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Anarchism
William Godwin considered education an important aspect. He was against state education as he considered those schools as a way of the state to replicate privileges of the ruling class. Godwin thought that education was the way to change the world. In his "Political Justice", he criticises state sponsored schooling and advocates for child's protection from coercion. Max Stirner wrote in 1842 a long essay on education called "The False Principle of our Education" in which Stirner was advocating for child's autonomy.
In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia established modern or progressive schools in Barcelona in defiance of an educational system controlled by the
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Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both the state and church involvement in the educational process and gave pupils plenty of autonomy (i.e. on setting the curriculum). Ferrer was aiming to educate the working class. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later on arrested. Ferrer's ideas generally formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools in the United States,
Russian Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy established a school for peasant children on his estate. Tolstoy's educational experiments were short-lived due to harassment by the Tsarist secret police. Tolstoy established a conceptual difference between education and culture.
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He thought that "[e]ducation is the tendency of one man to make another just like himself. [...] Education is culture under restraint, culture is free. [Education is] when the teaching is forced upon the pupil, and when then instruction is exclusive, that is when only those subjects are taught which the educator regards as necessary". For him, "without compulsion, education was transformed into culture".
A more recent libertarian tradition on education is that of unschooling and the free school in which child-led activity replaces pedagogic approaches. Experiments in Germany led to A. S. Neill founding what became Summerhill School in 1921. Summerhill is often cited as an example of anarchism
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in practice. However, although Summerhill and other free schools are radically libertarian, they differ in principle from those of Ferrer by not advocating an overtly political class struggle-approach. In addition to organising schools according to libertarian principles, anarchists have also questioned the concept of schooling per se. The term deschooling was popularised by Ivan Illich, who argued that the school as an institution is dysfunctional for self-determined learning and serves the creation of a consumer society instead.
## Anarchism and the state.
Objection to the state and its institutions is "sine qua non" of anarchism. Anarchists consider the government as a tool of domination
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and it is illegitimate regardless of political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power regardless if it is open or transparent as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that some people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the argument that the state is the collective will of people as a fairy tale since the ruling class is distinct from the rest of the society.
## Anarchism and violence.
Anarchist perspectives
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towards violence have always been perplexed and controversial. On one hand, anarcho-pacifists point out the unity of means and ends. On the other hand, other groups of anarchist are for direct action that can include sabotage or even terrorism. Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta, who were proponents of limited use of violence, were arguing that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a necessary evil. Peace activist and anarchist April Carter argues that violence is incompatible with anarchism because it is mostly associated with the state and authority as violence is immanent to the state. As the state's capability to exercise violence is colossal nowadays, a rebellion or civil war
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would probably end in another authoritarian institute.
# Anarchist strategies and tactics.
Anarchist tactics vary considerably. A broad categorization would be the preference of revolutionary tactics to destroy oppressive States and institutions or aiming to change society through evolutionary means. Revolutionary methods can take violent form as they did in past insurgencies (i.e., in Spain, Mexico, Russia) or during violent protests by militant protestors such as the black bloc, who are generally much less violent than revolutionary movements a century ago. Anarchists also commonly employ direct action, which can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchies, or the
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form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counterinstitutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Often decision-making is handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as horizontalism. Another aspect of anarchist tactics is their aim to strengthen social bonds through common actions.
Reclaiming public space by anarchists is another method of creating social spaces and creating squats in order to organise themselves. During important events such as protests, when spaces are being occupied, they are often called
"Temporary Autonomous Zones" (TAZ).
# Criticisms.
Moral and pragmatic criticism of anarchism
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includes allegations of utopianism, tacit authoritarianism and vandalism towards feats of civilization.
## Allegation of utopianism.
Anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian by its critics, often in general and formal debate. European history professor Carl Landauer argued that social anarchism is unrealistic and that government is a "lesser evil" than a society without "repressive force". He also argued that "ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears" is an "absurdity". However, "An Anarchist FAQ" states the following: "Anarchy is not a utopia, [and] anarchists make no such claims about human perfection. [...] Remaining disputes would be solved by reasonable methods,
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for example, the use of juries, mutual third parties, or community and workplace assemblies". It also states that "some sort of 'court' system would still be necessary to deal with the remaining crimes and to adjudicate disputes between citizens".
## Tacit authoritarianism.
The anarchist tendency known as platformism has been criticized by Situationists, insurrectionaries, synthesis anarchists and others of preserving tacitly statist, authoritarian or bureaucratic tendencies.
## Anarchism and civilization.
In his essay "On Authority", Friedrich Engels claimed that radical decentralization promoted by anarchists would destroy modern industrial civilization, citing an example of railways:
In
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the end, it is argued that authority in any form is a natural occurrence which should not be abolished.
# List of anarchist societies.
- Federation of Neighborhood Councils-El Alto (Fejuve; 1979–present)
- Popular Indigenous Council of Oaxaca "Ricardo Flores Magón" (CIPO-RFM; 1980s–present)
- Barbacha (2001–present)
- Villa de Zaachila (2006–present)
- Cheran (2011–present)
- Democratic Federation of Northern Syria (Rojava; 2013–present)
# See also.
- Governance without government
- Libertarian socialism
- List of anarchist political ideologies
## Foundational texts of anarchism.
- "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice" (1793)
- "What is Property? (1840)
- "The Ego and Its Own"
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gón" (CIPO-RFM; 1980s–present)
- Barbacha (2001–present)
- Villa de Zaachila (2006–present)
- Cheran (2011–present)
- Democratic Federation of Northern Syria (Rojava; 2013–present)
# See also.
- Governance without government
- Libertarian socialism
- List of anarchist political ideologies
## Foundational texts of anarchism.
- "Enquiry Concerning Political Justice" (1793)
- "What is Property? (1840)
- "The Ego and Its Own" (1844)
# Further reading.
- An utopian science fiction novel
- Scott, James C., (2012) "", Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
# External links.
- Anarchy Archives. Anarchy Archives is an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism
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Swing
Swing or swinging may refer to:
# Apparatus.
- Swing (seat), a hanging seat that swings back and forth
- Russian swing, a swing-like circus apparatus
- Sex swing, a type of harness for sexual intercourse
- Swing ride, an amusement park ride consisting of suspended seats that rotate like a merry-go-round
# Arts, entertainment, and media.
## Films.
- "Swing" (1938 film), an American film directed by Oscar Micheaux
- "Swing" (1999 film), an American film by Nick Mead
- "Swing" (2002 film), a French film by Tony Gatlif
- "Swing" (2003 film), an American film by Martin Guigui
- "Swing" (2010 film), a Hindi short film
- "Swing" (2011 film), a Kuwaiti short film
## Music.
### Groups
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and labels.
