theory of bubbles should then explain why rational and informed agents optimally choose to hold bubbles in their portfolios, and it should also characterise the macroeconomic consequences of their choice.
Samuelson (1958) and Tirole (1985) laid the foundations for such a theory by portraying bubbles as a remedy to the problem of dynamic inefficiency. Their argument is based on the dual role of capital as a productive asset and a store of value. To satisfy the need for a store of value, economies sometimes accumulate so much capital that the investment required to sustain it exceeds the income that it produces. This investment is inefficient and lowers the resources available for consumption. In this situation, bubbles can be both attractive to investors and feasible from a macroeconomic perspective. For instance, a pyramid scheme that absorbs all inefficient investments in each period is feasible and its return exceeds that of the investments it replaces.
The Samuelson-Tirole model provides an elegant and powerful framework to think about bubbles. However, the picture that emerges from this theory is hard to reconcile with historical evidence.
- First, the model features deterministic bubbles that exist from the very beginning of time and never burst. This is contrary to the observation that, in real economies, bubbles pop-up and burst. We therefore need a model in which bubbles are transient, that is, a model of bubbly episodes.
- Second, and most importantly, in the Samuelson-Tirole model bubbles raise consumption by reducing inefficient investments. As a result, bubbles slow down capital accumulation and lower output. In the real world, bubbly episodes tend to be associated with consumption booms indeed. But they also tend to be associated with expansions in the capital stock and output.
A successful model of bubbles must come to grips with these correlations.
Towards a realistic theory of bubbles
In recent research (Martin and Ventura 2011a and 2011b), we build such a model by introducing investor sentiment shocks and imperfect financial markets into the theory of rational bubbles. Since bubbles have no intrinsic value, their current size depends on market expectations regarding their future size, i.e. on "investor sentiment". Introducing shocks to investor sentiment is therefore crucial to generate realistic bubble dynamics in the model. Introducing financial frictions is also crucial because these create rate-of-return differentials and allow efficient and inefficient investments to coexist. Our key observation is then quite simple. Bubbles not only reduce inefficient investments, but also increase efficient ones. In our model, bubbly episodes are booms in consumption and efficient investments financed by a reduction in inefficient investments. If efficient investments increase enough, bubbly episodes expand the capital stock and output. This turns out to be the case under a wide range of parameter values.
To understand these effects of bubbly episodes, it is useful to analyse the set of transfers that bubbles implement. In the theory, a bubble is nothing but a pyramid scheme by which the buyer surrenders resources today expecting that future buyers will surrender resources to him/her. The economy enters each period with an initial distribution of current and future bubble owners. Some of these owners bought their bubbles in earlier periods, while others just created them or are expected to do so in the future. In this setup, there are two natural channels through which bubbles may transfer resources from inefficient to efficient investment.
- First, they do so directly through the market for bubbles. On the demand side of this market we find investors who cannot obtain a return to investment above that of bubbles; while on the supply side we find consumers and investors who can obtain a return to investment above that of bubbles. When the market for bubbles closes, resources have thus been transferred from inefficient investors to consumers and efficient investors, leading to an increase in consumption and efficient investments at the expense of inefficient investments (Martin and Ventura 2011a).
- Second, bubbles may also transfer resources towards efficient investments through the credit market. This happens when the prospect of a future bubble raises the net worth of efficient investors, therefore allowing them to expand their borrowing and investment (Martin and Ventura 2011b).
Introducing financial frictions can thus explain how bubbles can lead to expansions in the capital stock and in output. It also solves a nagging problem of the theory of rational bubbles, which was first pointed out by Abel et al. (1989). In the Samuelson-Tirole model, bubbles can only exist if the investment required to sustain the capital stock exceeds the income that it produces. Abel et al. (1989) examined a group of developed economies and found that, in all of them, investment falls short of capital income. This finding has often been considered evidence that rational bubbles cannot exist in real economies. Introducing financial frictions into the theory shows that this conclusion is unwarranted. The observation that capital income exceeds investment only implies that, on average, investments are dynamically efficient. But this does not exclude the possibility that the economy contains “pockets” of dynamically inefficient investments that could support a bubble. Nor does it exclude the possibility that an expansionary bubble, by lowering the return to investment, creates itself the pockets of dynamically inefficient investments that support it. In such situations, the test of Abel et al. would wrongly conclude that bubbles are not possible.
Our research is part of a growing body of work that studies the effects of bubbles in the presence of financial frictions:
- Caballero and Krishnamurthy (2006) and Farhi and Tirole (2011) show that bubbles can be a useful source of liquidity;
- Kocherlakota (2009) shows that bubbles can also raise collateral or net worth; and
- Ventura (2011) shows that bubbles can lower the cost of capital.
Models of rational bubbles have also been used to interpret recent events, like global imbalances (Kraay and Ventura 2007) and the recent financial crisis (Martin and Ventura 2010b). The exciting next step in this research agenda is to assess whether these effects of asset bubbles can be quantitatively significant within the class of models used by modern macroeconomics. Doing so requires the introduction of investor sentiment shocks into a quantitative model of the business cycle. That is, we need a model with bubbly business cycles – something we are working on now.
Abel, A, G Mankiw, L Summers, and R Zeckhauser (1989), “Assessing Dynamic Efficiency: Theory and Evidence”, Review of Economic Studies, 56:1-19.
Caballero, R and A Krishnamurthy (2006), “Bubbles and Capital Flow Volatility: Causes and Risk Management”, Journal of Monetary Economics, 53(1):33-53.
Farhi, E and J Tirole (2011), “Bubbly Liquidity”, mimeo, Harvard University.
Kocherlakota, N (2009), “Bursting Bubbles: Consequences and Cures”, Minneapolis Fed.
Kraay, A and J Ventura (2007), “The Dot-Com Bubble, the Bush Deficits, and the US Current Account”, in R Clarida (ed.), G7 Current Account Imbalances: Sustainability and Adjustment, The University of Chicago.
Martin, A and J Ventura (2011a), “Economic Growth with Bubbles”, CREI working paper.
Martin, A and J Ventura (2011b), “Theoretical Notes on Bubbles and the Current Crisis”, forthcoming, IMF Economic Review.
Samuelson, P (1958), “An Exact Consumption-loan Model of Interest with or without the Social Contrivance of Money”, Journal of Political Economy, 66:467-482.
Tirole, J (1985), “Asset Bubbles and Overlapping Generations”, Econometrica, 53(6): 1499-1528.
Ventura, J (2011), “Bubbles and Capital Flows”, Journal of Economic Theory, forthcoming.
| 3.882652 |
Millions of us have 'pre-diabetes'
By Jeffrey Bramnick, Pure Matters
Almost 24 million Americans have diabetes according to the Center for Disease Control (CDC). Millions of more Americans have a condition that puts them at high risk for developing diabetes. The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) estimates that almost 57 million American adults have pre-diabetes. Pre-diabetes, also known as impaired glucose tolerance, means having a blood sugar level that is higher than normal, but not yet persistently high enough to be considered type 2 diabetes.
There's good news, though. If you have pre-diabetes, you can delay or prevent type 2 diabetes by losing weight and getting regular exercise.
Risks of pre-diabetes
If you have pre-diabetes, you are at 50 percent higher risk for developing heart disease and stroke, according to the American Diabetes Association (ADA). These are risk factors for pre-diabetes:
- Overweight or obesity; a body mass index (BMI) of 25 to 29.9 is considered overweight, and a BMI of 30 or higher is obese
- A family history of type 2 diabetes
- Being an African American, American Indian, Hispanic American or Asian American
- Low HDL cholesterol and high triglycerides (abnormal lipid profile)
- High blood pressure
- A history of gestational diabetes
What to do
If you have pre-diabetes, work with your health care provider on lifestyle changes you can make. If you're overweight, losing weight can reduce your risk for type 2 diabetes. Losing even eight to 10 pounds can make a difference, the NIDDK says.
Ultimately, you should aim for a BMI of 27; ideally, less than 25.
To lose weight, maintain the loss and live a healthier life, get regular moderate-intensity exercise. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's 2005 guidelines on nutrition and exercise recommend 30 to 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous exercise daily. This amount can be broken up into several 20-minute sessions each day. Be sure to check with your health care provider before beginning an exercise program.
By the numbers
Two types of tests can determine whether you have pre-diabetes: fasting plasma glucose test (FPG) or the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). If your blood sugar level is abnormally high with the FPG, you have impaired fasting glucose, according to the ADA. If your blood sugar levels are abnormally high with the OGTT, you have impaired glucose tolerance.
Here's what overnight (or eight hours or more) fasting blood sugar numbers mean, according to guidelines by the CDC. Doctors measure blood sugar in milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL):
- Normal: Below 100 mg/dL
- Pre-diabetes: 100 to 125 mg/dL
- Diabetes: 126 mg/dL and above
Here is what oral glucose tolerance blood sugar numbers mean, according to the ADA:
- Normal: Below 139 mg/dL
- Pre-diabetes: 140 to 199 mg/dL
- Diabetes: 200 mg/dL and above
Distributed by Internet Broadcasting. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.
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Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) are spread by
sexual contact involving the genitals, mouth, or rectum, and can also be spread
from a pregnant woman to her fetus before or during delivery. STDs, which
affect both men and women, are a worldwide public health concern.
By Laura Beil
Christen Childs woke up on September 12, 2009, in the pitch dark of early morning with what she thought was a pulled muscle in her leg. She reached down to massage the cramp, trying to fathom how her left calf could be so achingly sore when she hadn't made it to the gym in weeks. This was a Saturday — by Monday, her leg was swollen and hot, and when she tried to stand, jolts of pain shot up to her spine. She consulted her brother-in-law, a doctor, and he told her to go to the ER immediately...
Some STDs, such as HIV, can
take up to 6 months before they can be detected in the blood. Genital herpes
and the human papillomavirus (HPV) can be spread when symptoms are not present.
Even if you and your partner have been tested, use condoms for all sex until
you and your partner haven't had sex with another person for 6 months. Then get
symptoms of STDs, such as unusual discharge, sores,
redness, or growths in your and your partner's genital area, or pain while
Don't have more than one sex partner at a time. The
safest sex is with one partner who has sex only with you. Every time you add a
new sex partner, you are being exposed to all of the diseases that all of their
partners may have. Your risk for an STD increases if you have several sex
partners at the same time.
Use a condom every time you have sex. A condom is the best way
to protect yourself from STDs. Latex and polyurethane condoms do not let STD
viruses pass through, so they offer good protection from STDs. Condoms made
from sheep intestines do not protect against STDs.
water-based lubricant such as K-Y Jelly or Astroglide to help prevent tearing
of the skin if there is a lack of lubrication during sexual intercourse. Small
tears in the vagina during vaginal sex or in the rectum during anal sex allow
STDs to get into your blood.
Avoid douching if you are a woman,
because it can change the normal balance of organisms in the vagina and
increases the risk of getting an STD.
Be responsible. Avoid sexual
contact if you have symptoms of an infection or if you are being treated for an
STD or HIV. If you or your partner has herpes, avoid sexual contact when a
blister is present and use condoms at all other times.
WebMD Medical Reference from Healthwise
May 08, 2008
This information is not intended to replace the advice of a doctor.
Healthwise disclaims any liability for the decisions you make based on this
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Global vaccine action plan 2011-2020
The Global Vaccine Action Plan (GVAP) ― endorsed by the 194 Member States of the World Health Assembly in May 2012 ― is a framework to prevent millions of deaths by 2020 through more equitable access to existing vaccines for people in all communities. The Plan aims to strengthen routine immunization to meet vaccination coverage targets, accelerate control of vaccine-preventable diseases with polio eradication as the first milestone, introduce new and improved vaccines and spur research and development for the next generation of vaccines and technologies. The plan is expected to reduce global childhood mortality, surpassing the United Nations Millennium Development Goal 4 target to reduce by two-thirds the under-five mortality rate.
Size: 8.96 MB
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Elemental analysis is a process where a sample of some material (e.g., soil, waste or drinking water, bodily fluids, minerals, chemical compounds) is analyzed for its elemental and sometimes isotopic composition. Elemental analysis can be qualitative (determining what elements are present), and it can be quantitative (determining how much of each are present). Elemental analysis falls within the ambit of analytical chemistry, the set of instruments involved in decyphering the chemical nature of our world.
For synthetic chemists, elemental analysis or "EA" almost always refers to CHNX analysis — the determination of the percentage weights of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and heteroatoms (X) (halogens, sulfur) of a sample. This information is important to help determine the structure of an unknown compound, as well as to help prove the structure and purity of a synthesized compound.
The most common form of elemental analysis, CHN analysis, is accomplished by combustion analysis. In this technique, a sample is burned in an excess of oxygen, and various traps collect the combustion products — carbon dioxide, water, and nitric oxide. The weights of these combustion products can be used to calculate the composition of the unknown sample.
Other quantitative methods include:
- Gravimetry, where the sample is dissolved and then the element of interest is precipitated and its mass measured or the element of interest is volatilized and the mass loss is measured.
- Optical atomic spectroscopy, such as flame atomic absorption, graphite furnace atomic absorption, and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission, which probe the outer electronic structure of atoms.
To qualitatively determine which elements exist in a sample, methods include:
- Mass spectrometric atomic spectroscopy, such as inductively coupled mass spectrometry, which probes the mass of atoms.
- Other spectroscopy which probes the inner electronic structure of atoms such as X-ray fluorescence, particle induced x-ray emission, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and Auger electron spectroscopy.
- Electrochemical methods
There is no pharmaceutical or device industry support for this site and we need your viewer supported Donations | Editorial Board | Governance | Licensing | Disclaimers | Avoid Plagiarism | Policies
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ExploraTour - How to Build a Star
"But wait a minute," you say. "We've tried this nuclear fusion stuff on Earth to produce energy and so far it hasn't worked very well. How does the sun succeed where we have failed?"
You are right. Operational nuclear power plants on Earth use fission reactions to produce power. They work by splitting apart heavy nuclei like Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239. The combined mass of the resulting lighter nuclei is less than the original heavy nucleus. The missing mass is converted to energy, mostly in the form of heat.
Uranium-235 and Plutonium-239 are very rare elements that are difficult to extract. The Earth's reserves will be used up in a relatively short time. In addition, the products left over from the fission reaction are radioactive and thus dangerous to humans. This radioactive waste has to be disposed of very carefully.
We have high hopes that nuclear power plants using fusion reactions to liberate energy will soon be developed.
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If you read this blog regularly, you know I have a fondness for the so-called “missing eruptions” — that is, volcanic events found in ice core or sediment records but not yet identified in the geologic/volcanic record. The most glaring right now is the eruption of 1258 A.D., supposedly 1.8 times as large as the 1815 eruption of Tambora, but no candidate volcano has been conclusively identified as the source. Another enigmatic climate event that has a little more potential to be matched with a volcano happened during the mid-1450s, a period that saw cold winters in China, dry fogs in Constantinople and stunted tree ring growth around the world. It also saw one of the biggest cases of sulfur loading in the atmosphere in the last few thousand years, rivaling that of the famous 1783 Laki eruption in Iceland. All these climatic effects have been attributed to an eruption in the New Hebrides arc, specifically the Kuwae caldera in Vanuatu. However, the relationship between this eruption at the climate signatures — and the existence of the eruption itself — is still hotly debated.
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American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
- v. To draw off (a liquid) by a gradual process: drained water from the sink.
- v. To cause liquid to go out from; empty: drained the bathtub; drain the pond.
- v. To draw off the surface water of: The Mississippi River drains a vast area.
- v. To drink all the contents of: drained the cup.
- v. To deplete gradually, especially to the point of complete exhaustion. See Synonyms at deplete.
- v. To fatigue or spend emotionally or physically: The day's events completely drained me of all strength.
- v. To flow off or out: Gasoline drained slowly from the tilted can.
- v. To become empty by the drawing off of liquid: watched the tub slowly drain.
- v. To discharge surface or excess water: The Niagara River drains into Lake Ontario. When flooded, the swamp drains northward.
- v. To become gradually depleted; dwindle: felt his enthusiasm draining.
- n. A pipe or channel by which liquid is drawn off.
- n. Medicine A device, such as a tube, inserted into the opening of a wound or body cavity to facilitate discharge of fluid or purulent material.
- n. The act or process of draining.
- n. A gradual outflow or loss; consumption or depletion: the drain of young talent by emigration.
- n. Something that causes a gradual loss: interruptions that are a drain on my patience.
- idiom. down the drain To or into the condition of being wasted or lost: All of our best laid plans are down the drain.
Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia
- To draw off gradually, as a liquid; remove or convey away by degrees, as through conduits, by filtration, or by any comparable process: as, to drain water from land, wine from the lees, or blood from the body; to drain away the specie of a country.
- To free, clear, or deprive by degrees, as of a liquid; empty or exhaust gradually: as, to drain land of water (the most familiar use of the word); to drain a vessel of its contents; to drain a country of its resources.
- To flow off gradually.
- To be gradually emptied, as of a liquid: as, the cask slowly drains.
- n. The act of draining or drawing off, or of emptying by drawing off; gradual or continuous outflow, withdrawal, or expenditure.
- n. That which drains, or by means of which draining is immediately effected.
- n. Specifically— A passage, pipe, or open channel for the removal of water or other liquid; especially, a pipe or channel for removing the surplus water from soils. Drains may be open ditches or sunken pipes or conduits. Those for wet lands are so made as to permit the percolation into them of water from the adjacent soil, as by the use in a covered conduit of porous earthen pipes or tiles, or of a filling of small stones, of an open cut where there is a sufficient slope, etc. See sewer.
- n. The trench in which the melted metal flows from a furnace to the molds
- n. In surgery, a hollow sound or canula used to draw off purulent matter from a deep seated abscess.
- n. Pl. The grain from the mash-tub: distinctively called brewers' drains.
- n. In ship-building, a large pipe which runs through or above the double bottom of a war-ship and is connected with the principal pumps to remove water from the various compartments. The main drain is from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, has openings into the large compartments controlled by valves, and is intended to pump out the water in case of damage by grounding, collision, etc. The secondary or auxiliary drain is also connected with all the large compartments and is used for all ordinary pumping.
- n. A conduit allowing liquid to flow out of an otherwise contained volume.
- n. Something consuming resources and providing nothing in return.
- n. vulgar An act of urination.
- n. electronics The name of one terminal of a field effect transistor (FET).
- v. intransitive To lose liquid.
- v. transitive, ergative To cause liquid to flow out of.
- v. transitive, ergative To convert a perennially wet place into a dry one.
- v. transitive To deplete of energy or resources.
- v. intransitive, pinball To fall off the bottom of the playfield.
GNU Webster's 1913
- v. To draw off by degrees; to cause to flow gradually out or off; hence, to cause the exhaustion of.
- v. To exhaust of liquid contents by drawing them off; to make gradually dry or empty; to remove surface water, as from streets, by gutters, etc.; to deprive of moisture; hence, to exhaust; to empty of wealth, resources, or the like.
- v. To filter.
- v. To flow gradually.
- v. To become emptied of liquor by flowing or dropping.
- n. The act of draining, or of drawing off; gradual and continuous outflow or withdrawal.
- n. That means of which anything is drained; a channel; a trench; a water course; a sewer; a sink.
- n. engraving The grain from the mashing tub.
- v. empty of liquid; drain the liquid from
- v. flow off gradually
- n. a pipe through which liquid is carried away
- n. emptying something accomplished by allowing liquid to run out of it
- v. deplete of resources
- v. make weak
- n. tube inserted into a body cavity (as during surgery) to remove unwanted material
- n. a gradual depletion of energy or resources
- Middle English dreinen (verb) from Old English drēahnian ("to drain, strain, filter"), from Proto-Germanic *draug- (“dry”), akin to Old English drūgian ("to dry up"), drūgaþ ("dryness, drought"), Old English drȳge ("dry"). More at dry (Wiktionary)
- Middle English dreinen, to strain, drain, from Old English drēahnian. (American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition)
“Brain drain is still claiming Canadian doctors, but not our doctorals.”
“She noted that the more typical "brain drain" is to the US, as Canadian professionals leave for greater income potential.”
“If there is brain drain from a particular country, it can scarcely develop.”
“That a slip-slide into banality leads to forum brain drain is a sort of Catch-22 given.”
“The brain drain is not the consequence of some sort of collective despair.”
“Hong Kong's brain drain is both a myth and a reality -- a myth in that its proportions tend to be wildly exaggerated, and in that its existence is attributed to a largely imaginary state of panic supposedly to be found in Hong Kong.”
“Highly educated women’s abandonment of the workplace is not an extension of the centuries of upper-class arm candy; it’s a sex-specific brain drain from the future rulers of the society ....”
“Ainalem puts it this way: One potential solution to Africa’s brain drain is virtual participation.”
“America's loss may be India's gain, analysts say, pointing to a 'reverse brain drain' that may see India reaping benefits for years to come.”
“Watch the water drain from the roof of the greenhouses.”
These user-created lists contain the word ‘drain’.
The path of least resistance, watercourses, plumbing....
words describing slow action or movement
( open list, randomness, descriptive )
includes words of the "Prodcom list"
Words that make me think of Vampire: The Requiem
Grateful credit to http://reocities.com/SoHo/Studios/9783/phond1.html.
Very basic words for ESL students.
Words from 2009 'Watchmen' film.
Words that mean drink.
Looking for tweets for drain.
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One area that is particularly ripe for opportunity is in the STEM fields (science, technology, engineering and mathematics). In August, U.S. News & World Report reported that there will be a need to fill over 1.2 million STEM jobs in the U.S. by 2018. STEM careers offer lucrative and stable opportunities; for example, pharmacist jobs boast median salaries of $105,000, with a projected 25 percent job growth rate between 2010 and 2020. STEM fields are also drivers of innovation: Experts note that those working in STEM are overwhelmingly responsible for creating breakthrough inventions compared with non-STEM counterparts.
Despite the promise these career paths offer, less than one-third of eighth graders in this country are proficient in mathematics and science and fewer than 15 percent of U.S. undergraduates receive science or engineering degrees. This academic lag has resulted in the country’s STEM workforce hovering under 3 percent of the total working population.
“It is important to close these gaps because STEM fields have an enormous impact on our country’s growth and also provide rich opportunities for our youth,” says John Jones, R.Ph., J.D., who is a senior vice president at OptumRx and the chair of the Pharmacy is Right for Me educational initiative. “We should reach students early in their education to get them thinking about the opportunities the sector has to offer, and begin taking those first steps toward building careers in the diverse STEM arena.”
So how can parents and caretakers help kids embark upon successful professional journeys in STEM and related fields? Jones recommends taking the following steps:
1. Engage young students early on and provide them with an educational roadmap. Students may not consider careers in STEM fields because they simply do not know about what those pathways can offer. Help expose kids as early as elementary and middle school to the types of unique and exciting options found through STEM. Work with your children to build a strong foundation in math and science skills, which are essential to pursuing STEM opportunities at every level – from technical positions to those requiring advanced degrees.
2. Encourage hands-on learning. Gaining real-world STEM experience through internships, summer jobs, or even participation in student innovation competitions can help kids get excited about future possibilities and apply their science and math education in creative ways. Shadowing STEM professionals in the local community can also provide a deeper understanding of what STEM professions involve on a day-to-day basis.
3. Seek out additional support both in your local community and online. Preparing for post-high school and post-college life can be extremely challenging, even with parental support. Encourage children to seek additional help at school by speaking with their guidance counselors. Find mentors at school or in the local community to provide professional guidance. Use credible Web-based resources for educational and financial information. Online resources, such as those offered through Pharmacy is Right for Me’s website, Facebook and Twitter channels, can help young students navigate through the challenges of reaching their long-term goals.
Despite the challenging job forecast, there is a wide range of prospects open to students in the thriving STEM industries. Engaging the next generation of STEM leaders by getting kids excited about these careers can help secure successful futures for youth.
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Children love to hear their grandparents and parents recount the details of whence their family came, the genealogy of who they are, how they came about and why they are. Indeed, our heritage depends on the continuous retelling of such important events.
This is why we take pleasure each year at this time recounting some of the lesser discussed details surrounding the birth of Jesus Christ. We all know what happened on “Christmas” — as St. Luke masterfully wrote in his Gospel (see below). But having some of the context that led up to this holy, remarkable day adds to its richness.
In truth, Jesus’ birth is a story for Jews and Christians alike. After all, Jesus’ parents, Mary and Joseph, were Jews. And the setting for this momentous, monumental event was in the heart of the land that God promised to Abraham and Moses — Israel.
The main characters leading up to Jesus’ birth — Mary, Joseph, Mary’s cousin, Elizabeth, and her husband, Zacharias — were anything but celebrities in their day. They were as common as Iowa farmers. And yet, in reality, Mary and Joseph were indeed connected to royalty. Biblical scholars write they actually were cousins, both descendants from the lineage of King David, the longtime king of Israel.
But at that time — which was around 4 B.C. — the Jews of Judea (central Israel), were anything but a privileged, royal class. They were living under the rule of Julius Ceasar Augustus and his vast Roman empire and under the unpredictability of the maniac, King Herod, an Arab-Jew who ruled over Jerusalem and Bethlehem as a “client” king for Caesar.
“Herod inflicted such outrages upon (the Jews) as not even a beast could have done if it possessed the power to rule over men,” wrote the biblical historian Josephus. What’s more, Herod became infamous for murdering his wife, his wife’s father, her brother, three of his own sons and 300 of his military leaders.
Nonetheless, under Herod, the Jews managed to live with what biblical historian James Edward Talmadge called “some semblance of national autonomy.” They could practice their religion without much interference.
But there was no doubt the Jews did not relish their domination. The Jews kept to themselves and held particular dislike for the Samaritans, a racially mixed people. “The enmity between Jew and Samaritan was so intense that travelers between Judea and Galilee would make long detours rather than pass through Samaria,” Talmadge wrote.
This is what Mary and Joseph would encounter after they received word of Julius Caesar’s order for a census. Caesar demanded that everyone register in his hometown. For Mary and Joseph, this meant traveling from Nazareth in Galilee in the north to Bethlehem in Judea — an 80-mile journey. That would have taken them right through Samaria. And let’s not forget: Mary was nine months pregnant.
