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Musica et scolica enchiriadis
The ninth century Musica enchiriadis begins by comparing musical notes to letters.
Latin: Patrologia cursus completus, series latina, ed. J P MIgne, vol 132, p957
The same text also apparently enjoinders uniting the phrasing of words and music.
Item ut in unum terminentur particulae neumarum atque verborum.
Likewise, let the particles of neumes and of words end as one.
Latin: Patrologia cursus completus, series latina, ed. J P MIgne, vol 132, p982
The comparison between music and language is also seen in the treatise De harmonica
institutione by Hucbald (c.850-930). Hucbald states that all chant is performed in distinct and
predetermined sounds in 'rational' quantities, a comment which is more likely to refer to
proportional pitch than to proportional rhythm but is anyway characteristic of the ancient
belief in the appropriateness of ratio in music.
Latin: Patrologia cursus completus, series latin, ed. J. P. Migne, vol 132, p911
English: Hucbald, Guido and John on Music: Three Medieval Treatises,
by Warren Babb (1978) p20
Just as the elementary and indivisible
articulated parts of speech are letters, out
of which syllables are put together, they in
turn make up verbs and nouns, the web of
even and accomplished speech; thus are
the phtongi of the melodious voice, which
are called soni in Latin and the
content/restraining of all music ends in their
[but] Only those sounds ['voces'] which they
thought were distinguished and
determined by calculable quantities and
were serviceable for melody - only those did
they set as the sure foundation for all song.
These, then, they called "elements" or
phtongi. Just as all the diversity of
language is contained in its elements, the
letters, and whatever can be said is
expressed through them.
Sicut vocis articulatae elementariae
atque individuae partes sunt litterae, ex
quibus compositae syllabae rursum
componunt verba et nomina, eaquae
perfectae orationis textum; sic canorae
vocis phthongi, qui latine dicuntur soni
origines sunt, et totius musicae
continentia in eorum ultimam
... sed eos tantum, quos rationabili
discretos ac determinatos
quantitate, quique melodiae apti
existerent, ipsi certissima totius
cantilenae fundamenta jecerunt. Unde
et elementa vel phthongos eosdem
nuncupaverunt; quod scilicet,
quemadmodum litterarum elementis
sermonum cuncta multiplicitas
coarctatur, et quidquid dici potest, per
| 3.7588 |
Each year U.S. hospitals have 300,000 admissions for broken hips. Falling is often the cause of those fractures.
As we age, many physical factors put us at an increased risk of falling such as: hearing loss, vision loss, lack of mobility and loss of muscles mass. The average person will lose about one percent of their muscle mass per year after the age of forty five. The best way to counteract that is to use your muscles by leading an active lifestyle. Balance exercises can help you stay independent by helping you avoid the often permanent physical disabilities that may result from falling. And you don’t have to have fancy equipment to strengthen your muscles and improve your balance. There are many easy exercises you can do at home.
Stand on one foot.
- Stand on one foot behind a sturdy chair, holding on for balance.
- Hold position for up to 10 seconds.
- Repeat 10 to 15 times.
- Repeat with opposite leg
Walk heel to toe.
- Position the heel of one foot just in front of the toes of the other foot. Your heel and toes should touch or almost touch.
- Choose a spot ahead of you and focus on it to keep you steady as you walk.
- Take a step. Put your heel just in front of the toe of your other foot.
- Repeat for 20 steps.
Back leg raises (strengthens buttocks and low back)
- Stand behind a sturdy chair, holding on for balance.
- Flex your left foot, then slowly lift left leg straight back without bending your knee. Try not to lean forward. Hold position for 1 second.
- Keep your right standing leg slightly bent.
- Repeat 10 to 15 times with each leg
Side leg raises (strengthens hips, thighs, and buttocks)
- Stand behind a sturdy chair with feet slightly apart, holding on for balance.
- Flex your left foot and slowly lift your left leg out to the side. Keep your back straight and your toes facing forward.
- Keep your right standing leg slightly bent and hold position for 1 second.
- Breathe in as you slowly lower your leg.
- Repeat 10 to 15 times with each leg.
| 3.164147 |
English Revolution of 1688
James II, having reached the climax of his power after the successful suppression of Monmouth's rebellion in 1685, then had the Tory reaction in his favour, complete control over Parliament and the town corporations, a regular army in England, a thoroughly Catholic army in process of formation in Ireland, and a large revenue granted by Parliament for life. His policy was to govern England as absolute monarch and to restore Catholics to their full civil and religious rights. Unfortunately, both prudence and statesmanship were lacking, with the result that in three years the king lost his throne. The history of the Revolution resolves itself into a catalogue of various ill-judged measures which alienated the support of the Established Church, the Tory party, and the nation as a whole. The execution of Monmouth (July, 1685) made the Revolution possible, for it led to the Whig party accepting William of Orange as the natural champion of Protestantism against the attempts of James. Thus the opposition gained a centre round which it consolidated with ever-increasing force.
What the Catholics as a body desired was freedom of worship and the repeal of the penal laws ; but a small section of them, desirous of political power, aimed chiefly at the repeal of the Test Act of 1673 and the Act of 1678 which excluded Catholics from both houses of Parliament. Unfortunately James fell under the influence of this section, which was directed by the unprincipled Earl of Sunderland, and he decided on a policy of repeal of the Test Act. Circumstances had caused this question to be closely bound up with that of the army. For James, who placed his chief reliance on his soldiers, had increased the standing army to 30,000, 13,000 of whom, partly officered by Catholics, were encamped on Hounslow Heath to the great indignation of London which regarded the camp as a menace to its liberties and a centre of disorder. Parliament demanded that the army should be reduced to normal dimensions and the Catholic officers dismissed; but James, realizing that the test would not be repealed, prorogued Parliament and proceeded to exercise the "dispensing and suspending power". By this he claimed that it was the prerogative of the crown to dispense with the execution of the penal laws in individual cases and to suspend the operation of any law altogether. To obtain the sanction of the Law Courts for this doctrine a test case, known as Hales's case, was brought to decide whether the king could allow a Catholic to hold office in the army without complying with the Test Act. After James had replaced some of the judges by more complaisant lawyers, he obtained a decision that "it was of the king's prerogative to dispense. with penal laws in particular instances". He acted on the decision by appointing Catholics to various positions, Lord Tyrconnel becoming Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Arundel Lord Privy Seal, and Lord Bellasyse Lord Treasurer in place of the Tory minister Lord Rochester, who was regarded as the chief mainstay of the Established Church. The Church of England, which was rendered uneasy by the dismissal of Rochester, was further alienated by the king's action in appointing a Court of High Commission, which suspended the Bishop of London for refusing to inhibit one of his clergy from preaching anti-Catholic sermons. The feeling was intensified by the liberty which Catholics enjoyed in London during 1686. Public chapels were opened, including one in the Royal Palace, the Jesuits founded a large school in the Savoy, and Catholic ecclesiastics appeared openly at Court.
At this juncture James, desiring to counterbalance the loss of Anglican support, offered toleration to the dissenters, who at the beginning of his reign had been severely persecuted. The influence of William Penn induced the king to issue on 4 April, 1687, the Declaration of Indulgence, by which liberty of worship was granted to all, Catholic and Protestant alike. He also replaced Tory churchmen by Whig dissenters on the municipal corporations and the commission of the peace, and, having dissolved Parliament, hoped to secure a new House of Commons which would repeal both the penal laws and the Test. But he underestimated two difficulties, the hatred of the dissenters for "popery" and their distrust of royal absolutism. His action in promoting Catholics to the Privy Council, the judicial bench, and the offices of Lord lieutenant, sheriff, and magistrate, wounded these susceptibilities, while he further offended the Anglicans by attempting to restore to Catholics some of their ancient foundations in the universities. Catholics obtained some footing both at Christ Church and University College, Oxford, and in March 1688, James gave the presidency of Magdalen College to Bonaventure Giffard, the Catholic Vicar Apostolic of the Midland District. This restoration of Magdalen as a Catholic college created the greatest alarm, not only among the holders of benefices throughout the country, but also among the owners of ancient abbey lands. The presence of the papal nuncio, Mgr. d'Adda, at Court and the public position granted to the four Catholic bishops, who had recently been appointed as vicars Apostolic, served to increase both the dislike of the dissenters to support a king whose acts, while of doubtful legality, were also subversive of Protestant interests, and likewise the difficulty of the Anglicans in practicing passive obedience in face of such provocation. Surrounded by these complications, James issued his second Declaration of Indulgence in April, 1688, and ordered that it should be read in all the churches. This strained Anglican obedience to the breaking point. The Archbishop of Canterbury and six of his suffragans presented a petition questioning the dispensing power. The seven bishops were sent to the Tower prosecuted, tried, and acquitted. This trial proved to be the immediate occasion of the Revolution, for, as Halifax said, "it hath brought all Protestants together and bound them up into a knot that cannot easily be untied". While the bishops were in the Tower, another epoch-marking event occurred -- the birth of an heir to the crown (10 June, 1688). Hitherto the hopes of the king's opponents had been fixed on the succession of his Protestant daughter Mary, wife of William of Orange, the Protestant leader. The birth of Prince James now opened up the prospect of a Catholic dynasty just at a moment when the ancient anti-Catholic bigotry had been aroused by events both in England and France. For besides the ill-advised acts of James, the persecution of the Huguenots by Louis XIV, consequent on the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, revived old religious animosities. England was flooded with French Protestant refugees bearing everywhere the tale of a Catholic king's cruelty.
Unfortunately for James his whole foreign policy had been one of subservience to France, and at this moment of crisis the power of France was a menace to all Europe. Even Catholic Austria and Spain supported the threatened Protestant states, and the pope himself, outraged by Louis XIV in a succession of wrongs, joined the universal resistance to France and was allied with William of Orange and other Protestant sovereigns against Louis and his single supporter, James. William had long watched the situation in England, and during 1687 had received communications from the opposition in which it was agreed that, whenever revolutionary action should become advisable, it should be carried out under William's guidance. As early as the autumn of 1687 the papal secretary of state was aware of the plot to dethrone James and make Mary queen, and a French agent dispatched the news to England through France. The Duke of Norfolk then in Rome also learned it, and sent intelligence to the king before 18 Dec., 1687 (letter of d'Estrées to Louvois, cited by Ranke, II, 424). But James, though early informed, was reluctant to believe that his son-in-law would head an insurrection against him. On the day the seven bishops were acquitted seven English statesmen sent a letter to William inviting him to rescue the religion and liberties of England. But William was threatened by a French army on the Belgian frontier, and could not take action. Louis XIV made a last effort to save James, and warned the Dutch States General that he would regard any attack on England as a declaration of war against France. This was keenly resented by James who regarded it as a slight upon English independence, and he repudiated the charge that he had made a secret treaty with France. Thereupon Louis left him to his fate, removed the French troops from Flanders to begin a campaign against the empire, and thus William was free to move. When it was too late James realized his danger. By hasty concessions granted one after another he tried to undo his work and win back the Tory churchmen to his cause. But he did not remove the Catholic officers or suggest the restriction of the dispensing power. In October Sunderland was dismissed from office, but William was already on the seas, and, though driven back by a storm, he re-embarked and landed at Torbay on 5 Nov., 1688. James at first prepared to resist. The army was sent to intercept William, but by the characteristic treachery of Churchill, disaffection was spread, and the king, not knowing in whom he could place confidence, attempted to escape. At Sheerness he was stopped and sent back to London, where he might have proved an embarrassing prisoner had not his escape been connived at. On 23 Dec., 1688, he left England to take refuge with Louis XIV ; the latter received him generously and granted him both palace and pension. On his first departure the mob had risen in London against the Catholics, and attacked chapels and houses, plundering and carrying off the contents. Even the ambassadors' houses were not spared, and the Spanish and Sardinian embassy chapels were destroyed. Bishops Giffard and Leyburn were arrested and committed to the Tower. Father Petre had escaped, and the Nuncio disguised himself as a servant at the house of the envoy from Savoy, till he was enabled to obtain from William a passport. So far as the English Catholics were concerned, the result of the Revolution was that their restoration to freedom of worship and liberation from the penal laws was delayed for a century and more.
So completely had James lost the confidence of the nation that William experienced no opposition and the Revolution ran its course in an almost regular way. A Convention Parliament met on 22 January, 1689, declared that James "having withdrawn himself out of the kingdom, had abdicated the government, and that the throne was thereby vacant ", and "that experience had shown it to be inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a Popish Prince". The crown was offered to William and Mary, who accepted the Declaration of Right, which laid down the principles of the constitution with regard to the dispensing power, the liberties of Parliament, and other matters. After their proclamation as king and queen, the Declaration was ratified by the Bill of Rights, and the work of the Revolution was complete. English Catholics have indeed had good cause to lament the failure of the king's well-meant, if unwise, attempts to restore their liberty, and to regret that he did not act on the wise advice of Pope Innocent XI and Cardinal Howard to proceed by slow degrees and obtain first the repeal of the penal laws before going on to restore their full civil rights. But on the other hand we can now realize that the Revolution had the advantage of finally closing the long struggle between king and Parliament that had lasted for nearly a century, and of establishing general principles of religious toleration in which Catholics were bound sooner or later to be included.
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| 3.590447 |
What is intestinal cancer?
Cancer of the small intestine is a rare form of cancer typically caused by four types of tumors or classifications. The most common type of small intestine cancer is adenocarcinoma. Other, less common types are: carcinoid tumors, gastrointestinal stromal tumors and lymphomas.
Celiac Disease and Small Intestinal Cancer:
If a person with celiac had the disease undiagnosed for a long period of time, or fails to maintain a gluten-free lifestyle after diagnosis, the chance of developing small intestinal cancer increases. Those with celiac disease are especially more likely to develop lymphomas in the small intestine because of their compromised immune system. In the past the increased risk of celiacs developing lymphomas was quite high, 40-100% more likely. However, more recent studies have shown that the risk of lymphoma is slightly higher than the normal population—much less than previously believed—and that this risk reaches unity with the normal population after a gluten-free diet has been maintained for several years.
Types of Intestinal Cancers:
Adenocarcinoma: A type of cancer that begins in the lining of the small intestine, usually the duodenum. Adenocarcinomas make up 40-50% of all small intestinal cancers.
Who Gets Adenocarcinoma?
This type of intestinal cancer occurs most often in men later in life, the average age being 60 years. People with Crohns Disease and certain other inherited conditions—such as familial adenomatous polyposis and Peuts-Jegherssyndrome are at a higher risk of developing adenocarinomas.
Carcinoid Tumors: Occurs when neuroendocrine cells grow abnormally, carcinoid tumors may also be refered to as neuroendocrine tumors or less aggressive neuroendocrine cancer. Carcinoid tumors often cause symptoms throughout the entire body, rather than just in the affected organ.
Who Gets Carcinoid Tumors?
People with a family history of multiple endocrine neoplasia—a rare inherited disease that causes increased risk of getting tumors in certain glands, or those with a family history of neurofibromatosis. Carcinoid tumors are more common in women and among African Americans. People with certain diseases that damage the stomach and reduce the amount of stomach acid have an increased risk of developing carinoid tumors.
Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors: These are fairly rare tumors that are now believed to start in the interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) in the walls of the GI tract. Some stromal tumors are benign.
Who Gets Stromal Tumors?
There are very few known risk factors that cause stromal tumors, it is believed that a family history of neurofibromatosis or familial gastrointestinal stromal tumor syndrome will increase a person's risk of getting stromal tumors.
Lymphomas: Cancer of the lymphatic system that begins in the lymphoid tissue.
Who Gets GI Lymphomas?
Most patients have no known risk factors, old age seems to be the greatest factor in developing lymphomas. Some genetic risks factors that cause abnormal function of the immune system can also lead to lymphomas, as well as a diet high in animal fat and low in fruits and vegetables. Exposure to radiation and certain chemicals can increase the risk of lymphomas. Immune deficiencies—from organ transplants, etc, autoimmune diseases, and some infections can also increase the likelihood of a lymphoma developing.
What are the Symptoms of Intestinal Cancer?
Symptoms tend to be vague and unspecific. Complaints are often for pain throughout the body, not just focused in the digestive tract area. Abdominal pain and unexplained weight-loss are the two most common symptoms of intestinal cancer. Other symptoms include, but are not limited to, pain or cramping in the middle of the abdomen, a lump in the abdomen, blood in the stool, nausea, bloating, iron deficient anemia and jaundice.
Screening and Diagnosis of Intestinal Cancer
If your doctor suspects intestinal cancer they might order a barium contrast study, an upper GI tract endoscopy, an ultrasound or a colonoscopy depending on what type of cancer is suspected and the likely location. If tumors are found a biopsy will be performed to confirm that the cells are cancerous.
Treatment of Small Intestinal Cancer
The most common method of treatment of small intestinal cancer is surgery. The doctor will remove all of the visible tumor and some of the surrounding healthy area to ensure that all cancer has been removed. With lymphomas, the most common treatment is radiation therapy.
Celiac Disease and Other Malignancies
Although cancers of the small intestine might seem to be the only related malignancy with celiac, other studies have shown relations with other types of cancer. There is some evidence that patients with celiac have an increased risk of esophageal and pharyngeal carcinomas, a Swedish study found celiac 2.3 times more likely to develop these carcinomas. The same study also found an increased risk for colorectal cancer (SIR=1.5), however an English study found NO patients with celiac disease and colorectal cancer. Celiacs also seem to have an increased risk of developing primary liver cancer. Breast cancer, on the other hand, is seen at a much lower frequency in celiacs than among the general population. This is possibly related to a lower frequency of smoking or lower body weight in celiacs.
The development of malignancies is rare, and although celiac disease does appear to coincide with increased frequencies of certain cancers it is by no means a common occurrence. If you suspect that you might have cancer, or are worried about developing cancer in the future, please discuss your concerns with your physician.
Coeliac disease and lymphoma,
European Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 2006 18:131-2.
Do you or a family member suffer from this disease? You may have celiac disease, find ouy now, take our celiac disease symptoms checklist.
| 3.324576 |
(S.D.)-Search For Radioactive Decay Continues In SD Lab
LEAD, S.D. (AP) - Physicists in South Dakota have started assembling "detector units" in the search for a rare form of radioactive decay that could help explain how the universe evolved.
The Majorana Demonstrator Experiment is under construction in the Davis Campus of a shuttered gold mine in Lead in the Black Hills. It's next door to another experiment meant to detect dark matter.
Both experiments are housed nearly a mile beneath the earth in the former Homestake Gold Mine. Officials with the Sanford Underground Research Facility say that the first detector units were built through Monday when physicist Ryan Martin "attached a polished germanium-crystal detector the size of a hockey puck to a wafer-thin glass electronics board."
The experiment will need about 70 such units to search for neutrinoless double-beta decay.
(Copyright 2012 The Associated Press)
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| 3.002139 |
Pediatric Health Library :: Pediatric Health Library Topics
Water Safety - Injury Statistics and Incidence Rates
The following statistics are the latest available from the National SAFE KIDS Campaign and the National Safety Council:
Injury and death rates:
- Approximately 838 children ages 14 and under drowned in 2002; more than 60 percent of these children were under age four.
- Approximately 15 percent of children admitted to hospitals for near-drowning die, while another 20 percent will suffer severe and permanent brain damage.
- More than half of drownings among infants occur in bathtubs.
- Among children ages four and under, there are about 300 residential swimming pool drownings each year.
- In 2003, about 200 children ages 14 and under experienced personal watercraft injuries.
Where and when:
- Most infants under the age of one drown in bathtubs. Other drownings in this age group tend to occur in toilets and buckets. Drownings in bathtubs account for 10 percent of all childhood drownings, most often when the child is unsupervised.
- Since 1984, more than 327 children have drowned in buckets containing water or other liquids. The majority (89 percent) of the children were between the ages of seven and 15 months.
- More than half of childhood drownings in pools occur in the child's home pool, with one-third of these drownings occurring at the homes of friends, neighbors, or relatives.
- Most drownings and near-drownings occur on the weekend (40 percent) during late spring and summer (May through August).
- More fatal drownings occur in the South and West.
- More fatal drownings occur in rural areas than suburban or urban areas.
- The majority (more than 85 percent) of children who drown in swimming pools are between the ages of one to four.
- Each year, 300 children ages four and under drown in swimming pools, while another 2,600 children in this age group are treated for near-drowning in hospital emergency rooms.
- Children ages four and under are two to three times as likely to drown than other age groups and account for 80 percent of home drownings.
- Boys are two to four times more likely to drown than girls.
- Girls are twice as likely to drown in bathtubs than boys.
- African-American children ages five to nine are four-and-a-half times more likely to drown in swimming pools than Caucasian children.
- Non-swimming pool drownings are more common among low-income children.
Click here to view the
Online Resources of Safety & Injury Prevention
It is important to remember the health information found on this website is for reference only not intended to replace the advice and guidance of your healthcare provider. Always seek the advice of your physician with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. If you think you may have a medical emergency, call your physician or 911 immediately.
| 3.066477 |
What are AS Levels
AS level, or Advanced Subsidiary Level exams are the first half of an 'A Level'.
AS Levels are normally taken in Year 12, with most schools asking students to choose between 3 and 5 AS Levels. These were introduced to give students more choice in their subjects.
AS Levels comprise of 3 units.
After doing your AS Level (passing all your AS exams and course work) you can then do the second year, called A2 Level.
An entire A level is made up of 6 units. So you do a further 3 units in the second year.
AS Levels mean you don't have to buckle down and choose exactly what you want to do at 16. It gives you another year to get a little bit deeper in the subjects you choose, and see which ones you'd like to carry on forward.
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| 3.004468 |
In 2005, a woman showed up at Emory University's sleep center in Atlanta complaining of being sleepy just about every moment of every day. She slept for 14, then 16, then 18 hours a night, but still woke up feeling drowsy. Doctors had prescribed her stimulants, which worked for a bit. But when they wore off, she would go on a sleeping binge, becoming unarousable for days at a time.
Her diagnosis? Hypersomnia, a rare and debilitating condition in which people sleep excessively, are extremely drowsy while awake, and respond poorly to existing anti-sleep treatments. The condition can make people unable to work or maintain relationships.
When the woman showed up at the sleep center, researchers did a range of tests and finally took samples of her cerebrospinal fluid. They discovered it had some unusual properties. Namely, something in it caused GABA, the main neurotransmitter molecule responsible for reducing the activity of brain cells, to have an outsized effect. In essence, a mystery molecule appeared to be working with GABA to tamp down brain activity, acting as a sort of constant sleeping pill.
There's another class of molecules that has a similar effect on GABA’s action in the brain. They are called benzodiazepines, which include Valium and Ambien.
The research team wondered whether something similar was at work in this patient, so they checked to see whether a drug used to counteract benzodiazepines, called flumazenil, would neutralize the effect of whatever was floating around in her cerebrospinal fluid. And it worked -- at least in a dish: Applying flumazenil to the woman's cerebrospinal fluid eliminated that strange effect of GABA.
But would it work in people? That's what the team, led by sleep expert Dr. David Rye, has been investigating since their discovery. And according to a study published Wednesday in the journal Science Translational Medicine, the answer is yes.
For the study, Rye and his team recruited seven people with various forms of hypersomnia and analyzed their cerebrospinal fluid. All had the same GABA-enhancing effect as the initial patient. And when the researchers treated the study subjects with flumazenil, they all became more alert.
According to an article on the project’s early days in Emory’s alumni magazine, that first Atlanta patient turned to her doctors after receiving the drug and exclaimed, after months of listlessness and days of nothing but sleeping, “I feel alive!” The moment brought her physicians to tears.
The finding is particularly noteworthy because flumazenil is not a stimulant and does not make normal people more alert.
Though flumazenil does appear to counteract the activity of the mysterious sleep-promoting molecule in the brains of these patients, laboratory analyses presented in the report suggest the molecule is not a benzodiazepine, and the researchers are still unsure just what it is.
That leaves the possibility that a better drug might come along for those with hypersomnia once researchers can identify what exactly causes the disorder. But for now, flumazenil appears to work well enough to get many with hypersomnia back to their lives.
Return to the Science Now blog.
| 3.031156 |
2 Hailstone Sequences [12 marks] A hailstone sequence is a sequence of integers found by applying the following rule: Hailstone Iteration: For an integer n in a hailstone sequence, the next item in the sequence is 3n + 1 if n is odd, or n / 2 if n is even. For example, the...
a. What are some limitations of the present Windows 2000 and Windows XP computers for use in the context of this library, compared to the more modern operating systems? In what way would library patrons and staff benefit from using more modern operating systems?
A solid sphere of radius 40.0 cm has a total positive charge of 26.0 C uniformly distributed throughout its volume. Calculate the magnitude of the electric field (a) 0 cm, (b) 10.0 cm, (c) 40.0 cm, and (d) 60.0 cm from the center of the sphere
An aerosol spray can with a volume of 441 mL contains 3.09 g of propane gas as a propellant. What volume would propane occupy at STP?
Refrigerators are usually kept at about 5^C, while room temperature is about 20^C. If you were to take an "empty" sealed 2-liter soda bottle at room temperature and place it in the fridge, would you expect it to contract to one-fourth its original volume?
Suppose you accidently add too much NaOH during the titration. You then add a volume of HCl exactly equal to the volume of NaOH actually used in the titration. What effect does this have on the Ka
| 3.392961 |
The holly genus, Ilex, offers a variety of plants from which to choose.
There are about 700 species worldwide, some horticulturists estimate. And there is a great number of cultivated varieties.
Not all hollies have spiny leaves. Many of the Japanese hollies (Ilex crenata) have spineless leaves. They are often mistaken for boxwoods with their small, shiny leaves. But boxwoods (Buxus) leaves are attached directly opposite one another on the stem, while holly leaves have an alternate leaf arrangement along the stem.
Holly plants range from 2 to more than 60 feet tall. Some dwarf types are great choices for foundation plantings. These include Helleri holly, Carissa holly, Dwarf yaupon holly and Stokes dwarf, thought to be the same cultivar as Shilling dwarf.
Don’t let the word dwarf fool you. Many hollies in this category may reach 3 to 5 feet tall. And Dwarf Burford may grow 8 feet or taller.
Some “tree form” hollies can reach heights approaching 60 feet. These can stand alone as specimen plants or may provide a tall hedge. A few hollies that form large shrubs or small trees include many of the American holly cultivars such as Miss Helen, Hedgeholly and Savannah.
Hollies respond well to pruning if needed, but it’s best to know the mature height before planting to avoid future problems of overgrown plants and unnecessary pruning.
Other tree-form holly hybrids develop by crossing two or more plant species within a given genus. A few include Foster, East Palatka, Nellie R. Stevens and Mary Nell.
Hollies with multicolored leaves include variegated English holly. And there are a few hollies that shed annually such as Ambiguous winterberry and Possumhaw holly. There are hollies that produce bright red berries. But berry color varies from red, orange and yellow to even black or white, depending on variety.
Only female plants produce berries. Hollies are dioecious, meaning male and female flowers are located on separate plants. Male flowers produce pollen required, in most cases, to pollinate female flowers.
Many dwarf types of holly don’t produce berries because they come from male plants. To ensure that your plants produce berries, ask for female plants when purchasing. If the plant already has berries on it, you know it is a female.
You should consider other characteristics when selecting hollies. There are weeping forms available such as the weeping yaupon holly. There are those that have a very narrow, upright habit such as the cultivar ‘Will Fleming.’
Hollies are not foolproof. They may attract pests and must be planted and cared for properly.
However, for the most part, this group of plants has much to offer. Once established, they require little care and have very good drought tolerance.
Free online class: Small Steps to Health & Wealth, Jan. 9, 11:30 a.m. to 12:30 p.m. Practical steps to improve health and finances and tools to help participants reach their goals. Register at http://bit.ly/SmallSteps2013.
Small Steps to Health and Wealth Challenge. Jan. 13 through Feb. 23, open to anyone who enrolls at http://rutgers.ancc.net.
Larry Williams is an agent at the Okaloosa County Extension office in Crestview.
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Scientists can look to tree rings to supplement the history of an area, but for David Milarch, the entire tree is significant.
Milarch founded the Champion Tree Project with his sons, Jared and Jake, 20 years ago to create living libraries of the 846 species of trees in the United States. In 2009, the three men decided to give their organization a new name, Archangel Ancient Tree Archive, and to expand it globally.
Based in Traverse City, Mich., the Archangel Ancient Tree Archive's mission is to archive the genetics of ancient trees in living libraries around the world by propagating old-growth trees and using their offspring to reforest.
"We need to archive the genetics of the remaining old-growth trees that are growing on Earth," said David Milarch. "Here in the United States, 98 percent of all the old-growth trees have been cut down. In California, about 96 percent of all Coast Redwoods have been cut down.
"Why is that a tragedy? Because we never even studied them before we cut them down, we didn't know what roles they played in the ecosystem."
Milarch believes that the genetics of long-living trees should be studied to understand how they have managed to survive and thrive. One reason may be due to better immune systems, which would make their genetics vital to successful reforestation.
Working with a range of sources, from professional tree finders to big-tree lists,
When planting, Archangel recommends that no more than 10 percent cloned trees are used for reforestation to maintain genetic diversity and to also allow their genes to mix with the existing trees. The goal is to strengthen the forest overall. Care is given to the selection of the site where the trees are to be planted and why. Sites may be selected in order to aid in phytoremediation, erosion control, runoff management and habitat settings.
Volunteers with the Milarchs' nonprofit organization give their time to assist in all areas of the process, from gathering samples for Archangel's nurseries to planting new trees. Schoolchildren in New York, Michigan and Northern California have also become part of the organization's outreach, helping to plant trees in the thousands.
David Milarch's great-grandfather was a nurseryman, and his passion became a family business. Traverse City is known for its large cherry production, so the Milarch family began growing shade trees for the fruit trees in the area. Milarch's grandchildren mark the sixth generation living on the same land.
"We're tuned into nature," Milarch said. "With that many generations, you have a pretty good grasp of what makes trees tick. "
Milarch and his tree archive caught the attention of New York Times science writer Jim Robbins 11 years ago. After his first story about the project, Robbins continued to follow and write about Milarch's efforts. Last April, "The Man Who Planted Trees: Lost Groves, Champion Trees and an Urgent Plan to Save the Planet" (Spiegel & Grau, $25) was published. It includes information Robbins has gained from his talks with many scientists about trees.
"People are amazed at some of the latest science on what trees really do. Most people don't know that trees communicate with each other. Trees feel pain and when a tree feels pain, it puts out signals and other trees in the area go into a protection mode. Trees emit aerosols out of their leaves and out of their roots that are natural antibiotics and natural disinfectants," Milarch said.
Milarch credits Robbins' book to helping raise awareness about Archangel, which in turn has helped with getting funding. Most recently, the organization planted an old-redwood forest in Oregon from cloned trees. It is looking for sites to plant two old-growth groves in California, in an arboretum or on a large parcel of unused land. The group is also seeking donations to create a living archive in Ireland.
Milarch hopes that the work Archangel is doing can serve as a model for others around the world to follow and lead to more reforestation.
"All is not lost. We can put the trees back for our children and grandchildren," he said. A clone of a 3,000-year-old tree can be cloned again and again, "and with the science and with our work, the great trees and the genetic lineage of those trees never has to die. "
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Acne affects nearly 100% of the population at some point. For some, acne is mild and transient; for others, it can be severe and long lasting. Scarring from severe acne can be permanent and disfiguring (see section on Acne Scars). Acne usually begins around the time of puberty. Acne may improve after puberty, but for many, acne persists into and during middle age. Acne lesions form when the opening of oil glands (called sebaceous glands) in the skin become blocked. Trapped oil builds up within the gland, causing inflammation. The swelling within the oil gland can become so intense that the oil gland (and associated hair follicle) can rupture, leading to further inflammation. While the surge of hormones during puberty likely triggers this process, other factors such as stress, diet, and the influence of other hormones may also play a role. A bacterium called Propionibacterium acnes that is normally present on the skin likely plays a role in acne, but the precise link is still unclear. Any person with moderate or worse acne should be seen by a physician to discuss treatment options, because of the risk of permanent scarring.
Treatment for acne has improved dramatically in the last 2 decades. Effective over-the-counter medications include salicylic acid and benzoyl peroxide preparations. First line prescription acne treatment usually involves a combination of topical treatments, such as one of the retinoids (such as Retin A) and a topical antibiotic (such as benzoyl peroxide mixed with clindamycin). Common side effects are irritation and redness and you and your doctor will decide what is best for your individual needs. For acne that resists topical treatment, or for more severe acne, systemic treatments may be necessary. The tetracycline antibiotics are effective in many people. Erythromycin, Bactrim, and other antibiotics are second-line antibiotic therapies. However, long term antibiotic use can cause bacterial resistance in those who use them and should be used with caution. There are other side effects that must be discussed with your doctor. For women, oral contraceptives (“the pill”) may also improve acne. For adult woman with acne, other hormonal therapies may be considered. For severe acne that is associated with scarring, isotretinoin (Accutane) is prescribed. This drug is very effective and can cure acne but must be used very cautiously because of the risk of severe birth defects when taken during pregnancy. There are other common side effects (dry lips, peeling skin, etc) of isotretinoin that may limit its use as well. Some people believe that isotretinoin can lead to suicidal symptoms. This is controversial and should be discussed with your doctor.
Because of the risks of systemic medications, newer, less invasive treatments have been sought. With the development of new cosmetic treatment modalities such as lasers and light therapy, new acne treatments have also been developed. In general, because these methods are new, they are not as well tested. In the early studies, most of the new treatments have proven to be mildly to moderately effective. The side effect profiles are usually minimal. The specific treatment modalities are discussed below. You and your doctor can discuss the best treatment to suit your individual needs.
Other Acne Treatment Options:
• Light therapy
Blue light therapy takes advantage of the fact that bacteria in the skin produce a product called porphyrin. Porphyrin can absorb blue light, leading to a chemical reaction in the skin that destroys the bacteria. Red light therapy can reduce inflammation in the skin which in turn improves acne. Acne lesions treated with light therapy tend to reoccur over 3-12 months. In one study, patients who had severe acne had no improvement compared to patients who had moderate acne who did improve. There have been no reported side effects.
• Laser therapy
Although there are many different lasers available, only a few of them have successfully been used in the treatment of acne. For example, the pulsed-dye laser was tested in a randomized, double blinded controlled trial (the best kind of trial available) and was shown to significantly reduce acne after a single treatment with no serious side effects. The 1450 nm infrared laser has been used in one uncontrolled study and decreased lesion counts by 83% after three treatments. Temporary pain, redness, and swelling was reported in most patients. In patients with darker skin tones, hyperpigmentation (darkening of the skin) was reported.
• Photodynamic therapy (PDT)
This therapy combines a drug (called a photosensitizer) that is preferentially absorbed by certain kinds of cells and a special light source. When used together, the photosensitizer and the light destroy the targeted cells. For acne, the hyperactive sebaceous glands are targeted. The photosensitizer, called amino-levulinic acid, is applied to the skin and is left on for a variable period of time. The skin is exposed to the light source (blue, red, or laser light) and the photosensitizer is then removed. Side effects include pain during the procedure and discoloration afterwards.
• Radiofrequency therapy
A few studies have evaluated the effect of radiofrequency energy in the treatment of acne. One uncontrolled study reported a 75% improvement in 81% of the patients. Elamax, a topical anesthetic was used during the procedure for pain control.
• Chemical peels
Chemical peels have long been used for facial rejuvenation and to reverse the signs of aging. More recently, they have been used for the treatment of acne. In one study of Asian patients, salicylic acid peels performed twice a week for 12 weeks significantly improved acne.
In a few preliminary studies, microdermabrasion treatments have reduced acne lesions and improved the texture of the skin in the majority of patients.
» Find an Acne Treatment Specialist
All photos courtesy of S. Zimmet, MD and P. Bitter Jr., MD
DermaNetwork.org Featured Acne Treatment Providers in the following locations:
Beverly Hills, CA | Dallas, TX | Denver, CO | Los Angeles, CA | Miami, FL | New York, NY | Phoenix, AZ | Washington, DC
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Age Defy Dermatology and Wellness
Age Defy Dermatology & Wellness
Welcome to Age Defy Dermatology and Wellness™, a complete dermatology and integrative health center located in Campbell, California. We offer medically supervised services that promote health and span all aspects of the care of the skin, hair, and nails to help our patients achieve healthy skin and physical well being.
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Nitrate vs Nitrite
Both nitrate and nitrite are oxy anions of Nitrogen. Although they both seem to look alike, there are differences between them. These differences can be with respect to their structure, bonding, geometrical shape, oxidation state of Nitrogen, chemical reactivity, uses of them and etc. These differences are mainly discussed here.
NO3- ion is the conjugate base of HNO3 (nitric V acid) which is a strong acid. It is a planer molecule with sp3 hybridization in Nitrogen atom. All three oxygen atoms are equivalent. There are 24 electrons in the valence shells. NO3- ion has the molecular weight of 62.004 g mol-1.
NO2- ion is the conjugate base of HNO2 (nitric III acid) which is a weak acid (pKa=3.5). It is also a planer molecule with sp2 hybridization. In the valence shells, there are only 18 electrons. NO2- ion has the molecular weight of 46.006 g mol-1.
When the bonding in both the ions are considered, in NO3- ion the pi bonding involves four 2pz atomic orbitals (one orbitla from N and three orbitals from 3 oxygen atoms). These four atomic orbitals form 4, four-centred pi molecular orbitals. The molecular orbital with the lowest energy is the bonding orbital. The orbital with the largest energy is the anti-bonding orbital. Other two orbitals are degenerate (equal in energy) which are non-bonding orbitals. In the case of NO2- ion, the pi bonding involves only three 2pz atomic orbitals. Here, the orbital with the lowest energy is the bonding orbital, the middle one is the non-bonding orbital, and the other one is the anti-bonding orbital. In both the ions, the bonding orbitals involve in making the σ-bond (sigma-bond) and non-bonding orbitals involve in making π-bonds (pi-bonds). Therefore, in NO3- ion each bond has a bond order of 11/3. 1 from σ-bond and 1/3 from the π-bonds. In NO2- ion, the bond order is 11/2. 1 from σ-bond and 1/2 from the π-bonds.
Although, both the ions are from the same electronic geometry, as the bond order is different, their geometrical shapes are also different. The NO3- ion has a shape of planer triangular and the NO2- ion has an angular shape (or V shape). The bond angles are also different. ONO bond angle of NO3- ion and NO2- ion are 1200 and 1150 respectively. The oxidation state of Nitrogen in both NO3- ion and NO2- ion are +5 and +3 respectively. Because of these reasons (especially the difference in bonding), the chemical reactivity (such as basicity, oxidizing/reducing ability, products of thermal decomposition of the compounds consist of these ions) is also different.
In practice, NO2- ion is a weaker base while NO3- ion is a very weaker base. When the oxidation state of Nitrogen atom in these ions is taken in to consideration, NO2- ion can act as a reducing agent as well as an oxidizing agent while NO3- ion can only act as an oxidizing agent.
The examples for products obtained from thermal decomposition of NO3- and NO2- ions containing compounds are given below to show the difference in reactivity.
Even, when they form complexes with metal ions they behave in a dissimilar manner. That is, NO2- ion acts as a monodentate ligand while NO3- ion acts as a bidentate ligand.
These differences in chemical reactivity help us to differentiate the uses of them. For example, nitrites are generally used in the processing of meat (sometimes nitrates are also used), and nitrates are used for producing of explosives. Nitrates are naturally occurring and are cancerous. But Nitrites are not cancerous.
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A huge study of millions of kids revealed for the first time the true measure of type 2 diabetes in children in the United States. The results appeared in the June 27, 2007 Journal of the American Medical Association. In the recent past, type 2 diabetes was called adult-onset diabetes because this obesity-related condition was a problem of the middle-aged and the elderly. It usually takes years of unhealthy eating to tip someone into this type of diabetes. It was rarely seen before age 30 or even 40. Sadly, today we do see type 2 diabetes in children.
A family I saw yesterday had a 10-year-old who already had it. Pediatricians across the country are having similar experiences. But until this significant study none of us knew exactly how large the problem had become.
Stunningly, 22 percent of all diabetes diagnosed in US children was type 2. And in kids aged 10-19, type 2 diabetes was more common than the autoimmune type 1 (previously called juvenile diabetes) – even though type 1 has also been increasing over the last 2 decades around the world.
The consequences of overfed, undernourished, inactive lifestyles have reached from middle age into childhood. The message is clear: it’s time to feed our kids healthy amounts of healthy foods and to ensure that they get a liberal dose of active play every day.
The Writing Group for the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study Group. “Incidence of Diabetes in Youth in the United States.” JAMA 2007, 297, pp. 2716-2724.
