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3.7 cm Pak 36
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|3.7 cm Pak 36|
A Pak 36 in Northern France, 1944
|Place of origin||Germany|
|Wars||World War II|
Second Italo-Ethiopian War
Spanish Civil War
Second Sino-Japanese War
|Unit cost||5,730 RM|
|Mass||Travel: 450 kg (990 lb)|
Combat: 327 kg (721 lb)
|Barrel length||1.66 m (5 ft 5 in) L/45|
|Width||1.65 m (5 ft 5 in)|
|Height||1.17 m (3 ft 10 in)|
|Crew||5 (Commander, gunner, loader, two ammunition bearers)|
|Caliber||37 mm (1.45 in)|
|Elevation||-5° to +25°|
|Traverse||30° right and left|
|Rate of fire||13 rpm|
|Muzzle velocity||762 m/s (2,500 ft/s)|
|Maximum firing range||5,484 m (5,997 yds)|
The Pak 36 (Panzerabwehrkanone 36) is a 3.7 cm caliber German anti-tank gun used during the Second World War. It was the main anti-tank weapon of Wehrmacht Panzerjäger units until 1942. Developed by Rheinmetall in 1933, it was first issued to the German Army in 1936, with 9,120 being available by the beginning of the war in September 1939 and a further 5,339 produced during the war. As the predominant anti-tank gun design in the world during the late 1930s, demand was high for the Pak 36, with another 6,000 examples produced for export and the design being copied by the Soviet Union as the 45 mm anti-tank gun M1932 (19-K) and by other nations such as Japan.
It first saw service during the Spanish Civil War in 1936, where it performed well against the light tanks of the conflict. It was first used during the Second World War against Poland in 1939 and had little difficulty with any of the Polish tanks. The Battle of France in 1940 revealed its inadequate penetration capability against French and British heavier tanks, particularly the Char B1, and especially the Matilda II, receiving the derisive "door-knocker" nickname from its crews, but it sufficed to defeat the bulk of the Allied armor in the campaign. The invasion of the Soviet Union brought the Pak 36 face to face with large numbers of T-34 and KV-1 tanks, which were invulnerable to its fire. However, 91% of the Soviet tank forces in 1941 consisted of lighter types that lacked sufficient armor to defeat the gun, and the Pak 36 knocked out thousands of such tanks.
The Pak 36 was replaced from late 1940 onward by the 5 cm Pak 38 anti-tank gun and from November 1941 by the 7.5 cm Pak 40. This process was accelerated by the engagements with the modern Soviet tanks, and Pak 36 production ceased entirely in early 1942. The introduction in 1943 of the Stielgranate 41 shaped charge gave it the ability to punch through the armor of any Allied tank, but the ammunition's short range made the Pak 36 crews vulnerable to enemy fire and could not solve the gun's basic obsolescence. German paratroopers employed the gun due to its low weight and consequent high maneuverability. The Pak 36 was also used by Axis-allied, second-line, garrison and training units until the end of the war.
Design of a horse-drawn, 3.7 cm anti-tank gun (designated 3.7 cm Pak L/45) by Rheinmetall commenced in 1924 and the first guns were issued in 1928. By the early 1930s, it was apparent that horse-drawn artillery was obsolescent, and the gun was modified for motorized transport by substituting magnesium-alloy wheels and pneumatic tires for the original spoked wooden wheels, allowing it to be towed at highway speeds. Re-designated the 3.7 cm Pak 35/36, it began to replace the 3.7 cm Pak L/45 in 1934 and first appeared in combat in 1936 during the Spanish Civil War. It formed the basis for many other nations' anti-tank guns during the first years of World War II. The KwK 36 L/45 was the same gun, but used as the main armament on several tanks, most notably the early models of the Panzer III. The Soviets copied the Pak 36 carriage design for their 45 mm M1937 AT gun.
During the May 1940 Western Campaign, the Pak 36, being a relatively small-calibre weapon, was found to be inadequate against heavy Allied tanks like the British Mk II Matilda and the French Char B1 and Somua S35, although it was effective against the most common light tanks of the era, such as the French R35 which represented the majority of the armoured vehicles during the Battle of France.
In June 1941, Soviet tank forces consisted of 10,661 T-26, 2,987 T-37/T-38/T-40/T-50s, 59 T-35, 442 T-28, 7,659 BT, 957 T-34, and 530 KVs for a combined total of approximately 23,295 tanks. Thus, during the initial phases of Operation Barbarossa, the Pak 36 could still penetrate the armour of the majority of Soviet AFVs at ranges up to 1000 m from the front, with the notable exception of the T-28s and T-35s, which it could penetrate only at under 100 m; the Pak 36 could not penetrate the relatively thick armour of the T-34s and KV-1s. By late 1941, the widespread introduction of the T-34 on the Eastern Front made the Pak 36 obsolete, considering its poor performance against it. This led to the Pak 36 being nicknamed "Heeresanklopfgerät" (lit. army door-knocking device) by German anti-tank crews for its inability to affect the T-34 aside from notifying its presence by futilely bouncing rounds off its armour, regardless of the angle or distance.
The addition of tungsten-core shells (Pzgr. 40) slightly improved the armour penetration of the Pak 36, finally enabling it to damage the T-34, but only by a direct shot to the rear or side armour from point-blank range - an unlikely and dangerous scenario. However, despite its continued impotence against the T-34, it remained the standard anti-tank weapon for many units until 1942. The advantages of the Pak 36 were its relative ease of handling and mobility (it could be brought into action very rapidly by as few as two men since it weighed only 432 kg); good quality optics/aiming devices; ease of concealment due to its small size; and high rate of fire.
The Pak 36 began to be replaced by the new 5 cm Pak 38 in mid-1941. As it was gradually replaced, many were removed from their carriages and added to Sd.Kfz. 251 halftracks for use as light anti-armour support. The guns were also passed off to the forces of Germany's allies fighting on the Eastern Front, such as the 3rd and 4th Romanian Army. This proved particularly disastrous during the Soviet encirclement (Operation Uranus) at the Battle of Stalingrad when the Romanian forces, already demoralized and understrength, bore the brunt of the main Soviet armored thrust and were unable to stop the Soviet advances due to their grossly inadequate anti-tank weaponry. The Pak 36 also served with the armies of Italy, Finland, Hungary, and Slovakia.
Although the Pak 36 quickly became ineffectual in the European and Russian theatres, in China the gun was still viable as an effective anti-tank gun. It could destroy the Japanese Type 95 Ha-Go and Type 97 Chi-Ha tanks, since their armour protection was quite weak. For example, during the Battle of Taierzhuang, Chinese Pak 36s destroyed a good number of Japanese tanks.
3.7 cm Pak 36 L/45 ammunition
This section possibly contains original research. (November 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
- Projectile weight: 0.685 kg
- Muzzle velocity: 745 m/s
- Pzgr 40
This was a type of tungsten-core ammunition, being lighter and with a higher muzzle velocity, produced in small quantities.
- Projectile weight: 0.368 kg
- Muzzle velocity: 1,020 m/s
|Range||Penetration||in training||in combat|
|100 m||64 mm||100%||100%|
|500 m||31 mm||100%||100%|
|1000 m||22 mm||100%||85%|
|1500 m||20 mm||95%||61%|
|2000 m||- mm||85%||43%|
Penetration figures given for Pzgr 40 and an armoured plate 30 degrees from the horizontal.
In 1943, the introduction of the Stielgranate 41 shaped charge meant that the Pak 36 could now penetrate most armour, although the low velocity of the projectile limited its range. The Pak 36s, together with the new shaped charges, were issued to Fallschirmjäger units and other lightly equipped troops. The gun's low weight meant that it could be easily moved by hand, and this mobility made it ideal for their purpose.
- 40 mm 40M – This was a Hungarian design. It was effectively a Pak 36 but rebarrelled to fit a Škoda 40 mm A17, the standard Hungarian light anti-tank gun. This could fire the same ammunition as the Bofors 40 mm anti-aircraft gun, and also had a version of Stielgranate ammunition made for it.
- 37 mm anti-tank gun M1930 (1-K) – This was a Soviet anti-tank gun designed by Rheinmetall and produced under license, which was very similar to the Pak 35/36, but lacking some improvements. Guns captured by Germany were given the designation 3.7 cm Pak 158(r).
- Type 97 37 mm - This was a Japanese anti-tank gun designed by Rheinmetall and produced under license, which was similar to the Pak 35/36.
- Cannone contracarro da 37/45 - This was an Italian anti-tank gun designed by Rheinmetall and produced under license, which was similar to the Pak 35/36. Guns captured by Germany after the Italian defeat were given the designation 3.7 cm Pak 162(i).
- The Netherlands were also a user of the Pak 35/36. Guns captured by Germany were given the designation 3.7 cm Pak 153(h).
This section needs additional citations for verification. (November 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
- Ethiopia: received 12 guns before the Italian invasion
- Republic of China
- Slovak Republic
Guns of similar performance and era
- 37 mm Gun M3 - a US 37 mm anti-tank gun of similar performance.
- Bofors 37 mm - a Swedish 37 mm anti-tank gun of similar performance.
- Škoda vz. 34 - a Czech 37 mm anti-tank gun of similar performance.
- Škoda vz. 37 - a Czech 37 mm anti-tank gun of similar performance.