- Swing (Canadian band), a Canadian néo-trad band
- Swing (Hong Kong band), a Hong Kong pop music group
- Swing Time Records, a record label
### Albums.
- "The Swing" (INXS album), a 1984 album by Australian rock band INXS
- "Swing" (The Manhattan Transfer album), 1997 album by The Manhattan Transfer
- "Swing" (Renée Geyer album), 2013 album by Renée Geyer
- "Swing" (EP), a 2014 album by South Korean-Chinese group, "Super Junior-M"
## Songs.
- "Swing" (Trace Adkins song), 2006, by Trace Adkins
- "Swing" (AMO song), a 2012 song by Slovak hip hop band AMO
- "Swing" (Savage song), 2005, by New Zealand performer Savage, released again in 2008 featuring Soulja Boy
- "The
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Swing" (song), 1997, by American country music artist James Bonamy
- "Swing, Swing", 2003, by the All-American Rejects
- "Swing", 1980, by Japan from the album "Gentlemen Take Polaroids"
- "Swing", 2015, by Knuckle Puck from the album "Copacetic"
- "Swing", 2012, by Parkway Drive from the album "Atlas"
- "Swing", 2014, by Super Junior-M from the album "Swing"
- "Swing", 1983, by Yello
### Styles.
- Swing (jazz performance style), the sense of propulsive rhythmic "feel" or "groove" in jazz
- Swing music, a style of jazz popular during the 1930s–1950s
## Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media.
- Swing (dance), a group of dances that correspond to swing style of jazz music
- "Swing"
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(musical), a 1999 Broadway musical
- "Swing" (video game), a 1997 video game for the PC and PlayStation
- Swing, an understudy in the musical theatre who prepares several roles
- "The Swing" (painting), a 1767 rococo painting by Jean-Honoré Fragonard
# Politics.
- Swing (politics), the extent of change in voter support
- Swing (Australian politics), refers to the extent of change in voter support, typically from one election or opinion poll to another
- Swing (United Kingdom), an indication of the scale of voter change between two political parties
- Captain Swing, a name appended to several threatening letters during the rural English Swing Riots of 1830
# Sports.
- Swing (boxing),
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a type of punch
- Baseball swing, the process of hitting a ball with a bat in the game of baseball
- Golf swing or golf stroke mechanics, the means by which golfers analyze the execute their shots in the sport of golf
- Swing bowling, a subtype of fast bowling in cricket
# Transportation.
- Aquilair Swing, a French ultralight trike aircraft design
- S-Wing Swing, light sport aircraft designed and built in the Czech Republic
- Swing Bike, a bicycle where both front and rear wheels are steerable
- Swing Flugsportgeräte, German aircraft manufacturer
# Other uses.
- Swing (Java), a GUI widget toolkit for the Java programming language
- Swing rifle, type of firearm
- Swing trading, when
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ench ultralight trike aircraft design
- S-Wing Swing, light sport aircraft designed and built in the Czech Republic
- Swing Bike, a bicycle where both front and rear wheels are steerable
- Swing Flugsportgeräte, German aircraft manufacturer
# Other uses.
- Swing (Java), a GUI widget toolkit for the Java programming language
- Swing rifle, type of firearm
- Swing trading, when a tradable asset is held for one or more days to profit from price changes
- Swinging (sexual practice), when partners in a committed relationship engage in sexual activities with others
# See also.
- Swinger (disambiguation)
- Swingin' (disambiguation)
- Swings (disambiguation)
- The Swing (disambiguation)
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Achilles
In Greek mythology, Achilles or Achilleus ( ; , "Achilleus" ) was a hero of the Trojan War, the greatest of all the Greek warriors, and is the central character of Homer's "Iliad". He was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, king of Phthia.
Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the "Iliad", other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris, who shot him in the heel with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with Statius' unfinished epic "Achilleid", written in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in
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all of his body except for his heel because, when his mother Thetis dipped him in the river Styx as an infant, she held him by one of his heels. Alluding to these legends, the term "Achilles' heel" has come to mean a point of weakness, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution. The Achilles tendon is also named after him due to these legends.
# Etymology.
Linear B tablets attest to the personal name "Achilleus" in the forms "a-ki-re-u" and "a-ki-re-we", the latter being the dative of the former. The name grew more popular, even becoming common soon after the seventh century BC and was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία ("Achilleía"), attested in Attica
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in the fourth century BC (IG II² 1617) and, in the form "Achillia", on a stele in Halicarnassus as the name of a female gladiator fighting an "Amazon".
Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of (') "distress, pain, sorrow, grief" and (') "people, soldiers, nation", resulting in a proto-form "*Akhí-lāu̯os" "he who has the people distressed" or "he whose people have distress". The grief or distress of the people is a theme raised numerous times in the "Iliad" (and frequently by Achilles himself). Achilles' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of "" ("glory", usually in war). Furthermore, "laós" has been construed
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by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean "a corps of soldiers", a muster. With this derivation, the name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership.
