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Armillaria
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Armillaria
is a pathogenic organism that affects trees, shrubs, woody climbers and, rarely, woody herbaceous perennial plants. Honey fungus can grow on living, decaying, and dead plant material.
Honey fungus spreads from living trees, dead and live roots and stumps by means of reddish-brown to black rhizomorphs (root-like structures) at the rate of approximately 1 m a year, but infection by root contact is possible. Infection by spores is rare. Rhizomorphs grow close to the soil surface (in the top 20 cm) and invade new roots, or the root collar (where the roots meet the stem) of plants. An infected tree will die once the fungus has girdled it, or when significant root damage has occurred. This can happen
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rapidly, or may take several years. Infected plants will deteriorate, although may exhibit prolific flower or fruit production shortly before death.
Initial symptoms of honey fungus infection include dieback or shortage of leaves in spring. Rhizomorphs appear under the bark and around the tree, and mushrooms grow in clusters from the infected plant in autumn and die back after the first frost. However these symptoms and signs do not necessarily mean that the pathogenic strains of honey fungus are the cause, so other identification methods are advised before diagnosis. Thin sheets of cream colored mycelium, beneath the bark at the base of the trunk or stem indicated that honey fungus is likely
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the pathogen. It will give off a strong mushroom scent and the mushrooms sometimes extend upward. On conifers honey fungus often exudes a gum or resin from cracks in the bark.
The linkage of morphological, genetic, and molecular characters of "Armillaria" over the past few decades has led to the recognition of intersterile groups designated as “biological species”. Data from such studies, especially those using molecular diagnostic tools, have removed much uncertainty for mycologists and forest pathologists. New questions remain unanswered regarding the phylogeny of North American "Armillaria" species and their relationships to their European counterparts, particularly within the “"Armillaria
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mellea" complex”. Some data suggest that North American and European "A. gallica" isolates are not monophyletic. Although North American and European isolates of "A. gallica" may be interfertile, some North American isolates of "A. gallica" are more closely related to the North American taxon "A. calvescens" than to European isolates of "A. gallica". The increase in genetic divergence has not necessarily barred inter-sterility between isolated populations of "A. gallica". Although the relationships among some groups in the genus seem clearer, the investigation of geographically diverse isolates has revealed that the relationship between some North American species is still unclear (Hughes et
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al. 2003).
Intersterile species of "Armillaria" occurring in North America (North American Biological Species = NABS) were listed by Mallett (1992):
- I "Armillaria ostoyae" (Romagn.) Herink
- II "Armillaria gemina" Bérubé & Dessureault
- III "Armillaria calvescens" Bérubé & Dessureault
- V "Armillaria sinapina" Bérubé & Dessureault
- VI "Armillaria mellea" (Vahl.:Fries) Kummer
- VII "Armillaria gallica" (Marxmüller & Romagn.)
- IX "Armillaria nabsnona" T.J. Volk & Burds.,(1996)
- X "Armillaria altimontana" Brazee, B. Ortiz, Banik & D.L. Lindner (2012)
and XI taxonomically undescribed
NABS I, V, VII, IX, X, and XI have been found in British Columbia; I, III, V have been found in the
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Prairie Provinces, with I and V occurring in both the boreal and subalpine regions; I, III, V, and VII have been found in Ontario; and I, II, III, V, and VI have been found in Quebec. "Armillaria ostoyae" is the species most commonly found in all Canadian provinces surveyed (Mallett 1990). "Armillaria" root rot occurs in the Northwest Territories, and was identified on white spruce at Pine Point on Great Slave Lake prior to NABS findings.
# Edibility.
Honey Fungus are regarded in Ukraine, Russia, Poland, Germany and other European countries as one of the best wild mushrooms. They are commonly ranked above morels and chanterelles and only the cep / porcini is more highly prized. However, honey
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fungus must be thoroughly cooked as they are mildly poisonous raw. One of the four UK species can cause sickness when ingested with alcohol. For those unfamiliar with the species, it is advisable not to drink alcohol for 12 hours before and "24" hours after eating this mushroom to avoid any possible nausea and vomiting. However, if these rules are followed this variety of mushroom is a delicacy with a distinctive mushroomy and nutty flavor. Reference texts for identification are "Collins Complete British Mushrooms and Toadstools" for the variety of field pictures in it, and Roger Philips' "Mushrooms" for the quality of his out of field pictures and descriptions.
Norway used to consider Honey
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Fungus edible, but because the health department is moving away from parboiling, they are now considered poisonous.
# Hosts.
Potential hosts include conifers and various monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous trees, shrubs, and herbaceous species, ranging from asparagus and strawberry to large forest trees (Patton and Vasquez Bravo 1967). "Armillaria" root rot enters hosts through the roots. In Alberta, 75% of trap logs (Mallett and Hiratsuka 1985) inserted into the soil between planted spruce became infected with the distinctive white mycelium of "Armillaria" within one year. Of the infestations, 12% were "A. ostoyae", and 88% were "A. sinapina" (Blenis et al. 1995). Reviews of the biology,
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conifers and various monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous trees, shrubs, and herbaceous species, ranging from asparagus and strawberry to large forest trees (Patton and Vasquez Bravo 1967). "Armillaria" root rot enters hosts through the roots. In Alberta, 75% of trap logs (Mallett and Hiratsuka 1985) inserted into the soil between planted spruce became infected with the distinctive white mycelium of "Armillaria" within one year. Of the infestations, 12% were "A. ostoyae", and 88% were "A. sinapina" (Blenis et al. 1995). Reviews of the biology, diversity, pathology, and control of "Armillaria" in Fox (2000) are useful.