In his gospel on the birth of Christ, St. Luke was sparing on the details of Mary and Joseph’s trip. The fact there are few details must mean it was mostly uneventful. But you could imagine it otherwise: Any woman in her ninth month of pregnancy is physically miserable — can’t sit for long stretches, can’t sleep. So imagine Mary and Joseph traveling in a caravan or with Mary riding on a donkey. It was cold at night.
The trip would have taken about four days. On this very day, Dec. 22, they would have had two days to go before reaching Bethlehem. And at this point in the trip, they would just be passing through Samaria. Jewish travelers were marks for bandits.
God was watching over Mary and Joseph, of course. They made it, but only to find out that Bethlehem, normally a sleepy little town, was bustling with Jews who had returned to register for the census. There was no room at the inn.
Mary and Joseph, we know, found a stable. But this wasn’t the stable we see on the Hallmark Christmas cards. The stables in those days often were dark, cold caves with “mangers” — animal-feeding troughs carved into the stone walls; they were not wooden cribs padded with dry, neatly arranged hay.
With nowhere else to go, Mary gave birth … under the stars, amid the manure and muck, among the sheep, cows and chickens, no doctors present to administer an epidural, with Joseph, her carpenter husband, assisting as best he could. Those who have witnessed birth know its difficulty in a hospital bed. Imagine the scene in a smelly, cold barn.
Yet, this lowly, humble setting was the way Jesus Christ, the Savior whom God sent for mankind, came into this world.
Contrast the differences: Caesar Augustus maneuvering for worldly power and the biggest worldwide celebrity of his day; Herod the Great, a regional celebrity, abusing his power over his small dominion in unspeakable ways. They were all about status and ego.
Mary and Joseph were the antithesis. Humble, not materially wealthy, ordinary in all appearances. And yet they were extraordinary. God sent his messenger, the angel Gabriel, and stunned Mary with the news she would conceive miraculously and bring forth a son — the Son of the Highest who would “reign over the house of Jacob forever.” She would be his mother.
And Joseph, the quiet carpenter, fretted over what would happen to Mary, his fiancée, if people found out she was pregnant before they were married. The angel Gabriel gave comfort to Joseph, just as he did to Mary.
And with humility and obedience and far below the radar screen of celebrity status, they carried out God’s will, remembering all the while Gabriel’s assurance to Mary: “For with God, nothing shall be impossible.”
This is our heritage. Merry Christmas.
(Editor’s note: This originally appeared in the Dec. 23, 2010, edition.) — MW
… For unto you is born this day …
And it came to pass in those days, that there went out a decree from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be taxed.
(And this taxing was first made when Cyrenius was governor of Syria.) And all went to be taxed, every one into his own city.
And Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth, into Judea, unto the city of David, which is called Bethlehem; (because he was of the house and lineage of David:) to be taxed with Mary his espoused wife, being great with child.
And so it was, that, while they were there, the days were accomplished that she should be delivered.
And she brought forth her firstborn son, and wrapped him in swaddling clothes, and laid him in a manger; because there was no room for them in the inn.
And there were in the same country shepherds abiding in the field, keeping watch over their flock by night.
And, lo, the angel of the Lord came upon them, and the glory of the Lord shone round about them: and they were sore afraid.
And the angel said unto them, Fear not: for, behold, I bring you good tidings of great joy, which shall be to all people.
For unto you is born this day in the city of David a Saviour, which is Christ the Lord.
And this shall be a sign unto you; Ye shall find the babe wrapped in swaddling clothes, lying in a manger.
And suddenly there was with the angel a multitude of the heavenly host praising God, and saying, Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men.
And it came to pass, as the angels were gone away from them into heaven, the shepherds said one to another, Let us now go even unto Bethlehem, and see this thing which is come to pass, which the Lord hath made known unto us.
And they came with haste, and found Mary, and Joseph, and the babe lying in a manger. — St. Luke, 2:1-16, King James Bible
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18 Author Event Laura Lee Smith: Heart of Palm
18 An Island Affaire
6:00 pm - 11:00 pm
18 Chef's Cooking For Kids
6:00 pm - 9:00 pm
18 Movie and Discussion - History Channel's Ancient Alien Series
7:00 pm - 8:00 pm
Trevor Kunk is the chef de cuisine at Blue Hill in New York City’s Greenwich Village, which the James Beard Foundation just named "most outstanding restaurant."
Sarasota native and resident Bri Oliva made her TV debut May 7, on the "Rachael Ray Show." Oliva was selected to participate in a segment called "Hidden Dangers on the Playground."
Key to the city
More than 100 community members and leaders, friends and family surprised Paul Thorpe, one of the founding members of the Downtown Association of Sarasota, April 25, at The Gator Club, to show their appreciation and celebrate the strides he’s made for Sarasota over the past four decades.
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IN THIS EPISODE (in order of appearance):
[upbeat electronic music]
(Jennifer): Hello, there. I'm Jennifer Pulley, and welcome to another edition of NASA 360.
Today we've got so many things lined up for you. We're going to talk about technology. We're going to talk about exploration. And we're going to talk about dinosaurs and how they're all related.
But first, let's talk about where I'm standing. Get this: I'm standing inside a fort. That's right, and it's not just any fort. This is Jamestown fort. It's the site of the first permanent English colony in what was then called the new world. Today, of course, we know it as America.
Now think about this: from this starting point, people spread out all across the country and eventually populated the entire United States. So I guess we have to say that this landing's spot's a pretty big deal in American history.
Over time, though, the original fort that the English settlers built fell into disrepair. And believe it or not, for many years, it was lost to history. That all changed in 1996 when archaeologist Dr. Bill Kelso rediscovered the original fort.
It began a whole new era of understanding what life was like for those first Jamestown settlers. For the first time, they had proof. Using old writings, drawings, and now a handy trowel for digging, Dr. Kelso and his team discovered where the old fort was. And they began excavating the artifacts.
To date, he and his team have found over 1 million artifacts from the original fort. And they expect to find many more in the next few years. In a little while, we'll catch up with Dr. Kelso and dig a little deeper into the history of Jamestown.
But first, do you know the difference between an archaeologist and a paleontologist? Well, let's see. They both dig in the ground looking for things in the past, right? Well, it's the type of things they're looking for that make them different.
You see, archaeology is the science of understanding human cultures, while paleontology is the study of prehistoric life-forms. So basically, then, archaeologists spends their time trying to understand human history, while paleontologists generally look for fossils from before human history, like dinosaur bones. Got it?
Luckily for archaeologists and paleontologists, tons of help is now coming from NASA. How? Well, one of the ways is through the use of remote sensing techniques.
Remote sensing? Well, in the broadest sense, it's the use of a device to collect information without actually physically touching the object.
Now, a great example of a remote sensing device we use every single day? Our eyes. Think about it. You can detect objects around you without physically touching them. You simply use your detectors, or your eyes, to see the object, gather information about it. You're using remote sensing.
There are many forms of NASA-sponsored remote sensing devices that are being used to help in archaeology and paleontology.
Like, for example, there's something called ground-penetrating radar. This unique type of radar system can actually see objects in the ground without anyone having to dig them up. By using this in combination with aerial photography and historical documents, NASA can help give researchers a much better indication of where to dig, what to preserve, and what areas to avoid.
Satellites are another type of remote sensing tool being used by NASA researchers to help archaeologists and paleontologists. In fact, NASA archaeologist Dr. Tom Sever has been using satellite data to help us understand why the Mayan civilization in Guatemala collapsed and how current populations may be able to prevent future disaster. Let me try to break it down for you.
Between the third and ninth century, the Mayan civilization in Central America flourished. But after about the ninth century, they collapsed, leaving archaeologists few clues as to why this once-mighty civilization disappeared.
This is where NASA comes in. Our remote sensing satellites can detect even small changes within the electromagnetic spectrum. So sand, cultivated soil, vegetation, and rocks, each have distinctive spectral signatures which are easily distinguished from each other. So archaeologists can use info from the remote sensing satellites to quickly target specific areas of interest then send teams to that area to validate the findings.
Dr. Sever and his team have already found several previously undiscovered sites and feel confident that they know where others are, thanks to NASA's remote sensing satellites. That is how NASA is helping researchers find old ruins. But remote sensing satellites are also helping us understand why the Mayan civilization may have disappeared.
Today, the Peten rain forest in Guatemala is covered with trees and is not heavily populated. But it was not like this during the peak of the Mayan civilization. In fact, during that time, this region had a population of about 2,000 people per square mile, which is about the same as current-day Los Angeles.
With a population that large, the Mayans had to farm huge areas of land. To do this, they employed a technique called slash and burn, which eventually destroyed virtually every tree for hundreds of miles. Computer models show that as the trees disappeared, so did the rain, which caused temperatures to increase by five to six degrees. All of these shifts may have caused malnutrition and disease, which, in turn, contributed to its collapse.
This information is especially important for us today because slash-and-burn techniques are once again being used in the areas that were once Mayan strongholds. Understanding what happened to the Mayans may dissuade current generations of farmers from following the same destructive path.
So as you can see, NASA technology is being used for a lot more than just to help us in space. It's being used to help save lives back here on Earth too.
Hey, in a little bit, we'll swing back out here to Jamestown to talk with Dr. Kelso. But first, let's head to North Dakota. Johnny Alonso's there to see what a mummified dinosaur and NASA have in common.
Hang on tight. You're watching NASA 360.
(Johnny): Hey, how's it going? Let me ask you something. Have you ever seen a real dinosaur?
And I'm not talking about one of those dinosaurs you might see in the movies or even the skeletons in the museums. I'm talking about a real dinosaur with skin, muscle, and bones. Yeah, it might be hard nowadays, considering the fact that dinosaurs lived, what, hundreds of millions of years ago.
But what if I told you that researchers found a dinosaur just like that? Would you believe it?
Well, if you said no, you'd better start believing, because a few years ago, researchers found an actual mummified dinosaur that was still intact, from the skin to cartilage to muscle. A mummified Hadrosaur named Dakota is so unique in its discovery that it's changing what researchers thought they knew about dinosaurs.
I rolled out to Bismarck, North Dakota, to speak with my buddy Dr. John Hoganson about this amazing discovery and to find out how NASA is helping unearth more clues.
Oh, wow, are you kidding me? Yeah, this is... Oh, this is so cool!
(Dr. John Hoganson): This is the tail section of the duckbilled dinosaur called Dakota. And it's being prepared here at the North Dakota Geological Survey Preparation Laboratory here at the Heritage Center here in Bismarck.
(Johnny): This is something else. Wow! So, doc, how was this dinosaur found?
(Dr. John Hoganson): Well, this fossil was found in 1999 by Tyler Lyson down in Marmarth, North Dakota, which is in the southwest corner of the state.
He was only a sophomore in high school at the time but was out exploring for fossils, actually, on his uncle's property down in the badlands.
Now, this is a Hadrosaur called Edmontosaurus. That's the scientific name for this particular species of dinosaur. Hadrosaurs were duckbilled dinosaurs. They're a group of dinosaurs that were referred to as duckbilled dinosaurs because their snouts were compressed very similar to a modern duck.
(Johnny): So what is so unique about this fossil?
(Dr. John Hoganson): Well, you know, generally, paleontologists, when we're out exploring for fossils, will only find individual bones or fragments of jaws or things like that.
This particular dinosaur, called Dakota, is not only a complete skeleton but it's very unique, because the skin is actually preserved on this animal. So the entire skeleton appears to be wrapped in the skin that it was enclosed in.
This is called a mummified dinosaur, but it's not a mummy in the sense of what we generally think about, like an Egyptian mummy that has been embalmed for preservation. The skin on this animal is actually preserved because it's been replaced by a mineral called siderite, which is an iron carbonate kind of mineral which is very hard and has preserved the skin.
(Johnny): All right, so how did NASA get involved with this dinosaur discovery?
Well, researchers needed a way to scan through all the layers of rock to see all the dinosaur. And since this thing weighs about ten tons, they needed a really, really big scanner.
(Dr. John Hoganson): Well, you know, when we usually find these fossils in the field, we generally just find the bones, the skeletons.
And it was determined early on during the excavation process that this particular dinosaur was covered in skin. So it was decided to take these skeleton blocks out still entombed in the rock.
So big blocks of rocks were removed. And at that point, it was decided that the best technology to use to determine the position of the bones in the rock and the completeness of the skeleton was to use C.A.T. scan technologies.
And that's where NASA was asked if they could help with this. And it's been a very good approach, because with this tail block that we're working on right now, we, through the C.A.T. scan technology, are able to know where the bones are before we actually start digging through the rock matrix.
(Johnny): Luckily for these guys, NASA operates the largest CT scanner in the world. Located at a Boeing facility in Canoga Park, California, this scanner's first priority is to inspect large space shuttle parts.
Well, the task for Dakota was not all that different. So they loaded Dakota on a truck and shipped it off to California. When it arrived, the scanner was able to penetrate the dense iron carbonate that surrounded the dinosaur's tail section. And right away, researchers saw bones, tissue, and cartilage.
(Dr. John Hoganson): Well, since I've been a paleontologist, which has been a few years, there's been a lot of technological changes and advancements that have really helped the science.
In addition to the C.A.T. scan technology that we've been talking about here, there's a lot of remote sensing types of technologies that are available to us now.
Global position systems, mapping, lidar, kinds of laser mapping, various other kinds of technologies that assist us in the field actually locating and positioning the fossil finds, because it's very important to us to know where in the rock column the fossil is found and also, of course, the geographic position of the fossil.
We also use, you know, C.A.T. scans for determining the bones structures of skulls and also the size of the brain cases and skulls, fossil skulls, that have been found.
So technology is used extensively now in paleontology.
We're preparing this for exhibit. The tail and one of the arms will be prepared and put on exhibit here at the North Dakota Heritage Center, which is open to the public. So we plan to have it here for quite some time if people are interested in coming and seeing it.
(Johnny): Good. Absolutely. Well, doctor, thank you so much for having us here.
(Dr. John Hoganson): Sure, it's really good to have you here.
(Johnny): Most definitely. Thank you.
Hey, in a little bit, I'm going to tell you how NASA's bringing history to life on the Lewis and Clark trail. So don't go anywhere. It's coming right up. You're watching NASA 360.
(Jennifer): Okay, so the first English settlers landed here in Jamestown in 1607. But the first years, oh, they were rough. In fact, for many years, there was question as to whether the small fort would actually survive.
There was starvation and a lot of sickness. But thanks to some local indians and some resupply from England, this small, little fort held on, and it began to flourish.
In fact, from 1612 to 1698, Jamestown was the capital of the whole country. That changed when a fire swept through the state house and it forced the capital to be moved to Williamsburg. Just a few years later, Jamestown was gone, both physically and in memory.
Over the centuries, people believed that the old fort and all of its artifacts had actually washed away into the James River. But that all changed in 1994, when the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities, or, for short, the APVA, commissioned an archaeological dig in the area where the original fort was thought to be.
Why? Well, APVA lead archaeologist Dr. Bill Kelso believed the original fort had not been washed away at all. He had a hunch that he knew where to find the fort. And this old church had something to do with it.
(Dr. Bill Kelso): Reason that I started digging where I did was that, there's a church tower here that's the only original above-ground part of Jamestown, 17th century.
And the church was originally in the midst of the fort. One of the records said this, you know? I said, "Well, it ought to be around here somewhere." So starting near the church was the key.
And it was an area that had never really been looked at before, ironically enough. It's high ground. It really made sense, now that we know where the fort is.
(Jennifer): Can you walk me through kind of the excavation process, the recording -- we were talking a little bit about the technology -- and then where do the artifacts go from there?
(Dr. Bill Kelso): Well, artifacts are removed from the soil. Once we understand the context, we call it, where they're found, they're taken to a lab, and they're washed. And then some of these -- like these iron objects would have to be conserved.
Some things, probably 1% or 2% of what we have here, will go on exhibit. We have, you know, a museum here. And there are other traveling exhibits and other things that we do just to tell the Jamestown story.
(Excavator): Would you believe that?
(Excavator): How are we going to do this?
(Man): What is that?
(Woman): Oh, my god!
(Excavator): It's all metal down here. That's why it's rusty.
(Man): That's Lord Deleware's.
[end excavation footage]
(Jennifer): Dr. Kelso, how long have you been an archaeologist?
(Dr. Bill Kelso): Well, I started probably 1607, something like that.
(Jennifer): [laughing] Why, you look great!
(Dr. Bill Kelso): Thank you very much.
(Jennifer): Well, you're over 400 years old!
(Dr. Bill Kelso): Gosh. It's been a while. 45 years, I guess, I would say.
(Jennifer): All right, so in that time, in those 45 years, tell me, what have you seen? What changes have you seen -- technology -- technological advances in archaeology?
(Dr. Bill Kelso): Well, the major technological advances -- you would think that we would've invented X-ray vision. You know, we would save a lot of digging. But that hasn't happened.
There are certain machines that can give you some reading belowground without digging, remote sensing.
But what I think the breakthrough has been has been in recording, the record of archaeology, 'cause archaeology, I think, in the past, is something that's viewed as destructive.
But now we have the technology, through a GIS Program, that we can record almost in three dimensions. And we're close. And if you can record in three dimensions, then you can actually replicate the site again, digitally, and, you know, relook at it.
That still doesn't replace just, you know, blood, sweat, and tears. I mean, it's just down. It's digging. It's scooping. It's using -- our main instrument here is just this small shovel.
And, you know, it takes a long time to dig out a hole like this with something like this. But we have to do that so that we don't disturb artifacts.
(Jennifer): So tell me about some of the amazing things you've found.
(Dr. Bill Kelso): Well, we've found over a million artifacts in this project. But there are certain things that really do stand out.
(Jennifer): One of those things that stands out is a lead luggage tag with its destination stamped on it, "Yamestowne."
This tag made the long journey from England to the new world on a wooden ship then was discarded into the bottom of a well. After its rediscovery 400 years later, it would again be making a long trip, this time into space.
To help celebrate the 400th anniversary of Jamestown, this lowly luggage tag was placed aboard the space shuttle Atlantis, where it traveled nearly 6 million miles around the Earth.
After the space flight was over, the tag was returned to Jamestown, where it went back on display in the Jamestown Archaearium with other artifacts from the old fort.
(Dr. Bill Kelso): I think it really highlights the... sort of age-old exploration process, that, in 1607, you had to get the vehicles. You had to raise the money. You had to get the political things in order, the charter, to come to Virginia, and dress appropriately with armor and closed helmets, because it was an alien environment, you had to put some kind of a…
It's almost like a -- it is almost like a space station. You know, here in -- or an outpost -- to begin to explore an unknown environment in Virginia, and that's –
(Jennifer): and NASA's continuing to do that.
(Dr. Bill Kelso): Right, and here's the colonization of the moon. And what are the problems? Well, you got to get there. You got to have the right vehicles. What do you take with you? You know, how do you survive in this alien environment?
You put in artificial surface around you, you know, and you dress appropriately. So it is -- it's really an age-old thing. This whole psychological need to explore, spiritual need to explore, I think, is still today just as it was at the time of Jamestown.
(Jennifer): All right, so let's talk a little bit about this correlation between the early explorers, yourself, you're an explorer, and then the future explorers.
(Dr. Bill Kelso): Well, I'm kind of an explorer of explorers, the recent explorers. I mean, they -- we're trying to figure out what it was like to explore and to discover. And our project's called "Jamestown Rediscovery" you know, we're not discovering Jamestown. We're rediscovering it.
And a good example is this space here that -- this was used as a laboratory to study the minerals and the iron ore of this new land to see if it could be profitable to come here.
So, yeah, this is very similar to what I've read about explorations, especially on mars. They send out vehicles, and they do drilling, and they look at the material. And that's what was going on here.
And so this space was where -- I'm sure people that you've heard of before -- Captain John Smith walked around in here. You know, maybe Pocahontas checking out the blacksmith shop.
(Jennifer): That is so cool. That's… I mean, that's -- what an amazing job you have.
(Dr. Bill Kelso): Well, that's what… that's the payoff, is to feel… to walk the places, to be in the places where these historical events happened. So then the events take on much more meaning than if you just read them in a text book.
(Jennifer): Earlier, Dr. Kelso mentioned the similarities between the 1607 Jamestown explorers and NASA's future space explorers.
What about all the explorers in between? Guys like Daniel Boone, Neil Armstrong come to mind, as well as many countless others who have helped broaden our knowledge through exploration.
Perhaps two of the most famous names in American exploration history are Lewis and Clark. You ever heard of them? They blazed a trail through the American west, mapping out their path as they went.
So what do you think? Did NASA have anything to do with the Lewis and Clark expedition?
Well, not the original trip, but NASA is helping out now. Johnny Alonso will tell you all about it.
(Johnny): All right, so we've seen a lot today how NASA's helping archaeologists and paleontologists through remote sensing. These remote sensing devices have helped us unearth some really cool findings in places like Cambodia, Central America, and the American southwest. And they've also helped along one of the most famous trails in American history, the Lewis and Clark Trail.
To find out how NASA helped map this 200-year-old trail, I rolled up to Fort Mandan in North Dakota, where Lewis and Clark spent their first winter.
Before we get into NASA's involvement, let's go back a few hundred years to the beginning of the Lewis and Clark expedition.
Back in 1804, when the expedition began, we knew almost nothing about what was to the west of St. Louis. So president Thomas Jefferson commissioned Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to lead an expedition west to find the first all-water route to the Pacific Ocean.
This was an epic journey, taking several years and 3,700 miles (5,955 km) to complete. During this trip, they collected samples of plants and animals, met many of the different Indian tribes of the west and brought back detailed data about the route that they had taken.
But even though they brought back some pretty good maps and data, they still weren't 100 percent accurate. That's because most of these journals weren't written right away, or they were written after a hard day's travel. And many of the entries contain geographical inaccuracies.
So… this is where NASA comes in. Researchers from NASA's Stennis Space Center took the maps of Lewis and Clark and combined them with high-resolution images taken from satellites and aircraft.
They created maps with a 360-degree view of an area where the explorers traveled. From that view, archaeologists could follow the trails as if they were flying over the actual landscape in real time and in any direction or angle they chose.
Researchers pored over these maps looking for telltale signs of human disturbances unique to the Lewis and Clark expedition. With this technique, archaeologists were able to narrow down some of the possible sites from many miles to a few acres.
This information is helping to find Lewis and Clark artifacts that provide a clearer understanding of the expedition and what the lives of those early explorers had been like.
And don't forget, NASA has a new generation of explorers too that will soon be going back to the moon and on to Mars. So in the future when we talk about great explorers, there's no doubt that NASA's astronauts will be on the list.
It's amazing, isn't it? Just when you thought you knew everything about NASA, we throw something else at you.
So as you can see, NASA's not only trying to help shape our future. It's also making the past clearer.
That's it for this episode. For Jennifer Pulley, I'm Johnny Alonso. I'll catch you next time on NASA 360.
(Johnny): …dinosaur. I'd say it was still in -- [laughing].
(Johnny): These remote sensing devices will help us on -- two.
(Jennifer): Why? Well, APVA lead archaeologist Dr. Bill Kelso believed -- he thought – [smiles].
(Johnny): …to find out how NASA helped -- two.
(Johnny): That's right, a mummified Hadrosaur named Dakota [stops, snaps fingers]
(Jennifer): Let's head out to North Dakota. Johnny Alonso is learning how NASA technology was used to unearth some really cool -- really unique… eh.
(Jennifer): Guys like Daniel Boone and Neil Armstrong may come to mind, as well as many countless oth…
(Jennifer): …it's doctor – bill-la-la-la-la…
(Johnny): I rolled out to Fort Mandan, North Dakota, for... Damn! That was it. That was it. I'll say it right this time.
› Download Vodcast (284 MB)
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This program demonstrates the differences of facemasks and respirators that are to be used in public settings during an influenza pandemic. Created: 5/15/2007 by CDC, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
Date Released: 5/25/2007. Series Name: CDC Featured Podcasts.
[Announcer] This podcast is presented by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC - safer, healthier people.
Facemasks are loose-fitting, disposable masks that cover the nose and mouth. These include products labeled as surgical, dental, medical procedure, isolation, and laser masks. Facemasks help stop droplets from being spread by the person wearing them. They also keep splashes or sprays from reaching the mouth and nose of the person wearing the facemask. They are not designed to protect you against breathing in very small particles. Facemasks should be used once and then thrown away in the trash.
A respirator, for example an N95 or higher filtering facepiece respirator is designed to protect you from breathing in very small particles, which might contain viruses. These types of respirators fit tightly to the face so that most air is inhaled through the filter material. To work the best way, N95 respirators must be specially fitted for each person who wears one. This is called “Fit testing” and is usually done in a workspace where respirators are used. Like surgical masks, N95 respirators should be worn only once and then thrown away in the trash.
CDC is not recommending persons to stockpile masks or respirators at this time. If you purchase any, the manufacturer supplies important instructions with facemasks and respirators on how they are to be put on and checked to make sure they are properly positioned on the face. Always follow the manufacturer’s instructions, specific to the product you are using.
To access the most accurate and relevant health information that affects you, your family and your community, please visit www.cdc.gov.
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Pipelining is a technique you can use to increase the throughput of the FPGA VI. In a pipelined design, you take advantage of the parallel processing capabilities of the FPGA to increase the efficiency of sequential code. To implement a pipeline, you must divide code into discrete steps and wire the inputs and outputs of each step to Feedback Nodes or shift registers in a loop.
In the following block diagram, subVIs A, B, and C execute in sequence within a single-cycle Timed Loop. As a result, the clock rate of the single-cycle Timed Loop must be set to accommodate the sum of the running times of all three running subVIs.
When you wire the inputs and outputs of the subVIs to Feedback Nodes, as shown in the following block diagram, LabVIEW pipelines the subVIs. Now, the subVIs execute in parallel, all within a single cycle, and the maximum clock rate is limited only by the subVI with the longest combinatorial path. By implementing a pipelined design, you might be able to increase the clock rate of the single-cycle Timed Loop and increase the throughput of the FPGA VI.
You also can use shift registers to implement a pipeline, as shown in the following block diagram.
When you implement a pipeline, the output of the final step lags behind the input by the number of steps in the pipeline, and the output is invalid for each clock cycle until the pipeline fills. The number of steps in a pipeline is called the pipeline depth, and the latency of a pipeline, measured in clock cycles, corresponds to its depth. For a pipeline of depth N, the result is invalid until the Nth clock cycle, and the output of each valid clock cycle lags behind the input by N-1 clock cycles.