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The Cardinal is probably one of the most recognizable and popular backyard birds because of its brilliant red color and crested head. It is a great bird to admire year-round. The color contrast of the brilliant red against fresh white snow really is a high point during the winter months.
Early settlers were said to have named this bird after the Cardinals of the Catholic Church who wore red robes.
Both sexes are accomplished songsters and may be heard at any time of year. Cardinals will mate for life and remain together throughout the entire year. That's why you will usually see a male and female together at your feeding station.
||They can be found across the eastern U.S. from lower Canada south to the Gulf Coast and west to Arizona and parts of Southern California. The Cardinal's range has expanded dramatically since 1886 when it was rarely seen north of the Ohio River. Habitat is typically dense thickets along fields, hedges, swamps, and parks and gardens.
||Cardinals are not migratory. Their bright plumage brings color to our yards during the winter when many other species have flown south. In winter, most cardinals flock and roost together but, at other times of the year, they are quite territorial. In flocks, males dominate females when feeding. It is also nice to hear a pair calling to each other in late winter or early spring.
||A Cardinal's nesting season lasts from March to August. They usually raise 2-3 broods a year. The female builds a nest of small twigs and grasses in a shrub or dense bush. She lays about 3-4 white to greenish eggs that average about one inch in length. The female usually incubates the eggs, which takes 12-13 days. However, after the eggs hatch, the male tends to the chicks while the female incubates her next brood. Young leave the nest after 9-10 days. Male Cardinals often feed the females while courting and when they're nesting.
||About 90% of the Cardinal's food consists of weed seeds, grains, insects, fruits, and
sunflower seeds. They prefer seeds that are easily husked. Cardinals are less selective during winter in the colder climates. Cardinals also drink maple sap from holes made by sapsuckers.
|Size and Color:
||Cardinals range from 8 to 9 inches long, with a wingspread of 10-1/4 to 12 inches across. The adult male is bright red with a black face and red bill. The adult female is buff-brown with a red tinge to the crest, wings, and tail. Like the male, the face is black and the bill orange.
||Male and female Cardinals both sing. Songs are loud, beautiful whistled phrases. Some songs you may hear sound like "whoit whoit whoit" and "whacheer whacheer." These songs are used in forming territories and in courtship. Male and female cardinals use "chirps" as contact calls and alarms. They also have many visual displays such as "tail-flicks" to signal alarm. The crest may be raised and lowered. Strongly territorial, males will fight other males, along with their own reflection in windows!
||Create a dense hedge or thicket around your backyard. Cardinals are especially fond of roosting and nesting in honeysuckle thickets. Provide open areas with trees and berry producing shrubs such as mulberry, blueberry, grape, and dogwood. At
feeding stations, they prefer unhulled
black-oil sunflower seeds over all other foods. They will also eat
white proso millet, bread, nutmeats and
peanut butter mixes. Offer a
source of water for drinking and bathing.
||Up to 15 years.
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Create a Continuous Binding Strip for Your Quilt
When making bias strips for your quilt, you can either create one long strip or cut individual strips and then sew them together to get the length you need. You can use either of these methods to produce different types of bias binding.
To end up with a continuous binding strip, follow these steps:
Cut a 44" x 44" square of fabric (with selvages removed) in half diagonally to make two large triangles (see a in the following figure).
The square is cut on-grain at this point.Making a continuous bias strip.
You now have a trapezoid shape with two bias edges (upper and lower).
Decide how wide you need the binding to be, and mark lines on the wrong side of the fabric using a ruler (refer to c in the preceding figure).
Stitch the short ends of the fabric together (right sides facing), off-setting the lines by one strip line to form a funny-looking tube (refer to d in the preceding figure).
Carefully press the seam allowance open.
With scissors, cut the binding in one continuous strip, starting at the offset overhang and cutting along the marked lines.
A symbol (asterisk) in a written stitch pattern indicating that whatever follows gets repeated.
A symbol (bullet) in a written stitch pattern indicating that whatever follows gets repeated.
A synthetic fiber used to make yarn that mimics the look and feel of natural materials.
1. The Afghan crochet stitch produces a rather solid fabric that closely resembles a knitted fabric. 2. An afghan (lowercase a) is a soft blanket or shawl, crocheted or knitted, often in a geometric design
Abbreviation for approximately.
To knit or crochet stitches at an angle on the back (or wrong) side of a fabric, producing a pattern in which the stitches overlap.
A type of crochet stitch in which you insert your hook around the post of a stitch that's one or more rows below the current row, creating raised patterns that appear to recede on the side of the fabric facing you.
A stitch used to assemble knitted pieces by using a tapestry needle, going in and out of the stitches in knitted fabrics.
Yarn wound around a cardboard center or an open hole.
A knitted border on a piece of knitted fabric that keeps the center edge from stretching; adds a neat trim to an otherwise rough-looking edge; and creates a place for fastenings such as buttons. Most often appears on cardigan sweaters.
1. A type of knitting increase that leaves a horizontal bar under the increased stitch. 2. In filet crochet, a long space that crosses over the two blocks or spaces, or the one lacet, below it.
A knitting stitch pattern that creates a fabric that looks like a woven basket.
Knitting pattern abbreviation for beginning.
Crochet pattern abbreviation for between.
To make a finished edge by securing the knitted stitches in the last row worked, which prevents unraveling.
A crochet stitch used to assemble crocheted pieces, adding some stability to the backside of a seam made with long stitches, such as triple crochet.
1. (verb) To wet down or steam a piece of knitting or crochet in order to coax it into its final shape. The moisture and/or heat smoothes out uneven stitches and straightens out wavy, rolling edges. 2. (noun) The actual crocheted substance of a filet crochet design.
Wooden sock- or mitten-shaped template with biscuit-type holes cut out to aid air circulation when blocking a knitted or crocheted piece.
A flat surface made from a material that you can stick a pin into, often marked with a 1-inch grid to aid in blocking a knitted or crocheted piece.
Long, slightly flexible stainless steel wires in various lengths that you thread through the edges of your knitted pieces so that you can pin a knitted or crocheted piece into place for blocking without the edges becoming scalloped at the pin sites.
Crochet pattern abbreviation for back loop only.
A piece of shaped plastic used to keep colored yarns separate while knitting or crocheting with multiple colors and strands of yarn. You wrap one color of yarn per bobbin. Commonly used in Fair Isle and intarsia knitting.
A highly bumpy, textured yarn composed of loops.
A knitting stitch that has the same look and feel as seed stitch, but on a larger scale.
A thick, heavy fabric into which raised patterns have been woven.
Knit pattern abbreviation for cable 4 back, meaning a cable worked over 4 stitches from behind your work.
Knit pattern abbreviation for cable 4 front, meaning a cable worked over 4 stitches in front of your work.
Knit pattern abbreviation for cable 6 back, meaning a cable worked over 6 stitches from behind your work.
Knit pattern abbreviation for cable 6 front, meaning a cable worked over 6 stitches in front of your work.
A knit pattern in which you cross one group of stitches over another by knitting them out of order.
A short knitting needle that's point at both ends, has a divot or curve toward the middle, and is used to hold stitches temporarily while you work on their neighbors.
When knitting or crocheting with different colors, the process of moving yarn not in use to the next position it will be used by working it into the stitches being made in another color, rather than fastening off and rejoining the yarn with each color change.
Create a series of loops on one needle as a knitted starting row. The opposite is to bind off or cast off.
Crocheting or knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for contrasting color.
A simple, common crocheting stitch used to make a crochet piece's foundation and to start new rows.
A type of yarn material (usually made of rayon or cotton) with an attractive appearance and velvety texture.
Knitting pattern that makes the fabric form arrow-like shapes.
A crocheting or knitting technique that works the stitches in a continuous, spiral-like fashion without turning the piece; also called crocheting or knitting in the round.
A knitting needle designed especially for circular knitting, made up of one long double-pointed needle in a circular shape.
A set of crochet stitches that you work across an equal number of stitches and join together at the top, forming a triangle shape that resembles an upside-down shell stitch.
Knitting style in which you hold the yarn in your left hand and pick the stitches through each loop.
A soft, white natural fiber from plants, often made into yarn.
Worked like a single crochet stitch, but from left to right, rather than right to left.
A style of embroidery that's worked with any type of yarn, rather than thread.
A kind of needlework in which loops of a yarn are interwoven by means of a single hooked needle, or crochet hook.
A specialized needle with a hook at one end used to create crochetwork.
To knit or crochet stitches at an angle, producing a pattern in which the stitches overlap; crosses can be in the back or front of a stitched fabric.
A type of needlework, usually done with thread, in which stitches are crossed in the form of an X on some surface.
A band or fold at the end of a sleeve.
Removing stitches from a crocheted or knitted row to create a piece with sophisticated shaping; abbreviated dec.
One of the most common crochet stitches, it's about twice as tall as a single crochet; abbreviated dc. Compare with single crochet.
Decreasing 2 stitches at the same time; abbreviated dbl dec.
Increasing 2 stitch in the same place; abbreviated dbl inc.
A long space in filet crochet that crosses over the two blocks or spaces, or the one lacet, below it.
A tall crochet stitch that creates a loose and holey fabric.
Knitting needle that has a point at each end.
How a knitted or crocheted fabric falls, including how much movement the fabric allows.
Adding loops to your crochet hook by crocheting a row onto a foundation chain.
A knit stitch or purl stitch that has fallen off the knitting needle, leaving that stitch unworked.
A simple way of adding an additional color to your knitting without actually knitting with that color; instead, you embroider the additional color on the fabric, mimicking the stitch it covers.
The batch of dye with which a certain yarn was colored.
The quality or condition of being elastic, meaning springy, flexible, and resilient.
To decorate a fabric with a design in needlework, usually by using embroidery floss.
A style of knitting in which the knitter holds the yarn in his or her right hand and wraps it around the right-hand (RH) needle as he or she creates stitches.
1. A small hole through which you pass something, such as a button. 2. A type of lace pattern characterized by small openwork motifs distributed over a solid fabric.
A liquid medium that you apply to a worked piece during blocking, which dries invisible and makes your fabric rigid.
A kind of knitted lace pattern composed of nothing but the simplest lace-making unit — a yarn over followed (or preceded) by a decrease.
Knitting technique, also called stranding, that involves color patterns using more than one color in a row. You can work with two strands of yarn, carrying them along the back of your work, and picking up and dropping them as needed.
A filet crochet stitch that looks somewhat like a V and is worked across five stitches or the width of two spaces.
To cut the yarn in a crocheted piece and then draw it through a loop on the crochet hook at the end of the design or the end of that particular yarn's use in the design.
To transform knitting or crochetwork into a dense, sturdy fabric by running the finished piece through the washing machine.
A crochet technique that imitates a 17th-century form of lace worked on mesh netting stretched across a frame, which has evolved into a series of blocks and spaces that form a design.
Wool from a sheep or similar animal.
The strand on the wrong side of loose stitches that connects those stitches.
A soft, loosely twisted thread or yarn used in embroidery.
A crochet stitch pattern abbreviation for front loop only.
A crochet or knitting stitch pattern abbreviation meaning follows or following.
A series of chain stitches that creates your first row of crochet.
A border or trimming of cords or threads, hanging loose or tied in bunches.
To knit or crochet stitches at an angle on the front (or right) side of a fabric, producing a pattern in which the stitches overlap.
A type of crochet stitch in which you insert your hook around the post of a stitch that's one or more rows below the current row, creating raised patterns on the surface of the fabric facing you.
A knitting stitch that you create by simply knitting (or purling) every row.
The number of knitted or crocheted stitches and rows there are to an inch of fabric.
A way to join two knitted pieces that mock knits by using a tapestry needle, creating a very stretchy and almost invisible join.
A crochet stitch in between a single crochet and a double crochet in height, which you work by drawing the yarn through three loops on the crochet hook.
A knitting stitch that creates a fabric that looks and feels like a woven fabric.
A technique used to make combination stitches, such as the puff or cluster. The stitch is worked only partway, and then finished at the end of the combination.
A large circle of yarn twisted into a figure-8 shape.
A type of yarn that has been blended from a number of different-colored or -dyed fleeces, and then spun; muted in color.
A border on a garment or piece of cloth, usually made by folding the edge and sewing it down.
A technique used to knit a cord that curls in on itself.
To add stitches to a row so that the row has more stitches than the previous row.
A knitting technique that works with different colors without using floats; instead, each color area has its own strand of yarn, and you intertwine the yarns when it's time to work in another color.
To connect separate pieces of knitting or crochet by using one of a variety of techniques.
A knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for knit 2 stitches together.
A knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for knit in stitch below
An explanation of symbols used in a stitch chart.
1. (verb) To make cloth by interconnecting loops of yarn or thread in rows of stitches by using a pair of special needles. 2. (noun) A particular stitch in knitting that goes into the stitch from front to back.
A crochet stitch that looks like rows of Vs nesting in the row below, much like a knitting knit stitch.
A knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for knit stitch through the back of the loop.
A knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for knitwise (as if to knit).
A fabric knitted or crocheted in ornamental designs with various-sized holes.
A fancy crochet stitch that looks somewhat like a V and is worked across five stitches or the width of two spaces.
Left-hand needle; the knitting needle that you hold in your left hand.
A slick, smooth strand of floss or yarn that you thread with a tapestry needle through the last row of stitches below a mistake you've made in knitted lace, which allows you to put stitches back on your needle if you rip out too many when correcting the mistake.
A yarn, cloth, or thread made of flax, a plant fiber.
Description of a stitch that's still on the knitting needle.
A single crochet stitch that you work into either the tops of stitches or spaces between stitches one or more rows below the current row, creating a vertical spike of yarn that extends over several rows of stitches.
1. The section of yarn wrapped around your crochet hook or knitting needle with which you work to form new stitches. 2. Three or more crochet chain stitches worked in a row.
A knitting increase in which you create a new, separate stitch between 2 stitches that are already on the needle.
A type of plied yarn in which the plies are different colors.
A type of knitting stitch that creates a practically invisible and nicely flexible seam for joining pieces side by side.
A crocheting and knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for main color, used in multicolored patterns.
A fuzzy yarn made from the long, silky hair of the Angora goat, often mixed with other fibers.
A knitting pattern of repeating geometric shapes.
A knitting stitch that's an elongated version of seed stitch, in which you work 2 rows of the same sequence of knits and purls, then alternate them.
A crocheting or knitting design with a repeating figure or shape.
A knitting needle; an eyeless, usually long, needle of metal or plastic that has a blunt point at one or both ends, used in pairs when knitting by hand.
A synthetic fiber with great strength and elasticity.
A lace pattern that has more openings than solid spaces in its composition.
A knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for purl 2 stitches together.
The sequence of crochet or knit stitches that, when repeated, create a certain fabric; either written out with abbreviations or presented in a chart. Abbreviated as pat.
A knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for purl in the stitch below.
1. To use knitting needles and yarn to pull up new loops along a knitted edge and knit a border on that edge. 2. To fix a dropped stitch.
A little round-shaped crochet stitch that add a decorative touch to an edging or fill an empty space in a mesh design.
1 (noun) A small, thin piece of rustproof metal, often T-shaped. 2. (verb) To secure a knitted or crocheted fabric to the blocking board by using rustproof, non-plastic pins.
A finished slit on a garment that has a fastener, such as on the collar of a shirt, to make it easy to put on and take off.
The number of smaller strands twisted together to form the larger single strand of yarn.
A type of synthetic compound, such as nylon.
A fabric made from synthetic material also used in making plastics.
An ornamental ball or tuft of yarn often attached to garments and curtains.
A crochet stitch that forms a rounded, compact oval that stands out from the fabric.
A crochet stitch made by inserting your hook around the post of a stitch that's one or more rows below the current row; can be worked in the front or back of the post.
A knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for pass slipped stitch over; used for decreasing.
A crochet stitch that gently puffs up into an oval shape.
A knitting stitch that you create by working a knit stitch backwards, going into the stitch from back to front.
A crochet stitch that looks like rows of rounded bumps, much like a knitting purl stitch.
A synthetically produced textile fiber produced by pressing a cellulose solution through small holes and solidifying it into filaments.
A crocheting and knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for remains or remaining.
A given stitch sequence or combination. Stitch patterns are based on stitch repeats and row repeats. A given stitch sequence repeats horizontally across a row. A series of rows of given stitch sequences repeats vertically. Together they make up a stitch pattern that makes the fabric smooth, bumpy, cabled, or striped.
Right-hand needle; the knitting needle that you hold in your right hand.
A crochet or knit stitch pattern that creates textured vertical stripes.
To undo knitted stitches by removing the loops from the needle and pulling the yarn to unravel the stitches.
A knitting stitch pattern in whcih purl stitches make wavy lines.
A single line of stitches crocheted or knitted in the round; abbreviated rnd.
A single line of stitches crocheted or knitted in a flat pattern.
A crocheting and knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for right side, meaning the side that will be displayed when used/worn.
The horizontal strand of yarn that connects the first stitch on each needle when working a make 1 increase.
A small outline drawing of each piece of a knitted or crocheted project pattern.
1. (verb) Joining two pieces of material with a line of stitches. 2. (noun) The line along which two pieces of material are joined.
A knitting stitch that has a regular texture of little bumps that look a bit like seeds.
An extra stitch at the edge of your knitted fabric that (in combination with others) serves to create an even, stable border. Also spelled selvage.
To join or fasten with stitches using a sewing needle and thread.
The portion of a crochet hook that holds the loops you're working with; its diameter largely determines the size of the stitches.
A projection, such as a ring, on the back of a button by which you sew it onto a fabric.
A crochet stitch that involves working from 3 to 5 double crochet stitches all in the same stitch; the pattern looks like a seashell.
A yarn material made from the soft, shiny fiber produced by silkworms from their cocoons.
A long crocheted strip of very short vertical single crochet rows.
A compact, fundamental crochet stitch that creates a tight, dense fabric. Compare with double crochet.
The most common form of yarn packaging; an oblong, machine-wound bundle of yarn.
To move a stitch from one knitting needle to the other without working that stitch.
The first stitch you form on your knitting needle or crochet hook to begin a project.
A flat or small knitting or crochet stitch that you use mostly as a utility stitch or a technique for activities like making a seam or joining a new ball of yarn.
The opening in a piece of crochetwork created by working 1 or more chain stitches in between other stitches.
A process to block your crochetwork or knitting by spraying the fabric with water to dampen it, then laying the fabric in the intended shape.
A knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for slip, slip, knit the slip stitches together, which creates a left-slanting decrease.
A tasteless, odorless substance used to stiffen and shape fabrics.
Using a steam iron to block the shape of a knitted or crocheted piece.
A shortcut used to open up a knitted tube in which you sew or crochet two vertical lines of stitches an inch or so apart, then cut the stitches that fall between those lines.
A small ring that you add to your knitting or crochet work to remind you where you need to make a change to your needlework, such as the beginning of a round or the spot to work an increase.
A single loop of yarn worked off a needle in knitting or crocheting.
A knitting stitch which you create by alternating a knit row with a purl row.
To crochet, generally with yarn, onto a crocheted background; resembles embroidery.
1. (verb) To make a sample of knitted fabric for various reasons, including measuring gauge and practice. 2. (noun) The knitted fabric sample created by swatching.
A tool that looks like a wooden umbrella, which is specially designed to help untwist a hank of yarn.
The loose bit of yarn left after you finish knitting or crocheting your pattern.
A large-eye needle with a blunt point that you use to sew knitted pieces together.
An ornamental tuft of threads of equal length, hanging loosely from a knob or from the knot by which they're tied together.
1. (noun) A light, fine, string-like length of material made up of two or more spun fibers. 2. (verb) To put a thread through the eye of a sewing or tapestry needle, or to work that threaded needle through a fabric.
The part of a crochet hook that does the actual hooking of the yarn and pulls that yarn through a stitch.
A crocheting and knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for together.
A type of closure that has a ring on one end and bar on the other; the bar slides through the ring vertically and then lays on the ring horizontally to keep it from coming back through.
A crochet stitch which is slightly longer than the double crochet and which creates longer openings between the stitches, producing a very loose fabric.
A crochet stitch that involves creating a length equivalent to 5 chain stitches by using a yarn over 4 times.
Reversing your crochet work so that you can start a new row of stitches.
The 1 or more chain stitches that you crochet after you've turned your work and are about to begin your next row so that your yarn is at the height necessary to work the first stitch of the next row or round.
A wool yarn with a background color flecked with bits of fiber in different colors.
A smaller version of a knit cable that consists of 2 stitches, 1 crossing over its neighbor.
Dyed in several different colors or shades, such as yarn.
A synthetic material often used to make rayon and other synthetic yarns.
A crochet stitch made up of a double crochet, chain, and double crochet stitch all in the same stitch, forming a V shape.
To work the remaining bit of yarn into already-created stitches to hide the tail.
The thickness of a yarn.
An ancient name for a knitted horizontal stripe.
Getting a piece of knitting or crochetwork completely wet in a sink or basin of water before laying it out to shape it.
A stitch used to join crocheted rows of short stitches, such as single crochet, worked with a tapestry or sewing needle and yarn or thread.
A machine with a crank that turns a spindle, which can wind and unwind a skein of yarn attached to the winder.
Yarn spun from the fibers of sheep, goat, llama, or other animal hair.
An adjustable wooden frame with arms that you can dress with your wet, knitted or crocheted garment to block that garment.
Crochet a designated stitch or stitches across the whole length of a row.
A smooth, firmly twisted thread or yarn made from long-staple wool combed to make the fibers lie in the same direction.
A crocheting and knitting stitch pattern abbreviation for wrong side, meaning the side that will be hidden when used/worn.
Any fiber, such as wool or nylon, spun into strands for knitting or crocheting.
The hand that's feeding the yarn from the ball or skein. In crochet, the hand not holding the hook.
1. A knitting method of making an extra stitch on your needle and creating a deliberate little hole in your fabric, as in lace. 2. The most basic step to every crochet stitch, in which you wrap the yarn over your crochet hook
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Famous Women in Astronomy
Part of the Astronomy For Dummies Cheat Sheet
When you’re studying astronomy don’t forget the women that made an impact in the field. Check out this list of amazing achievements by women astronomers and astrophysicists:
Caroline Herschel (1750–1848) Discovered eight comets.
Annie Jump Cannon (1863–1941) Devised the basic method for classifying the stars.
Henrietta Swan Leavitt (1868–1921) Discovered the first accurate method for measuring great distances in space.
Sally Ride (1951–2012) A trained astrophysicist, she is the first American woman in space.
Jocelyn Bell Burnell Discovered pulsars in her work as a graduate student.
E. Margaret Burbidge Pioneered modern studies of galaxies and quasars.
Wendy Freedman Leader in measuring the expansion rate of the universe.
Carolyn C. Porco Leads the Cassini imaging science team in the study of Saturn and its moons and rings.
Nancy G. Roman As NASA’s first chief astronomer, she led the development of telescopes in space.
Vera C. Rubin Investigated the rotation of galaxies and detected the existence of dark matter.
Carolyn Shoemaker Discovered many comets, including one that smashed into Jupiter.
Jill Tarter Leader in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.
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How to Enter Basic Formulas in Excel 2007
As entries go in Excel 2007, formulas are the real workhorses of the worksheet. If you set up a formula properly, it computes the right answer when you first enter it into a cell. From then on, it keeps itself up to date, recalculating the results whenever you change any of the values that the formula uses.
You let Excel know that you’re about to enter a formula in the current cell by starting the formula with the equal sign (=). Some formulas follow the equal sign with a built-in function, such as SUM or AVERAGE. Many simple formulas use a series of values or cell references that contain values separated by one or more of the following mathematical operators:
+ (plus sign) for addition
- (minus sign or hyphen) for subtraction
* (asterisk) for multiplication
/ (slash) for division
^ (caret) for raising a number to an exponential power
For example, to create a formula in cell C2 that multiplies a value entered in cell A2 by a value in cell B2, enter the following formula in cell C2: =A2*B2
To enter this formula in cell C2, follow these steps:
Select cell C2.
Type the entire formula =A2*B2 in the cell.
Select cell C2.
Type = (equal sign).
Select cell A2 in the worksheet by using the mouse or the keyboard.
This action places the cell reference A2 in the formula in the cell.To start the formula, type = and then select cell A2.
Type * (Shift+8 on the top row of the keyboard).
The asterisk is used for multiplication in Excel.
Select cell B2 in the worksheet by using the mouse or the keyboard.
This action places the cell reference B2 in the formula.To complete the second part of the formula, type * and select cell B2.
Click the Enter box (the check mark in the Formula bar) to complete the formula entry, while at the same time keeping the cell cursor in cell C2.
Excel displays the calculated answer in cell C2 and the formula =A2*B2 in the Formula bar.Click the Enter box, and Excel displays the answer in cell C2 while the formula appears in the Formula bar above.
If you select the cell you want to use in a formula, either by clicking it or moving the cell pointer to it, you have less chance of entering the wrong cell reference.
After creating a formula like the preceding one that refers to the values in certain cells (rather than containing those values itself), you can change the values in those cells, and Excel automatically recalculates the formula, using these new values and displaying the updated answer in the worksheet! Using the example shown in the figures, suppose that you change the value in cell B2 from 100 to 50. The moment that you complete this change in cell B2, Excel recalculates the formula and displays the new answer, 1000, in cell C2.
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In 1990, the U.S. set the example for protection of the rights of people with disabilities in its Americans with Disabilities Act. The ADA became the template for many nationsí laws on disability rights and was recently the model used to design the United Nationsí Treaty on Disabilities Rights. Knowing this, it is difficult to understand why the U.S. Senate recently failed to pass that very treaty.
The U.N. Treaty on Disabilities, first adopted in December 2006, sets a standard for all nations in assuring full human rights for people with disabilities. The Guiding Principles include such ideals as respect for inherent dignity; individual autonomy; the independence of all people; nondiscrimination; full and effective participation and inclusion in society; equality of opportunity; accessibility; and respect for difference and acceptance of people with disabilities as part of human diversity.
The U.N. treaty sets forth a set of articles that specify for every nation the benchmarks for protecting the human rights of people with disabilities.
Anyone familiar with the ADA will recognize the origins of these articles, which address such issues as reasonable accommodations, equal recognition under the law and the right to vote, access to the justice system, free and public education, the right to fair employment practices, the right to habilitation and rehabilitation.
As with any rights, it is the responsibility of the governmental body to protect these rights and the choice of each individual whether to exercise them.
U.S. citizens with disabilities who have travelled internationally attest to the need for many other nations to come to the standards of our country when it comes to accessibility for people with disabilities.
The U.N. treaty establishes those standards. It does not change any nationís laws or constitutions.
A variety of nations have specified their own application of the treatyís principles and excluded any clause that appeared to be in conflict with their own constitution or practices.
Yet it was not because of this flexibility in interpretation that the U.S. Senate voted against ratification of the U.N. Treaty on Disabilities. Those who opposed it claimed to do so because of their fear that the treaty would affect the ability of American people with disabilities and their parents to make their own choices about how to live and educate their children.
A particular fear was the fear of some parents that the treaty would prevent them from choosing to home-school their children.
The U.N. has no such powers, nor do the rights afforded through the treaty compel any person with a disability to exercise those rights.
On Dec. 4, 38 senators opposed ratification of the treaty, and the vote failed to get the two-thirds majority needed to pass. Daily life for people with disabilities in America wonít change, but what message have we sent to the 650 million people with disabilities at home and abroad?
Tara Kiene is the director of case management with Community Connections Inc.
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Why Teach Engineering In High School?
This PDF document and this PowerPoint file from the American Society for Engineering Education provide an overview of why teaching engineering in high school makes sense. Some of the benefits include:
- Engineering topics are everywhere
- Engineering combines math and science topics into real world projects
- Engineering requires group work, so all students can participate while learning their math and science
- Engineering is fun and creative
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The report shows that the majority of Iowa public school students in grades 3-8 and 11 met the state's annual objectives. In addition, 92.5 percent of Iowa's public school districts and 75 percent of Iowa schools were not identified as needing assistance for the 2009-2010 academic year.
The report card has some new information based on federal reporting requirements. For the first time, the State Report Card for No Child Left Behind reflects changes in how race and ethnicity are reported as mandated by the U.S. Department of Education (USDE). The USDE's mandate is aligned with requirements for all federal agencies and with the U.S. Census Bureau's 2000 collection. The change will help Iowa schools better serve and support their students. More information on race/ethnicity reporting changes is available here.
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 requires each state to provide an annual report card to inform stakeholders and the public about the progress of students and schools on indicators of student achievement and other information that relates to student success. The State Report Card for No Child Left Behind provides state-level data to serve as a comparison for schools and districts as they consider and implement improvement efforts to increase the success for all Iowa students.
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Ten Steps to Better Student Engagement
Project-learning teaching strategies can also improve your everyday classroom experience.
Tristan de Frondeville
Credit: Courtesy of PBL Associates
As a teacher, my goal was to go home at the end of each day with more energy than I had at the beginning of the day. Seriously.
Now, as I travel the country coaching teachers on how to successfully use project learning, my goal remains the same. And I try to teach educators the strategies they need to achieve this goal in their own classrooms.
A teacher in one of my workshops said, "When my students and I are in the flow, then I don't feel like I have to work as hard." I heartily agree. When 90 to 100 percent of my students are excitedly engaged in their tasks and asking deep and interesting questions, I experience joy, and joy is a lot less tiring than the frustration that comes with student apathy.
Project-based classrooms with an active-learning environment make such in-the-flow moments more common. Yet these same classrooms require many teacher and student skills to work well. As teachers, we can feel overwhelmed when we try something new and experience chaos instead of flow.
The good news is that the strategies for creating and managing high-quality project-learning environments are productive in any classroom, whether project learning is a central part of the curriculum or not. Here are ten ideas that you can start practicing in your classroom today to help you create more moments of flow.
Create an Emotionally Safe Classroom
Students who have been shamed or belittled by the teacher or another student will not effectively engage in challenging tasks. Consider having a rule such as "We do not put others downs, tell others to shut up, or laugh at people." Apply it to yourself as well as your students. This is the foundation of a supportive, collaborative learning environment. To learn and grow, one must take risks, but most people will not take risks in an emotionally unsafe environment.
Create an Intellectually Safe Classroom
Begin every activity with a task that 95 percent of the class can do without your help. Get your students used to the fact that when you say, "Please begin," they should pick up a pencil and start working successfully. This gets everyone on the bus. Then make sure your students know that these initial easy tasks will always be followed by increasingly challenging ones. Create rich and complex tasks so that various students have a chance to excel and take on the role of helping others.
Cultivate Your Engagement Meter
Be acutely aware of when your students are paying strong attention or are deeply engaged in their tasks. Master teachers create an active-learning environment in which students are on task in their thinking and speaking or are collaboratively working close to 100 percent of the time. Such teachers notice and measure not only when students are on task but also the quality of their engagement.
Although it may take years to develop the repertoire of skills and lessons that enable you to permanently create this active-learning environment, you can begin by discerning which activities truly engage your students. The more brutally honest you are with yourself, the faster you will get there.
Create Appropriate Intermediate Steps
The first question I ask educators when I coach them on project learning is how many of their students say, "We can't wait to do another project," versus "Oh, no! Not another project." Teachers tend to get the first response when they scaffold challenging tasks so that all students are successful.
For example, take the typical task of interviewing an adult outside the classroom. Some teachers assign the task on Monday and expect it to be done the following Monday, confident that by including the weekend, they are providing sufficient support. Other teachers realize that finding, cold calling, and interviewing an adult are challenging tasks for most young people, so they create intermediate steps -- such as brainstorming, searching online for phone numbers, crafting high-quality interview questions, and role-playing the interview -- that train all students for success.
Practice Journal or Blog Writing to Communicate with Students
Japanese teachers highly value the last five minutes of class as a time for summarizing, sharing, and reflecting. A nice way to change the pace of your class is to have students write regular reflections on the work they have done. Encourage and focus their writing with a prompt, such as "The Muddiest Point and the Clearest Point: What was most confusing about the work you did today, and what new thing was the most clear?" Use this approach to guide future lessons and activities. Consider writing responses to student journal entries in order to carry on a conversation with students about their work.
Create a Culture of Explanation Instead of a Culture of the Right Answer
You know you have created a rich learning event when all students are engaged in arguing about the best approach to the assignment. When you use questions and problems that allow for multiple strategies to reach a successful outcome, you give students the opportunity to make choices and then compare their approaches. This strategy challenges them to operate at a higher level of thinking than when they can share only the "correct" answer. Avidly collect problems and tasks that have multiple paths to a solution. As a math teacher, I create problems that have a lot of numbers instead of the usual two. For example, I can present this problem:
5 + 13 + 24 - 8 + 47 - 12 + 59 - 31 - 5 + 9 - 46 - 23 + 32 - 60
Then I can say, "There are at least three fundamentally different strategies for doing the following problem. Can you find them all?"
Teach Self-Awareness About Knowledge
All subjects build on prior knowledge and increase in complexity at each successive level of mastery. Effective learning requires that certain skills and processes be available for quick recall. Many students let too much of their knowledge float in a sea of confusion and develop a habit of guessing, sometimes without even knowing that they are guessing.
Credit: Courtesy of Tristan de Frondeville
To help students break this habit, paste the graphic at right next to each question on your assessments. After the students answer a question, have them place an X on the line to represent how sure they are that their answer is correct. This approach encourages them to check their answer and reflect on their confidence level. It is informative when they get it wrong but marked "for sure" or when they do the opposite and mark "confused" yet get the answer right.
Use Questioning Strategies That Make All Students Think and Answer
Pay a visit to many classrooms and you'll see a familiar scene: The teacher asks questions and, always, the same reliable hands raise up. This pattern lends itself to student inattention. Every day, include some questions you require every student to answer. Find a question you know everyone can answer simply, and have the class respond all at once.
You can ask students to put a finger up when they're ready to answer, and once they all do, ask them to whisper the answer at the count of three. They can answer yes, no, or maybe with a thumbs-up, thumbs-down, or thumbs-sideways gesture. That also works for "I agree," "I disagree," or "I'm not sure."
Numerical answers under ten are easy to show with fingers, but don't limit yourself to math questions. For instance, if you're teaching time management, have students let you know what their progress is halfway through the class by putting up one or more fingers to show whether they are one-, two-, or three-quarters done with the assignment, or finished. Do these exercises at least two or three times per class.
Practice Using the Design Process to Increase the Quality of Work
Students in school get used to doing work at a consistent level of quality. Unfortunately, low-performing students get used to doing poor-quality work. To help them break the habit, use a draft-and-revision process.
Many professionals use such a design process to increase the quality of their work. Engineers build prototypes, respond to critical feedback, and refine their design before going into production. Artists make sketches of big works and revise their ideas before creating their final piece. Use the design process to drive your students to produce higher-quality work than they are used to doing when they create only a first effort. Include peer evaluation as part of the feedback they receive.
Market Your Projects
When your students ask, "Why do we need to know this?" you must be ready with the best answer possible. Great projects incorporate authentic tasks that will help students in their lives, jobs, or relationships. Engage students by developing an inventory of big ideas to help you make the connections between your assignments and important life skills, expertise, high-quality work, and craftsmanship. The Partnership for 21st Century Skills provides a good starter list.
Also, search out the powerful processes and ideas experts in your own subject use repeatedly. (In math, for instance, my list includes generalizing and parts and wholes.) Keep a journal of the big ideas you've discovered simply by teaching your subject. By continually referring to these big ideas, you will encourage students to think and act like subject-matter experts and develop skills they will use throughout their lives.
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Risk factors are habits and conditions that make heart disease more likely. The more you have, the higher your chances of heart attack, also known as acute myocardial infarction, or AMI, and other problems. Most risk factors can be managed to help make your heart healthier. Below are factors that increase your risk for having heart disease.
This is the biggest of all the risk factors you can change. Smoking damages the lining of the blood vessels and raises blood pressure. Research shows that smoking makes women up to 6 times more likely to have a heart attack. Also avoid secondhand smoke (smoke from other people’s tobacco products).
Diabetes causes high blood sugar, which can damage blood vessels if not kept under control. Having diabetes also makes you more likely to have a silent heart attack—one without any symptoms. You’re at risk if your blood sugar level is above 100 mg/dL.
Lipids are fatty substances in the blood. LDL cholesterol and triglycerides (both bad lipids) can build up in artery walls, narrowing the arteries. HDL cholesterol (a good lipid) helps clear bad lipids away. You’re at risk if you have: HDL cholesterol 50 mg/dL or lower; LDL cholesterol 100 mg/dL or higher; triglycerides of 150 mg/dL or higher.
High blood pressure occurs when blood pushes too hard against artery walls as it travels through the arteries. This damages the lining of the blood vessels making them narrow and stiff. You’re at risk if your blood pressure is 120/80 or higher.
Excess weight makes your heart work harder. This raises your risk of a heart attack. Being overweight also puts you at risk of developing diabetes. Excess weight around the waist or stomach increases your risk the most. Being obese puts you at risk for developing heart disease.
Without regular exercise, you’re more likely to develop other risk factors, such as being overweight and developing diabetes. High blood pressure and unhealthy lipid levels are also more likely.
Emotions such as stress and pent-up anger have been linked to heart disease. Over time, these emotions could raise your heart disease risk. If you have heart disease, emotion such as anxiety and depression can make it worse.
This is caused by a combination of certain risk factors. It puts you at extra high risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. You have metabolic syndrome if you have three or more of the following: low HDL cholesterol; high triglycerides; high blood pressure; high blood sugar; extra weight around the waist.
A few risk factors can’t be changed. But they still raise your heart disease risk.
Family history. If your mother or sister had heart trouble before age 65 or your father or brother before age 55, you’re at higher risk of having a heart attack.
Age. The older you are, the higher your heart disease risk.
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Asthma: Using an Asthma Action Plan
What is an Actionset?
If you or your child has asthma that requires daily treatment, it is important to have an asthma action plan. An asthma action plan is a written plan that tells you what asthma medicine to take every day and how to treat an asthma attack. It can help you make quick decisions in case you are not able to think clearly during an attack.
An asthma action plan usually includes:
- Treatment goals, which include your personal goals about your asthma.
- An outline of which medicines you take daily for asthma control and when to take them.
- An asthma diary where you record peak expiratory flow (PEF) and the triggers that cause asthma symptoms.
- Steps to take and medicines to use to treat an asthma attack early, before it becomes severe.
- What to do if an attack becomes an emergency, and where to get medical treatment.
Using an asthma action plan can help you stay active with fewer asthma problems. Following your plan is a big step toward controlling the disease so you can live the life you want.
Return to topic:
An asthma action plan has three zones. You can find out what zone you are in by checking your peak flow or symptoms. Peak flow is a measure of how fast you breathe out when you try your hardest. You check your peak flow with a peak flow meter, an inexpensive device that you can use at home. Your doctor can show you how to use it.
The zones of an asthma action plan are based on the colors of a stoplight. See an example of an asthma action plan(What is a PDF document?).
Green zone. Green means Go.
- You are in the green zone if your peak flow is 80% to 100% of your personal best measurement. You should have no asthma symptoms when you are in the green zone. You want to be in the green zone every day.
- If you continue to stay in the green zone, your doctor may lower your daily asthma medicines.
Yellow zone. Yellow means Caution.
- You are in the yellow zone if your peak flow is 50% to 79% of your personal best measurement. You may not have any symptoms, but your lung function is reduced. When symptoms are present, they may be mild to moderate, or may keep you from your normal activities or disturb your sleep.
- Being in the yellow zone means that you should take action. Your action plan should state what medicines you need to take, how much to take, and when to take them.
- If you keep going into the yellow zone from the green zone, talk with your doctor. You may need a different medicine. Or the doses of your medicines may need to be increased.
Red zone. Red means STOP.
- You are in the red zone if your peak flow is less than 50% of your personal best measurement. Your symptoms will be severe, and you may cough and be very short of breath.
- If your symptoms and peak flow are in the red zone, follow your action plan.
- Callright away if you are in the red zone and you have followed your action plan, but:
- You are having severe difficulty breathing.
- 20 to 30 minutes after taking the extra medicine, you do not feel better and/or your peak flow is still less than 50% of your personal best measurement.
Using an asthma action plan takes the guesswork out of treating asthma attacks. It can help you to:
- Take control of your treatment.
- Have fewer or less severe attacks.
- Avoid trips to the doctor or the hospital.
Develop your plan
- Work with your doctor to make an action plan for you or your child. The action plan is based on peak flow and asthma symptoms. These help your doctor know how bad your asthma is. An action plan may include:
See an example of an asthma action plan(What is a PDF document?).
- The peak flow readings and symptoms for each zone.
- What medicines to take in each zone.
- When to call a doctor.
- A list of emergency contact numbers.
- A list of your asthma triggers.
- Let your doctor know what you want regarding asthma care. For example, if you are not comfortable using a peak flow meter, tell your doctor.