# See also.
- Bioluminescence
- Foxfire
- List of "Armillaria" species
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List of cities in Sierra Leone
List of cities in Sierra Leone
This is a list of cities and towns in Sierre Leone".
# Largest cities.
The following table is the list of cities in Sierra Leone by population.
Other notable cities
- Wangechi
- Kalewa
- Magburaka
- Kabala
- Moyamba
- Kailahun
- Bonthe
- Kambia
Towns and villages
- Alikalia
- Binkolo
- Daru
- Falaba
- Gbinti
- Kamakwie
- Kaima
- Koindu
- Lungi
- Lunsar
- Madina
- Mange
- Mano
- Matru
- Momaligi
- Njala
- Pepel
- Pendembu
- Shenge
- Sulima
- Sumbaria
- Taiama
- Tongo
- Tumbu
- Worodu
- Yana
- Yele
- Yengema
- Yonibana
# External links.
- Map
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Anna Komnene
Anna Komnene
Anna Komnene (, "Ánna Komnēnḗ"; 1 December 1083 – 1153), commonly latinized as Anna Comnena, was a Byzantine princess, scholar, physician, hospital administrator, and historian. She was the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and his wife Irene Doukaina. She is best known for her attempt to usurp her brother, John II Komnenos, and for her work "The Alexiad", an account of her father's reign.
At birth, Anna was betrothed to Constantine Doukas, and she grew up in his mother's household. She was well-educated in "Greek literature and history, philosophy, theology, mathematics, and medicine." Anna and Constantine were next in the line to throne until Anna's younger
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brother, John II Komnenos, became the heir in 1092. Constantine died around 1094, and Anna married Nikephoros Bryennios in 1097. The two had several children before Nikephoros' death around 1136.
Following her father’s death in 1118, Anna and her mother attempted to usurp John II Komnenos. Her husband refused to cooperate with them, and the usurpation failed. As a result, John exiled Anna to the Kecharitomene monastery, where she spent the rest of her life.
In confinement there, she wrote the "Alexiad".
She died sometime in the 1150s; the exact date is unknown.
# Family and early life.
Anna was born on 1 December 1083 to Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina. Her father, Alexios I Komnenos,
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became emperor in 1081, after usurping the previous Byzantine Emperor, Nikephoros Botaneiates. Her mother, Irene Doukaina, was part of the imperial Doukai family. In the "Alexiad", Anna emphasizes her affection for her parents in stating her relationship to Alexios and Irene. She was the eldest of seven children; her younger siblings were (in order) Maria, John II, Andronikos, Isaac, Eudokia, and Theodora.
Anna was born in the Porphyra Chamber of the imperial palace in Constantinople, making her a "porphyrogenita," which underscored her imperial status. She noted this status in the "Alexiad," stating that that she was "born and bred in the purple."
According to Anna's description in the Alexiad,
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her mother asked Anna to wait to be born until her father returned from war. Obediently, Anna waited until her father came home.
At birth, Anna was betrothed to Constantine Doukas, the son of Emperor Michael VII and Maria of Alania. The two were the heirs to the empire until sometime between c.1088 and 1092, after the birth of Anna's brother, John II Komnenos. Various scholars point out that the betrothal was probably a political match intended to establish the legitimacy of Anna's father, who had usurped the previous emperor.
Starting around 1090, Constantine's mother – Maria of Alania – raised Anna in her home. It was common in Byzantium for mothers-in-law to raise daughters-in-law. In 1094,
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Maria of Alania was implicated in an attempt to overthrow Alexios I Komnenos. Some scholars argue that Anna's betrothal to Constantine Doukas may not have ended there, as he was not implicated in the plot against Alexios, but it certainly ended when he died around 1094.
Some scholars have also now started to look at Anna's relationships to Maria of Alania; Anna Dalassene, Anna's paternal grandmother; and Irene Doukaina as sources of inspiration and admiration for Anna. For example, Thalia Gouma-Peterson argues that Irene Doukaina's "maternal ability to deal with the speculative and the intellectual enables the daughter to become the highly accomplished scholar she proudly claims to be in the
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opening pages of the "Alexiad"."
# Education.
Anna wrote at the beginning of the "Alexiad" about her education, highlighting her experience with literature, Greek language, rhetoric, and sciences. Tutors trained her in subjects that included astronomy, medicine, history, military affairs, geography, and mathematics. Anna was noted for her education by the medieval scholar, Niketas Choniates, who wrote that Anna "was ardently devoted to philosophy, the queen of all sciences, and was educated in every field." Anna’s conception of her education is shown in her testament, which credited her parents for allowing her to obtain an education. This testament is in contrast to a funeral oration about
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Anna given by her contemporary, Georgios Tornikes. In his oration he said that she had to read ancient poetry, such as the "Odyssey", in secret because her parents disapproved of its dealing with polytheism and other "dangerous exploits," which were considered "dangerous" for men and "excessively insidious" for women. Tornikes went on to say that Anna "braced the weakness of her soul" and studied the poetry "taking care not to be detected by her parents."
Anna proved to be capable not only on an intellectual level but also in practical matters. Her father placed her in charge of a large hospital and orphanage that he built for her to administer in Constantinople. The hospital was said to hold
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beds for 10,000 patients and orphans. Anna taught medicine at the hospital, as well as at other hospitals and orphanages. She was considered an expert on gout. Anna treated her father during his final illness.
# Marriage.
In roughly 1097, Anna's parents married her to "Caesar" Nikephoros Bryennios. Nikephoros Bryennios a member of the Bryennios family that had held the throne before the accession of Anna's father, Alexios I. Nikephoros was a soldier and a historian.