Because there are three steps in this example (subVIs A, B, and C), the improved code results in a pipeline of depth 3. Therefore, the output is not valid until the third clock cycle, and the output of each valid clock cycle C always corresponds to the input from clock cycle C – (N – 1), as shown in the following illustration.
In this example, subVI A processes measurement 1 during clock cycle 1, while subVIs B and C both process the default value of the shift register, yielding invalid output. During clock cycle 2, subVI A processes measurement 2, subVI B processes the output of subVI A from clock cycle 1, and subVI C processes an invalid value, yielding invalid output. During clock cycle 3 the pipeline finally fills and the output from subVI C becomes valid for the first time. SubVI A processes measurement 3, subVI B processes the output of subVI A from clock cycle 2, and subVI C processes the output of subVI B from clock cycle 2, yielding the output that corresponds to measurement 1. After the pipeline is full, all subsequent clock cycles yield valid output, with a constant lag of 2 clock cycles.
|Note You must use caution to prevent undesired behavior due to the invalid outputs that occur at the beginning of pipelined execution. For example, you can use a Case structure to ensure that a control algorithm enables actuators only after N clock cycles elapse.|
You can use pipelining to increase throughput by compiling a single-cycle Timed Loop in a faster clock domain. For example, the top section of the illustration below shows the execution timing of a non-pipelined loop consisting of three subVIs, each of which requires a propagation delay of 12.5 ns. The total propagation delay from subVI A to subVI C is 37.5 ns, which is too long to compile at 40 MHz. The middle section of the illustration shows how pipelining the code reduces the propagation delay to 12.5 ns, allowing the loop to compile at 40 MHz. Because the propagation delay of the pipelined loop is only 12.5 ns, the loop can compile at a clock rate as high as 80 MHz, as shown in the bottom section of the illustration.
|Note A pipelined design increases latency over a non-pipelined design when measured in clock cycles. However, because pipelining allows you to decrease the cycle period, the overall latency measured in units of time should not change substantially.|
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Saturday, January 9, 2010
Elizabeth Ballroom E (Hyatt)
Island (or Dokdo in Korean; Takeshima in Japanese; Liancourt Rocks in French/English) consists of a group of disputed islets in the sea between Korea and . Although Japan South Korea currently controls the islets has claimed the contested territory. While Korean claim is based on its historical records dating from the sixth century, Japanese takes the records of the seventeenth century, the era of its colonial rule over Japan Korea (1910-45), and the document at the end of WWII. More recently, the U.S. Library of Congress faced much challenge from within and without both academia and popular media as it tried to make a change in the current library subject heading concerning the disputed territory as of 2008. How have the controversial archival records on the island constructed subjective and contradictory historical interpretations and imagination? What kind of geographical and historical narratives do these changing maps of the island reflect? This poster session introduces the changing cartographical practices over the disputed borderland between U.S. Japan and Korea, and brings to light the genealogy of the controversy over the name and citizenship of the island in the context of the rise of colonialism, imperialism, and Cold War in twentieth-century East Asia.
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Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.
October 24, 1998
Explanation: Sunrise seen from low Earth orbit by the shuttle astronauts can be very dramatic indeed ( and the authors apologize to Hemingway for using his title!). In this breathtaking view, the Sun is just visible peaking over towering anvil-shaped storm clouds whose silhouetted tops mark the upper boundary of the troposphere, the lowest layer of planet Earth's atmosphere. Sunlight filtering through suspended dust causes this dense layer of air to appear red. In contrast, the blue stripe marks the stratosphere, the tenuous upper atmosphere, which preferentially scatters blue light.
Authors & editors:
NASA Technical Rep.: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply.
A service of: LHEA at NASA/ GSFC
&: Michigan Tech. U.
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Congressman Tanner's Fairness and Independence in Redistricting Act (H.R. 2642)The Fairness and Independence in Redistricting Act, introduced by Representative John Tanner, would make important improvements to our congressional elections. The Act would require state legislatures to appoint independent commissions that would be responsible for redrawing district boundaries. These commissions would draw district boundaries in accordance with the provisions of the Voting Rights Act, and could not draw lines based on partisanship alone. As a result, the redistricting process would become independent of partisan manipulation. In addition, the Act would only allow redistricting to occur once every ten years.
The United States Constitution requires congressional seats to be reapportioned among the states after each decennial census in order to ensure compliance with the one-person one-vote criteria, the federal Voting Rights Act, and traditional redistricting principles such as compact and contiguous districts. Redistricting, however, has often turned into a means to further political goals as boundaries have consistently been drawn that tend to protect incumbents and reduce competition.
Generally, state legislators and governors re-draw the boundaries of the US House districts, but the process varies among states. In twelve states, the legislature does not have final authority to redistrict. Alaska, Idaho and Arizona recently became part of these twelve states as they used a redistricting commission for the first time in 2000. Only six states – Arizona, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, New Jersey, and Washington – give authority for congressional line drawing to a commission. Iowa uses an independent commission to develop plans which are later approved by the legislature. The Fairness and Independence in Redistricting Act would bring uniformity to the way in which districts are redrawn. Clearly some states have implemented fairer processes, while other states continue to use redistricting to solidify the governing party's grasp on power. The way in which legislative lines are drawn has a major impact on who wins and who loses. As a result, it is only logical that such authority by delegated to independent commissions.
In 2001-2002, nearly every political jurisdiction in the nation adjusted its legislative district lines based on new information provided by the U.S. Census. In addition, Texas re-adjusted its districts in 2003. The Tanner bill could end such blatant partisan manipulation of the redistricting process by prohibiting mid-decade redistricting.
Read the bill summary and status of H.R. 2642 on Thomas.
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How does the law treat Mountaintop Removal? Laws at the state and federal level regulate mountaintop removal coal mining and its environmental impacts, require varying levels of public participation, and apply varying amounts of scrutiny in the permitting process. This section will explore the governmental institutions that exert influence over mountaintop removal coal mining, the laws that regulate it, and potential changes in the law. There is great dispute as to whether or not regulations and their enforcement sufficiently safe-guard the health, safety, and well-being of communities living near mountaintop removal sites and the surrounding environment, so both law as written and law as applied will be explored in this section.
National Environmental Protection Act
The National Environmental Protection Act was passed in 1970 in order to monitor the environmental impact of federal agency actions and decisions. The act created a Council on Environmental Policy, required environmental impact statements and a process to solicit public input to include environmental concerns in federal agency decision making.
In the case of mountaintop removal and valley fill permitting, coal companies prepare and submit an Environmental Impact Statements
(EIS) for each permit. In theory, these statements assess the potential impact of mining on the environment. The Army Corps of Engineers is empowered to issue Finding of no Significant Impact (FONSI) documents which supersede any concerns that may be present in the EIS by explaining why the Corps has concluded that there are no significant
environmental impacts resulting from the granting of a permit. In the past, this power has been used to streamline the permitting process, despite the obvious impacts of mountaintop removal mining.
Instances exist where permits were granted despite inadequate EIS statements, and then challenged in court. For example, as part of a settlement agreement from the Bragg vs Robertson (Civ. No. 2:98-0636 (S.D. W.V.)
the EPA, the Corps, the U.S. Interior Department's Fish & Wildlife Service and Office of Surface Mining, and the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), prepared an environmental impact statement (final EIS
) looking at the impacts of mountaintop mining and valley fills
More information is available in the Citizen's Guide to NEPA.
Clean Water Act
Congress passed the Clean Water Act (CWA) in 1972 with the intention of resolving the crisis of America's polluted waterways and wetlands. The CWA combines regulatory and non-regulatory tools in attempting to rid current water systems of pollutants, while attempting to stem the development of new polluted waterways and wetlands. In order to safeguard against the dumping of waste and pollutants into waterways, the Act forbids all dumping (except for specific agricultural uses) that is not approved by the Army Corps of Engineers.
Surface mines are required to obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit, which is regulated under the CWA. In West Virginia, the DEP has primacy of enforcement of the NPDES permits with EPA acting as the federal oversight body. These permits cover all pollutants discharged off the site and into the waters of the United States, restricting effluent limits and requiring the site operator to explain in the mining plan how it will meet those limits and treat what's running off the site, among other requirements.
Valley Fill, or 404, Permits
If a mining plan calls for valley fills, a 404 permit must be obtained, which is an exemption to Subsection 404 of the CWA which allows the Corps to issue variances to fill in an intermittent or perennial stream. EPA follows the United States Geological Survey's definitions for streams: an intermittent stream holds water during wet portions of the year and a perennial stream holds water throughout the year.
The Corps does not have authority over water quality, that's the jurisdiction of the EPA who oversees this permit. However, since anything that interferes with the flow of the water of the United States is regulated by the Corps, the Corps administers valley fills. This is the only part of surface mine permitting where the state does not have primacy of enforcement.
"The thing that's ironic here is that the fill rule was originally developed for developers seeking to build, and this was intended for very small projects, primarily for filling in wetlands for building things like subdivisions and shopping malls," Sludge Safety Project staffer Mathew Louis-Rosenberg said. "So, the division that handles these permits is the Division of Wetlands. Within that, the standards that are developed, that are currently used to determine the environmental impact of a fill, were developed for wetland ecosystems.
"We can't allow them to continue to keep issuing permits. Look at what they're using to evaluate them. It's an ecosystem that bears no resemblance to what we're evaluating." The people who authored the guidelines testified to Joe Lovett, a West Virginia lawyer who's only tried cases aimed at ending mountaintop removal, that the methodology they developed was not appropriate for this ecosystem. "The people who literally wrote the book they use to decide whether they should issue a permit, said it's inappropriate," Louis-Rosenberg said.
There's two types of valley fill permits: individual and Nationwide 21. Large sites are supposed to obtain an individual permit, which carries a more stringent set of regulations requiring more data and proof that the project will not have an adverse impact on the environment. However, Nationwide 21 allows the Corps to issue a blanket permit for small things and, unlike the individual permits, does not require a public hearing.
Coal companies saw the value in nationwide permits, and would often break up large valley fills into smaller pieces in their permit applications in order to avoid the regulatory oversight of an
Listen to Ernie Thompson, resident of Horse Creek and former mine inspector, talk about the changes in law regarding valley fills.
individual permit. In this way, many valley fills were created when a nationwide permit was granted and residents did not notice until dumping began. Beginning with a court victory for advocates against mountaintop removal in 2007, Nationwide 21 permits were declared in violation of the Clean Water Act. This ruling remained in effect until the Fourth Circuit Court overturned it in early 2009.
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA)
On February 16th, 1972, a coal slurry impoundment ruptured in Buffalo Creek, W.Va. The rushing tidal wave of sludge killed over 120 people and left many thousands homeless, yet several days before the rupture a federal inspector had found the dam site in "satisfactory" safety. The dangers of strip mining had long been of concern to coalfield residents.
The increased mechanization of strip mining that left many union mining jobs and the encroaching growth of strip mines combined to spark a powerful grassroots movement to abolish strip mining. The tragedy of the Buffalo Creek Flood stoked these flames and five years later, in response to the growing political pressure from Southern Democrats and coalfield residents, Jimmy Carter signed the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act in 1977.
It did not abolish strip mining, instead stating that its primary goal was to "establish a nationwide program to protect society and the environment from the adverse effects of surface coal mining operations." To do so, it created the Office of Surface Mining in the Department of the Interior and the regulations for them to enforce. The surface mines constructed before SMCRA are often referred to as "pre-law," while those after are called "post-law."
The SMCRA permit is the whole mining plan, top to bottom, including the blasting plan. The DEP administers SMCRA permits but, unlike the NPDES permits, the Interior Department's Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation maintains oversight. The DEP's Office of Explosives and Blasting also approves the blasting plan within the SMCRA permit. A typical Environmental Impact Statement is also required here, "but they usually don't get filled out," Louis-Rosenberg said.
SMCRA requires that "all surface coal mining operations back-fill, compact... and grade in order to restore the approximate original contour of the land with all high-walls, spoil piles and depressions eliminated." However, the WVDEP regularly grants exceptions to the Approximate Original Contour (AOC) rule. This despite one of the act's goals: to "assure that surface mining operations are not conducted where reclamation as required by this Act is not feasible."
Since 1977, the following language was added to SMCRA, weakening this goal:
In cases where an industrial, commercial, agricultural, residential or public facility (including recreational facilities) use is proposed or the postmining use of the affected land, the regulatory authority may grant a permit for a surface mining operation of the nature described....after consultation with the appropriate land use planning agencies, if any, the proposed post mining land use is deemed to constitute an equal or better economic use of the affected land as compared to pre mining use.
This clause allows coal companies to not restore a site's AOC, as long as it is put to a better economic or social use than it was before. Under this clause, prisons and a golf course have been constructed on mountaintop removal sites. One such prison has earned the name Sink-Sink because it does just that. The mountains, and the ecosystems they support, have an intrinsic cultural value to the residents of the Coal River Valley that cannot be measured in monetary terms, and yet under SMCRA the economic value of the land supersedes all others.
Mining Safety and Health Administration Permit
The federal Mining Safety and Health Administration oversees the regulatory structure of the mines. All mines have to pass muster on the safety of operating the mine and this is all detailed in the MSHA plan the coal companies must file. Part of MSHA's responsibility is approval and inspection of coal slurry
dams. MSHA focuses on the safety aspect of the structures, not their environmental impacts.
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A key conclusion of this discussion is the fact that all sectors of the economy must achieve deep reductions, not just one or two. This certainly includes the transportation system, which in California is the largest single source of GHGs (38 percent of the total, according to the California Air Resources Board). Transportation-related emissions, in turn, are a product of three factors:
- The fuel efficiency of vehicles
- The carbon content of fuels
- Vehicle miles traveled (VMT)
What does this really mean in practice? Well, if we think of fuel efficiency and carbon content collectively as "carbon efficiency" (or carbon emission per mile), then we see that the carbon efficiency times the VMT must be reduced on the order of 88 percent per capita in forty years. If carbon efficiency were quintupled over that time period through a combination of fuel efficiency gains and decarbonization of fuel stocks, we would still need to reduce VMT by 40 percent per capita relative to today's levels. In other words, we would have to "make do" with 40 percent less personal driving, trucking, business travel and all other uses of motorized vehicles. If carbon efficiency is merely doubled, we would need to reduce the per capita VMT by 76 percent!
Are these changes feasible? Certainly. In fact, there are Americans right now who live well on 76 percent less VMT than their average compatriots. They're the Americans who live in dense urban centers such as New York and San Francisco. Bringing the transportation system into line with our 2050 climate goals means making sure (among other things) that vastly more Americans can live in those kinds of truly dense, mixed-use environments, rather than simply somewhat-more-dense suburban settings (which tend to achieve VMT reductions of only about 20-30 percent).
It can be done -- but modest changes to how we build urban regions won't get us there.
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Hummingbirds are attracted to a good nectar recipe, but so are ants, bees and wasps. Fortunately, there are many easy ways to control insects on hummingbird feeders to eliminate these pests without harming the birds.
Hummingbird Feeder Pests
Several types of insects find hummingbird nectar irresistible. Bees, wasps and ants are the most common uninvited guests, but other insects such as moths and earwigs may also be attracted to the nectar. When too many bugs are feeding on the sugar water, it becomes contaminated and less attractive to hummingbirds. In extreme cases, dozens or hundreds of insects may be monopolizing a feeder, preventing the birds from visiting it at all. By knowing the proper ways to control these insects, birders can manage their hummingbird feeders and reserve the nectar for the birds.
Ways to Control Insects on Hummingbird Feeders
There are many ways to control insects on nectar feeders, but the first thing that birders need to realize is that it is quite impossible to remove 100 percent of the insects that are attracted to a feeder. By using multiple methods, however, it is possible to encourage most bugs to dine elsewhere without harming the hummingbirds.
Effective and safe ways to control insects on hummingbird feeders include:
- Choose No-Insect Feeders: Some types of hummingbird feeders are less insect-friendly than others. Saucer feeders, for example, position the nectar away from the feeding port and insects are unable to get to it, while hummingbirds with their long tongues have no trouble. Other feeder designs include ant moats or bee guards that are designed to keep insects from accessing the nectar without impeding hummingbirds.
- Relocate the Feeder: Once hummingbirds find a food source, they will visit it frequently. Insects are only likely to visit convenient food sources and are less inclined to search for relocated feeders. Moving the feeder by just a few feet can minimize the insect visitors without discouraging the hummingbirds.
- Avoid Yellow Feeders: Wasps and bees are attracted to the color yellow but do not find red appealing. Avoid feeders that have yellow insect guards or flower accents to minimize the feeders’ attractiveness to insects. If your feeder comes with yellow accents, repaint the accents with red, non-toxic paint.
- Keep the Feeder Clean: As birds feed, drips of nectar will inevitably fall from their bills onto the feeder. Feeders can also drip if they are filled too full, as the air pressure inside the feeder will force the nectar out the feeding ports when it heats up. Each time the feeder is refilled, carefully clean the outside and around the feeding ports to remove spilled nectar.
- Use Insect Traps: Commercial insect traps and feeder accessories are available to minimize insects’ access to nectar feeders. While these can be effective deterrents, use them sparingly so you do not disrupt the insects’ place in your backyard ecosystem.
- Hang Feeders Carefully: Ants may climb a pole to reach a nectar feeder, so choose to hang the feeder from a branch or gutter instead. Using fishing line to hang the feeder is another option, as the line is too thin for most ants to climb to access the feeder.
- Keep the Feeder Shaded: Most flying insects prefer to feed in full sunlight, so make nectar feeders less attractive by hanging them in a shadier spot. This will also keep the nectar cooler and slow fermentation.
- Offer Substitute Feeders: If you want to minimize insects on hummingbird feeders but still want the bees around for your flowers or garden, offer them a substitute feeder with a sweeter sugar water solution. Place the diversion feeder in an obvious, sunny location, while using additional techniques to protect the hummingbird feeder.
- Avoid Other Attractions: Bees, wasps and ants are naturally attracted to other features of your yard, including plants and flowers. This is highly desirable for a healthy garden, but avoid uncovered trash, soda cans and other things the insects may find attractive to minimize their unintended food sources and keep their populations under control.
How Not to Remove Insects
It may take several different techniques to completely minimize the appearance of insects at your hummingbird feeders. There are two techniques, however, that should not be used because they are potentially destructive to hummingbirds.
- Insecticides: Even a small amount of pesticide chemicals near the hummingbird feeder can be devastating to small birds. Do not use any sprays near the feeder, and if you do choose to use insect traps, be sure they are positioned away from the feeder.
- Oils: One home remedy for insects on hummingbird feeders is to use olive oil, cooking spray, petroleum jelly or similar substances around feeding ports or on the poles or chains supporting feeders. While this can deter insects, it can also harm the birds by sticking to their feathers and making it more difficult for them to preen and fly.
Not All Insects Are Bad
Not all insects are bad in a hummingbird garden, even if they do occasionally visit nectar feeders. Bees help pollinate flowers that can attract even more birds, and all these insects can be valuable food sources for other backyard birds. Using simple, safe techniques can manage insects so they do not bother hummingbird feeders and can remain a valuable part of a backyard ecosystem.
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By: Clemente Rendón de la Garza
He was born in Villa de Cadereyta, Nuevo Leon in 1639. He was the son of Alonso de Leon y Josefa Gonzalez. His occupation was agriculture and livestock. He married Agustina Cantu and they had seven children, Alonso, Juan, Santiago, Ines, Mateo, Juana and Andres. In 1667 he was named Mayor of Cadereyta, position that he served for eight years. After that position Alonso was named “Encomendadero”, in which he help in the transformation of Indians to the catholic religion. During the period of 1668-82 he was known for the pacification of indians. In 1682 Alonso was named Sargento Mayor and by the end of that year governor of Nuevo Leon, position that he served until 1684. “El Mozo” wrote the book “Derrotero Diario y Demarcacion del Viaje”, in which he described the trip to the Bahia del Espiritu Santo looking for French settlers. In 1687 the Viceroy named Alonso governor of the Coahuila Republic with the mission to start new towns and once again help in the indian pacification. “El Mozo” headed other expeditions looking for French settlements and during those trips he named Rio Nueces, Rio Hondo, Rio del Leon, Rio Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe and Rio San Marcos. General Alonso de Leon died on March 21, 1691. The first exploration of “El Mozo”was the south of the Rio Grande. He was one of the first explorers in San Juan de los Esteros Hermosos (Matamoros) and the one that brought Fray Diego de Orozco who made possible the first mass in Matamoros.
Don Jose de Escandon y de la Helguera was born in Soto de la Marina, Santander in March 19, 1700, being the son of don Jose de Escandon Rumoroso y de doña Francisca de la Helguera. At the age of 15, he migrated to New Spain and enrolled with the army (Caballeros Montados de Merida). In 1721 he moved to Queretaro as Teniente de Infanteria y Caballeria. Don Jose married doña Maria Antonia Ocio y Ocampo in 1724 and they had two children, Jose and Ana Maria. Doña Maria died in 1736 and in 1737 he remarried doña Maria Josefa Juana de Llera y Bayas. They had seven children, Manuel, Ignacio, Vicente, Mariano, Francisco, Josefa Maria and Maria Josefa.
During the period of 1727 through 1734 he served in the indian pacification. In 1736 he started his pacification work in the Sierra Gorda region. With his work in Sierra Gorda he gained the title of Teniente de Capitan General de la Sierra Gorda.
On September 3, 1746 Viceroy Juan Francisco de Guemes y Horcasitas, Conde de Revillagigedo gave don Jose the rights to colonize Nuevo Santander. After some planning, in January 7, 1747 don Jose started his project. He left Queretaro with Fray Jose Velasco, Fray Lorenzo de Medina Captain Maldonado, two sergeants, 10 soldiers and some servants. Along the trip some other people joined him from San Luis, Nuevo Reino de Leon and Coahuila. Don Jose arrived to the Rio Grande on February 24, 1747 and established a camp named Real del Rio del Norte, currently known as El Soliseño. This camp served as based for Escandon’s inspection of the area. After three months, the expedition ended and by October 1747 he wrote a report about the expedition and future plans for settlement. On May 31, 1748 Conde Revillagigedo authorized Escandon to start his settlement plans. Don Jose de Escandon founded 22 towns in 3 periods:
First Period 1748-49
Original Name Actual Name Date
Santa Maria de la Llera Llera December 25, 1748
San Francisco de Guemes Guemes January 1, 1749
Padilla Viejo Padilla January 6, 1749
Santander de los Cinco Señores Santander Jimenez February 17, 1749
Burgos Burgos February 20, 1749
Santa Ana de Camargo Camargo March 5, 1749
Reynosa Reynosa March 14, 1749
San Fernando de Presas San Fernando March 19, 1749
Altamira Altamira May 2, 1749
Horcasitas Magiscatzin May 11, 1749
Santa Barbara Ocampo May 19, 1749
Real de los Infantes Bustamante May 26, 1749
Second Period 1750 - 51
Original Name Actual Name Date
Santa Maria de los Dolores Rancho Dolores, Texas August 22, 1750
Soto la Marina Soto la Marina September 3, 1750
Santa Maria de Aguayo Cd. Victoria October 6, 1750
Revilla Guerrero Viejo October 10, 1750
Escandon Xicotencatl March 15, 1751
Third Period 1752 - 57
Original Name Actual Name Date
Santo Domingo de Hoyos Hidalgo May 19, 1752
Santillana Abasolo December 26, 1752
Mier Cd. Mier March 5, 1753
Laredo Laredo, Texas May 15, 1755
Real de Borbon Villagran May 8, 1757
By the end of 1749, Escandon was called back to Queretaro to help again in the indian pacification in Sierra Gorda. Discontent from Nuevo Santander settlers turn into removal of settlement rights. He died in Mexico City on September 10, 1770.
Fray Manuel Julio de Silva was born in Zacatecas in1736, he was the son of don Joaquin de Silva and doña Ana Maria Caballero. He received the Franciscan votes on May 2, 1754. In 1790 Fray de Silva was designated to be commissioner of the Texas Missions. He travel to San Antonio with father Francisco Mariano Garza and they visited
Mission San Antonio Valero and Espiritu Santo. Fray de Silva was called to go back to Mexico and there he proposed to the Viceroy the founding of missions along the cost to control Karankawas and Comanche indians.
Father de Silva organized two groups, the first one headed by him and Fray Francisco Puelles to work in Texas and the second one, headed by his brother Father Joaquin Maria de Silva to work on the Pacific Coast. Fray de Silva got founding from Spain to start the Nuestra Señora del Refugio mission at north of Rio San Antonio. On his way back to San
Antonio, Fray de Silva and his followers passed through the congregation San Juan de los Esteros. As they found out that San Juan did not had religious services, they stayed there some days. The residents from San Juan decided to change the name of the congregation to Nuestra Señora del Refugio de los Esteros.
Fray de Silva and Fray Puelles continued their trip to San Antonio. When they learned about missing or lost funds, Fray de Silva returned to Mexico. During this time, Karankawa indians destroyed Refugio Mission. Fray Puelles had to relocate the mission and when Fray de Silva returned they relocated the mission one more time to Rancho Santa Gertrudis. After two years of hard work, Fray de Silva went back to Zacatecas due to poor health. He died on December 3, 1798 in Zacatecas.
Mariano Antonio Matamoros Guridi was born on August 14, 1770 in Mexico City, he was the son of don Manuel Matamoros Salazar and doña Mariana Guridi. Mariano got a Bachelors of Arts Degree in 1786 and a degree in theology in 1789. He got license to say mass in some churches. He had a son, Apolonio, before he became a priest and he raise him as his adoptive son and a daughter with her cousin Catalina Salazar.
Mariano believed in the Mexican revolutionary movement and although he didn’t participated actively, his beliefs got him in trouble. Once Matamoros beliefs were public, he joined father Jose Maria Morelos. He was named “Coronel” and after proving his ability in some battles, Morelos made his “Mariscal” being second in command. He was sent to jail and had a trial, and on February 3, 1814 was killed. Several cities had been named after Don Mariano Matamoros and one of them is Matamoros, Tamaulipas.