Another etymology relates the name to a Proto-Indo-European compound "*h₂eḱ-pṓds" "sharp foot" which first gave an Illyrian "*āk̂pediós", evolving through time into "*ākhpdeós" and then "*akhiddeús". The shift from "-dd-" to "-ll-" is then ascribed to the passing of the name into Greek via a Pre-Greek source. The first root part "*h₂eḱ-" "sharp,
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pointed" also gave Greek ἀκή ("akḗ" "point, silence, healing"), ἀκμή ("akmḗ" "point, edge, zenith") and ὀξύς ("oxús" "sharp, pointed, keen, quick, clever"), whereas ἄχος stems from the root "*h₂egʰ-" "to be upset, afraid". The whole expression would be comparable to the Latin "acupedius" "swift of foot". Compare also the Latin word family of "aciēs" "sharp edge or point, battle line, battle, engagement", "acus" "needle, pin, bodkin", and "acuō" "to make pointed, sharpen, whet; to exercise; to arouse" (whence "acute"). Some topical epitheta of Achilles in the "Iliad" point to this "swift-footedness", namely ποδάρκης δῖος Ἀχιλλεὺς ("podárkēs dĩos Achilleús" "swift-footed divine Achilles") or,
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even more frequently, πόδας ὠκὺς Ἀχιλλεύς ("pódas ōkús Achilleús" "quick-footed Achilles").
Some researchers deem the name a loan word, possibly from a Pre-Greek language. Achilles' descent from the Nereid Thetis and a similarity of his name with those of river deities such as Acheron and Achelous have led to speculations about him being an old water divinity (see below Worship). Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name, based among other things on the coexistence of "-λλ-" and "-λ-" in epic language, which may account for a palatalized phoneme /l/ in the original language.
# Birth and early years.
Achilles was the son of the Nereid Thetis and of Peleus, the king of
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the Myrmidons. Zeus and Poseidon had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until Prometheus, the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy (originally uttered by Themis, goddess of divine law) that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus.
There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: In the "Argonautica" (4.760) Zeus' sister and wife Hera alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god Nereus, was also brought up by Hera, further
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explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal.
According to the "Achilleid", written by Statius in the 1st century AD, and to non-surviving previous sources, when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx. However, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him: his left heel (see Achilles' heel, Achilles' tendon). It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire in order to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and
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abandoned both father and son in a rage.
However, none of the sources before Statius make any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the "Iliad" Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaeus, son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He cast two spears at once, one grazed Achilles' elbow, "drawing a spurt of blood".
Also, in the fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle in which one can find description of the hero's death (i.e. the "Cypria", the "Little Iliad" by Lesches of Pyrrha, the "Aithiopis" and "Iliou persis" by Arctinus of Miletus), there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous
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weakness at the heel; in the later vase paintings presenting the death of Achilles, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his torso.
Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron the Centaur, on Mount Pelion, to be reared. Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan war. According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia together with his companion Patroclus.
According to Photius, the sixth book of the "New History" by Ptolemy Hephaestion reported that Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus; but when she had Achilles, Peleus noticed,
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tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron. Later Chiron exhumed the body of the Damysus, who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated it into Achilles' burnt foot.
## Other names.
Among the appellations under which Achilles is generally known are the following:
- Pyrisous, "saved from the fire", his first name, which seems to favour the tradition in which his mortal parts were burned by his mother Thetis
- Aeacides, from his grandfather Aeacus
- Aemonius, from Aemonia, a country which afterwards acquired the name of Thessaly
- Aspetos, "inimitable" or "vast", his name at Epirus
- Larissaeus, from Larissa (also
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called Cremaste), a town of Thessaly, which still bears the same name
- Ligyron, his original name
- Nereius, from his mother Thetis, one of the Nereids
- Pelides, from his father, Peleus
- Phthius, from his birthplace, Phthia
## Hidden on Skyros.
Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man at the court of Lycomedes, king of Skyros. There, Achilles is disguised as a girl and lives among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name "Pyrrha" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter Deidamia, whom in the account of Statius he rapes, Achilles there fathers a son, Neoptolemus (also called Pyrrhus,
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after his father's possible alias). According to this story, Odysseus learns from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus goes to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewellery and places a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly takes up the spear, Odysseus sees through his disguise and convinces him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranges for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women flee in panic, Achilles prepares to defend the court, thus giving his identity away.
# In the Trojan War.
According to the "Iliad",
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Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 Myrmidons. He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus, Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon.
## Telephus.
When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at Argos, where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy.
According to other reports in Euripides' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar
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and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed.
## Troilus.
According to the "Cypria" (the part of the Epic Cycle that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' wrath), when the Achaeans desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked the cattle of Aeneas, sacked neighbouring cities (like Pedasus and Lyrnessus, where the Greeks
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capture the queen Briseis) and killed Tenes, a son of Apollo, as well as Priam's son Troilus in the sanctuary of Apollo Thymbraios. However, the romance between Troilus and Chryseis described in Geoffrey Chaucer's "Troilus and Criseyde" and in William Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida" is a medieval invention.
In Dares Phrygius' "Account of the Destruction of Troy", the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, as well as in older accounts, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King Priam's and Hecuba's five legitimate sons (or according other sources, another son of Apollo). Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders,
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a "horse fighter" or "chariot fighter" according to Homer. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister Polyxena, and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth – who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo Thymbraios. Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege. Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents.
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Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the First Vatican Mythographer claimed, Troy would have been invincible.
## In the "Iliad".
Homer's "Iliad" is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath (μῆνις Ἀχιλλέως, "mênis Achilléōs") is the central theme of the poem. The first two lines of the "Iliad" read:
The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by Agamemnon, the commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave. Her father Chryses, a priest of Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon
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refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' battle prize Briseis, the daughter of Briseus, be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles
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prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour.
As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix, to Achilles with the offer of the return of Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he was planning to do.
The Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek
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forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, though Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy.
After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles, described in great
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detail in the poem.
Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander, who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around
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the wall of Troy three times before Athena, in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles, not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that "my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me". Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its
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heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in his honour.
At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion's dog (Sirius); a sign of evil. During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to Hesperus, the evening/western star (Venus), while the burning of the funeral pyre lasts until Phosphorus, the morning/eastern star (also Venus) has set (descended).
With the assistance of the god Hermes (Argeiphontes), Hector's father Priam goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that
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he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th (in the tradition of Niobe's offspring). The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come.