Most scholars agree that the marriage was a political one – it created legitimacy for Anna's paternal family through Bryennois' connections to past emperor's family. The two were an intellectual couple, and Nikephoros Bryennios
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tolerated and possibly encouraged Anna's scholarly interests by allowing her to participate in various scholarly circles. The couple had six known children: Eirene, Maria, Alexios, John, Andronikos, and Constantine. Only Eirene, John, and Alexios survived to adulthood.
# Claim to the throne.
In 1087, Anna’s brother, John, was born. Several years after his birth, in 1092, John was designated emperor. According to Niketas Choniates, Emperor Alexios "favored" John and declared him emperor while the Empress Irene "threw her full influence on [Anna's] side" and "continually attempted" to persuade the emperor to designate Nikephoros Bryennios, Anna’s husband, in John's place. Around 1112, Alexios
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fell sick with rheumatism and could not move. He therefore turned the civil government over to his wife, Irene; she in turn directed the administration to Bryennios. Choniates states that, as Emperor Alexios lay dying in his imperial bedchamber, John arrived and "secretly" took the emperor’s ring from his father during an embrace "as though in mourning." Anna also worked in her husband's favor during her father's illness. In 1118, Alexios I Komnenos died. A cleric acclaimed John emperor in Hagia Sophia.
According to Smythe, Anna "felt cheated" because she "should have inherited." Indeed, according to Anna Komnene in the "Alexiad", at her birth she was presented with "a crown and imperial diadem."
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Anna’s "main aim" in the depiction of events in the Alexiad, according to Stankovich, was to "stress her own right" to the throne and "precedence over her brother, John."
In view of this belief, Jarratt et al. record that Anna was "almost certainly" involved in the murder plot against John at Alexios’s funeral. Indeed, Anna, according to Hill, attempted to create military forces to depose John. According to Choniates, Anna was "stimulated by ambition and revenge" to scheme for the murder of her brother. Smythe states the plots "came to nothing." Jarratt et al., record that, a short time afterward, Anna and Bryennios "organized another conspiracy." However, according to Hill, Bryennios refused
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to overthrow John, making Anna unable to continue with her plans. With this refusal, Anna, according to Choniates, exclaimed "that nature had mistaken their sexes, for he ought to have been the woman." According to Jarratt et al., Anna shows "a repetition of sexualized anger." Indeed, Smythe asserts that Anna’s goals were "thwarted by the men in her life." Irene, however, according to Hill, had declined to participate in plans to revolt against an "established" emperor. Hill, however, points out that Choniates, whom the above sources draw upon, wrote after 1204, and accordingly was "rather far removed" from "actual" events and that his "agenda" was to "look for the causes" of the toppling of
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Constantinople in 1204.
In contrast, Leonora Neville argues that Anna probably not involved in the attempted usurpation. Anna plays a minor role in most of the available medieval sources – only Choniates portrays her as a rebel. Choniates' history is from around 1204, almost a hundred years after Alexios I's death. Instead, most of the sources question whether John II Komnenos' behavior at his father's deathbed was appropriate.
The plots were discovered and Anna forfeited her estates. After her husband's death, she entered the convent of Kecharitomene, which had been founded by her mother. She remained there until her death.
# Historian and intellectual.
In the seclusion of the monastery,
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Anna dedicated her time to studying philosophy and history. She held esteemed intellectual gatherings, including those dedicated to Aristotelian studies. Anna's intellectual genius and breadth of knowledge is evident in her few works. Among other things, she was conversant with philosophy, literature, grammar, theology, astronomy, and medicine. It can be assumed because of minor errors that she may have quoted Homer and the Bible from memory when writing her most celebrated work, the "Alexiad". Her contemporaries, like the metropolitan Bishop of Ephesus, Georgios Tornikes, regarded Anna as a person who had reached "the highest summit of wisdom, both secular and divine."
## The "Alexiad".
Anna
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wrote the "Alexiad" in the mid-1140s or 1150s. Anna cited her husband's unfinished work as the reason why she began the "Alexiad". Before his death in 1137, her husband, Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger, was working on a history, which was supposed to record the events before and during the reign of Alexios I. His death left the history unfinished after recording the events of the reign of Emperor Nikephoros Botaneiates. Ruth Macrides argues that while Bryennios' writing may have been a source of inspiration for the "Alexiad", it is incorrect to suggest that the "Alexiad" was Bryennios' work edited by Anna (as Howard-Johnston has argued on tenuous grounds).
In what is considered to be a sort-of
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statement on how she gathered her sources for the "Alexiad", Anna wrote, “My material ... has been gathered from insignificant writings, absolutely devoid of literary pretensions, and from old soldiers who were serving in the army at the time that my father seized the Roman sceptre ... I based the truth of my history on them by examining their narratives and comparing them with what I had written, and what they told me with what I had often heard, from my father in particular and from my uncles … From all these materials the whole fabric of my history – my true history – has been woven.” Beyond just eyewitness accounts from veterans or her male family members, scholars have also noted that Anna
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used the imperial archives, which allowed her access to official documents.
In the "Alexiad", Anna provided insight on political relations and wars between Alexios I and the West. She vividly described weaponry, tactics, and battles. It has been noted that she was writing about events that occurred when she was a child, so these are not eye-witness accounts. Her neutrality is compromised by the fact that she was writing to praise her father and denigrate his successors. Despite her unabashed partiality, her account of the First Crusade is of great value to history because it is the only Byzantine eyewitness account available. She had the opportunity to gather information from key figures in
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the Byzantine elite; her husband, Nikephorus Bryennios, had fought in the clash with crusade leader Godfrey of Bouillon outside Constantinople on Maundy Thursday 1097; and her uncle, George Palaeologus, was present at Pelekanon in June 1097 when Alexios I discussed future strategy with the crusaders. Thus, the "Alexiad" allows the events of the First Crusade to be seen from the Byzantine elite's perspective. It conveys the alarm felt at the scale of the western European forces proceeding through the Empire, and the dangers they might have posed to the safety of Constantinople. Anna also identified for the first time, the Vlachs from Balkans with Dacians, in Alexiad (Chapter XIV), describing
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their places around Haemus mountains: "...on either side of its slopes dwell many very wealthy tribes, the Dacians and the Thracians on the northern side, and on the southern, more Thracians and the Macedonians". Special suspicion was reserved for crusading leader Bohemond of Taranto, a southern Italian Norman who, under the leadership of his father Robert Guiscard, had invaded Byzantine territory in the Balkans in 1081.