Father Balli was born on 1768 in Reynosa, Tamaulipas, he was the son of don Jose Maria Balli Fuera and doña Rosa Maria Hinojosa Benavides. Father Balli became priest in 1796. After serving in a chapel in Reynosa, he became the priest at Nuestra Señora del Refugio de los Esteros in Matamoros in 1800. The original site of the church was about 200 meter from the actual one (5th and Matamoros), but after a Rio Grande flood, Father Balli relocated it to the present site. He received a lot of land on both sides of the river and money as inheritance, and part of that inheritance he used to build the church in 1820. Isla de Santiago was also part of his inheritance, which is known as Isla del Padre. Father Balli died August 16, 1829 in Matamoros, four years before the completion of his project, the church of Nuestra Señora del Refugio.
General Mier y Teran was born in Mexico City on February 18, 1789, he was the son of Manuel de Mier y Teran and Maria Ignacia de Teruel y Llanos. He joined in 1811 the revolutionary revolt with general Rayon. Later Mier y Teran joined his childhood friend in the battle, Mariano Matamoros. His main role during the was the construction of arms. Once Morelos died, Mier y Teran took control of the independence revolt. Several defeats plus the need of food and arms made him to back out of the battlefield and began a more pacific life. Iturbide was the next independence leader and once the proclamation of independence was a done deal, Mier y Teran return to the politics taking an active role in congress.
Mier y Teran started a school to teach how to make arms and prepare the army. His poor relations with president Guadalupe Victoria, made him accept Victoria’s proposition to go to the border and try to set the border limits between Mexico and the United States. The border commission travel all the way to the Rio Rojo, and analyzed the boundaries. By march 1829, Mier y Teran was order to come back and stay in Matamoros. During his time in Matamoros, Mier y Teran had the opportunity to study the Rio Grande all the way to Camargo. He knew that Texas was in problems and that the Mexican government needed to do something about it if they didn’t want to lose it. When Mier y Teran saw that nothing could be done to retain Texas and that the Mexican government kept fighting between itself, he committed suicide in San Antonio de Padilla. Since December 5, 1972 his body lays down in Matamoros.
Juan Jose de la Garza was born in Villa de Cruillas, Tamaulipas on May 6, 1826, he was the son of Juan B de la Garza y Maria Eusebia Galvan. He became governor of Tamaulipas for the first time in 1852. De la Garza supported the “Plan de Ayutla” against Santa Ana dictatorship. After some battles and the fall of Santa Ana government, Juan Jose de la Garza became governor again and moved the state government from Matamoros to Tampico. He served eight times as governor of Tamaulipas. De la Garza founded the Instituto Cientifico y Literario San Juan in Matamoros. The school closed for a period during the Mexican revolution, but was later reopen as a middle school and currently as a high school with the name of his founder.
After the decline in popularity on his eighth period as governor, De La Garza moved to Mexico City. There he became minister of the supreme court and law teacher. Juan Jose de la Garza returned to Tamaulipas after 20 years where he died on October 16, 1893.
Manuel Gonzalez Flores was born in Matamoros on June 17, 1832, being the son of Fernando Gonzalez y Eusebia Flores. He joined the armed forces in Matamoros in 1853. He participated in the Puebla Battle of 1862. Benito Juarez, as Mexican president, named Gonzalez governor of the national palace. Manuel Gonzalez was a supporter of Porfirio Diaz and those beliefs made him resign from Juarez government to help Diaz and his Plan de la Noria and Plan de Tuxtepec. He also supported Diaz in his attack to Brownsville and Matamoros against president Lerdo de Tejada. Once Diaz became president, he named Manuel Gonzalez chief commander and governor of Michoacan. Gonzalez hold several positions in the army during Diaz presidential period. At the end of Diaz term, he helped Manuel Gonzalez to become the next Mexican president (December 1, 1880 – November 30, 1884). During Gonzalez time in office, he extended the railroad from 1073 km to 5731 km, increased the telegraph to 30,000 km, reformed the postal service and ended the problem on the border of Guatemala and Chiapas. Also, he implemented the decimal system, organized the army college, reestablished relations with England, changed the silver coins to nickel, and founded the Mexican National Bank (BANAMEX). On the other hand, the economy was having a recession and the debt with England increased. At the end of his days in office, Gonzalez was not real popular. Diaz became president again and Gonzalez was named governor of Guanajuato. He remained as governor with great popularity until his death. General Manuel Gonzalez died in Mexico City on March 8, 1893.
Lucio Blanco was born in Nadadores, Coahuila on July 29, 1879, he was the son of don Bernardo Blanco and doña Maria Fuentes. He met Madero and supported his revolutionary movement. He fought against Diaz until he resigned as president. He helped Madero throughout his presidential period and after he was assassinated, he joined Carranza. He fought against Huerta in Matamoros, and took over the city. This was the first important battle won by the constitutionalists. From Matamoros, he organized the ceremony to give agriculture land property titles to people from Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas. At the end of Carranza period in office, Blanco had to leave to Laredo, Texas due to his decline in popularity. Although Carranza did not support Obregon, he became the next president. Blanco returned to Mexico, but once again had to leave due to rumors about him being against Obregon. Lucio Blanco was found dead at the Rio Grande on July 7, 1922.
Maria Lorenza Hinojosa was born in Matamoros, Tamaulipas on August 10, 1864, being the daughter of Don Victor Hinojosa Longoria and Maria Rosa Garcia de la Garza. She developed an inclination towards the music. Maria Lorenza composed her first song at the age of eight. She graduated for the “Conservatorio Nacional de Musica de la Ciudad de Mexico” and after that, she gave concerts in Mexico and the US. Maria Lorenza returned to Matamoros in 1904 were she composed many songs like the one for Lauro Villar. Her eyes saw the entrance of Lucio Blanco to Matamoros during the Mexican revolution and that event made her compose songs to generals and revolutionary events. Also, she composed a hymn to celebrate the first hundred years of the independence. Maria Lorenza Hinojosa died in Matamoros on January 19, 1936.
Jose Maria Barrientos was born Cadereyta Jimenez, Nuevo Leon on November 19, 1891, being the son don Francisco Barrientos Gonzalez and doña Trinidad Garza Zambrano. He joined a school band were he learned to play the cornet. During the first century celebration of independence, he started a band to participate in the festivities. Jose Maria Barrienato composed several songs during revolutionary period. He was taken by Carranza’s supporters to a military base to play. Later, he joined the revolution in Matamoros with General Lucio Blanco. He retired from the army in 1915 and went to New Mexico were he joined a band. By 1916 he returned to Matamoros and founded the Municipal band. In 1925, Barrientos also founded the Brownsville band. He formed part of the Matamoros first century festivities (1926) and his main contribution was to give the music to the words of the Matamoros hymn. Governor Portes Gil was really pleased with the hymn that ask Barrientos to transform it into the Tamaulipas Hymn, only three words were changed. During the foundation of first secondary school of Matamoros, Barrientos was part of the founding teachers. The work with the students was far beyond his duties, Barrientos was always willing to help in the creation of new bands. After a life full of great compositions, Barrientos died on August 3, 1965.
Manuel Feliciano Rodriguez was born in Matamoros, Tamaulipas on February 15, 1897, he was the son of Manuel Rodriguez Uresti and Adelaida Brayda Treviño. Dr Manuel married Raquel Herminia Longoria Guerra and they had three children, Raquel Herminia, Adela Aurora and Manuel Feliciano. He became a doctor in Mexico City during the period of the revolution of Agua Prieta. He returned to Matamoros to work as a doctor and also made his certificate valid in Texas. Besides his work as a doctor, he became a teacher and made possible the reopening of the Instituto Cientifico Juan Jose de la Garza as a middle school and later as a high school. His contribution to the Matamoros society included the foundation of the Rotary Club, and his great literary work. Dr Manuel Feliciano Rodriguez died on September 6, 1976.
Eduardo Chavez was born in Mexico City on May 6, 1898, being the son of Engineer Agustin Chavez Pedroza and Juvencia Ramirez de Chavez. As a high school student he joined the armed forces with Carranza during the Mexican revolution. He joined the National Irrigation Commission and work on the irrigation systems and in the rectification of the Rio Grande. Chavez was sent to Matamoros by president Cardenas with the mission to build a levee to prevent flooding problems. Once he finished the levee project, Chavez discovered the possibility of an irrigation system by gravity. Although the poor support of Cadenas advisors, Chavez got the authorization to start his irrigation project, El Retamal. That project gave the possibility to increase the agriculture production and in order to do it, he brought people from Nuevo Leon. The new residents founded several towns near Matamoros. Irrigation District 25 brought prosperity to the region. Chavez knowledge about the region and water treaty between Mexico and the US, gave him the opportunity to create important water dams (Presa Falcon and La Amistad). During the period of president Ruiz Cortines, Chavez as a cabinet member, headed important projects on the Gulf of Mexico, Rio Yaqui, creation of Mozucari water dam and irrigation district to name a few. Eduardo Chavez died in Mexico City on May 28, 1982 and his body was buried in Valle Hermoso, Tamaulipas. One of his projects, “Del Panuco al Bravo”, could and still can be the solution to the present irrigation problems of Matamoros and neighbor regions, but even know, the project do not have the necessary support.
Eliseo Paredes was born in “Rancho La Esperanza” (Matamoros, Tamaulipas) on December 8,1899, he was the son of don Justo Paredes Cisneros and doña Clotilde Manzano Vidal. He was a businessman and historian. During the 20’s, he established a business in the Juarez Market. He married Maria Guadalupe Rangel and they had seven children, Sergio, Eliseo, Josefina, Graciela Irma, Isaura, Maria Guadalupe, and Sara Alicia. Eliseo Paredes actively participated in different civic and cultural associations in Matamoros. He founded a historic society in Matamoros, formed and organized the Museo Casamata and became the first historian of Matamoros. Eliseo Paredes died in Matamoros on July 11, 1988.
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Introduction to Sociology
The only textbook that helps students make micro-macro connections, Introduction to Sociology helps students uncover the surprising links between everyday life and global change.
The Seventh Edition does not simply compare the United States to other countries, but shows students how global processes play out in their lives. Drawing on research from both macro and micro sociology, the author team shows how sociologists bring the two together to give a comprehensive picture of modern society.
- January 2009
- 8.5 × 10.9 in
/ 762 pages
- Territory Rights: USA and Dependencies, Philippines and Canada.
Seventh Edition / Loose leaf, three-hole punch
Seventh Edition / Ebook, Downloadable Version
Seventh Edition / Ebook, Online Version
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Build Your Own Simple Random Numbers
Liam O’Connor got me thinking about the best way to explain the idea of a pseudo-random number generator to new programmers. This post is my answer. If you already understand them, there won’t be anything terribly new here. That said, I enjoy clean examples even for easy ideas, so if you do too, then read on!
Note: The title may have caused some confusion. I’m not suggesting you use the trivial algorithms provided here for any purpose. Indeed, they are intentionally over-simplified to make them more understandable. You should read this as an explanation of the idea of how generating random numbers works, and then use the random number generators offered by your operating system or your programming language, which are far better than what’s provided here.
Suppose you’re writing a puzzle game, and you need to choose a correct answer. Or suppose you are writing a role-playing game, and need to decide if the knight’s attack hits the dragon or deflects off of its scales. Or you’re writing a tetris game, and you need to decide what shape is going to come next. In all three of these situations, what you really want is a random number. Random numbers aren’t the result of any formula or calculation; they are completely up to chance.
Well, here’s the sad truth of the matter: computers can’t do that. Yes, that’s right. Picking random numbers is one of those tasks that confound even the most powerful of computers. Why? Because computers are calculating machines, and we just said that random numbers aren’t the result of any calculation!
Of course, you’ve probably played games on a computer before that seem to pick numbers at random, so you may not believe me. What you’re seeing, though, aren’t really random numbers at all, but rather pseudo-random numbers. Pseudo-random numbers are actually the result of a mathematical formula, but one designed to be so complicated that it would be hard to recognize any pattern in its results!
Writing a Pseudo Random Number Generator
A lot of smart people actually spend a lot of time on good ways to pick pseudo-random numbers. They try a bunch of different complicated formulas, and try to make sure that patterns don’t pop up. But we can build a simple one pretty easily to pick pseudo-random numbers from 1 to 10. Here it is, in the programming language Haskell:
random i = 7 * i `mod` 11
Since it’s a function, it needs to have an input. It then multiplies that input by 7, and then finds the remainder when dividing by 11. We’ll give it the previous number it picked as input, and it will give us back the next one. Suppose we start at 1. Then we get the following:
random 1 -> 7 random 7 -> 5 random 5 -> 2 random 2 -> 3 random 3 -> 10 random 10 -> 4 random 4 -> 6 random 6 -> 9 random 9 -> 8 random 8 -> 1
Let’s look at the range of answers. Since the answer is always a remainder when dividing by 11, it’ll be somewhere between 0 and 10. But it should be pretty easy to convince ourselves that if the number we give as input is between 1 and 10, then 0 isn’t a possibile answer: if it were, then we’d have found two numbers, both less than 11, that multiply together to give us a multiple of 11. That’s impossible because…. 11 is prime. So we’re guaranteed that this process picks numbers between 1 and 10. It seems to pick them in a non-obvious order with no really obvious patterns, so that’s good. We appear to have at least a good start on generating random numbers.
Notice a couple things:
- We had to pick somewhere to start. In this case, we started out by giving an input of 1. That’s called the seed. If you use the same seed, you’ll always get the exact same numbers back! Why? Because it’s really just a complicated math problem, so if you do the same calculation with the same numbers, you’ll get the same result.
- To get the next number, we have to remember something (in our case, the last answer) from the previous time. That’s called the state. The state is important, because it’s what makes the process give you different answers each time! If you didn’t remember something from the last time around, then you’d again be doing the same math problem with the same numbers, so you’d get the same answer.
Doing Better By Separating State
Unfortunately, our random number generator has a weakness: you can always predict what’s coming next, based on what came before. If you write tetris using the random number generator from earlier, your player will soon discover that after a line, they always get an L shape, and so on. What you really want is for your game to occasionally send them a line followed by a T, or even pick two lines in a row from time to time!
How do we do this? Well, the next answer that’s coming depends on the state, so our mistake before was to use the previous answer as the state. The solution is to use a state that’s bigger than the answer. We’ll still be looking for random numbers from 1 to 10, but let’s modify the previous random number generator to remember a bigger state. Now, since state and answer are different things, our random function will have two results: a new state, and an answer for this number.
random i = (j, ans) where j = 7 * i `mod` 101 ans = (j - 1) `mod` 10 + 1 -- just the ones place, but 0 means 10
That says take the input, multiply by 7, and find the remainder mod 101. Since 101 is still prime, this will always give answers from 1 to 100. But what we really wanted was a number from 1 to 10, just like the one we had before. That’s fine: we’ll just take the ones place (which is between 0 and 9) and treat 0 as 10. The tens place doesn’t really change the answer at all, but we keep it around to pass back in the next time as state.
Let’s see how this works:
random 1 -> ( 7, 7) random 7 -> (49, 9) random 49 -> (40, 10) random 40 -> (78, 8) random 78 -> (41, 1) random 41 -> (85, 5) random 85 -> (90, 10) random 90 -> (24, 4) random 24 -> (67, 7) random 67 -> (65, 5) random 65 -> (51, 1)
Excellent! Now instead of going in a fixed rotation, some numbers are picked several times, and some haven’t been picked yet at all (but they will be, if we keep going), and you can no longer guess what’s coming next just based on the last number you saw. In this random number generator, the seed was still 1, and the state was a number from 1 to 100.
People who are really interested in good random numbers sometimes talk about the period of a pseudo-random number generator. The period is how many numbers it picks before it starts over again and gives you back the same sequence. Our first try had a period of 10, which is rather poor. Our second try did much better: the period was 100. That’s still pretty far off, though, from the random number generators in most computers, the period of which can be in the millions or billions.
Real World Pseudo-Random Number Generators
Our two toy pseudo-random number generators were fun, but you wouldn’t use them in real programs. That’s because operating systems and programming languages already have plenty of ways to generate pseudo-random numbers. And those were created by people who probably have more time to think about random numbers than you do! But some of the same ideas come up there. For example, consider this (specialized) type signature for the random function in the Haskell programming language:
random :: StdGen -> (Int, StdGen)
Look familiar? StdGen is the state, and choosing a random Int gives you back the Int, and a new StdGen that you can use to get more pseudo-random numbers! Many programming languages, including Haskell, also have “global” random number generators that remember their state automatically (in Haskell, that is called randomIO), but under the covers, it all comes down to functions like the ones we’ve written here… except a lot more complex.
Where To Get a Seed
We’ve still left one question unanswered: where does the seed come from? So far, we’ve always been using 1 for the seed, but that means that each time the program runs, it will get the same numbers back. So we end up with a similar situation to what we saw before, where players will realize that a game starts with the same sequence of random events each time.
To solve this problem, the seed should come from somewhere that won’t be the same each time. Here are two different ways to seed a random number generator.
- Mostly, pseudo-random number generators are seeded from a clock. Imagine if you looked at the second hand on a clock, used it to get a number from 1 to 60, and used that for your seed. Then the game would only act the same if it started at the same number of seconds. Even better, you could take the number of seconds since some fixed time in the past, so you’d get an even bigger difference in seeds. (Entirely by coincidence, computers often use the number of seconds since January 1, 1970.)
- You might try to get a good seed from details of the way the user uses your program. For example, you can look at the exact place the user first clicks the mouse, or exactly how much time passes between pressing keys. They will most likely not be exact, and click a few pixels off or type ever so slightly slower, even if they are trying to do exactly the same thing. So, again, you get a program that acts differently each time. This is called using entropy.
Most of the time, using the computer’s built-in clock is okay. But suppose you’re making up a code word. It would be very bad if someone could guess your code word just by knowing when you picked it! (They would also need to know how your computer or programming language picks random numbers, but that’s not normally kept secret; they can probably find that out pretty easily.) Computer security and privacy often depends on picking unpredictable random numbers — ones that people snooping on you won’t be able to guess. In that case, it’s important that you use some kind of entropy, and not just the clock. In fact, when security is at stake, you can use entropy to modify the state as well, to make sure things don’t get too predictable. Most operating systems have special ways of getting “secure” random numbers that handle this for you.
Another example of entropy:
If you play the game Dragon Warrior for the Nintendo, but use an emulator instead of a real Nintendo, then you can save a snapshot of your game before you fight a monster, memorize what the monsters are going to do, and figure out exactly the right way to respond. When you load the game from the snapshot and try again, as long as you do the same things, the monster will respond in exactly the same way! That’s because the snapshot saves the state of the random number generator, so when you go back and load from the snapshot, the computer picks the same random numbers. So if a fight against a monster is going well but you make a disastrous move at the end, you can load your snapshot and repeat the exact same fight up to that point.
The same trick doesn’t work in Dragon Warrior 2 (or later ones), though! Why not? Because the company that makes the game started using entropy in their sequel. So now little things like exactly how long you wait between pressing buttons will change the game. Since you can’t possibly time everything exactly the same down to hundredths or thousandths of a second, the task is hopeless, and you have to just take your chances and trust to luck.
So as you can see, random numbers can become a very tricky topic. But ultimately it’s all just a complicated formula, a seed, and a state.
| 3.266969 |
|Name, Symbol, Number|| krypton, Kr, 36
|Chemical series||noble gases|
|Group, Period, Block||18, 4, p|
|Appearance|| colorless |
|Atomic mass||83.798(2) g/mol|
|Electron configuration||[Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p6|
|Electrons per shell||2, 8, 18, 8|
|Density|| (0 °C, 101.325 kPa)|
|Melting point|| 115.79 K|
(-157.36 °C, -251.25 °F)
|Boiling point|| 119.93 K|
(-153.22 °C, -243.8 °F)
|Critical point||209.41 K, 5.50 MPa|
|Heat of fusion||1.64 kJ·mol−1|
|Heat of vaporization||9.08 kJ·mol−1|
|Heat capacity||(25 °C) 20.786 J·mol−1·K−1|
|Crystal structure||cubic face centered|
|Electronegativity||3.00 (Pauling scale)|
| Ionization energies|
|1st: 1350.8 kJ·mol−1|
|2nd: 2350.4 kJ·mol−1|
|3rd: 3565 kJ·mol−1|
|Atomic radius (calc.)||88 pm|
|Covalent radius||110 pm|
|Van der Waals radius||202 pm|
|Thermal conductivity||(300 K) 9.43 mW·m−1·K−1|
|Speed of sound||(gas, 23 °C) 220 m/s|
|Speed of sound||(liquid) 1120 m/s|
|CAS registry number||7439-90-9|
Krypton (IPA: /ˈkrɪptən/ or /ˈkrɪptan/) is a chemical element with the symbol Kr and atomic number 36. A colorless, odorless, tasteless noble gas, krypton occurs in trace amounts in the atmosphere, is isolated by fractionating liquefied air, and is often used with other rare gases in fluorescent lamps. Krypton is inert for most practical purposes but it is known to form compounds with fluorine. Krypton can also form clathrates with water when atoms of it are trapped in a lattice of the water molecules.
Notable characteristics Edit
Krypton, a noble gas due to its very low chemical reactivity, is characterized by a brilliant green and orange spectral signature. It is one of the products of uranium fission. Solidified krypton is white and crystalline with a face-centered cubic crystal structure which is a common property of all "rare gases".
In 1960 an international agreement defined the metre in terms of light emitted from a krypton isotope. This agreement replaced the longstanding standard metre located in Paris which was a metal bar made of a platinum-iridium alloy (the bar was originally estimated to be one ten millionth of a quadrant of the earth's polar circumference). But only 23 years later, the Krypton-based standard was replaced itself by the speed of light—the most reliable constant in the universe. In October 1983 the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures) defined the metre as the distance that light travels in a vacuum during 1/299,792,458 s.
Like the other noble gases, krypton is widely considered to be chemically inert. Following the first successful synthesis of xenon compounds in 1962, synthesis of krypton difluoride was reported in 1963. Other fluorides and a salt of a krypton oxoacid have also been found. ArKr+ and KrH+ molecule-ions have been investigated and there is evidence for KrXe or KrXe+.
There are 32 known isotopes of krypton. Naturally occurring krypton is made of five stable and one slightly radioactive isotope. Krypton's spectral signature is easily produced with some very sharp lines. 81Kr is the product of atmospheric reactions with the other naturally occurring isotopes of krypton. It is radioactive with a half-life of 250,000 years. Like xenon, krypton is highly volatile when it is near surface waters and 81Kr has therefore been used for dating old (50,000 - 800,000 year) groundwater. 85Kr is an inert radioactive noble gas with a half-life of 10.76 years, that is produced by fission of uranium and plutonium. Sources have included nuclear bomb testing, nuclear reactors, and the release of 85Kr during the reprocessing of fuel rods from nuclear reactors. A strong gradient exists between the northern and southern hemispheres where concentrations at the North Pole are approximately 30% higher than the South Pole due to the fact that most 85Kr is produced in the northern hemisphere, and north-south atmospheric mixing is relatively slow.
Krypton fluoride laser Edit
- For more details on this topic, see Krypton fluoride laser.
The compound will decompose once the energy supply stops. During the decomposition process, the excess energy stored in the excited state complex will be emitted in the form of strong ultraviolet laser radiation.
- Los Alamos National Laboratory - Krypton
- USGS Periodic Table - Krypton
- "Chemical Elements: From Carbon to Krypton" By: David Newton & Lawrence W. Baker
- "Krypton 85: a Review of the Literature and an Analysis of Radiation Hazards" By: William P. Kirk
|This page uses content from Wikipedia. The original article was at Krypton. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with Chemistry, the text of Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License.|
| 3.28189 |
Low birthweight in newborns
Low birthweight is a term used to describe babies who are born weighing less than 3 pounds, 4 ounces.
- The average newborn weighs about 7.6 pounds
- About 7.6 percent of all newborns in the United States have low birthweight.
- The overall rate of these very small babies is increasing, primarily because of the increase in multiple birth babies, who tend to be born earlier and weigh less. More than half of multiple birth babies have low birthweight.
How Boston Children's Hospital approaches low birthweight
The Infant Follow-Up Program is designed for infants born very prematurely, who weigh less than 3.3 lbs and are at high risk for development and motor delays and other problems resulting from prematurity. Our program follows children from the time of discharge until they reach age 3 to 4. The multi-disciplinary Infant Follow-Up team includes pediatricians, neonatologists, pediatric psychologists, physical therapists, social workers and if needed, pediatric neurologists.
| 3.018426 |
Researchers have recently been trying to discover if pretending has implications for child development. When we see kids at play we are reminded that children live in a far more wondrous, whimsical world than the rest of us. A pile of wooden blocks is a vast city, and some sticks the inhabitants. Indeed, often about the time babies begin to walk and talk, they also begin to pretend--giving a stuffed animal a sip from their cup or covering up a doll for sleep. There are definite indications that having a good imagination translates into more creativity as an adult but is it possible to connect pretend play and the ability to get along socially in the world? Researchers are specifically looking at whether pretend play facilitates the development of children’s theory of mind- the ability to understand that others have thoughts and feelings all their own. "It's been a big focus of research recently and some of the work is really fascinating," says developmental psychologist Alison Gopnik, PhD, of the University of California at Berkeley. "The only downside is, no one has an answer yet." There are studies being done examining how well and at what stage children distinguish reality from fantasy and theories are being developed about the role of imagination and pretend play in child development. For now, the questions are mainly academic, but some day the answers could lead to a better grasp of how imaginative play influences how well children get on in the world.
| 3.093049 |
RMS TITANIC – Third Class or Steerage Passengers aboard the ill-fated liner.
Last photo taken of the RMS Titanic – Sailing away from Queenstown, Ireland.
The majority of the 700-plus steerage passengers on the RMS Titanic were emigrants. Only 25 percent of the Titanic’s third-class passengers survived, and of that 25 percent, only a fraction were men. By contrast, about 97 percent of first-class women survived the sinking of the Titanic.
Newspapers sensationalized the Titanic sinking with fabricated stories…
The term steerage originally referred to the part of the ship below-decks where the steering apparatus was located. However, over time, the term came to refer to the part of a passenger ship below-decks where third-class passengers were housed.