### fighting Penthesilea and Memnon.
The "Aethiopis" (7th century BC) and a work named "Posthomerica", composed by Quintus of Smyrna in the fourth century AD, relate further events from the Trojan War. When Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares, arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to
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grieve over her death later. At first, he was so distracted by her beauty, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her.
Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion. When Memnon, son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia, slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise, until Zeus persuades her. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess.
Many
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Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the "Iliad"s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic "Aethiopis", which was composed after the "Iliad", possibly in the 7th century BC. The "Aethiopis" is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors.
## Achilles and Patroclus.
The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the "Iliad", it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus were lovers. Despite there being
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no direct evidence in the text of the "Iliad" that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors. Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In 5th-century BC Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of "paiderasteia". In Plato's "Symposium", the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. But ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual, and it was assumed
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that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship.
## Death.
The death of Achilles, even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions. In the oldest one, the Iliad, and as predicted by Hector with his dying breath, the hero's death was brought about by Paris with an arrow (to the heel according to Statius). In some versions, the god Apollo guided Paris' arrow. Some retellings also state that Achilles was scaling the gates of Troy and was hit with a poisoned arrow. All of these versions deny Paris
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any sort of valour, owing to the common conception that Paris was a coward and not the man his brother Hector was, and Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held. He was represented in the "Aethiopis" as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube.
Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena
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and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him.
In the "Odyssey", Agamemnon informs Achilles of his pompous burial and the erection of his mound at the Hellespont while they are receiving the dead suitors in Hades. He claims they built a massive burial mound on the beach of Ilion that could be seen by anyone approaching from the Ocean. Achilles was cremated and his ashes buried in the same urn as those of Patroclus. Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles.
In Book 11 of Homer's "Odyssey", Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades.
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One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and when Odysseus tells of Neoptolemus' heroic actions, Achilles is filled with satisfaction. This leaves the reader with an ambiguous understanding of how Achilles felt about the heroic life.
According to some accounts, he had married Medea in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades – as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' "Argonautica" (3rd century BC).
## Fate of Achilles' armour.
Achilles' armour
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was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who after considering both men, decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena. Athena temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, Ajax was left so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles.
A relic claimed
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to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was for centuries preserved in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BC by Alexander the Great, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the "Iliad" with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear. However, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the 2nd century AD.
## Achilles, Ajax and a game of "petteia".
Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game ("petteia"). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle.
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The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena.
# Worship and heroic cult.
The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in Troad, was venerated by Thessalians, but also by Persian expeditionary forces, as well as by Alexander the Great and the Roman emperor Caracalla. Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. g. on the island of Astypalaea in the Sporades, in Sparta which had a sanctuary, in Elis and in Achilles' homeland Thessaly, as well as in the Magna Graecia cities of Tarentum, Locri and Croton, accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero.
The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the 500 BC Polyxena sarcophagus,
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where the sacrifice of Polixena near the tumulus of Achilles is depicted. Strabo (13.1.32) also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad:
The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the Greeks that had settled on the northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus, today's Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with Snake Island (Ukrainian Зміїний, "Zmiinyi", near Kiliya, Ukraine). Early dedicatory inscriptions from the Greek colonies on the Black Sea (graffiti and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being votive offerings, from Olbia,
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the area of Berezan Island and the Tauric Chersonese) attest the existence of a heroic cult of Achilles from the sixth century BC onwards. The cult was still thriving in the third century AD, when dedicatory stelae from Olbia refer to an "Achilles Pontárchēs" (Ποντάρχης, roughly "lord of the Sea," or "of the Pontus Euxinus"), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with Olympian gods such as the local Apollo Prostates, Hermes Agoraeus, or Poseidon.
Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) in his "Natural History" mentions a "port of the Achæi" and an "island of Achilles", famous for the tomb of that "man" (portus Achaeorum, insula Achillis, tumulo eius viri clara), situated
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somewhat nearby Olbia and the Dnieper-Bug Estuary; furthermore, at 125 Roman miles from this island, he places a peninsula "which stretches forth in the shape of a sword" obliquely, called "Dromos Achilleos" (Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος, "Achilléōs drómos" "the Race-course of Achilles") and considered the place of the hero's exercise or of games instituted by him. This last feature of Pliny's account is considered to be the iconic spit, called today "Tendra" (or "Kosa Tendra" and "Kosa Djarilgatch"), situated between the mouth of the Dnieper and Karkinit Bay, but which is hardly 125 Roman miles (c. 185 km) away from the Dnieper-Bug estuary, as Pliny states. (To the "Race-course" he gives a length of 80 miles,
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c. 120 km, whereas the spit measures c. 70 km today.)
In the following chapter of his book, Pliny refers to the same island as "Achillea" and introduces two further names for it: "Leuce" or "Macaron" (from Greek [νῆσος] μακαρῶν "island of the blest"). The "present day" measures, he gives at this point, seem to account for an identification of "Achillea" or "Leuce" with today's Snake Island. Pliny's contemporary Pomponius Mela (c. 43 AD) tells that Achilles was buried on an island named "Achillea", situated between the Borysthenes and the Ister, adding to the geographical confusion. Ruins of a square temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered
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by Captain Kritzikly in 1823 on Snake Island. A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple. A fifth century BC black-glazed lekythos inscription, found on the island in 1840, reads: "Glaukos, son of Poseidon, dedicated me to Achilles, lord of Leuke." In another inscription from the fifth or fourth century BC, a statue is dedicated to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a citizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the island's cult, again suggesting its quality as a place of a supra-regional hero veneration.
The heroic cult dedicated to Achilles on "Leuce" seems to go back
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to an account from the lost epic "Aethiopis" according to which, after his untimely death, Thetis had snatched her son from the funeral pyre and removed him to a mythical Λεύκη Νῆσος ("Leúkē Nêsos" "White Island"). Already in the fifth century BC, Pindar had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a "bright island" (φαεννά νᾶσος, "phaenná nâsos") of the Black Sea, while in another of his works, Pindar would retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living on a geographically indefinite Island of the Blest together with other heroes such as his father Peleus and Cadmus. Well known is the connection of these mythological Fortunate Isles (μακαρῶν νῆσοι, "makárôn nêsoi") or the Homeric Elysium with
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the stream Oceanus which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world, which should have accounted for the identification of the northern strands of the Euxine with it. Guy Hedreen has found further evidence for this connection of Achilles with the northern margin of the inhabited world in a poem by Alcaeus, speaking of "Achilles lord of Scythia" and the opposition of North and South, as evoked by Achilles' fight against the Aethiopian prince Memnon, who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his mother Eos after his death.