- If you make an asthma action plan for your child, give a copy to the child's school or caregivers and make sure they know how to use it.
Follow your daily treatment, and use the asthma action plan
- Take your daily medicines to help minimize long-term damage and avoid asthma attacks.
- Check your peak flow every morning and evening. This is the best way to know how well your lungs are working.
- Check your action plan to see what zone you are in.
- If you are in the green zone, keep taking your daily asthma medicines as prescribed.
- If you are in the yellow zone, you may be having or will soon have an asthma attack. You may not have any symptoms, but your lungs are not working as well as they should. Take the medicines listed in your action plan. If you stay in the yellow zone, your doctor may need to increase the dose or add a medicine.
- If you are in the red zone, follow your action plan. If your symptoms or peak flow don't improve soon, you may need to go to the emergency room or be admitted to the hospital.
- Use an asthma diary. Write down your peak flow readings in the asthma diary. If you have an attack, write down what caused it (if you know), the symptoms, and what medicine you took. See an example of an asthma diary(What is a PDF document?).
Review the plan with your doctor
- Take both the asthma action plan and the asthma diary when you see your doctor. Get answers to any questions you may have about your asthma plan or your symptoms. Let your doctor know if treatment is not controlling your asthma attacks.
- Take your peak flow meter and medicines so your doctor can review your treatment.
- Make sure you know how and when to call your doctor or go to the hospital.
- Tell your doctor if you are having trouble following your action plan.
Now that you have read this information, you are ready to start using an asthma action plan. For related information, see:
Talk with your doctor
If you have questions, take this information with you when you visit your doctor. You may want to mark areas or make notes in the margins where you have questions.
If you would like more information on asthma, the following resource is available:
|Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA)|
|1233 20th Street NW|
|Washington, DC 20036|
|Phone: ||1-800-7-ASTHMA (1-800-727-8462)|
|Web Address: ||www.aafa.org |
The Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America (AAFA) provides information and support for people who have allergies or asthma. The AAFA has local chapters and support groups. And its Web site has online resources, such as fact sheets, brochures, and newsletters, both free and for purchase.
|Primary Medical Reviewer||E. Gregory Thompson, MD - Internal Medicine|
|Specialist Medical Reviewer||Lora J. Stewart, MD, MPH - Allergy and Immunology, Pediatrics|
|Last Revised||March 17, 2011|
eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise
To learn more visit Healthwise.org
© 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
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An abscessed tooth is a tooth that has a pocket of pus in the tissue next to it. This often occurs because the inside (pulp) of a tooth is infected and the bacteria spread to the tissue underneath the tooth. An abscess usually causes throbbing pain in the tooth and red, swollen gums.
eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise
To learn more visit Healthwise.org
© 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
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| 3.38973 |
Definition of Cowper's gland
Cowper's gland: A tiny gland in the male, also known as the bulbourethral gland. Named after the English anatomist William Cowper (1666-1709). See: Bulbourethral gland.Source: MedTerms™ Medical Dictionary
Last Editorial Review: 10/9/2012
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Kevin Vosper wrote:
(Yes I know it's not strictly true but it is a good example).
Kevin Vosper wrote:So a better example would be "Tony Blair has been Prime Minister since 1987." The example is "good" in that it illustrates the fact that the present perfect deals with past time from the point "now." It looks back in time from the present (hence the term present perfect) into the past and is therefore used when either the exact date of an event is not important or when a situation may still be true.
Kevin Vosper wrote:Tense refers to the way verb endings change in order to show differences in time for an event. In English there are two tenses, past and present.
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| 3.222506 |
Oceana Petitions the Government to Protect Loggerhead Sea Turtles
The majestic loggerhead sea turtle, an animal that has inhabited Earth longer than man, faces extinction because of human activities, such as threats from fishing gear. In fact, loggerhead sea turtle populations in the Atlantic are plummeting and a recent report by the federal government shows that the greatest man-made threat to loggerhead sea turtles in the Atlantic is capture in fisheries.
The future for loggerhead sea turtles in the Atlantic is grim at best. On top of the existing pressure from human impacts, climate change could soon push these sea turtles even closer to the brink of extinction. Oceana has issued a new report showing the possible impacts of climate change on sea turtles.
As a result of these factors, Oceana and the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned the U.S. Department of Commerce and the U.S. Department of the Interior to uplist this loggerhead population from "threatened" to "endangered" under the Endangered Species Act. In addition, the petition asks the government to protect the key habitat areas for these turtles in the Atlantic from human impacts.
| 3.603889 |
American Scientists Make Great Leap in Battery Technology
One of the primary concerns with owning an electric vehicle is cost of the battery, the range it offers, and the time it takes to recharge. Those concerns will be significantly lessoned with the development of a new lithium-ion battery. Designed by scientists at Envia Systems, a US-based company, the new battery has roughly twice the energy density of existing rechargeable batteries. Such an innovation could greatly increase the range of electric cars as well as cut the price of the battery packs in half.
The research conducted by Envia Systems was funded by a $4 million federal grant through ARPA-Energy (Advanced Research Projects Agency). The work was done at the Argonne National Laboratory.
The new battery can achieve an energy density of 400 watt-hours per kilogram, double that of existing rechargeable batteries. The key was introducing manganese into the mix of materials used in the cathode, the electrode where the lithium ions congregate. Then, they added silicon to the anode, the electrode toward which the ions flow, producing the electric current.
The costs of the batteries are cheaper per kilowatt-hour than standard lithium ion batteries. At $125 per kwh, they are less than half the cost. The is not trivial because the batteries constitute roughly 65 percent of the total cost of an electric vehicle.
The major automakers have taken notice of this battery breakthrough and are knocking on Envia's door. General Motors is already an investor in the technology. However, according to Envia chairman and CEO, Atul Kapadia, Envia is "working with all the brand name [carmakers] in the world."
The new batteries could greatly boost the nascent electric car industry. For example, a Nissan LEAF combined with the new Envia battery could potentially travel 300 miles on a single $10 charge, as opposed to its 80 mile range today. This is roughly the same range as many conventional internal combustion engines. It is the equivalent of driving from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh on a single charge.
The new battery breakthrough may well revolutionize the auto industry. It is foreseeable that electric vehicles may actually surpass sales of conventional vehicles, potentially phasing them out forever.
For more information: http://enviasystems.com/
Image shows Envia laboratories. Image credit: John F. Martin for General Motors
| 3.58103 |
Trilobite Olenoides erratus. Source: Mark A.Wilson A fossil is the preserved remain of a lifeform that lived in prehistoric times. Most commonly fossils are mineralized parts or a whole organism which is no longer alive. In other cases the fossil may contain actual remains of the dead organism; in particular, DNA may be preserved over long periods of time under the right conditions, since DNA is fundamentally an inanimate molecule. While the most familiar fossils are those derived from animals and plants including such exotic species as dinosaurs and woolly mammoths, there are also fossils from ancient bacteria.
There are several methods of fossil formation including re-crystallization, permineralization, compression, molding and entombment. Examination of fossils was the earliest technique of palaeoentology, the study of ancient lifeforms, and it continues as the companion of molecular biology, to be key in the elucidation of phylogenies (ancestral relationships of species). The earliest animal fossils date from the Cambrian Period, approximately 540 million years before present, although some bacterial fossils exist from at least two billion years before present.
Process of formation
Most fossils are the result of sedimentary rock formation where coverage of the original organism occurred quickly; preservation and mineralization is encouraged by anoxic (oxygen deprived) conditions, where decompostion was not able to occur rapidly upon death of the subject. Body parts most readily preserved are teeth and bony animal parts and the chitonous elements of plants, which elements are most resistive to decay, and thus have more time to enter their preserved state.
Recrystallized Scleractinian fossil coral. Source: Mark A.Wilson
One of the simplest processes for fossil formation is the phenomenon of re-crystalization. This is an easily understood process, whereby substances such as teeth and bone, which begin with a high mineral content, have their chemicals replaced by a new crystalline lattice. In a number of instances, mineral replacement of the original body part transpires so gradually that microstructural features are conserved even though a complete transformation of the original organism's material occurs. A shell is termed recrystallized when the original skeletal compounds are still present but in a different crystal form, as in a transition form aragonite to calcite. The process of re-crystallization is often termed replacement.
Living organisms ordinarily contain large amounts of volume that is filled with water or gases. When an organism is covered with sediment, those aqueous and gaseous portions of the individual may be replaced with mineral rich water from an aquifer or surface water body. This process is termed permineralization, and often is best viewed as a replacement phenomenon at the cellular level. Fine grained or small scale permineralization produces very detailed fossil specimens. For permineralization to occur, it is essential for the organism to become covered by sediment rapidly upon death, before significant decay has set in. In ideal cases of preservation, individual cell walls can be effectively fossilized, producing an incredible level of microscopic preservation.
Compression fossils, most often exemplified by planar plant forms such as leaves or ferns, result from chemical reduction of complex organic molecules that comprise biotic tissues. The fossil actually preserves original organism material, but in a geochemically altered state. In many cases the preserved fossil is nothing but a thin carbonaceous film.
Lepidodendron external mold. Source: Mark A.Wilson
Such a chemical change is a manifestation of diagenesis, the transformation of sediment after its original deposition. In some cases DNA may effectively be extracted from compression fossils.
Internal or external mold
In some cases the entire organism may vanish, but an exterior mold will be made by sedimentary rock encasing the original remains of the organism which has been completely dissolved or destroyed. This casting results in a sculptured cavity within the rock, with the exterior three dimensional outline of the original organism's exterior; the product of this process is termed an external mold. If this hole is subsequently filled with different minerals, it is a cast and called an internal mold. A common example of this latter type of mold is a bivalve mollusc.
Ant entombed in Baltic Amber. Souce: Anders L.Damgaard
In some cases exceptional preservation may occur by a relatively rapid fatal trapping and encasing of a live organism with (usually) an organic substance such as amber or tar. Some of these circumstances create fossils of unusual life-pose forms, and many of these instances provide substantial detail of the subjects. For example, recent research using crystallography has yielded amazing structural detail of the morphology of long extinct insects that were trapped in amber.
Bioimmuration is a form of fossilization whereby a skeletal organism envelopes or subsumes another living creature, preserving the latter, or its mold, within the skeleton. Most typically this process occurs with a sessile skeletal animal, such as a bryozoan or an oyster, which grows along a substrate that covers other sessile encrusting organisms. Frequently the bioimmured organism is soft-bodied and is thus conserved in negative relief in an external mold form. There are also cases where an organism settles on top of a living skeletal organism which grows upwards, preserving the settler within its skeleton. Most of the examples of bioimmuration are from the fossil record of the Ordovician Period.
The geological record and fossil records are respectively the prehistoric sequence of events for rocks and organisms. In the 19th century early days of research in these fields age of rocks was imputed from the best estimates of the age of the fossil organisms found entrained within those rocks.
The fossil record and flora and faunal succession form the basis of biostratigraphy, the science of determining the age of rocks based on the fossils they contain. For the earliest years of geological study, biostratigraphy and superposition were the chief methods of assigning the relative age of rocks. The geologic time scale was first developed based on the relative ages of rock strata as determined by pioneering paleontologists.
Since the early 1900s, absolute dating methods, including radiometric dating (including potassium-argon argon/argon and uranium-lead dating techniques were applied. In the case of young fossils, carbon-14 dating has been applied to verify the relative ages obtained by fossils and to provide absolute ages for many fossils. Radiometric dating has shown that the earliest known stromatolites, or bacterial fossils, are more than 3.4 billion years old.
Since the close of the 20th century new techniques in molcular biollogy using DNA marker techniques have allowed great progress to be made in defining phylogenetic trees, which illustrate the lineage of plant and animal families. These techniques can also use regression techniques to establish reasonable estimates of the absolute timelines of common parentage of biotic families.
Proterozoic stromatolite cyanobacteria fossil, Bolivia. Source: GNU SNP
The most ancient fossils are bacterial colonies constructed from sedimentary layers of rock; these fossils are termed stromatolite. Based on studies of living stromatolites it has been ascertained that the formation of stromatolitic fossils was biogenetically mediated by microorganism mats via sediment entrapment. However, abiotic mechanisms for stromatolitic growth are also known, leading to a decades-long scientific debate regarding biogenesis of certain formations, especially those from the lower to middle Archaean eon.
Stromatolites from the late Archaean through the middle Proterozoic eon were chiefly formed by massive colonies of cyanobacteria, and that the oxygen byproduct of their photosynthetic metabolism first resulted in earth’s massive banded iron formations and subsequently oxygenated Earth’s atmosphere.
History of fossil studies
Georges Cuvier, French zoologist (1769-1832)
The Greek scientist Aristotle observed that fossilized shells were previously living organisms, constituting the first observational recognition of the relationship of a time relationship between earlier living organisms and their fossilized remnants. In the pre-Darwinian era of the 18th century English geologist William Smith noticed that rocks of varying ages and origins preserved different fossil assemblages, which succeeded in a systematic sequence. He was the first to state that rocks from distant locations may be correlated based on the fossils they contained, and he termed this the principle of faunal succession.
Smith expressed no awareness of biological evolution, and he did not speculate why faunal succession occurred. His contemporary Lord Monboddo, in nearby Scotland, was expressing a clear recognition of evolutionary sequences, but the two are not known to have communicated. Biological evolution would later explains faunal and floral succession exists: as different organisms evolve, change and go extinct, they leave behind fossils. Faunal succession was one of the chief pieces of evidence cited by Darwin that natural selection had occurred. Georges Cuvier in 1796 noted that the majority of the animal fossils he examined were remains of species that had become extinct. It was not until the era of Charles Darwin and his contemporaries that a clearly stated link existed with the hierarchical tree of life and the fossil record.
Image by Ghedoghedo (Wikimedia Commons)
Process of formation
- T.P.Jones and Nick P.Rowe. 1999. Fossil plants and spores: modern techniques. Geological Society. 396 pages
- Berndt Herrmann and Suzanne Hummel. 1994. Ancient DNA: recovery and analysis of genetic material from paleontological, archaeological, museum, medical, and forensic specimens. Springer. 263 pages
- Paul Selden and John R. Nudds. 2004. Evolution of fossil ecosystems. Manson Publishing. 160 pages
- Douglas H.Erwin and Robert L.Ansley. 1995. New approaches to speciation in the fossil record. Columbia University Press. 342 pages.
- Eduardo A.M.Koutsoukos. 2007. Applied Stratigraphy. Springer. 488 pages
History of fossil studies
- William Knight. 1900. Lord Monboddo. John Murray. London. 314 pages
- Charles Darwin. 1859. On the Origin of Species. Chapter 10: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record.
| 4.037465 |
What Are the Six Common Air Pollutants?
The Clean Air Act requires EPA to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards for six common air pollutants. These commonly found air pollutants (also known as "criteria pollutants") are found all over the United States. They are particle pollution (often referred to as particulate matter), ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. These pollutants can harm your health and the environment, and cause property damage. Of the six pollutants, particle pollution and ground-level ozone are the most widespread health threats. EPA calls these pollutants "criteria" air pollutants because it regulates them by developing human health-based and/or environmentally-based criteria (science-based guidelines) for setting permissible levels. The set of limits based on human health is called primary standards. Another set of limits intended to prevent environmental and property damage is called secondary standards.
Click on one of the pollutants below for information on sources of the pollutant, why the pollutant is of concern, health and environmental effects, efforts underway to help reduce the pollutant, and other helpful resources.
Air Pollution Trends
For each of these pollutants, EPA tracks two kinds of air pollution trends: air concentrations based on actual measurements of pollutant concentrations in the ambient (outside) air at selected monitoring sites throughout the country, and emissions based on engineering estimates of the total tons of pollutants released into the air each year. Despite the progress made in the last 30 years, millions of people live in counties with monitor data showing unhealthy air for one or more of the six common air pollutants. For EPA's most recent evaluation of air pollution trends for these six pollutants, click on the following:
Health Effects Information
Exposure to these pollutants is associated with numerous effects on human health, including increased respiratory symptoms, hospitalization for heart or lung diseases, and even premature death. Try these helpful resources:
- Air Quality Index (AQI)
- Ozone - Good Up High, Bad Nearby
- Ozone and Your Health
- Particle Pollution and Your Health
- Air Quality Guide for Ozone
- Air Quality Guide for Particle Pollution
- Smog - Who Does it Hurt?
State Implementation Plan Status and Information
EPA must designate areas as meeting (attainment) or not meeting (nonattainment) the standard. The Clean Air Act (CAA) requires states to develop a general plan to attain and maintain the NAAQS in all areas of the country and a specific plan to attain the standards for each area designated nonattainment for a NAAQS. These plans, known as State Implementation Plans or SIPs, are developed by state and local air quality management agencies and submitted to EPA for approval. Detailed information about state SIP elements and their status can be found on the State Implementation Plan Status and Information page.
| 3.804787 |
Ozone - Good Up High Bad Nearby
What Causes "Bad" Ozone?
Ground-level or "bad" ozone is not emitted directly into the air, but is created by chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) in the presence of sunlight. Emissions from industrial facilities and electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents are some of the major sources of NOx and VOC.
At ground level, ozone is a harmful pollutant. Ozone pollution is a concern during the summer months because strong sunlight and hot weather result in harmful ozone concentrations in the air we breathe. Many urban and suburban areas throughout the United States have high levels of "bad" ozone. But many rural areas of the country are also subject to high ozone levels as winds carry emissions hundreds of miles away from their original sources.
How Does "Bad" Ozone Affect Human Health and the Environment?
Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of health problems including chest pain, coughing, throat irritation, and congestion. It can worsen bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma. "Bad" ozone also can reduce lung function and inflame the linings of the lungs. Repeated exposure may permanently scar lung tissue.
Healthy people also experience difficulty breathing when exposed to ozone pollution. Because ozone forms in hot weather, anyone who spends time outdoors in the summer may be affected, particularly children, outdoor workers and people exercising. Millions of Americans live in areas where the national ozone health standards are exceeded.
Ground-level or "bad" ozone also damages vegetation and ecosystems. It leads to reduced agricultural crop and commercial forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings, and increased susceptibility to diseases, pests and other stresses such as harsh weather. In the United States alone, ground-level ozone is responsible for an estimated $500 million in reduced crop production each year. Ground-level ozone also damages the foliage of trees and other plants, affecting the landscape of cities, national parks and forests, and recreation areas.
What Is Being Done About "Bad" Ozone?
Under the Clean Air Act, EPA has set protective health-based standards for ozone in the air we breathe. EPA, state, and cities have instituted a variety of multi-faceted programs to meet these health-based standards. Throughout the country, additional programs are being put into place to cut NOx and VOC emissions from vehicles, industrial facilities, and electric utilities. Programs are also aimed at reducing pollution by reformulating fuels and consumer/commercial products, such as paints and chemical solvents, that contain VOC. Voluntary programs also encourage communities to adopt practices, such as carpooling, to reduce harmful emissions.
| 3.868622 |
SMART-1: the lunar adventure begins
ESA INFO 14-2003. This is clearly Europe's time for interplanetary exploration. Having sent the first European mission to Mars, ESA is about to launch its first probe to the Moon. It is called SMART-1 and its goals are both technological and scientific. It is the first of a series of 'Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology'.
On the one hand, SMART-1 will test new state-of-the art instruments and techniques essential to ambitious future interplanetary missions, such as a solar-electric primary propulsion system. On the other, SMART-1 will answer pending scientific questions, addressing key issues such as the Moon's formation, its precise mineralogical composition, and the presence and quantity of water. These data will help scientists to understand the Earth-Moon system and Earth-like planets, and will also provide invaluable information when considering a long-lasting human presence on the Moon.
On 15 July 2003, SMART 1 was shipped to the European launch base in Kourou, French Guiana, where it is being prepared for its launch, due to take place on an Ariane-5 rocket on 29 August 2003 (Central European Summer Time).
For the first time, SMART-1 will combine the power obtained by solar-electric propulsion - never used before by Europe as a main propulsion system - with lunar gravity. It will not follow a direct path to cross the 400 000 kilometres distance between the Earth and the Moon. Instead, from an elliptical orbit around the Earth where it is placed by the rocket, SMART-1 will gradually expand the orbit in a spiral pathway that will bring it closer to the Moon every month. Finally, the Moon’s gravitational field will capture the spacecraft. SMART-1 will not land on the Moon, but will make its observations from orbit, obtaining a global view. When it reaches its destination, in December 2004, it will enter orbit around the Moon and make measurements for a period of six months possibly extended to one year.
Why the Moon? Water, minerals, and a violent origin
“Our knowledge of the Moon is still surprisingly incomplete,” says Bernard Foing, ESA’s SMART-1 Project Scientist. “We still want to know how the Earth-Moon system formed and evolved, as well as the role of geophysical processes such as volcanism, tectonics, cratering, or erosion in shaping the Moon. And, of course, in preparation for future lunar and planetary exploration, we need to find resources and landing sites.”
So, there are many unsolved questions about the Moon, even though six NASA Apollo missions and three unmanned Soviet spacecraft have landed on it and brought back rock samples. The far side of the Moon --the one that never faces Earth-- and the polar regions remain fairly unexplored. The existence of water on the Moon has also never been confirmed, although two orbiters in the 1990s found indirect evidence. We are not even sure how the Moon was formed. According to the most accepted theory, 4500 million years ago an asteroid the size of Mars collided with our planet, and the vapourised debris that went into space condensed to form the Moon.
SMART-1 will map the Moon's topography, as well as the surface distribution of minerals such as pyroxenes, olivines, and feldspars. Also, an X-ray detector will identify key chemical elements in the lunar surface. These data will allow scientists to reconstruct the geological evolution of the Moon, and to search for traces of the impact with the giant asteroid. If the collision theory is right, the Moon should contain less iron than the Earth, in proportion to lighter elements such as magnesium and aluminium. By gauging the relative amounts of chemical elements comprehensively for the very first time, SMART-1 can make a significant contribution in resolving this issue.
As for water, if it exists, it must be in the form of ice in places always hidden from the Sun. In such places, the temperature will never rise above -170ºC. Dark places like that could exist in the bottoms of small craters in the polar regions. Peering into these craters is maybe the trickiest task that the SMART-1 scientists have set themselves. They will look for the infrared signature of water- ice. It will be difficult because no direct light falls in those areas, but rays from nearby crater rims, catching the sunshine, may light the ice sufficiently for SMART-1 instruments to see it.
New technologies to prepare for future interplanetary missions
Future scientific missions will greatly profit from the technologies being tested on SMART-1. Solar-electric primary propulsion is a new propulsion technique based on so-called 'ion engines' that feed on electricity derived from solar panels. It is a technique that has only ever been used once before. These engines provide a very gentle thrust, but they work for years while conventional, more powerful chemical rockets burn for only a few minutes.
Ion engines offer key advantages. They need considerably less propellant than chemical propulsion, which means less weight at launch and more mass available for scientific instruments and payload. Ion engines open the door to truly deep space exploration. They slash the time for interplanetary flight: although they provide less thrust they can last for years. The ion tortoise will therefore eventually overtake the chemical hare. Moreover, another application of the gentle thrust provided by electric propulsion allows very accurate spacecraft attitude control, a skill that will be useful for scientific missions that require highly precise and undisturbed pointing. Future ESA science missions will rely on ion engines.
SMART-1 will also test new miniaturisation techniques that save space and economise on mass: in space, less mass per instrument enables scientists to have more instruments on board, so more science. The SMART-1 payload consists of a dozen technological and scientific investigations performed by seven instruments weighing only 19 kilograms in total. For example, the X-ray telescope D-CIXS, consists of a cube just 15 centimetres wide and weighing less than 5 kilograms. The ultra-compact electronic camera, AMIE, weighs no more than an amateur’s camera.
New navigation and space-communication techniques will also be tested. An experiment called OBAN, based on images from the miniature camera AMIE and the star trackers, is the first step towards future 'autonomous' spacecraft. In a not-too-distant future, scientific satellites will be able to 'find their way' with a minimum of ground control, just by using stars and other celestial objects to guide themselves along predefined paths.
As for communications, engineers need to develop new and efficient ways to communicate with Earth from deep space, for interplanetary missions that are long or go far. SMART-1 will test both very short radio waves (called Ka band, with the instrument KaTE) and a laser experiment to try to communicate with the Earth using a laser beam, instead of traditional radio frequencies. ESA already has laser links with telecommunications satellites from an optical ground station on Tenerife, in Spain’s Canary Islands. Aiming the beam becomes much more difficult if, like SMART-1, the spacecraft is far away and moving rapidly. Scientists hope that the on-board camera AMIE will see Tenerife aglow with laser light.
For more information, please contact:
ESA Communication Department
Media Relations Office, Paris, France
Tel: +33 (0)15369 7155
Fax: +33 (0)15369 7690
| 3.473165 |
What Your Blood Pressure Says About You
Here's how to get the most from your blood pressure readings.
Medically reviewed by Lindsey Marcellin, MD, MPH
Doctors have been measuring patients’ blood pressure, the force that blood exerts on the inside walls of your vessels — since the first sphygmomanometers (yes, that's what blood pressure cuffs are called) were invented at the beginning of the 20th century.
Doctors are still finding new ways to glean information about your health from these numbers. British researchers recently found differences in blood pressure between the right and left arms might be a sign of vascular disease. Likewise, a difference in blood pressure when you’re lying down vs. standing up may indicate heart problems or blood vessel disease. Doctors can tell that from a painless test that takes only a few minutes.
The Basics: What Does Blood Pressure Mean
The most important thing to know about your blood pressure is whether or not it's high. A blood pressure reading consists of two numbers, with acceptable ranges for each one. The first, or top, number is called the systolic number. That's the pressure inside your arteries when your heart beats. The bottom, or diastolic, number is the pressure between beats. You want those numbers to be below 120 and 80, respectively.
"What high blood pressure means is too much resistance inside your arteries," says Ivan V. Pacold, MD, a cardiology professor at Loyola University's Stritch School of Medicine and director of cardiology at Gottlieb Memorial Hospital in Chicago. "Simply speaking, that causes arterial damage and increases your risk for stroke, heart attack, heart failure, and kidney failure."
The Lowdown on Low Blood Pressure
"In a healthy person, low blood pressure is a sign of good health as long as the systolic pressure is above 80," explains Dr. Pacold. "Very low blood pressure in a person with heart disease could be a sign of heart failure."
One type of low blood pressure that could predict future heart problems is called orthostatic hypotension. In this type of low blood pressure, "there is a drop of 10 to 20 points of blood pressure when a person moves from a sitting or supine (flat) position to a standing position," Pacold says. "It causes a sudden sense of lightheadedness and can be due to a heart that is starting to have trouble compensating."
A recent study on orthostatic hypotension published in the journal Hypertension followed more than 12,000 adults for about 17 years. None of them had heart failure at the start. People who had episodes of orthostatic hypotension during the study period, especially between the ages of 45 to 55, were more likely to develop heart failure by the end.
Blood Pressure Differences Between Arms
Has your doctor ever measured your blood pressure in both arms? "Not a bad idea," says Pacold. "Finding blood pressure differences between one side of the body and the other can be a warning sign for atherosclerosis in the main blood vessel leaving the heart or elsewhere in the body. It is a signal that you need to look further."
Research published in the British medical journal The Lancet found that a blood pressure difference of 10 to 15 points between arms increases the risk for dying from a stroke or from heart disease. Having a difference of 15 points or more was found to double the risk for peripheral artery disease (PAD), a condition that affects more than 12 million Americans. Researchers concluded this after reviewing 20 studies that recorded blood pressure differences between arms.
Getting Blood Pressure Help
You should get your blood pressure checked during your routine doctor visits, or at least once every two years, according to the American Heart Association. "Blood pressure is called the silent killer because there may be no symptoms until damage is already being done," Pacold says. "You can prevent that damage by getting early diagnosis and treatment." Here are some takeaway tips:
- Blood pressure readings from 120 to 139 (systolic) or from 80 to 89 (diastolic) are considered to be pre-hypertension. You may need to have your blood pressure checked more frequently.
- If your blood pressure readings stay at or above 140 and 90 over time, your doctor may start you on a treatment program.
- Any time you have a blood pressure reading of over 180 systolic or over 110 diastolic, check it again. If it is still that high, you need to get emergency blood pressure help right away.
Your blood pressure readings can tell you and your doctor a lot about your current health and may even predict future problems. If you are concerned about PAD or if you have episodes of feeling dizzy when you stand up, talk to your doctor. Checking your blood pressure, both sitting and standing and in both arms, is a great way to learn more about what's going on inside your arteries.
For the latest news and information on living a heart-healthy lifestyle, follow @HeartDiseases on Twitter from the editors of @EverydayHealth.
| 3.139985 |
A Lost Human Race: Neanderthal
Today, it has been definitively verified that
Neanderthal man, who is presented as the "primitive ancestor
of man" by evolutionists, is simply a lost human race.
Trinkets made of bone, which belonged to the Neanderthals.
Neanderthals are human beings who suddenly appeared
100,000 years ago in Europe and disappeared–or were assimilated
by being blended with other races–quietly yet quickly 35,000 years
ago. Their only difference from modern man is their skeleton being
more robust and their cranial capacity slightly bigger.
A comparison made between Neanderthal man and modern human
races. To the far left and second from left are Neanderthal
men. Neanderthals bear the greatest resemblance to Eskimos
who live in cold climates today.
we had seen a Neanderthal in the street today, we would think
him or her to be no different from other people.
Neanderthals are a human race and this fact is
admitted by almost everybody today. Evolutionists have tried very
hard to present them as "a primitive species", yet all
findings indicate that they were no different from a "robust"
man walking on the street today. A prominent authority on the subject,
Erik Trinkaus, a paleoanthropologist from New Mexico University
Estimations based on bone fragments indicate that Neanderthals
were physically stronger than modern man.
Detailed comparisons of Neanderthal skeletal
remains with those of modern humans have shown that there is nothing
in Neanderthal anatomy that conclusively indicates locomotor, manipulative,
intellectual, or linguistic abilities inferior to those of modern
Many contemporary researchers define Neanderthal
man as a sub-species of modern man and call him "Homo sapiens
neandertalensis". The findings testify that Neanderthals buried
their dead, fashioned musical instruments, and had cultural affinities
with the Homo sapiens sapiens living during the same period. To
put it precisely, Neanderthals are a "robust" human race
that simply disappeared in time.
man had thick eyebrow projections just like those of the
Australian natives living today.
||The cranial capacity
of Neanderthals was bigger than that of modern man by
150 cc. This finding refuted the evolutionist claim that
"the brain got bigger over time."
The skull of Neanderthal man differed
slightly from that of modern man.
55- Erik Trinkaus,
"Hard Times Among the Neanderthals", Natural History, Vol 87, December
1978, p. 10; R. L. Holloway, "The Neanderthal Brain: What Was Primitive",
American Journal of Physical Anthropology Supplement, Vol 12, 1991,
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Earlier chapters have presented all the key elements of an observer programme. This final chapter gives a brief overview on how to put all the elements together. Three aspects are considered: design, implementation and maintenance.
There are two main sets of influences that condition the framework of a programme.
Policy decisions (and complementary decisions at management, science, MCS/compliance and observer operations levels) - possibly reflected through the fishery management plan that lays down programme objectives.
The situation (or environment) within which the programme must function, i.e. the factors that will shape the programme strategy and ultimately define its success or failure.
Decisions that underlie an observer programme were outlined in the Introduction, and programme objectives were discussed in Chapter 1. It is important to define objectives in a way that is easy to understand, but which is sufficiently comprehensive to meet the needs of observer data users. Over-ambitious objectives may lead to disappointment within and outside of the observer programme.
Once the objectives have been defined, they must continually be assessed in terms of the functional environment of the programme. This involves attention to the following components.
a) Physical environment
Conditions of the area covered - e.g. temperate or tropical location of ports.
b) Biological environment
For example, the key species, by-catch and predictions of catch rates.
c) Fishing activity
The resource users e.g. vessel nationality, size of vessel, fishing methods.
d) Owner organization
Background information on the government FMA that will be home to the programme.
e) Other data collection programmes
Any other programmes that collect data for fisheries management.
f) The potential observers
Consider skills, abilities, professionalism and qualifications.
g) National level policies and objectives
Consider wider political, social and economic policies that may influence the programme, e.g. the need to address national employment problems, including gender or empowerment questions.
h) International level
Is the fishery sector party to any international or regional agreements that may influence the scope of the programme?
i) Legal instruments
What legal instruments exist, both informal and formal, such as acts, regulations, tribal rights, etc.?
l) Financing options
Where will the programme finance come from? If from donor support, how will donor objectives influence the strategy of the programme? If from industry, should joint management be considered?
Who will care about the programme? Draw up a list of all the possible stakeholders and consider current links and historic problems between them, and gauge their interest in the programme.
Assessment of the functional environment helps to clarify programme prospects and problems. These can be further clarified through SWOT analysis (Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat analysis). SWOT analysis looks at all the aspects of the programme in relation to the required outputs and simply asks logical questions about the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (Table 16). SWOT analysis serves as a kind of reality check. Are threats too big to overcome or can they be overcome by opportunities? If the threats are considered too big, then should programme objectives be reconsidered?
The analysis might contribute to a background paper that defines the intentions and plans for the programme for circulation among potential stakeholders for feedback. A possible structure of a background paper would include:
Name of programme, background and objectives
Situation analysis and overall strategy
Proposed organization and delivery
How to address sustainability
This paper can also serve as a basis for securing donor assistance to the programme. Following feedback from stakeholders, decisions can be made on its feasibility or on any programme re-design.
Table 16 How to make a SWOT analysis
What are your advantages and
Consider this from your own point of view and from the point of view of the people you deal with. Be realistic.
What could be improved?
Again this should be considered from both an internal and external perspective. Do other people perceive weaknesses that you don't see? Do your colleagues do any better? It is best to be realistic now, and face any unpleasant truths as soon as possible.
What good changes do you face?
Useful opportunities can come from such things as:
Changes in technology on both a broad
and narrow scale
What obstacles do you face?
Carrying out this analysis will often be illuminating - both in terms of pointing out what needs to be done, and in putting problems into perspective. Make a risk analysis by defining what could go wrong.
If the chances for a successful programme are deemed good, a project will be necessary in order to implement it. Project duration might be anywhere from one to five years, depending on the scale and scope of the programme to be established.
Planning is vital, and a project logical framework (logframe) approach should be used. A pilot phase, incorporating also pilot work on a sampling strategy (Section 4.5), should first be implemented. Trials during this phase will be used to establish work plans, working practices, codes of conduct, training manuals and guides, and consideration of employment options and other administrative systems for the programme. The pilot phase might run for any amount of time, but usually a period of 12 months should be sufficient to complete trial work.
Evaluation and revision of the project will occur in light of the lessons learnt during the pilot phase. This may require adjusting the objectives in relation to the initial mandate of the programme and what is practically achievable. Monitoring and evaluation as described in Chapter 3 should continue during the full project set-up phase and as the programme matures.
It will always be necessary to verify that the programme is producing quality data outputs to fulfil its objectives, that the objectives are still in tune with the management system for the fishery, and that an observer programme is still the best way to achieve these objectives.
Observer programme managers will always need to assure all stakeholders that the programme remains sustainable. This will require a dynamic and flexible approach to allow the programme to adapt to changing circumstances. This flexibility combined with contact with stakeholders, annual planning, target setting, annual review and feedback will help to assure sustainability.
The ownership of the programme will also have a major impact on sustainability; a good programme will have a broad ownership network. That means that the scientists, compliance officers, managers, industry and observers will all feel that the programme is theirs.
Realistic budgeting is also required for sustainability. The aim should always be to provide value for money, and in this respect every programme needs to find a balance between what it produces as outputs and the personnel and technology it employs. High-tech solutions may be right for one programme but not for another, but they are only tools to enable observers to do their work.
Outputs are what the programme will ultimately be judged on. Information quality and timeliness must almost become the motto of the programme, and every effort should be made to uphold it.
Finally, observers are always at the centre of every observer programme, and they will require recognition and reward when they have done a good job. Life at sea is often difficult, and support and feedback from the shore staff is vital to maintain morale and a sense of purpose in what can easily become a very monotonous existence. Knowing that they are part of a bigger picture and that their contribution is important and appreciated will motivate observers to achieve excellent results and to keep going under what can be very arduous conditions.
The ownership of the programme will also have a major impact on sustainability; a good programme will have a broad ownership network.
Your observers matter, treat them well (S.L. Davies).
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The kid was skating all over the place. Down the stairs, down the rails, over onto the fountain...just everywhere. I'm not surprised that he crashed. He never wanted to wear the protective equipment. I guess that he got what he deserved...one broken wrist and a broken arm too."
As a first responder, you will treat many patients who have suffered various types of open or closed painful, swollen or deformed extremities. It is important that you recognize the signs and symptoms of injuries of the musculoskeletal system. Proper care given at the scene can prevent additional injury or disability.
The skeleton has 206 bones and provides support and form for the body. It also protects the body's vital organs. The skull protects the brain, the spinal column protects the spinal cord, the ribs and sternum protect the heart and lungs, and the pelvis protects the organs of the lower abdomen.
The four primary functions of the skeletal system are to provide support, protect the body, assist in body movement and produce red blood cells. Because muscles and bones work together to produce movement, they are often called the musculoskeletal system. This movement occurs at joints, the contact points between bones that are next to one another. The joints are held together by ligaments, thick bands that arise from one bone, span the joint and insert into the adjacent bone.
A vital but often overlooked function of the skeletal system is the production of red blood cells. Red blood cells are made primarily in the spaces inside the bone called the marrow.
There are three major types of musculoskeletal injuries: fractures, dislocations and sprains. It is often difficult to distinguish one type of extremity injury from the other. All three types are serious and all extremity injuries must be identified so they can receive appropriate medical treatment. Since we are often not sure of the type of exact injury, we now are using new terminology to describe an injured extremity as "painful, swollen and deformed."
A fracture is a broken bone. Fractures can be caused by a variety of mechanisms but a significant force is almost always required. Fractures are generally classified as either closed or open. Closed fractures are more common. In the case of a closed fracture, the bone is broken but does not cause a break in the skin.
In an open fracture, the bone is broken and the overlying skin is lacerated. The open wound can be caused by penetrating objects, such as a bullet, or by the fractured bone end protruding through the skin. The open fracture is contaminated by dirt and bacteria; this contamination may lead to infection. Every fracture injures adjacent soft tissues, resulting in bleeding at the fracture site. Fractures also can injure adjacent nerves and blood vessels, causing severe nerve injury and excessive bleeding. Open fractures result in more bleeding than do closed fractures.
A dislocation is a disruption of the joint that tears the supporting ligaments. The bone ends that make up the joint separate completely from each other and lock in one position. Any attempted motion of a dislocated joint is very painful. Because many nerves and blood vessels lie near joints, a dislocation also can damage these structures.
A sprain is a joint injury in which the joint is partially, temporarily dislocated, and some of the supporting ligaments are either stretched or torn. It can be thought of as a partial dislocation. The following are the primary signs and symptoms of extremity injuries:
- Pain at the injury site.
- An open wound.
- Swelling and discoloration (bruising).
- The patient's inability or unwillingness to move the part.
- Tenderness at the injury site.
There are three essential steps involved in examining all persons with limb injuries:
- General overall assessment of the patient.
- Examination of the injured part.
- Evaluation of the circulation and sensation in the injured limb.
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One in six Americans will get sick from food poisoning this year. That’s about 48 million people. Most of them will recover without any lasting effects from their illness. For some, however, the effects can be devastating and even deadly.
Here are some serious effects associated with several common types of food poisoning.
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) is a serious illness that usually occurs when an infection in the digestive system produces toxic substances that destroy red blood cells, causing kidney injury. HUS may occur after infection with some kinds of E. coli bacteria.
HUS is most common in children. In fact, it is the most common cause of acute kidney failure in children.
A small number of persons with Shigella or Salmonella infection develop pain in their joints, irritation of the eyes, and painful urination. This is called reactive arthritis. It can last for months or years, and can lead to chronic arthritis, which is difficult to treat. Persons with Campylobacter infections may also develop chronic arthritis.
Brain and nerve damage
A Listeria infection can lead to meningitis, an inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain. If a newborn infant is infected with Listeria, long-term consequences may include mental retardation, seizures, paralysis, blindness, or deafness.
Guillain-Barré syndrome is a disorder that affects the nerves of the body. This occurs when a person's immune system attacks the body's own nerves. It can result in paralysis that lasts several weeks and usually requires intensive care. As many as 40 percent of Guillain-Barré syndrome cases in this country may be triggered by an infection with Campylobacter.
In the United States, approximately 3,000 people die each year of illnesses associated with food poisoning. Five types of organisms account for 88 percent of the deaths for which the cause is known: Salmonella, Toxoplasma, Listeria, norovirus, and Campylobacter.