The "Alexiad" was written in Attic Greek, and the literary style is fashioned after Thucydides, Polybius, and Xenophon. Consequently, it exhibits a struggle for an Atticism characteristic of the period, whereby the resulting language is highly artificial. Peter Frankopan argues
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that the lapses in some of the chronology of events can in part be attributed to errors in, or lack of, source material for those events. Anna herself also addressed these lapses, explaining them as a result of memory loss and old age. But regardless of errors in chronology, her history meets the standards of her time.
Moreover, the "Alexiad" sheds light on Anna’s emotional turmoil, including her grief over the deaths of her father, mother, and husband, among other things. At the end of the "Alexiad", Anna wrote "But living I died a thousand deaths … Yet I am more grief-stricken than [Niobe]: after my misfortunes, great and terrible as they are, I am still alive – to experience yet more … Let
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this be the end of my history, then, lest as I write of these sad events I become even more resentful."
# Depictions in fiction and other media.
- Anna Komnene plays a secondary role in Sir Walter Scott’s 1832 novel "Count Robert of Paris".
- Fictional accounts of her life are given in the 1928 novel "Anna Comnena" by Naomi Mitchison, and the 1999 novel for young people "Anna of Byzantium" by Tracy Barrett.
- She appears prominently in the first volume of the trilogy "The Crusaders" by the Polish novelist Zofia Kossak-Szczucka, written in 1935.
- A novel written in 2008 by the Albanian writer Ben Blushi called "Living on an Island" also mentions her.
- The novel "Аз, Анна Комнина" ("Az,
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Anna Komnina", in English: "I, Anna Comnena") was written by Vera Mutafchieva, a Bulgarian writer and historian.
- She is also a minor character in Nan Hawthorne's novel of the Crusade of 1101, "Beloved Pilgrim" (2011).
- Anna appears in "" video game campaigns as a Byzantine princess diplomat, under the name Anna Comnenus.
- In Julia Kristeva's 2006 murder mystery "Murder in Byzantium", Anna Komnene is the focus of the villain's scholarly and amorous fantasy of the past. The novel includes considerable detail on Anna Komnene's life, work, and historical context.
- In Harry Turtledove's Videssos cycle of novels the character Alypia Gavra is a fictionalized version of Anna Komnene.
- In
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the board game Nations, Anna Komnene is an adviser in the Medieval Age.
# References.
## Primary sources.
- Niketas Choniates, "O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniates" (Michigan: Wayne State University Press, 1984)
- Anna Comnena (2001). Dawes, Elizabeth A., ed. "The Alexiad." "The Internet Medieval Sourcebook". Fordham University. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
- Anna Komnene, "The Alexiad", translated by E.R.A. Sewter, ed. Peter Frankopan, (New York: Penguin, 2009)
- Georgios Tornikes, 'An unpublished funeral oration on Anna Comnena', English translation by Robert Browning, in "Aristotle Transformed: The Ancient Commentators and Their Influence", ed. R. Sorabji (New York: Cornell
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University Press, 1990)
## Secondary sources.
- Carolyn R. Connor, "Women of Byzantium" (Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2004)
- Dalven, Rae (1972). "Anna Comnena". New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc.
- Frankopan, Peter (2002). "Perception and Projection of Prejudice: Anna Comnena, the "Alexiad", and the First Crusade." Chapter 5 in Edgington, Susan B.; Lambert, Sarah. "Gendering the Crusades". New York: Columbia University Press.
- Gouma-Peterson, Thalia. "Gender and Power: Passages to the Maternal in Anna Komnene's "Alexiad"." In Gouma-Peterson, Thalia. "Anna Komnene and Her Times". New York: Garland Publishing Inc. pp. 107–125.
- Hanawalt, Emily Albu (1982). "Anna Komnene". In Strayer,
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Joseph R. ed. "The Dictionary of the Middle Ages." 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 303–304.
- Hill, Barbara (2000). "Actions Speak Louder Than Words: Anna Komnene's Attempted Usurpation". In Gouma-Peterson, Thaila. "Anna Komnene and Her Times." New York: Garland Publishing Inc. pp. 45–62.
- Jongh, Suzanne Wittek-De (1953). "Le César Nicéphore Byennois, l'historien, et sese ascendants". "Byzantion." 23: 463–468., cited in Dion C. Smythe (2006), Garland, Lynda ed. "Middle Byzantine Family Values and Anna Komnene's Alexiad". "Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience" "800–1200." Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
- Lynda Garland & Stephen Rapp, "Maria ‘of Alania’: Woman & Empress
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Between Two Worlds," "Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience", ed. Lynda Garland, (New Hampshire: Ashgate, 2006).
- Angeliki Laiou, "Introduction: Why Anna Komnene?" "Anna Komnene and Her Times", ed. Thalia Gouma-Peterson, (New York: Garland, 2000). .
- Larmour, David (2004). Margolis, Nadia; Wilson, Katherina M., eds. "Comnene, Anna". "Women in the Middle Ages: an encyclopedia." 1. Westport: Greenwood Press. p. 203–205. .