The "Periplus of the Euxine Sea" (c. 130 AD) gives the following details:
The Greek geographer Dionysius Periegetes, who lived probably during the
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first century AD, wrote that the island was called "Leuce" "because the wild animals which live there are white. It is said that there, in Leuce island, reside the souls of Achilles and other heroes, and that they wander through the uninhabited valleys of this island; this is how Jove rewarded the men who had distinguished themselves through their virtues, because through virtue they had acquired everlasting honour". Similarly, others relate the island's name to its white cliffs, snakes or birds dwelling there. Pausanias has been told that the island is "covered with forests and full of animals, some wild, some tame. In this island there is also Achilles' temple and his statue". Leuce had also
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a reputation as a place of healing. Pausanias reports that the Delphic Pythia sent a lord of Croton to be cured of a chest wound. Ammianus Marcellinus attributes the healing to waters ("aquae") on the island.
A number of important commercial port cities of the Greek waters were dedicated to Achilles. Herodotus, Pliny the Elder and Strabo reported on the existence of a town "Achílleion" (Ἀχίλλειον), built by settlers from Mytilene in the sixth century BC, close to the hero's presumed burial mound in the Troad. Later attestations point to an "Achílleion" in Messenia (according to Stephanus Byzantinus) and an "Achílleios" (Ἀχίλλειος) in Laconia. Nicolae Densuşianu recognized a connection to Achilles
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in the names of Aquileia and of the northern arm of the Danube delta, called Chilia (presumably from an older "Achileii"), though his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law.
The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. Alexander the Great, son of the Epirote princess Olympias, could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at Achilleion while passing Troy. In AD 216 the Roman Emperor Caracalla, while on his way to war against Parthia, emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles'
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tumulus.
# Reception during antiquity.
## In Greek tragedy.
The Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title "Achilleis" by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the "Achilleis" and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the "Achilleis" trilogy, "The Myrmidons", focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon;
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only a few lines survive today. In Plato's "Symposium", Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to revenge him.
The tragedian Sophocles also wrote "The Lovers of Achilles", a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive.
Towards the end of the 5th century BC, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in "Hecuba", "Electra", and "Iphigenia in Aulis".
## In Greek philosophy.
The
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philosopher Zeno of Elea centred one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between "swift-footed" Achilles and a tortoise, by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions.
## Achilles in Roman and medieval literature.
The Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles. Virgil refers to Achilles as a savage and a merciless butcher of men, while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children. Other writers,
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such as Catullus, Propertius, and Ovid, represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius and in Benoît de Sainte-Maure's "Roman de Troie" and Guido delle Colonne's "Historia destructionis Troiae", which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the Matter of Troy until the 17th century.
Achilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, not as Hellene, but as Scythian, while according to the Byzantine author John Malalas, his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as Bulgars.
# In modern
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literature and arts.
## Literature.
- Achilles appears in Dante's "Inferno" (composed 1308–1320). He is seen in Hell's second circle, that of lust.
- Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in William Shakespeare's "Troilus and Cressida" (1602).
- The French dramatist Thomas Corneille wrote a tragedy "La Mort d'Achille" (1673).
- Achilles is the subject of the poem "Achilleis" (1799), a fragment by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
- Achilles is mentioned in Tennyson's poem "Ulysses" (published in 1842): "[...] we shall touch the happy isles and meet there the great Achilles whom we knew."
- In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and
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poet Stanisław Wyspiański published a national drama, based on Polish history, named "Achilles".
- In 1921, Edward Shanks published "The Island of Youth and Other Poems", concerned among others with Achilles.
- The 1983 novel "Kassandra" by Christa Wolf also treats the death of Achilles.
- Akhilles is killed by a poisoned Kentaur arrow shot by Kassandra in Marion Zimmer Bradley's novel "The Firebrand" (1987).
- Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in Colleen McCullough's novel "The Song of Troy" (1998).
- "The Death of Achilles" ("Смерть Ахиллеса", 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer Boris Akunin that alludes to various figures and motifs from the "Iliad".
- The
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character Achilles in "Ender's Shadow" (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude.
- Achilles is one of the main characters in Dan Simmons's novels "Ilium" (2003) and "Olympos" (2005).
- Achilles is a major supporting character in David Gemmell's "Troy" series of books (2005-2007).
- Achilles is the main character in David Malouf's novel "Ransom" (2009).
- The ghost of Achilles appears in Rick Riordan's "The Last Olympian" (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects.
- Achilles is a main character in Terence Hawkins' 2009 novel "The Rage of Achilles".
- Achilles is a major character in Madeline Miller's debut
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novel, "The Song of Achilles" (2011), which won the 2012 Orange Prize for Fiction. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the "Iliad".
- Achilles appears in the light novel series "Fate/Apocrypha" (2012–2014) as the Rider of Red.
- Achilles is a main character in Pat Barker’s 2018 novel "The Silence of the Girls", much of which is narrated by his slave Briseis.
## Visual arts.
- "Achilles with the Daughters of Lycomedes" is a subject treated in paintings by Anthony van Dyck (before 1618; Museo del Prado, Madrid) and Nicolas Poussin (c. 1652; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) among others.
- Peter Paul Rubens has authored a series
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of works on the life of Achilles, comprising the titles: "Thetis dipping the infant Achilles into the river Styx", "Achilles educated by the centaur Chiron", "Achilles recognized among the daughters of Lycomedes", "The wrath of Achilles", "The death of Hector", "Thetis receiving the arms of Achilles from Vulcanus", "The death of Achilles" (Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam), and "Briseis restored to Achilles" (Detroit Institute of Arts; all c. 1630–1635)
- Pieter van Lint, "Achilles Discovered among the Daughters of Lycomedes", 1645, at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem
- "Dying Achilles" is a sculpture created by Christophe Veyrier (c. 1683; Victoria and Albert Museum, London).