Other types of foodborne illness may cause death as well. For example, some Vibrio infections (usually associated with eating raw shellfish) may infect the bloodstream and cause a severe, life-threatening illness. About half of these infections are fatal, and death can occur within two days.
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When you think of allergic reactions, you probably envision itchy eyes and a runny nose. But an allergic reaction can occur in the esophagus ? your food pipe ? as well. Symptoms happen when your immune system produces too many white blood cells in reaction to an allergy-causing substance. The white blood cells involved are called eosinophils.
The condition is called eosinophilic esophagitis, or EE or EoE. It affects between one and four of every 10,000 people in the U.S.
Symptoms of EoE vary from person to person and may include:
Acid reflux that doesn?t respond well to medication
Trouble eating and swallowing food
Food getting stuck in the throat
Having to drink a lot of fluid to finish a meal
Feeling too full to continue eating halfway through a meal
Stunted growth or poor weight gain in children
Who?s at risk
The disease affects both children and adults, but is more common in men. People with asthma and food or environmental allergies have a much greater chance of developing it.
Your doctor will take your medical history and will likely want to test you for allergies. He or she will probably do an endoscopy. This is an outpatient procedure that involves passing a thin, flexible scope with a camera through your mouth to look at your esophagus. The doctor will check for physical signs of inflammation and an increased number of eosinophils. To confirm the diagnosis, your health provider will likely need to take a biopsy, or tissue sample, from your esophagus.
For treatment, you will need to work closely with an allergist and a gastroenterologist, a specialist in digestive disorders. They?ll help you figure out what substances or foods to avoid. No specific medications can cure EoE, although certain steroids may help to reduce the swelling in your esophagus.
You can best manage EoE by learning what substances cause your allergic reaction and avoiding them. In many cases, the allergens come from food. With your medical team, you can develop an action plan to change your diet accordingly.
It?s also important to know that the reactions related to EoE might take days or weeks to develop. Keep this in mind when beginning a food elimination plan. It might take some time after avoiding a particular food to determine whether that strategy worked.
When to call the doctor
Call your doctor if you have EoE and notice any of these symptoms:
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The New England aster (Aster novae-angliae) is a bushy perennial that produces beautiful masses of daisylike blooms in the fall. Delicate ½- to 1-inch flowers feature pink or purple ray florets, either with contrasting yellow or complementing pink disc florets. Native to prairie regions of the United States and Canada, the species can grow 5 to 6 feet, but many cultivated varieties take a more compact, fuller form. The flowers are a popular attraction for butterflies and bees, since they're one of the few food sources that's likely to survive a moderate frost.
Common name: New England aster
Botanical name: Aster novae-angliae
Plant type: Herbaceous perennial
Height: 5 feet
Zones: 4 to 8
- Sun: Full sun or part shade.
- Soil: Well-cultivated, fertile, moist soil.
- Moisture: Grows best with regular watering, but established plants with protection from afternoon sun tolerate some dryness.
- Mulch: Apply 1 to 2 inches of organic mulch around plants to preserve soil moisture and prevent weeds.
- Fertilizer: Apply balanced organic or slow-release plant food in spring. Excessive nitrogen will promote leggy, floppy growth and fewer flowers.
- Pruning: Cut back by half before July 1 to encourage greater flower production and bushier, more compact growth.
Diseases and pests
- Aster yellows, verticillium wilt, powdery mildew, gray mold, leaf spot, and stem cankers may occur.
- Insect pests include aphids, mites, slugs and snails, nematodes, and rosy blister galls.
- Propagate species from seed.
- Divide cultivars in early spring or fall.
- ‘Andenken an Alma Potschke', (often shortened to ‘Alma Potschke'), pictured here, has rose-pink flowers and is more compact than the species. Grows 4 feet tall. Zones 4 to 8.
- ‘Barr's Pink' has semi-double, rose-pink flowers with reddish disc florets tipped in yellow. Grows 4½ feet tall. Zones 4 to 8.
- ‘Purple Dome' is a dwarf cultivar that grows 18 inches tall. It has a mounding form with dense semi-double, purple flowers. Zones 4 to 8.
- The species and most cultivars require staking if not cut back
- Divide plants every 2 to 3 years to maintain vigorous growth and prolific blooming.
- Makes a great fall container plant. This aster is also an excellent, long-lasting cut flower.
- The native species may be invasive in certain conditions, but most cultivated varieties are better behaved in the garden.
All in the family
- Aster is derived from Greek, referring to the starlike appearance of the flowers, and is part of a genus comprised of approximately 250 annuals, biennials, perennials, and wood sub-shrubs. Most common and popular cultivated species include:
- Frikart's aster (Aster x frikartii), an upright perennial with dark purple ray florets and yellow disk florets. Zones 5 to 8.
- New York aster, or Michaelmas daisy (A. novi-belgii), a clump-forming perennial with purple, white, or pink rays and yellow or pink discs. Zones 4 to 8.
- Italian aster (A. amellus), a clump-forming perennial with lilac-blue or lavender rays and yellow discs. Zones 5 to 8.
- Though most sources refer to the genus as Aster, some sources indicate that most North American natives and popular garden asters (including A. novae-angliae) have been reclassified into the genus Symphiotrichus, a move referred to as the "aster disaster" by one plant taxonomist.
(Text by Robert Weaver, photo courtesy of Bailey Nurseries, www.baileynurseries.com)
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A new type of white blood cell has been identified that activates a killing immune response to an external source—providing a new potential target for vaccines for conditions such as cancer or hepatitis B. Publishing in the journal Immunity, a team of researchers from Newcastle University in collaboration with A*STAR’s Singapore Immunology Network describe a new human tissue dendritic cell (DC) with cross-presenting function.
Most cells are only able to present antigens from within themselves, and so will only elicit an immune response if they are infected themselves. Only a specialized subset of dendritic cells is able to generate a response to an external source of antigen, for example bacteria, vaccines, and tumors.
The identity of human tissue DCs that are capable of presenting external antigen to activate the cell-killing response by T cells—a process termed cross-presentation—has remained a mystery. Their discovery, as revealed by this research, will help scientists to design better targeted vaccine strategies to treat cancer and infections.
“These are the cells we need to be targeting for anticancer vaccines,” says Muzlifah Haniffa, M.D., Ph.D., a Wellcome Trust Intermediate Fellow and senior clinical lecturer at Newcastle University. “Our discovery offers an accessible, easily targetable system that makes the most of the natural ability of the cell.”
The researchers also showed for the first time that dendritic cell subsets are conserved between species and have in effect created a map, facilitating the translation of mouse studies to the human immune system.
The researchers isolated the dendritic cells from human blood and skin and from mouse blood, lung, and liver. Using gene expression analysis, they identified gene signatures for each human dendritic cell subset. Mouse orthologues of these genes were identified, and a computational analysis was performed to match subsets across species.This provides scientists for the first time with an accurate model to compare DCs between species.
“These gene signatures are available in a public repository accessible for all researchers to benefit from the data,” says Dr. Haniffa. “It will allow detailed knowledge of individual human dendritic cell subsets to enable specific targeting of these cells for therapeutic strategy.”
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of lakes dot the marshy Arctic tundra regions. Now, in the latest addition to
the growing body of evidence that global warming is significantly affecting
the Arctic, two recent studies suggest that thawing permafrost is the cause
of two seemingly contradictory observations both rapidly growing and
rapidly shrinking lakes.
Thawing permafrost is altering the lakes that dominate Arctic landscapes, such as this one in western Siberia. Courtesy of Laurence C. Smith.
The first study is a historical analysis of changes to 10,000 Siberian lakes over the past 30 years, a period of warming air and soil temperatures. Using satellite images, Laurence Smith, a geographer at the University of California, Los Angeles, and colleagues found that, since the early 1970s, 125 Siberian lakes vanished completely, and those that remain averaged a 6 percent loss in surface area, a total of 930 square kilometers.
They report in the June 3 Science that the spatial pattern of lake disappearance suggests that the lakes drained away when the permafrost below them thawed, allowing the lake water to seep down into the groundwater. However, the team also found that lakes in northwestern Siberia actually grew by 12 percent, and 50 new lakes formed. Both of the rapid changes are due to warming, they say, and if the warming trend continues, the northern lakes will eventually shrink as well.
These two processes are similar, in that were witnessing permafrost degradation in both regions, says co-author Larry Hinzman, a hydrologist at the University of Alaska in Fairbanks, who in previous studies documented shrinking lakes in southern Alaska. In the warmer, southern areas, we get groundwater infiltration, but in the northern areas, where the permafrost is thicker and colder, its going to take much, much longer for that to occur. So instead of seeing lakes shrinking there, were seeing lakes growing.
That finding is consistent with the second study, which focused on a set of unusually oriented, rapidly growing lakes in northern Alaska, an area of continuous permafrost. Jon Pelletier, a geomorphologist at the University of Arizona in Tucson, reports in the June 30 Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface that the odd alignment of the lakes is caused not by wind direction but by permafrost melting faster at the downhill end of the lake, which has shallower banks.
Since the 1950s, scientists have attributed the odd alignment of the egg-shaped lakes to winds blowing perpendicularly to the long axes of the lakes, which then set up currents that caused waves to break at the northwest and southeast ends, thus preferentially eroding them. The prevailing wind direction idea has been around so long that we dont even think about it, Smith says, but Jons [Pelletier] work is challenging that. Its a very interesting paper.
Wind-driven erosion occurs in the Great Lakes, but at rates of about a meter a year. The Alaskan oriented thaw lakes grow at rates of 5 meters or more per year. Pelletier says this rate difference suggests a different process is at work.
According to the model, the direction and speed of growth depend on where and how quickly the permafrost thaws, which is determined by two factors: how the water table intersects the slope of the landscape and how fast the summer temperature increases. If the permafrost thaws abruptly, the shorter, downhill bank is more likely to thaw first. The soggy soil slumps into the water, and the perimeter of the lake is enlarged. Its not just the [global] warming trend, but also how quickly the warming takes place in the summertime, Pelletier says.
Hinzman says that the lakes are just one part of the Arctic water cycle, which has seen an increasing number of perturbations in recent years. The whole hydrologic cycle is changing and this is just one component of that.
Understanding how the hydrologic cycle is changing is important, Hinzman says, because the amount of freshwater runoff into the Arctic Ocean impacts global ocean circulation and the amount of sea ice, thus affecting climate worldwide. If global warming continues to the point where permafrost goes away, there will be fewer lakes, Smith says. And a drier, less marshy Arctic could alter weather patterns and ecosystems, researchers say, affecting everything from the subsistence lifestyle of native people to the hazard of fire on the tundra.
Geotimes contributing writer
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Travel to Northern India: Konarak
The Sun Temple at Konarak is a superlative in a country of superlatives. Built, it appears, in the 13th century, it was abandoned after the Muslim invasion of Orissa early in the 16th. Composed largely of khondalite, a gneiss that weathers easily, without maintenance the temple began to fall apart. Approximately half of it was gone when European visitors arrived for the first time in the 19th century. Shortly after 1900, serious conservation efforts were made to stabilize what remained. That lesser half, amounting to no more than the entrance porch or jagamohana of the vanished sanctuary or rekha is one of India's most spectacular sights.
This is the straight-on approach. The surviving porch of the temple is the triangular mass behind this bhoga-mandapa or Hall of Offering.
It's hard to imagine a more densely decorated surface.
We'll ascend the platform. The roof is missing; it may have echoed the huge roof of the porch.
From the top, you can see across the intervening ground to the stairs rising to the entrance of the temple. The entrance, sorry to say, was blocked with rock and sand in the 19th century for fear that the whole thing would otherwise topple. People who saw it before it was filled report that the interior was very simple, with corbelled stones stepping inwards on all sides to form a roughly pyramidal shape, corresponding to the elaborate external profile of the building.
A king named Narasimha probably built the temple, but his motivation remains unclear. To mark a recovery from illness? It must have been something serious, because a Muslim chronicler at Akbar's Court, Abu'l-Fazl, reported that the temple cost 12 years of tax revenue from the province. A recent author writes that this was the "dazzling dream of an ambitious and mighty king, secular to the core and with immense zest for life, who wanted an edifice which would outrival the works of his forbears and immortalize his name." (Debala Mitra, Konarak, 1968 .)
A closer view. The masonry blocks were laid without mortar, though there was a coat of lime plaster.
The top of the porch, seen from the south. There's a complex vocabulary for these towers. The step-like layers, for example, are called pidhas.
The structure simulates a temple cart riding on a dozen wheels.
Another angle. The wheels were invisible until conservation work after 1900 cleared away a layer of beach sand that rose to the top of the platform.
Seven horses pull the temple, which is dedicated to Surya, the sun god. The image is of the cart rising from the sea, now receded about a mile from what was the temple's beach-front location. A "petrified procession," some have called it.
Perhaps their long burial in sand helped preserve the details of the wheels.
A closer view.
Detail, down to the cotter pin. The temple has hundreds of sexual images.
Side view, from the south.
The view here is from the southwest and shows the stump that remains of the sanctuary that rose to a height half-again as high as the porch. (This assumes that the sanctuary was actually built. Parts of it certainly were, because fragments survived until a storm of 1848.) To see something comparable to what existed here, see the pictures of Puri or, on a smaller scale, the temples at Bhubaneshwar. "There is, so far as I know, no roof in India where the same play of light and shade is obtained with an equal amount of richness and constructive propriety as in this instance, nor one that sits so gracefully of the base that supports it." (Fergusson, II, 107)
A niche on the north side of the sanctuary carries a statue made of chlorite.
It's Surya, a form of Vishnu; flanking his knees (and mostly missing from this image) are two adoring dawn maidens.
The decoration also includes mythical animals, in this case a leogryph (the Sanskrit name is simply vyala, "lion,") atop an elephant.
Another leogryph on the right; on the left, a pious nagni, a female naga with a human head, snake body, and hooded cobras behind. In the center is a maithuna, decorously or perhaps just very literally translated as a "loving couple."
The arrangements (and positions) vary.
A couple with a niche to themselves.
Another wheel detail.
An elephant, masterfully soft.
Another elephant, this one preparing to hurl a demon.
Lions atop elephants at the entrance steps through which we passed earlier.
Colossal fragmentary lion.
This is the ceiling at the entrance to the temple. The iron bars are original, apparently made by beating a bundle of hot bars into a mass. Similar beams were used at the top of the corbelled ceiling in the interior of the porch. Originally, a stone architrave hid them. It's been removed and put in a nearby museum, after 19th Century efforts to transport it to Calcutta foundered on logistics.
A photograph of the partially collapsed interior of the temple before it was filled with a layer of rock pressed flush against the walls, then filled tight with sand, which was finally poured down a 6-inch shaft drilled at the peak. Since then, fears of water accumulating in the mass have led to pressure-grouting of the exterior stones.
Not impressed? But look inside.
Here's that massive architrave, carved from the same chlorite used in the statue of Surya. It was removed from the temple before 1838 by the local Raja of Khurda, who wanted to use it for his palace. Before he could do so, orders came from the British government to cease and desist. The British then attempted to move the stone to a museum in Calcutta, but it was too massive and so stayed here. It portrays the nava-grahas, or nine planetary gods. From left to right, Surya (Sun), Chandra (Moon), Mangala (Mars), Budha (Mercury), Brihaspati (Jupiter), Sukra (Venus), and Sani (Saturn). At the far right are Rahu and Ketu, invisible planets at war with the earth and sun.
Surya, smiling with a lotus flower in each hand
Rahu. He carries crescents because he is associated with lunar eclipses.
Despite the sea's retreat from the site, there's plenty of sand still around.
And relics, whether of the destroyed sanctuary or of other buildings once standing in the neighborhood.
What you didn't want to see! Konarak is a popular place unless you come early.
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Broken or knocked out tooth
The dentist's term for a knocked out tooth is "avulsed."
Teeth - broken; Tooth - knocked out
A permanent tooth that is knocked out can sometimes be reimplanted. In most cases, only permanent, adult teeth are reimplanted into the mouth. Baby teeth are usually left out.
Immediately contact your dentist when a tooth is broken or knocked out. If you can find the tooth after the accident or injury, bring it with you when you seek medical help.
Tooth accidents are commonly caused by:
- Accidental falls
- Sports-related trauma
- Car accidents
- Biting on hard food
Save any tooth that has been knocked out for possible reimplantation. Bring it to your dentist as soon as possible. The longer you wait, the less chance there is for successful reimplantation. Handle the tooth only by the crown (chewing edge).
Use one of the following options to transport the tooth:
- Try to replace the tooth in the socket, to the level of adjacent teeth. Bite down gently on gauze or a wet tea bag to help keep it in place. The surrounding teeth can be used as anchors. Care must be taken not to swallow the tooth.
- If the tooth cannot be replaced in the socket, place it in a container and cover with a small amount of whole milk or saliva. The tooth can also be carried between lower lip and lower gum or under the tongue.
- A tooth-saving storage device (Save-a-Tooth, EMT Tooth Saver) may be available at your dentist's office. Such a kit contains a travel case and fluid solution. Consider buying one for your home first aid kit.
For additional first aid, follow these steps:
- Apply a cold compress to the mouth and gums for pain.
- Apply direct pressure, using gauze, to control bleeding.
- Get dental help immediately. The sooner dental attention is received, the better the chances are for successful reimplantation.
Teeth that have been badly fractured may expose nerve tissue inside the tooth. In this case, immediate attention is needed to avoid infection, abscess, and pain.
Simple chips or fractures may be tended to on a nonemergency basis, but should still be fixed to avoid sharp edges that can cut the lips or tongue, and for cosmetic reasons.
- Do NOT handle the roots of the tooth. Handle only the chewing edge -- the crown portion of the tooth.
- Do NOT scrape the root of the tooth to remove dirt.
- Do NOT brush or clean the tooth with alcohol or peroxide.
When to Contact a Medical Professional
See a dentist immediately if:
- A permanent tooth has been knocked out.
- A tooth has been partially fractured, and pain and swelling results.
In the case of simple tooth fractures, a nonemergency dental appointment can be made.
After a major accident, if you are not able to bring your upper and lower teeth together, the jaw may be broken. This requires immediate attention. You may call a dentist, but also seek help at a hospital.
- Wear a mouth guard when playing any contact sport.
- Avoid fights.
- Avoid hard foods, such as bones, stale bread, and tough bagels.
- Always wear a seatbelt.
Roberts JR, Hedges JR, eds. Clinical Procedures in Emergency Medicine. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders; 2004.
Marx JA, Hockberger RS, Walls RM, eds. Rosen’s Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 5th ed. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby; 2002.
Jack D. Rosenberg, DDS, Advanced Dental Care, Palm Beach Gardens, FL. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, M.D., MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.
The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. A licensed medical professional should be consulted for diagnosis and treatment of any and all medical conditions. Call 911 for all medical emergencies. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. © 1997-
A.D.A.M., Inc. Any duplication or distribution of the information contained herein is strictly prohibited.
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As a preschooler, your child should have a healthy attitude toward eating. Ideally, by this age she no longer uses eating—or not eating—to demonstrate defiance, nor does she confuse food with love or affection. Generally (although almost certainly not always), she’ll now view eating as a natural response to hunger and meals as a pleasant social experience.
Despite your preschooler’s general enthusiasm for eating, she still may have very specific preferences in food, some of which may vary from day to day. Your child may gobble down a particular food one day, and then push away the plate with the same food the next day. She may ask for a certain food for several days in a row, and then insist that she doesn’t like it anymore. As irritating as it may be to have her turn up her nose at a dish she devoured the day before, it’s normal behavior for a preschooler, and best not to make an issue of it. Let her eat the other foods on her plate or select something else to eat. As long as she chooses foods that aren’t overly sugary, fatty, or salty, don’t object. However, encourage her to try new foods by offering her very small amounts to taste, not by insisting that she eat a full portion of an unfamiliar food.
As a parent, your job is to make sure that your preschooler has nutritious food choices at every meal. If she has healthy options on the dining room table, let her make the decision of what (and how much) to eat. If she’s a picky eater—resisting eating vegetables, for example—don’t get discouraged or frustrated. Keep giving them to her even if she repeatedly turns up her nose at the sight of them. Before long, she may change her mind, developing a taste for foods that she once ignored. This is the period of time that healthy snacking and healthy habits get reinforced and/or established.
Remember, meals don’t need to be elaborate to be nutritious. If you have only a few minutes to prepare a meal, try a turkey sandwich, a serving of green beans, an apple, and a glass of nonfat or low-fat milk. A simple lunch like this takes less time to prepare than driving through a fast-food restaurant, and it is much healthier.
Television advertising, incidentally, can be a serious obstacle to your preschooler’s good nutrition. Some studies show that children who watch over twenty-two hours of TV per week (over three hours of screen time a day) have a greater tendency to become obese. Children this age are extremely receptive to ads for candy and other sugary sweets, especially after they’ve visited other homes where these foods are served. Obesity is a growing problem among children in America. For this reason, you need to be aware of your youngster’s eating habits, at home and away, and monitor them to make sure she’s eating as healthy as possible.
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Bullying is any behavior person(s) exhibit that intends to harm or distress a targeted person(s) consistently.
The types of bullying are: Physical - Verbal - Cyber - Relational (Social Aggression)
Your child feels sad about attending school - Refusal to go to school - Loss of personal items such as toys, clothing or lunch money - Child may appear withdrawn or anxious -Change in sleeping and/or eating habits - Complaints of headache and/or stomach ache - Frequent visits to Health Office
If you suspect your child is involved in bullying behavior, please consider the following: Discuss your concerns with your child, school, or social worker - Determine if your child has been having any particular problems with other children - Assess if your child is experiencing difficulties in other areas - Assist your child in understanding the serious nature and consequences of bullying behavior - Share your concerns with your child's teacher or any other significant adult (example teacher, coaches, scout-leaders etc.)
Ignore or walk away - tell the person to stop and then walk away - Warn that you will get help from an adult and then walk away - Get help. Tell an adult what has happened
Bullies keep bullying because of inaction. Make sure your child communicates their concerns to a trusted adult. Also, if they see bullying happening and they feel comfortable doing so, they should firmly state that those actions are inappropriate.
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December 22, 2006
Growing New Limbs the Zebrafish Way
A zebrafish tail fin one day after amputation is shown on the left. The image on the right shows that by ten days post amputation, the tail fin has regenerated.
A lost tail fin can really slow down a zebrafish - at least for a week or so, until it grows a new one. Now scientists have shown that they can turn on or block this regeneration in zebrafish with the flip of a molecular switch. Understanding how the fish's cells coordinate the regrowth of the structurally complex fin can help scientists understand the process of regeneration, providing clues that may aid in the development of new clinical therapies, such as renewing cardiac tissue after heart disease.
The scientists said that not only will their findings advance research aimed at regenerating tissues and organs, but the discoveries could also lead to improved therapies for bone marrow transplants to restore the hematopoetic system in cancer patients.
“In studying injury or inflammation in any context, investigators should explore whether Wnt signaling is involved. These experiments suggest that Wnt signaling is a universal component of regenerative pathways in animals.”
Randall T. Moon
The researchers' findings were published online December 22, 2006, as a Development ePress article, which is posted in advance of print publication in the journal Development. The senior author was Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator Randall Moon at the Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine of the University of Washington School of Medicine, and the joint first authors were Cristi Stoick-Cooper and Gilbert Weidinger, who designed and carried out the experiments in the Moon laboratory.
Using tail fin regeneration in the zebrafish as a model system, the researchers discovered that a major cellular signaling pathway, called the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway, is central to activating the complex machinery of limb regeneration. This pathway is known to play a major role in regulating stem cells in embryonic development and adult tissue maintenance. Malfunctions in the pathway have been proven to lead to cancers, as well as being linked to bone density diseases and neurodegenerative diseases.
The Wnt/ß-catenin pathway comprises a large group of proteins that are activated when the signaling molecule Wnt binds to the pathway's cell surface receptors. This activation increases the levels of ß-catenin - a master regulator of multiple genes - that reach the cell nucleus.
The researchers also found that a related Wnt protein, called wnt5b, inhibited regeneration. Wntb5 governs a signaling pathway that is independent of ß-catenin. So, Wnt proteins can turn on more than one signaling pathway, and both are involved in regeneration, though with opposite roles.
“It was previously known that Wnt pathway components were expressed during regeneration, but nobody had really explored whether the pathways were indeed activated,” said Moon. “And nobody had separated the two pathways and looked at their effects individually.”
In their experiments, Stoick-Cooper and Weidinger genetically manipulated the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway in the fish and measured how that manipulation affected the fish's ability to regrow an amputated tail fin.
Using a fluorescent “reporter” gene that revealed Wnt/ß-catenin pathway activation by glowing like a firefly, the scientists showed that the pathway was clearly switched on during regeneration, just in the area of the body that was regenerating. Similarly, they saw that the pathway was activated during regeneration of zebrafish heart and mouse liver, which they said suggests that the pathway may function in regeneration across species. They further noted that the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway was activated during the formation of the undifferentiated cells that proliferate to regenerate the tail fin.
They next genetically engineered fish in which they could switch off the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway by exposing the fish to warm water. Doing so, they found, completely blocked regeneration. They could also accelerate regeneration by enhancing Wnt/ß-catenin signaling. The researchers noted that this is a significant finding for the new field of regenerative medicine, in which a means of enhancing regeneration is an invaluable tool.
In contrast, when they engineered fish to activate the wnt5b gene in response to warm water, regeneration was inhibited. The opposite is true in fish with a mutation in the wnt5b gene, in which they found that regeneration was augmented. This is what one would expect, Moon noted, since the loss of a functional inhibitor is a double negative -- meaning that regeneration should be accelerated.
“These experiments showed that there is a completely novel and unexpected mechanism that antagonizes the regenerative process,” said Moon. “There had been other studies indicating that wnt5b-like genes could block the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway, but no one had examined whether this antagonism occurs in the context of the normal regenerative process.”
“Cristi and Gilbert's experiments rigorously establish through genetic approaches that the Wnt pathways are functionally important in regeneration,” he said. “More generally, they show that in studying injury or inflammation in any context, investigators should explore whether Wnt signaling is involved. These experiments suggest that Wnt signaling is a universal component of regenerative pathways in animals,” he said.
According to Moon, the findings by Stoick-Cooper and Weidinger will have clinical implications for tissue regeneration, as well as for encouraging growth of stem cells. Stem cells are immature, undifferentiated cells that are capable of maturing into a variety of mature cell types.
“Wnt/ß-catenin signaling plays an important positive role in the differentiation of stem cells and progenitor cells that are required for regeneration,” he said. “It agrees with previous studies in which our laboratory showed in animals that activating this pathway increases the success of transplants of blood-forming hematopoietic stem cells. Such transplants in cancer patients whose immune systems have been destroyed by radiation or chemotherapy are invaluable as therapy; and sometimes they fail because they transplanted cells do not engraft into the bone marrow. We believe that enhancing the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway will increase the success rate of such hematopoietic stem cell transplants,” he said.
In other clinically-related studies, Moon and his colleagues are exploring whether activating the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway can enhance differentiation of human embryonic stem cells into cardiac cells that could be used to treat heart disease
Moon and his colleagues are also exploring how the myriad different kinds of cells involved in regeneration respond to Wnt-activating signals and, in collaboration with HHMI investigator Leonard I. Zon at Children's Hospital, Boston, how injury switches on Wnt/ß-catenin signaling. The researchers are optimistic that Wnt signaling will be an important therapeutic target in the growing field of regenerative medicine.
Image: Laboratory of Randall Moon
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On this day in 1863, Union General Ulysses S. Grant breaks the siege of Chattanooga, Tennessee, in stunning fashion by routing the Confederates under General Braxton Bragg at Missionary Ridge.
For two months following the Battle of Chattanooga, the Confederates had kept the Union army bottled up inside a tight semicircle around Chattanooga. When Grant arrived in October, however, he immediately reversed the defensive posture of his army. After opening a supply line by driving the Confederates away from the Tennessee River in late October, Grant prepared for a major offensive in late November. It was launched on November 23 when he sent General George Thomas to probe the center of the Confederate line. This simple plan turned into a complete victory, and the Rebels retreated higher up Missionary Ridge. On November 24, the Yankees captured Lookout Mountain on the extreme right of the Union lines, and this set the stage for the Battle of Missionary Ridge.
The attack took place in three parts. On the Union left, General William T. Sherman attacked troops under Patrick Cleburne at Tunnel Hill, an extension of Missionary Ridge. In difficult fighting, Cleburne managed to hold the hill. On the other end of the Union lines, General Joseph Hooker was advancing slowly from Lookout Mountain, and his force had little impact on the battle. It was at the center that the Union achieved its greatest success. The soldiers on both sides received confusing orders. Some Union troops thought they were only supposed to take the rifle pits at the base of the ridge, while others understood that they were to advance to the top. Some of the Confederates heard that they were to hold the pits, while others thought they were to retreat to the top of Missionary Ridge. Furthermore, poor placement of Confederate trenches on the top of the ridge made it difficult to fire at the advancing Union troops without hitting their own men, who were retreating from the rifle pits. The result was that the attack on the Confederate center turned into a major Union victory. After the center collapsed, the Confederate troops retreated on November 26, and Bragg pulled his troops away from Chattanooga. He resigned shortly thereafter, having lost the confidence of his army.
The Confederates suffered some 6,600 men killed, wounded, and missing, and the Union lost around 5,800. Grant missed an opportunity to destroy the Confederate army when he chose not to pursue the retreating Rebels, but Chattanooga was secured. Sherman resumed the attack in the spring after Grant was promoted to general in chief of all Federal forces.
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In the streets of Prague and in the United Nations headquarters in New York City, Czechs protest against the Soviet invasion of their nation. The protests served to highlight the brutality of the Soviet action and to rally worldwide condemnation of the Soviet Union.
On August 21, 1968, more than 200,000 troops of the Warsaw Pact crossed into Czechoslovakia in response to democratic and free market reforms being instituted by Czech Communist Party General Secretary Alexander Dubcek. Negotiations between Dubcek and Soviet bloc leaders failed to convince the Czech leader to back away from his reformist platform. The military intervention on August 21 indicated that the Soviets believed that Dubcek was going too far and needed to be restrained. On August 22, thousands of Czechs gathered in central Prague to protest the Soviet action and demand the withdrawal of foreign troops. Although it was designed to be a peaceful protest, violence often flared and several protesters were killed on August 22 and in the days to come. At the United Nations, the Czech delegation passionately declared that the Soviet invasion was illegal and threatened the sovereignty of their nation. They called on the U.N.'s Security Council to take action. The Council voted 10 to 2 to condemn Russia's invasion; predictably, the Soviet Union vetoed the resolution.
The 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia severely damaged the Soviet government's reputation around the world, and even brought forth condemnation from communist parties in nations such as China and France. Nonetheless, Dubcek was pushed from power in April 1969 and the Czech Communist Party adopted a tough line toward any dissent. The "Prague Spring" of 1968, when hopes for reform bloomed, would serve as a symbol for the so-called "Velvet Revolution" of 1989. In that year, Czech dissidents were able to break the Communist Party's stranglehold on their nation's politics by electing Vaclav Havel, the first noncommunist president in 40 years.
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One of the most common uses of Flash memory is for the basic input/output system of your computer, commonly known as the BIOS (pronounced "bye-ose"). On virtually every computer available, the BIOS makes sure all the other chips, hard drives, ports and CPU function together.
Every desktop and laptop computer in common use today contains a microprocessor as its central processing unit. The microprocessor is the hardware component. To get its work done, the microprocessor executes a set of instructions known as software (see How Microprocessors Work for details). You are probably very familiar with two different types of software:
- The operating system - The operating system provides a set of services for the applications running on your computer, and it also provides the fundamental user interface for your computer. Windows 98 and Linux are examples of operating systems. (See How Operating Systems Work for lots of details.)
- The applications - Applications are pieces of software that are programmed to perform specific tasks. On your computer right now you probably have a browser application, a word processing application, an e-mail application and so on. You can also buy new applications and install them.
It turns out that the BIOS is the third type of software your computer needs to operate successfully. In this article, you'll learn all about BIOS -- what it does, how to configure it and what to do if your BIOS needs updating.
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Research Study Types
There are many different types of research studies, and each has distinct strengths and weaknesses. In general, randomized trials and cohort studies provide the best information when looking at the link between a certain factor (like diet) and a health outcome (like heart disease).
These are studies done in laboratories on cells, tissue, or animals. Laboratories provide strictly controlled conditions and are often the genesis of scientific ideas that go on to have a broad impact on human health. However, laboratory studies are only a starting point. Animals or cells are no substitute for humans.
These studies look at the characteristics of one group of people who already have a certain health outcome (the cases) and compare them to a similar group of people who do not have the outcome (the controls). While case-control studies can be done quickly and relatively cheaply, they aren’t ideal for studying diet because they gather information from the past. People with illnesses often recall past behaviors differently from those without illness. This opens such studies to potential inaccuracy and bias in the information they gather.
These studies follow large groups of people over a long period of time. Researchers regularly gather information from the people in the study on a wide variety of variables (like meat intake, physical activity level, and weight). Once a specified amount of time has elapsed, the characteristics of people in the group are compared to test specific hypotheses (like the link between carotenoids and glaucoma, or meat intake and prostate cancer).
Though time-consuming and expensive, cohort studies generally provide more reliable information than case-control studies because they don’t rely on information from the past. Cohort studies gather the information all along and before anyone develops the disease being studied. As a group, these types of studies have provided valuable information about the link between lifestyle factors and disease. Two of the largest and longest-running cohort studies of diet are the Harvard-based Nurses’ Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study.
Like cohort studies, these studies follow a group of people over time. However, with randomized trials, the researchers actually intervene to see how a specific behavior change or treatment, for example, affects a health outcome. They are called “randomized trials” because people in the study are randomly assigned either to receive or not receive the intervention. This randomization helps researchers hone in on the true effect the intervention has on the health outcome.
However, randomized trials also have drawbacks, especially when it comes to diet. While they are good at looking at topics like vitamin supplements and cancer, when the change in diet is more involved than say taking a vitamin pill, participants begin to have trouble keeping to their prescribed diets. Such involved interventions can also become very expensive.
Read an example of how different types of studies shaped health recommendations about fiber and colon cancer.
The aim of the Harvard School of Public Health Nutrition Source is to provide timely information on diet and nutrition for clinicians, allied health professionals, and the public. The contents of this Web site are not intended to offer personal medical advice. You should seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read on this Web site. The information does not mention brand names, nor does it endorse any particular products.
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Hyped Arsenic Bacteria Research 'Should Not Have Been Published'
by Brian Thomas, M.S. *
NASA recently issued a series of press releases and arranged a press conference to promote research claiming that life was possible in outer space.1, 2 However, the research drew heavy criticism from scientists around the world, and the interest-generating tactics that the space agency employed have been called into question.
The study, which appeared in the journal Science, focused on microbes found in a California lake, not in materials from space.3 The study's authors concluded that certain bacteria could actually incorporate the element arsenic—a well-known poison—into the structure of their DNA molecules. However, critics quickly noted that the testing procedure was flawed. The research results could have come from arsenic that was on or near the DNA, but not in it. It would have been quite simple for the researchers to have "washed" the DNA and then searched for the arsenic in a clean sample of pure DNA—but they didn't.
In addition, "it turns out the NASA scientists were feeding the bacteria salts which they freely admit were contaminated with a tiny amount of phosphate," science writer Carl Zimmer wrote for the online news magazine Slate. This could have supplied the phosphorous the bacteria needed, rather than having it completely replaced by arsenic. The University of Colorado's Shelley Copley added, "This paper should not have been published."4
The report in Science did not address the additional conundrum that DNA has physical size constraints on its elemental building blocks. Arsenic atoms are much larger than those of phosphorus and would undoubtedly yield warped and misshapen DNA that would be inaccessible to the many DNA-binding proteins upon which cellular life depends.
The NASA authors have so far refused to engage these issues, pointing to the more proper scientific procedure of publishing in a peer-reviewed journal. Critical letters to Science are currently in the mail.4
In the meantime, other scientists are not staying silent. Jonathan Eisen, University of California, Davis genomicist and Academic Editor of the online science journal PLoS Biology, called the NASA authors' lack of response "absurd." He told Slate, "They carried out science by press release and press conference. Whether they were right or not in their claims, they are now hypocritical if they say that the only response should be in the scientific literature."4
These events have a familiar tone. When media hyped the fossil primate "Ida" as a "missing link" in human evolution, rebuttals appeared in journals and news stories. Analysis of the details showed that the claim had absolutely no substance. Ida was merely an extinct variety of lemur.5,6,7
The same can be said of NASA's 1996 work-up of a meteorite, which supposedly contained intact fossils of Martian bacteria.8 A subsequent report from earlier this month, not accompanied by a press conference, demonstrated how these kinds of "fossil" markings are made by ozone gas interacting with minerals.9
ICR News has reported that the practice of doing "science" by press release serves an agenda other than presenting scientific data. For instance, since science could not show that the much-hyped "Ardi" was a human ancestor, that message was instead broadcast through the press.10 And since NASA needed federal funding at the time, the agency promoted the Martian germs.
So, did a press conference substitute for quality science when NASA proclaimed its arsenic bacteria find? Perhaps the government agency needs more public support again. At any rate, these cases and others show that the science often does not match the headlines, and it pays for readers to dig a little deeper.
- Brown, D. and C. Weselby. NASA-Funded Research Discovers Life Built With Toxic Chemical. NASA Feature. Posted on nasa.gov December 2, 2010, accessed December 9, 2010.
- Brown, D. and C. Weselby. NASA Sets News Conference on Astrobiology Discovery; Science Journal Has Embargoed Details Until 2 p.m. EST On Dec. 2. NASA press release, November 29, 2010.
- Wolfe-Simon, F. et al. A Bacterium That Can Grow by Using Arsenic Instead of Phosphorus. Science. Published onlineDecember 2, 2010.
- Zimmer, C. "This Paper Should Not Have Been Published"; Scientists see fatal flaws in the NASA study of arsenic-based life. Slate. Posted on slate.com December 7, 2010, accessed December 9, 2010.
- Thomas, B. New Fossil Hype Fits Old Pattern. ICR News. Posted on icr.org May 27, 2009, accessed December 9, 2010.
- Thomas, B. 2009. The Ida Fossil: A Clever Campaign for a Lackluster "Link." Acts & Facts. 38 (7): 17
- Thomas, B. More Scientists Say 'Ida' Is Not a Missing Link. ICR News. Posted on icr.org March 19, 2010, accessed December 9, 2010.
- Thomas, B. Meteor Crystals Spark Latest 'Life on Mars' Hype. ICR News. Posted on icr.org December 15, 2009, accessed December 9, 2010.
- Choi, C. Q. Martian Meteorite Not Evidence of Extraterrestrials, Scientists Say. Space.com. Posted on space.com December 2, 2010, accessed December 9, 2010.
- Thomas, B. Scientists Back off Ardi Claims. ICR News. Posted on icr.org December 4, 2009, accessed December 9, 2010.
* Mr. Thomas is Science Writer at the Institute for Creation Research.
Article posted on December 17, 2010.
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First-Hand:The Foundation of Digital Television: the origins of the 4:2:2 component digital standard
Contributed by Stanley Baron, IEEE Life Fellow
By the late 1970's, the application of digital technology in television production was widespread. A number of digital television products had become available for use in professional television production. These included graphics generators, recursive filters (noise reducers), time base correctors and synchronizers, standards converters, amongst others.
However, each manufacturer had adopted a unique digital interface, and this meant that these digital devices when formed into a workable production system had to be interfaced at the analog level, thereby forfeiting many of the advantages of digital processing.
Most broadcasters in Europe and Asia employed television systems based on 625/50 scanning (625 lines per picture, repeated 50 fields per second), with the PAL color encoding system used in much of Western Europe, Australia, and Asia, while France, the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China used variations of the SECAM color encoding system. There were differences in luminance bandwidth: 5.0 MHz for B/G PAL, 5.5 MHz for PAL in the UK and nominally 6 MHz for SECAM. There were also legacy monochrome systems, such as 405/50 scanning in the UK and the 819/50 system in France. The color television system that was dominate in the Americas, Japan, and South Korea was based on 525/60 scanning, 4.2 MHz luminance bandwidth, and the NTSC color standard.
NTSC and PAL color coding are both linear processes. Therefore, analog signals in the NSTC format could be mixed and edited during studio processing, provided that color sub carrier phase relationships were maintained. The same was true for production facilities based on the PAL system. In analog NTSC and PAL studios it was normal to code video to composite form as early as possible in the signal chain so that each signal required only one wire for distribution rather than the three needed for RGB or YUV component signals. The poor stability of analog circuitry meant that matching separate channel RGB or YUV component signals was impractical except in very limited areas. SECAM employed frequency modulated coding of the color information, which did not allow any processing of composite signals, so the very robust SECAM composite signal was used only on videotape recorders and point to point links, with decoding to component signals for mixing and editing. Some SECAM broadcasters avoided the problem by operating their studios in PAL and recoding to SECAM for transmission.