- Type 94 37 mm - a Japanese 37 mm anti-tank gun of similar performance.
- Askey 2013, p. 29.
- German Infantry Weapons. Washington: United States War Department. pp. 113–114.
- Waffen-Arsenal 29: 3,7 cm Panzerabwehrkanonen (Pak) p.16
- Askey 2013, pp. 29–30.
- Terry Gander and Peter Chamberlain, Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the Third Reich, MacDonald and Janes, London, 1978, p107.
- Askey 2013, p. 30.
- Bishop, Chris (1998). The encyclopedia of weapons of World War II. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. p. 183. ISBN 978-0760710227.
- "中国生产的37毫米反坦克炮：抗战时日本坦克的噩梦_军事_中华网" (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 25 April 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2014.
- Armor penetration table at Panzerworld
- "37 mm Hollow-Charge Grenade - Stielgranate 41"[unreliable source?]
- Nicolle, David (15 October 1997). The Italian Invasion of Abyssinia 1935–36. Men-at-Arms 309. Osprey Publishing. p. 23. ISBN 9781855326927.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to PaK 36.|
- Askey, Nigel (2013). Operation Barbarossa: The Complete Organisational and Statistical Analysis, and Military Simulation. (II A). U.S.: Lulu Publishing. ISBN 978-1-304-45329-7.
- Gander, Terry and Chamberlain, Peter. Weapons of the Third Reich: An Encyclopedic Survey of All Small Arms, Artillery and Special Weapons of the German Land Forces 1939-1945. New York: Doubleday, 1979 ISBN 0-385-15090-3
- Hogg, Ian V. German Artillery of World War Two. 2nd corrected edition. Mechanicsville, PA: Stackpole Books, 1997 ISBN 1-85367-480-X
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Strong reasoning
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History
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Towards the southern end of New Jersey you will find a hotbed of gambling called Atlantic City. Easily lost in the highrise casinos and hotels is the country's third tallest lighthouse. And that's part of the problem...
First lit in 1857, this 171 foot tall lighthouse uses a First Order Fresnel lens, the largest of its kind. The beam could shine 19.5 nautical miles out to sea, changing the local shoreline from one that had been particularly hazardous to one that could now be navigated with much greater safety. However, by the 1880's construction was beginning in Atlantic City with homes, shops, and a boardwalk. By 1933, with the addition of taller buildings which blocked the light, Absecon Lighthouse was decommissioned and the light extinguished.
Today, you can walk the 228 steps to the top and get a great panoramic view of Atlantic City. One additional thing to notice while at the bottom of the lighthouse is the acoustics. If people are talking at the top of the lighthouse, you can clearly hear them at the bottom. Basically, you are standing at the bottom of a giant megaphone, with the sound directed right at you.
The United States is one of the most diverse countries on earth, jam packed full of amazing sights from St. Patrick's cathedral in New York to Mount Hollywood California.The Northeast region is where it all started. Thirteen British colonies fought the American Revolution from here and won their independence in the first successful colonial rebellion in history. Take a look at these rolling hills carpeted with foliage along the Hudson river here, north of New York City.The American south is known for its polite people and slow pace of life. Probably they move slowly because it's so hot. Southerners tend not to trust people from "up north" because they talk too fast. Here's a cemetery in Georgia where you can find graves of soldiers from the Civil War.The West Coast is sort of like another country that exists to make the east coast jealous. California is full of nothing but grizzly old miners digging for gold, a few gangster rappers, and then actors. That is to say, the West Coast functions as the imagination of the US, like a weird little brother who teases everybody then gets famous for making freaky art.The central part of the country is flat farmland all the way over to the Rocky Mountains. Up in the northwest corner you can find creative people in places like Portland and Seattle, along with awesome snowboarding and good beer. Text by Steve Smith.
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Moderate reasoning
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Travel
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Winding process Low speed and low tension are the key. […]
Low speed and low tension are the key. The automatic winding process is the process with the largest increase in hairiness. Generally, it should be increased by about 3 times, especially for hairiness of 3 mm and above, which increases geometrically. This is mainly caused by the friction of various parts on the yarn. . Because the winding speed is high and the winding speed of each point of the cone-shaped bobbin is different, the yarn will have greater slippage during the winding process. Therefore, the hairiness of the cop after the winding will be seriously deteriorated. Therefore, the winding process is a serious cause of hairiness in the yarn process, and it is also another important concern for us to solve the hairiness problem.
1) Do a good job of optimizing the process to control the growth of self-winding hairiness:
The winding speed and winding tension are preferred. The winding tension and winding speed of the automatic winder have a great influence on hairiness. Winding speed and winding tension should be regarded as a whole process when adjusting the process. If only one process parameter is considered, it will be counterproductive. When the specific optimization is combined with each other, the effect of high-speed operation with little hairiness increase can be achieved.
Optimizing the winding hardness and optimizing the winding tension will help control the growth of hairiness. The winding hardness of the bobbin increases, the pressure of the bobbin contacting the grooved cylinder decreases (the greater the P4 air pressure, the smaller the contact pressure), and the hairiness growth rate decreases.
2) Strengthen the operation of cleaning work and the work of driving cars:
Do a good job of cleaning the yarn channel and the tray in time to reduce the accumulation of fly and the increase of hairiness. Splicer cleaning, cleaning inside the bobbin holder, cleaning nozzle, etc. When handover cleaning, it must be stopped at the same time, and it is not allowed to go forward and backward.
3) Do a good job in the transfer protection of the spinning bobbin to the winding to prevent the phenomenon of pressing the yarn in the yarn basket.
4) The relative humidity is controlled at 70-73%. Properly increasing the humidity in the winding workshop will help reduce hairiness.
(1) In addition to the selection and production of rubber rollers, maintenance should also be paid attention to. Drawing, roving, spinning rubber roller coating and cleaning cycle, for chemical fiber easy to generate static electricity, after making the coating, add antistatic agent; cleaning cycle, drawing once a week, roving once every half month, spinning and traveller synchronization. Because the oil-containing rubber rollers and aprons are easy to accumulate grease, they should be cleaned periodically with a strong cleaning agent that removes grease, dried and used again.
(2) The hairiness changes seasonally. It is dry in autumn. The static electricity generated by chemical fiber is not easy to eliminate. The hairiness increases. The air conditioner needs to increase the humidity to eliminate static electricity. In the autumn drying, the production process also increases a lot of flying flowers. The hairiness grows quickly, which shortens the cleaning of the machine. Cycle, reduce hairiness. When necessary, the production process appropriately reduces the vehicle speed, which is also helpful to control the hairiness.
(1) The hairiness of ring-spun yarn increases with the increase of draft and output speed in the whole production process, and it has an impact on the production efficiency and product quality of the subsequent processes. Reducing hairiness, especially harmful hairiness of 3 mm and above, is an important aspect of improving yarn quality.
(2) The hairiness of ring spun yarn is divided into twisted hairiness and process hairiness. The twisting triangle area plays a decisive role in the formation of the yarn surface hairiness. Controlling the width of the ribbon output from the front roller of the spun yarn is a key factor in controlling the twisting hairiness of the yarn. At the same time, the fiber structure state in the sliver, the level of the short fiber content, the cohesion between the fibers and the control of the spinning tension are equally important to the twisting hairiness. Process hairiness is mainly the hairiness formed by the friction between the yarn and the yarn channel during the spinning process. The main factor affecting the hairiness of the process is scratching, which is closely related to the smoothness of the yarn channel, the tension of the yarn passing through the channel and the strength of the static electricity on the yarn, especially the state of the spun wire traveller and the state of the grooved tube , The arc length of the yarn on the grooved tube is closely related to the winding speed.
(3) Solving the hairiness problem of polyester-viscose blended yarns is a systematic project. It should be understood from the characteristics of raw materials and dealt with correctly, strengthen equipment management and operation management, optimize processes, select equipment reasonably, and adjust temperature and humidity according to weather and season changes. In terms of meticulous and effective work, the process is reasonable, the equipment is intact, the channel is clean, the machine is free of sticking, entanglement, hanging, and blocking, the environment is clean, the logistics is orderly, continuous improvement, and the harmful hairiness is minimized.
(4) The hairiness of polyester-viscose blended yarn is one of the more difficult to control varieties, and key processes must be grasped. The hairiness is mainly formed in the spun yarn and grows in the winding. Spinning process is not only the point of producing twisting hairiness, but also the point of serious increase of process hairiness, and it is the key process for controlling hairiness. Due to the high winding speed in the winding process and the different winding speeds at each point of the cone-shaped bobbin, the yarn will have greater slippage during the winding process. Therefore, the hairiness of the cop after the winding will be seriously deteriorated. Therefore, the winding process is a serious cause of hairiness in the yarn process, and it is also another important concern for us to solve the hairiness problem.
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Moderate reasoning
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Industrial
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Educating Your Kids To Write Thank You Notes (blog entry): It's not about reading the words, all. Toddles who hear an excellent deal of dialog that is exciting, fascinating are generally more susceptible to build upwards a rich vocabulary. It's extremely important to educate your toddler that his room is a nice place to be, not just where he is "banished" at bedtime. It is helpful to let your toddler get any pent up energy from his system before you try and settle him down. So long as you follow any play that's rowdy up with something more composed - like a bath and bedtime story and much more quiet - before he goes to sleep, it could be the initial step toward bedtime. Adores it when he spends time with his dad before bedtime little Pup.