Third Class Ticket – RMS Titanic
On the Titanic, third-class passengers shared common bathrooms, ate in dining facilities with other third-class passengers, and slept in cabins four to a room.
By the standards of the day, the accommodations on the Titanic for third-class passengers were excellent. In fact, the Titanic provided nicer living conditions than many of the steerage passengers were accustomed to at home. It was said that the Titanic’s third-class accommodations resembled other steamships’ second-class accommodations:
• Third-class cabins on the Titanic had running water and electricity.
• Steerage passengers were provided with meals, which were a wonderful perk; most steamships that carried steerage passengers at the time required them to bring their own food.
• Passengers could clean up in their cabins in a washbasin. However, only two bathtubs served all 700-plus third-class men and women.
• Bunk beds in third class had mattresses, pillows, and blankets, but no sheets or pillowcases.
This fact wasn’t a problem because most third-class passengers, who were leaving their native lands forever to start over in America, had all their belongings with them, including their sheets and pillowcases. For these passengers, anything that the ship provided was a bonus that made the voyage more pleasant.
Titanic’s third-class dining room…
Third-class passengers ate three meals a day in two common dining rooms called the dining saloons. These rooms were located on F Deck between the second and third funnels, exactly two decks below the first-class dining room.
Third-class passengers did not get individual tables; they ate on rows of tables lined up next to each other. Combined, the two third-class dining saloons could hold only around 475 people, so diners were served in two seatings.
Titanic’s third-class entertainment options
(General Room Left) The Titanic provided the General Room, where steerage passengers could sit, read, play cards, and otherwise pass the time. Steerage passengers weren’t allowed into the areas of the ship boasting other entertainments, like the gymnasium or the pool, but they could have their own parties and dances.
The party scene in James Cameron’s 1997 movie Titanic offers a perfect example of the spontaneous gatherings in third class, complete with fiddle players and plenty of beer.
Interestingly, all the sitting surfaces in the General Room were made of wood. (Lice can’t find a home on slatted benches the way they can in fabric and upholstered surfaces.) Third-class men also had access to a smoking room complete with spittoons.
The RMS Titanic was build in Belfast as the second in a trio of sister-ships for the White Star Line, to operate the lucrative transatlantic run between Southampton and New York (via Cherbourg in France and Queenstown in Ireland). The RMS Titanic was the largest ship in the world at the time, eclipsing her 1-year-old sister ship RMS Olympic by just over 1,000-tons. (The cause of the weight gain between the two sisters had been extending one of the 1st class restaurants, enclosing the front half of the A-Deck Promenade, adding two larger suites with their own private verandas in 1st class on B-Deck, adding a Parisian café for 1st class passengers and making various adjustments to the 1st class bathrooms, such as installing extra marble baths and cigar holders next to the sinks.) Had she remained afloat, however, the Titanic would only have held the honor until May 1913, when a 52,000-ton German liner, SS Imperator, was launched into service for the Hamburg-Amerika Line.
Third Class Passengers on Deck – They provided strong revenue for the White Star Liner…
Although White Star realized that enormous sums of money could be made from providing the most luxurious 1st class accommodation onboard its flagships, as with all the transatlantic companies, a huge percentage of their profits would came from the booming immigrant trade between Europe and America, with most of the immigrants traveling in 3rd class – sometimes known as “Steerage.” Europe was already over-populated by 1912, particularly in its cities, and it was a place that had not altered much since the Congress of Vienna. To many it seemed that to triumph and become a man of enormous wealth when one was not born into it was the exception in Belle Époque Europe, not the rule. But America, on the other hand, was a vast continent, under-populated, new in comparison to the “Old Countries” and brimming with opportunities – either real or imagined. So, like the Olympic, the Titanic was designed to capitalize on the surge in transatlantic migration with room for 1,134 3rd-class passengers.
Unlike the slightly melodramatic view of impoverished but inexplicably cheery 3rd class passengers offered in James Cameron’s Titanic, the Olympic and Titanic’s steerage accommodation was both of a higher standard and therefore a higher cost than most other 3rd class cabins on smaller ships or upon White Star’s German rivals. (The cheapest 3rd class ticket cost as much as 3-4 weeks’ wages for a skilled labourer.) The result was that the White Star Line’s 3rd class clientele was usually upper working-class or lower middle class. A typical passenger would have been the likes of Frank Dean, who had purchased 3rd class tickets for himself, his wife and their two young children, when he decided to emigrate to join relatives in Kansas, where he could open a tobacco shop, much like he had in London.
The theory behind providing higher levels of comfort for its 3rd class passengers was, predictably, a commercial one for the White Star Line. Whilst many shipping companies showed no real interest in making provision for genuine comfort for its steerage passengers, since they were emigrating and were therefore unlikely to be “return” customers, White Star Line knew that many immigrants were later joined by their family and friends from the homeland and so by making sure their journey to the United States was as enjoyable as possible, White Star Line hoped they would recommend travelling on the Olympic or Titanic to their acquaintances, thus increasing the company’s future profits.
Captain Smith with officers aboard the RMS Titanic…
Third class passengers onboard the Titanic had access to a smoking room (male only), two dining rooms (above, divided in two by one of the ship’s bulkheads) and a general room, which functioned as a cross between a lounge and a nursery, although in the evening it became the recreational area. (It is there in the movie Titanic that Jack and Rose dance at the céilidh – although in reality, 1st class passengers were no more allowed to wander down to 3rd class than 3rd class were free to walk about 1st class.)
Cabins in 3rd class consisted of bunk beds for between 4 and 6 people, with a sink at the far end of the room and some small wardrobe space. An excellent reconstruction is pictured left from the Titanic Museum in Branson, Missouri. Private toilets in the ship’s cabins were unheard of and not even available in 2nd class and so large, clean, public toilets similar to what we might find in restaurants were provided, along with showers and baths. Food onboard the ship was simple but plentiful. The dinner served to 3rd class passengers on Sunday April 14th, destined to be the ship’s last day afloat, consisted of rice soup, fresh bread, biscuits, and roast beef with gravy, sweet corn, and boiled potatoes, followed by plum pudding, sweet sauce and fruit.
At the time of her maiden voyage, which began on Wednesday, April 10th 1912 in Southampton and after a collection of Irish passengers on the following day, the Titanic set out for New York with 708 3rd class passengers. Three days later, twenty minutes before midnight, the ship was involved in a side-on collision with an iceberg, which opened 300ft of the 882ft liner to the sea beneath the waterline. Two hours and forty minutes later, the ship disappeared beneath the waves with the loss of approximately 1,500 lives. As everybody knows, the percentage of 3rd class passengers saved, compared to those in 1st and 2nd class was appalling – of the 462 men in steerage, 75 survived; 76 of the 165 women escaped, along with only 27 of the 76 children.
The enormously high percentage of 3rd-class casualties led to the myth that they had been deliberately detained below deck until 1st- and 2nd-class passengers were boarded into the lifeboats. A version of events which was most memorably dramatized in movies like A Night to Remember and Titanic – A Night to Remember did, however, show that the passengers were eventually allowed up on deck, once the crew realized the ship was actually sinking, rather than just going through a temporary evacuation.
It is true that, at night, many gates in the ship were locked and that tragically this impeded the movements of some 3rd class passengers in trying to reach the Boat Deck. However, the real reason for the high percentage of 3rd class casualties was a lot less sinister, but nonetheless tragic: the 3rd class quarters were the cheapest onboard and, as such, they were located in the bottom section of the ship. As I have said, for some time after the collision, many members of the Titanic’s crew were unaware exactly what had happened – even some of the officers did not seem to know that the ship had suffered a fatal blow and it was not until an hour or maybe even an hour and a half after the collision that a list in the ship became truly noticeable. It therefore not only took the 3rd class passengers far longer to reach the lifeboats than the other passengers because of where their accommodation was, but they were also hampered by the fact that many of their stewards and stewardesses failed to impress upon them the gravity of the situation the Titanic was in.
Investigating the claim that it had been malice rather than incompetence which led to so many deaths in 3rd class, the British Enquiry into the disaster, chaired by Lord Mersey, concluded:
“It has been suggested before the Enquiry that the third-class passengers had been unfairly treated; that their access to the boat deck had been impeded; and that when at last they reached that deck the first and second-class passengers were given precedence in getting places in the boats. There appears to have been no truth in these suggestions. It is no doubt true that the proportion of third-class passengers saved falls far short of the proportion of the first and second class, but this is accounted for by the greater reluctance of the third-class passengers to leave the ship, by their unwillingness to part with their baggage, by the difficulty in getting them up from their quarters, which were at the extreme ends of the ship, and by other similar causes.”
When news of the Titanic disaster broke in Belfast, I can vividly remember my great-grandfather telling me when I was younger that in the Protestant working-class areas of the city, he could see grown men who worked in the Harland & Wolff shipyards, standing in the street crying at the loss of the “Great Ship.” He could still remember the song they sang to commemorate the loss and, at the distance of eighty years, the pride he took in his family having worked on the Titanic and her sisters was palpable.
The Titanic’s sister ship, Olympic, continued in service for the White Star Line for the next twenty years, continuing to turn great profits and eventually being joined in the 1920s by two new running mates for the transatlantic run – the 56,000-ton Majestic and the 34,000-ton Homeric. On most of her sailings between 1911 and 1934, when the Great Depression began to strangle the luxury liner trade, the Olympic regularly sailed with most of the cabins – in all three of her classes – booked.
| 3.492764 |
You can use the FOIL method to multiply out binomials of the form
. FOIL stands for First-Outer-Inner-Last. First means multiply the first terms
; Outer means multiply
; Inner gives the term
; and finally Last gives the term
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| 3.225611 |
You should always externalize resources such as images and strings from your application
code, so that you can maintain them independently. Externalizing your
resources also allows you to provide alternative resources that support specific device
configurations such as different languages or screen sizes, which becomes increasingly
important as more Android-powered devices become available with different configurations. In order
to provide compatibility with different configurations, you must organize resources in your
res/ directory, using various sub-directories that group resources by type and
For any type of resource, you can specify default and multiple alternative resources for your application:
- Default resources are those that should be used regardless of the device configuration or when there are no alternative resources that match the current configuration.
- Alternative resources are those that you've designed for use with a specific configuration. To specify that a group of resources are for a specific configuration, append an appropriate configuration qualifier to the directory name.
For example, while your default UI
layout is saved in the
res/layout/ directory, you might specify a different layout to
be used when the screen is in landscape orientation, by saving it in the
directory. Android automatically applies the appropriate resources by matching the
device's current configuration to your resource directory names.
Figure 1 illustrates how the system applies the same layout for two different devices when there are no alternative resources available. Figure 2 shows the same application when it adds an alternative layout resource for larger screens.
The following documents provide a complete guide to how you can organize your application resources, specify alternative resources, access them in your application, and more:
- Providing Resources
- What kinds of resources you can provide in your app, where to save them, and how to create alternative resources for specific device configurations.
- Accessing Resources
- How to use the resources you've provided, either by referencing them from your application code or from other XML resources.
- Handling Runtime Changes
- How to manage configuration changes that occur while your Activity is running.
- A bottom-up guide to localizing your application using alternative resources. While this is just one specific use of alternative resources, it is very important in order to reach more users.
- Resource Types
- A reference of various resource types you can provide, describing their XML elements, attributes, and syntax. For example, this reference shows you how to create a resource for application menus, drawables, animations, and more.
| 3.158105 |
The prehistoric cave paintings of Chauvet in southeastern France show the work of deft hands: Hundreds of animals appear in lifelike posesstanding, stalking, running, or roaming in packson surfaces specially scraped to make the sketches stand out. Many archaeologists assumed that such sophistication required thousands of years of cultural development and artistic experimentation. Yet a new, improved dating analysis suggests that the Chauvet paintings were made between 32,000 and 29,000 years ago, placing them among the most ancient artworks known.
|Well-rendered animals in France's Chauvet cave show an early period of artistic development.|
Photograph courtesy of Helene Valladas/Jean Clottes
Archaeologist Helene Valladas of the National Center for Scientific Research in Gif-sur-Yvette used a precision form of carbon dating to analyze the animal drawings and various charcoal remains in the cave. Her results confirm that the Chauvet cave paintings are 10,000 to 15,000 years older than those at Lascaux, even though the art in the two locations is similarly fine. The finding implies that prehistoric art did not evolve steadily from crude beginnings to complex representations, as was previously thought, but "in spurts, with lots of apogees and lots of declines," says archaeologist Jean Clottes, who is in charge of the research at Chauvet. If so, there may be earlier cycles of artistic development as yet unknown. "I would be very surprised if much older art was not discovered in the next few years, not only in Europe but mostly in Asia, Australia, and Africa. The big problem is one of preservation and dating," says Clottes.
| 3.440475 |
Dragons are creatures with nearly unlimited life spans. They can survive for long periods of time, and no one has found a dragon that has died of old age. Adolescence is usually marked by the growth of a hatchling’s wings, although not all breeds of dragons grow wings and some breeds have other traits that indicate the beginning of maturation. Once they hit adolescence, hatchlings change quickly, maturing to their full forms in only 2 years.
Dragons don’t communicate with each other verbally, but they will growl to scare off predators and frighten prey. Young dragons will emit an extremely high-pitched squeal when they are frightened. To communicate, they use telepathy with each other and to speak to other creatures.
Green dragons are also sometimes called "earth" dragons. They usually live deep within caves, and have power over the earth. They are capable of launching boulders at high speeds, and can cause earthquakes by slamming down onto the ground.
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Dragons are creatures with nearly unlimited life spans. They can survive for long periods of time, and no one has found a dragon that has died of old age. Adolescence is usually marked by the growth of a hatchling’s wings, although not all breeds of dragons grow wings and some breeds have other traits that indicate the beginning of maturation. Once they hit adolescence, hatchlings change quickly, maturing to their full forms in only 2 years.
Dragons don’t communicate with each other verbally, but they will growl to scare off predators and frighten prey. Young dragons will emit an extremely high-pitched squeal when they are frightened. To communicate, they use telepathy with each other and to speak to other creatures.
Sunstone dragons are named after the orb on their tails, which resembles the gem of the same name. Their social structure resembles a lion pride, with one dominant male and several females banded together with their young. They prefer arid climates where they can blend in and dig for minerals and gemstones that they not only collect, but eat. The more gems they consume, the larger their tail stone grows. They are an aggressive breed; it is not uncommon to see two males battling for mates and territory.
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Economic growth in China has led to significant increases in fossil fuel consumption © stock.xchng (frédéric dupont, patator)
Per capita CO2 emissions in China reach EU levels
Global emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) – the main cause of global warming – increased by 3% last year. In China, the world’s most populous country, average emissions of CO2 increased by 9% to 7.2 tonnes per capita, bringing China within the range of 6 to 19 tonnes per capita emissions of the major industrialised countries.
In the European Union, CO2 emissions dropped by 3% to 7.5 tonnes per capita. The United States remain one of the largest emitters of CO2, with 17.3 tonnes per capita, despite a decline due to the recession in 2008-2009, high oil prices and an increased share of natural gas.
According to the annual report ‘Trends in global CO2 emissions’, released today by the JRC and the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (PBL), the top emitters contributing to the global 34 billion tonnes of CO2 in 2011 are: China (29%), the United States (16%), the European Union (11%), India (6%), the Russian Federation (5%) and Japan (4%).
With 3%, the 2011 increase in global CO2 emissions is above the past decade's average annual increase of 2.7%.
An estimated cumulative global total of 420 billion tonnes of CO2 has been emitted between 2000 and 2011 due to human activities, including deforestation. Scientific literature suggests that limiting the rise in average global temperature to 2°C above pre-industrial levels – the target internationally adopted in UN climate negotiations – is possible only if cumulative CO2 emissions in the period 2000–2050 do not exceed 1 000 to 1 500 billion tonnes. If the current global trend of increasing CO2 emissions continues, cumulative emissions will surpass this limit within the next two decades
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The Distribution of Wealth: A Theory of Wages, Interest and Profits
The Place of Distribution within the Traditional Divisions of Economics
We have undertaken to solve a test problem of distribution—to ascertain whether the division of the social income into wages, interest and profits is, in principle, honest. We have seen that this compels us to enter the realm of production, in order to find whether these incomes are earned. Is each of them specifically created by the agent that gets it? If it is, the entire science of distribution is nothing more than a science of the process of specific production. In any case, the relation of the wealth-creating process to the wealth-dividing process needs a most searching examination.
The terms, Production, Distribution, Exchange and Consumption, have been used to designate four divisions of economic science. These, however, are not distinct divisions; for one of them includes two of the others. The production of wealth, as it is carried on by an organized society, is a process that embraces within itself both exchange and distribution. This fact makes it necessary completely to rearrange economic theory, for purposes of study, and to divide it according to a new principle. The old landmarks of the science will not entirely disappear, for it will still be necessary to speak of production, distribution, etc., as processes that are going on, and that can be defined and understood. As divisions of the science, however, they will vanish; for the demarcations that have been made between them correspond to nothing in actual life. They are forced distinctions, made for the sake of resolving into smaller areas a field that is too large to be dealt with as a whole. As we throw them away, the economic field takes on an entirely new appearance, and it will soon be seen that this is its true and natural appearance. This field will still, however, have its divisions; and it is a striking fact that the study which shows how hopelessly blended are exchange, distribution and production has also the effect of revealing three divisions of economics that are natural and clear. We attain the true divisions, in fact, by perceiving why we may not use the old ones.
Production is the bringing of commodities into existence; and in any state except a primitive one it is accomplished by a division of labor. The producer is a specialist, selling one article, or a part of an article, and buying what he needs with the proceeds. Only society in its entirety is an all-around creator of goods. This is equivalent to saying that social production is now accomplished by means of exchanges. The passing of goods from man to man enables all society to make all goods; and the two expressions, "division of labor," on the one hand, and "exchange," on the other, merely describe in different ways the organized process of creating wealth, as contrasted with the method of isolated and independent production. Where a thing stays in one man's hands until it is finished and in use, production is not yet socialized.*3 Society in its entirety is the one producer of wealth. Exchange is, then, the socializing element in production. It is a characteristic part of the comprehensive process.
The relation of man to Nature in the productive operation remains unchanged, however much society may be organized. The earth still gives matter, and man transforms it. The making of a steel tool in a modern shop is, in this respect, akin to the fashioning of a stone hatchet by a prehistoric man. What is new in social production is the relation of man to man. Interdependence has supplanted independence: a great organization has taken the place of a mass of unconnected producers. Specializing and exchanging have made this difference.
Production by society as a whole, moreover, involves a fixing of values. If we part with our own products, something must decide how much we are to get in return for them. The ratios of exchange that a market establishes have, not unnaturally, been treated in that division of the science which is customarily entitled exchange. Is that, however, the proper place for them?
There is a kind of distribution that does not fix the rates of wages and interest, but determines how much one industry, as a whole, including its laborers, its capitalists and its entrepreneurs, shall get, as compared with other industries. It determines whether one whole branch of business shall be more prosperous than another. This is an intermediate part of the general distributing operation. and it is accomplished by means of prices. When wheat, for example, is high in price, the farming industry is well paid, as compared with others; and when wheat is cheap, that industry is ill paid. If what we have in mind is the so-called "market price" of an article,—the immediate price of any given supply of an article,—this kind of value governs what we may call group distribution. If steel, for example, sells at a high rate, a large income goes to the group that produces it. This income distributes itself somewhere in the group; but how much of it laborers get, and how much capitalists and employers get, is a question that we do not now raise. This is determined by an ultimate distribution taking place within the groups. Group distribution is a preliminary division of the social income, and it deals with branches of industry in their entirety. The terms of this primary division of the social income depend on the prices of different kinds of goods. Farmers want wheat to be dear, as miners want ore to be dear, etc. Prices, then, fix the incomes of these groups.
The great income of all society—that which is to be distributed—really consists of concrete articles, all for some use, Most of them are goods for consumption; and they serve to stock retailers' shops, while waiting for purchasers. In some way this promiscuous stock of consumers' goods gets divided into shares, of which every man, whether he be a laborer or a capitalist, gets a part. There is no way in which the fixing of the terms of this division can be begun and completed after the goods are finished and exposed for sale. If, before the stock of goods was ready to be taken by consumers, nothing had been done to decide how much each laborer and each a capitalist might have, the distribution would have to be made according to some arbitrary rule and by some officer of the state. The terms of the division that is actually made, however, are fixed as the production of the goods goes on: the goods are really apportioned in the making.
The creation of such a general stock of commodities for use is a great synthesis, which goes on in a systematic way. One group of producers makes the article A, another group makes B, another C, etc. As A is sold, the sum that is paid for it is apportioned among the entire group that makes it; and as B is sold, the returns from this sale are divided, in the same way, among all who have helped to make this article. The prices of completed articles thus fix the incomes of groups in their entirety, These sub-groups are, in an equally exact way, divided into sub-groups. Thus it takes farmers, wool merchants, manufacturers, dyers, cloth merchants and tailors to make a coat. Each of these classes constitutes a sub-group; and each gets a share of the returns of the general group—a share in every case dependent on prices. If wool is dear, farmers thrive; and if the difference between the price of wool and the price of cloth is large, manufacturers thrive. It is market values that fix the incomes of sub-groups, as well as those of groups.
Neither of those price-adjusting operations, however, directly fixes wages and interest. This is the final and critical part of distribution. It takes place within the sub-groups, and it constitutes the third and final division that has to be made. The portions of income that fall to farmers, manufacturers, etc., as such, have to be further subdivided; for a share must be paid to every laborer and to every capitalist. This last division is not made, however, as the mere general divisions are made, by a mere sale of finished goods: finer and more difficult adjustments are involved. We need now to have clearly in mind the systematic way in which the division of the grand stock of usable goods proceeds, the manner in which it follows the stages of production and the part that the fixing of exchange values has in it. This distribution goes on in three distinct stages. There are to be made a division, a subdivision and a final subdivision of the social income. The first division fixes the income of industrial groups; the second fixes that of sub-groups, and the final division adjusts wages and interest within each of the innumerable sub-groups in the system. The shares of the groups and those of the sub-groups depend entirely on the prices of goods, and therefore the fixing of market values results in the adjustment of the terms of group distribution,
Thus, let A''' represent some one completed product, any bread; and let A represent raw material, the standing wheat of which it is mode. A' may then represent the wheat as threshed and conveyed to the elevator of a milling company, A''' may represent it as it is ground into flour, and A''' may represent it baked into loaves. In like manner B, B', etc., represent another commodity—say, woollen clothing—in its several stages of advancement, and the series of C's represent still another commodity. All the A's constitute the product of one general group; and the price of A''' fixes the size of its entire group income. The prices of B''' and C''' likewise fix the general incomes of the two groups that make them. Similarly, the difference between the price of A'' and that of A''' fixes the income of the sub-group that transforms the one article into the other. In this case the difference is the gross income of the baking industry. In the same way, the difference between the price of A' and that of A'' determines the income of the flouring industry, etc. The income of each sub-group in the whole series, then, depends directly on prices.
A philosophy that goes behind such market prices, however, brings us to what are called "natural" or "normal" prices. These are the values, expressed in terms of money, to which, in the long run, market values tend to conform. These normal values are also in another way, phenomena of distribution; for a certain force that operates within the sphere of group distribution establishes the normal standards to which market values tend to conform. We have just seen that market prices fix the incomes of the different groups, as such, and so control distribution in its early stages. We have now to see that a deeper force, and one that also acts in distribution, controls normal prices. Market prices are the cause of group distribution; normal prices are the effect of a certain phenomenon of distribution. The adjustment of natural or normal prices is a part of the distributive process. The movements that make prices "natural" are, in fact, efforts on the part of different men to get their natural shares of income.
Prices are at their natural level when labor and capital in one industry produce as much and get as much as they do in any other. Normal prices mean equalized wages and equalized interest. If the prices of wheat, wool, iron, lumber, etc., were such that no laborer and no capitalist could acquire an enlarged producing power by leaving the industry that creates one of these commodities, and betaking himself to one that makes another, the price of each of the commodities would be normal.
The familiar definition of natural price is: that which conforms to the cost of production. The economist has been in the habit of putting himself, in imagination, in the business man's position, and of considering the money that he pays out in producing an article as the cost and what he gets by selling the article as the return. The tendency of competition, according to this conception, is to bring the price down to the point at which the return equals the cost. This is, however, an individualistic and limited view of the law of normal prices. It presents that law as it appears to a man who is performing his one particular part of the social operation of creating wealth. The broad view, on the other hand, presents the law as it appears to a student who has all society within the range of his vision. It is, indeed, true that the normal price of each article is its cost. The cause of this, however, is not local in the industry; it is not anything that takes place within the one group that makes the commodity. The influence that brings, let us say, cotton cloth to a natural price is one that works throughout the productive system. A broadly social tendency it is, in fact, that makes any one price normal. The traditional statement of the law of normal price is not incorrect; but it is misleading, because it is partial and inadequate. It presents things from an entrepreneur's point of view, instead of from a social point of view.
It will be seen, when we make a fuller study of this subject, that a condition in which all things sell for the amount of money that they have cost—including interest and wages of management, as elements of cost—is a state in which the gross gains of the different industrial groups are brought to pro rata equality, that is, to a condition in which the returns of all groups yield the same amounts per unit of capital and also the same amounts per unit of labor. Cost prices, then, are those that give equalized earnings.
It is comparative gains, and not the gains of any one group, that test prices, and determine whether they are normal. Thus, the present price of wheat is such as to afford a larger product per unit of capital than is afforded in some other industries; it is above the natural standard, and would be so even if wages and interest were locally so high that entrepreneurs got nothing above cost of production. If the result of this should be should be to draw men and capital from other occupations to the raising of this cereal, the operation would end by reducing to nothing the excess of gains that is now secured in this occupation. Prices would then be normal, provided that no other causes had meanwhile noted to disturb the equality of the earning power of labor and capital in the group system. It is because the prices then realized would afford to the different industrial groups equalized returns, that the prices themselves are to be called normal. The term really signifies that group distribution is in a natural state. Equal products everywhere per unit of labor and equal products per unit of capital—this is the condition that affords natural prices of goods. Incidentally, this condition gives what have been defined as cost prices.