The international community recognized that the world community would be best served if there could be an agreement on a single production or studio digital interface standard regardless of which color standard (525 line NTSC, 625 line PAL, or 625 line SECAM) was employed for transmission. The cost of implementation of digital technology was seen as directly connected to the production volume; the higher the volume, the lower the cost to the end user, in this case, the broadcasting community.
Work on determining a suitable standard was organized by the Society of Motion Picture Engineers (SMPTE) on behalf of the 525/60 broadcasting community and the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) on behalf of the 625/50 broadcasting community.
In 1982, the international community reached agreement on a common 4:2:2 Component Digital Television Standard. This standard as documented in SMPTE 125, several EBU Recommendations, and ITU-R Recommendation 601 was the first international standard adopted for interfacing equipment directly in the digital domain avoiding the need to first restore the signal to an analog format.
The interface standard was designed so that the basic parameter values provided would work equally well in both 525 line/60 Hz and 625 line/50 Hz television production environments. The standard was developed in a remarkably short time, considering its pioneering scope, as the world wide television community recognized the urgent need for a solid basis for the development of an all digital television production system. A component-based (Y, R-Y, B-Y) system based on a luminance (Y) sampling frequency of 13.5 MHz was first proposed in February 1980; the world television community essentially agreed to proceed on a component based system in September 1980 at the IBC; a group of manufacturers supplied devices incorporating the proposed interface at a SMPTE sponsored test demonstration in San Francisco in February 1981; most parameter values were essentially agreed to by March 1981; and the ITU-R (then CCIR) Plenary Assembly adopted the standard in February 1982.
What follows is an overview of this historic achievement, providing a history of the standard's origins, explaining how the standard came into being, why various parameter values were chosen, the process that led the world community to an agreement, and how the 4:2:2 standard led to today's digital high definition production standards and digital broadcasting standards.
It is understood that digital processing of any signal requires that the sample locations be clearly defined in time and space and, for television, processing is simplified if the samples are aligned so that they are line, field, and frame position repetitive yielding an orthogonal (rectangular grid) sampling pattern.
While the NTSC system color sub carrier frequency (fsc) was an integer sub multiple of the horizontal line frequency (fH) [fsc = (m/n) x fH] lending itself to orthogonal sampling, the PAL system color sub carrier employed a field frequency off set and the SECAM color system employed frequency modulation of the color subcarrier, which made sampling the color information, contained within those systems a more difficult challenge. Further, since some European nations had adopted various forms of the PAL 625 line/50Hz composite color television standard as their broadcast standard and other European nations had adopted various forms of the SECAM 625 line/50Hz composite color television standard, the European community's search for a common digital interface standard implied that a system that was independent of the color coding technique used for transmission would be required.
Developments within the European community
In September 1972, the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) formed Working Party C, chaired by Peter Rainger to investigate the subject of coding television systems. In 1977, based on the work of Working Party C, the EBU issued a document recommending that the European community consider a component television production standard, since a component signal could be encoded as either a PAL or SECAM composite signal just prior to transmission.
At a meeting in Montreux, Switzerland in the spring of 1979, the EBU reached agreement with production equipment manufacturers that the future of digital program production in Europe would be best served by component coding rather than composite coding, and the EBU established a research and development program among its members to determine appropriate parameter values. This launched an extensive program of work within the EBU on digital video coding for program production. The work was conducted within a handful of research laboratories across Europe and within a reorganized EBU committee structure including: Working Party V on New Systems and Services chaired by Peter Rainger; subgroup V1 chaired by Yves Guinet, which assumed the tasks originally assigned to Working Party C; and a specialist supporting committee V1 VID (Vision) chaired by Howard Jones. David Wood, representing the EBU Technical Center, served as the secretariat of all of the EBU committees concerned with digital video coding.
In 1979, EBU VI VID proposed a single three channel (Y, R-Y, B-Y) component standard. The system stipulated a 12.0 MHz luminance (Y) channel sampling frequency and provided for each of the color difference signals (R-Y and B-Y) to be sampled at 4.0 MHz. The relationship between the luminance and color difference signals was noted sometimes as (12:4:4) and sometimes as (3:1:1). The proposal, based on the results of subjective quality evaluations, suggested these values were adequate to transparently deliver 625/50i picture quality.
The EBU Technical Committee endorsed this conclusion at a meeting in April 1980, and instructed its technical groups: V, V1, and V1 VID to support this effort.
SMPTE organized for the task at hand
Three SMPTE committees were charged with addressing various aspects of world wide digital standards. The first group, organized in late 1974, was the Digital Study Group chaired by Charles Ginsburg. The Study Group was charged with investigating all issues concerning the application of digital technology to television. The second group was a Task Force on Component Digital Coding with Frank Davidoff as chairman. This Task Force, which began work in February 1980, was charged with developing a recommendation for a single worldwide digital interface standard. While membership in SMPTE committees is generally open to any interested and affected party, the membership of the Task Force had been limited to recognized experts in the field. The third group was the Working Group on Digital Video Standards. This Working Group was charged with documenting recommendations developed by the Study Group or the Task Force and generating appropriate standards, recommended practices, and engineering guidelines.
In March 1977, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) began development of a digital television interface standard. The work was assigned by SMPTE's Committee on New Technology chaired by Fred Remley to the Working Group on Digital Video Standards chaired by Dr. Robert Hopkins.
By 1979, the Working Group on Digital Video Standards was completing development of a digital interface standard for NTSC television production. Given the state of the art at the time and the desire to develop a standard based on the most efficient mechanism, the Working Group created a standard that allowed the NTSC television video signal to be sampled as a single composite color television signal. It was agreed after a long debate on the merits of three times sub carrier (3fsc) versus four times sub carrier (4fsc) sampling that the Composite Digital Television Standard would require the composite television signal with its luminance channel and color sub carrier to be sampled at four times the color sub carrier frequency (4fsc) or 14.31818... MHz.
During the last quarter of 1979, agreement was reached on a set of parameter values, and the drafting of the Composite Digital Television Standard was considered completed. It defined a signal sampled at 4fsc with 8 bit samples. This standard seemed to resolve the problem of providing a direct digital interface for production facilities utilizing the NTSC standard.
By 1980, the Committee on New Technology was being chaired by Hopkins and the Working Group on Digital Video Standards was being chaired by Ken Davies.
Responding to communications with the EBU and so as not to prejudice the efforts being made to reach agreement on a world wide component standard, in January 1980, Hopkins put the finished work on the NTSC Composite Digital Television Standard temporarily aside so that any minor modifications to the document that would serve to meet possible world wide applications could be incorporated before final approval. Since copies of the document were bound in red binders, the standard was referred to as the "Red Book".
Seeking a Common Reference
The agenda of the January 1980 meeting of SMPTE's Digital Study Group included a discussion on a world wide digital television interface standard. At that meeting, the Study Group considered the report of the European community, and members of the EBU working parties had been invited to attend. Although I was not a member of the Study Group, I was also invited to attend the meeting.
It was recognized that while a three color representation of the television signal using Red, Blue, and Green (R, G, B) was the simplest three component representation, a more efficient component representation, but one that is more complex, is to provide a luminance or gray scale channel (Y) and two color difference signals (R-Y and B-Y). The R-Y and B-Y components take advantage of the characteristics of the human visual system which is less sensitive to high resolution information for color than for luminance. This allows for the use of a lower number of samples to represent the color difference signals without observable losses in the restored images. Color difference components (noted as I, Q or U, V or Dr, Db) were already in use in the NTSC, PAL, and SECAM systems to reduce the bandwidth required to support color information.
Members of the NTSC community present at the January 1980 Study Group meeting believed that the EBU V1 VID proposed 12.0 MHz, (3:1:1) set of parameters would not meet the needs for NTSC television post production particularly with respect to chroma keying, then becoming an important tool. In addition, it was argued that: (1) the sampling frequency was too low (too close to the Nyquist point) for use in a production environment where multiple generations of edits were required to accommodate special effects, chroma keying, etc., and (2) a 12.0 MHz sampling system would not produce an orthogonal array of samples in NTSC (at 12.0 MHz, there would be 762.666... pixels per line).
The NTSC community offered for consideration a single three channel component standard based on (Y, R-Y, B-Y). This system stipulated a 4fsc (14.318 MHz) luminance sampling frequency equal to 910 x fH525, where fH525 is the NTSC horizontal line frequency. The proposal further provided for each of the color difference components to be sampled at 2fsc or 7.159 MHz. This relationship between the luminance and color difference signals was noted as (4:2:2). Adopting 4fsc as the luminance sampling frequency would facilitate trans coding of video recorded using the “single wire” NTSC composite standard with studio mixers and editing equipment based on a component video standard.
Representatives of the European television community present at the January 1980 Study Group meeting pointed to some potential difficulties with this proposal. The objections included: (1) that the sampling frequency was too high for use in practical digital recording at the time, and (2) a 14.318 MHz sampling system would not produce an orthogonal array of samples in a 625 line system (at 14.318 MHz, there would be 916.36... pixels per line).
During the January 1980 Study Group meeting discussion, I asked why the parties involved had not considered a sampling frequency that was a multiple of the 4.5 MHz sound carrier, since the horizontal line frequencies of both the 525 line and 625 line systems had an integer relationship to 4.5 MHz.
The original definition of the NTSC color system established a relationship between the sound carrier frequency (fs) and the horizontal line frequency (fH525) as fH525 = fs/286 = 15734.265... Hz, had further defined the vertical field rate fV525 = (fH525 x 2)/525 = 59.94006 Hz, and defined the color sub carrier (fsc) = (fH525 x 455)/2 = 3.579545.... MHz. Therefore, all the frequency components of the NTSC system could be derived as integer sub multiples of the sound carrier.
The 625 line system defined the horizontal line frequency (fH625) = 15625 Hz and the vertical field rate fV625 = (fH625 x 2)/625 = 50 Hz. It was noted from the beginning that the relationship between fs and the horizontal line frequency (fH625) could be expressed as fH625 = fs/288. Therefore, any sampling frequency that was an integer multiple of 4.5 MHz (fs) would produce samples in either the 525 line or 625 line systems that were orthogonal.
I was asked to submit a paper to the Study Group and the Task Force describing the relationship. The assignment was to cover two topics. The first topic was how the 625 line/50Hz community might arrive at a sampling frequency close to 14.318 MHz. The second topic was to explain the relationship between the horizontal frequencies of the 525 line and 625 line systems and 4.5 MHz.
This resulted in my authoring a series of papers written between February and April 1980 addressed to the SMPTE Task Force explaining why 13.5 MHz should be considered the choice for a common luminance sampling frequency. The series of papers was intended to serve as a tutorial with each of the papers expanding on the points previously raised. A few weeks after I submitted the first paper, I was invited to be a member of the SMPTE Task Force. During the next few months, I responded to questions about the proposal, and I was asked to draft a standards document.
Crunching the numbers
The first paper I addressed to the Task Force was dated 11 February 1980. This paper pointed to the fact that since the horizontal line frequency of the 525 line system (fH525 had been defined as 4.5 MHz/286 (or 2.25 MHz/143), and the horizontal line frequency of the 625 line system (fH625) was equal to 4.5 MHz/288 (or 2.25 MHz/144), any sampling frequency that was a multiple of 4.5 MHz/2 could be synchronized to both systems.
Since it would be desirable to sample color difference signals at less than the sampling rate of the luminance signal, then a sampling frequency that was a multiple of 2.25 MHz would be appropriate for use with the color difference components (R-Y, B-Y) while a sampling frequency that was a multiple of 4.5 MHz would be appropriate for use with the luminance component (Y).
Since the European community had argued that the (Y) sampling frequency must be lower than 14.318 MHz and the NTSC countries had argued that the (Y) sampling frequency must be higher than 12.00 MHz, my paper and cover letter dated 11 February 1980 suggested consideration of 3 x 4.5 MHz or 13.5 MHz as the common luminance (Y) channel sampling frequency (858 times the 525 line horizontal line frequency rate and 864 times the 625 line rate both equal 13.5 MHz).
My series of papers suggested adoption of a component color system based on (Y, R-Y, B-Y) and a luminance/color sampling relationship of (4:2:2), with the color signals sampled at 6.75 MHz. In order for the system to facilitate standards conversion and picture manipulation (such as that used in electronic special effects and graphics generators), both the luminance and color difference samples should be orthogonal. The desire to be able to trans code between component and composite digital systems implied a number of samples per active line that was divisible by four.
The February 1980 note further suggested that the number of samples per active line period should be greater than 715.5 to accommodate all of the world wide community standards active line periods. While the number of pixels per active line equal to 720 samples per line was not suggested until my next note, (720 is the number found in Rec. 601 and SMPTE 125), 720 is the first value that “works.” 716 is the first number greater than 715.5 that is divisible by 4 (716 = 4 x 179), but does not lend itself to standards conversion between 525 line component and composite color systems or provide sufficiently small pixel groupings to facilitate special effects or data compression algorithms. </p>
Additional arguments in support of 720 were provided in notes I generated prior to IBC'80 in September. Note that 720 equals 6! [6! (6 factorial) = 6x5x4x3x2x1] = 24 x 32 x 5. This allows for many small factors, important for finding an economical solution to conversion between the 525 line component and composite color standards and for image manipulation in special effects and analysis of blocks of pixels for data compression. The composite 525 line digital standard had provided for 768 samples per active line. 768 = 28 x 3. The relationship between 768 and 720 can be described as 768/720 = (28 x 3)/(24 x 32 x 5) = (24)/(3 x 5) = 16/15. A set of 16 samples in the NTSC composite standard could be used to calculate a set of 15 samples in the NTSC component standard.
Proof of Performance
At the September 1980 IBC conference, international consensus became focused on the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) system. However, both the 12.0 MHz and 14.318 MHz systems retained some support for a variety of practical considerations. Discussions within the Working Group on Digital Video Standards indicated that consensus could not be achieved without the introduction of convincing evidence.
SMPTE proposed to hold a “Component Coded Digital Video Demonstration” in San Francisco in February 1981 organized by and under the direction of the Working Group on Digital Video Standards to evaluate component coded systems. A series of practical tests/demonstrations were organized to examine the merits of various proposals with respect to picture quality, production effects, recording capability and practical interfacing, and to establish an informed basis for decision making.
The EBU had scheduled a series of demonstrations in January 1981 for the same purpose. SMPTE invited the EBU to hold its February meeting of the Bureau of the EBU Technical Committee in San Francisco to be followed by a joint meeting to discuss the results of the tests. It was agreed that demonstrations would be conducted at three different sampling frequencies (near 12.0 MHz, 13.5 MHz, and 14.318 MHz) and at various levels of performance.
From 2nd through the 6th of February 1981 (approximately, one year from the date of the original 13.5 MHz proposal), SMPTE conducted demonstrations at KPIX Television, Studio N facilities in San Francisco in which a number of companies participated. Each participating sponsor developed equipment with the digital interface built to the specifications provided. The demonstration was intended to provide proof of performance and to allow the international community to come to an agreement.
'The demonstration organizing committee had to improvise many special interfaces and interconnections, as well as create a range of test objects, test signals, critical observation criteria, and a scoring and analysis system and methodology.
The demonstrations were supported with equipment and personnel by many of the companies that were pioneers in the development of digital television and included: ABC Television, Ampex Corporation, Barco, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, CBS Technology Center, Digital Video Systems, Dynair, Inc., KPIX Westinghouse Broadcasting, Leitch Video Ltd., Marconi Electronics, RCA Corporation and RCA Laboratories, Sony Corporation, Tektronix Inc., Thomson CSF, VG Electronics Ltd., and VGR Corporation. I participated in the demonstrations as a member of SMPTE's Working Group on Digital Video Standards, providing a Vidifont electronic graphics generator whose interface conformed to the new standard.
Developing an agreement
The San Francisco demonstrations proved the viability of the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) proposal. At a meeting in January 1981, the EBU had considered a set of parameters based on a 13.0 MHz (4:2:2) system. Additional research conducted by EBU members had shown that a (4:2:2) arrangement was needed in order to cope with picture processing requirements, such as chroma key, and the EBU members believed a 13.0 MHz system appeared to be the most economic system that provided adequate picture processing. Members of the EBU and SMPTE committees met at a joint meeting chaired by Peter Rainger in March 1981 and agreed to propose the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) standard as the world wide standard. By autumn 1981, NHK in Japan led by Mr. Tadokoro, had performed its own independent evaluations and concurred that the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) standard offered the optimum solution.
A number of points were generally agreed upon and formed the basis of a new world wide standard. They included:
- The existing colorimetry of EBU (for PAL and SECAM) and of NTSC would be retained for 625 line and 525 line signals respectively, as matrixing to a common colorimetry was considered overly burdensome;
- An 8 bit per sample representation would be defined initially, being within the state of the art, but a 10 bit per sample representation would also be specified since it was required for many production applications;
- The range of the signal to be included should include head room (above white level) and foot room (below black level) to allow for production overshoots;
- The line length to be sampled should be somewhat wider than those of the analog systems (NTSC, PAL, and SECAM) under consideration to faithfully preserve picture edges and to avoid picture cropping;
- A bit parallel, sample multiplexed interface (e.g. transmitting R-Y, Y, B-Y, Y, R-Y, ...) was practical, but in the long term, a fully bit and word serial system would be desirable;
- The gross data rate should be recordable within the capacity of digital tape recorders then in the development stages by Ampex, Bosch, RCA, and Sony.
The standard, as documented, provided for each digital sample to consist of at least 8 bits, with 10 allowed. The values for the black and white levels were defined, as was the range of the color signal. (R-Y) and (B-Y) became CR [=0.713 (R-Y)] and CB [=0.564 (B-Y)]. While the original note dated February 1980 addressed to the Task Force proposed a code of 252(base10) =(1111 1100) for ‘white’ at 100 IRE and a code of 72 (base10) =(0100 1000) for ‘black’ at 0 IRE to allow capture of the sync levels, agreement was reached to better utilize the range of codes to capture the grey scale values with more precision and provide more overhead. ‘White’ was to be represented by an eight bit code of 240(base10) =(1111 0000) and ‘black’ was to be represented by an eight bit code 16 (base10) =(0001 0000). The original codes for defining the beginning and the end of picture lines and picture area were discussed, modified, and agreed upon, as well as synchronizing coding for line, field, and frame, each coding sequence being unique and not occurring in the video signal.SMPTE and EBU organized an effort over the next few months to familiarize the remainder of the world wide television community with the advantages offered by the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) system and the reasoning behind its set of parameters. Members of the SMPTE Task Force traveled to Europe and to the Far East. Members of the EBU committees traveled to the, then, Eastern European block nations and to the members of the OTI, the organization of the South American broadcasters. The objective of these tours was to build a consensus prior to the upcoming discussion at the ITU in the autumn of 1981. The success of this effort could serve as a model to be followed in developing future agreements.
I was asked to draft a SMPTE standard document that listed the parameter values for a 13.5 MHz system for consideration by the SMPTE Working Group. Since copies of the document were bound in a green binder prior to final acceptance by SMPTE, the standard was referred to as the “Green Book”.
In April 1981, the draft of the standard titled “Coding Parameters for a Digital Video Interface between Studio Equipment for 525 line, 60 field Operation” was distributed to a wider audience for comment. This updated draft reflected the status of the standard after the tests in San Francisco and agreements reached at the joint EBU/SMPTE meeting in March 1981. The EBU community later requested a subtle change to the value of ‘white’ in the luminance channel, and it assumed the value of 235(base10). This change was approved in August 1981.
After review and some modification as noted above to accommodate European concerns, the “Green Book” was adopted as SMPTE Standard 125.
ITU/R Recommendation 601
The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) generated an EBU Standard containing a companion set of parameter values. The SMPTE 125 and EBU documents were then submitted to the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). The ITU, a treaty organization within the United Nations, is responsible for international agreements on communications. The ITU Radio Communications Bureau (ITU-R/CCIR) is concerned with wireless communications, including allocation and use of the radio frequency spectrum. The ITU also provides technical standards, which are called “Recommendations.”
Within the ITU, the development of the Recommendation defining the parameter values of the 13.5 MHz (4:2:2) system fell under the responsibility of ITU-R Study Group 11 on Television. The chair of Study Group 11, Prof. Mark I. Krivocheev, assigned the drafting of the document to a special committee established for that purpose and chaired by David Wood of the EBU. The document describing the digital parameters contained in the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) system was approved for adoption as document 11/1027 at ITU-R/CCIR meetings in Geneva in September and October 1981. A revised version, document 11/1027 Rev.1, dated 17 February 1982, and titled “Draft Rec. AA/11 (Mod F): Encoding parameters of digital television for studios” was adopted by the ITU-R/CCIR Plenary Assembly in February 1982. It described the digital interface standard for transfer of video information between equipment designed for use in either 525 line or 625 line conventional color television facilities. Upon approval by the Plenary Assembly, document 11/1027 Rev.1 became CCIR Recommendation 601.
The Foundation for HDTV and Digital Television Broadcasting Services
The 4:2:2 Component Digital Television Standard allowed for a scale of economy and reliability that was unprecedented by providing a standard that enabled the design and manufacture of equipment that could operate in both 525 line/60Hz and 625 line/50Hz production environments. The 4:2:2 Component Digital Television Standard permitted equipment supplied by different manufacturers to exchange video and embedded audio and data streams and/or to record and playback those streams directly in the digital domain without having to be restored to an analog signal. This meant that the number of different processes and/or generations of recordings could be increased without the noticeable degradation of the information experienced with equipment based on analog technology. A few years after the adoption of the 4:2:2 Component Digital Television Standard, all digital production facilities were shown to be practical.
A few years later when the ITU defined “HDTV,” the Recommendation stipulated: “the horizontal resolution for HDTV as being twice that of conventional television systems” described in Rec. 601and a picture aspect ratio of 16:9. A 16:9 aspect ratio picture requires one-third more pixels per active line than a 4:3 aspect ratio picture. Rec. 601 provided 720 samples per active line for the luminance channel and 360 samples for each of the color difference signals. Starting with 720, doubling the resolution to 1440, and adjusting the count for a 16:9 aspect ratio leads to the 1920 samples per active line defined as the basis for HDTV. Accommodating the Hollywood and computer communities' request for “square pixels” meant that the number of lines should be 1920 x (9/16) = 1080.
Progressive scan systems at 1280 pixels per line and 720 lines per frame are also a member of the “720 pixel” family. 720 pixels x 4/3 (resolution improvement) x 4/3 (16:9 aspect ratio adjustment) = 1280. Accommodating the Hollywood and computer communities' request for square pixels meant that the number of lines should be 1280 x (9/16) = 720.
The original 720 pixel per active line structure became the basis of a family of structures (the 720 pixel family) that was adopted for MPEG based systems including both conventional television and HDTV systems. Therefore, most digital television systems, including digital video tape systems and DVD recordings are derived from the format described in the original 4:2:2 standard.
The existence of a common digital component standard for both 50 Hz and 60 Hz environments as documented in SMPTE 125 and ITU Recommendation 601 provided a path for television production facilities to migrate to the digital domain. The appearance of high quality, fully digital production facilities providing digital video, audio, and metadata streams and the successful development of digital compression and modulation schemes allowed for the introduction of digital television broadcast services.
In its 1982-1983 award cycle, the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences recognized the 4:2:2 Component Digital Standard based on 13.5 MHz (Y) sampling with 720 samples per line with three EMMY awards:
The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) was recognized: “For achieving a European agreement on a component digital video studio specification based on demonstrated quality studies and their willingness to subsequently compromise on a world wide standard.”
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) was recognized: “For providing the international forum to achieve a compromise of national committee positions on a digital video standard and to achieve agreement within the 1978-1982 period.”
The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) was recognized: “For their early recognition of the need for a digital video standard, their acceptance of the EBU proposed component requirement, and for the development of the hierarchy and line lock 13.5 MHz demonstrated specification, which provided the basis for a world standard.”
This narrative is intended to acknowledge the early work on digital component coded television carried out over several years by hundreds of individuals, organizations, and administrations throughout the world. It is not possible in a limited space to list all of the individuals or organizations involved, but by casting a spotlight on the results of their work since the 1960's and its significance, the intent is to honor them - all.
Individuals interested in the specific details of digital television standards and picture formats (i.e. 1080p, 720p, etc.) should inquire at www.smpte.org. SMPTE is the technical standards development organization (SDO) for motion picture film and television production.
- ↑ This article builds on a prior article by Stanley Baron and David Wood; simultaneously published in the SMPTE Motion Imaging Journal, September 2005, pp. 327 334 as “The Foundations of Digital Television: the origins of the 4:2:2 DTV standard" and in the EBU Technical Review, October 2005, as "Rec. 601 the origins of the 4:2:2 DTV standard.”
- ↑ Guinet, Yves; “Evolution of the EBU's position in respect of the digital coding of television”, EBU Review Technical, June 1981, pp.111 117.
- ↑ Davies, Kenneth; “SMPTE Demonstrations of Component Coded Digital Video, San Francisco, 1981”, SMPTE Journal, October 1981, pp.923 925.
- ↑ Fink, Donald; “Television Engineering Handbook”, McGraw Hill [New York, 1957], p.7 4.
- ↑ Baron, S.; “Sampling Frequency Compatibility”, SMPTE Digital Study Group, January 1980, revised and submitted to the SMPTE Task Force on Digital Video Standards, 11 February 1980. Later published in SMPTE Handbook, “4:2:2 Digital Video: Background and Implementation”, SMPTE, 1989, ISBN 0 940690 16, pp.20 23.
- ↑ Weiss, Merrill &amp;amp; Marconi, Ron; “Putting Together the SMPTE Demonstrations of Component Coded Digital Video, San Francisco, 1981”, SMPTE Journal, October 1981, pp.926 938.
- ↑ Davidoff, Frank; “Digital Television Coding Standards”, IEE Proceedings, 129, Pt.A., No.7, September 1982, pp.403 412.
- ↑ Nasse, D., Grimaldi, J.L., and Cayet, A; “An Experimental All Digital Television Center”, SMPTE Journal, January 1986, pp. 13 19.
- ↑ ITU Report 801, “The Present State of High Definition Television”, Part 3, “General Considerations of HDTV Systems”, Section 4.3, “Horizontal Sampling”.
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Mars has a striking red appearance, and in its most favorable position for viewing, when it is opposite the sun, it is twice as bright as Sirius, the brightest star. Mars has a diameter of 4,200 mi (6,800 km), just over half the diameter of the earth, and its mass is only 11% of the earth's mass. The planet has a very thin atmosphere consisting mainly of carbon dioxide (95%) with some nitrogen, argon, oxygen, and other gases. Mars has an extreme day-to-night temperature range, resulting from its thin atmosphere, from about 80°F (27°C) at noon to about - 100°F ( - 73°C) at midnight; however, the high daytime temperatures are confined to less than 3 ft (1 m) above the surface.Surface Features
A network of linelike markings first studied in detail (1877) by G. V. Schiaparelli was referred to by him as canali, the Italian word meaning "channels" or "grooves." Percival Lowell, then a leading authority on Mars, created a long-lasting controversy by accepting these "canals" to be the work of intelligent beings. Under the best viewing conditions, however, these features are seen to be smaller, unconnected features. The greater part of the surface area of Mars appears to be a vast desert, dull red or orange in color. This color may be due to various oxides in the surface composition, particularly those of iron. About one fourth to one third of the surface is composed of darker areas whose nature is still uncertain. Shortly after its perihelion Mars has planetwide dust storms that can obscure all its surface details.
Photographs sent back by the Mariner 4 space probe show the surface of Mars to be pitted with a number of large craters, much like the surface of Earth's moon. In 1971 the Mariner 9 space probe discovered a huge canyon, Valles Marineris. Completely dwarfing the Grand Canyon in Arizona, this canyon stretches for 2,500 mi (4,000 km) and at some places is 125 mi (200 km) across and 2 mi (3 km) deep. Mars also has numerous enormous volcanoes—including Olympus Mons (c.370 mi/600 km in diameter and 16 mi/26 km tall), the largest in the solar system—and lava plains. In 1976 the Viking spacecraft landed on Mars and studied sites at Chryse and Utopia. They recorded a desert environment with a reddish surface and a reddish atmosphere. Experiments analyzed soil samples for evidence of microorganisms or other forms of life; none was found, but a reinterpretation (2010) of the results in light of data collected later suggests that organic compounds may have been present. In 1997, Mars Pathfinder landed on Mars and sent a small rover, Sojourner, to take soil samples and pictures. Among the data returned were more than 16,000 images from the lander and 550 images from the rover, as well as more than 15 chemical analyses of rocks and extensive data on winds and other weather factors. Mars Global Surveyor, which also reached Mars in 1997 and remained operational until 2006, returned images produced by its systematic mapping of the surface. The European Space Agency's Mars Express space probe went into orbit around Mars in late 2003 and sent the Beagle 2 lander to the surface, but contact was not established with the lander. In addition to studying Mars itself, the orbiter has also studied Mars's moons. The American rovers Spirit and Opportunity landed successfully in early 2004 and have explored the Martian landscape ( Spirit's last transmission was in 2010). In 2008 NASA's Phoenix lander touched down in the planet's north polar region; it conducted studies for five months. Curiosity, another NASA rover, landed on Mars near its equator in 2012.
Analysis of space probes' data indicates that Mars appears to lack active plate tectonics at present; there is no evidence of recent lateral motion of the surface. With no plate motion, hot spots under the crust stay in a fixed position relative to the surface; this, along with the lower surface gravity, may be the explanation for the giant volcanoes. However, there is no evidence of current volcanic activity.
There is evidence of erosion caused by floods and small river systems as well as evidence of ancient lakebeds. The possible identification of rounded pebbles and cobbles on the ground, and sockets and pebbles in some rocks, suggests conglomerates that formed in running water during a warmer past some 2–4 billion years ago, when liquid water was stable and there was water on the surface, possibly even large lakes or oceans. Rovers have identified minerals believed to have formed in the presence of liquid water. There is also evidence of flooding that occurred less than several million years ago, most likely as the result of the release of water from aquifers deep underground or the melting of ice. However, other evidence suggests that the water would have been extremely salty and acidic. Data received beginning in 2002 from the Mars Odyssey space probe suggests that there is water in sand dunes found in the northern hemisphere, and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which went into orbit around the planet in 2006, collected radar data that indicates the presence of large subsurface ice deposits in the mid-northern latitudes of Mars. Most of the known water on Mars, however, lies in a frozen layer under the planet's large polar ice caps, which themselves consist of water ice and dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide); the lander Phoenix found and observed frozen water beneath the soil surface in the north polar region in 2008.
Because the axis of rotation is tilted about 25° to the plane of revolution, Mars experiences seasons somewhat similar to those of the earth. One of the most apparent seasonal changes is the growing or shrinking of white areas near the poles known as polar caps. These polar caps, which are are composed of water ice and dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide). During the Martian summer the polar cap in that hemisphere shrinks and the dark regions grow darker; in winter the polar cap grows again and the dark regions become paler. The seasonal portion of the ice cap is dry ice. When the ice cap is seasonally warmed, geyserlike jets of carbon dioxide gas mixed with dust and sand erupt from the ice.
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Recreating the Wright Stuff
A full-scale replica of the historic 1903 Wright Flyer was constructed and delivered to NASA's Ames Research Center at Moffett Field, Calif., for wind-tunnel testing during the spring of 1999. During the tests, engineers studied the biplane's stability, control, and handling at speeds up to 27 knots (30 mph) in the wind tunnel. The data obtained was used to build a second Wright Flyer, which was to be flown flown at Kitty Hawk, N.C., on Dec. 17, 2003, on the 100th anniversary of the first flight. Bad weather prevented pilot Kevin Kochersberger from completing the reenactment.
Constructed by a team of volunteers from the Los Angeles section of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), using plans provided by the Smithsonian, the replica features a 40-foot, 4-inch wingspan reinforced with piano wire, cotton wing coverings, spruce propellers, and a double rudder. The second Flyer, with some modifications for safety, was built by the team of volunteers from the AIAA.
Although others had created “flying machines” before them that could barely lift off the ground and were incapable of true flight, the Wright brothers painstakingly worked four years to construct the first power-driven, human-carrying craft that was heavier than air and capable of controlled, sustained flight. After many trials and setbacks, the former bicycle mechanics from Dayton, Ohio, flew into history in their double-winged craft on Dec. 17, 1903, with Orville at the controls and Wilbur running alongside him. The era of the air age began, and the world was never the same. Their invention would create a new industry and revolutionize transportation, commerce, and communication throughout the globe.
In December 1998, President Clinton signed into law the Centennial of Flight Commemoration Act, which established a commission to coordinate the celebration in 2003 of the 100th anniversary of the Wright Brothers' first flight.
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| ||Minding Your Mind || |
Psychiatric Treatment for Preschoolers
Last reviewed and revised on June 17, 2011
By Michael Craig Miller, M.D.
Harvard Medical School
The number of medications prescribed to children ages two to four to treat psychiatric disorders increased dramatically after the early 1990s.
A Delicate Balance
As any parent can attest, the preschool years are a time of tremendous brain development. Between the ages of two and five, children learn to talk, develop hand and eye coordination, and learn how to interact with others.
Brain changes underlie these developments. The number of synapses (connections between brain cells) and neurotransmitter receptors reach their peak at age three, while the brain's metabolic rate peaks between ages three and four.
Clinicians and parents thus face a delicate balancing act when it comes to treating psychiatric disorders, especially in the youngest children. There are risks associated with giving medications, because we don't know exactly what effects psychiatric drugs may have on the developing brain. But there can also be significant risk from not giving medications, because mental disorders also have a negative effect on brain development.
Mental disorders can lead to impaired peer and family relationships and poor school performance. Untreated childhood problems may give way to continuing mental health problems when the child when he or she grows up. And there is evidence that many lifelong psychiatric disorders begin early. A Harvard study published in 2005 estimated that half of all disorders that meet standard criteria for a diagnosis start by age 14.
There is no simple way to tell normal variations in temperament or development from the beginnings of a mental health problem. In practical terms, a child's problems may require medication to ease suffering and help him or her develop normally. Medications may be worth trying especially if non-drug treatments haven't been effective. But it is worth emphasizing that these decisions are almost always very difficult to make in the youngest children.
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Guidance for Three Disorders
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Experts recommend a thorough evaluation to define the problem. This requires reports from parents, teachers and child care providers so that the clinician can assess the child's symptoms in multiple settings. Parents can be taught the best ways to help their children. Whether a child needs medication or not, he or she will probably do better if the parents become comfortable with skills for setting limits and rewarding positive behavior. If parent guidance and psychotherapy are not sufficient to control symptoms, a trial of methylphenidate (Ritalin) or another related drug for six months may be considered. After six months, the doctor can stop the medication to see if the child still needs it, either for controlling symptoms or improving functioning in school. Numerous other medications are available if methylphenidate does not work.
Anxiety disorders (separation anxiety, selective mutism, specific phobia)
In addition to making their own observations, clinicians will have an easier time defining the problem if they can get information from parents, teachers and other caregivers. Sometimes formal rating scales and questionnaires are used during the evaluation. The clinician should also remain alert to co-existing problems, like depression or behavior problems. Available research suggests that psychotherapy may teach a child to better control behavior while also improving self-esteem. So, a course of at least 12 weeks is usually the first intervention to try. If psychotherapy does not provide relief and anxiety symptoms continue to impair the child's functioning, a low dose of fluoxetine (Prozac) or a similar drug can be considered. After six to nine months, the clinician may be able to taper and then stop medication.
Developmental disorders, such as Autism
These children should have formal intelligence tests, plus tests of hearing and language skills. Useful evaluation instruments are the Childhood Autism Rating Scale and the Aberrant Behavior Checklist. Before thinking about medication, a team of helpers may be necessary to coach a child to improve language skills, enhance social development, and reduce repetitive behavior and aggression. Medication may eventually be necessary for children who have severe behavioral problems that interfere with functioning. As with anxiety disorders, the clinician can assess if medication is still needed after six to nine months.
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Maximize Help and Minimize Harm
Here are some useful principles to guide the evaluation and treatment of any problem that comes up in a young child.
- Address diagnostic challenges. Preschoolers vary in terms of development, personality, and communication skills. Diagnostic criteria for adults and older children may not be relevant to preschoolers. When possible, a diagnosis should be made after several visits with the child and only after multiple sources have provided information about the child's progress (the child, parents, teachers, other clinicians).
- Track symptoms and impairment. Before starting any treatment, the clinician and family should work together to define symptoms and any functional impairment, so these can be tracked over time. This will help in assessing whether a particular treatment is working.
- Try psychotherapy first. Various types of psychological interventions are worth trying first, and for a sufficient time, before adding a medication to the mix.
- Once medication has been started, monitor the response. If a child's symptoms do not improve after trying medication, stop the medication. Even when a medication works, plan on discontinuing it for a time to see if the drug is still necessary. (A child's ongoing brain development may correct the underlying problem.) Avoid adding medications to alleviate side effects of other medications.
- Clinicians should invite parents to stay involved. Parents are important partners in care. If parents need help in handling stress, learning better parenting skills or dealing with their own mental health issues, they should be referred to an appropriate practitioner.
When a child has significant mental or behavior trouble, it places a strain on them, the parents, siblings and classmates. Basic principles don't necessarily make life easy. But taking a systematic approach will improve the chances your child will avoid unnecessary troubles, and have the best chance to get needed help.
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Michael Craig Miller, M.D. is editor-in-chief of the Harvard Mental Health Letter and an assistant professor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School. Dr. Miller has an active clinical practice and has been on staff at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center for more than 25 years.
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The pain from kidney stones can be very severe. So it could easily cause you to feel hot, sweaty and flushed. But simply passing a kidney stone should not cause a fever.
When someone is passing a stone or has a stone that is hung up along the urinary tract with a documented fever, my first concern is infection in the kidney (pyelonephritis).
Urine that is either all or partly blocked from flowing freely from the kidney, through the ureter, into the bladder and out the urethra is more prone to bacterial infection. That infection is harder to clear because the normal flushing action is disrupted.
Antibiotics alone may not be enough. A specialist (urologist) will evaluate the situation with a CT scan and/or a kidney ultrasound. Then he or she will decide if something must be done immediately to drain the infection.
Here are potential options:
- A tube is placed in the kidney to drain the infection.
- The stone is removed by going in through the urethra, through the bladder, and into the ureter containing the stone. The stone is pulled out. This is performed in the operating room.
- The stone could be broken into small pieces with shock waves (lithotripsy).
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- 1. A royal seat, or chair of state. The king sits "upon the throne of his kingdom" (Deut. xvii. 18). Pharaoh delegated full power toJoseph to rule over Egypt; "only in the throne will I be greater than thou" (Gen. xli. 40). The royal throne is sometimes designated as "the throne of the kings" (Jer. lii. 32). The most magnificent throne was that of Solomon (see Jew. Encyc. xi. 441 et seq.; J. S. Kolbo made a model of Solomon's throne and exhibited it in New York city in 1888). The throne, like the crown, was a symbol of sovereign power and dignity. It was also the tribunal, the "throne of judgment" (Prov. xx. 8), where the king decided matters of law and disputes among his subjects. Thus "throne" is synonymous with "justice."
- 2. The Throne, the abode of God, known as "Kisse ha-Kabod" (the Throne of Glory), from which God manifests His majesty and glory. Micaiah "saw the Lord sitting on his throne, and all the hosts of heaven standing by him on his right hand and on his left" (I Kings xxii. 19; compare the vision of Isaiah [vi. 1] with that of Ezekiel [x. 1]). The throne of God is Heaven (Isa. lxvi. 1); in future it will be Jerusalem (Jer. iii. 17), and even the Sanctuary (Jer. xvii. 12). Thus the idea of the majestic manifestation of God gradually crystallized in the cabalistic expression "koaḥ ha-ẓimẓum" (the power of concentration). God's Throne is the symbol of righteousness; "justice and judgment are the habitation of thy throne" (Ps. lxxxix. 15 [A. V. 14]).
The Throne of Glory is an important feature in the Cabala. It is placed at the highest point of the universe (Ḥag. 12b); and is of the same color as the sky—purple-blue, like the "sapphire stone" which Ezekiel saw and which had previously been perceived by the Israelites (Ex. xxiv. 10; Soṭah 17a). Like the Torah, it was created before the world (Pes. 54a). R. Eliezer said that the souls of the righteous are concealed under the Throne (Shab. 152b). When Moses ascended to heaven to receive the Torah the angels objected, whereupon God told him to hold on to the Throne and defend his action (Shab. 88b). It is asserted that the likeness of Jacob is engraved on the Throne of Glory (Zohar, Wayiggash, p. 211a). For the throne of Elijah see Elijah's Chair.