Through many Saturdays they learned that is the reason why they Have read every Little House book a million times, except Farmer Boy, which they have not read, and that they adored stories with female protagonists. they also learned fast that they wasn't a supporter of dragon- it was torture to read Tolkien, even though they understand the guy was amazing. As a teacher, they Have had appropriate training on ways to train children get and to read as well as on literacy.
I've uncovered the publication Papa's Bedtime Story" by Mary Lee Donovan to be a fantastic bedtime book for your little toddler. With cunning, a story that is charming, nature illustrations, along with a calm, soothing tone, this book consistently ends using a grin plus a quick good night! When it is snuggling around a picture book or sharing a read-aloud chapter book with children which are not young, the number one task you can certainly do to promote literacy in your kid will be to just appreciate reading together. Bedtime stories are not unimportant.
When children are exposed to bedtime stories as well as some other styles of literature through the day, it helps them develop logic and comprehension skills which can be vital to the communication process together with the evolution of educational means. The importance of bedtime stories also includes instilling significant components of communicating in your youngster. However, they do read a lot of narratives daily. About the other hand, this novel is intriguing and thought provoking throughout!
Whether you are just starting, or you have been a keystone locally for a serious number of years, their educated staff can provide you with a customized package including on line banner ads/marketing, Social Media Marketing (Facebook / Twitter), Website development, Search Engine Marketing, Email Marketing options and much more! The choice between those two narratives is just not complex, additionally it's all YOURS.
HeLikes you to make stories up rather than reading from a novel, which is often hard work. Although as they am pretty sleep deprived, they am certain occasionally your stories are complete nonsense, he does not seem to mind. She prefers reading during the day whilst playing together with her toys although they have attempted bedtime stories. They read to their toddler every night - he loves it. It's lovely to possess some quality time by the finish of a busy day as they work full time. Peter spent the day researching the fort.
This article is rated 4.4 / 5 based on 43 reviews. †
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Moderate reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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Move over NASA and make room for the TVA of space
A model for accelerated commercial space development
by Vidvuds Beldavs, Jeffrey Sommers, and Gregory Anderson
|NASA’s mission, at its core, is civilian space exploration and the development of technologies and capabilities to enable space exploration. NASA is not an economic development agency.|
The US can take the global lead in commercial space development through the formation of a Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) of space development to accelerate space industrialization. TVA was formed in May 1933 as a federally chartered corporation to provide navigation, flood control, electricity generation, fertilizer manufacturing, and economic development in an area of the US particularly hard hit by the Great Depression. Space is in an analogous situation. There is an extraordinary abundance of identified resources to meet the needs of nations around the world for energy and sustained job-creating growth. There is no current development of space resources to meet human needs even through rooms full of plans have been crafted to do so and thousands of presentations have been made at countless conferences around the globe.
What would be the benefits of the formation of a “corporation for space development” (CSD) that is separate from NASA? Among many other questions is whether to form CSD on the model of TVA or that of the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), initially formed in 1964 as an intergovernmental consortium to foster telecommunications using satellites and privatized after 37 years of operation.
NASA’s mission, at its core, is civilian space exploration and the development of technologies and capabilities to enable space exploration. NASA is not an economic development agency, a utility like INTELSAT, or a trading company such as the Hudson’s Bay Company that was involved in the early development of the Canadian North. NASA is more like a university with its associated technology park that fosters new startup companies commercializing technologies. NASA is certainly not a commercial entity. However, there is a role for government well into the foreseeable future to further the exploration of space to serve US interests as well as to serve the broader interests of humankind.
There is a role for government when dealing with early stages in the deployment of technologies or very large scale problems where there is no clear, near-term commercial value, or where commercial business would benefit from a structure that provides incentives to undertake commercial activity that otherwise would not be commercially viable. NASA has fulfilled a part of this role by contracting for commercial crew for transport to the ISS. Government support in other areas has included tax breaks for solar technology, electric cars, and other new technologies that are in the national interest.
In the case of the TVA, proponents saw a massively depressed region that was richly endowed with rivers. Given flood control improvements, the dammed rivers of the Tennessee Valley provided an excellent source of hydropower that over decades of development lifted the region out of poverty and provided for the development of an aluminum industry as well as the electricity to power the Manhattan Project that was vital to the nation’s defense during World War II. TVA has not been privatized even though its role has expanded considerably beyond the hydropower that formed the base of its original charter. However, CSD could even be designed with privatization in mind when space development has reached a commercial maturity where competition would further advance the benefits to the public.
CSD, together with the Space Mining Bank (see “The asteroid mining bank”, The Space Review, January 28, 2013), can provide a source of financing, as well as the infrastructure and legal framework for accelerated commercial development of space resolving the ambiguities of the 1967 Space Treaty, without formal accession to the Moon Treaty.
The US can form the CSD with an act of Congress similar to the steps taken to form TVA. By structuring the organization as an intergovernmental organization similar to INTELSAT, other nations that wish to take advantage of the benefits of CSD can formally accede to it by paying a membership fee that is proportional to the weight of their economy as a share of the global economy according to International Monetary Fund calculations, but also based on the level of involvement desired by the government desiring membership in CSD. Informational membership would enable a country to attend meetings and have access to information gathered by CSD.
Space industrialization is the systematic, commercial exploitation of space, in contrast to space exploration, which may be done for commercial reasons but which does not have an immediate commercial purpose. Space industrialization is also more than asteroid mining, which may recover valuable material from an object in space, but which is not part of an industrial economic system. Space industrialization includes the idea of human settlement, whether in habitats in space or on the Moon or other planetary bodies.
|The US would benefit significantly through the formation of a federally chartered corporation to advance space commercialization.|
Space industrialization would have large-scale returns with the potential to generate millions of jobs, in contrast to space exploration, which may result in technological advancement and may employ hundreds of thousands of people, but which does not have the potential for exponentially increasing returns that is a characteristic of industrial processes involving technologies early in their lifecycle. The expansion of humankind beyond the Earth will require numerous new technologies across the entire spectrum of human activity. The benefits in terms of job creation and human potential would be far more limited through robotic space development alone. People are essential in space for it to have the returns that can assure long-term economic development for the billions of people living on the Earth.
To fulfill its mission CSD will require the following capabilities:
Scenario 1: The US takes the lead for commercial space development through the Commercial Space Development Act of Congress. India becomes an early partner in CSD with an initial project aimed at developing a prototype SBSP to provide electrical power to a remote, underdeveloped area of India. Other nations follow with eventual accession by most nations on Earth, similar to the pattern of INTELSAT. CSD is headquartered in Chicago.
|Now is the time for strong US leadership in the commercial development of space or else risk ceding leadership to others.|
Scenario 2: The September 2013 G20 Summit in St. Petersburg, Russia, identifies commercial space development as a key driver of global long term economic development and places space industrialization on the agenda of the 2014 G20 Summit, presided by Australia. Australia presses for the development of CSD welcoming other Eurasian members as initial founders. CSD is headquartered in Canberra.
Scenario 3: The EU and Russia recognize the extraordinary value of CSD and form an agreement to form CSD with invitations extended to the US, China, India, Japan, Brazil, Korea, and other spacefaring nations, making CSD an agenda issue for the 2014 G20 Summit in Australia. CSD is headquartered in Riga, Latvia.
By 2020 have the capability to:
NASA’s mission is not commercial development of space. The US would benefit significantly through the formation of a federally chartered corporation to advance space commercialization. Models for this exist in the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and INTELSAT. CSD would lead to a dramatic expansion of private investment in space development possibly matching the dot.com boom of the 1990s. CSD would lead to a clarification of NASA’s mission as space exploration accelerating this mission to achieve bolder, longer term objectives.
CSD would also provide a mechanism to finance space development much as the TVA provided a mechanism to finance economic development of the Tennessee Valley during the Great Depression. The region was abundant with hydropower resources. Dams had to be built to make the benefits of the resources available for economic development of the region. Space is abundant with resources. Lunar mining, asteroid mining, and space-based solar power facilities and in-space habitats must be built to take advantage of space resources for the economic development of Earth and of mankind in space.
By designing CSD as an international consortium of governments, it meets the requirements of the Moon Treaty, Outer Space Treaty, and other international objectives and obligations without necessarily acceding or ratifying the Moon Treaty, thereby clarifying ownership issues and providing a framework for more rapid space commercialization. Multiple scenarios are possible to form CSD. Some are more favorable to US interests, some less. Now is the time for strong US leadership in the commercial development of space or else risk ceding leadership to others.
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Psychoanalysis is a psychological therapy developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his associates, which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior. It has three applications: 1) a method of investigation of the mind; 2) a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and 3) a method of treatment of psychological or emotional illness.
Under the broad umbrella of psychoanalysis there are at least 22 different theoretical orientations regarding the underlying theory of understanding the mind and how it develops. The various approaches in treatment called "psychoanalytic" vary as much as the different theories do.
In addition, the term refers to a method of studying the significance of factors in child development, and how they affect the person's adult life.
Freudian psychoanalysis refers to a specific type of treatment in which the "analysand" (analytic patient) verbalizes thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which the analyst formulates the unconscious conflicts causing the patient's symptoms and character problems, and interprets them for the patient to create insight for resolution of the problems.