- "The
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Rage of Achilles" is a fresco by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Villa Valmarana ai Nani, Vicenza).
- Eugène Delacroix painted a version of "The Education of Achilles" for the ceiling of the Paris Palais Bourbon (1833–1847), one of the seats of the French Parliament.
- created a statue group "Achilles and Penthesilea" (1895; Vienna).
- "Achilleus" (1908) is a lithography by Max Slevogt.
## Music.
Achilles has been frequently the subject of operas, ballets and related genres.
- Operas titled "Deidamia" were composed by Francesco Cavalli (1644) and George Frideric Handel (1739).
- "Achille et Polyxène" (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by Jean-Baptiste Lully and finished by Pascal Collasse.
-
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"Achille e Deidamia" (Naples 1698) is an opera, composed by Alessandro Scarlatti.
- "Achilles" (London 1733) is a ballad opera, written by John Gay, parodied by Thomas Arne as "Achilles in petticoats" in 1773.
- "Achille in Sciro" is a libretto by Metastasio, composed by Domenico Sarro for the inauguration of the Teatro di San Carlo (Naples, 4 November 1737). An even earlier composition is from Antonio Caldara (Vienna 1736). Later operas on the same libretto were composed by Leonardo Leo (Turin 1739), Niccolò Jommelli (Vienna 1749 and Rome 1772), Giuseppe Sarti (Copenhagen 1759 and Florence 1779), Johann Adolph Hasse (Naples 1759), Giovanni Paisiello (St. Petersburg 1772), Giuseppe Gazzaniga
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(Palermo 1781) and many others. It has also been set to music as "Il Trionfo della gloria".
- "Achille" (Vienna 1801) is an opera by Ferdinando Paër on a libretto by Giovanni de Gamerra.
- "Achille à Scyros" (Paris 1804) is a ballet by Pierre Gardel, composed by Luigi Cherubini.
- "Achilles, oder Das zerstörte Troja" ("Achilles, or Troy Destroyed", Bonn 1885) is an oratorio by the German composer Max Bruch.
- "Achilles auf Skyros" (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist Egon Wellesz.
- "Achilles' Wrath" is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin.
- "Achilles Last Stand" a track on the 1976 Led Zeppelin album "Presence".
- "Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy
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in Eight Parts" is the first song on the 1992 Manowar album "The Triumph of Steel".
- "Achilles Come Down" is a song on the 2017 Gang of Youths album "Go Farther in Lightness".
## Film and television.
In films Achilles has been portrayed in the following films and television series:
- The 1924 film "Helena" by Carlo Aldini
- The 1954 film "Ulysses" by Piero Lulli
- The 1956 film "Helen of Troy" by Stanley Baker
- The 1961 film "The Trojan Horse" by Arturo Dominici
- The 1962 film "The Fury of Achilles" by Gordon Mitchell
- The 1997 television miniseries "The Odyssey" by Richard Trewett
- The 2003 television miniseries "Helen of Troy" by Joe Montana
- The 2004 film "Troy" by Brad Pitt
-
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The 2018 TV series "" by David Gyasi
## Architecture.
In 1890, Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria, had a summer palace built in Corfu. The building is named the "Achilleion", after Achilles. Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the Trojan War, with particular focus on Achilles.
# Namesakes.
- The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744 – both as HMS "Achilles" and with the French spelling HMS "Achille". A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the Battle of Trafalgar. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the
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First World War.
- HMNZS "Achilles" was a "Leander"-class cruiser which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World War II. It became famous for its part in the Battle of the River Plate, alongside and . In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS Achilles also served at Guadalcanal 1942–43 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the Indian Navy in 1948 but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand.
- A species of lizard, "Anolis achilles", which has widened heel plates, is named for Achilles.
# Further reading.
- Ileana Chirassi Colombo (1977), "Heroes Achilleus – Theos Apollon." In "Il Mito
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Greco", edd. Bruno Gentili and Giuseppe Paione. Rome: Edizione dell'Ateneo e Bizzarri.
- Anthony Edwards (1985a), "Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis". "Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies". 26: pp. 215–227.
- Anthony Edwards (1985b), "Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic". "Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie". 171.
- Anthony Edwards (1988), "Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory," "Classical Quarterly". 38: pp. 25–30.
- Hélène Monsacré (1984), "Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère", Paris: Albin Michel.
- Gregory Nagy (1984), "The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology", "Illinois
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lassical Studies". 19.
- Gregory Nagy (1999), "The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry". Johns Hopkins University Press (revised edition, online).
- Dale S. Sinos (1991), "The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic", Ph. D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International.
- Jonathan S. Burgess (2009), "The Death and Afterlife of Achilles". Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Abrantes, M.C. (2016), "Themes of the Trojan Cycle: Contribution to the study of the greek mythological tradition" (Coimbra).
# External links.
- Trojan War Resources
- Gallery of the Ancient Art: Achilles
- Poem by Florence Earle Coates
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Albert of Aix
Albert of Aix(-la-Chapelle) or Albert of Aachen ("floruit" circa AD 1100), historian of the First Crusade, was born during the later part of the 11th century, and afterwards became canon (priest) and "custos" (guardian) of the church of Aachen.
Nothing else is known of his life except that he was the author of a "Historia Hierosolymitanae expeditionis" (“History of the Expedition to Jerusalem”), or "Chronicon Hierosolymitanum de bello sacro", a work in Latin in twelve books, written between 1125 and 1150. This history begins at the time of the Council of Clermont, deals with the fortunes of the First Crusade and the earlier history of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, and ends somewhat
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abruptly in 1121.
The "Historia" was well known during the Middle Ages, and was largely used by William, archbishop of Tyre, for the first six books of his "Belli sacri historia". In modern times, it was accepted unreservedly for many years by most historians, including Edward Gibbon. In more recent times, its historical value has been seriously impugned, but the verdict of the best scholarship seems to be that in general it forms a true record of the events of the First Crusade, although containing some legendary matter.