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Can You Protect
In the 3rd century, when Rome dominated Europe, it was able to deploy 50 legions throughout the empire, securing even the furthermost areas. By the following century the empire had lost much of its muscle, however, and Rome's forces had diminished to just 25 legions. Emperor Constantine's problem: How to station legions in sufficient strength to protect the most forward positions of the empire without abandoning the core--namely Rome. He devised a new defensive strategy to cope with Rome's reduced power.
The problem is not "solved" in a mathematical sense, but a set of rules exists that defines when a solution is acceptable. Once you understand the rules, you can attempt to see if you can improve on Constantine's choice of deployment.
A region, then, may be thought of as either secured or securable. It is considered to be secured if it has one or more pebbles placed in it already. It is considered securable if a pebble can be deployed to that region in a single step. At any shift or movement from a region, two pebbles must initially be present together before one of them can be launched. That is, a pebble can only be deployed if it moves from an adjacent region where there is already another pebble to help launch it. This is analogous to the island hopping strategy pursued by General MacArthur in World War II in the Pacific theater--where movement only followed the chain of islands (secured areas).
Now that you know the rules, the challenge is to place just four pebbles in the eight regions of the empire.
Here is another alternative, not necessarily better than Constantine's strategy, but it gives you an idea of possibilities. We will place one pebble in Gaul, two in Rome, and one in Constantinople. Britain can now be reached in two steps (a pebble from Rome to Gaul and a pebble from Gaul to Britain), better for Britain than before. However, Asia Minor is now not reachable in one step, but two (from Rome to Constantinople and Constantinople to Asia Minor). All the rest of the empire is reachable in just one step. It is not clear that this is better than Constantine's strategy. Although the number of steps to the worst-off nodes has been reduced to two, the number of regions more than one step away has gone from one to two.
Can you improve on Constantine's solution?
If you can keep the number of nodes that can't be reached in one step to just one, and can reduce the maximum number of steps to reach that node to a number less than four, then you have done better than Constantine. Of course, you hit the jackpot if you can make all regions either initially secure or reachable in one step, given the rules.
I will tell you that it is possible to do better than Constantine, but I won't tell you how. If you do have success at allocating the pebbles, you should think about the consequences of a second war occurring somewhere in the empire. Of the situations you create, which would be better in the event of a second war at one of the unsecured regions? The answer, which I mailed in early February, is in a sealed envelope in the desk drawer of editor Sue De Pasquale. She has agreed to publish it in the next issue of the Johns Hopkins Magazine.
A final footnote
RETURN TO APRIL 1997 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
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Work began on the Saint Louis Municipal Bridge in 1909. Piers were built, and steel was ordered. The three main steel spans were in place by 1912. At that time, funding ran out, and three successive bonding issues failed to pass during elections. As a result, the bridge sat without the approaches being built. The only part that was finished was the 6-foot wide walkway, which hung off the downstream side of the structure (it has since been removed, but the brackets that supported the walkway are still in place and visible in one of the photos below). Several hundred people a day crossed the bridge on foot. Funding kicked in again after several years, and the roadway on the upper deck was competed. Now known as the Free Bridge, it opened to auto traffic in 1917. The city and the TRRA were still feuding, so the TRRA put a de facto boycott on the bridge. It was not until 1928 that an agreement was reached, and trains started to use the lower deck. The bridge was in full operation by 1931.
Despite being a city owned "Free Bridge", a small toll was added in 1932. The money was used for depression relief. The bridge was renamed the General Douglas MacArthur Bridge in 1942 after the famous general. The bridge was designated as the route for US-66 from 1929 to 1935, having taken over that role from the McKinley Bridge, and then giving it up to the Chain Of Rocks Bridge. It was designated City US-66 from 1936 to 1955.
By 1981, the upper deck roadway had deteriorated to the point that it had to be closed. Later, a section of the upper deck was removed for safety reasons. The roadway remains closed today, with the approaches on the Illinois side being long bypassed by the tangle of freeways and ramps in the area. In 2006, more work was being done to the roadway, perhaps the remainder is being removed.
The City of Saint Louis is not interested in running railroad bridges, so in 1989, the MacArthur and Eads bridges were swapped between the city and the TRRA. The idea was that the TRRA would run the MacArthur as a railroad bridge, while the city would rebuild and operate the dual use Eads bridge.
The photo above is looking south along Leonor K. Sullivan Blvd, which runs along the riverfront in front of the Gateway Arch. The image below is a vintage postcard featuring the bridge when it was known as the Municipal Bridge prior to 1942. Given that the upper deck is in use in this postcard, it is probably an early 1930's view.
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Anyone remember the 19th century adage, “Sticks and stones can break your bones, but words can never hurt you?” I think we’ve all had an experience that has proven this wrong. Words can and do hurt and are unacceptable. But what if what we think the words we’re using are helpful? What if they aren’t? Research conducted by Carole Dweck from Stanford University makes the case that people develop growth mindsets or fixed mindsets based in part on the words they hear growing up. A fixed mindset believes intelligence is something you have, and can’t be changed much. A growth mindset believes that no matter what kind of person you are, you can always change. Success then is not about proving you’re smart or talented, it’s about stretching yourself to learn something new. Developing yourself. Failure then, becomes a learning experience and not something that confirms your intelligence. Dweck believes mindsets are a choice; they are beliefs that are shaped by the words we hear from others and internalize to ourselves.
Consider this phrase, “I’m proud of you”. As a parent and educator, I’ve said it many times. What could possibly be the problem? Consider a study by Melissa Kamins and Carol Dweck conducted with kindergarten students. They found that phrases like “I’m proud of you”, had the same effect on students as the phrase, “I’m disappointed in you.” It’s just the other end of the same conversation. The research goes on to state that if we say, “I’m proud of you” when children are successful, they often fill in the other end of the conversation and begin to believe we are disappointed in them when they are unsuccessful.
The moral of the story (says Peter Johnston in his book Opening Minds) is: don’t use person-oriented praise. Instead, use process-oriented feedback. So “I’m proud of you” becomes: “You tried really hard” or “You found a good way to do it; could you think of other ways that would also work?” Small changes in language can be significant in whether we see our lives (and performances) as “fixed” and therefore out of our control or “changeable” and in our control. We’re not suggesting that praise is always bad or that we stop completely. Rather, the suggestion is that we begin to look at feedback and critiques as opportunities to learn and grow. That we consider intelligence as something that can be improved with effort.
Little things can add up to make big differences. Consider giving feedback in place of praise. Norman Vincent Peale felt strongly about this and said, “The trouble with most of us is that we’d rather be ruined by praise, than saved by criticism.”
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(NewsUSA) - For teens, peer pressure or wanting to escape emotional stress can often lead to prescription drug experimentation, which in turn can lead to abuse, addiction and sometimes a drug overdose.
According to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 70 percent of children age 12 and older say they got prescription drugs, not from a drug dealer, but from a friend or relative.
"Each day, more than 2,000 teens begin abusing prescription medications, believing that doctor-prescribed medicine is safer to experiment with than illegal drugs," says Steve Pasierb, president and CEO of The Partnership at Drugfree.org. "Parents and grandparents take great pains to prevent poisoning in young children by keeping household chemicals out of the reach," according to Pasierb. "The same approach needs to be taken to safeguard medications in the home."
The first step is to get informed about the dangers and know how to intervene. The website www.RxSafetyMatters.org provides information to parents and community groups on how to prevent prescription drug abuse.
Tips for parents include:
* Learn to recognize the signs of abuse. Warning signs include sudden mood swings, changes in social circles, secretive behavior, excessive sleeping and a loss of interest in appearance or hobbies. Symptoms often occur in clusters.
* Monitor your medications. Keep a detailed record of which prescription drugs you have in your home and the remaining number of pills. Store your medications in a secure location. If you have medications that you no longer need or have expired, dispose of them properly.
* Educate others. Talk to your relatives, neighbors and other parents in households where your children spend time. Grandparents' homes are frequently a source of pills, simply because older people take more medications. Talk to the PTA at your teen's school, and encourage others to take preventive steps to prevent prescription drug abuse.
* Talk to your children, and listen for clues. Make sure your children understand the dangers of misusing prescription medications -- but avoid providing information about which drugs are popular to abuse. Listen to your kids, and always ask these questions: "Who are they meeting, what will they be doing, and where will they be?"
To learn more about how to prevent prescription drug abuse, download the free "Parents Guide to Understanding Prescription Drug Abuse" at www.RxSafetyMatters.org. Purdue Pharma L.P. developed www.RxSafetyMatters.org as a public service to help combat prescription drug abuse.
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Cool Things - Moon Rocks
A little piece of the moon is in Kansas in the form of these rocks brought to earth by Apollo 11.
When the Apollo 11 spacecraft left the Earth in July 1969, among the items it carried were small flags from each U.S. state, including Kansas. These flags later landed on the moon and traveled across its surface in the lunar module with the astronauts. The flags eventually returned to our planet along with numerous samples of material from the moon's surface.
NASA's purpose in carrying state flags to the moon was to return each to its home state along with a gift of lunar particles (crystalline rock, breccia, and glass) collected from the Sea of Tranquility. These mementoes of the country's first successful manned mission to the moon were mounted in a special walnut stand and presented to each governor. Kansas' flag and moon rocks were received by Governor Robert Docking from President Richard Nixon at the White House in December 1969.
The inscription printed on a plate at the base of the stand reads, "This flag of your state was carried to the moon and back by Apollo 11, and this fragment of the moon's surface was brought to Earth by the crew of that first manned lunar landing." The stand and its three particles of moon rock are on display in the main gallery of the Kansas Museum of History.
Although no Kansans accompanied Apollo 11 into space, a native was among the original astronauts chosen for the Apollo program. Ron Evans, born in St. Francis, Kansas, was a member of the capsule's support crew. A few years after the successful completion of the Apollo 11 mission, Evans served as Command Module Pilot for Apollo 17. This was the U.S.' last manned lunar landing, in 1972. Evans later donated a number of commemorative items illustrative of his career to the museum.
Entry: Cool Things - Moon Rocks
Author: Kansas Historical Society
Author information: The Kansas Historical Society is a state agency charged with actively safeguarding and sharing the state's history.
Date Created: October 2006
Date Modified: March 2013
The author of this article is solely responsible for its content.
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How safe is your password?
The first step in protecting your online privacy is creating a safe password - i.e. one that a computer program or persistent individual won't easily be able to guess in a short period of time. To help you choose a secure password, we've created a feature that lets you know visually how safe your password is as soon as you create it.
Tips for creating a secure password:
Things to avoid:
- Include punctuation marks and/or numbers.
- Mix capital and lowercase letters.
- Include similar looking substitutions, such as the number zero for the letter 'O' or ' for the letter 'S'.
- Create a unique acronym.
- Include phonetic replacements, such as 'Luv 2 Laf' for 'Love to Laugh'.
Tips for keeping your password secure:
- Don't use a password that is listed as an example of how to pick a good password.
- Don't use a password that contains personal information (name, username, birth date, etc.)
- Don't use words or acronyms that can be found in a dictionary.
- Don't use keyboard patterns (asdf) or sequential numbers (1234).
- Don't make your password all numbers, uppercase letters or lowercase letters.
- Don't use repeating characters (aa11).
- Never tell your password to anyone (this includes significant others, roommates, parrots, etc.).
- Never write your password down.
- Never send your password by email.
- Periodically test your current password and change it to a new one.
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Medieval and early modern inquisitions were major forces within their host societies not only locally but also regionally and even internationally, with an impact that often went well beyond strict enforcement of church discipline through trial and punishment. The very fact of an inquisitorial tribunal’s existence as a looming institutional presence, whether sporadically in some early times and rural places or more continuously in early modern urban centers, could not fail to affect the behaviors and mentalities of entire populations even in the absence of actual prosecutions. But inquisitions were also mundane corporate entities, struggling like all such bodies to efficiently make and execute policy while staying more or less within a budget. As they evolved, too, inquisitions developed significant financial roles within local economies as well as political influence at courts both secular and ecclesiastical. From any number of historical perspectives it is therefore well worth examining the various sorts of administrative documents produced by and around these complex organizations—from the day-to-day running of a tribunal’s affairs as evidenced by public edicts and financial records, to the shifting nature and concerns of the inquisitorial project itself as reflected in high-level policy statements and internal communications.
As a general rule, inquisitors took pains to ensure broad awareness of their disciplinary mandate through the issuance of formal public announcements. In medieval times sermons were given to proclaim the arrival of an inquisitorial visitation, to explicate the types of offences being investigated, and to offer those in attendance a limited “period of grace” in which to voluntarily come forward and confess their own (and their neighbors’) crimes.1 Early modern tribunals maintained this practice, though in time grace periods were often abandoned; “edicts of grace” [INQ 556] were gradually replaced by increasingly lengthy “edicts of faith” that focused instead on an exhaustive listing of sinful behaviors.2 By the seventeenth century inquisitors had begun to convey such messages with the help of more or less standardized printed texts which could be nailed to a church door after their initial proclamation [INQ 288, INQ 389].3 Edicts of faith were in principle to be read (and then posted) on an annual basis at Lent, accompanied in some cases by the 1569 bull Si de protegendis, which warned of dire consequences awaiting all those who dared oppose the inquisitors [INQ 207, INQ 208, INQ 214].4
Other edicts would follow these initial notices, intended to alert specific audiences of significant new inquisitorial directives requiring action on their part. Thus, Mexican priests were informed in 1620 of inquisitors’ claims to jurisdiction over certain offences which might come to light in the confessional [INQ 217]; a later edict notified their parishioners that unauthorized private religious devotion had recently come under inquisitorial scrutiny [INQ 242]. Opposition to the Jesuits and other religious orders, manifested in polemical attacks, was regularly denounced in papal and inquisitorial memoranda [INQ 222, INQ 264, INQ 276]. Such circulars were essentially addenda to the fuller lists of offences contained in the edicts of faith. Inquisitors themselves, too, sometimes required admonitions to comply with directives issued by the Suprema in the form of manuscript or printed cartas acordadas [INQ 220].5 And in a further effort to ensure compliance, monastic houses were repeatedly commanded to ensure that all papal bulls relating to the inquisition were read out on an annual basis [INQ 326, INQ 226, INQ 228, INQ 229]. For those who heeded such edicts, behaved appropriately, and went through the proper channels, the inquisition could become a source not only of warnings and punishments but also of spiritual rewards—including certificates of indulgence issued by the inquisitor general himself [INQ 224].
Whether conducting full-fledged heresy trials or merely issuing warning edicts and indulgences, inquisitions incurred expenses and required sources of income. The question of inquisitorial finance has long interested scholars, and the extensive haciend records at the Archivo Histórico Nacional in Madrid have been subjected to preliminary surveys though much work still remains to be done.6 It is now generally agreed that while confiscations of prisoners’ goods and estates may have brought important revenues (particularly in the early days of the Spanish tribunals, and in special cases such as mass arrests of New Christian merchants in the seventeenth century), inquisitions were rarely profitable money making ventures.7 Day to day expenses could be met thanks to income from church benefices set aside for the purpose, so inquisitors had to be knowledgeable about the state of ecclesiastical resources in the regions to which they were assigned [INQ 5]. As time went on, revenues from seizures, royal grants or other sources were also regularly invested in real estate as a means of producing censo income.8 Yet spiraling personnel costs and extravagant auto de fe ceremonies ensured that many tribunals were perpetually short of cash or in debt.
It was thus essential, whenever possible, that monies be well managed. The few financial documents in the Notre Dame Inquisition Collection hint at some aspects of this management, which is much more fully documented in larger archival collections: these include property transactions and inventories of seized property [INQ 4, INQ 237]. A scattering of rare documents from the Peruvian inquisition provides especially interesting glimpses of day to day expenses in a New World tribunal: food, medicine, and even tobacco all had to be purchased and provided to prisoners on a regular basis [INQ 570, INQ 575, INQ 579]. While prisoners were generally expected to fund their own expenses [INQ 572], there were always cases of indigence. Furthermore, in some instances prisoners would eventually be released and appeal for partial or full return of their confiscated property [INQ 574].
It must also be borne in mind that inquisitors and their staffs were not only agents of a persecutory spiritual tribunal, but also were likely to be knowledgeable and well-connected members of the local elites among whom they resided. As such, they were sometimes drawn into legal and financial conflicts that might have little to do with the business of inquisition per se [INQ 17, INQ 568]. In relatively underdeveloped settings such as colonial Peru, inquisitors’ familiarity with legal and religious affairs may have made their intervention all the more desirable for clerical or university colleagues dealing with complex financial issues such as the execution of a will or a bankruptcy [INQ 573, INQ 580].
Over time, inquisitorial policies evolved and changed to deal with changing circumstances. In some cases this involved purely internal reflections on best practice, but change was also often prompted by pressure from outside forces such as the papacy or secular rulers. From the earliest decades of the Spanish inquisition’s establishment in the eastern regions of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia, for example, fierce debates raged over the extent to which inquisitorial privileges and practices could be made to accommodate local privileges or fueros dating back to medieval times [INQ 206].9 The Spanish monarchy played a major role in these disputes, and thereafter royal support for (and therefore potential control over) the inquisition was to prove an important consideration throughout its history [INQ 10].10
Spanish kings might issue orders commanding that greater inquisitorial attention be paid to certain crimes [INQ 233], and they could also alter tax exemptions and other privileges which facilitated the tribunals’ day to day functioning [INQ 322, INQ 340]. Similar advisories calling for alteration of inquisitorial practice were issued from the Papal Curia [INQ 15]; these could be dead letters but as long as they were endorsed by the inquisitors themselves they were duly implemented [INQ 324, INQ 332, INQ 358, INQ 392]. In Portugal too, kings did not hesitate to make agreements limiting inquisitorial prosecution of some valued subjects when it suited them, only to cancel those same agreements when circumstances changed [INQ 241].11 Royal intervention would become especially marked after the accession of the Bourbon dynasty in 1700, and indeed Philip V did not hesitate to use his Spanish inquisitors as allies in the suppression of pro-Habsburg Catalan resistance movements, which included many priests [INQ 286, INQ 294, INQ 297].12
Not all policies were imposed by powerful external forces. The theological and legal merits of whether or not to enforce limpieza de sangre statutes, for example, were considered at length even by relatively low-level inquisition officials [INQ 232].13 Inquisitors similarly took both theoretical and practical points into consideration when determining the desirability of allowing local clergy in jubilee years to grant absolutions for crimes that normally fell under inquisitorial jurisdiction; this decision was communicated in a series of eighteenth-century edicts [INQ 345, INQ 356, INQ 366, INQ 388]. Nevertheless, royal control remained significant to the very end, and inquisitors could at times be treated for all intents and purposes as civil servants subject entirely to royal commands [INQ 38, INQ 396, INQ 398]. At the dawn of the nineteenth century, it was the king who determined the inquisition’s repressive attitude toward Jews [INQ 394]. Conversely, policies and procedures originally worked out by inquisitorial courts would in some instances continue to echo within the civil service and related organizations long after inquisition tribunals themselves had been abolished [INQ 28].
And, like all working organizations, inquisitions generated a great deal of internal communication which was not intended for the public eye. Vast quantities of relaciones de causa and other official correspondence were regularly filed by local tribunals and their vistators and sent on to a central overseeing body (in Spain the Suprema); today these form the basis of most scholarship on inquisitorial trials.14 Initiatives such as the proposed establishment of a new tribunal office in the South American colony of Buenos Aires generated further exchanges of information, in this case (1636) between the existing hierarchies of Lima and Madrid [INQ 571]. More ephemeral updates and consultations were also shared among inquisition comisarios and other personnel facing practical difficulties in the course of their work [INQ 267, INQ 120]. Such materials have the potential to reveal the inner functioning of inquisitions in practically every region, period, and variety of situation.
This holds true even for communications that were entirely unconcerned with the prosecution of heresy trials. As representatives of a powerful Church establishment with privileged access to royal court circles, inquisitors could play a major role in diplomacy and international affairs; information gathering (and even spying) was therefore a necessity. The Spanish Holy Office maintained agents at the Papal Curia throughout the early modern period [INQ 7].15 It was thus only natural for a pope to call upon an inquisitor general for assistance in effecting a rapprochement between James I of England and the Spanish Crown in 1623 [INQ 221]. When Rome found itself pitted against a pro-Bourbon Suprema during the War of the Spanish Succession, a new flurry of dispatches was generated to keep cardinals such as Vincenzo Grimani, otherwise better known for his patronage of musicians such as G. F. Handel and Alessandro Scarlatti, up-to-date with developments in the peninsula [INQ 583, INQ 584, INQ 21, INQ 22, INQ 23, INQ 24]. Nor did political tensions or religious differences prevent inquisitor general Guidice from communicating with British diplomats in the same period; a man in his position needed to stay well informed at the center of political affairs.16 These sorts of documents have the potential to reveal further untold dimensions of the special roles played by inquisitions and their officers within European and world history.
A final type of policy debate was unleashed in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century as different jurisdictions began to abolish the various inquisitions (see Polemics and histories). In Spain, first Napoleon and then the Cortes of Cádiz moved to close the tribunals; the latter vigorously insisted on its right to act in this matter and denounced efforts by the Papal Nuncio to prevent it [INQ 407, INQ 410]. In 1813 the command was thus formally issued to remove inquisitorial records and memorabilia (such as the hated sanbenitos) from local churches and monasteries [INQ 408, INQ 409]. Yet the same Cortes did not countenance giving free reign to all forms of belief and unbelief, and orders were given for the continuance of punishments for heresy even in the absence of a formal inquisition structure [INQ 411]. Competing edicts continued to fly with the short-lived re-establishment of a Spanish inquisition by king Ferdinand VII in 1814 [INQ 413], and to some extent one could describe its final decades as a long drawn-out process of death by paperwork.
Inquisition documents relating to policy, procedures and other types of administrative functioning thus constitute a vast and extremely varied set of sources for further research. It is also however this very vastness and variety which make them so challenging to use; each type of document must be comprehended on its own terms, and placed within an organizational as well as a historical context, which is extremely difficult if not impossible to fully reconstruct. For this reason many scholars have avoided fully exploring the potential of documents whose immediate relevance to major topics in inquisition studies (lives of the accused, types of trial process and torture, censorship, etc.) is not always evident. Yet, while in some ways tangential to the fulfillment of inquisitors’ overall goals of combatting heresy, these documents demonstrate the many important ways in which such ideological struggles took place amid other more mundane distractions and concerns. From the tedium of daily business to the chessboard moves of high politics, they thus represent the some of the most crucial—though also the most challenging—of avenues through which to study inquisition history in all its nuance and complexity.
The Inquisition Collection at the University of Notre Dame contains dozens of items that can be used to study the actual day to day organizational structures and functioning of inquisitorial tribunals. Similar documentation can be found in a variety of library collections, but the bulk of inquisitorial administrative documents remain in archives such as the Archivo Histórico Nacional in Madrid.
INQ 207. Translation of papal bull Si de protegendis, Rome 1569(?).
INQ 208. Translation of papal bull Si de protegendis, Mexico 1569.
INQ 214. Translation of papal bull Si de protegendis, Logroño 1609.
INQ 556. Edict of grace announced at Logroño 1611.
INQ 217. Edict notifying local confessors of inquisitorial jurisdiction, Mexico 1620.
INQ 220. Carta acordada forbidding inquisitors from publicly disparaging individual lineage (limpieza) claims, Madrid 1622.
INQ 222. Edict confirming papal support for the Jesuit Order and condemning anti-Jesuit claims, Seville 1625.
INQ 224. Indulgence certificate issued by inquisitor-general Sotomayor, Madrid 1632.
INQ 326. Edict ordering annual reading of papal bulls relating to inquisition in all monasteries, Madrid 1633.
INQ 226. Edict ordering annual reading of papal bulls relating to inquisition in all monasteries, Madrid 1634.
INQ 228. Edict ordering annual reading of papal bulls relating to inquisition in all monasteries, Madrid 1635.
INQ 229. Edict ordering annual reading of papal bulls relating to inquisition in all monasteries, Madrid 1635.
INQ 242. Edict condemning illicit private religious gatherings and other devotional acts, Mexico 1659.
INQ 264. Edict condemning attacks on religious orders (first issued 1634), Madrid 1688.
INQ 276. Edict condemning attacks on religious orders (first issued 1634), Madrid 1696.
INQ 288. Edict of faith announced at Valencia 1700.
INQ 389. Edict of faith announced at Cádiz 1776, with anathema, abjuration and absolution formulae.
INQ 4. Property transfer involving inquisition prison, 1513.
INQ 5. Inventory of clerical benefices and properties, Seville 1559.
INQ 568. Petition for inquisitors’ intervention in a financial dispute, Peru 1598.
INQ 570. Tobacco and food expenses for inquisitorial prison, Peru 1622.
INQ 572. Assignment of confiscated property to cover imprisonment expenses, Peru 1637.
INQ 237. Demand for information relating to confiscated estates, Mexico 1642.
INQ 573. Inquisition orders for payment by executors of a will, Peru 1656.
INQ 574. Consideration of petition regarding compensation for confiscated books, Peru 1662.
INQ 575. Medical expenses for inquisitorial prison, Peru 1678.
INQ 17. Letter of thanks to inquisitor for assistance in a legal dispute, Madrid 1682.
INQ 579. Food expenses for inquisitorial prison, Peru 1755.
INQ 580. Inquisition order for funds transfer from a bankruptcy case to university in Lima, Peru 1780.
INQ 567. Fragment of a royal financial document, Peru 1811.
INQ 206. Royal notice of 1568 concerning limits of inquisitorial jurisdiction in Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia, as determined at the 1564 corts of Monzón.
INQ 10. Collection of Spanish inquisition policy documents communicated to the king, ca. 1625.
INQ 232. Brief by an inquisition notary in favor of limpieza statute, Granada 1638.
INQ 233. Royal order for inquisitorial and other prosecutions of illicit oaths, Madrid 1639.
INQ 241. Cancellation of agreement between Portuguese crown and merchants convicted of judaizing, Lisbon 1657.
INQ 15. Papal decree revising inquisitorial jurisdiction over religious orders, Rome 1660.
INQ 286. Edict denouncing pro-Habsburg clergy, Seville 1706(?).
INQ 294. Edict denouncing pro-Habsburg clergy, Madrid 1706.
INQ 297. Edict denouncing pro-Habsburg clergy, Zaragoza 1707.
INQ 322. Royal decree on various exemptions and policies, including some touching on inquisition, Madrid 1728.
INQ 324. Endorsement of papal decree revising inquisitorial jurisdiction over religious orders (first issued 1660), Madrid 1732.
INQ 332. Endorsement of papal edict condemning freemasonry, Madrid 1738.
INQ 340. Royal decree on various exemptions and policies, including some touching on inquisition, Alcalá 1743.
INQ 345. Edict on absolution by non-inquisition clergy in jubilee years, Seville 1746.
INQ 356. Edict on absolution by non-inquisition clergy in jubilee years, Madrid 1751.
INQ 358. Endorsement of earlier papal bulls against heresy, Valencia 1757.
INQ 366. Edict on absolution by non-inquisition clergy in jubilee years, Valencia 1759.
INQ 388. Edict on absolution by non-inquisition clergy in jubilee years, Seville 1776.
INQ 391. Royal decrees on inquisitorial jurisdiction, Alcalá 1783.
INQ 392. Endorsement of papal authorization for almsgivers to consume meat during Lent, Mexico 1793.
INQ 38. Collection of legal, administrative and inquisitorial documents, Mexico 18th century.
INQ 394. Royal decree on inquisition treatment of Jews, Madrid 1802.
INQ 396. Royal policy on inquisitorial jurisdiction, Madrid 1804.
INQ 398. Royal policy on inquisitorial jurisdiction, Madrid 1806.
INQ 28. Copy of an 1815 royal document on eligibility criteria for membership in military orders, including limpieza and family history free of inquisitorial prosecutions, Havana 1859.
INQ 7. Dispatches from Spanish inquisition agents in Rome, 1596-1610.
INQ 221. Letter from Pope Gregory XV to Inquisitor General Pacheco concerning Anglo-Spanish diplomatic relations, Rome 1623.
INQ 571. Suprema correspondence with Lima tribunal concerning possible establishment of new inquisition at Buenos Aires, 1636.
INQ 267. Letter to inquisition comisario containing updates on a case in Elche, 1689.
INQ 120. Letter to inquisition comisario containing updates on cases in Elche, 1690.
INQ 583. Notes on pro-Bourbon inquisition involvement in War of the Spanish Succession, Rome 1707(?).
INQ 584. Notes on pro-Bourbon inquisition involvement in War of the Spanish Succession, Rome 1707(?).
INQ 21. Copy of report to Rome on pro-Bourbon inquisition involvement in War of the Spanish Succession, Barcelona 1707(?).
INQ 22. Translation of report to Rome on pro-Bourbon inquisition involvement in War of the Spanish Succession, Barcelona 1707(?).
INQ 23. Notes on pro-Bourbon inquisition involvement in War of the Spanish Succession, Barcelona 1707(?).
INQ 24. Copy of an inquisition decree enjoining allegiance to Philip V (part of a larger internal report), Barcelona 1707(?).
Documents relating to abolition:
INQ 408. Cortes order to remove inquisition records from churches and monasteries, Cádiz 1813.
INQ 409. Cortes order to remove inquisition records from churches and monasteries, Cádiz 1813.
INQ 411. Cortes policy on maintenance of punishments for heresy despite having abolished the inquisition, Cádiz 1813.
INQ 410. Collection of documents relating to the abolition of the Spanish inquisition, ca. 1813.
INQ 407. Condemnation of papal nuncio for interference in efforts to abolish the inquisition, Cádiz 1813.
INQ 413. Royal proclamation restoring the Spanish inquisition, Mallorca 1814.
1 Henry Charles Lea, A history of the inquisition of the middle ages (1887; repr. New York 1955), vol. 1, pp. 371-372. The grace period typically varied from about 15 to 40 days.
2 Inquisitorial edicts (including the revival of edicts of grace ca. 1610 for Basque witches, and a reproduction of a 1663 Catalan edict of faith) are discussed at length in Francisco Bethencourt, The Inquisition: a global history, 1478-1834 (1995; tr. Jean Birrell, Cambridge 2009), pp. 174-210. One major aspect of their content is still more closely studied in Charles Amiel, “Crypto-Judaïsme et Inquisition. La ‘matière juive’ dans les édits de la foi des Inquisitions ibériques” in Revue de l’histoire des Religions 210:2 (1993), pp. 145-188. On edicts relating specifically to book censorship, see Censorship
3 Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (New Haven 1997), pp. 174-175 points out that edicts of grace also enjoyed a brief revival in the context of Valencian anti-morisco investigations of the later sixteenth century, and that the Spanish edicts of faith only became standardized around 1630. A sample text of the latter is printed in J. Jiménez Montserín, Introducción a la Inquisición española (Madrid 1980), pp. 503-535.
4 Readings of Si de protegendis became mandatory in Spain from 1637 but it was clearly used to reinforce inquisitorial authority long before that date; Bethencourt, Inquisition p. 180.
6 Pioneering work was done by Henry Charles Lea, A History of the Inquisition of Spain (1906; repr. London 1922), vol. 2, pp. 315-456. More recently, see José Martínez Millán, La Hacienda de la Inquisición (1478-1700) (Madrid 1984) and ibid., “Structures of Inquisitorial Finance” in Ángel Alcalá (ed.), The Spanish Inquisition and the Inquisitorial Mind (Highland Lakes 1987), pp. 159-176.
7 Stephen Haliczer describes the disappointing results of an early eighteenth-century crackdown on New Christian tobacco barons in Inquisition and Society in the Kingdom of Valencia 1478-1834 (Berkeley 1990), pp. 232-234. For more successful prosecutions of wealthy converso merchants in Mexico see Stanley Hordes, “The Inquisition as Economic and Political Agent: The Campaign of the Mexican Holy Office against the Crypto-Jews in the mid-Seventeenth Century” in The Americas 39:1 (1982), pp. 23-38.
8 Censos, essentially a system of annual rental payments, were a major feature of the Iberian financial system throughout the early modern period and regularly relied upon by religious establishments. For a detailed study of their use in colonial Peru, see Kathryn Burns, Colonial Habits (Durham 1999).
9 Kamen, Spanish Inquisition p. 147.
10 The issue of jurisdiction is examined in great detail by Lea, History of the Inquisition of Spain vol. 1, pp. 427-526.
11 The 1649 suspension of proceedings against alleged Portuguese judaizers, on condition that they invest in Brazilian trade, is noted in Bethencourt, Inquisition p. 371; for further information on this venture see David Smith, “Old Christian Merchants and the Foundation of the Brazil Company, 1649” in The Hispanic American Historical Review 54:2 (1974), pp. 233-259.
12 Lea, History of the Inquisition of Spain vol. 4, pp. 275-276.
15 E.g. London, British Library, MS Add. 28703L for original letters from Spanish ambassadors at Rome to inquisitor general Espinosa, dated 1566-1572. Several other volumes in the same library contain similar materials.
16 See London, British Library, MSS Egerton 2170-2175 (original correspondence of George Bubb, Envoy Extraordinary in Spain 1714-1718).
To cite this essay:
Vose, Robin. “Introduction to inquisition policies and proceedings documents.” Hesburgh Libraries of Notre Dame, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections. University of Notre Dame, 2010. <http://www.library.nd.edu/rarebooks/digital_projects/inquisition/collections/RBSC-INQ:COLLECTION/essays/RBSC-INQ:ESSAY_PoliciesAndProceedings>
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What is an emergency medicine specialist and what do they do?
Emergency medicine specialists, also called emergency physicians or emergency room (ER) doctors, are trained in acute illnesses or injuries that need immediate medical attention. They diagnose and treat a variety of illnesses and stabilize patients to prepare them for additional care (such as surgery) or for release after treatment. Emergency medicine doctors typically practice in hospital emergency rooms or other emergency-care facilities, as well as urgent care facilities.
The knowledge base of emergency medicine specialists is very broad, as they need vast education and training in aspects of anesthesiology, cardiology, surgery, plastic surgery, orthopedics and other specialties. Their training, however, emphasizes stabilization of the critically ill patient. Education includes four years of medical school followed by 3-5 years of specialty training. They are certified after an examination administered by the American Board of Emergency Medicine.What sort of emergencies require a trip to the ER?
ER doctors must be quick on their feet and able to make split-second decisions. A constant flow of patients with illness or trauma present themselves to the ER day and night. Emergency medicine specialists work quickly to evaluate, stabilize, diagnose and treat the problems they encounter. They may see diseases or injuries ranging from a broken finger to a cocaine overdose, from gunshot wounds to severe infections, and from blunt trauma from motor vehicle accidents to heart attack, cardiac arrest, stroke and even delivering babies. Part of the daily duties might include reading X-rays, performing screening examinations, suturing lacerations, and examining victims of sexual assault. Also, it is common for other physicians to refer their patients to the ER when they feel the patient needs emergent treatment. It is the responsibility of the emergency physician to inform family and loved ones should the patient not survive their illness or injury.
ERs are open 24/7, meaning they must be staffed around the clock. ER doctors may have a varied schedule or work shifts, including night shifts or day shifts often lasting 10 hours or more. What should I expect if I ever need to visit an ER for emergency care?
Emergency departments work on a system of triage. In the ER, this means that the most severe cases are evaluated first. You may arrive in an ER and have to wait to see a doctor, depending on the severity of your illness. If your case is severe, you will be taken into a room called a “resuscitation bay,” where doctors and nurses will assess your condition and administer treatment.
The triage system assigns a numerical rating denoting acuity (severity) of illness and, as such, the order in which patients will be seen by a physician. Levels range from 1-5, with five being the least severe. Level 1 acuity cases are the most severe, and could include traumatic injuries such as serious car accidents and falls (blunt trauma) or gunshot and stab wounds (penetrating trauma). Other Level 1 conditions include cardiac arrest, acute myocardial infarction, stroke, internal bleeding and severe infections, among others.
With respect to trauma, hospitals in the United States are designated Level 1-3 (some states have Level 4 and 5) based on their trauma management capabilities. A Level 1 trauma center treats the most severe trauma cases, and these centers have trauma surgeons on staff. A Level 2 trauma center will receive minor trauma, and so on. The system functions as such: Paramedics responding to a 911 call contact the regional hospital ER “base station” that determines which hospital should receive the patient. If it is major trauma, the patient is taken to a Level 1 trauma center and may bypass a Level 2 center on its way. On the other hand, most hospital ERs, regardless of trauma designation, are medical receiving facilities, and major illness such as heart attack and stroke will go to the nearest available hospital. In other words, medical receiving hospitals and trauma receiving hospitals are not mutually exclusive. The United States has, by far, the most advanced EMS system in the world. What are the most common conditions emergency medicine specialists treat?
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- Cardiovascular complaint
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- Heart attack
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- Shortness of breath
- Urinary tract complaint
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Cystitis is an infection of the bladder. The bladder is the part of the urinary tract that collects the urine from the kidneys.
The Urinary Tract
Copyright © Nucleus Medical Media, Inc.
The urinary tract normally contains no microorganisms. However, sometimes bacteria or yeast from the lower gastrointestinal tract or rectal area enter the urinary tract. This usually happens through the urethra (tube that allows urine to pass out from the bladder). When bacteria or yeast cling to the urethra, they can multiply and infect the urethra. They can then travel up and infect the bladder.
Most cases of cystitis are caused by bacteria from the rectal area. In women, the rectum and urethra are fairly close to each other. This makes it relatively easy for bacteria to make their way into the urethra. Some women develop cystitis after a period of frequent sexual intercourse. This happens because bacteria enter the urethra during sex and cause infection.
A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition.
Risk factors include:
Symptoms of cystitis vary from person-to-person and can range from mild to severe. They include:
The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done. A sample of your urine will be tested for blood, pus, and bacteria. If bacteria are present in the urine, you will likely be diagnosed with cystitis.
Children and men who develop cystitis may require additional testing. The doctor will use a cystoscope to check for structural differences in the urinary system that increase the likelihood of infection.
Bacterial cystitis is treated with antibiotic drugs. Antibiotics (usually trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, nitrofurantoin, or fluoroquinolones) will be prescribed for at least 2-3 days and perhaps for as long as several weeks. The length of the treatment depends on the severity of the infection and your personal history. You will probably start to feel better after a day or two. However, it is important that you complete the entire course of medication. Otherwise, the infection is likely to return. You may have your urine checked after you finish taking the antibiotic. This is to make sure that the infection is gone.
If you experience more infections, your doctor may prescribe stronger antibiotics or have you take them for a longer period of time. He or she may also recommend that you take low-dose antibiotics as a preventive measure, either daily or after sexual intercourse. If you still experience recurrent infections, you may be referred to a specialist.
(Pyridium) is a medicine that decreases pain and bladder spasms. Taking phenazopyridine will turn your urine and sometimes your sweat an orange color. This medication is generally available without a prescription. It can usually relieve symptoms effectively while waiting for medical treatment to work.
Here are some steps you can take to keep bacteria out of your urinary tract:
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK)http://www.niddk.nih.gov/
National Kidney Foundationhttp://www.kidney.org/
American Urological Association Foundationhttp://www.urologyhealth.org/
The Kidney Foundation of Canadahttp://www.kidney.ca/
Cranberry. EBSCO Natural and Alternative Treatments website. Available at:
. Updated September 17, 2012. Accessed October 17, 2012.
Interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome.
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases website. Available at:
Published September 2011. Updated June 29, 2012. Accessed October 17, 2012.
Kahn BS, Stanford EJ, Mishell DR Jr, Rosenberg MT, Wysocki S. Management of patients with interstitial cystitis or chronic pelvic pain of bladder origin: a consensus report.
Curr Med Res Opin.
Katchman EA, Milo G, Paul M, et al. Three-day vs longer duration of antibiotic treatment for cystitis in women: systematic review and meta-analysis.
Am J Med.
Parsons M, Toozs-Hobson P. The investigation and management of interstitial cystitis.
J Br Menopause Soc.
Phatak S, Foster HE Jr. The management of interstitial cystitis: an update.
Nat Cin Pract Urol.
Urinary tract infection (UTI) in adults. EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at:
. Updated August 31, 2012. Accessed October 17, 2012.
5/6/2011 DynaMed's Systematic Literature Surveillance
DynaMed's Systematic Literature Surveillance
: Barbosa-Cesnik C, Brown MB, Buxton M, Zhang L, DeBusscher J, Foxman B.
Cranberry juice fails to prevent recurrent urinary tract infection: results from a randomized placebo-controlled trial.
Clin Infect Dis.
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When Springfield was carved out of the wilderness 375 years ago it began as a business venture and ever since then what people do for work has defined the community.