The specifics of the analyst's interventions typically include confronting and clarifying the patient's pathological defenses, wishes and guilt. Through the analysis of conflicts, including those contributing to resistance and those involving transference onto the analyst of distorted reactions, psychoanalytic treatment can clarify how patients unconsciously are their own worst enemies: how unconscious, symbolic reactions that have been stimulated by experience are causing symptoms.
In general terms the treatment is thought to work due to a process in which the patient develops a positive transference toward the psychoanalyst, and makes progress through assimilating dissociated parts of the personality. Freud knew that by assimilation, repressed affections allowed to become conscious in the patient, symptoms known as compensation for the segmental cravings which were a result of their repression(usually of childhood memories), would be relieved over time.
Since Freud's original work, generations of psychoanalysts have worked on developing the approach further. The predominant psychoanalytic theories can be grouped into several theoretical "schools". Although these theoretical "schools" differ, most of them continue to stress the strong influence of unconscious elements affecting people's mental lives.
Forms of psychoanalysisEdit
The basic structure of psychoanalysis has three applications: 1) a method of investigation of the mind; 2) a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and 3) a method of treatment of psychological or emotional illness. Over time various forms of psychoanalysis have developed since the founding fathers first understood it, and different styles personified through new clinicians.
Interpersonal psychoanalysis accents the nuances of interpersonal interactions, particularly how individuals protect themselves from anxiety by establishing collusive interactions with others. Interpersonal theory was first introduced by Harry Stack Sullivan, MD, and developed further by Frieda Fromm-Reichmann.
Relational psychoanalysis combines interpersonal psychoanalysis with object-relations theory and with Inter-subjective theory as critical for mental health, was introduced by Stephen Mitchell. Relational psychoanalysis emphasizes how the individual's personality is shaped by both real and imagined relationships with others, and how these relationship patterns are re-enacted in the interactions between analyst and patient. Fonagy and Target, in London, have propounded their view of the necessity of helping certain detached, isolated patients, develop the capacity for "mentalization" associated with thinking about relationships and themselves.
The term "intersubjectivity" was introduced in psychoanalysis by George E. Atwood and Robert Stolorow (1984). Intersubjective approaches emphasize how both personality development and the therapeutic process are influenced by the interrelationship between the patient's subjective perspective and that of others. The authors of the relational and intersubjective approaches: Heinz Kohut, Stephen A. Mitchell, Jessica Benjamin, Bernard Brandchaft, J. Fosshage, Donna M.Orange, Arnold Modell, Thomas Ogden, Owen Renik, Harold Searles, Colwyn Trewarthen, Edgar A. Levenson, J. R. Greenberg, Edward R. Ritvo, Beatrice Beebe, Frank M. Lachmann, Herbert Rosenfeld and Daniel Stern.
"Modern psychoanalysis" is a term coined by Hyman Spotnitz and his colleagues to describe a body of theoretical and clinical work undertaken from the 1950s onwards, with the aim of extending Freud's theories so as to make them applicable to the full spectrum of emotional disorders. Interventions based on this approach are primarily intended to provide an emotional-maturational communication to the patient, rather than to promote intellectual insight.
Psychopathology (mental disturbances)Edit
The various psychoses involve deficits in the autonomous ego functions (see above) of integration (organization) of thought, in abstraction ability, in relationship to reality and in reality testing. In depressions with psychotic features, the self-preservation function may also be damaged (sometimes by overwhelming depressive affect). Because of the integrative deficits (often causing what general psychiatrists call "loose associations," "blocking," "flight of ideas," "verbigeration," and "thought withdrawal"), the development of self and object representations is also impaired. Clinically, therefore, psychotic individuals manifest limitations in warmth, empathy, trust, identity, closeness and/or stability in relationships (due to problems with self-object fusion anxiety) as well.
In patients whose autonomous ego functions are more intact, but who still show problems with object relations, the diagnosis often falls into the category known as "borderline." Borderline patients also show deficits, often in controlling impulses, affects, or fantasies – but their ability to test reality remains more or less intact. Adults who do not experience guilt and shame, and who indulge in criminal behavior, are usually diagnosed as psychopaths, or, using DSM-IV-TR, antisocial personality disorder.
Panic, phobias, conversions, obsessions, compulsions and depressions (analysts call these "neurotic symptoms") are not usually caused by deficits in functions. Instead, they are caused by intrapsychic conflicts. The conflicts are generally among sexual and hostile-aggressive wishes, guilt and shame, and reality factors. The conflicts may be conscious or unconscious, but create anxiety, depressive affect, and anger. Finally, the various elements are managed by defensive operations – essentially shut-off brain mechanisms that make people unaware of that element of conflict. "Repression" is the term given to the mechanism that shuts thoughts out of consciousness. "Isolation of affect" is the term used for the mechanism that shuts sensations out of consciousness. Neurotic symptoms may occur with or without deficits in ego functions, object relations, and ego strengths. Therefore, it is not uncommon to encounter obsessive-compulsive schizophrenics, panic patients who also suffer with borderline personality disorder, etc.
Freudian theories argue that adult problems can be traced to unresolved conflicts from certain phases of childhood and adolescence. Freud, based on the data gathered from his patients early in his career, suspected that neurotic disturbances occurred when children were sexually abused in childhood (the so-called seduction theory). Later, Freud came to realize that, although child abuse occurs, that not all neurotic symptoms were associated with this. He realized that neurotic people often had unconscious conflicts that involved incestuous fantasies deriving from different stages of development. He found the stage from about three to six years of age (preschool years, today called the "first genital stage") to be filled with fantasies about marriage with both parents. Although arguments were generated in early 20th-century Vienna about whether adult seduction of children was the basis of neurotic illness, there is virtually no argument about this problem in the 21st century.
Many psychoanalysts who work with children have studied the actual effects of child abuse, which include ego and object relations deficits and severe neurotic conflicts. Much research has been done on these types of trauma in childhood, and the adult sequelae of those. On the other hand, many adults with symptom neuroses and character pathology have no history of childhood sexual or physical abuse. In studying the childhood factors that start neurotic symptom development, Freud found a constellation of factors that, for literary reasons, he termed the Oedipus complex (based on the play by Sophocles, Oedipus Rex, where the protagonist unwittingly kills his father Laius and marries his mother Jocasta). The shorthand term, "oedipal," (later explicated by Joseph Sandler in "On the Concept Superego" (1960) and modified by Charles Brenner in "The Mind in Conflict" (1982)) refers to the powerful attachments that children make to their parents in the preschool years. These attachments involve fantasies of marriage to either (or both) parent, and, therefore, competitive fantasies toward either (or both) parents. Humberto Nagera (1975) has been particularly helpful in clarifying many of the complexities of the child through these years.
The terms "positive" and "negative" oedipal conflicts have been attached to the heterosexual and homosexual aspects, respectively. Both seem to occur in development of most children. Eventually, the developing child's concessions to reality (that they will neither marry one parent nor eliminate the other) lead to identifications with parental values. These identifications generally create a new set of mental operations regarding values and guilt, subsumed under the term "superego." Besides superego development, children "resolve" their preschool oedipal conflicts through channeling wishes into something their parents approve of ("sublimations") and the development, during the school-age years ("latency") of age-appropriate obsessive-compulsive defensive maneuvers (rules, repetitive games).
Using the various analytic theories to assess mental problems, several particular constellations of problems are particularly suited for analytic techniques (see below) whereas other problems respond better to medicines and different interpersonal interventions. To be treated with psychoanalysis, whatever the presenting problem, the person requesting help must demonstrate a good capacity to organize thought (integrative function), good abstraction ability, and a reasonable ability to observe self and others. As well, they need to be able to have trust and empathy and they must be able to control emotion and urges. Potential patients must be in contact with reality, which excludes most psychotic patients with delusions, and they must feel some guilt and shame (this requirement excludes some criminals and sex offenders who do not feel remorse). Finally, a prospective patient must not be severely suicidal patients. If any of the above are faulty, then modifications of techniques, or completely different treatment approaches, must be instituted.
The more there are deficits of serious magnitude in any of the above mental operations (1-8), the more psychoanalysis as treatment is contraindicated, and the more medication and supportive approaches are indicated. In non-psychotic first-degree criminals, any treatment is often contraindicated. The problems treatable with analysis include: phobias, conversions, compulsions, obsessions, anxiety attacks, depressions, sexual dysfunctions, a wide variety of relationship problems (such as dating and marital strife), and a wide variety of character problems (for example, painful shyness, meanness, obnoxiousness, workaholism, hyperseductiveness, hyperemotionality, hyperfastidiousness). The fact that many of such patients also demonstrate deficits above makes diagnosis and treatment selection difficult.
Analytical organizations such as the International Psychoanalytical Association, the American Psychoanalytical Association, and the European Federation for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, have established procedures and models for the indication and practice of psychoanalytical therapy for trainees in analysis. The match between the analyst and the patient can be viewed as another contributing factor for the indication and contraindication for psychoanalytic treatment. The analyst decides whether the patient is suitable for psychoanalysis. This decision made by the analyst, besides made on the usual indications and pathology, is also based to a certain degree by the "fit" between analyst and patient. When analysts utilize concrete, semi-standardized procedures to evaluate patients' suitability for analytic treatment, their associations' "defined protocols," may include (semi-) structured interviews, personality tests, projective tests, and/or psychological questionnaires. An evaluation may include one or more other analysts' independent opinions and will include discussion of the patient's financial situation and insurances.