- Macrides, Ruth (2000). "The Pen and the Sword: Who Wrote the "Alexiad"?." In Gouma-Peterson, Thaila. "Anna Komnene and Her Times." New York: Garland Publishing Inc. pp. 63–82.
- Neville, Leonora (2016). "Anna Komnene: the life and work of a medieval historian". New
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York: Oxford University Press. .
- Reinsch, Diether R. (2000). "Women’s Literature in Byzantium? – The Case of Anna Komnene." Translated from German by Thomas Dunlap. In "Anna Komnene and Her Times", ed. Thalia Gouma-Peterson. New York: Garland Publishing Inc.
- Dion C. Smythe, "Middle Byzantine Family Values and Anna Komnene’s Alexiad," "Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800–1200", ed. Lynda Garland, (New Hampshire: Ashgate, 2006). .
# Further reading.
- Georgina Buckler, "Anna Comnena: A Study", Oxford University Press, 1929.
- Anna Comnena, "The Alexiad", translated by Elizabeth A. Dawes in 1928
- Anna Comnena, "The Alexiad of Anna Comnena", edited and translated by E.R.A. Sewter.
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Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969. (This print version uses more idiomatic English, has more extensive notes, and mistakes).
- John France, "Anna Comnena, the Alexiad and the First Crusade", "Reading Medieval Studies" v. 9 (1983)
- Ed. Kurtz, 'Unedierte Texte aus der Zeit des Kaisers Johannes Komnenos, in "Byzantinische Zeitschrift" 16 (1907): 69–119 (Greek text of Anna Comnene’s testament)
- Thalia Gouma-Peterson (ed.), "Anna Komnene and her Times", New York: Garland, 2000. .
- Jonathan Harris, "Byzantium and the Crusades", Bloomsbury, 2nd ed., 2014.
- Barbara Hill, "Actions speak louder than words: Anna Komnene’s attempted usurpation," in Anna Komnene and her times (2000): 46–47.
- Levin,
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Carole, et al. "Extraordinary Women of the Medieval and Renaissance World". Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2000.
- 5–6.
- Ellen Quandahl and Susan C. Jarratt, "'To recall him…will be a subject of lamentation': Anna Comnene as rhetorical historiographer" in "Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric" (2008): 301–335.
- Vlada Stankovíc, "Nikephoros Bryennios, Anna Komnene and Konstantios Doukas. A Story of Different Perspectives," in Byzantinische Zeitschrift (2007): 174.
- Paul Stephenson, "Anna Comnena's Alexiad as a source for the Second Crusade?", "Journal of Medieval History" v. 29 (2003)
- Dion C. Smythe, "Middle Byzantine Family Values and Anna Komnene’s Alexiad," in Byzantine
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ennios, Anna Komnene and Konstantios Doukas. A Story of Different Perspectives," in Byzantinische Zeitschrift (2007): 174.
- Paul Stephenson, "Anna Comnena's Alexiad as a source for the Second Crusade?", "Journal of Medieval History" v. 29 (2003)
- Dion C. Smythe, "Middle Byzantine Family Values and Anna Komnene’s Alexiad," in Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience (2006): 125–127.
- Dion C. Symthe, "Outsiders by taxis perceptions of non-conformity eleventh and twelfth-century literature," in Byzantinische Forschungen: Internationale Zeitschrift für Byzantinistik (1997): 241.
# External links.
- Female Heroes "From The Time of the Crusades: Anna Comnena". 1999. Women in World History.
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ASCII
ASCII ( ), abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard for electronic communication. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters.
ASCII is the traditional name for the encoding system; the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) prefers the updated name US-ASCII, which clarifies that this system was developed in the US and based on the typographical symbols predominantly in use there.
ASCII is one of the IEEE milestones.
# Overview.
ASCII was developed from telegraph code.
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Its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's (ASA) (now the American National Standards Institute or ANSI) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters.
Originally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes
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128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. Ninety-five of the encoded characters are printable: these include the digits "0" to "9", lowercase letters "a" to "z", uppercase letters "A" to "Z", and punctuation symbols. In addition, the original ASCII specification included 33 non-printing control codes which originated with Teletype machines; most of these are now obsolete, although a few are still commonly used, such as the carriage return, line feed and tab codes.
For example, lowercase "i" would be represented in the ASCII encoding by binary 1101001 = hexadecimal 69 ("i" is the ninth letter) = decimal 105.
# History.
The American Standard Code for
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Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association (ASA), called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 (later X3L2) subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group (now INCITS). The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI) and ultimately the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
With the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963, leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code. There was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters
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rather than the lowercase alphabet. The indecision did not last long: during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to "sticks" 6 and 7, and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting. Locating the lowercase letters in "sticks" 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified case-insensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers.
The X3 committee made other changes, including
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other new characters (the brace and vertical bar characters), renaming some control characters (SOM became start of header (SOH)) and moving or removing others (RU was removed). ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3.4-1967, then USAS X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986.
Revisions of the ASCII standard:
- ASA X3.4-1963
- ASA X3.4-1965 (approved, but not published, nevertheless used by IBM 2260 & 2265 Display Stations and IBM 2848 Display Control)
- USAS X3.4-1967
- USAS X3.4-1968
- ANSI X3.4-1977
- ANSI X3.4-1986
- ANSI X3.4-1986 (R1992)
- ANSI X3.4-1986 (R1997)
- ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2002)
- ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2007)
- ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2012)
In the X3.15
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standard, the X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted (least significant bit first), and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats.
# Design considerations.
## Bit width.
The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols (i.e. graphemes and control characters). This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language.
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Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT) International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) standard of 1924, FIELDATA (1956), and early EBCDIC (1963), more than 64 codes were required for ASCII.
ITA2 were in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code Émile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874.