When, therefore, men have no further inducement to move from one group to another,—that is, when group distribution is natural,—prices are natural. This requires that labor and capital shall be so apportioned among the various industries that there is neither overproduction of one article nor underproduction of another. Society must, in short, so direct its productive energies as to make different goods in the right quantities. The production of each specific article must be normal in amount, in order that the prices of it may be normal. The influence that brings production to this natural state is the effort of laborers and capitalists to seize any special gain that maybe offered to them, by moving to any group in which the price of the product is high. This is clearly an operation in group distribution. Thus an influence that originates in distribution brings about a state of social production in which exchange values are normal. Where, then, within the four traditional divisions of economic science should the study of exchange value be located? The phenomenon itself is directly connected with exchange: the proximate cause of it is a state of production; the ultimate influence that controls it is an action of the forces of distribution.
It is clear that the study of market value falls within the science of distribution. On the surface it is current market prices that control the distribution which takes place among different groups or specific industries. These prices, however, are transient, and they fluctuate about certain more permanent standards. The tendency of group distribution to become normal—that is, to bring wages and interest to an approximate equality in different industries—draws prices toward the normal standard.
What, then, is left to be treated under the title, exchange? Only the actual passing of goods from hand to hand. This process results in ranging men in distinct groups, each of which has its part to play in the process of social production. Exchange fixes the form of organization of industrial society. Back of each finished article that the shops offer to us there is ranged a series of specialized producers, each of whom has taken his turn in putting a touch upon it. Intricate, indeed, is the organization of society for productive purposes; but the principles that give shape to it are simple. They are the subjects of the theory of exchange, which is the theory of the organization of industrial society. When we examine the system of groups of which society is composed, we shall perceive the full meaning of this statement. For the present, be it noted that exchanges divide and subdivide industry: they range its forces in groups and sub-groups, the functions of which are determined by natural law.
It is, further, clear that all this disposing of the agents of production—this putting of some labor and capital here, and other labor and capital there—is a phenomenon of social production, a part of the social productive organization. It is a certain marshalling of the productive forces, placing them where they will do the most good. Production, in fact, embraces every economic operation except consumption. Exchange is merely the typical feature of production, as carried on by groups. Under this head we shall describe the group system of industry. We have seen that an influence which acts in distribution fixes the sizes of the groups and the amount of goods that each shall create. In the way that we have just noted, it guards against the production of too much of one commodity and too little of another. This is also a part of the all-embracing process of social production.
There is another and an even more important kind of distribution that falls within production. The distribution which connects itself with values, and the study of which gives a science of value, is that which takes place between different industries in their entirety. Thus, a high price for wheat makes the raising of that cereal a well-paid occupation, and puts a large sum into the possession of the group of laborers, capitalists and entrepreneurs who jointly raise it. How much of this large return goes to laborers? Hew much goes to capitalists? How much remains in the hands of entrepreneurs? These, as we noted, are questions involving distribution of another kind. Within each industry there is this final division to be made. After the returns of each sub-group, taken as a whole, have been determined, this lump sum is to be apportioned among different claimants within it; and this is the final process in the distributing of the social income.
In the final division that takes place within the sub-groups—the division that separates the gross earnings of each of them into wages, interest and profits—a law of production rules. So far as natural laws are unperverted, labor tends to get, as its share, what it separately produces; and capital does the same. The laborer who has helped a farmer to raise wheat naturally gets the value of that part of the wheat crop which is separately due to his labor. This statement requires proof, and will receive it: but it must stand for the present, as a thesis to be established by a later study. What is now clear is that, if it should be established, the whole of distribution as well as the whole of exchange, would be included within the organized process of producing wealth. Unravel the web of the social product, tracing each thread to its source, and you will have solved the problem of distribution. This is an analytical study. It traces backward, step by step, the synthesis by which, through the putting together of many different things, the great social dividend of usable goods is created. It first traces to each group its share in the creating of the grand total; then it traces the part of this that each sub-group has contributed: : and finally it attributes to labor and capital their several shares in the creating of the sub-group product.
We may, then, gather into the comprehensive science of production all the economic processes that go on in an organized or social way. There is, then, it appears, no separating of the processes that traditional theories have treated as distinct divisions of the science. Here, for example, working in a shoe shop, is a man who gets two dollars a day. Let us set before ourselves the problem of accounting for the amount of his wages. He is a part of a sub-group; and we have first to account for the way in which society has thrown itself into the systematic shape of groups and sub-groups, which exchange products with each other. We discuss the theory of exchange, in the narrow and accurate sense of the term, when we account for this group arrangement which is brought about for the sake of carrying on production in an organized way. In treating exchange, therefore, we are entering on the treatment of production. What the man gets is a part of what his sub-group gets; and this is fixed by the law of group distribution—the law of market value. Market value, however, depends on the relative quantities of the different articles that are produced; and this is saying that it depends on comparative group production. We are, then, still within the more general science of production when we thus try to trace to its causes the income of the sub-group from which the shoemaker's wages are taken. When we have discovered the influences that act on the sub-group's income, we must see why the shoemaker's share of that income is two dollars a day. This will take us into a further study of specific production. We shall have to find out, first, whether the man's pay tends to equal what he separately produces; and, secondly, what fixes the amount that he is able to produce. This is the study of distribution in its final stage, but it is also a study of production. We have, then, studied in part each of the four traditional subjects except consumption, in investigating the causes of the two dollar wage for the shoemaker's labor; and yet we have been, all the while, within the subject of social production.
Consumption alone remains an individualistic process. We produce our food coöperatively, but we eat it each one for himself. Society makes our clothing, builds our houses, etc.; but when we get our clothes, we wear them without assistance; and we dwell under our roofs in the same independent way. Society, however, reacts on our natures, and changes and multiplies our wants. A desire to associate with others, while consumption is going on, may even give a kind of collectivity to the process by which some products are used. Thus, we enjoy dining together; and we listen to music and addresses in assemblies, getting a part of our pleasure from the presence of others; but there is no coöperation in the consumption of goods that resembles what takes place in the production of them. There is no obvious group system, and no coöperation of agents such as labor and capital. It is to the sensibilities of individuals that products address themselves; and therefore consumption is the individualistic part of social economy.
If we look, then, at the relations of man to man, we find that production and consumption are not on the same plane. One is a collective operation: it is nothing, if not organized. The other is an individualistic operation: it consists in the using by each man of what society, by its intricate system of production, has made for him. In an accurate sense, the one process is a part of social economy and the other is not.
If we look at the relations of man to nature, we find that production and consumption are entirely coördinate,—that one of them is the reversal of the other. Man acts on nature in the one case, and nature acts on man in the other. Cultivate the earth till it gives you food, and you have produced a kind of wealth by acting on nature; but the food restores your wasted tissues and your lost energy by acting on you. Man making wealth and wealth making man constitute the whole economic operation. Humanity takes the active and aggressive attitude in the former part of the process, and it takes the passive and recipient attitude in the latter part. In the simplest mode of living these two processes are the only ones that take place. A primitive man, living alone, would kill game and eat it; he would make clothing and wear it; he would build a hut and live in it: in short, he would act on nature and let nature react on him, and that would constitute the whole of his economy. He would have nothing to do with exchange and distribution. This, indeed, is all that an economic society does, if we consider it only as a unit. It produces its food, its clothing, its shelter and its myriad of articles of comfort and luxury; and then it uses them. It produces them in an organized way, indeed, and it uses them in an unorganized way. Incidental to the making of them are the trading and sharing processes that are termed exchange and distribution; but production and consumption still exhaust the whole economy: there is no phenomenon of wealth that lies outside of them.
These are the facts to be recognized in entering on the study of distribution. In carrying that study to completion we cannot get outside of the field of social production, and we cannot avoid including within our more limited field the subject of exchange. Value is the chief subject that has customarily been treated in the division of exchange; but the theory of value and that of group distribution are one and the same.
Notes for this chapter
An article is not finished, in the economic sense, till the retail merchant has found the customer whose needs it satisfies. The sale of completed articles is thus the terminal act of social production.
End of Notes
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| 3.004056 |
|A statue of Maitreya Buddha in Budai form in Emei, Hsinchu, Taiwan|
|Alternative Chinese name|
|Literal meaning||Laughing Buddha|
|Vietnamese alphabet||Bố Đại|
Budai or Pu-Tai (Chinese: 布袋; pinyin: Bùdài), or Hotei in Japanese, Bố Đại in Vietnamese, is a Chinese folkloric deity. His name means "Cloth Sack," and comes from the bag that he is conventionally depicted as carrying. He is usually identified with (or as an incarnation of) Maitreya, so much so that the Budai image is one of the main forms in which Maitreya is depicted in East Asia. He is almost always shown smiling or laughing, hence his nickname in Chinese, the Laughing Buddha (Chinese: 笑佛). Many Westerners confuse Budai with Gautama Buddha.
Budai is traditionally depicted as an obese, bald man wearing a robe and wearing or otherwise carrying prayer beads. He carries his few possessions in a cloth sack, being poor but content. He is often depicted entertaining or being followed by adoring children. His figure appears throughout Chinese culture as a representation of contentment. His image graces many temples, restaurants, amulets, and businesses.
According to Chinese history, Budai was an eccentric Chán monk (Chinese: 禅; pinyin: chán) who lived in China during the Later Liang Dynasty (907–923 CE). He was a native of Fenghua, and his Buddhist name was Qieci (Chinese: 契此; pinyin: qiècǐ; literally "Promise this"). He was considered a man of good and loving character.
The term buddha means "one who is awake", connoting one who has awakened into enlightenment. Over the history of Buddhism, there have been several notable figures who would come to be remembered as, and referred to as, buddhas. Later followers of the Chan school would come to teach that all beings possess Buddha nature within them, and are already enlightened, but have yet to realize it. This teaching would continue into Zen.
Budai is often conflated with (or simply replaces) the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, in spite of the distinct visual differences in how each has been depicted. In India, Nepal, and throughout southeast Asia, Gautama (who lived during the 6th century BCE) is commonly depicted as being tall and slender in appearance. In contrast, in China and those areas to which Chinese cultural influence spread, the depiction of Budai (who lived during the 10th century CE) is consistently short and round.
Traditions that revere Budai
Budai in folklore is admired for his happiness, plenitude, and wisdom of contentment. One belief popular in folklore maintains that rubbing his belly brings wealth, good luck, and prosperity.
Maitreya, the true Maitreya
has billions of incarnations.
Often he is shown to people at the time;
other times they do not recognize him.
The primary story that concerns Budai in Zen (Chán) is a short kōan. In it, Budai is said to travel giving candy to poor children, only asking a penny from Zen monks or lay practitioners he meets. One day a monk walks up to him and asks, "What is the meaning of Zen?" Budai drops his bag. "How does one realize Zen?" he continues. Budai then takes up his bag and continues on his way.
I Kuan Tao
Statues of Budai form a central part of I Kuan Tao shrines, where he is usually referred to by the Sanskrit name Maitreya. According to I Kuan Tao, he represents many teachings, including contentment, generosity, wisdom and open kindheartedness. He is predicted to succeed Gautama Buddha as the next Buddha, and helps people realize the essence within, which connects with all beings.
Conflation with other religious figures
Angida Arhat
Angida was one of the original eighteen Arhats of Buddhism. According to legend, Angida was a talented Indian snake catcher whose aim was to catch venomous snakes to prevent them from biting passers-by. Angida would also remove the snake's venomous fangs and release them. Due to his kindness, he was able to attain bodhi.
In Chinese art, Angida is sometimes portrayed as Budai, being rotund, laughing, and carrying a bag. In Nepali, he is also called hasne buddha ("laughing Buddha").
Phra Sangkajai / Phra Sangkachai
In Thailand, Budai is sometimes confused with another similar monk widely respected in Thailand, Phra Sangkajai or Sangkachai (Thai: พระสังกัจจายน์). Phra Sangkajai, a Thai rendering of Maha Kaccana or Mahakaccayanathera (Thai: มหากัจจายนเถระ), was a Buddhist Arhat (in Sanskrit) or Arahant (in Pali) during the time of the Lord Buddha. Lord Buddha praised Phra Sangkadchai for his excellence in explaining sophisticated dharma (or dhamma) in an easily and correctly understandable manner. Phra Sangkajai (Maha Kaccana) also composed the Madhupinadika Sutra (Madhupindika Sutta MN 18).
One tale of the Thai folklore relates that he was so handsome that once even a man wanted him for a wife. To avoid a similar situation, Phra Sangkadchai decided to transform himself into a fat monk. Another tale says he was so attractive that angels and men often compared him with the Buddha. He considered this inappropriate, so disguised himself in an unpleasantly fat body.
Although both Budai and Phra Sangkajai may be found in both Thai and Chinese temples, Phra Sangkajai is found more often in Thai temples, and Budai in Chinese temples. Two points to distinguish them from one another are:
- Phra Sangkajai has a trace of hair on his head (looking similar to the Buddha's) while Budai is clearly bald.
- Phra Sangkajai wears the robes in Theravadin Buddhist fashion with the robes folded across one shoulder, leaving the other uncovered. Budai wears the robes in Chinese style, covering both arms but leaving the front part of the upper body uncovered.
- Cook, Francis Dojun. How To Raise an Ox. Wisdom Publications. pp. 166 note 76. ISBN 9780861713172.
- "The Laughing Buddha". About.com. Retrieved April 20, 2013.
- Mark Schumacher. "HOTEI God of Contentment & Happiness". Onmarkproductions.com. Retrieved 2011-12-26.
- "Hotei, Pu-Tai, Maitreya, all known as the Laughing Buddha". Newsfinder.org. 2002-06-16. Retrieved 2011-12-26.
- "The Laughing Buddha". Religionfacts.com. Retrieved 2011-12-26.
- "Hotei". Uwec.edu. 2008-11-16. Retrieved 2011-12-26.
- Stoneware figure of Budai ('Laughing Buddha') at British Museum
- "Osho talks on the fat-bellied laughing Chinese Zen Buddhist arhat named Budai". Livingworkshop.net. Retrieved 2011-12-26.
- "Tao Living: Maitreya Buddha". Taoism.net. Retrieved 2011-12-26.
- Media related to Hotei at Wikimedia Commons
- Learning materials related to Buddha oracle#36 Laziness (The Happy Buddha) at Wikiversity
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|Count / Earl|
A prince regent, or prince-regent, is a prince who rules a monarchy as regent instead of a monarch, e.g., as a result of the Sovereign's incapacity (minority or illness) or absence (remoteness, such as exile or long voyage, or simply no incumbent). While the term itself can have the generic meaning and refer to any prince who fills the role of regent, historically it has mainly been used to describe a small number of individual Princes who were Regents.
Prince Regent in the United Kingdom
In the English language the title Prince Regent is most commonly associated with George IV, who held the style HRH The Prince Regent during the incapacity, by dint of mental illness, of his father, George III (see Regent for other regents). Regent's Park and Regent Street in London are named after him.
This period is known as the British Regency, or just the Regency.
The title was conferred by the Regency Act on February 5, 1811. Subject to certain limitations for a period, the Prince Regent was able to exercise the full powers of the King. The precedent of the Regency Crisis of 1788 (from which George III recovered before it was necessary to appoint a Regent) was followed. The Prince of Wales continued as regent until his father's death in 1820, when he became George IV.
Prince Regent in Germany
In Germany, the title Prinzregent (literally prince regent) is most commonly associated with Prince Luitpold of Bavaria, who served as regent for two of his nephews, King Ludwig II of Bavaria, who was declared mentally incompetent in 1886, and King Otto of Bavaria (who had been declared insane in 1875) from 1886 until 1912.
The years of Luitpold's regency were marked by tremendous artistic and cultural activity in Bavaria, where they are known after the regencies as the Prinzregentenjahre or the Prinzregentenzeit. Numerous streets in Bavarian cities and towns are called Prinzregentenstraße. Many institutions are named in Luitpold's honour, e.g., the Prinzregententheater in Munich. Prinzregententorte is a multi-layered cake with chocolate butter cream named in Luitpold's honour.
At Luitpold's death in 1912, his son Prince Ludwig succeeded as Prince Regent. Ludwig held the title for less than a year, since the Bavarian Legislature decided to recognise him as king.
Prince Regent in Belgium
- The first head of state of Belgium after it seceded from the Dutch monarchy in 1831 was a regent (but not a prince in his own right), baron Erasme Louis Surlet de Chokier, before the new nation, which had chosen to become a parliamentary monarchy, had its first king sworn in to the constitution.
- Prince Charles of Belgium served as Prince Regent of Belgium from 1944 to 1950 during the German captivity and then exile to Switzerland of his elder brother, King Leopold III of Belgium.
Prince Regent in Bulgaria
Prince Kiril of Bulgaria was appointed head of a regency council by the Bulgarian parliament following the death of his brother, Tsar Boris on 28 August 1943, to act as Head of State until the late Tsar's son, Simeon II of Bulgaria, became 18. On 5 September 1944 the Soviet Union declared war on the Kingdom of Bulgaria and on the 8th - Soviet armies crossed the Romanian border and occupied the country. On 1 February 1945 the prince regent Kyril, and the two other former regents - Professor Bogdan Filov and General Nikola Mihov, as well as a range of former cabinet ministers, royal advisors and 67 MPs were executed.
Prince Lieutenant in Luxembourg
The heir to the grand duke of Luxembourg may be titled prince-lieutenant ('prince deputy') during a period in which the incumbent remains formally on the grand ducal throne, but (progressively, most) functions of the crown are performed by the 'monarch apprentice', as prince Jean (still alive) did 4 May 1961 - 12 November 1964 in the last years of his mother Charlotte's reign (she lived until 1985), and Jean's own son prince Henri 3 March 1998 - 7 October 2000 until his father abdicated and he succeeded.
King or Queen regent
It has also been known throughout history that when a king is unable to reign or is out of the country for long periods of time, sometimes the consort will step up and will temporarily do the duties of a Prince regent. Sometimes they are unofficially known as regents themselves. In the Kingdom of Swaziland, queen mothers have temporarily stepped in when the sovereign was either a minor or unable to reign for other reasons.
Other notable Princes regent
- More prince-regents (often without such specific title) are to be found in Regent.
- Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark served as regent from 1784 to 1808 for his father, King Christian VII of Denmark, who was insane.
- Prince William of Prussia served as regent from 1858 to 1861 for his older brother King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who had become mentally unfit to rule.
- Prince Charles, Count of Flanders, served as regent from 1944 to 1950 for his older brother king Leopold III of Belgium, whose position had come under scrutiny after the Second World War and his marriage to Lilian Baels.
- Prince Dorgon of the Qing Dynasty served as regent for his nephew, Emperor Shunzhi, from 1643 to 1650, because the latter was only six at the time of his ascension. Dorgon was instrumental in moving Manchu forces into Beijing in 1644, proclaiming the Qing dynasty to be the legitimate successor to the Ming Dynasty. In Qing Dynasty historical records, Dorgon was the first to be referred to as Shezhengwang 摄政王(The Prince Regent).
- Zaifeng, Prince Chun during the Qing Dynasty served as regent from 1908 to 1911 for his young son Puyi, the Xuantong Emperor. Apart from Dorgon, Zaifeng was the only person in Chinese history who was specifically referred to as Prince Regent.
- Prince Paul of Yugoslavia from 1934 to 1941, known in Serbian as Његово Краљевско Височанство, Кнез Намесник (English: His Royal Highness The Prince Regent)
- John, Prince of Brazil (1767–1826) served as regent of Portugal for his mother Queen Maria I, who had become mentally unfit to rule, from 1799 to 1816. His regency was associated with the famous transfer of the Portuguese court to Brazil.
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Visual perception and the associated structural and genetic components are highly developed in insects. However, it is unclear how well these features are developed in ectoparasitic insects that have secondarily reduced or lost vision. While it is well known that fleas have reduced or completely lost their eyes, it is unclear whether the underlying genetics associated with vision have remained intact. We present data from a study of the long-wavelength opsin gene sampled across a range of mecopteran and siphonapteran taxa, which include fully visual insects (panorpids and boreids) to species with eyes reduced or absent (fleas). The evolution of this gene is evaluated in light of a robust phylogeny for Mecoptera and Siphonaptera, providing greater insight into the evolution of the opsin gene complex in insects.
Species 1: Siphonaptera (fleas)
Species 2: Mecoptera Panorpidae (scorpionflies)
Species 3: Mecoptera Boreidae (snow fleas)
Back to Student Competition Ten-Minute Papers, A2, Systematics, Morphology, and Evolution
Back to Student Competition TMP Orals
Back to The 2003 ESA Annual Meeting and Exhibition
| 3.423687 |
On This Day - 9 July 1915
Theatre definitions: Western Front comprises the Franco-German-Belgian front and any military action in Great Britain, Switzerland, Scandinavia and Holland. Eastern Front comprises the German-Russian, Austro-Russian and Austro-Romanian fronts. Southern Front comprises the Austro-Italian and Balkan (including Bulgaro-Romanian) fronts, and Dardanelles. Asiatic and Egyptian Theatres comprises Egypt, Tripoli, the Sudan, Asia Minor (including Transcaucasia), Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Persia, Afghanistan, Turkestan, China, India, etc. Naval and Overseas Operations comprises operations on the seas (except where carried out in combination with troops on land) and in Colonial and Overseas theatres, America, etc. Political, etc. comprises political and internal events in all countries, including Notes, speeches, diplomatic, financial, economic and domestic matters. Source: Chronology of the War (1914-18, London; copyright expired)
Austrian offensive on Zlota Lipa repulsed.
Italians capture Malga Sarta and Costa Bella (Trentino).
Asiatic and Egyptian Theatres
Bomb thrown at Sultan of Egypt.
Naval and Overseas Operations
South-west Africa conquered; German troops surrender unconditionally to General Botha.
Attempted torpedo attack on Cunarder "Orduna".
Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of Commerce ratified at Lisbon.
Lord Kitchener appeals for more recruits at Guildhall.
Mr. Walter Long makes statement on conscription.
Export of gold prohibited in France.
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A new report published today (4 February) by WWF-UK and the Food Ethics Council examines whether reducing meat consumption, and instead placing greater value on the meat we consume, could potentially be beneficial for people’s health, the environment, and for producers and consumers.
High meat consumption is associated with a number of factors related to important challenges facing the global food system, including climate change, obesity, water scarcity, land use change, global poverty and inequality.
Yet a simple ‘eat less meat’ message is controversial and overly simplistic. Producers and primary processors raise legitimate concerns about impacts of reduced meat production on their businesses, and politicians remain wary of industry and public reactions to the message. Some have argued that a ‘less but better’ approach could be more broadly beneficial. This report is a first step to defining what that message might look like.
‘Valuing the meat we eat’ suggests that talking about ‘less but better’ allows people to consider the many other aspects of meat production and consumption, including animal welfare, biodiversity, farmers’ profitability, taste, waste and broader health issues. It also provides an insight into where the win-wins and trade-offs may be. Although only a short study, our report suggests that, with focused discussion and government-led engagement and research, this approach is worth pursuing.
One aspect of the ‘less but better’ message shone through in the research. This is the recognition that meat should be seen as a valuable, high-quality food and that consumers, retailers, farmers and producers should be encouraged to see it as such.
The report’s key recommendations include:
- leadership, through initiatives like the Green Food Project, to explore mechanisms and policies that would support transition to ‘less but better’ meat consumption;
- Research to assess marketplace barriers to ‘less but better’ and mechanisms to overcome these;
- Research to better understand the relevance and impact of ‘less but better’ meat consumption and production on different socio-economic groups, particularly those on low incomes.
Mark Driscoll, head of corporate stewardship, food and water, at WWF-UK, said: “Whilst the term ‘better’ is not easy to define, the report demonstrates that society needs to value the food we eat, especially meat, much more than we do. This may ultimately mean paying more to reflect the true social and environmental costs, whilst rewarding producers for looking after the environment.
“We know there are good reasons for reducing our meat consumption in the West – it’s better for the environment and for health, and we eat far more than our fair share. However a simple ‘less meat’ message could have unintended consequences for farmers’ livelihoods, rural communities and landscapes and runs the risk of alienating consumers who want to eat meat. Some have suggested ‘less but better’ meat could be the answer, but no-one has really looked in to what this means. That is what we have done in this report.”
Dan Crossley, Executive Director of the Food Ethics Council, said: “It’s time we started recognising that our choices about what we eat have huge impacts – not just on our own health, but also on other people, animals, the planet and future generations.
“We must learn to appreciate our food more – and critically that includes meat. ‘Valuing the meat we eat’ sets out to explain what that might look like. We hope that it will trigger much-needed research into how such a transition could happen.”
- ENDS -
Notes to editors
1. WWF-UK & the Food Ethics Council: Prime Cuts: valuing the meat we eat (4 February 2013): http://www.wwf.org.uk/research_centre/?6466
2. Prime Cuts is the final report in the series The Livestock Dialogues. Conducted by WWF-UK and the Food Ethics Council, and funded by the Esmée Fairburn Foundation, the series has engaged with farming groups, consumer groups, producers and retailers to examine issues around the eating of meat: http://www.wwf.org.uk/what_we_do/changing_the_way_we_live/food/the_lives...
3. The Food Ethics Council is a charity that conducts independent research on the ethics of food and farming. Our aim is to create a food system that is fair and healthy for people, planet and animals. Our thirteen council members are all leaders in their relevant fields, and appointed as individuals. They bring a broad range of expertise to our work, from academic research through to practical knowledge of farming, business and policy.
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Kidney problems can often sideswipe you, hitting when you don’t expect them, as a result of health problems that don’t seem related to the kidneys at all. One of the things that can strike in this unexpected way is Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome, or HUS. It’s one of the conditions that is associated with kidney failure from E. coli bacterial infection, but that’s not the only way it can get its foot in the door.
HUS produces a low blood cell count, resulting in anemia, and destroys the platelets in the blood that allow clotting. It also damages small blood vessels in the kidneys, and sometimes in the heart or brain as well. When it hits the kidneys, the little filters called glomeruli get clogged with damaged blood cells and platelets, and kidney function is impaired. Symptoms to watch for, especially in children, include lower urine output, a loss of energy, and very noticeable pallor.