The basic method of psychoanalysis is interpretation of the patient's unconscious conflicts that are interfering with current-day functioning – conflicts that are causing painful symptoms such as phobias, anxiety, depression, and compulsions. Strachey (1936) stressed that figuring out ways the patient distorted perceptions about the analyst led to understanding what may have been forgotten (also see Freud's paper "Repeating, Remembering, and Working Through"). In particular, unconscious hostile feelings toward the analyst could be found in symbolic, negative reactions to what Robert Langs later called the "frame" of the therapy – the setup that included times of the sessions, payment of fees, and necessity of talking. In patients who made mistakes, forgot, or showed other peculiarities regarding time, fees, and talking, the analyst can usually find various unconscious "resistances" to the flow of thoughts (sometimes called free association).
When the patient reclines on a couch with the analyst out of view, the patient tends to remember more, experience more resistance and transference, and be able to reorganize thoughts after the development of insight – through the interpretive work of the analyst. Although fantasy life can be understood through the examination of dreams, masturbation fantasies (cf. Marcus, I. and Francis, J. (1975), Masturbation from Infancy to Senescence) are also important. The analyst is interested in how the patient reacts to and avoids such fantasies (cf. Paul Gray (1994), The Ego and the Analysis of Defense). Various memories of early life are generally distorted – Freud called them "screen memories" – and in any case, very early experiences (before age two) – can not be remembered (See the child studies of Eleanor Galenson on "evocative memory").
Variations in techniqueEdit
There is what is known among psychoanalysts as "classical technique," although Freud throughout his writings deviated from this considerably, depending on the problems of any given patient. Classical technique was summarized by Allan Compton, MD, as comprising instructions (telling the patient to try to say what's on their mind, including interferences); exploration (asking questions); and clarification (rephrasing and summarizing what the patient has been describing). As well, the analyst can also use confrontation to bringing an aspect of functioning, usually a defense, to the patient's attention. The analyst then uses a variety of interpretation methods, such as dynamic interpretation (explaining how being too nice guards against guilt, e.g. - defense vs. affect); genetic interpretation (explaining how a past event is influencing the present); resistance interpretation (showing the patient how they are avoiding their problems); transference interpretation (showing the patient ways old conflicts arise in current relationships, including that with the analyst); or dream interpretation (obtaining the patient's thoughts about their dreams and connecting this with their current problems). Analysts can also use reconstruction to estimate what may have happened in the past that created some current issue.
These techniques are primarily based on conflict theory (see above). As object relations theory evolved, grass supplemented by the work of Bowlby, Ainsorth, and Beebe, techniques with patients who had more severe problems with basic trust (Erikson, 1950) and a history of maternal deprivation (see the works of Augusta Alpert) led to new techniques with adults. These have sometimes been called interpersonal, intersubjective (cf. Stolorow), relational, or corrective object relations techniques. These techniques include expressing an empathic attunement to the patient or warmth; exposing a bit of the analyst's personal life or attitudes to the patient; allowing the patient autonomy in the form of disagreement with the analyst (cf. I.H. Paul, Letters to Simon.); and explaining the motivations of others which the patient misperceives. Ego psychological concepts of deficit in functioning led to refinements in supportive therapy. These techniques are particularly applicable to psychotic and near-psychotic (cf., Eric Marcus, "Psychosis and Near-psychosis") patients. These supportive therapy techniques include discussions of reality; encouragement to stay alive (including hospitalization); psychotropic medicines to relieve overwhelming depressive affect or overwhelming fantasies (hallucinations and delusions); and advice about the meanings of things (to counter abstraction failures).
The notion of the "silent analyst" has been criticized. Actually, the analyst listens using Arlow's approach as set out in "The Genesis of Interpretation"), using active intervention to interpret resistances, defenses creating pathology, and fantasies. Silence and non-responsiveness was a technique promulgated by Carl Rogers, in his development of so-called "Client Centered Therapy" – and is not a technique of psychoanalysis (also see the studies and opinion papers of Owen Renik, MD). "Analytic Neutrality" is a concept that does not mean the analyst is silent. It refers to the analyst's position of not taking sides in the internal struggles of the patient. For example, if a patient feels guilty, the analyst might explore what the patient has been doing or thinking that causes the guilt, but not reassure the patient not to feel guilty. The analyst might also explore the identifications with parents and others that led to the guilt.
Group therapy and play therapyEdit
Although single-client sessions remain the norm, psychoanalytic theory has been used to develop other types of psychological treatment. Psychoanalytic group therapy was pioneered by Trigant Burrow, Joseph Pratt, Paul F. Schilder, Samuel R. Slavson, Harry Stack Sullivan, and Wolfe. Child-centered counseling for parents was instituted early in analytic history by Freud, and was later further developed by Irwin Marcus, Edith Schulhofer, and Gilbert Kliman. Psychoanalytically based couples therapy has been promulgated and explicated by Fred Sander, MD. Techniques and tools developed in the 2000s have made psychoanalysis available to patients who were not treatable by earlier techniques.. This meant that the analytic situation was modified so that it would be more suitable and more likely to be helpful for these patients. M.N. Eagle (2007) believes that psychoanalysis cannot be a self-contained discipline but instead must be open to influence from and integration with findings and theory from other disciplines.
Psychoanalytic constructs have been adapted for use with children with treatments such as play therapy, art therapy, and storytelling. Throughout her career, from the 1920s through the 1970s, Anna Freud adapted psychoanalysis for children through play. This is still used today for children, especially those who are preadolescent (see Leon Hoffman, New York Psychoanalytic Institute Center for Children). Using toys and games, children are able to demonstrate, symbolically, their fears, fantasies, and defenses; although not identical, this technique, in children, is analogous to the aim of free association in adults. Psychoanalytic play therapy allows the child and analyst to understand children's conflicts, particularly defenses such as disobedience and withdrawal, that have been guarding against various unpleasant feelings and hostile wishes. In art therapy, the counselor may have a child draw a portrait and then tell a story about the portrait. The counselor watches for recurring themes—regardless of whether it is with art or toys.
Psychoanalysis can be adapted to different cultures, as long as the therapist or counseling understands the client's culture. For example, Tori and Blimes found that defense mechanisms were valid in a normative sample of 2,624 Thais. The use of certain defense mechanisms was related to cultural values. For example Thais value calmness and collectiveness (because of Buddhist beliefs), so they were low on regressive emotionality. Psychoanalysis also applies because Freud used techniques that allowed him to get the subjective perceptions of his patients. He takes an objective approach by not facing his clients during his talk therapy sessions. He met with his patients where ever they were, such as when he used free association—where clients would say whatever came to mind without self-censorship. His treatments had little to no structure for most cultures, especially Asian cultures. Therefore, it is more likely that Freudian constructs will be used in structured therapy (Thompson, et al., 2004). In addition, Corey postulates that it will be necessary for a therapist to help clients develop a cultural identity as well as an ego identity.
Cost and length of treatmentEdit
The cost to the patient of psychoanalytic treatment ranges widely from place to place and between practitioners. Low-fee analysis is often available in a psychoanalytic training clinic and graduate schools. Otherwise, the fee set by each analyst varies with the analyst's training and experience. Since, in most locations in the United States, unlike in Ontario and Germany, classical analysis (which usually requires sessions three to five times per week) is not covered by health insurance, many analysts may negotiate their fees with patients whom they feel they can help, but who have financial difficulties. The modifications of analysis, which include dynamic therapy, brief therapies, and certain types of group therapy (cf. Slavson, S. R., A Textbook in Analytic Group Therapy), are carried out on a less frequent basis - usually once, twice, or three times a week - and usually the patient sits facing the therapist.
Many studies have also been done on briefer "dynamic" treatments; these are more expedient to measure, and shed light on the therapeutic process to some extent. Brief Relational Therapy (BRT), Brief Psychodynamic Therapy (BPT), and Time-Limited Dynamic Therapy (TLDP) limit treatment to 20-30 sessions. On average, classical analysis may last 5.7 years, but for phobias and depressions uncomplicated by ego deficits or object relations deficits, analysis may run for a shorter period of time. Longer analyses are indicated for those with more serious disturbances in object relations, more symptoms, and more ingrained character pathology (such as obnoxiousness, severe passivity, or heinous procrastination).
Psychoanalytic training generally involves personal analytic treatment for the trainee, conducted confidentially, with no report to the Education Committee of the Analytic Training Institute; approximately 600 hours of class instruction, with a standard curriculum, over a four-year period. Classes are often a few hours per week, or for a full day or two every other weekend during the academic year; this varies with the institute; and supervision once per week, with a senior analyst, on each analytic treatment case the trainee has. The minimum number of cases varies between institutes, often two to four cases. Male and female cases are required. Supervision must go on for at least a few years on one or more cases. Supervision is done in the supervisor's office, where the trainee presents material from the analytic work that week, examines the unconscious conflicts with the supervisor, and learns, discusses, and is advised about technique.