The committee debated the possibility of a shift function (like in ITA2), which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted
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code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for data transmission, as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code.
The committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits (octets) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal. However, it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated
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with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired. Eight-bit machines (with octets as the native data type) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0. In some printers, the high bit was used to enable Italics printing.
## Internal organization.
The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two so-called "ASCII sticks" (32 positions) were reserved for control characters. The "space" character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier, so it became position
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20; for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support uppercase 64-character alphabets, and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes, as was done in the DEC SIXBIT code (1963). Lowercase letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and the letter "A" was placed in position 41 to match the draft of the corresponding British standard. The digits 0–9 are prefixed with 011, but the remaining 4 bits correspond
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to their respective values in binary, making conversion with binary-coded decimal straightforward.
Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters; an important subtlety is that these were based on "mechanical" typewriters, not "electric" typewriters. Mechanical typewriters followed the standard set by the Remington No. 2 (1878), the first typewriter with a shift key, and the shifted values of codice_1 were codice_2 early typewriters omitted "0" and "1", using "O" (capital letter "o") and "l" (lowercase letter "L") instead, but codice_3 and codice_4 pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common. Thus, in ASCII codice_5 were placed
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in the second stick, positions 1–5, corresponding to the digits 1–5 in the adjacent stick. The parentheses could not correspond to "9" and "0", however, because the place corresponding to "0" was taken by the space character. This was accommodated by removing codice_6 (underscore) from "6" and shifting the remaining characters, which corresponded to many European typewriters that placed the parentheses with "8" and "9". This discrepancy from typewriters led to bit-paired keyboards, notably the Teletype Model 33, which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII, not to traditional mechanical typewriters. Electric typewriters, notably the IBM Selectric (1961), used a somewhat different
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layout that has become standard on computers following the IBM PC (1981), especially Model M (1984) and thus shift values for symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table as earlier keyboards did. The codice_7 pair also dates to the No. 2, and the codice_8 pairs were used on some keyboards (others, including the No. 2, did not shift codice_9 (comma) or codice_10 (full stop) so they could be used in uppercase without unshifting). However, ASCII split the codice_11 pair (dating to No. 2), and rearranged mathematical symbols (varied conventions, commonly codice_12) to codice_13.
Some common characters were not included, notably codice_14, while codice_15 were included
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as diacritics for international use, and codice_16 for mathematical use, together with the simple line characters codice_17 (in addition to common codice_18). The "@" symbol was not used in continental Europe and the committee expected it would be replaced by an accented "À" in the French variation, so the "@" was placed in position 40, right before the letter A.
The control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message (SOM), end of address (EOA), end of message (EOM), end of transmission (EOT), "who are you?" (WRU), "are you?" (RU), a reserved device control (DC0), synchronous idle (SYNC), and acknowledge (ACK). These were positioned to maximize the Hamming distance
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between their bit patterns.
## Character order.
ASCII-code order is also called "ASCIIbetical" order. Collation of data is sometimes done in this order rather than "standard" alphabetical order (collating sequence). The main deviations in ASCII order are:
- All uppercase come before lowercase letters; for example, "Z" precedes "a"
- Digits and many punctuation marks come before letters
An intermediate order converts uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values.
# Character groups.
## Control characters.
ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for control characters: codes originally intended not to represent printable information, but rather to control
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devices (such as printers) that make use of ASCII, or to provide meta-information about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape.
For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace". refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space as non-whitespace control characters. Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting.
The
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original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this caused was sometimes intentional, for example where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a data stream, and sometimes accidental, for example with the meaning of "delete".
Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the Teletype Model 33 ASR, which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s, less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype Model 33 machine
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assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 (Delete) became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of Control-G (code 7, BEL, meaning audibly alert the operator) literally, as the unit contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of underscore), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected.
When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped
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with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") caused the tape reader to resume. This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a "handshaking" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4) to start and stop the tape punch; on some units equipped
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with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and TAPE respectively.
The Teletype could not move the head backwards, so it did not put a key on the keyboard to send a BS (backspace). Instead there was a key marked that sent code 127 (DEL). The purpose of this key was to erase mistakes in a hand-typed paper tape: the operator had to push a button on the tape punch to back it up, then type the rubout, which punched all holes and replaced the mistake with a character that was intended to be ignored. Teletypes were commonly used for the less-expensive computers from Digital Equipment Corporation, so these systems had to use the available
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key and thus the DEL code to erase the previous character. Because of this, DEC video terminals (by default) sent the DEL code for the key marked "Backspace" while the key marked "Delete" sent an escape sequence, while many other terminals sent BS for the Backspace key. The Unix terminal driver could only use one code to back up, this could be set to BS "or" DEL, but not both, resulting in a very long period of annoyance where you had to correct it depending on what terminal you were using (shells that allow line editing, such as ksh, bash, and zsh, understand both). The assumption that no key sent a BS caused Control+H to be used for other purposes, such as the "help" prefix command in GNU
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Emacs.
Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings, C language strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence usually in the form of a so-called "ANSI escape code" (or, more properly, a "Control Sequence Introducer")
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from ECMA-48 (1972) and its successors, beginning with ESC followed by a "[" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation, as in the TECO and vi text editors. In graphical user interface (GUI) and windowing systems, ESC generally causes an application to abort its current operation or to exit (terminate) altogether.
The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The best example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated
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with both "Carriage Return" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and "Line Feed" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name "Carriage Return" comes from the fact that on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moved while the position where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed (returned) to the right in order to position the left margin of the paper for the next line.