These symptoms will usually follow a bout with bloody diarrhea, often as part of some illness that affected the bowels. Toxins in the bowels will somehow move from the intestines into the bloodstream, and that’s where the damage begins. So while HUS is most often associated with E. coli, people need to be watchful after any illness involving diarrhea, especially with blood in it.
There’s one thing that’s more positive about this form of kidney problem compared to many others: people who suffer from HUS and endure some degree of kidney impairment will usually see the kidneys recover. Fluid volume control through an IV is very important as a treatment. And in some severe cases, temporary dialysis may be needed while the kidneys regain their health. But most of the time, especially if the person receives medical treatment, the kidneys will recover.
HUS-induced kidney impairment may portend other problems in the future, however. Even those who recover complete function are at a higher risk of kidney problems or high blood pressure in later years. One of the factors in this higher risk is whether other organs were severely affected by the HUS as well.
There aren’t many conditions that impair the kidneys that can be said to have a “positive” outlook, with potentially a complete recovery of the kidneys. Fortunately, HUS is one of them. But as with so many other things involving the kidneys, the key is to watch the symptoms, and get immediate treatment once the problem is discovered.
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- If the Earth rotated in the opposite sense (clockwise rather than counterclockwise), how long would the solar day be?
- Suppose that the Earth’s pole was perpendicular to its orbit. How would the azimuth of sunrise vary throughout the year? How would the length of day and night vary throughout the year at the equator? at the North and South Poles? where you live?
- You are an astronaut on the moon. You look up, and see the Earth in its full phase and on the meridian. What lunar phase do people on Earth observe? What if you saw a first quarter Earth? new Earth? third quarter Earth? Draw a picture showing the geometry.
- If a planet always keeps the same side towards the Sun, how many sidereal days are in a year on that planet?
- If on a given day, the night is 24 hours long at the North Pole, how long is the night at the South Pole?
- On what day of the year are the nights longest at the equator?
- From the fact that the Moon takes 29.5 days to complete a full cycle of phases, show that it rises an average of 48 minutes later each night.
- What is the ratio of the flux hitting the Moon during the first quarter phase to the flux hitting the Moon near the full phase?
- Titan and the Moon have similar escape velocities. Why does Titan have an atmosphere, but the Moon does not?
Friday, October 30, 2009
Astronomers have confirmed that an exploding star spotted by Nasa's Swift satellite is the most distant cosmic object to be detected by telescopes.
In the journal Nature, two teams of astronomers report their observations of a gamma-ray burst from a star that died 13.1 billion light-years away.
The massive star died about 630 million years after the Big Bang.
UK astronomer Nial Tanvir described the observation as "a step back in cosmic time".
Professor Tanvir led an international team studying the afterglow of the explosion, using the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope (UKIRT) in Hawaii.
Swift detects around 100 gamma ray bursts every year
He told BBC News that his team was able to observe the afterglow for 10 days, while the gamma ray burst itself lasted around 12 seconds.
The event, dubbed GRB 090423, is an example of one of the most violent explosions in the Universe.
It is thought to have been associated with the cataclysmic death of a massive star - triggered by the centre of the star collapsing to form a "stellar-sized" black hole.
"Swift detects something like 100 gamma ray bursts per year," said Professor Tanvir. "And we follow up on lots of them in the hope that eventually we will get one like this one - something really very distant."
Another team, led by Italian astronomer Ruben Salvaterra studied the afterglow independently with the National Galileo Telescope in La Palma.
Little red dot
He told BBC News: "This kind of observation is quite difficult, so having two groups have the same result with two different instruments makes this much more robust."
"It is not surprising - we expected to see an event this distant eventually," said Professor Salvaterra.
"But to be there when it happens is quite amazing - definitely something to tell the grandchildren."
A GAMMA-RAY BURST RECIPE
Models assume GRBs arise when giant stars burn out and collapse
During collapse, super-fast jets of matter burst out from the stars
Collisions occur with gas already shed by the dying behemoths
The interaction generates the energetic signals detected by Swift
Remnants of the huge stars end their days as black holes
The astronomers were able to calculate the vast distance using a phenomenon known as "red shift".
Most of the light from the explosion was absorbed by intergalactic hydrogen gas. As that light travelled towards Earth, the expansion of the Universe "stretches" its wavelength, causing it to become redder.
"The greater that amount of movement [or stretching], the greater the distance." he said.
The image of this gamma ray burst was produced by combining several infrared images.
"So in this case, it's the redness of the dot that indicates that it is very distant," Professor Tanvir explained.
Before this record-breaking event, the furthest object observed from Earth was a gamma ray burst 12.9 billion light-years away.
"This is quite a big step back to the era when the first stars formed in the Universe," said Professor Tanvir.
"Not too long ago we had no idea where the first galaxies came from, so astronomers think this is a profound moment.
"This is... the last blank bit of the map of the Universe - the time between the Big Bang and the formation of these early galaxies."
Data from two powerful telescopes confirmed the result
And this is not the end of the story.
Bing Zhang, an astronomer from the University of Nevada, who was not involved in this study, wrote an article in Nature, explaining its significance.
The discovery, he said, opened up the exciting possibility of studying the "dark ages" of the Universe with gamma ray bursts.
And Professor Tanvir is already planning follow-up studies "looking for the galaxy this exploding star occurred in."
Next year, he and his team will be using the Hubble Space Telescope to try to locate that distant, very early galaxy.
Source: BBC News
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It is impossible for the information in DNA to have emerged through coincidences and natural processes.
The theory of evolution, which accounts for the origin of life in terms of chance, cannot provide a coherent explanation for even the existence of the most basic molecules in the cell. Advances in genetic science and the discovery of the nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, represented still further impasses for the theory. In 1955, research by two scientists, James Watson and Francis Crick, brought to light the DNA’s unbelievably complex structure and design.
The molecule known as DNA, found in every one of the 100 trillion cells in the human body, contains a flawless structural blueprint for the body as a whole. Information regarding all a person’s characteristics, from external appearance to the structures of the internal organs, is recorded in the DNA through a special coding system, via the arrangement of four special molecules that constitute the DNA spiral. These molecules, known as nucleotides, are referred to by their initial letters: A, T, G and C.
All the structural differences between human beings stem from these letters being arranged differently from one another. The arrangement of these molecules in DNA determines a person’s structure, down to the minutest detail. In addition to features such as height and the color of the eyes, hair and skin, the blueprints concerning the body’s 206 bones, 600 muscles, 100 billion nerve cells and 100 trillion cells are all contained in the DNA in any single cell. If you were to put down all the information in DNA on paper, you would need to a library of 900 volumes of 500 pages each. Yet this unimaginable amount of information is coded in the components of the DNA known as genes.
Any error arising in the arrangement of the nucleotides making up a gene will make that gene totally functionless. Bear in mind that there are 40,000 genes in the human body, and it seems absolutely impossible for the millions of nucleotides comprising these genes to have assumed their correct order by chance.
A medium protein might include about 300 amino acids. The DNA gene controlling this would have about 1,000 nucleotidase in its chain. Since there are four kinds of nucleotidase in a DNA chain, one consisting of 1,000 links could exist in 41000 or 10600. Ten multiplied by itself 600 times gives the figure 1 followed by 600 zeros! Imagine how many universes it would take to accommodate 10600 DNA chains! 130
Following a small logarithmic calculation, in 41000 is equivalent to a probability of 1 in 10600. That number is 1 followed by 600 zeros. Since 1 followed by 11 zeros equals 1 trillion, it is absolutely impossible to conceive of the number represented by 1 and 600 zeros. The impossibility of nucleotides coming together by chance to constitute DNA and RNA is expressed by the French evolutionist scientist Paul Auger:
We have to sharply distinguish the two stages in the chance formation of complex molecules such as nucleotides by chemical events. The production of nucleotides one by one—which is possible—and the combination of these within very special sequences. The second is absolutely impossible.131
The chances of a protein and nucleic acid (DNA-RNA) forming are far beyond what is estimated. In fact, the odds of a specific protein chain coming about are astronomically small. 132
The theory of evolution has not proven any of the evolutionary formations alleged to have taken place at the molecular level. As science progresses, far from producing answers to these questions, it actually makes those questions more complex and unanswerable, and thus confirms creation by default.
However, evolutionists have conditioned themselves to deny creation and are thus left with no alternative than to believe in the impossible. In his book Evolution: A Theory in Crisis, the well-known Australian molecular biologist Michael Denton describes the situation:
To the skeptic, the proposition that the genetic programmes of higher organisms, consisting of something close to a thousand million bits of information, equivalent to the sequence of letters in a small library of 1,000 volumes, containing in encoded form countless thousands of intricate algorithms controlling, specifying, and ordering the growth and development of billions and billions of cells into the form of a complex organism, were composed by a purely random process is simply an affront to reason. But to the Darwinist, the idea is accepted without a ripple of doubt— the paradigm takes precedence!133
130 Frank B. Salisbury, “Doubts about the Modern Synthetic Theory of Evolution.” American Biology Teacher, September 1971, p. 336.
131 Paul Auger, De La Physique Theorique a la Biologie, 1970, p. 118.
132 Ali Demirsoy, KalF5tF5m ve Evrim, Ankara: Meteksan YayF5nlarF5, 1984, p. 39.
133 Michael Denton, Evolution: A Theory in Crisis. London: Burnett Books, 1985, p. 351.
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Blame the advertising man who misnamed it in the 1930s, but athlete's foot has nothing to do with athletes. It's a fungal infection of the feet. Also known as tinea pedis, or "ringworm of the feet," it has nothing to do with worms either. The Trichophyton fungus that causes the redness, itching, cracking, and scaling of athlete's foot can also infect the scalp, where it causes hair loss and scaly patches; the body, where it causes round, red, scaly patches that itch; and the groin, where the so-called "jock itch" causes itching and thickening of the skin. So what causes athlete's foot?
- Athlete's foot is the most common fungal infection of the skin. It affects more men than women, probably because men typically wear heavy, often airtight shoes, and the fungus loves hot, dark, moist environments.
- Contrary to popular myth, athlete's foot fungus isn't just found in locker rooms, although the moist locker-room environment is perfect for fungal growth. In fact, most people harbor the fungus on their skin, but it's kept in check by bacteria that also normally live on the skin.
- Skin that is irritated, weakened, or continuously moist is primed for an athlete's foot infection. And certain medications, including antibiotics, corticosteroids, birth control pills, and drugs that suppress immune function, can make you more susceptible. People who are obese and those who have diabetes mellitus or a weakened immune system, such as those with AIDS, also are at increased risk. Although anyone can get athlete's foot, teenage and adult males are at the top of the fungus-foot list.
Most cases of athlete's foot cause only bothersome redness, itching, flaking, and scaling on the soles of the feet and between the toes. In severe cases, however, blisters form on the soles of the feet; fissures, or cracks, that weep fluid can also open between the toes. These fissures can cause a stinging pain and are vulnerable to secondary infection. When the infection involves the toenails, it can cause the nails to become discolored and thick. Also, if left untreated, athlete's foot can infect other parts of the body.
Doctors don't agree on exactly how athlete's foot is spread, but most believe it's passed by direct contact with an infected person or with a contaminated surface, such as the floor of a shower stall. But the real determinants of whether or not you'll get the infection are how susceptible you are and how dry you keep your feet.
If you have contracted athlete's foot, don't despair. You can try a number of home remedies to give your athlete's foot the boot. See the next page to get started.
This information is solely for informational purposes. IT IS NOT INTENDED TO PROVIDE MEDICAL ADVICE. Neither the Editors of Consumer Guide (R), Publications International, Ltd., the author nor publisher take responsibility for any possible consequences from any treatment, procedure, exercise, dietary modification, action or application of medication which results from reading or following the information contained in this information. The publication of this information does not constitute the practice of medicine, and this information does not replace the advice of your physician or other health care provider. Before undertaking any course of treatment, the reader must seek the advice of their physician or other health care provider.
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State Rank for US Production (1996):
19th in nation
Percent Total US Production (1996):
Dollar Value of Production (1,000s):
Cattle ranching came to Idaho early because range cattle were able to travel long distances to the mines and other markets. Cattle could roam over thousands of acres of grasslands and were relatively easy to drive from Oregon, Washington, and Idaho across the Camas Prairie to Cheyenne for shipment by railroads to the eastern states.
Today the majority of Idaho beef cattle (the major livestock raised in the state) graze on public rangelands across the state.
Dairy cattle are more typically raised in the southern regions, usually on private ranches.
Idaho Department of
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Most food items contain toxins like mercury, pesticides and acrylamide that can affect children in the long run
Even healthy food like fruit, vegetables, meat and fish might be putting children’s health at risk. These food items also contain toxins like mercury, pesticides and acrylamide that can, over a long time, make children vulnerable to cancer and affect their nervous and reproductive systems. This is the finding of a study on effects of 11 such food-borne toxins on people of different age groups in the US, carried out by researchers from the University of California, Davis, and University of California, Los Angeles. Irva Hertz-Picciotto, professor and chief of the division of environmental and occupational health at University of California, Davis, says toxins in food affect children the most as their brains and other organs are still developing.
| 3.382376 |
Department of Energy
- Land is essential for all types of economic activity - every business has a footprint.
- At the height of the 2006 real estate boom, land in the US is estimated to have been worth more than $17 trillion.
- Research presented by @AEI’s Stephen Oliner suggests that land is indeed a high-risk investment.
Land is essential for all types of economic activity. Every business — whether it’s General Motors or the corner grocery store — has a footprint. The same is true for the homes and apartments in which people live.
Land also constitutes a major part of wealth. At the height of the real estate boom in 2006, land in the United States (excluding farmland and land held by the government) is estimated to have been worth more than $17 trillion. This figure represents about 40 percent of the value of commercial real estate and housing in the United States.1 Of course, much of that wealth dissolved over the next few years as real estate markets crashed. The new research presented in this Letter documents the huge swing in land value over the recent cycle, showing that land is indeed a high-risk investment.
Read the full text of the letter here.
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Thyroid cancer is cancer of the thyroid gland. This gland makes thyroid hormone, and it is found in the front of the neck. Thyroid gland tumors often appear as bumps in the neck, called nodules. In most cases, thyroid nodules are not cancerous. However, those that are cancerous have the potential to spread throughout the body.
There are several types of thyroid cancer, including:
- Papillary carcinoma (most common type)—It usually grows very slowly and often spreads to lymph nodes in the neck. If caught early, this type of thyroid cancer is often curable.
- Follicular carcinoma (second most common type)—It usually stays in the thyroid gland, but can spread to other parts of the body, such as the lungs and bones. It does not usually spread to the lymph nodes. If caught early, this type of thyroid cancer is often curable.
- Anaplastic carcinoma (rare form of thyroid cancer)—It quickly invades the neck and other parts of the body and is often fatal.
Medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC)—This cancer develops from cells in the thyroid gland called C-cells.
MTC often spreads to the lymph nodes, lungs, or liver before a thyroid nodule has been discovered. There are two types of MTC:
- Sporadic MTC
- Familial medullary thyroid carcinoma (FMTC)
- Thyroid lymphoma (rare type of thyroid cancer)—Many cases occur in people who have a disease called Hashimoto's thyroiditis .
Factors that may increase the risk of thyroid cancer include:
- Diet low in iodine
- History of radiation to the head, neck, or chest, especially in infancy or childhood
- Family history of thyroid cancer
- Sex: female
- Age: 30 and over
- Exposure to radioactive fallout (eg, exposed to radiation from nuclear accidents or exposed to nuclear testing area during childhood)
Symptoms may include:
- A lump in the neck
- Neck pain (sometimes going up to the ears)
- Difficulty swallowing
- Difficulty breathing
- Persistent cough
- Enlarged lymph glands in the neck
The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will also be done. This may include a careful examination of your neck to look for lumps or abnormalities.
Your doctor may order tests, such as:
Once thyroid cancer is found, staging tests are done to find out if the cancer has spread. Treatment depends on the stage of the cancer. Examples of treatment options include:
- Thyroidectomy —This is the removal of all or part of the thyroid gland.
- Radioactive iodine therapy —This uses large doses of radioactive iodine to destroy the thyroid gland and thyroid cancer without affecting the rest of the body.
- External radiation therapy —This is the use of radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation is directed at the tumor from a source outside the body.
If you are diagnosed with thyroid cancer, follow your doctor's instructions .
Because the exact cause of thyroid cancer is unknown, finding it early and treating it is the best way to prevent dying from the disease. Your doctor may recommend screening tests for you, for example:
- Have a thyroid exam every three years if you are aged 20-39 years old
- Have a thyroid exam every year if you are aged 40 years or older
Since exposure to radiation is a major risk factor for thyroid cancer, you should:
- Avoid unnecessary exposure to radiation.
- If you have been exposed to radiation of the head, neck, or chest, have frequent checks for thyroid cancer.
- Reviewer: Igor Puzanov, MD
- Review Date: 10/2012 -
- Update Date: 10/31/2012 -
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After kids or teens are diagnosed with type 2 diabetes, the next step is to create a diabetes management plan to help them manage the condition and stay healthy and active.
Treatment plans for type 2 diabetes are based on each child's needs and the suggestions of the diabetes health care team.
Type 2 Diabetes Treatment Basics
The blood glucose level is the amount of glucose in the blood. Glucose is the main source of energy for the body's cells and is carried to each cell through the bloodstream. The hormone insulin allows the glucose to get into the cells. In type 2 diabetes, the body doesn't respond normally to insulin, so glucose is less able to enter the cells. This causes the blood glucose level to rise.
Treatment goals for kids with diabetes are to control the condition in a way that minimizes symptoms, prevents short- and long-term health problems, and helps them to have normal physical, mental, emotional, and social growth and development. To do this, parents and kids should aim for the goal of keeping blood sugar levels as close to normal as possible.
It is also important to treat other conditions that can be associated with type 2 diabetes, like obesity, high blood pressure, or abnormal blood lipid (fat) levels.
In general, kids with type 2 diabetes need to:
eat a healthy, balanced diet and follow a meal plan
get regular exercise
take medications as prescribed
monitor blood sugar levels regularly
Helping kids with type 2 diabetes switch to healthier habits is a key part of treatment. Because most kids are overweight when they're diagnosed, it's important to promote healthy eating and physical activity to prevent further weight gain or to encourage weight loss while making sure they grow and develop properly.
Weight gain occurs when someone eats more calories, or energy, than is used up through physical activity. The body stores those extra calories as fat. Over time, excessive weight gain can lead to obesity and diseases related to obesity like type 2 diabetes and heart disease.
Kids with type 2 diabetes who are trying to manage their weight still need energy to develop normally. To get it, they'll need enough calories to grow without gaining too much fat. The best way is to eat nutritious foods and exercise.
Many parents worry about what to feed their kids with type 2 diabetes. The key is a balanced, healthy diet. Kids with diabetes benefit from the same kind of diet as those without diabetes — one that includes a variety of nutritious foods that help the body grow and function properly.
The three main types of nutrients found in foods are carbohydrates (carbs), proteins, and fats, which provide energy in the form of calories. Foods containing carbs cause blood sugar levels to go up the most. Foods that are mostly protein and/or fat don't affect blood sugar levels nearly as much.
Our bodies need many nutrients — in different amounts — to function normally. So when you and the diabetes health care team create a diabetes meal plan to help keep your child's blood sugar within the target range, it will include a variety of nutrients.
Meal plans usually consist of breakfast, lunch, and dinner with small, scheduled between-meal snacks. The plan won't restrict your child to eating specific foods, but will guide you in selecting from the basic food groups to achieve a healthy balance.
Meal plans are based on a child's age, activity level, schedule, and food likes and dislikes, and should be flexible enough to accommodate special situations like parties and holidays. The meal plan should make it easier to keep your child's blood sugar within his or her goal range.
The meal plan also might recommend limiting extra fat and "empty" calories (foods that contain lots of calories but few nutrients). Everyone should limit these foods anyway because eating too much of them can lead to excess weight gain or long-term health problems like heart disease, for which people with diabetes are already at risk.
Portion control — even of healthy foods — is important for kids with type 2 diabetes because they generally weigh more than kids who don't have the disease. As you're following your child's meal plan, be wary of special foods marketed to people with diabetes. Sugar-free and fat-free foods are not always calorie-free or even low-calorie foods.
A registered dietitian (RD) can help you choose and cook healthier foods, read food labels, and learn how much food your child should be eating in a day. The RD also can adjust meal plans depending on how your child is doing regarding meeting weight management goals. If you don't have a dietitian on the diabetes health care team, ask your doctor for a referral to see one.
Getting Regular Exercise
Exercise is good for everyone — adults and kids, with or without diabetes. Getting regular physical activity is also an important part of diabetes treatment. Overweight kids and teens with type 2 diabetes tend to be less active, so exercise is a very important part of the treatment plan.
Exercise helps improve the body's response to insulin, which helps to control blood sugar levels. It also helps the body burn more calories, which can reduce excess body fat. And it's healthier for growing kids who are overweight to burn more calories through exercise than to severely restrict the food they eat.
Regular physical activity also can help reduce the risk of other chronic illnesses, like cancer. In addition to all of these benefits, exercise can help kids with diabetes:
get and keep their heart, lungs, and blood vessels in good shape
feel more normal by doing things that kids without diabetes can do
Kids don't have to be athletic to reap the benefits of physical activity. Things like walking the dog, helping around the house, and playing outside with friends are great — anything that gets them moving regularly can go a long way toward helping control diabetes.
To help avoid problems during exercise, kids with type 2 diabetes may need to:
have an extra snack prior to activity
carry snacks, water, and supplies with them when they exercise
check their blood sugar levels before, during, and after exercise
make sure their coaches know about their diabetes and what to do if problems occur
Make sure your child wears a medical identification bracelet (this should always be worn, but it's even more important during exercise, sports, and and fitness activities).
The diabetes health care team will make suggestions to help your child get ready for exercise or join a sport. They'll also provide instructions to help you and your child respond to any diabetes problems that could occur during exercise, like hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) or hyperglycemia (high blood sugar).
Taking Medications as Prescribed
Sometimes, a combination of diet and exercise are enough to control blood sugar levels in kids with type 2 diabetes. Other times, pills that help insulin work better also need to be taken. These pills are not a form of insulin.
Sometimes pills for diabetes — even when combined with diet and exercise — still aren't enough to keep blood sugar levels under control, and a child with type 2 diabetes must take insulin. The acids and digestive juices in the stomach and intestines would break down and destroy insulin if it was swallowed, so it can't be taken in a pill. The only way to get insulin into the body is with an injection or an insulin pump.
There is no-one-size-fits-all insulin schedule — the types of insulin used and number of daily injections a child needs will depend on the diabetes management plan. Usually, kids inject a combination of different types of insulin to handle the sugar that circulates in the blood after eating and between meals. Also, you can't turn off the action of insulin once it's been injected, so insulin doses need to be adjusted to handle the rise in blood sugar that occurs with meals and provide the amounts of insulin the body needs between meals and overnight.
Eating meals at regular times generally makes this easier. Although eating on schedule may work well for younger kids, sticking to a routine can be a challenge for older kids, whose school, sleep, and social schedules might not be as routine. The diabetes health care team can help you work through any problems your child might have with scheduling meals and insulin injections.
The promising news about type 2 diabetes is that by following a balanced diet, getting regular physical activity, and achieving a healthy weight, blood sugar levels can improve significantly. In some kids, following the treatment plan for type 2 diabetes can even eliminate the need for medication altogether.
Treating type 2 diabetes also involves checking blood sugar levels regularly and responding to the results. Controlling blood sugar levels helps kids with diabetes feel well, grow and develop normally, and also reduces the risk of long-term diabetes complications.
The diabetes treatment plan will recommend how many times a day to check blood sugar levels, which is the only way to monitor the effectiveness of your child's day-to-day blood sugar control.
The diabetes health care team also will let you know what your child's target blood sugar levels are. In general, kids with type 2 diabetes should test their blood sugar levels with a blood glucose meter at least twice a day, but might need to test more frequently if they're taking insulin, have just been diagnosed, or are having problems with blood sugar control.
A blood glucose meter measures the blood sugar level at the moment of testing. Another blood sugar test, the glycosylated hemoglobin (hemoglobin A1c or HbA1c) test, indicates what blood sugar levels have been over the past few months.
Putting it All Together
Treating and managing diabetes can seem overwhelming at times. But the diabetes health care team is there for you. Your child's diabetes management plan should be easy to understand, detailed, and written down for easy reference. You also should have the names and phone numbers of the health care team members in case of emergencies or if you have questions about how to take care of your child's diabetes.
Besides the standard diabetes treatments, you also might hear of alternative or complementary treatments, such as herbal remedies and vitamin or mineral supplements. Although research continues into their possible benefits, studies thus far haven't proved their effectiveness. Aside from being potentially ineffective, they could even be dangerous for kids and teens with type 2 diabetes, especially if used to replace medically recommended treatments. Talk to the diabetes health care team if you have questions.
Each day, researchers all over the world are working to find a cure for diabetes, and many treatment advances have made treatment easier and more effective. Insulin might soon be available in pill, patch, and spray forms, and scientists continue efforts to improve results of pancreas or islet cell transplants. Versions of an artificial pancreas — a device that senses blood sugar and gives insulin — also are being tested.
These new developments are exciting, but they still need extensive testing — especially for use in kids — before they become available.
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Have you ever eaten gluten? No, not glue — gluten! If you've ever eaten a piece of bread, a slice of pizza, or a bowl of cereal, chances are you have.
Gluten (say: gloo-tin) is a protein found in wheat, rye, and barley — grains that are in many everyday foods. Most of us eat food with gluten with no trouble. But for some people, eating gluten can cause a reaction in their bodies. Someone who has this problem has celiac (say: see-lee-ak) disease.
After you eat food, it goes to your stomach, which is part of a group of organs that make up your digestive system. An important part of the digestive system is the small intestine, which is lined with villi (say: vil-eye).
Villi are usually described as microscopic, finger-like projections. Weird, huh? Fingers in your intestines! But don't forget that they're microscopic, meaning they are extremely small — so small you can't see them without a microscope. The villi are important because they absorb nutrients into the body.
For someone with celiac disease, eating gluten — in a piece of bread, for instance — causes an immune system reaction. Your immune system ordinarily keeps you from getting sick, but in someone with celiac disease, the body starts damaging and destroying the villi. Without villi, the body can't absorb vitamins and nutrients from food. Without enough nutrients, a kid's body has a tough time staying healthy and growing properly. Even if the person eats a lot, he or she still might lose weight and might develop anemia (say: uh-nee-me-uh) from not absorbing enough iron.