Albert never visited the Holy Land, but he appears to have had a considerable amount of discourse with returned crusaders, and to have had access to valuable correspondence.
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Unlike many other chronicles of the First Crusade, Albert did not rely on the Gesta Francorum, but used his own independent interviews; he may also have had access to the Chanson d'Antioche, as his work shares textual similarities with that poem. The first edition of the history was published at Helmstedt in 1584, and a good edition is in the "Recueil des historiens des croisades", tome iv (Paris, 1841–1887). A modern edition in Latin and English translation by Susan B. Edgington is available in the Oxford Medieval Texts series.
# References.
- Susan B. Edgington, "Albert of Aachen and the Chansons de Geste" in "The Crusades and their sources: essays presented to Bernard Hamilton" ed. John
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ir sources: essays presented to Bernard Hamilton" ed. John France, William G. Zajac (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998) pp. 23–37.
- Albert of Aachen, "Historia Ierosolimitana", ed. and trans. S. Edgington (Oxford: Oxford Medieval Texts, 2007).
# Bibliography.
- Albert of Aachen, "Albert of Aachen's History of the Journey to Jerusalem, vol.1: Books 1-6. The First Crusade 1095-1099", trans. S.B. Edgington (Farnham, 2013).
- Albert of Aachen, "Albert of Aachen's History of the Journey to Jerusalem, vol. 2: Books 7-12. The Early History of the Latin States 1099-1119", trans. S.B. Edgington (Farnham, 2013).
# External links.
- Albert of Aix at The Latin Library (from the Patrologia Latina edition).
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Godfrey of Bouillon
Godfrey of Bouillon (, , , ; 18 September 1060 – 18 July 1100) was a Frankish knight and one of the leaders of the First Crusade from 1096 until its conclusion in 1099. He was the Lord of Bouillon, from which he took his byname, from 1076 and the Duke of Lower Lorraine from 1087. After the successful siege of Jerusalem in 1099, Godfrey became the first ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. He refused the title of King, however, as he believed that the true King of Jerusalem was Jesus Christ, preferring the title of Advocate (i.e., protector or defender) of the Holy Sepulchre (Latin: "Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri"). He is also known as the "Baron of the Holy Sepulchre" and the
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"Crusader King".
# Early life.
Godfrey of Bouillon was born around 1060 as the second son of Eustace II, Count of Boulogne, and Ida, daughter of the Lotharingian duke Godfrey the Bearded by his first wife, Doda.
His birthplace was probably Boulogne-sur-Mer, although one 13th-century chronicler cites Baisy, a town in what is now Walloon Brabant, Belgium.
As second son, he had fewer opportunities than his older brother and seemed destined to become just one more minor knight in service to a rich landed nobleman. However his maternal uncle, Godfrey the Hunchback, died childless and named his nephew, Godfrey of Bouillon, as his heir and next in line to his Duchy of Lower Lorraine. This duchy
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was an important one at the time, serving as a buffer between the kingdom of France and the German lands.
In fact, Lower Lorraine was so important to the German kingdom and the Holy Roman Empire that Henry IV, the German king and future emperor (reigned 1084–1105), decided in 1076 that he would place it in the hands of his own son and give Godfrey only Bouillon and the Margraviate of Antwerp as a test of Godfrey's abilities and loyalty. Godfrey served Henry IV loyally, supporting him even when Pope Gregory VII was battling the German king in the Investiture Controversy. Godfrey fought alongside Henry and his forces against the rival forces of Rudolf of Swabia and also took part in battles in
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Italy when Henry IV actually took Rome away from the pope.
A major test of Godfrey’s leadership skills was shown in his battles to defend his inheritance against a significant array of enemies. In 1076 he had succeeded as designated heir to the Lotharingian lands of his uncle, Godfrey the Hunchback, and Godfrey was struggling to maintain control over the lands that Henry IV had not taken away from him. Claims were raised by his aunt Margravine Matilda of Tuscany, cousin Count Albert III of Namur, and Count Theoderic of Veluwe. This coalition was joined by Bishop Theoderic of Verdun, and two minor counts attempting to share in the spoils, Waleran I of Limburg and Arnold I of Chiny.
As these
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enemies tried to take away portions of his land, Godfrey's brothers, Eustace and Baldwin, both came to his aid. Following these long struggles and proving that he was a loyal subject to Henry IV, Godfrey finally won back his duchy of Lower Lorraine in 1087. Still, Godfrey's influence in the German kingdom would have been minimal if it had not been for his major role in the First Crusade.
# First Crusade.
In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a Crusade to liberate Jerusalem from Muslim forces and also to aid the Byzantine Empire which was under Muslim attack. Godfrey took out loans on most of his lands, or sold them, to the bishop of Liège and the bishop of Verdun. With this money he gathered thousands
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of knights to fight in the Holy Land as the Army of Godfrey of Bouillon. In this he was joined by his older brother, Eustace, and his younger brother, Baldwin, who had no lands in Europe. He was not the only major nobleman to gather such an army. Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, also known as Raymond of Saint-Gilles, created the largest army. At age 55, Raymond was also the oldest and perhaps the best known of the Crusader nobles. Because of his age and fame, Raymond expected to be the leader of the entire First Crusade. Adhemar, the papal legate and bishop of Le Puy, travelled with him. There was also the fiery Bohemond, a Norman knight from southern Italy, and a fourth group under Robert II,
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Count of Flanders.