DEC operating systems (OS/8, RT-11, RSX-11, RSTS, TOPS-10, etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally Teletype machines) would work. By the time so-called "glass TTYs"
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(later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When Gary Kildall created CP/M he was inspired by some command line interface conventions used in DEC's RT-11. Until the introduction of PC DOS in 1981, IBM had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return was meaningless. IBM's PC DOS (also marketed as MS-DOS by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being loosely based on CP/M, and Windows inherited it from MS-DOS.
Unfortunately, requiring
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two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters plain text data streams, including files, on Multics used line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator. Unix and Unix-like systems, and Amiga systems, adopted this convention from Multics. The original Macintosh OS, Apple DOS, and ProDOS, on the other hand, used carriage return (CR) alone as a line terminator; however, since Apple replaced these operating systems with the Unix-based macOS operating system, they now use line feed (LF) as well. The Radio Shack TRS-80 also used a lone CR to terminate lines.
Computers attached to
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the ARPANET included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and TENEX using CR-LF line endings, machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings, and machines running operating systems such as OS/360 that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and that used EBCDIC rather than ASCII. The Telnet protocol defined an ASCII "Network Virtual Terminal" (NVT), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. Telnet used ASCII along with CR-LF line endings, and software using other conventions would translate
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between the local conventions and the NVT. The File Transfer Protocol adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode. This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for E-mail and the World Wide Web, on systems not using the NVT's CR-LF line-ending convention.
The PDP-6 monitor, and its PDP-10 successor TOPS-10, used Control-Z (SUB) as an end-of-file indication for input from a terminal. Some operating systems such as CP/M tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z to mark the end of the actual
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text in the file. For these reasons, EOF, or end-of-file, was used colloquially and conventionally as a three-letter acronym for Control-Z instead of SUBstitute. The end-of-text code (ETX), also known as Control-C, was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using Z as the control code to end a file is analogous to it ending the alphabet and serves as a very convenient mnemonic aid. A historically common and still prevalent convention uses the ETX code convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard.
In C library and Unix conventions, the null character is used to terminate text strings; such null-terminated strings can be known in abbreviation
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as ASCIZ or ASCIIZ, where here Z stands for "zero".
Other representations might be used by specialist equipment, for example ISO 2047 graphics or hexadecimal numbers.
## Printable characters.
Codes 20 to 7E, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols. There are 95 printable characters in total.
Code 20, the "space" character, denotes the space between words, as produced by the space bar of a keyboard. Since the space character is considered an invisible graphic (rather than a control character) it is listed in the table below instead of in the previous section.
Code 7F corresponds to the non-printable "delete" (DEL) control
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character and is therefore omitted from this chart; it is covered in the previous section's chart. Earlier versions of ASCII used the up arrow instead of the caret (5E) and the left arrow instead of the underscore (5F).
]]
# Use.
ASCII was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit ITA2, which was also used by the competing Telex teleprinter system. Bob Bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence. His British colleague Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work according to Bemer, "so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was
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first called the "Bemer–Ross Code" in Europe". Because of his extensive work on ASCII, Bemer has been called "the father of ASCII".
On March 11, 1968, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson mandated that all computers purchased by the United States Federal Government support ASCII, stating:
I have also approved recommendations of the Secretary of Commerce [Luther H. Hodges] regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations.
All computers and related equipment configurations brought into the Federal Government inventory on and after July 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the Standard
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Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used.
ASCII was the most common character encoding on the World Wide Web until December 2007, when UTF-8 encoding surpassed it; UTF-8 is backward compatible with ASCII.
# Variants and derivations.
As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "ASCII extensions", although some misuse that term to represent all variants, including those that do not preserve
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ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. Furthermore, the ASCII extensions have also been mislabelled as ASCII.
## 7-bit codes.
From early in its development, ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard.
Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as ISO 646 (1967) that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's pound sterling (£). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII, since ASCII suited the needs of only the US and a few other countries.
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For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters.
Many other countries developed variants of ASCII to include non-English letters (e.g. é, ñ, ß, Ł), currency symbols (e.g. £, ¥), etc. See also YUSCII (Yugoslavia).
It would share most characters in common, but assign other locally useful characters to several code points reserved for "national use". However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation during 1967 caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to
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make their own assignments to these code points.
ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, is a 7-bit character set. It does not make any additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and, therefore, which character a code represented, and in general, text-processing systems could cope with only one variant anyway.
Because the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to "national use" code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC
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646, a German, French, or Swedish, etc. programmer using their national variant of ISO/IEC 646, rather than ASCII, had to write, and thus read, something such as
instead of
C trigraphs were created to solve this problem for ANSI C, although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their computers on US-ASCII, so plain-text in Swedish, German etc. (for example, in e-mail or Usenet) contained "{, }" and similar variants in the middle of words, something those programmers got used to. For example, a Swedish programmer mailing another programmer asking if they should go for lunch, could get "N{ jag har sm|rg}sar" as the answer,
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which should be "Nä jag har smörgåsar" meaning "No I've got sandwiches".
## 8-bit codes.
Eventually, as 8-, 16- and 32-bit (and later 64-bit) computers began to replace 12-, 18- and 36-bit computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit relatives of ASCII. In most cases these developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters.
Encodings include ISCII (India), VISCII (Vietnam). Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is defined strictly only by
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the ANSI standard.
Most early home computer systems developed their own 8-bit character sets containing line-drawing and game glyphs, and often filled in some or all of the control characters from 0 to 31 with more graphics. Kaypro CP/M computers used the "upper" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet.
The PETSCII code Commodore International used for their 8-bit systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963, instead of the more common ASCII-1967, such as found on the ZX Spectrum computer. Atari 8-bit computers and Galaksija computers also used ASCII variants.
The IBM PC defined code page 437, which replaced the control characters with graphic symbols such as
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smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as DOS supported these code pages, and manufacturers of IBM PCs supported them in hardware. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular VT220 terminal as one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. The Macintosh defined Mac OS Roman and Postscript also defined a set, both of these contained both international letters and typographic punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets.