No one is sure why celiac disease happens, but it appears to run in families. You have a 5% to 10% chance of getting celiac disease if someone in your family has it. It's common in people from the northern European countries and the United States. How common? About 1 in every 133 people in the United States has celiac disease.
Obviously, many people who have celiac disease do not know it. If all these people were diagnosed, celiac disease would be more common than type 1 diabetes. Fortunately, awareness is growing about the problem, and there are better ways of testing people for it.
Signs and Symptoms
Some common symptoms of celiac disease are diarrhea, decreased appetite, stomachache and bloating, poor growth, and weight loss. Many kids are diagnosed with it when they're between 6 months and 2 years old. It makes sense because, at this time kids are getting their first taste of gluten in foods.
For some people, the problems occur gradually and the symptoms may be terrible one week and not as bad the next. Because of this, some people aren't diagnosed with celiac disease until they're older. The problem is chronic, which means that although symptoms may come and go, people who have celiac disease will always have it.
Someone with celiac disease may feel tired and could be irritable. Some also have skin rashes and mouth sores. The problem is sometimes mistaken for other digestive problems called inflammatory bowel disease or lactose intolerance. And in some cases, a kid won't have any symptoms and then will all of a sudden start having problems during a time of stress, such as after an injury.
Someone who has a lot of stomachaches, diarrhea, weight loss, or any of other symptoms of celiac disease should talk to a doctor. It may or may not be celiac disease, but a doctor can help sort this out and will usually order a screening blood test.
If the screening tests show a person might have celiac disease, the next stop usually is to see a gastroenterologist, a doctor who specializes in digestive problems. This specialist may decide to take a sample of the small intestine to look at under the microscope. This small sample is called a biopsy. If a biopsy is done, the doctor will give some special medicine to help the person stay comfortable during the procedure.
How Is It Treated?
Celiac disease is treated by not eating gluten. This can be difficult because gluten is in many foods, but a dietitian can help adjust someone's diet to cut out gluten. It is important not to start a gluten-free diet unless you are truly diagnosed with celiac disease.
Following a gluten-free diet allows the small intestine to heal. But that doesn't mean the person can start eating gluten again. For someone with celiac disease, gluten will always irritate the intestines and, if this happens, the diarrhea, stomachaches, and other problems will return.
If you're diagnosed with celiac disease, it can be a challenge to learn which foods contain gluten. You may not be able to remember them all, but you can keep a list with you and ask about menu items at restaurants before digging in. Before you know it, you'll be a pro at knowing which foods are safe and which are not.
Here's a quick quiz: Which of these foods contain gluten?
If you said all three, you're right! Pizza was the easiest choice because you know the crust is bread. But did you know that battered foods like fried chicken and even some French fries contain gluten? Pasta also contains gluten because it is made from wheat. Luckily, you can make or buy gluten-free pizza crust, make fried chicken with a gluten-free batter, and find gluten-free pasta. In fact, nearly all of the foods we eat can be made gluten free.
In addition to foods that contain gluten, you'll need to watch out for foods that may have been contaminated with gluten. That means a food doesn't contain gluten as an ingredient but came into contact with gluten-containing foods. This is most likely to occur at home in your own kitchen — for instance, wheat bread crumbs in the toaster, the butter, or peanut butter.
If you have celiac disease you will need your own toaster and you should also have separate spreads and condiments to avoid this cross-contamination. Some foods are contaminated during processing, so your mom or dad can help you by finding certified gluten-free foods. For instance, gluten-free oats are now available for people with celiac disease.
The best approach is to read labels, but here are a few foods to steer clear of until you can verify that they are gluten free:
packaged rice mixes
There's also a labeling act that requires the labeling of wheat-free products. But a "wheat-free" food isn't necessarily a "gluten-free" one because wheat-free products may have barley and rye (gluten-containing grains) in them.
A diagnosis of celiac disease does not mean giving up all your favorite foods. It just means adapting them to be gluten free. Many different gluten-free products, baking mixes, and recipes are available. A support group is a great resource for finding out which recipes and products are best.
A support group can help keep you up to date as well. For instance, a few years ago it was recommended that distilled vinegar be completely avoided on a gluten-free diet. Now we know that the gluten molecules do not appear in the distillate. Huh? What this means is that distilled vinegar is now an OK ingredient. That made a big change in the allowed foods someone with celiac disease could eat.
If you're part of a support group, you hear of these kinds of changes right away. A support group is also a great place to get to know other kids who have celiac disease and to learn that you're not alone.
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Adenoids and tonsils are often talked about together. You can see your tonsils in the back of your throat, but where are your adenoids? For that matter, what are your adenoids? Let's find out.
What Are Adenoids?
The adenoids (say: add-eh-noids) are lumpy clusters of spongy tissue that help protect kids from getting sick. They sit in the back of the nasal cavity and are above the roof of the mouth.
Although you can easily see your tonsils by standing in front of a mirror and opening your mouth wide, you can't see your adenoids this way. A doctor has to use a special telescope to get a peek at your adenoids. The doctor can also get an idea of the size of the adenoids by getting an X-ray of your head.
Like tonsils, adenoids help keep your body healthy by trapping harmful bacteria and viruses that you breathe in or swallow. Adenoids also contain cells that make antibodies to help your body fight infections.
Adenoids do important work as infection fighters for babies and little kids. But they become less important once a kid gets older and the body develops other ways to fight germs.
Adenoids usually shrink after about age 5, and by the teenage years they often practically disappear.
When Adenoids Swell
Because adenoids trap germs that enter the body, adenoid tissue sometimes temporarily swells (gets puffier) as it tries to fight off an infection. The swelling might go away on its own, but sometimes medical treatment is necessary. Adenoids can get so walloped by a bacterial invasion that they become infected themselves.
Swollen or enlarged adenoids are common. When this happens, the tonsils may also get swollen, too. Swollen or infected adenoids can make it tough to breathe and cause these problems:
a very stuffy nose, so a kid can breathe only through his or her mouth
snoring and trouble getting a good night's sleep
sore throat and trouble swallowing
swollen glands in the neck
Tell a grownup if you have any of these problems, so he or she can take you to the doctor.
At the doctor's office, the doctor will ask you how things feel in your ears, nose, and throat, and then take a look at these parts. Your doctor will also feel your neck near your jaw.
Your doctor may use a flexible telescope to look at your adenoids, and might also send you for an X-ray. If it looks your adenoids are infected, the doctor may give you an antibiotic (a germ-fighting medicine) to take.
When Adenoids Come Out
Sometimes doctors recommend removing the adenoids if medicine doesn't help or if they're making a kid sick a lot. This means going into the hospital and having surgery.
Sometimes, a kid's tonsils and adenoids are removed at the same time. That's called a tonsillectomy (say: tahn-suh-lek-tuh-me) and adenoidectomy (say: add-eh-noid-ek-tuh-me). Both are common surgeries for kids to have.
During these surgeries, kids get special medicine that makes them fall asleep and ensures that they don't feel any pain while the operation is being done. Usually, neither operation requires stitches. The cut areas will heal on their own. It takes a little time, though. After surgery, a kid will have a sore throat and will need to eat soft foods for a while.
Most kids are feeling back to normal in less than a week. And do they miss their adenoids? Not one bit!
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Do Allergies Cause Asthma?
Do allergies cause asthma? The answer to this question is: yes and no. People who have certain kinds of allergies are more likely to have asthma. Which kind of allergies? Usually, the type of allergies that affect your nose and eyes, causing problems like a runny nose or red, itchy eyes.
Whatever causes an allergic reaction, such as pollen or dust mites, can also trigger asthma symptoms. But not everyone who has allergies develops asthma. And not all cases of asthma are related to allergies.
About 23 million people in the United States have asthma. Of these, about 70% have an allergy to something. Many of these people find their asthma symptoms get worse when they're exposed to certain allergens (things that can cause allergic reactions). Common allergens include dust mites, mold, pollen, and animal dander. Parents who have allergies or asthma often pass along the tendency to have these conditions to their kids.
If you have allergies, your immune system reacts to these allergens as if the allergens were invading the body. To fight the allergen, your immune system produces an antibody called immunoglobulin E (IgE).
When the IgE combines with the allergen, a process is set in motion that results in the release of certain substances in the body. One of the substances released is histamine, which causes allergic symptoms that can affect the eyes, nose, throat, skin, gastrointestinal tract, or lungs. When the airways in the lungs are affected, symptoms of asthma (such as coughing, wheezing, or difficulty breathing) can occur.
The body remembers this reaction, so each time the allergen comes into contact with the body, the same thing can happen. Because of that, allergies can make it difficult for some people to keep their asthma under control.
If you have asthma, it's a good idea to look at whether allergies may be triggering your symptoms. Talk with your doctor about how to identify possible triggers. Your doctor might also recommend a visit to an allergist to help you find out if you're allergic to anything. But even if you are allergic to something — or a whole list of things — it doesn't mean that those allergies are causing your asthma symptoms. It does allow you and your doctor to start investigating the connection, though.
Limiting your exposure to possible allergens may be a big help in controlling your asthma. If you can't completely limit your exposure to something, and you have been shown to be allergic to it, your doctor may recommend allergy shots.
Reviewed by: Elana Pearl Ben-Joseph, MD
Date reviewed: October 2010
Share this page using:
Note: All information on TeensHealth® is for educational purposes only. For specific medical advice, diagnoses, and treatment, consult your doctor.
© 1995- The Nemours Foundation. All rights reserved.
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Japanese-style rooms are
covered with tatami mats.
Tatami is made of straw and rush.
The filling is made of hard-packed straw,
and the smooth facing is made of woven rushes.
The long sides of tatami have a cloth edging.
Tatami is a very good material for floors
because it's so humid in Japan.
Tatami is derived from a verb tatamu which means to fold or to pile.
It shows us that the original tatami was used in different way.
The oldest description is seen in Kojiki,
the oldest history book in Japan written in 712.
In the Heian period (794 - 1191) it has been used only by high status people.
When you see the pictures of "hyakunin isshu "(Japanese traditional cards),
you will find emperors or nobles sitting on tatami
which was placed on the wooden floor as isolated pieces.
In the Muromachi period they began to cover the whole floor with tatami.
Tatami are arranged by the following rules:
1: The corners of four tatami mats should not meet at one point
2: There should not be a line that bisects the tatami layout
either vertically or horizontally
(a line like this resembles an image of harakiri )
3: Only one half size tatami should be used per room.
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Forty years ago, killer whales were widely feared and largely misunderstood. Fisherman and mariners often shot at them on sight due to the misconception that these animals posed a threat to their livelihoods and were a danger to humans. With the introduction of killer whales into aquariums and oceanariums in the 1960’s and 70’s public perception began to change rapidly. They were no longer thought of as ferocious beasts but rather as intelligent, sensitive and inquisitive creatures. This new perception helped stimulate research on wild killer whales and led to the species’ protection from shooting and deliberate harassment. Today, however, we are threatening killer whales in new ways. Over-fishing, pollution, increased boat traffic and other human activities all pose a threat to whales and their fragile environment.
Click here to learn more about threats facing killer whales and what you can do to help.
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Tue March 5, 2013
Study Finds Climate Change To Open Arctic Sea Routes By 2050
Originally published on Tue March 5, 2013 11:22 am
Climate change will make commercial shipping possible from North America to Russia or Asia over the North Pole by the middle of the century, a new study says.
Two researchers at the University of California ran seven different climate models simulating two classes of vessels to see if they could make a relatively ice-free passage through the Arctic Ocean. In each case, the sea routes are sufficiently clear after 2049, they say.
The study, published Monday in the journal PNAS by Laurence C. Smith and Scott R. Stephenson, found that the sea ice will become thin enough that a "corridor directly over the north pole" will open up. "The shortest great circle route thus becomes feasible, for ships with moderate ice-breaking capability."
(A great circle route is the shortest distance between two points on the surface of a sphere, such as the Earth.)
Smith and Stephenson conclude that the opening of the new routes "heightens the urgency for a mandatory International Maritime Organization regulatory framework to ensure adequate environmental protections, vessel safety standards, and search-and-rescue capability."
According to The Guardian:
"The northern sea route has been shown to save a medium-sized bulk carrier 18 days and 580 tons of bunker fuel on a journey between northern Norway and China. Shipowners have said it can save them €180,000-€300,000 ($235,000-$390,000) on each voyage. A direct route over the pole could save up to 40 percent more fuel and time."
Arctic sea ice has shrunk to its smallest extent on record in recent years, which has already opened up a seasonal northern route over Canada. Last year, a solo sailor in a 27-foot fiberglass sailboat was one of 18 private yachts to make the voyage.
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At a Glance
Why Get Tested?
To determine lithium levels in the blood in order to maintain a therapeutic level or to detect lithium toxicity
When to Get Tested?
When beginning treatment with lithium as the dose is adjusted to achieve therapeutic blood levels; at regular intervals to monitor lithium levels; as needed to detect low or toxic concentrations
A blood sample drawn from a vein in your arm
Test Preparation Needed?
The Test Sample
What is being tested?
This test measures the amount of lithium in the blood. Lithium is one of the most well-established and widely-used drugs prescribed in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Bipolar disorder is a mental condition that is characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania. These periods may be as short as a few days or weeks or may be months or years long. During a depressive episode, those affected may feel sad, hopeless, worthless, and lose interest in daily activities. They may be fatigued but have trouble sleeping, experience weight loss or gain, have difficulty concentrating, and have thoughts of suicide. During a manic episode, those affected may be euphoric, irritable, have high energy and grandiose ideas, use poor judgment, and participate in risky behaviors. Sometimes affected people will have mixed episodes with aspects of both mania and depression. Bipolar disorder can affect both adults and children.
Lithium is prescribed to even out the moods of a person with bipolar disorder; it is often called a "mood stabilizer" and is sometimes prescribed for people with depression who are not responding well to other medications. It is a relatively slow-acting drug and it may take several weeks to months for lithium to affect a person's mood. Dosages of the drug are adjusted until a steady concentration in the blood that is within therapeutic range is reached. The actual amount of drug that it will take to reach this steady state will vary from person to person and may be affected by a person's age, general state of health, and other medications that they are taking.
Lithium levels are monitored on a regular basis because blood levels must be maintained within a narrow therapeutic range. Too little and the medication will not be effective; too much and symptoms associated with lithium toxicity may develop, such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, and tremors. Extremely high levels can lead to stupor, seizures, and can be fatal.
How is the sample collected for testing?
A blood sample is obtained by inserting a needle into a vein in the arm.
NOTE: If undergoing medical tests makes you or someone you care for anxious, embarrassed, or even difficult to manage, you might consider reading one or more of the following articles: Coping with Test Pain, Discomfort, and Anxiety, Tips on Blood Testing, Tips to Help Children through Their Medical Tests, and Tips to Help the Elderly through Their Medical Tests.
Another article, Follow That Sample, provides a glimpse at the collection and processing of a blood sample and throat culture.
Is any test preparation needed to ensure the quality of the sample?
No test preparation is needed. However, timing of the sample collection may affect results. Generally, lithium blood levels are performed 12-18 hours after the last dose (also known as a "trough" level). Tell the laboratorian who is drawing your blood when you took your last dose so that the results can be interpreted correctly.
Ask a Laboratory Scientist
This form enables you to ask specific questions about your tests. Your questions will be answered by a laboratory scientist as part of a voluntary service provided by one of our partners, American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science. If your questions are not related to your lab tests, please submit them via our Contact Us form. Thank you.
* indicates a required field
NOTE: This article is based on research that utilizes the sources cited here as well as the collective experience of the Lab Tests Online Editorial Review Board. This article is periodically reviewed by the Editorial Board and may be updated as a result of the review. Any new sources cited will be added to the list and distinguished from the original sources used.
Sources Used in Current Review
Tietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics. Burtis CA, Ashwood ER and Bruns DE, eds. 4th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Saunders; 2006, Pp 1271-1272.
Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 16th ed. Kasper D, Braunwald E, Fauci A, Hauser S, Longo D, Jameson JL, eds. McGraw-Hill, 2005 Pg 2557.
(Updated March 24, 2009) Lee D, Gupta M. Toxicity, Lithium from Medscape. Available online at http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/815523-overview through http://emedicine.medscape.com. Accessed September 2009.
(January 15, 2009) MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Bipolar Disorder. Available online at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000926.htm. Accessed September 2009.
(January 4, 2009) Mayo Clinic. Bipolar Disorder. Available online at http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/bipolar-disorder/DS00356 through http://www.mayoclinic.com. Accessed September 2009.
National Alliance on Mental Illness. Medications, Lithium. Available online through http://www.nami.org. Accessed September 2009.
(Jan 14, 2009) Lloyd A. Netdoctor: Lithium. Available online at http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/diseases/depression/lithium_000290.htm through http://www.netdoctor.co.uk. Accessed September 2009.
Sources Used in Previous Reviews
Thomas, Clayton L., Editor (1997). Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary. F.A. Davis Company, Philadelphia, PA [18th Edition]. Pp 1121.
Spearing, M. Updated (2006 February 17,Updated). Bipolar Disorder. NIMH [On-line information]. Available online at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/bipolar.cfm#bp6 through http://www.nimh.nih.gov.
Goldberg, J. and Citrome, L. (2005 February). Latest therapies for bipolar disorder, Looking beyond lithium. Postgraduate Medicine online v 117 (2) [On-line journal]. Available online at http://www.postgradmed.com/issues/2005/02_05/goldberg.htm through http://www.postgradmed.com.
Geddes, J. et. al. (2004 February). Long-Term Lithium Therapy for Bipolar Disorder: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Am J Psychiatry 161:217-222 [On-line journal]. Available online at http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/161/2/217 through http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org.
Newport, D. J. et. al. (2005 November). Lithium Placental Passage and Obstetrical Outcome: Implications for Clinical Management During Late Pregnancy. American Journal of Psychiatry 162:2162-2170 [on-line abstract]. Available online at http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/162/11/2162 through http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org.
Schapiro, N. (2005). Bipolar Disorders in Children and Adolescents. Medscape from J Pediatr Health Care. 2005; 19 (3): 131-141 [On-line information]. Available online at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/504584_1 through http://www.medscape.com.
Menon, L. (2005 August, Updated). Lithium. National Alliance for the Mentally Ill [On-line information]. Available online through http://www.nami.org.
Walling, A. (2005 January 1). Evidence-Based Guidelines for Bipolar Disorder Therapy. American Family Physician [On-line journal]. Available online at http://www.aafp.org/afp/20050101/tips/19.html through http://www.aafp.org.
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Buckingham Palace is the official London residence of the British monarch. Located in the City of Westminster, the palace is a setting for state occasions and royal hospitality. It has been a rallying point for the British people at times of national rejoicing and crisis. Originally known as Buckingham House, the building which forms the core of today's palace was a large townhouse built for the Duke of Buckingham in 1703 on a site which had been in private ownership for at least 150 years.
The Palace of Westminster, also known as the Houses of Parliament or Westminster Palace, is the seat of the two houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom—the House of Lords and the House of Commons. It lies on the north bank of the River Thames in the heart of the London borough of the City of Westminster, close to the historic Westminster Abbey and the government buildings of Whitehall and Downing Street.
Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London (and historically as The Tower), is a historic fortress and scheduled monument in central London, England, on the north bank of the River Thames. It is located within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets and is separated from the eastern edge of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It is the oldest building used by the British government.
Hampton Court Palace is a royal palace in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames in south west London; it has not been lived in by the British royal family since the 18th century. The palace is located 11.7 miles (18.8 km) south west of Charing Cross and upstream of Central London on the River Thames. It was originally built for Cardinal Wolsey, a favourite of King Henry VIII, circa 1514; in 1529, as Wolsey fell from favour, the palace was passed to the King, who enlarged it.
Woodstock Palace was a royal residence in the English town of Woodstock, Oxfordshire. The title of "palace" was first used to refer to it during the twelfth century, when it was favoured by King Henry I of England. In about 1120, he created a zoo in the grounds. His grandson, Henry II was also fond of Woodstock, and spent time here with his mistress, Rosamund Clifford.
The Savoy Palace was considered the grandest nobleman's residence of medieval London, until it was destroyed in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. It fronted Strand, on the site of the present Savoy Theatre and the Savoy Hotel that memorialise its name. In its area the rule of law was different from the rest of London.
Richmond is a suburban town in southwest London, England and part of the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames. It is located 8.2 miles (13.2 km) west-southwest of Charing Cross and is one of thirty five major centres identified in the London Plan. The formation and naming of the town is due to the building of Richmond Palace in the 16th century and the development of Richmond as a London suburb began with the opening of the railway station in 1846.
Marlborough House is a mansion in Westminster, London, in Pall Mall just east of St James's Palace. It was built for Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, the favourite and confidante of Queen Anne. The Duchess wanted her new house to be "strong, plain and convenient". Christopher Wren, both father and son, designed a brick building with rusticated stone quoins that was completed in 1711. For over a century it served as the London residence of the Dukes of Marlborough.
The Palace of Beaulieu also known as New Hall was located in Essex, England, north of Chelmsford. The estate on which it was built - the manor of Walhfare in Boreham - was granted to the Canons of Waltham Abbey in 1062. Charter S 1036 After various changes of possession it was granted by the Crown to the Earl of Ormond in 1491. By this time it had a house called New Hall. In 1516 New Hall was sold by Thomas Boleyn to Henry VIII of England for £1,000 (£42,000 in today's money).
Walmer Castle was built by Henry VIII in 1539–1540 as an artillery fortress to counter the threat of invasion from Catholic France and Spain. It was part of his programme to create a chain of coastal defences along England's coast known as the Device Forts or as Henrician Castles. It was one of three forts constructed to defend the Downs, an area of safe anchorage protected by the Goodwin Sands, in Kent, south east England. The other forts were at Deal and Sandown.
The Palace of Whitehall was the main residence of the English monarchs in London from 1530 until 1698 when all except Inigo Jones's 1622 Banqueting House was destroyed by fire. Before the fire it had grown to be the largest palace in Europe, with over 1,500 rooms, overtaking the Vatican and Versailles.
The Queen's House, Greenwich, is a former royal residence built between 1614-1617 in Greenwich, then a few miles downriver from London, and now a district of the city. Its architect was Inigo Jones, for whom it was a crucial early commission, for Anne of Denmark, the queen of King James I of England. It was altered and completed by Jones, in a second campaign about 1635 for Henrietta Maria, queen of King Charles I.
The Palace of Placentia was an English Royal Palace built by Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester in 1447, in Greenwich, on the banks of the River Thames, downstream from London. The Palace was demolished in the seventeenth century and replaced with the Greenwich Hospital in the late seventeenth century.
St. James's Palace is one of London's oldest palaces. It is situated in Pall Mall, just north of St. James's Park. Although no sovereign has resided there for almost two centuries, it has remained the official residence of the Sovereign and the most senior royal palace in the UK. For this reason it gives its name to the Royal Court.
Clarence House is a royal home in London, situated on The Mall. It is attached to St. James's Palace and shares the palace's garden. For nearly 50 years, from 1953 to 2002, it was home to Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, but is now the official residence of The Prince of Wales, The Duchess of Cornwall, and the Princes William and Harry. It is open to visitors for approximately two months each summer. The house was built between 1825 and 1827 to a design by John Nash.
Kensington Palace is a royal residence set in Kensington Gardens in the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea in London, England. It has been a residence of the British Royal Family since the 17th century. Today it is the official residence of The Duke and Duchess of Gloucester; the Duke and Duchess of Kent; and Prince and Princess Michael of Kent. Kensington Palace is also used on an unofficial basis by Prince Harry, as well as his cousin Zara Phillips.
This is a list of residences occupied by the British Royal family, noting the seasons of the year they are traditionally occupied. Members of the British Royal Family inhabit a range of residences around the United Kingdom. Some are royal palaces, owned by the state and held in trust by the monarch; others are privately owned. Balmoral Castle and Sandringham House have been inherited as private property for several generations. Other royal palaces are no longer residences.
Bridewell Palace, London, originally a residence of Henry VIII, later became a poorhouse and prison. Its name has come to be synonymous with police stations and detention facilities in England and Ireland. It was built on the site of the medieval St Bride's Inn at a cost of £39,000 for Henry VIII, who lived there between 1515–1523. Standing on the banks of the River Fleet, it was named after a nearby well dedicated to St Bride.
Sandringham House is a country house on 20,000 acres (8,100 ha) of land near the village of Sandringham in Norfolk, England. The house is privately owned by the British Royal Family and is located on the royal Sandringham Estate, which lies within the Norfolk Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.
Claremont is an 18th-century Palladian mansion situated less than a mile south of Esher in Surrey, England. The buildings are now occupied by Claremont Fan Court School, and its landscaped gardens are owned and managed by the National Trust.
Kew Palace is a British Royal Palace in Kew Gardens, Kew on the banks of the Thames up river from London. There have been at least four Palaces at Kew, and three have been known as Kew Palace, the first building may not have been known as Kew as no records survive other than the words of another courtier. One survives and is open to visitors. It is cared for by an independent charity, Historic Royal Palaces, which receives no funding from the Government or the Crown.
Carlton House was a mansion in London, best known as the town residence of the Prince Regent for several decades from 1783. It faced the south side of Pall Mall, and its gardens abutted St. James's Park in the St James's district of London.
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e shield. The head is rounded and immovable of its own volition. The abdominal part is in rings that can be turned and twisted; on the tip are two tiny, needlesharp points, and on each of three rings of the abdominal shield there are in many cases a pair of tiny hooks, very slight projections, yet enough to be of use. Some lepidopterists think the pupa works head first to the surface, pushing with the abdomen. To me this seems impossible. The more one forced the blunt head against the earth the closer it would pack, and the delicate tongue shield surely would break. There is no projection on the head that would loosen or lift the earth.
One prominent lepidopterist I know, believes the moth emerges underground, and works its way to the surface as it fights to escape a cocoon. I consider this an utter impossibility. Remember the earth-encrusted cicada cases you have seen clinging to the trunks of trees, after the insect has reached the surface and abandoned them. Think what would happen
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