The London Psychoanalytical Society was founded by Ernest Jones on 30th October 1913. With the expansion of psychoanalysis in the United Kingdom the Society was renamed the [British Psychoanalytical Society] in 1919. Soon after, the Institute of Psychoanalysis was established to administer the Society’s activities. These include: the training of psychoanalysts, the development of the theory and practice of psychoanalysis, the provision of treatment through The London Clinic of Psychoanalysis, the publication of books in the The New Library of Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Ideas. The Institute of Psychoanalysis also publishes The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, maintains a library, furthers research, and holds public lectures. The Society has a Code of Ethics and an Ethical Committee. The Society, the Institute and the Clinic are all located at Byron House.
Over a hundred years of case reports and studies in the journal Modern Psychoanalysis, the Psychoanalytic Quarterly, the International Journal of Psychoanalysis and the Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association have analyzed efficacy of analysis in cases of neurosis and character or personality problems. Psychoanalysis modified by object relations techniques has been shown to be effective in many cases of ingrained problems of intimacy and relationship (cf. the many books of Otto Kernberg). As a therapeutic treatment, psychoanalytic techniques may be useful in a one-session consultation. Psychoanalytic treatment, in other situations, may run from about a year to many years, depending on the severity and complexity of the pathology.
Psychoanalytic theory has, from its inception, been the subject of criticism and controversy. Freud remarked on this early in his career, when other physicians in Vienna ostracized him for his findings that hysterical conversion symptoms were not limited to women. Challenges to analytic theory began with Otto Rank and Adler (turn of the 20th century), continued with behaviorists (e.g. Wolpe) into the 1940s and '50s, and have persisted. Criticisms come from those who object the notion that there are mechanisms, thoughts or feelings in the mind that could be unconscious. Criticisms also have been leveled against the discovery of "infantile sexuality" (the recognition that children between ages two and six imagine things about procreation). Criticisms of theory have led to variations in analytic theories, such as the work of Fairbairn, Balint, and Bowlby. In the past 30 years or so, the criticisms have centered on the issue of empirical verification, in spite of many empirical, prospective research studies that have been empirically validated (e.g., See the studies of Barbara Milrod, at Cornell University Medical School, et al.).
Psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool into childhood development (cf. the journal The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child), and has developed into a flexible, effective treatment for certain mental disturbances. In the 1960s, Freud's early (1905) thoughts on the childhood development of female sexuality were challenged; this challenge led to major research in the 1970s and 80s, and then to a reformulation of female sexual development that corrected some of Freud's concepts. Also see the various works of Eleanor Galenson, Nancy Chodorow, Karen Horney, Francoise Dolto, Melanie Klein, and others.
A 2005 review of randomized controlled trials found that "psychoanalytic therapy is (1) more effective than no treatment or treatment as usual, and (2) more effective than shorter forms of psychodynamic therapy". Empirical research on the efficacy of psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy has also become prominent among psychoanalytic researchers.
Research on psychodynamic treatment of some populations shows mixed results. Research by analysts such as Bertram Karon and colleagues at Michigan State University had suggested that when trained properly, psychodynamic therapists can be effective with schizophrenic patients. More recent research casts doubt on these claims. The Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team (PORT) report argues in its Recommendation 22 against the use of psychodynamic therapy in cases of schizophrenia, noting that more trials are necessary to verify its effectiveness. However, the PORT recommendation is based on the opinions of clinicians rather than on empirical data, and empirical data exist that contradict this recommendation (link to abstract).
A review of current medical literature in The Cochrane Library, (the updated abstract of which is available online) reached the conclusion that no data exist that demonstrate that psychodynamic psychotherapy is effective in treating schizophrenia. Dr. Hyman Spotnitz and the practitioners of his theory known as Modern Psychoanalysis, a specific sub-specialty, still report (2007) much success in using their enhanced version of psychoanalytic technique in the treatment of schizophrenia. Further data also suggest that psychoanalysis is not effective (and possibly even detrimental) in the treatment of sex offenders. Experiences of psychoanalysts and psychoanalytic psychotherapists and research into infant and child development have led to new insights. Theories have been further developed and the results of empirical research are now more integrated in the psychoanalytic theory.
There are different forms of psychoanalysis and psychotherapies in which psychoanalytic thinking is practiced. Besides classical psychoanalysis there is for example psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Other examples of well known therapies which also use insights of psychoanalysis are Mentalization-Based Treatment (MBT), and Transference-Focused Psychotherapy (TFP). There is also a continuing influence of psychoanalytic thinking in different settings in the mental health care. To give an example: in the psychotherapeutic training in the Netherlands, psychoanalytic and system therapeutic theories, drafts, and techniques are combined and integrated. Other psychoanalytic schools include the Kleinian, Lacanian, and Winnicottian schools.
Exchanges between critics and defenders of psychoanalysis have often been so heated that they have come to be characterized as the Freud Wars. Popper argued that psychoanalysis is a pseudoscience because its claims are not testable and cannot be refuted, that is, they are not falsifiable. For example, if a client's reaction was not consistent with the psychosexual theory then an alternate explanation would be given (e.g. defense mechanisms, reaction formation). Karl Kraus, an Austrian satirist, was the subject of a book written by noted libertarian author Thomas Szasz. The book Anti-Freud: Karl Kraus's Criticism of Psychoanalysis and Psychiatry, originally published under the name Karl Kraus and the Soul Doctors, portrayed Kraus as a harsh critic of Sigmund Freud and of psychoanalysis in general. Other commentators, such as Edward Timms, author of Karl Kraus - Apocalyptic Satirist, have argued that Kraus respected Freud, though with reservations about the application of some of his theories, and that his views were far less black-and-white than Szasz suggests.
Grünbaum argues that psychoanalytic based theories are falsifiable, but that the causal claims of psychoanalysis are unsupported by the available clinical evidence. Other schools of psychology have produced alternative methods for psychotherapy, including behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, Gestalt therapy and person-centered psychotherapy. Hans Eysenck determined that improvement was no greater than spontaneous remission. Between two-thirds and three-fourths of “neurotics” would recover naturally; this was no different from therapy clients. Prioleau, Murdock, Brody reviewed several therapy-outcome studies and determined that psychotherapy is no different than placebo controls.
Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze claimed that the institution of psychoanalysis has become a center of power and that its confessional techniques resemble the Christian tradition. Strong criticism of certain forms of psychoanalysis is offered by psychoanalytical theorists. Jacques Lacan criticized the emphasis of some American and British psychoanalytical traditions on what he has viewed as the suggestion of imaginary "causes" for symptoms, and recommended the return to Freud. Together with Gilles Deleuze, Felix Guattari criticised the Oedipal structure. Luce Irigaray criticised what she called the phallogocentrism of the Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalytical theories.
Due to the wide variety of psychoanalytic theories, varying schools of psychoanalysis often internally criticize each other. One consequence is that some critics offer criticism of specific ideas present only in one or more theories, rather than in all of psychoanalysis while not rejecting other premises of psychoanalysis. Defenders of psychoanalysis argue that many critics (such as feminist critics of Freud) have attempted to offer criticisms of psychoanalysis that were in fact only criticisms of specific ideas present only in one or more theories, rather than in all of psychoanalysis. As the psychoanalytic researcher Drew Westen puts it, "Critics have typically focused on a version of psychoanalytic theory—circa 1920 at best—that few contemporary analysts find compelling... In so doing, however, they have set the terms of the public debate and have led many analysts, I believe mistakenly, down an indefensible path of trying to defend a 75 to 100-year-old version of a theory and therapy that has changed substantially since Freud laid its foundations at the turn of the century." link to Westen article. A further consideration with respect to cost is that in circumstances when lower cost treatment is provided to the patient as the analyst is funded by the government, then psychoanalytic treatment occurs at the expense other forms of more effective treatment.
An early and important criticism of psychoanalysis was that its theories were based on little quantitative and experimental research, and instead relied almost exclusively on the clinical case study method. In comparison, brief psychotherapy approaches such as behavior therapy and cognitive therapy have shown much more concern for empirical validation (Morley et al. 1999). Some even accused Freud of fabrication, most famously in the case of Anna O. (Borch-Jacobsen 1996). An increasing amount of empirical research from academic psychologists and psychiatrists has begun to address this criticism. A survey of scientific research showed that while personality traits corresponding to Freud's oral, anal, Oedipal, and genital phases can be observed, they cannot be observed as stages in the development of children, nor can it be confirmed that such traits in adults result from childhood experiences (Fisher & Greenberg, 1977, p. 399). However, these stages should not be viewed as crucial to modern psychoanalysis. What is crucial to modern psychoanalytic theory and practice is the power of the unconscious and the transference phenomenon.
The idea of "unconscious" is contested because human behavior can be observed while human psychology has to be guessed at. However, the unconscious is now a hot topic of study in the fields of experimental and social psychology (e.g., implicit attitude measures, fMRI, and PET scans, and other indirect tests). One would be hard pressed to find scientists who still think of the mind as a "black box". Currently, the field of psychology embraces the study of things outside one's awareness. Even strict behaviorists acknowledge that a vast amount of classical conditioning is unconscious and that this has profound effects on our emotional life. The idea of unconscious, and the transference phenomenon, have been widely researched and, it is claimed, validated in the fields of cognitive psychology and social psychology (Westen & Gabbard 2002), though such claims are also contested. Recent developments in neuroscience have resulted in one side arguing that it has provided a biological basis for unconscious emotional processing in line with psychoanalytic theory i.e., neuropsychoanalysis (Westen & Gabbard 2002), while the other side argues that such findings make psychoanalytic theory obsolete and irrelevant.