The ISO/IEC 8859 standard (derived from the DEC-MCS) finally provided a standard
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that most systems copied (at least as accurately as they copied ASCII, but with many substitutions). A popular further extension designed by Microsoft, Windows-1252 (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing. ISO-8859-1, Windows-1252, and the original 7-bit ASCII were the most common character encodings until 2008 when UTF-8 became more common.
ISO/IEC 4873 introduced 32 additional control codes defined in the 80–9F hexadecimal range, as part of extending the 7-bit ASCII encoding to become an 8-bit system.
## Unicode.
Unicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set (UCS) have a much wider array of characters and their
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various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using natural numbers called "code points") and encoding (to 8-, 16- or 32-bit binary formats, called UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32).
ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode (1991) character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII, as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of
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characters. Even more importantly, forward compatibility is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.
# See also.
- 3568 ASCII, an asteroid named after the character encoding
- Ascii85
- ASCII art
- ASCII Ribbon Campaign
- Basic Latin (Unicode block) (ASCII as a subset of Unicode)
- Extended ASCII
- HTML decimal character rendering
- List of Unicode characters
- Jargon File, a glossary of computer programmer slang which includes a list of common slang names for ASCII characters
- List of computer
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at recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.
# See also.
- 3568 ASCII, an asteroid named after the character encoding
- Ascii85
- ASCII art
- ASCII Ribbon Campaign
- Basic Latin (Unicode block) (ASCII as a subset of Unicode)
- Extended ASCII
- HTML decimal character rendering
- List of Unicode characters
- Jargon File, a glossary of computer programmer slang which includes a list of common slang names for ASCII characters
- List of computer character sets
- Alt codes
# Further reading.
- from:
# External links.
-
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Osterode (district)
Osterode () was a district in Lower Saxony, Germany. It was bounded by (from the southwest and clockwise) the districts of Göttingen, Northeim and Goslar, and by the state of Thuringia (districts of Nordhausen and Eichsfeld).
# History.
This part of the Harz mountains was ruled by the Welfen dynasty from the 12th century on. Osterode was the centre of the Principality of Brunswick-Grubenhagen, one of many small states within Brunswick-Lüneburg. Later this principality became part of Hanover, which in turn fell to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1866. In 1885 the Prussian administration established districts, among them Osterode.
On 1 November 2016, Osterode ceased to become
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ration established districts, among them Osterode.
On 1 November 2016, Osterode ceased to become a separate district and was merged with an enlarged Göttingen.
# Geography.
More than two thirds of the district's area were occupied by the southwestern part of the Harz mountains, including the southern portion of the Harz National Park.
# Towns and municipalities.
Towns:
- 1. Bad Lauterberg
- 2. Bad Sachsa
- 3. Herzberg am Harz
- 4. Osterode am Harz
Municipalities:
- 1. Bad Grund
Unincorporated area
- Harz (Landkreis Osterode am Harz) (267.37 km², uninhabited)
# See also.
- Metropolitan region Hannover-Braunschweig-Göttingen-Wolfsburg
# External links.
- Local history (German)
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Aristotle
Aristotle (; "Aristotélēs", ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher during the Classical period in Ancient Greece, the founder of the Lyceum and the Peripatetic school of philosophy and Aristotelian tradition. Along with his teacher Plato, he has been called the "Father of Western Philosophy". His writings cover many subjects – including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theatre, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him, and it was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as
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problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
Little is known about his life. Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in Northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven (c. 347 BC). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library
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in the Lyceum which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication.
Aristotle's views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century.
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His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and John Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic also continued well into the 19th century.
He influenced Islamic thought during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher" and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher". His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics, such as in the thinking of Alasdair MacIntyre and Philippa
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Foot.
# Life.
In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.
Aristotle, whose name means "the best purpose" in Ancient Greek, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. His father Nicomachus was the personal physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was about thirteen, and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections
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with the Macedonian monarchy.
At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. He probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Eleusinian Mysteries, “to experience is to learn” [παθείν μαθεĩν]. Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the Academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that he feared the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens at that time and left before Plato died. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates
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to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor. After the death of Hermias, Aristotle travelled with his pupil Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island and its sheltered lagoon. While in Lesbos, Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermias's adoptive daughter or niece. She bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. In 343 BC, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander.
Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: Ptolemy
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and Cassander. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and Aristotle's own attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants". By 335 BC, Aristotle had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the Lyceum. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira, who bore him a son whom he named after his father, Nicomachus. According
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to the "Suda", he also had an "erômenos", Palaephatus of Abydus.
This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include "Physics", "Metaphysics", "Nicomachean Ethics", "Politics", "On the Soul" and "Poetics". Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture,
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medicine, dance and theatre."
Near the end of his life, Alexander and Aristotle became estranged over Alexander's relationship with Persia and Persians. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, on Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated: "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" –
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a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died on Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.
# Speculative philosophy.
## Logic.
With the "Prior Analytics", Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the "Critique of Pure Reason" that with Aristotle logic reached its completion.
### "Organon".
What we today call "Aristotelian logic" with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle
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himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean "dialectics". Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the "Organon" around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are:
- 1. "Categories"
- 2. "On Interpretation"
- 3. "Prior Analytics"
- 4. "Posterior Analytics"
- 5. "Topics"
- 6. "On Sophistical Refutations"
The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes
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from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the "Categories," the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in "On Interpretation", to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the "Analytics") and dialectics (in the "Topics" and "Sophistical Refutations"). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory "stricto sensu": the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The "Rhetoric" is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the "Topics".
## Metaphysics.
The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the
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