In the beginning the little settlement was about fur trading with the Native Americans and subsistence farming on the fertile meadows along the Connecticut River. The Puritan settlers had strict rules for conducting commerce in 1636.
They set out regulations for “workmen and labourers” that specified wages, adjusted by the season. How long the workday would be and also capped how much “carpenters, joyners, sawers, wheelwrights, or such like artificers,” could earn. It was specified that a teamsters and his four cattle could not earn above six shillings for an eight-hour day.
Borders where set up where “candlewood” could not be gathered for the making of “Tarr, Pitch or Coale” for sale, but inhabitants could gather candlewood for their own family “where he pleaseth.”
Within two years of his founding of Springfield, William Pynchon was involved in a court case in Hartford. He was charged with dominating the Indian corn trade by an influential resident of Connecticut, Capt. John Mason. This dispute, which Pynchon lost in 1638, led to Springfield forever siding with Massachusetts and cutting its ties with Connecticut.
Early histories of Springfield take special note of a January, 1646, town meeting at which Miles Morgan and George Colton were commissioned to “get a Smith for ye towne.” By September of that year Francis Ball was set up in his 12 by 16 foot blacksmith shop and the settlement of 42 men, and an undisclosed number of women and children who were not counted in the assessment census, had their first metal worker who would be the pioneer of an industry that made the region famous.
By the late 1600’s the brooks and rivers in Springfield were strung with sawmills and grist mills and in 1697, John Pynchon was granted permission to set up an “iron works upon the Mill River below the present corn mill. The industrial age had modestly begun. Soon there was jobs for ore gatherers, charcoal makers, and iron workers.
The wide slow waters of the Connecticut River became the principal highway where raw materials were brought upstream and lumber and furs traders came downstream. The Westfield River and the Chicopee River created a water-fed crossroads that intersected at Springfield. In January of 1673, the first post rider from New York to Boston passed through Springfield on the new Post Road. This confluence of land and water routes would help Springfield businesses thrive for the next three centuries.
The early metal workers, either blacksmiths or foundry men, made a niche for themselves in the Pioneer Valley and soon the area was noted for its craftsmen, particularly gunsmiths. That was a fact not lost on a young Continental Army Colonel named Henry Knox who passed through Springfield in the winter of 1775 headed for Boston with a load of cannon captured at Fort Ticonderoga.
He became a close confidant of Gen. George Washington and had a lot to do with suggesting the Springfield area as the site for the first colonial arsenal in 1787 and eventually the world famous Springfield Armory. Soon other manufacturers set up shop to work with the armory or were attracted by the skilled labor force.
In the first half of the 19th century the armory became a training grounds for the future giants of industry that would call Springfield home. Daniel B. Wesson would found his pistol factory with partner Horace Smith. Thomas Blanchard in 1819 patented his “Blanchard Lathe” that cut out irregular shapes, musket stocks in this case, and paved the way for mass production and the industrial revolution.
Blanchard, in 1826, built the first automobile in America, a 2,000-pound steam powered giant that he drove through the streets of Springfield. Within a few years he was manufacturing steamboats from a shop on the Connecticut River that were making trips both north and south.
The steamboats supplanted the barges that had been bringing goods and passengers up and down the river for more than a century. By 1839, the railroad had reached Springfield. Water, rail and stagecoach lines now linked the community in all directions.
In 1845, just a few years after the railroad arrived, Thomas Wason began making cars for the new trains. His business would grow into Wason Manufacturing Co., the largest maker of railroad cars and locomotives in the country.
A town had to have a population of at least 10,000 to become a city, a point Springfield reached in the 1840 census with 10,985. By 1845 it had 14,703 inhabitants, but in 1848, Chicopee broke off and formed its own town, dropping Springfield under the limit. By 1852, Springfield had more than 20,000 people and became a city on May 25.
The year before, Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Co. had been founded. Its president, Caleb Rice became the first mayor of Springfield. The 1853 City Directory contains 50 pages on businesses and manufacturing firms doing business in the city.
There were chemical companies, drug wholesalers, dye houses, millinery shops, and a number of large machine shops that made castings and forgings for steam engines and locomotives. There was the Bemis & Call Co. where the monkey wrench was invented and six ads for blacksmith operations.
There were boot manufactures, pump manufacturers, soap and candle makers, coffin makers, bakers, grist mills, cabinet makers, planing mills, stove shops and carriage makers and confectioners.
The diversity of Springfield businesses have kept it from being a company town, although the huge influence of the armory, especially during time of war was an economic engine of enormous proportions.
When the Civil War broke out in 1861, Springfield became a boom town. The fall of Harpers’ Ferry in Virginia left the Springfield Armory as the sole federal arsenal. Workers poured into the city and soon every boarding house and spare room in town was rented. Production was doubled and tripled within the first months of the war.
During the early stages of the war it was announced that Harpers’ Ferry production would be replaced by the construction of an armory at Rock Island, Ill. It never approached Springfield’s magnitude during the Civil War, but in 1965, when the unthinkable happened, and the Armory was closed, its operations were moved to Rock Island.
Over the years Springfield has seen companies come and go. The city that was the birthplace of the automobile in America with the Duryea in 1895 and became home to Knox, Duryea, Stevens-Duryea, Atlas, Rolls Royce and Indian Motocycles, eventually they all closed. There were also thousands of jobs at American Bosch, Van Norman, Westinghouse, U.S. Envelope, Barney & Berry Skates, Monarch Life Insurance, Meekins, Packard and Wheat, Forbers & Wallace and Steigers, to name a few.
Some have been replaced by new industries and technologies, others have just disappeared. But the city is still the hub of Western Massachusetts and has weathered disappointments and recessions before.
During the depths of The Depression, the Damour brothers in Chicopee started a small grocery store. The business, now named Big Y and headquartered in Springfield, is celebrating its 75th year. The year before the Damour venture, another set of brothers, S. Prestley and Curtis Blake, opened an ice cream shop on 161 Boston Road in the Pine Point neighborhood of Springfield. It grew into Friendly Ice Cream.
Each generation has its success stories, waiting to be written into the history of Springfield.
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J.S. Bach was born in Eisenach, Germany, in 1685 and died in 1750. He came from a long family history of professional musicians including church organists and composers. Like his father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, J.S. (Johann Sebastian) would learn and surpass him in this art of classical music composing.
Bach's childhood wasn't that great as his father passed away when he was 9 and his mother also died when he was a young boy. Although he spent much time with his musically inclined uncles, he also spent time studying and learning from his older brother, Johann Christoph Bach.
Growing up, Bach learned much about organ building. Back in those days, the church organ was a highly complex instrument with many mechanical and moving parts/pedals and pipes. His early experience with repairing and talking with organ builders & performers would prove valuable as he mastered the musical craft.
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Liver Disease (cont.)
Benjamin Wedro, MD, FACEP, FAAEM
Benjamin Wedro, MD, FACEP, FAAEM
Dr. Ben Wedro practices emergency medicine at Gundersen Clinic, a regional trauma center in La Crosse, Wisconsin. His background includes undergraduate and medical studies at the University of Alberta, a Family Practice internship at Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario and residency training in Emergency Medicine at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center.
Bhupinder Anand, MD
In this Article
When to seek medical care for liver disease
Often, the onset of a liver disease is gradual and there is no specific symptom that brings the affected individual to seek medical care. Fatigue, weakness and weight loss that cannot be explained should prompt a visit for medical evaluation.
Jaundice or yellow skin is never normal and should prompt an evaluation by a medical professional.
Persisting fever, vomiting, and abdominal pain should also prompt medical evaluation as soon as possible.
Acetaminophen or Tylenol overdose, whether accidental or intentional, can cause acute liver failure. Emergent evaluation and treatment is required. Antidotes to protect the liver can be provided, but are effective only when used within a few hours. Without this intervention, acetaminophen overdose can lead to liver failure and the need for liver transplant.
How is liver disease diagnosed?
The precise diagnosis of liver disease involves a history and physical examination performed by the health care professional. Understanding the symptoms and the patient's risk factors for liver disease will help guide any diagnostic tests that may be considered.
Sometimes history is difficult, especially in patients who abuse alcohol. These patients tend to minimize their consumption, and it is often family members who are able to provide the correct information.
Liver disease can have physical findings that affect almost all body systems including the heart, lungs, abdomen, skin, brain and cognitive function, and other parts of the nervous system. The physical examination often requires evaluation of the entire body.
Blood tests are helpful in assessing liver inflammation and function.
Specific liver function blood tests include:
Other blood tests may be considered, including the following:
Imaging studies may be used to visualize, not only the liver, but other nearby organs that may be diseased. Examples of imaging studies include:
Liver biopsy may be considered to confirm a specific diagnosis of liver disease. Under local anesthetic, a long thin needle is inserted through the chest wall into the liver, where a small sample of liver tissue is obtained for examination under a microscope.
Reviewed by Bhupinder Anand, MD on 6/22/2012
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1. A newborn baby's brain grows almost 3 times during the course of its first year.
2. The left side of human brain controls the right side of the body and the right side of the brain controls the left side of the body.
3. A New born baby loses about half of their nerve cells before they are born.
4. As we get older, the brain loses almost one gram per year.
5. There are about 13, 500,00 neurons in the human spinal cord.
6. The total surface area of the human brain is about 25, 000 square cm.
7. The base of the spinal cord has a cluster of nerves, which are most sensitive.
8. An average adult male brain weighs about 1375 grams.
9. An average adult female brain is about 1275 grams.
10. Only four percent of the brain's cells work while the remaining cells are kept in reserve.
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Why Do Tomatoes Change Color as They Ripen?
Tomatoes contain two pigments for photosynthesis—chlorophyll, which is green, and lycopene, which is red. When tomatoes start to grow, they contain much less lycopene than chlorophyll, which gives them their green color. But when harvest season arrives, the days shorten and temperatures drop, causing chlorophyll to dissolve and lycopene to take over the shade of the fruit. During this time, sugar levels rise, acid levels drop, and the tomato softens. It becomes ready to eat.
The trick is that this final stage of a tomato’s life takes place in a relatively short period of time—and that poses a big problem for farmers trying to get ripe produce to grocery stores before it rots. Most farmers begin picking tomatoes while they’re still green on the vine, and then they treat them with a ripening agent called ethylene gas to induce the red color. Far from being a synthetic compound, ethylene gas is produced naturally by other fruits and vegetables as they ripen. In fact, bananas release ethylene gas directly into the air. If you place a ripe banana next to a green tomato, the tomato will ripen, too.
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In the Roman Catholic church, the assembly of cardinals gathered to elect a new pope and the system of strict seclusion to which they submit. From 1059 the election became the responsibility of the cardinals. When, after the death of Clement IV (1268), the cardinals dithered for more than two years, the local magistrate locked them in the episcopal palace and fed them only bread and water until they elected Gregory X. The system of meeting in closed conclave was codified in 1904 by Pius X. Voting is by secret ballot; one ballot is held on the first afternoon of the conclave and four on each subsequent day, two in the morning and two in the afternoon, until a new pope is chosen. In 1996 John Paul II declared that, after 30 ballots, the traditional requirement of a two-thirds majority plus one for the election of a pope could be superseded, at the discretion of the cardinals, by election by a simple majority. Ballots are burned in a stove after each vote, and the smoke produced by their burning, which issues from a special pipe through a window, indicates to the crowd assembled in St. Peter's Square whether a new pope has been elected: if there is a new pope, the smoke will be white; if no majority has yet been reached, the smoke will be black. In addition, bells will be rung to confirm the signal. Additives are mixed with the ballots to ensure the proper colour of the smoke.
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February 14, 1876
Bell vs Gray
After years of independent research, two men each filed for a patent (or caveat) on February 14, 1876. One was Alexander Graham Bell; the other was Elisha Gray. Bell received patent #174,465 in March for what was later described as "the most valuable patent in history." Gray legally challenged the decision, but after a two year court battle, Bell went down in history as the inventor of the telephone.
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The cashew nut, a popular treat found on grocery and health food store shelves across the world, is jam-packed with nutritional content and can readily be found year round. It has a delicate flavor, and makes wonderful nut butter or special addition to salads and stir-fry dishes. Cashew nuts are actually the kidney-shaped seeds that adhere to the bottom of the cashew apple, the fruit of the cashew tree, which is native to the coastal areas of northeastern Brazil. It packs 5 grams of protein per ounce and high levels of the essential minerals iron, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, copper and manganese, all of which are necessary for a healthy body.
Not only do cashews have a lower fat content than most other nuts, approximately 75% of that fat is unsaturated fatty acids, with 75% of this unsaturated fatty acid content being oleic acid, the same heart-healthy monounsaturated fat found in olive oil. Studies show that oleic acid promotes good cardiovascular health, even in individuals with diabetes. To lower your risk of cardiovascular and coronary heart disease, enjoy a handful of cashews or other nuts, or a tablespoon of nut butter, at least 4 times a week.
Topping your morning cereal with a quarter-cup of cashews will supply you with 38% of the daily value for copper. An essential component of many enzymes, copper plays a role in a wide range of physiological processes including iron utilization, elimination of free radicals, development of bone and connective tissue, and the production of the skin and hair pigment called melanin.
A quarter-cup of cashews also provides you with 22.3% of the daily value for magnesium. Everyone knows that calcium is necessary for strong bones, but magnesium is also vital for healthy bones. About two-thirds of the magnesium in the human body is found in our bones. Some help give bones their physical structure, while the rest is found on the surface of the bone where it is stored for the body to draw upon as needed.
Cashews do have a relatively high fat content (12 grams per ounce, 2 grams saturated fat), but it is considered "good fat." This is due to the agreeable fat ratio in the nut, 1:2:1 for saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated, respectively, which scientists say is the ideal ratio for optimal health. Even with the relatively high fat content, cashew nuts are considered to be a "low-fat" nut. In fact, cashew nuts contain less fat per serving than many other popular nuts commonly found in grocery and health food stores, including almonds, walnuts, peanuts and pecans.
Because cashews are high in protein, monounsaturated fats and fiber, they're both filling and satisfying. But, although nuts are shown to provide such a wide variety of benefits, many avoid them for fear of weight gain. Studies show such fears are groundless. People who eat nuts on a daily basis are less likely to gain weight and have a tendency to be thinner, on average, than those who don't. It may be that eating nuts like cashews is so filling that it reduces overall calorie consumption.
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Definitions of why
adv. - For what cause, reason, or purpose; on what account; wherefore; -- used interrogatively. See the Note under What, pron., 1. 2
adv. - For which; on account of which; -- used relatively. 2
adv. - The reason or cause for which; that on account of which; on what account; as, I know not why he left town so suddenly; -- used as a compound relative. 2
n. - A young heifer. 2
The word "why" uses 3 letters: H W Y.
No direct anagrams for why found in this word list.
All words formed from why by changing one letter
Browse words starting with why by next letter
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Science of the Quake
Developments in the wake of Japan's triple disasters: earthquake, tsunami, nuclear.
The US Geological Survey upgraded Japan's 11 March earthquake today to 9.0 from 8.9.
Based on Japan's huge network of 1,200 GPS monitoring stations, the quake shifted the country's coastline some 4 meters / 13 feet to the east, and knocked Earth of its axis by 16.5 centimeters / 6.5 inches, shortening Earth's days by about 1.8 millionths of a second.
The BBC reports that geographical shift will require that GPS-based driving maps be updated, and nautical charts, too, since water depths have been changed. Furthermore, much of the flooded coastline appears to have subsided permanently—or as permanently as anything ever is on this restless planet—and will not be dry land again anytime in the near future.
Here are before and after images of the the city of Ishinomaki in Miyagi Prefecture near the quake's epicenter. The "after" shot, above, was taken three days after the quake. Water still inundated the city. The "before" shot was from August 2008. Both are false color images: water is dark blue; vegetated land is red; dirt is tan; buildings are silver.
You can see how much of the vegetation in the agricultural fields has been stripped away. This is sure to have an impact on Japan's food production, perhaps for a while, since saltwater inundation is tough on farmlands. If people in the area depend on aquifers for fresh water, those could be affected by saltwater flooding too.
You can also see the extensive flooding around the Matsushima Air Base in the lower left corner of the image. It's not at all clear, at this point, just what pollution or toxins may have been unleashed from the air base and nearby industries.
Meanwhile much of Japan's chemical industry is still nonoperational due to power shortages. More worrisome is that fate of chemical plants in the tsunami zone. According to Chemical & Engineering News, there aren't many chemical manufacturing plants in this hardest hit region of northeastern Japan. But there are some. The effects on them of fires, earthquakes, tsunamis, and continued flooding remains largely unknown and/or undisclosed:
A raging fire at the Cosmo Energy refinery in Chiba that began March 11 touched off an overnight fire at the neighboring Chisso polyethylene and polypropylene plant. Chisso says that none of its workers were injured and that damage to the facility is relatively light. Polysilicon producer Tokuyama has a subsidiary... located in [an area] devastated by the tsunami. Tokuyama says it is assessing damage to the subsidiary and to its facilities elsewhere in Japan. Chemical manufacturer Tosoh says its staff in the Tohoku area is safe, including the staff of a plant in the town of Ishinomaki, which was largely destroyed by the tsunami. This facility was flooded and Tosoh says the extent of the damage is unclear.
In the images above you can see fires at several oil refineries and industrial complexes, including facilities in the Port of Sendai and a petrochemical facility in Shiogama, where a large explosion was reported. On the left is a natural-color image showing a large brown smoke plume extending about 85 kilometers / 53 miles southeast from the coastline. The image on the right was used to confirm that the brown plume was actually something in the air and not something on the ground/water. Here's an explanation of the technology used to ascertain that information from far away:
[T]he right-hand image is a stereoscopic "anaglyph" created from data in MISR’s [Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer aboard NASA’s Terra spacecraft] red spectral band, and generated by displaying the 46-degree backward view in red and 60-degree backward view in cyan. The separation between the red and cyan images is known as stereo parallax, and is related to the height of the observed features above the surface. Viewing the anaglyph with red-cyan glasses (red filter over the left eye) gives a perception of height. No separation is visible for the coastline, which is at sea level, but the clouds and plume are distinctly elevated. The height of the plume is estimated to be about 2 kilometers (1.2 miles), at a similar altitude as the nearby clouds.
As for efforts to avert disaster at Japan's imperiled nuclear power plants, the New York Times reports near chaos among those running the show:
"They're basically in a full-scale panic" among Japanese power industry managers, said a senior nuclear industry executive. "They're in total disarray, they don't know what to do."
Most alarming of all is what's happening at the Fukushima Daiichi's reactor number 3 that exploded yesterday. In the current catalogue of bad possibilities, this one is the Mother of all Bad Possibilities, since the reactor uses a mixed oxide fuel, known as MOX, made with reprocessed plutonium and uranium oxides. If any of that gets out, the situation gets much worse faster, since inhaling plutonium is lethal, even tiny bits of it.
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MOUNT VERNON — Keeping up with the health and safety of one’s pets is a top priority for many. Diligence is key for many pet owners in keeping their companions safe from sickness and disease. One disease that can be a threat at any given time is rabies.Rabies is a viral disease which is spread through the saliva of an infected animal, usually bats, raccoons, skunks, fox and coyotes. Animals contract the rabies virus by exposure with another infected animal through blood or saliva. Incubation periods can vary, and it usually takes from 10 to 14 days for symptoms to appear. It is a zoonotic disease, meaning it can be transmitted from an animal to a human. Although it has been more than 30 years since a domestic animal has tested positive for rabies in Knox County, the threat remains real without proper vaccination. Bats were the only animal to test positive for rabies during this period, according to the Ohio Department of Health. Incidences of rabies in Ohio have occurred in dogs and horses. Dr. Jessica Krueger, DVM, of the Mount Vernon Animal Hospital, told the News that there are two types of rabies. First is what is called the “dumb” form where the animal is not respondent and is basically “out of it.” Second is the aggressive form where animals will act rather peculiar and may even be aggressive or combative. Any mammal can contract the rabies virus, but it is more common in small animals, particularly raccoons and bats. Death is the real threat once rabies has been contracted. Early treatment of rabies through vaccination can kill the virus, but once it reaches the nervous system it is almost always fatal. Most animals die once they have the virus, and deaths have also occurred in humans.
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Joined: 16 Mar 2004
|Posted: Thu Aug 06, 2009 11:24 am Post subject: Nanotubes Could Aid Understanding of Retrovirus Transmission
|Recent findings by medical researchers indicate that naturally occurring nanotubes may serve as tunnels that protect retroviruses and bacteria in transit from diseased to healthy cells — a fact that may explain why vaccines fare poorly against some invaders.
To better study the missions of these intercellular nanotubes, scientists have sought the means to form them quickly and easily in test tubes.
Sandia National Laboratories researchers have now learned serendipitously to form nanotubes with surprising ease.
“Our work is the first to show that the formation of nanotubes is not complicated, but can be a general effect of protein-membrane interactions alone,” says Darryl Sasaki of Sandia's Bioscience and Energy Center .
The tunnel-like structures have been recognized only recently as tiny but important bodily channels for the good, the bad, and the informational.
In addition to providing protected transport to certain diseases, the nanotubes also seem to help trundle bacteria to their doom in the tentacles of microphages. Lastly, the nanotubes may provide avenues to send and receive information (in the form of chemical molecules) from cell to cell far faster than their random dispersal into the bloodstream would permit.
Given the discovery of this radically different transportation system operating within human tissues, it was natural for researchers to attempt to duplicate the formation of the nanotubes. In their labs, they experimented with giant lipid vesicles that appeared to mimic key aspects of the cellular membrane .
Giant lipid vesicles resemble micron-sized spherical soap bubbles that exist in water. They are composed of a lipid bilayer membrane only five nanometers thick.
The object for experimenters was to create conditions in which the spheres would morph into cylinders of nanometer radii.
But researchers had difficulties, says Sasaki, perhaps because they used a composite lipid called egg PC that requires unnecessarily high energies to bend into a tubular shape.
Egg PC is inexpensive, readily available, and offers good, stable membrane properties. It is the usual lipid of choice in forming nanocylinders via mechanical stretching techniques.
But Sandia postdoctoral researcher Haiqing Lui instead used POPC — a single pure lipid requiring half the bending energy of egg PC.
She was trying to generate nanotubes by a completely different approach that involved the use of motor proteins to stretch naturally occurring membranes into tubes.
Working with Sandia researcher George Bachand, she serendipitously found that interaction of the POPC membrane with a high affinity protein called streptavidin alone was enough to form the nanotubes.
“Perhaps this information — linking membrane bending energy with nanotube formation — may provide some clue about the membrane structure and the cell's ability to form such intercellular connections,” Sasaki says.
The formation was confirmed by Sandia researcher Carl Hayden, who characterized the nanotube formation through a confocal imaging microscope. The custom instrument allows pixel-by-pixel examination of the protein interaction with the membranes comprising the nanotubes by detecting the spectrum and lifetimes of fluorescent labels on the proteins.
Nanotube formation had been noticed previously by cell biologists, but they had dismissed the tiny outgrowths as “junk — an aberration of cells growing in culture,” says Sasaki. “The reason they were only noticed recently as trafficking routes is because of labeling studies that marked organelles and proteins. This allowed a focused look at what these nanostructures might be used for.”
It became clear, says Sasaki, that the organelles were being transported with “specific directionality” on the backs of motor proteins within the tubes, rather than randomly.
Three-dimensional networks of nanotubes also are found to be created by macrophages — part of the police force of the body — grown in culture, says George. The tubes in appearance and function resemble a kind of spider web, capturing bacterium and transporting them to the macrophages, which eat them.
Other paper authors include postdoc Hahkjoon Kim and summer intern Elsa Abate.
The lipid work is supported by Sandia's Laboratory Directed Research and Development office. Motor protein work is supported by DOE's Office of Basic Energy Sciences.
Results were published in the American Chemical Society's Langmuir Journal in mid-March.
Source: Sandia.gov /...
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Emerging Explorer, National Geographic Blackstone Innovation Challenge Grantee
Photograph by Dino Martins
Photograph by C. Lewis
Do you like chocolate? Coffee? Pollinating insects make these and hundreds of other foods possible. The threatened habitats that support those insects may often be out of sight and out of mind, but Dino Martins brings their importance home. “Pollinators are one of the strongest connections between conservation and something everyone needs—food.” With his infectious enthusiasm and practical solutions, Martins acts as a pollinator himself, carrying crucial information to Kenya’s isolated farmers, schoolchildren, and a larger world of travelers and scientists.
“Insects are the invisible, behind-the-scenes workers that keep the planet going,” Martins observes. “They do incredibly complicated things but are never recognized for it. I’m privileged to be their messenger.” Growing up in rural Kenya, Martins saw the most basic interface between farms, food, and nature every day. “In the developing world, subsistence farmers are on the front lines of poverty, hunger, and either saving or destroying forests. Africa is especially vulnerable since so many of the crops that provide nutrition are 100 percent dependent on wild insects.”
Examples abound. In a shrinking fragment of forest, some of the last remaining African violets cling to a hillside and fight to survive. Long-tongued bees grasp the fragile flowers in their teeth, fold back their wings, and vibrate with unimaginable intensity to buzz-pollinate the blossoms. Energized, the same bees then travel to pollinate crops in nearby farm fields. But for how long? If the violets vanish, so could the bees, and ultimately acres of crops.
Elsewhere, a community of farms struggles on land degraded by deforestation, charcoal burning, and high pesticide use. Yet when passion fruit trees produce poor yields, what is blamed? Bees. “Farmers look at the big scary carpenter bees swarming around their trees and rush to kill them,” says Martins. “In fact, they need more bees, not fewer. Passion fruit nectar lies concealed below a lid in the plant. It takes a big hefty bee to lift the lid, extract the nectar, and pollinate the flower. A little honeybee could never do it.” Martins helps create a nesting habitat that will attract the big bees and allow pollinators and crops to flourish again.
Down the road, hawk moths flit from male to female papaya trees, their brief evening commute entirely responsible for the trees’ pollination and survival. “Papaya is such an important crop for many rural communities because it’s incredibly rich in vitamins, can be used medicinally, and survives drought,” Martins notes. “We help farmers recognize and protect its major pollinators.”
All across East Africa, Martins works to identify the most useful plants and pollinators, return them to their habitats, and help both ecosystems and local communities thrive. He stresses that “farmers need to understand why leaving a little space for nature isn’t a luxury, but a necessity for productive, sustainable agriculture. Farmers everywhere are conservative and skeptical. So I make one or two of them my champions in the community, demonstrating the success of our techniques. When others see the proof, they all want to try it.”
If you can’t find Martins with farmers in the field, try looking in an outdoor classroom. One school he’s involved with meets under a tree that’s buzzing with 400 species of bees. “The biodiversity is overwhelming,” Martins exclaims. He works with schoolchildren to start pollinator gardens; collect bugs; examine hairy, eight-eyed wonders under magnifying glasses; and identify the most relevant crops and pollinators in their community. “In largely illiterate areas, these kids are often the first in their families to go to school. They may be resource-poor, but they’re nature-rich. You couldn’t ask for better, more enthusiastic young scientists.”
Technology is transforming his efforts. “Now that rural Kenya has Internet and mobile phone connections, I can email the farmers and field scientists I work with. Eventually I want farmers to be able to take pictures with phones and send them to bee taxonomists on the other side of the world. I want Kenyan school kids to talk with U.S. kids about pollinators and crops where they live.” Martins’s blog links him with scientists across the globe. One recent entry about mango pollination prompted responses from the U.S., Italy, Nepal, Pakistan, India, and Ghana within just one day. His magazine articles, illustrations, and guidebooks are widely published. “Sharing information opens our eyes to the fact that the problems of the world are not unique to any one place.”
Martins stresses that everyone can make a difference. “Look at your next plate of food and ask where it came from, how it got to you. Every time you eat you can choose to support farming that’s shown to be good, rather than abusive, to nature and people. You vote with your wallet, your feet, and your mouth.”
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My name is Dino J. Martins, I am a Kenyan entomologist and I love insects. The Kiswahili word for insect is dudu and if you didn't know already, insects rule the world!
In Their Words
“Every single person on our planet has a diet that includes food made possible by pollinating insects. When this connection is threatened, all of humanity is threatened.”
Martins discusses the age old relationship between honeybees and humans—and its importance in the future.
Traditionally, it's the birds and the bees that get all the attention-unless you're an entomologist. Then it's the bees and the bees, not to mention the flies and the wasps and the moths.
Our Explorers in Action
Meet female explorers who have pushed the limits in adventure, science, and more.
| 3.372293 |
According to the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), human health and human disease result from three interactive elements -- environmental factors, individual susceptibility, and age.
Environmental medicine is the health care specialty concerned with human illnesses or dysfunctions that result from environmental factors. Environmental medicine specialists participate in a wide range of activities in their quest for answers regarding how the environment affects our health.
For example, among many other topics, the NIEHS is currently studying breast and testicular cancer; lead poisoning; birth and developmental defects; agricultural pollution; neurologic disorders; sterility; and ways to replace animals as subjects in research.
Environmental medicine departments or programs are found in large medical centers throughout the U.S. Some of the many services they offer include local, state, or national disease-prevention programs; epidemiological studies and research; distribution of standards, guidelines, and recommendations. In addition, they partner with other organizations, such as health departments and environmental agencies, to help prevent environmental disease.
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Jamestown, it was thought, had simply disappeared.
As the first permanent English settlement in North America, Jamestown served as the capital of the Jamestown Colony throughout most of the 17th century. It was there, along Virginia’s James River, that Captain John Smith forged his famous bond with Pocahontas that kept the Jamestown colonists from starving. And it was there that the newly introduced crop of tobacco first flourished in the American colonies.
But when the colony’s capital was relocated in 1699 to what is now modern-day Williamsburg, the Jamestown site was largely abandoned and gradually succumbed to erosion.
Though many believed that the original fortified town had been washed away, NEH-funded archaeological excavations conducted by the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities in 1996 uncovered the original seventeenth-century fort, revealing it to be intact on three sides. The digs also uncovered hundreds of early colonial artifacts, including glass and copper works, giving glimpses of daily life in the first American colony.
Learn more about the Jamestown 1607 settlement at another NEH-supported project, Virtual Jamestown. Created by researchers at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, this online resource lets users peruse early colonial legal suits, see John Smith’s 1608 map of Virginia, and visit an interactive 3D recreation of an Indian village.
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January 12, 1773
America's First Museum
A museum is a building, place, or institution devoted to the acquisition, conservation, study, exhibition, and educational interpretation of objects having scientific, historical, or artistic value.
South Carolina was still a British colony when the Charleston Museum was founded in 1773 and is regarded as America's first museum. A fire destroyed many of the original collections in 1778, and operations were suspended during the Revolutionary War and again during the War Between the States.
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New Oakland Child-Adolescent and Family Center
"Psychoses" are defined as abnormal conditions of the mind, a psychiatric term for a mental state involving a loss of contact with reality. Psychotic disorders cause distorted thinking and awareness and can vary greatly in their severity. The term "psychosis" is very broad and can mean anything from an aberrant experience to a more chronic illness such as schizophrenia.
The most common symptoms of psychotic disorders are:
- Delusions: False beliefs that the ill person accepts as true, despite evidence to the contrary
- Hallucinations: Experiencing images or sounds that are not real, such as hearing voices
People experiencing psychosis may exhibit personality changes and thought disorders. Depending on its severity, this may be accompanied by unusual or bizarre behavior, as well as difficulty with social interaction and impairment in carrying out daily life activities.
There are several different types of psychosis but an initial episode won't necessarily determine which type it is. Duration and severity of symptoms along with a comprehensive assessment is more likely to lead to a proper diagnosis. Information from the individual, family history and physical examinations will create a clearer picture.
Some of the types of psychosis:
- Brief Reactive Psychosis: Psychotic symptoms arise in response to a major stress. A quick recovery is likely
- Delusional Disorder: Evidences itself when a person acts on strong beliefs that don't fit conventional reality.
- Psychotic Depression: A severe depression with psychotic symptoms happening at the same time
- Bipolar Disorder: Extreme highs (mania) and lows (depression) Psychosis can appear during either phase
- Schizophrenia: Delusions, hallucinations last six months or more. Contrary to popular belief, a schizophrenic does not have multiple personalities
New Oakland Child-Adolescent and Family Center assesses and treats the mental health issues and crises faced by children and adolescents. Immediate action can return well-being to your family. See the "Contact" tab for the nearest New Oakland facility or call the 24 Hour Crisis Stabilization Hot Line: (800) 395-3223
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The Business of America is Business—President Calvin Coolidge, 1925
Do you know the definitions of “commerce,” “entrepreneurship” and/or “free-enterprise?”
August, which is National Black Business Month, is a good time for Black Americans to start productive business activities. African-Americans across the U.S. are urged to join the National Black Business Month movement to encourage Blacks to patronize Black-owned businesses. The movement could spark discussions and initiatives that educate Blacks in American capitalism and at the same time revive the country’s Black business districts.
For some, the National Black Business Month concept will set off debate about the continued usefulness and fairness of a month and initiative dedicated to one race. What African-Americans need now is a race-based initiative and culture to support Black-owned businesses. Contemporary Blacks’ participation in the American capitalistic system is highly suspect. Blacks show high levels of economic dysfunction and are unique in our lack of internal commerce.
Studies show that nowadays, a dollar goes into and out of the Black community in 15 minutes. A poor understanding of capitalism and internal circulation of funds plague Black communities. Money circulates zero to one time within the Black community, compared to a dollar circulation rate of six times among Latino communities, nine times among Asian communities and an unlimited number of times within White and Jewish communities, according to the University of Georgia’s Selig Center for Economic Growth.
The National Black Business Month movement will raise the visibility of African-American entrepreneurs as the most promising solutions for the growth of American cities and commerce. National Black Business Month is an ideal time to define: “commerce,” “entrepreneurship” and “free-enterprise” to your friends and family. It can build a pillar for business in Black American culture. The basic concept behind National Black Business Month is for African-Americans to make a commitment to visit a Black-owned business on each of the 31 days of August. The movement has at its base educating the masses of Blacks and other Americans on the advantages of developing and supporting Black business enterprises. NBBM had inaugural events in San Jose in June and in Washington, D.C. and San Francisco in August.
Executives at BlackMoney.com are the movement’s primary advocates. Their objective is to motivate “commerce toward, between and among the nation’s Black businesses;” and to urge a show of solidarity to help Black-owned businesses increase their consumer traffic and revenue. “Each one tells one” could be a “force multiplier” for Black businesses and economics. The NBBM needs to grow legs, and you can help. To effectively participate in the NBBM initiative African-Americans are requested: 1.) Visit some of the small businesses in your city or community. 2.) Go inside the business and introduce yourself. 3.) Even if you don’t buy anything, look around to see if there are items, services or products that you may have better use for on another day.
John William Templeton is a co-founder of National Black Business Month. A business journalist, Templeton is a nationally recognized author, historian, demographer and financial expert. A graduate of Howard University’s School of Communications, Templeton and his associates tout Black-and Minority-owned businesses as “increasingly important” to America's economy.
A business [also known as an enterprise or firm] is an organization engaged in the trade of goods and/ or services to consumers. There are 1.9 million Black-owned businesses in the U.S. Black-owned firms annually employ 921,032 people, and generate $137.5 billion in receipts. These days, minority business operations need ongoing support from their neighbors, local legislatures and corporate brethren. Black-owned businesses are prominent in health care and social assistance (19 percent), repair and maintenance and personal and laundry services (19 percent). Administrative and support services, waste management and remediation services industries account for 11 percent.
(William Reed is available for speaking/seminar projects via the Bailey Group.org)
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- Courier, Urban League and Pitt CTSI sponsor community health forum (1)
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Fri Mar 21 18:02:28 GMT 2008 by Gordon
Why is it that gamma rays cannot penerate the earth's atmosphere when they will happily travel though thick lead.
Fri Mar 21 18:59:29 GMT 2008 by Radek
Air in atmosphere corresponds to ... One meter of lead!
Fri Mar 21 19:24:17 GMT 2008 by Tony Byron
"The atmosphere shields us from cosmic rays about as effectively as a 13-foot layer of concrete,..."
"The Earth's atmosphere would soak up most of the gamma rays, Melott says, but their energy would rip apart nitrogen and oxygen molecules, creating a witch's brew of nitrogen oxides, especially the toxic brown gas nitrogen dioxide that colours photochemical smog (see graphic)."
(long URL - click here)
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National air quality has improved since the early 1990's, but many challenges remain in protecting public health and the environment from air quality problems. Since the 1950s, air quality has been a major public health and environmental concern. Local, state, and national programs have helped us learn more about the problems and how to solve them. NH EPHT Program works closely with NH Department of Environmental Services, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to track air quality data and to better understand how air pollution affects our health.
Air Pollution and Your Health
Air pollution in the United States poses a public health threat affecting potentially millions of people throughout the country. It is associated with health problems that include increased emergency department visits and hospitals stays for breathing and heart problems, asthma, and increases in illnesses such as pneumonia and bronchitis, and adverse reproductive outcomes such as low birth weight.
Air pollution comes from two main origins: point-sources (factories, construction, houses, businesses, agriculture) and non-point sources (automobiles, trains, buses, vegetation). The EPA lists the most common air pollutants as ground-level ozone, particle pollution (often referred to as particulate matter), nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, and lead.
Ozone (O3) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) are the primary pollutants of concern in New Hampshire as they regularly occur at concentrations which can cause harmful health effects. Other contaminants, such as nitrogen-oxides and sulfur-dioxide, occasionally occur at significant concentrations.
Ground level ozone
Ozone is created indirectly when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds mix in the presence of heat and sunlight. Your exposure to ozone depends mainly on where you live and work and how much time you spend outside. Everyone can have health problems from ozone. Symptoms might be very mild or more serious. People with lung disease, children, older adults, and people who are active outdoors are at the highest risk of having problems when ozone levels are unhealthy.
Many scientific studies have linked ground-level ozone contact to varied problems, such as
- lung and throat irritation,
- wheezing and breathing difficulties during exercise or outdoor activities,
- coughing and pain when taking a deep breath,
- aggravation of asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema, and
- higher chance of getting respiratory illness such as pneumonia or bronchitis.
Particle pollution, or particulate matter, consists of particles that are in the air, including dust, dirt, soot and smoke, and little drops of liquid. Fine particulates occur from being directly emitted (e.g., from a smokestack or tailpipe) or from secondary reactions in the air (e.g., when water vapor condenses on sulfate ions, which is also a secondary product of combustion). Some particles, such as soot or smoke, are large or dark enough to be seen. Other particles are so small that you cannot see them. Small particles are the most concerning because they are most likely to cause health problems. Their small size allows these particles to get into the deep part of your lungs. Being exposed to any kind of particulate matter may cause:
- increased emergency department visits and hospital stays for breathing and heart problems,
- breathing problems,
- asthma symptoms to get worse,
- adverse birth outcomes, such as low birth weight,
- decreased lung growth in children,
- lung cancer, and
- early deaths.
Sensitive people, including older adults, people with diseases such as asthma or congestive heart disease, and children, are more likely to be affected by contact with PM2.5.
Reduce Your Risk
EPA's Air Quality Index, or AQI, is a tool to help you quickly learn when air pollution is likely to reach unhealthy levels. Local TV stations, radio programs, and newspapers carry these air quality forecasts to tell you when particle levels are likely to be unhealthy. You can use the AQI to plan your daily activities to reduce exposure to particle pollution.
When particle pollution levels are high, you can:
- reduce the amount of time you spend outside;
- do easier outdoor activities, such as walking instead of running or using a riding lawn mower instead of a push mower; and
- exercise away from roads and highways. Particle pollution is usually worse near these areas.
If you have one of the following diseases, you may experience some effects from particle pollution:
- Lung disease
- You may not be able to breathe as deeply or strongly as you usually do.
- You may cough more, have chest pain, wheeze, feel like you can’t catch your breath, or be tired more than usual.
- Heart disease
- Coming in contact with particle pollution can cause serious problems in a short period of time, such as a heart attack without any warning signs.
- Symptoms, including chest pain or tightness, fast heartbeat, feeling out of breath, and feeling tired more than usual, may be signs of a serious problem. If you have any of these signs, follow your doctor's advice and contact your doctor if the symptoms last longer than usual or worsen.
- Follow your asthma management plan when particle levels are high.
Tracking Air Pollution
Tracking air pollution can help people understand how often they are exposed to unhealthy levels of air pollution. Having these data can also help public health professionals or policymakers understand which areas may be most in need of prevention and control activities.
NH EPHT is tracking the following indicators about ozone and PM2.5:
- Ozone--Days Above Regulatory Standard
The number of days in which the daily maximum 8-hour average ozone concentration exceeds a standard provides an indication of short-term spikes in ozone concentrations. This may give you an idea of how many days per year you may be exposed to unhealthy levels of ozone.