E. Fuller Torrey, writing in Witchdoctors and Psychiatrists (1986), stated that psychoanalytic theories have no more scientific basis than the theories of traditional native healers, "witchdoctors" or modern "cult" alternatives such as est. Some scientists regard psychoanalysis as a pseudoscience (Cioffi, 1998). Among philosophers, Karl Popper argued that Freud's theory of the unconscious was not falsifiable and therefore not scientific. Popper did not object to the idea that some mental processes could be unconscious but to investigations of the mind that were not falsifiable. In other words, if it were possible to connect every conceivable experimental outcome with Freud's theory of the unconscious mind, then no experiment could refute the theory. Anthropologist Roy Wagner, in The Invention of Culture, ridicules psychoanalysis and tries to account for personality and emotional disorder in terms of invention and convention.
Some proponents of psychoanalysis suggest that its concepts and theories are more akin to those found in the humanities than those proper to the physical and biological/medical sciences, though Freud himself tried to base his clinical formulations on a hypothetical neurophysiology of energy transformations. For example, the philosopher Paul Ricoeur argued that psychoanalysis can be considered a type of textual interpretation or hermeneutics. Like cultural critics and literary scholars, Ricoeur contended, psychoanalysts spend their time interpreting the nuances of language — the language of their patients. Ricoeur claimed that psychoanalysis emphasizes the polyvocal or many-voiced qualities of language, focusing on utterances that mean more than one thing. Ricoeur classified psychoanalysis as a hermeneutics of suspicion. By this he meant that psychoanalysis searches for deception in language, and thereby destabilizes our usual reliance on clear, obvious meanings. Despite criticism regarding the validity of psychoanalytic therapeutic technique, numerous outcome studies have shown that its efficacy is equal to that of other mainstream therapy modalities such as cognitive-behavioral therapy.
Psychoanalysts have often complained about the significant lack of theoretical agreement among analysts of different schools. Many authors have attempted to integrate the various theories, with limited success. However, with the publication of the Psychodynamic Diagnostic Manual much of this lack of cohesion has been resolved.
Jacques Derrida incorporated aspects of psychoanalytic theory into deconstruction in order to question what he called the 'metaphysics of presence'. Freud's insistence, in the first chapter of The Ego and the Id, that philosophers will recoil from his theory of the unconscious is clearly a forbear to Derrida's understanding of metaphysical 'self-presence'. Derrida also turns some of these ideas against Freud, to reveal tensions and contradictions in his work. These tensions are the conditions upon which Freud's work can operate. For example, although Freud defines religion and metaphysics as displacements of the identification with the father in the resolution of the Oedipal complex, Derrida insists in The Postcard: From Socrates to Freud and Beyond that the prominence of the father in Freud's own analysis is itself indebted to the prominence given to the father in Western metaphysics and theology since Plato. Thus Derrida thinks that even though Freud remains within a theologico-metaphysical tradition[How to reference and link to summary or text] of 'phallologocentrism', Freud nonetheless criticizes that tradition.
The purpose of Derrida's analysis is not to refute Freud, which would only reaffirm traditional metaphysics, but to reveal an undecidability at the heart of his project. This deconstruction of Freud casts doubt upon the possibility of delimiting psychoanalysis as a rigorous science. Yet it celebrates the side of Freud which emphasises the open-ended and improvisatory nature of psychoanalysis, and its methodical and ethical demand that the testimony of the analysand should be given prominence in the practice of analysis. Psychoanalysis, or at least the dominant version of it, has been denounced as patriarchal or phallocentric by some proponents of feminist theory.[How to reference and link to summary or text] Other feminist scholars have argued that Freud opened up society to female sexuality.[How to reference and link to summary or text]
- English H.B. & English A.C. (1958). A Comprehensive dictionary of psychological and psychoanalytic terms: A guide to usage. New YorkDavid McKay.
- A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. Rycroft, Charles. 2nd ed. London and New York: Penguin Books, 1995.
- Freud: Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. Freud, Sigmund. Westport: Greenwood, 1969.
- International Dictionary of Psychoanalysis = Dictionnaire international de la psychanalyse / Alain de Mijolla, editor in chief. c2005. Detroit : Macmillan Reference USA, ISBN 0028659244ISBN 0028659945 (set : ebook)
- Analysis of Subjective Logics
- Adlerian psychotherapy
- Dream analysis
- Defence mechanism
- Erik H. Erikson
- Free association
- List of psychoanalytic organizations
- Negative therapeutic reaction
- [[Psychoanalytic sociology
- Psychoanalytic theory
- Psychotherapeutic neutrality
- Psychotherapeutic processes
- Self analysis
- Transactional analysis
- ↑ Moore BE, Fine BD (1968), A Glossary of Psychoanalytic Terms and Concepts, Amer Psychoanalytic Assn, p. 78, ISBN 978-0318131252
- ↑ Moore BE, Fine BD (1968), A Glossary of Psychoanalytic Terms and Concepts, Amer Psychoanalytic Assn, p. 78, ISBN 978-0318131252
- ↑ Mitchell S (1997), "Influence and Autonomy in Psychoanalysis", The Analytic Press
- ↑ International Psychoanalytical Organization, http://www.ipa.org.uk/
- ↑ American Psychoanalytical Association, http://www.apsa.org
- ↑ European Federation for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, http://www.efpp.org
- ↑ Gray P, The Ego and Analysis of Defense, J. AronsonYear= 1994
- ↑ Morris N, Eagle (2007), "Psychoanalytic Psychology", Psychoanalysis and its Critics 24: 10-24
- ↑ Blackman J (1994), "Psychodynamic Technique during Urgent Consultation Interviews", Journal Psychotherapy Practice & Research
- ↑ Tallis RC (1996), "Burying Freud", Lancet 347: 669-671, PMID 8596386, http://www.human-nature.com/freud/tallis.html
- ↑ Wallerstein (2000), Forty-Two Lives in Treatment: A Study of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy
- ↑ Blum HP, ed. (1977), Female Psychology, New York: International Universities Press
- ↑ "Are psychodynamic and psychoanalytic therapies effective", International Journal of Psychoanalysis 93, 2005, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16096078&query_hl=2
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Nederlands Psychoanalytisch Instituut, http://www.psychoanalytischinstituut.nl/
- ↑ Nederlands Psychoanalytisch Genootschap, http://www.npg-utrecht.nl/npg.htm
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Popper KR, "Science: Conjectures and Refutations", reprinted in Grim P (1990) Philosophy of Science and the Occult, Albany, pp. 104-110. See also Conjectures and Refutations.
- ↑ Weeks, Jeffrey. Sexuality and its Discontents: Meanings, Myths, and Modern Sexualities, New York: Routledge.
- ↑ Lacan J (1977), Ecrits. A Selection and The Seminars, London: Tavistock
- ↑ Deleuze G, Guattari F (1984), Anti-Oedipus, London: Athlone, ISBN 0-485-30018-4
- ↑ Irigaray L (1974), Speculum, Paris: Minuit, ISBN 2-7073-0024-1
- ↑ Wilkinson G (June 12), "Psychoanalysis and analytic psychotherapy in the NHS—a problem for medical ethics", J Med Ethics (2): 84-94
- ↑ Fuller Torrey E (1986), Witchdoctors and Psychiatrists, p. 76
- ↑ Ingham JM (2007), "Simplicity and complexity in anthropology", On the Horizon 15 (1): 7-14, doi:10.1108/10748120710735220
- ↑ Horvath A (2001), "The Alliance", Psychotherapy: Theory, research, practice, training 38: 365-372
- Important publications in psychoanalysis & psychotherapy
- Berman, J. (2003). [Review of the book The writing cure: How expressive writing promotes health and well-being. [Electronic version]. Psychoanalytic psychology, 20(3), 575-578.
- Brenner, C. (1954). An elementary textbook of psychoanalysis.
- Corey, G. (2001). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Thompson Learning
- Seymour Fisher,, The Scientific Credibility of Freud's Theories and Therapy, Columbia University Press (October, 1985), trade paperback, ISBN 023106215X
- Firestone, R.W. (2002). "The death of psychoanalysis and depth therapy." [Electronic version]. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, and Training, 39(3), 223-232.
- Kramer, Peter D., Listening to Prozac: A Psychiatrist Explores Antidepressant Drugs and the Remaking of the Self ISBN 0670841838.
- Luhrmann, T.M., Of Two Minds: The Growing Disorder in American Psychiatry ISBN 0679421912.
- Parker, I. (2004) ‘Psychoanalysis and critical psychology’, in D. Hook (ed.), with N. Mkhize, P. Kiguwa and A. Collins (section eds) and E. Burman and I. Parker (consulting eds) (2004) Critical Psychology. Cape Town: UCT Press.
- Thomson, C.L, Rudolph L.B., & Henderson, D. (2004). Counseling children. (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Thompson.
- Tori, C.D. & Blimes, M. (Fall 2002). "Cross-cultural and Psychoanalytic Psychology: The Validation of defense measure in an Asian population." [Electronic version]. Psychoanalytic psychology, 19(4), 701-421.