Each of these armies travelled separately: some went southeast across Europe through Hungary and others sailed across the Adriatic Sea from southern Italy. Pope Urban II's call for the crusade had aroused the Catholic populace and spurred antisemitism. In the People's Crusade, beginning in the spring and early summer of 1096, bands of peasants and low-ranking knights set off early for Jerusalem on their own, and persecuted Jews during the Rhineland massacres. Godfrey, along with his two brothers, started in August 1096 at the head of an army from Lorraine (some say 40,000 strong) along "Charlemagne's road", as Urban II seems to have called it (according to the chronicler
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ad aroused the Catholic populace and spurred antisemitism. In the People's Crusade, beginning in the spring and early summer of 1096, bands of peasants and low-ranking knights set off early for Jerusalem on their own, and persecuted Jews during the Rhineland massacres. Godfrey, along with his two brothers, started in August 1096 at the head of an army from Lorraine (some say 40,000 strong) along "Charlemagne's road", as Urban II seems to have called it (according to the chronicler Robert the Monk)—the road to Jerusalem. A Hebrew text known to modern scholars as the Solomon bar Simson Chronicle, which seems to have been written more than 50 years after the events, says apparently of the Duke:
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Clausthal-Zellerfeld
Clausthal-Zellerfeld is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is located in the southwestern part of the Harz mountains. Its population is approximately 15,000. The City is the location of the Clausthal University of Technology. The health resort is located in the Upper Harz at an altitude between 390 and 821 m above sea level.
# Geography.
Clausthal-Zellerfeld is located on the Upper Harz Plateau. The environment is less mountainous compared to most of the Harz, but only hilly. As a result, the immediate surrounding area is less wooded and there are more meadow areas. Scattered in and around Clausthal-Zellerfeld are numerous dams and streams of the Upper Harz Water Regale.
The
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depression between Clausthal and Zellerfeld marks a natural "borderline".
Southwest extends the "Small Clausthal valley".
## City districts.
- Altenau-Schulenberg im Oberharz (since 2015)
- Buntenbock (since 1972)
- Clausthal-Zellerfeld
- Wildemann (since 2015)
# History.
Clausthal-Zellerfeld originally consisted of two towns which were merged in 1924 to form an administrative unit. Clausthal is well known for the old Clausthal University of Technology and its magnificent buildings, while Zellerfeld is a typical tourist resort for hikers and winter sportsmen. Clausthal-Zellerfeld is the largest town in the area that is situated in the mountains rather than on the edge.
Mining in the
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area began in the 16th century. Modern wire rope was invented to service the iron mines in the 1830s by the German mining engineer Wilhelm Albert in the years between 1831 and 1834 for use in mining in the Harz Mountains in Clausthal. It was quickly accepted because it proved superior to ropes made of hemp or to metal chains, such as had been used before and soon found its way into diverse applications, including most notably, suspension bridges. The Innerste Valley Railway was inaugurated in 1877 and extended to Altenau in 1914. The large station building and 70 other buildings in the town were destroyed in an air raid on 7 October 1944. 92 people lost their lives.
Mining activity halted in
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1930 because the ore deposits were exhausted. Today, there are large remains of mines in the surrounding Harz region, some of which are now museums. The railway line was closed in 1976. The former railway station, which was rebuilt from 1961-1963 after being destroyed in 1944, houses the tourist information and the municipal library today.
The Clausthal University of Technology was established in 1775 for the education of mining engineers. Today, it is a technical university for teaching engineering, natural science (especially chemistry, materials science and physics) and business studies.
# Politics.
## Town council.
2006 local elections:
- SPD: 19 seats
- CDU: 9 seats
- FDP: 3 seats
-
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UWG: 2 seats (independent electors community)
# Culture and sights.
- Oberharzer Wasserwirschaft (Upper Harz Water Management)
## Museums.
- Upper Harz Mining Museum
- GeoMuseum of Clausthal University of Technology
## Buildings.
- Plants of Upper Harz Water Regale
- Market Church in Clausthal, the largest wooden church in Germany with 2,200 seats, built 1639-42. Tower dating from 1637.
- Old pharmacy "Bergapotheke" in Zellerfeld, built in 1674, with wood carvings
- Protestant Salvator Church in Zellerfeld, built 1674-83
- Clausthal mint (1617–1849)
- Oberbergamt building in Clausthal, built 1726-30
- Dietzel House in Zellerfeld, dating from 1674
- Former railway station, destroyed
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1944 and rebuilt 1961-63
- House where Robert Koch was born
# Persons.
## People from Clausthal-Zellerfeld.
- Bernhard Christoph Breitkopf (1695-1777), printer and publisher
- Heinrich Halfeld (1797-1873), engineer
- Carl Adolf Riebeck (1821-1883), industrialist and mining entrepreneur
- Robert Koch (1843–1910), microbiologist
- Otto Erich Hartleben (1864–1905), poet and dramatist
- Robert Förster (1913-1984), diplomat
- Helmut Sander (1920-1988), mayor of Goslar
- Reinhard Roder (born 1941), football player, coache and -functionary
- Dietrich Grönemeyer (born 1952), physician
- Daniel Böhm (born 1986), biathlete
## Notable people associated with Clausthal-Zellerfeld.
- Georg
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nary
- Dietrich Grönemeyer (born 1952), physician
- Daniel Böhm (born 1986), biathlete
## Notable people associated with Clausthal-Zellerfeld.
- Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767), composer
- Johann Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann (1782–1859), mineralogist
- Wilhelm Albert (1787–1846), mining administrator and inventor
- Friedrich Adolph Roemer (1809–1869), geologist
- Arnold Sommerfeld (1868–1951), theoretical physicist
- Helmut Kleinicke (1907-1979), engineer at Auschwitz concentration camp who saved Jews during the Holocaust
# International relations.
## Twin towns – Sister cities.
Clausthal-Zellerfeld is twinned with:
- L'Aigle, France
# External links.
- clausthal-zellerfeld.de
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Subhuman Race
Subhuman Race (stylized sUBHUMAN rACE) is the third studio album by American heavy metal band Skid Row, released on March 28, 1995, by Atlantic Records. This is the last Skid Row album with singer Sebastian Bach and drummer Rob Affuso, and the last one to be released on Atlantic. It is regarded as the band's heaviest record, and despite receiving positive reviews, "Subhuman Race" was not as successful as the band's first two albums. Certain tracks from the album were remixed for the band's compilation "", given more tender, slightly cleaner mixes to fit better with the other tracks. To promote "Subhuman Race", Skid Row supported Van Halen in North America on their "Balance" tour.
Following
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