- PM2.5--Days Above Regulatory Standard
These data help summarize short-term trends in particle pollution concentrations. This may give you an idea of how many days per year you may be exposed to unhealthy levels of particulate matter.
- Annual PM2.5 Level
These data help summarize long-term trends in particle pollution concentrations. This will give you an idea of what the yearly level of PM2.5 is in an area.
For information about specific health risks associated with ozone and particulate matter:
To read more about air contaminants:
To read more about air pollution and health:
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Time and Frequency from A to Z: D to Do
A number or series of numbers used to identify a given day with the least possible ambiguity. The date is usually expressed as the month, day of month, and year. However, integer numbers such as the Julian Date are also used to express the date.
Daylight Saving Time
The part of the year when clocks are advanced by one hour, effectively moving an hour of daylight from the morning to the evening. In 2007, the rules for Daylight Saving Time (DST) have changed for the first time since 1986. The new changes were enacted by the The Energy Policy Act of 2005, which extended the length of DST by about one month in the interest of reducing energy consumption. DST will now be in effect for 238 days, or about 65% of the year, although Congress retained the right to revert to the prior law should the change prove unpopular or if energy savings are not significant. Under the current rules, DST in the U.S. begins at 2:00 a.m. on the second Sunday of March and ends at 2:00 a.m. on the first Sunday of November.
Daylight Saving Time is not observed in Hawaii, American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and the state of Arizona (not including the Navajo Indian Reservation, which does observe).
The time that elapses between the end of one measurement and the start of the next measurement. This time interval is generally called dead time only if information is lost. For example, when making measurements with a time interval counter, the minimum amount of dead time is the elapsed time from when a stop pulse is received to the arrival of the next start pulse. If a counter is fast enough to measure every pulse (if it can sample at a rate of 1 kHz, for instance, and the input signals are at 100 Hz), we can say there is no dead time between measurements.
Disciplined Oscillator (DO)
An oscillator whose output frequency is continuously steered (often through the use of a phase locked loop) to agree with an external reference. For example, a GPS disciplined oscillator (GPSDO) usually consists of a quartz or rubidium oscillator whose output frequency is continuously steered to agree with signals broadcast by the GPS satellites.
The apparent change of frequency caused by the motion of the frequency source (transmitter) relative to the destination (receiver). If the distance between the transmitter and receiver is increasing the frequency apparently decreases. If the distance between the transmitter and receiver is decreasing, the frequency apparently increases. To illustrate this, listen to the sound of a train whistle as a train comes closer to you (the pitch gets higher), or as it moves further away (the pitch gets lower). As you do so, keep in mind that the frequency of the sound produced at the source has not changed.
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III. More Women Arrive
In August of 1609, about twenty women arrived on ships sent by the Virginia Company of London. One hundred more women arrived a few months later. Many of the female passengers on the first ships were traveling with their husbands and families. All were recruited by the Virginia Company, a land-development, stock-issuing corporation based in London.
For the most part these women’s names are lost, but a few survive in the records. Temperance Flowerdew Yeardley, wife of Captain George Yeardley, landed in 1609 and survived the ensuing “starving time.” The Yeardleys returned to England in 1618 at which time King James I knighted George Yeardley. In 1619 they returned to Virginia, where Sir George was appointed Colonial Governor of Virginia. The Yeardleys became one of the most prominent families in Virginia, owning a large plantation named Flowerdew Hundred, which was Temperance’s surname prior to marriage.
Joan Pierce sailed with her husband William and daughter Jane. By all accounts, Joan was a dauntless woman and enjoyed the challenges of living in Virginia. During a visit to England in 1629, she was described as “an honest and industrious woman [who] hath been [in Virginia] nearly 20 years.” She apparently considered the new colony rich in resources; she was quoted as saying that “she can keep a better house in Virginia . . . than in London.”(1)
Her daughter, Jane Pierce, married John Rolfe, the widower of Pocahontas. Pocahontas had been the favored daughter of Chief Powhatan, and her marriage to Rolfe in 1614 brought over eight years of peace between the settlers and Native Americans, during which the colony was able to produce profitable tobacco. Pocahontas died in England in 1617, and Rolfe returned to Jamestown. He became active in colonial politics and married Jane Pierce later that year. They had one daughter, Elizabeth, also named for the powerful Virgin Queen.(2)
Thomasine Causey sailed to Virginia in 1609 to be with her husband who had made the trip a year before. The specifics of her family and voyage are not known, but many women were in the same situation: while their men took off for the New World, women supported their families and managed the finances. Before leaving England to join their husbands, these women made the decisions about selling property and planning for the long voyage.
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Witnessing a hawk snatch a songbird off your birdfeeder can be quite a shock. Although most of us understand the food chain, backyard birders would prefer these sharks of the sky get their meals elsewhere.
Sharp-shinned and Cooper's Hawks are the two most common birds of prey that visit birdfeeders in urban Orange County, says Biologist Scott Thomas, who runs raptor research for the local Sea & Sage Audubon Society.
Cooper's Hawks' numbers have grown significantly in California as they adapted to finding prey at birdfeeders and nesting in urban areas.
BRUCE CHAMBERS, THE ORANGE COUNTY REGISTER
"Sharp-shinned Hawks are migrants and visit our area from October through March or April, while Cooper's Hawks are here year-round," Thomas said.
Both are fast, agile fliers that can maneuver around buildings and trees in a surprise attack. Both species prey chiefly on small birds, while the Cooper's Hawk includes some small mammals in its diet.
"About 25 years ago, Cooper's Hawks were on California's special concern list," he said. "At that time they were not very common in neighborhoods."
But their numbers have grown significantly as they adapted to finding prey at birdfeeders and nesting in urban areas, he said.
"We've tracked them and found the hawks actually fly a circuit every day, going from feeder to feeder," Thomas said. That means once a raptor finds a meal at a feeder, it will likely return.
While you can't always protect your backyard birds from an aerial attack, you can give your songbirds an edge by taking a few precautions.
"Hang your feeders in a tree so the birds have a better chance of escape," Thomas said. "And don't put feeders up against a window where the small birds may become panicked and fly into it."
Add a baffle or an umbrella-type cover over the feeder so the birds will be less visible from aerial predators. And remove dead branches from the trees on your property where hawks may perch for hunting.
If a hawk has become a real menace to your backyard birds, take the feeder down for a few weeks. The hawk will move on, but it may also return when the feeder birds return. Keep in mind that this cycle of life will go on whether you have a backyard feeder or not.
And to help protect the health of all birds in your yard, Thomas recommends cleaning feeders and birdbaths regularly with 10 percent bleach solution. Hawks are susceptible to certain diseases typically transmitted at birdfeeders.
Jennifer J. Meyer is a freelance writer from Mission Viejo. Write to her at [email protected] or visit her blog at jjthebackyardbirder.blogspot.com.
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Classification of Nouns
Nouns are categorized by vowels and consonants they include. For the consonants they include nouns are categorized in two groups: 15 Nouns and 16 Nouns. For the vowels they include nouns are categorized in 5 groups: a, ä; å, ø; o, ö; u, y; i, e.
15 Nouns: the first consonant of these nouns are h, j, m, n, r, s, s'
16 Nouns: the first consonant of there nouns are c, d, l, p, t, v, l'
Categorizing by vowels depends on how many syllable noun has and what is the vowel in the syllable we have to use.
If a noun has 2 syllable we use the vowel of the second syllable
If a noun has 3 syllable we use the vowel of the third syllable
If a noun has 4 syllable we use the vowel of the second syllable
ıf a noun has 5 or more syllable we use the vowel of the syllable before the last syllable.
Vowel in a syllable can be a single vowel or a diphthong. If the syllable contains a diphthong, we choose the vowel we will use according to following rules:
If there is "u" or "y" we use them,
If there is a back vowel and "i" we use the back vowel,
If there is a front vowel and "i" we use "i",
In other diphthongs we use the first vowel.Definite Articles
Vi Söllidäävin has10 definite articles. All definite articles are 2 letters. First is a consonant, second a vowel.
If a noun is a 15 noun, the first letter of the article is "v"
If a noun is a 16 noun, the first letter of the article is "s"
we add the vowel according to the rules above to these consonants and make the article.
E.g.: tyycciön has 2 syllable. we will use the second syllable and the vowels in it are i and ö. "ö" is a front vowel this means we will use "i". And it is a 16 noun. With these knowledges the article is "si". Si Tyycciön.
More examples: vo riol, su vuun, va raceslain, ve hiynnen.
We have to use the root word to decide the article of the noun. In a sentence if a noun takes a prefix, that noun does not take article. We use definite article when the noun does not take prefixes and indefinite article.Indefinite Article
Vi Söllidäävin has 1 indefinite article and it is a suffix. We add "-me" to the noun. And if a noun takes this suffix, it does not take definite article.
E.g.: noidame → a love
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The War of Independence
The violent confrontations between Jews and Arabs in the land of Israel started in the early 1920s. For the most part, the Jews defended themselves against attacks by the Arabs. The Hagana was responsible for defense of the Jewish community, and sometimes British armed forces intervened to end the violence.
The Hagana was established in 1920 primarily as a regional organization; in each settlement its members were responsible for its own defense. Every Jewish resident of the land of Israel was eligible to join, the main condition being the person's ability to keep the organization's activities secret. At first the Hagana's limited mobility hindered its capability to carry out attacks. After the 1921 uprisings the Hagana expanded by drafting new members, conducting courses for commanders and accelerating weapons' acquisition. Armaments were purchased abroad or manufactured in factories located primarily in kibbutzim. The Hagana was under the authority of the elected governing institutions of the yishuv (Jewish community in the land of Israel.)
In 1936 there was an Arab uprising which called for liberation from British rule. They attacked British forces and Jews as well. In the course of the revolt the British recommended a solution: To divide the land into two states — Arab and Jewish (the Peel Commission Report). The Arab leadership rejected the proposal of partition. The yishuv leadership accepted the principle of partition but opposed the borders suggested by the commission.
At the end of World War II, in spite of revelations about the scope of the Jewish Holocaust in Europe and the murder of millions of Jews, Britain refused to permit the establishment of a Jewish state. In postwar Europe there were over 100,000 Jewish refugees who could not return to their homes, but the British refused to allow them to immigrate to the land of Israel. The yishuv fought the decision. Britain, whose resources had been drained by the war, turned the issue of the land of Israel over to the United Nations; the organization appointed a special committee which once more recommended partition as a solution to the problem.
On November 29, 1947, the UN General Assembly, by a large majority, approved the resolution calling for two independent states to be established alongside each other in the land of Israel (Resolution 181). Members of the Jewish community danced in the streets to celebrate but shortly afterward Palestinian Arabs and volunteers from Arab countries that rejected the partition plan attacked, and the war began.
The Civil War: December 1947-May 1948 The war that began on November 29, 1947 is known as the War of Independence because it resulted in independence for the Jewish community in the land of Israel, in spite of the fact that at the beginning local Arabs, and then armies from Arab countries tried to prevent it.
Local Arab troops and volunteers attacked isolated Jewish communities, Jews in cities with mixed populations and the roads. They also employed terror tactics — all Jewish people, settlements and property were considered to be legitimate targets. The most serious terror attacks were against the Haifa oil refineries, where 39 Jews were murdered in December 1947.
At the time Hagana tactics were primarily defensive or focused on specific objectives. Because of Arab attacks, various areas of the yishuv were cut off from the center and became isolated. The Hagana tried to supply besieged areas by means of clandestine convoys. These convoys became the foci of armed confrontations between Jews and Arabs, but in spite of everything, no Jewish settlement was abandoned.
Dozens of fighters were killed in attempts to relieve isolated communities. The main efforts were dedicated to bringing supplies to the besieged city of Jerusalem, and this resulted in many victims. In memory of these martyrs, Haim Gouri wrote the poem Bab El-Wad which is the Arabic name for Sha'ar Ha-Gai [gate to the valley] —; a strategic point where convoys began the climb from the coastal plains to the hills of Jerusalem.
The Catastrophe [An-Nakbeh] 1948
On November 29, 1947, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 181, which calls for the partition of Palestine into two states, Arab and Jewish. This was the start of the countdown for the establishment of the state of Israel on May 15, 1948 and the 1948 Catastrophe, which uprooted and dispersed the Palestinian people.
The Catastrophe was: 1) the defeat of the Arab armies in the 1948 Palestine War; 2) their acceptance of the truce; 3) the displacement of most of the Palestinian people from their cities and villages; and 4) the emergence of the refugee problem and the Palestinian Diaspora.
First and foremost, Britain bears responsibility for the defeat of the Palestinian Arab people in 1948. It received the mandate for Palestine from the League of Nations in 1917, and from the beginning of its occupation of Palestine until it relinquished the territory on May 15, 1948, Britain did all it could to suppress the Palestinian people and to arrest and deport their leaders. The British did not allow Palestinians to exercise their right to defend themselves and their land against the Zionist movement. It suppressed the popular uprisings (intifadas) which followed one after another beginning in 1920 (including those of 1921, 1929, 1930, 1935 and 1936). The rulers considered all forms of Palestinian resistance to be illegal acts of terrorism, extremism and fanaticism, and issued unjust laws against every Palestinian who carried arms or ammunition. Punishments included: "Six years in prison for possessing a revolver, twelve years for a grenade, five years of hard labor for possessing twelve bullets and eighteen months for giving false information to a group of soldiers asking for directions."
However, Britain did allow Zionist immigration to Palestine, which led to an economic crisis because of the increasing number of Jews in the land. Britain permitted the Zionist movement to form military forces, such as the Haganah and Etzel and others. Members carried out bombings in Jerusalem, fired on British soldiers and smuggled arms, immigrants, and more.
But that wasn't the end of the story. The British allowed the Zionist movement to have its own armed brigade attached to the British Army. It took part in battles of World War II, thereby acquiring training and experience in the techniques of war. In 1939 ten detachments of Zionist settlement police were formed, each led by a British officer — altogether 14,411 men. There were 700 policemen in Tel Aviv and 100 in Haifa, all of whom were members of the Haganah. By 1948 most Jews over the age of 14 had already undergone military training. For these reasons they were militarily superior to the Palestinians during the '48 war.
In 1946 one British commander in Palestine told an American journalist that: "If we withdraw British forces, the Haganah will control all of Palestine tomorrow." The journalist asked him if the Haganah could maintain its control of Palestine under such circumstances. He replied: "Certainly, they could do so even if they had to confront the entire Arab world."
Before the war broke out and just before they withdrew, the British either turned a blind eye, or actually conspired with the Zionists who seized British arms and equipment. This strengthened the Zionist movement's superiority over the Palestinians.
It is worth mentioning that when Britain relinquished its Palestinian Mandate to the UN, it was a very influential member of the international organization. The partition resolution 181 was a revival of the partition plan proposed by Britain in the aftermath of the 1936 Revolution.
After Britain, the Arabs and their leaders had the lion's share of responsibility for the defeat. Their war was like a heroic drama, whose hero was a British military officer — Glubb Pasha — who commanded the Transjordanian Arab troops in the war. The Arab armies did not take up their roles in the theater of war until the strength of the Palestinian people was virtually exhausted.
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In January 2010, five months after the unmanned moon probe Chandrayaan was abruptly terminated—a year before its completion, since radio contact with the mooncraft was lost—the Indian Space Research Organisation (Isro) announced a manned mission to outer space. It would take off in 2016 and cost Rs 12,400 crore. Dr K Radhakrishna, additional director of the Defence Food Research Laboratory (DFRL) in Mysore, was then put in charge of another mission: preparing an Indian menu suitable for space.
The first items of the space menu are now ready—tiny idlis, the size of Rs 2 coins, accompanied by flaming orange sambhar powder and creamy coconut chutney dust. The idlis are cooked and dried using infrared radiation at a temperature of 700º C, and then further dried by microwaving. The moisture is zapped out of them, but not the taste, smell or nutrients. “They do, however, lose some of their colour,” says Radhakrishna. “It is slightly browned if you notice, not like the jasmine-white idlis you get here.” The idlis and sambhar are to be eaten after adding hot water; the coconut chutney needs only cold water. Each idli is 12 gm and swells to 25 gm when soaked in water. The desiccation makes it impossible for micro organisms like bacteria to grow and increases the idlis’ shelf life to more than a year. The removal of moisture also reduces the weight of food sharply, something crucial to the needs of both Isro and the armed forces. The sambhar and chutney are also dried completely with infrared radiation, a technology that has been used in the preparation of food over the past six years or so.
The pack, as it has been designed now, has ten such idlis. It is the equivalent of three normal sized idlis. “It is the perfect snack,” says Anil Dutt Semwal, senior category F scientist at DFRL, “And the cost, though I haven’t calculated it precisely, is minimal: Rs 8 or 10 for a pack.” He worked two months on creating the idli-sambhar-chutney pack and then sent samples to the Army. The reviews, he says, were “very good”. The technology can also be used for cooking vegetables—a powdered mix of spices becomes a curry once water is added to it.
Radhakrishna has also been working on space rasgullas. They look like white naphthalene balls and are freeze-dried from cottage cheese. Freeze drying involves chilling foods to temperatures from –20º to –40º C. It lets the moisture evaporate, but not the flavours. The rasgullas are then vacuum packed. The syrup comes separately as a powder that can be dissolved in water. “Rasgullas are ideal for space. They have a beautiful texture that doesn’t disintegrate easily like other sweets. It is compact. In space, it won’t do to have bits of food flying around. Remember, it is zero gravity,” says Radhakrishna. It took him a year-and-a-half to get the rasgullas right, and they have been ready for a while. Nonetheless, he whittles away at the formula from time to time. There is still a battery of tests to be done before they are ready for space. “Chemical analysis to see they smell right and don’t disintegrate, physical analysis to ensure they look right, microbiological trials to confirm there are no micro-organisms, vibration studies to find out whether they can withstand G-forces at the time of launch,” he says, “This is routine for all foods, indeed materials, that are to travel to space.”
The programme’s biggest accomplishment, he reckons, is its space yoghurt. This was developed using pulsed electric field technology in which short bursts of electricity are passed through a fluid food. It renders microbes inactive but the tricky part is to keep the good bacteria alive. DFRL’s result, in Radhakrishna’s words, is “beautiful, beautiful”.
Radhakrishna is 58 now and due to retire on 31 March 2014. This space food project is his dream, and grants him a pretty good chance of an extension. Six months ago, he gave a 40-slide PowerPoint presentation to Isro on the programme. He asked for a budget of Rs 5 crore, three co-workers and a visit to Nasa’s food facility in the US. “It has been accepted on principle,” says Dr W Selvamurthy, chief controller of the life sciences department at the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), the parent body of DFRL. “As soon as the Government of India confirms the project, we will be officially a part of it.”
By coincidence, this is also Radhakrishna’s chance to finish what he started in his first years at DFRL. In 1983, the Government had commissioned the lab to prepare a couple of dishes for the Intercosmos Programme, the Indo-Soviet joint space flight that had aboard Rakesh Sharma, the first and only Indian astronaut to go to space. The lab was given a timeline of half a year, and pretty much the entire hundred-odd staff was roped in. Radhakrishna was a freshman at DFRL then, a ‘B category scientist’ who had joined after completing his PhD in meat technology at the same institute. He was perhaps the juniormost in the team and also the odd jobs man. They came up with a pineapple juice powder, biscuits that look like cream crackers, and a mango fruit bar. Of these, the Soviet space organisation approved only the mango bar, a variation of the popular Indian treat aam papad, which Rakesh Sharma says was much appreciated up in space. “There, the taste buds somehow seek sharp tastes and this fit the bill well. My Russian colleagues raved about it,” says Sharma. Apart from aam papad, Sharma had a menu of over 80 dishes to choose from in his eight days aboard the spaceship. These included “pilafs, dry fruits, milk preparations, soups, honeyed breads”, all of which came from the Soviet mission kitchen.
“I had this idea that astronauts consume some sort of specially potent pill which satisfies their hunger, but I realised when we worked on the Indo-Soviet mission that it is all a myth,” says Radhakrishna. Food has been a part of manned space missions more or less from the start. In 1964-65, Sujoy Guha, professor at IIT Kharagpur, was invited to Nasa as a spectator to group discussions on manned space missions. He was then working on his PhD at St Louis University, and had been selected for a Nasa fellowship. “In those days, astronauts were given a virtually zero fibre content diet because the technology of hygienic defecation in zero gravity had not been worked out,” says Professor Guha, “I think that the almost no passage of stools for many days led to an accumulation of toxic products, which to some extent caused the medical problems the astronauts faced: constipation; accumulation of toxins; and the possibility of peptic ulcers because in zero gravity conditions, the distribution of food and acid mass within the stomach would differ from what it would be on earth.”
Before they could live down the triumph of the mango bar, DFRL was commissioned in 1985 to prepare a full menu for an Indo-US seven-day space programme titled ‘Mission 61 I’ slated for May-June 1986. The Indian objective of that programme was to launch satellite Insat 1C, the payload. Two Indians, NC Bhat of Isro and P Radhakrishnan of the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, were selected in 1985 to travel to space as payload specialists. They also trained for a secondary assignment of sorts: performing yoga exercises in space as part of DRDO’s life sciences agenda.
The lab had 14 months to work on the project and the confidence of a successful mission behind them. Sights were set higher, a comprehensive meal plan from morning tea to dinner with desserts was worked out, and meat was included on the menu. Radhakrishna, with his specialisation in meat, had a more meaningful role this time. As many as 17 dishes were prepared, including chicken pulao, peas pulao, lemon rice, chicken masala, something called peas cheese, chapatis with yeast, kheer, sooji halwa and three types of juice. Thirteen of these were approved by Nasa.
“The sooji halwa, especially, was very good. So fresh, just like my wife makes it,” says NC Bhat, over the telephone from Bangalore. In comparison, the food prepared by Nasa that Bhat and P Radhakrishnan tasted on their orientation visits to the US was less memorable. “It was bland. We tasted some juice, pineapple juice I think. They also had some small biscuits. It was good, but not as tasty as the Indian food.” What was more interesting was the gee-wiz packaging of the American food. “We pressed a button and a pouch of biscuits shot out. You had to open it in a certain way. Food for these missions has special packaging that has to be discarded properly. In zero gravity, you can’t have empty packs and leftovers floating around.”
Scientific packaging design is an important part of the programme in India too. After the DFRL works out a menu, it figures out the smartest way to pack the food, the kind of material to be used and the sealing technique. It then lays down the specifications, and assigns the actual job to an industrial packing unit. “Our packaging was comparable to Nasa’s,” says Bhat, “We felt we were not far behind [in technology].”
“I remember liking the chicken pulao, lime rice, chapati, kheer and fruit juices,” says P Radhakrishnan, the other payload specialist selected for the mission.
On 28 January 1986, Nasa’s space shuttle Challenger exploded 73 seconds after liftoff, killing all seven members on board. ‘Mission 61 I’ was delayed and ultimately shelved. But the exercise was not entirely a waste; DFRL got feedback from Indian astronauts who underwent simulation exercises: they sorely missed buttermilk, yoghurt and pickles. In the years since 1985, it has worked on developing all three as space foods and they are now available for missions.
The yoghurt especially makes Radhakrishna beam. His menu also allows for fresh produce. He points out a box of freeze-dried jack fruit on display on the campus; it looks like chunks of desiccated coconut and weighs less than a newspaper. On being watered, it can be eaten like slices of fresh fruit or added to custard or some other pudding. “Of course, the menu will depend on the astronauts selected and their taste preferences. Also, we need to know things like how long the mission will be,” says Radhakrishna. But he is certain that idlis will be on the menu, their being so popular. In 2010, the DFRL’s then director AS Bawa also announced that they might create a dosa for space. “It is quite possible with the technologies we have,” says Radhakrishna, “We need to work out the most convenient size for it. It would be unwieldy to eat a large dosa up there.”
Even without a space dosa, Radhakrishna can expect the gratitude of generations of Indian astronauts for all that he’s done over his 28-year career with DFRL. “It’s a matter of national pride that our astronauts can travel to space, and so can our food, which will sustain them,” he says.
The effort has had its amusing moments too. In 1985, Radhakrishna had just had an arranged marriage, and as a newbie working on the Indo-US space mission menu, he also had to buy daily groceries for the project (for professional cooks enlisted by DFRL for the initial stage of food preparation). His newly-wed wife noticed that he used to leave home at 6 am, go to the market to buy groceries, and return home only around 10:30 pm. It was enough to arouse her suspicions. And then there was the fact that his father and uncle ran an Udipi restaurant in Mysore. “She thought I shopped in the morning and came home after cooking three meals at the lab. She thought I was a cook,” he says, laughing.
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The Trobriand Islands are a group of scattered and isolated islands found in the Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea. The islands were made famous by Bronsilaw Malinowski, who was an anthropologist who published many studies about the Trobriand culture during the early 1900s. What makes the community unique is its distinct social structure that remains far different from one to be found anywhere else in the country.
The islands of Trobriand are about 90 minutes away from the capital of Port Moresby. Ferry services are also available from Alotau by use of Star Ships. The easiest way to get to the group of islands is by air as traveling by vessel may require a lot of time. The Trobriands consist of low-lying coral islands in contrast to their mountain-rich southern neighbors. Trade between the islands has remained to have a strong cultural and economic importance as the pre-European traders have crossed vast districts of open seas to exchange various items. One of the most famous of these trade routes is the Kula Ring.
Inhabitants of the Trobriand Island have both Melanesian and Polynesian features and are thought to have arrived from Polynesia by sea more than a thousand years ago. To this day, there are even scattered remains of stone temples that resemble those from Polynesia. The Trobriands are known to be the “Islands of Love” because of a local custom of encouraging young males and females to engage in romantic behavior right after puberty. This culture is widely misinterpreted by westerners as a form of promiscuity, but for the locals, it is a form of courtship and marriage instead. The purpose of the ritual is to help young men and women find a suitable partner to settle down with. Another unique tradition of the tribe is that married couples are allowed to have a fling with other partners with impunity during the annual yam harvest celebration.
These romantic customs of the islands, however, do not extend to visitors of the island. Many tourists mistake such rituals as a chance to have a bit of “nookie” but leave disappointed. The Trobriand island people are a very proud people as they value their genetic lines and disapprove of relationships between their people and outsiders.
Despite the attempt of many anthropologists, missionaries and TV crews who have followed the works of Malinowski, the Trobriands remain one of the most culturally intact places you could possibly find in the world. One example of the distinct ways of the Trobriands is that their yearly village social calendar is based on the cultivations of the island’s staple food, yam. Although an understanding and use of modern medicine is being used by the locals, the island still maintains a view that in order for women to get pregnant, they must be infused with the spirit of a departed ancestor.
Today, the strong culture and ways of the Trobriand Islands still persist. Some claim that it is good manners to let the paramount chief know that you are visiting the island and explain the reason for your visit. Attesting to the local people’s intact cultural ties, you can almost ask anyone of the islanders to pass the message to the chief as it will surely and eventually reach him.
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A history of the Tonto Apache
In May 1926, the director of the State Museum on the campus of the University of Arizona, Tucson, answered a letter of inquiry from a Mrs. Matthews in San Francisco about the Tonto Apaches. In his reply was this comment, "Regarding the Tonto Apaches, I fear I can be of very little help to you. I know of nothing that has been written upon this group. They are now mixed into the other groups in the White Mountain's tribe at Fort Apache and at San Carlos. But I know of no one who has traced their history."
If I were to answer Mrs. Matthews I would have to give the same answer today. Much research has been done on the war waged by Euro-Americans against the Apaches, and there have been numerous studies of prehistoric settlement in the territory later occupied by the Tonto Apache. But no one has gathered the available information and provided us with a written history of the small tribe called Tonto Apache.
The reason so little has been written about this fascinating subject can be readily understood. When the European culture began its migration westward across America, Arizona was essentially a bridge to California gold.
As the Pacific connection grew, so did the necessity for better trails to connect the vast stretches of the continent. As trails became roads and then railroads, they followed routes along the Gila River in the south and across the Colorado Plateau in the north. In either case, they skirted the wilderness of central Arizona and left out the territory of the Tonto Apache. The terrain, with its rugged canyons, ridges and mountains lay in a northwest by southeast direction, and created an impossible barrier for east-west travel. The Apaches who lived in these basins and mountains were, therefore, the last Arizona natives to be threatened by the settlement of those they called "White-eyes." This moniker originated because the white of Caucasian eyeballs contrasts with the coffee color of Indian eyeballs.
As for the Apache people, they refer to themselves as "The People." In their language it is Nde, pronounced En-dah, and implies a people set apart and superior to other peoples.
When the California gold rush was over and miners began to prospect in the central mountains of Arizona, word got out about the lush grazing lands and the abundance of game waiting to be exploited by ranchers and miners, and those who serviced them. Once these Americans settled in Arizona they began to encroach on Tonto Apache lands.
Settlers became prime targets for Apaches and the various Pai groups, who stole livestock for food. This created the need for a military presence to protect the settlers, and it was the beginning of the end for the old way of life among the Tontos.
As we shall see, however, they are "The People Who Would Not Be Conquered." Their story deserves to be told, and honor given to their history.
As I attempt to put together the exciting and dramatic story of these people who live in the Rim Country and Verde River Valley, credit must go to many who have helped me over the years. The original research of Alan Ferg, Nicolas P. Hauser, Keith Basso, George S. Esper and Thomas Hinton are among those to whom I am deeply indebted. Also the archives of the Arizona Historical Society of Tucson, the Sharlot Hall Museum library in Prescott; the Fort Verde State Park museum in Camp Verde; the Cline Library at Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff; the Colter Library of the Northern Arizona Museum, Flagstaff; The Hayden Library, Special Collections, at Arizona State University, Tempe; and the Arizona Historical Foundation in that same location; The Department of Library Archives and Public Records at the state capitol in Phoenix; The Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the National Archives and Records Administration in Washington, D.C. and in Laguna Niguel, Calif.
In the Payson area, journalist Carroll Cox did much over the years to gather information about the Tonto Apaches and publish it from her several journalistic positions. She deserves much credit for being the first person to systematically write a simple history of the Tonto Apaches, and publish it in a 1987 series in The Mogollon Advisor.
I hope the reader will be inspired and enlightened by this story, and that young Tonto Apaches will be encouraged to embrace the heritage they have all but lost. If I were a Tonto Apache and could speak in the tongue of the ancestors, I could better tell the odyssey, the joy, the struggle, and the terror of their story. However, I am White-eyes, and I write as White-eyes. All I can do is ask forgiveness from the people I have come to appreciate so heartily.
Next week: The Tontos' story of their beginnings.
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This video details the dangers of rip currents and explains how to identify rip currents, as well as how to stay safe. Swimming in Prince Edward Island National Park of Canada is an ideal way to spend a summer day. But before heading into the water make sure that you and your family know how to break the grip of the rip.
Rip currents are powerful, fast-moving seaward currents that can pull even the strongest swimmers out to sea. Be safe. Know how to swim, never swim alone and, when in doubt, don’t go out. If you become caught in a rip current, don’t fight the current; swim out of the current, then to shore. If you can’t escape, float or tread water. If you need help, call or wave for assistance.
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Overview - TOUCH2 LEARN TEXTURE CARDS
Touch2 Learn Texture Cards are an excellent learning tool that contains five sets of cards (45 cards), each with its own texture and theme. Each set has cards for the numerals 1-9 and is designed to help you teach number recognition, numeral/quantity association, counting and vocabulary. The back of the cards show the numeral with TouchPoints and Touching/Counting Patterns. Perfect for tactile/kinesthetic learning.
• Forest Animals
• Sea Life
For Pre-K, K, RTI and Special Education.
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Hematemesis (Vomiting Blood) in Dogs
By: Dr. Bari Spielman
Read By: Pet Lovers
Coagulopathies or bleeding disorders should be considered, especially if there is evidence of bleeding from other body sites as well. There are many different types of clotting disorders that can cause hematemesis.
Hematemesis is the presence of flakes, streaks or clots of fresh blood in the vomitus, or the presence of digested blood in the vomitus. Digested blood is often described as looking like coffee grounds. Hematemesis may be the only clinical sign, or it may be accompanied by other clinical signs. It is sometimes difficult for the pet owner to distinguish between true hematemesis, which involves bleeding within the gastrointestinal tract, from secondary hematemesis, which involves the vomiting of swallowed blood. Sneezing or coughing blood, and/or blood dripping from the mouth are signs of bleeding that may be swallowed into the stomach, and then secondarily vomited. A careful history and thorough physical examination will help distinguish between them.
True hematemesis usually indicates a serious underlying disease, and generally warrants hospitalization, extensive diagnostic testing, and supportive care. It is best to determine the underlying cause, and treat the specific problem, rather than attempting only symptomatic therapy.
There are many potential causes for hematemesis. The most common causes are usually diseases or disorders of the upper gastrointestinal tract, although in some cases, clotting disorders (coagulopathies) may result in bleeding even though the gastrointestinal tract is essentially healthy.
Hemorrhagic gastroenteritis (HGE) is a syndrome seen in dogs whose cause is unknown. The dog usually experiences acute bloody diarrhea, although vomiting and/or hematemesis is may be seen as well.
Gastrointestinal ulcerations or erosions are one of the more common causes of hematemesis. These ulcers can occur with many different disorders, such as:
The overproduction of stomach acid from stress and certain tumors
Infiltrative diseases of the wall of the stomach or upper intestines, such as inflammatory bowel disease
Chronic inflammation of the esophagus, especially with regurgitation of acidic stomach contents
Chronic inflammation of the stomach, especially from bacteria such as Helicobacter
Metabolic diseases, such as kidney failure, chronic liver disease and hypoadrenocorticism (Addison's disease)
Administration of drugs that affect the lining of the stomach, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents and corticosteroids
Gastrointestinal foreign bodies or tumors, especially of the esophagus, stomach, upper small intestine
Perioperative hemorrhage (bleeding associated with surgical procedures) as in cases of gastrotomy (cutting into the stomach), gastrostomy (creating an opening in the stomach), or repair of a gastric dilatation volvulus (bloat/torsion)
Heavy metal intoxication with arsenic, lead and zinc (uncommon causes of hematemesis)
Following anaphylaxis (a severe life-threatening allergic reaction) or septic shock (shock due to an overwhelming bacterial infection)
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Separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the Upper Peninsula (or simply, the “U.P.”) is characterized by dense forests and rugged lakeshores. Bordered by Northern Wisconsin, Southern Ontario, and three of the Great Lakes, the Upper Peninsula makes up almost one-third of Michigan’s land mass. Steep highlands in the western portion of the peninsula give way to flatter lands of the Great Lakes Plain in the east.
Marquette is the largest city on the Upper Peninsula, and is a major port on Lake Superior for shipping center for iron ore. The city is also home to Northern Michigan University. Sault Ste. Marie is Michigan’s oldest city, and is separated by its twin city of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario by the waters of the St. Mary’s River. The Soo Locks, which allow ships to pass between Lake Superior and the lower Great Lakes, are located here.
Economy and Industry
Whereas mining was once the predominant industry in the Upper Peninsula, tourism drives the economy of the region today. The unique geography and remote beauty of the U.P. bring in thousands of visitors from the Lower Peninsula and Wisconsin every year. With huge stretches of land and low population densities, the peninsula is a prime spot for camping, hiking, fishing, boating, snowmobiling and hunting. Logging also remains a key business for the U.P. as well.
Sometimes referred to as “The Mitten” or “The Hand” because of its shape, the Lower Peninsula of Michigan is generally flat and comprises two-thirds of Michigan’s land mass. The Lower Peninsula is often divided into the sub regions of Northern Michigan, West Michigan, Mid-Michigan, Southeast Michigan and the Flint/Tri Cities area (also known as “the Thumb”). The peninsula is marked by many lakes, marshes and inland rivers.
Detroit is the largest city in Michigan and is famous as both the Motor City and Motown. Detroit is also the only U.S. city that bordered by a Canadian city on the South. Grand Rapids is the second largest city in Michigan and the primary urban center in the Western half of the state. The city has long been a major manufacturing center. Lansing is Michigan's capital city and is home to Michigan State University. The area is an important center for government, educational and research institutions. Best known as the home of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor is a known for high tech industry and a vibrant arts and entertainment scene. Dearborn the hometown of Henry Ford and is the location of the Ford Motor company’s headquarters.
Known as the nation’s center for the automobile industry, Michigan is also a leader in information technology, business and manufacturing. Mining remains important in the state, in particular limestone, salt, and iron ore. The vast majority of Michigan’s farmlands can be found in the Lower Peninsula. Among the most important crops in the state are corn, soybeans, wheat and sugarbeets.
The state’s lakes and waterways provide ample opportunity for fishing and boating, and in the summer thousands flock to beaches and lake front resorts. Outdoor enthusiasts enjoy 99 state parks and thousands of miles of hiking and bike trails. Hunting is a major pastime in Michigan, and peninsulas offer excellent opportunities to hunt big game, small game, waterfowl and upland game birds. Michigan is also a fantastic place for golfers, with over 900 golf courses (more than any other state) long summer hours and a persistent autumn season. All of the major professional sports leagues have a team that call Michigan home, and heated college rivalries keep sports fans entertained all year long.
Each winter Michigan transforms into a snow covered landscape ideal for winter sports. Michigan boasts some the Midwest’s best downhill skiing and snowboarding resorts, miles of cross-country and snowmobile trails and even the U.S. National Ski & Snowboard Hall of Fame and Museum. All told, some 840 runs, and 40 terrain parks can be found within Michigan’s peninsulas.
Michigan also boasts world-class educational institutions, outstanding museums and extensive public libraries throughout the state. There are at least 7 symphony orchestras in the state, and many cities host individual concert seasons. Over 45 wineries can be found in Michigan, located in some of the most beautiful areas of the state.
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Evolution in the light of intelligent design - New entries
Appendix (human appendix) - despite it's name, no longer considered superfluous or rudimentary (Tyler)
Acritarchs - oldest known protists (Tyler)
The picture emerging of the Late Archaean is one that includes prokaryotes and eukaryotes, photosynthesis, an oxygenated atmosphere and lots of biological activity. This is a big contrast from the picture even 10 years ago. The significance for our thinking about origins is that the eons of time demanded by Darwinian processes are not available.
Archaea - horizontal gene transfer - review of The Archaea's Tale (Tyler)
He presents evidence that Darwinian evolution does not go back to the beginning of life. When we compare genomes of ancient lineages of living creatures, we find evidence of numerous transfers of genetic information from one lineage to another. In early times, horizontal gene transfer, the sharing of genes between unrelated species, was prevalent. It becomes more prevalent the further back you go in time. - Freeman Dyson
Butterfly sex ratios in Samoa - and natural selection (Tyler)
Sex ratios are distorted by the presence of a maternally inherited bacterium which has the effect of selectively killing male embryos. The authors report ratios of >99% female to nearly 1:1. These were different on different islands and at different times. The genetics of this shift of sex ratios is summarised in one paragraph with some supporting online data. There is not enough information here for anyone to either confirm or challenge their conclusions.
Cell - molecular recognition - advantages of cellular key-lock not being an exact fit. (Tyler)
So, something that could have been interpreted as evidence for tinkering evolution is discovered to have advantages after all. Furthermore, it has potential for the design of human systems operating in noisy environments. By invoking "evolutionary selection", the authors suggest an evolutionary context for their work. However, there is no evidence that evolutionary selection was involved, and the link with evolutionary theory is gratuitous.
Central dogma (Tyler)
Casual observers might say they find chaos in the emerging picture of the genome, but systems biology is tracking down extraordinary sophistication at the molecular biology level, indicating that theories (like Darwinism) that are undirected and stochastic have little to offer 21st Century biology.
Exoplanets - atmospheres (Tyler)
Gecko - feet a standard for adhesion (Tyler)
... the gecko does not demonstrate just a single trait with enhanced performance. There are issues of adhesion and delamination, self-cleaning, and achieving a sustained adhesive performance. What we have in the gecko is exquisite design and, for that, biomimetics needs a methodology that can relate well to intelligent engineering design concepts.
Molecular recognition in the cell (Tyler)
Protists - oldest known protists (Tyler)
Sensory perception - advanced perception in Permian amniotes (Tyler)
The discovery of a highly-evolved auditory apparatus in Middle Permian parareptiles even further emphasizes that the entire groundplan for the impressive evolutionary history of amniotes was already largely in place by the end of the Paleozoic; what followed was in fact only a subsequent tinkering of earlier inventions." Darwinism needs time, but the fossil record no longer provides it.
Stasis - tribolites (Tyler)
Trilobites - variation and stasis as a pattern
The research documented both rapid morphological variation and subsequent stasis. ... One hypothesis is that radiations occur because organisms are designed to vary, but the process results in genetic impoverishment that leads to stasis.
Variation - tribolites (Tyler)
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