- E. Fuller Torrey, Witchdoctors and Psychiatrists: The Common Roots of Psychotherapy and Its Future, Perennial Library, Harper & Row (1986), trade paperback, 320 pages, ISBN 0060970243
- Psychoanalytic Theory: An Introduction, by Anthony Elliott, an introduction that explains psychoanalytic theory with interpretations of major theorists
- The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason, by Ernest Gellner. A critical view of Freudian theory. ISBN 0810113708
- Mitchell, S. & Black, M. (1995). Freud and Beyond: A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought
- Wachtel, P. (1989). Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Toward an Integration. New York: Basic Books.
- Brenner, Charles (1954). An elementary textbook of psychoanalysis.
- Elliott, Anthony (2002). Psychoanalytic Theory: An Introduction, Second Edition, Duke University Press - an introduction that explains psychoanalytic theory with interpretations of major theorists.
- Reference works
- International dictionary of psychoanalysis : [enhanced American version], ed. by Alain de Mijolla, 3 vls., Detroit [etc.] : Thomson/Gale, 2005
- Jean Laplanche and J.B. Pontalis: "The Language of Psycho-Analysis", W. W. Norton & Company, 1974, ISBN 0-393-01105-4
- Horacio Etchegoyen, The Fundamentals of Psychoanalytic Technique, Karnac Books ed., New Ed, 2005, ISBN 1-85575-455-X
- Ernest Gellner, The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason, . A critical view of Freudian theory. ISBN 0-8101-1370-8
- André Green : "Psychoanalysis: A Paradigm For Clinical Thinking", Free Association Books, 2005, ISBN 1-85343-773-5
- Luce Irigaray, "Key Writings". Continuum, 2004, ISBN 0-8264-6940-X
- Edith Jacobson : "Depression; Comparative Studies of Normal, Neurotic, and Psychotic Conditions", Publisher: International Universities Press, 1976, ISBN 0-8236-1195-7
- Otto Kernberg : "Severe Personality Disorders: Psychotherapeutic", Yale University Press; edition 1993, ISBN 0-300-05349-5
- Heinz Kohut : "Analysis of the Self: Systematic Approach to Treatment of Narcissistic Personality Disorders", International Universities Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8236-8002-9
- Julia Kristeva, "The Kristeva Reader", edited by Toril Moi, Columbia University Press, 1986. ISBN 0-231-06235-3
- Donald Meltzer The Kleinian Development (New edition), Karnac Books; Reprint edition 1998, ISBN 1-85575-194-1
- Donald Meltzer : "Dream-Life: A Re-Examination of the Psycho-Analytical Theory and Technique" Publisher: Karnac Books, 1983, ISBN 0-902965-17-4
- Mitchell, S.A., & Black, M.J. (1995). Freud and beyond: a history of modern psychoanalytic thought. Basic Books, New York. xviii-xx.
- Griselda Pollock, "Beyond Oedipus. Feminist Thought, Psychoanalysis, and Mythical Figurations of the Feminine." In: Laughing with Medusa. Edited by Vanda Zajko and Miriam Leonard. Oxford University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-19-927438-X
- Sabina Spielrein : "Destruction as cause of becoming", 1993, OCLC 44450080
- Robert Stoller : "Presentations of Gender", Yale University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-300-05474-2
- Robert Stolorow, George Atwood, & Donna Orange: Worlds of Experience: Interweaving Philosophical and Clinical Dimensions in Psychoanalysis. New York: Basic Books, 2002
- Rene Spitz : "The First Year of Life: Psychoanalytic Study of Normal and Deviant Development of Object Relations", International Universities Press, 2006, ISBN 0-8236-8056-8
Online papers about psychoanalytic theoryEdit
- Benjamin, J. (1995). Recognition and destruction: An outline of intersubjectivity
- Boesky, D. (2005). Psychoanalytic controversies contextualized
- Boston Process of Change Study Group. (2005). The "something more" than interpretation
- Brenner, C. (1992). The mind as conflict and compromise formation
- Eagle, M. (1984). Developmental deficit versus dynamic conflict
- Gill, M. (1984). Psychoanalysis and psychotherapy: A revision
- Kernberg, O. (2000). Psychoanalysis, psychoanalytic psychotherapy and supportive psychotherapy: contemporary controversies
- Mitchell, Stephen A. (1984). Object relations theories and the developmental tilt
- Rubinstein, B. (1975). On the clinical psychoanalytic theory and its role in the inference and confirmation of particular clinical hypotheses
- Blatt, S. & Shahar, G. (2004). Psychoanalysis: With whom, for what, and how? Comparisons with psychotherapy
- Brakel, L. (2005). The psychoanalytic assumption of the primary process: Extrapsychoanalytic evidence and findings
- Fonagy, P.(1997). Attachment, the development of the self, and its pathology in personality disorders
- Freedman, N, Lasky, R., & Hurvich, M. (2001), Transformation Cycles as Organizers of Psychoanalytic Process: The Method of Sequential Specification
- Masling, J.(1999). An Evaluation of Empirical Research Linked to Psychoanalytic Theory
- Shaver, P. & Mikulincer, M. (2002). Attachment-Related Psychodynamics.
- Solms, M. (1999). The Interpretation of Dreams and the neurosciences
- Wallerstein,R.(2002). Psychoanalytic Therapy Research:An Overview
- Westen, D. (1999) The scientific status of unconscious processes: Is Freud really dead?
- Westen, D. Towards a clinically and empirically sound theory of motivation
- Wilczek, A. et al. (2005). Change after long term psychoanalytic psychotherapy
- Bulletin of the Psychoanalytic Research Society
- Psychoanalytic Research Consortium
Critiques of psychoanalysisEdit
- Aziz, Robert (2007). The Syndetic Paradigm: The Untrodden Path Beyond Freud and Jung. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6982-8.
- Borch-Jacobsen, Mikkel (1996). Remembering Anna O: A century of mystification London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91777-8
- Cioffi, Frank. (1998). Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience, Open Court Publishing Company. ISBN 0-8126-9385-X
- Erwin, Edward, A Final Accounting: Philosophical and Empirical Issues in Freudian Psychology ISBN 0-262-05050-1
- Esterson, Allen. Seductive Mirage: An Exploration of the Work of Sigmund Freud. Chicago: Open Court, 1993. ISBN 0-8126-9230-6
- Fisher, Seymour, Greenberg Roger P. (1977). The Scientific Credibility of Freud's Theories and Therapy. New York: Basic Books.
- Fisher, Seymour, Greenberg Roger P. (1996). Freud Scientifically Reappraised: Testing the Theories and Therapy. New York: John Wiley.
- Gellner, Ernest, The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason. A critical view of Freudian theory, ISBN 0-8101-1370-8
- Grünbaum, Adolf (1979), Is Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory Pseudo-Scientific by Karl Popper's Criterion of Demarcation? American Philosophical Quarterly, 16, 131-141.
- Grünbaum, Adolf (1985) The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique ISBN 0-520-05017-7
- Macmillan, Malcolm, Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc ISBN 0-262-63171-7
- Morley S, Eccleston C, Williams A. (1999) Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of cognitive behaviour therapy and behaviour therapy for chronic pain in adults, excluding headache. Pain, 80(1-2), 1-13.
- Webster, Richard. (1995). Why Freud Was Wrong, New York: Basic Books, Harper Collins. ISBN 0-465-09128-8
- Skeptic's dictionary entry on psychoanalysis
- Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association online
- A Glossary of Freudian Terms
- Abstracts of the Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud
- Sigmund Freud - Life and Work
- The Skeptic's Dictionary Entry on Psychoanalysis
- International Journal of Psychoanalysis
- International Psychoanalytical Studies Organization
- International Psychoanalytical Association
- Australian Psychoanalytical Society (component of IPA)
- Psychoanalysis Downunder - online journal of APAS
- The International Association for Relational Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy
- The American Psychoanalytic Association
- The New York Psychoanalytic Society & Institute
- Essays about the pros and cons of psychoanalysis
- William Alanson White Institute
- New York Freudian Society
- website with links to many articles on psychoanalysis
- Columbia University Center for Psychoanalytic Training and Research
- NYU Postdoctoral Program in Psychotherapy and Psychoanalysis
- ">The British Psychoanalytic Society</a></dt>
- ">London Centre for Psychotherapy
- ">National Psychological Association for Psychoanalysis- UK based
- The San Fransisco Psychoanalytical Society and Institute
- ">Canadian Psychoanalytic Society
- ">International Psychoanalytic Association
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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Where Is The Liver Located And What Is Liver Pain Like?
Weighing about 3.5 lbs. on average, the liver counts as one of the largest organs in the body. It performs several important functions. These include the production of indispensable proteins, breaking down fats and carbohydrates, and aiding in the elimination of detrimental biochemical toxins in the body.
In spite of these, many people take their liver for granted. This leads them to suffering from different kinds of liver problems that often start with simple liver pain. But where is the liver located? We need to know the answer to this question so we can take the necessary steps in having ourselves checked out when we experience pain.
Where Is Your Liver Located?
To help us determine which part of our body is hurting, we need to know more about the location of body organs. The same is true in determining whether or not it is indeed our liver where we feel pain.
The location of the liver in the body is right below the diaphragm (under the ribs) in the upper area of the abdomen (right side). It can also extend across the central upper abdomen, and to some part of the upper left abdomen. When you breathe in, the diaphragm pushes the liver down and its lower tip moves down below the edge of your lowest right rib.
Anatomy of the Liver
The liver has an irregular shape and it is dome-like in structure. It consists of 2 major parts: the left lobe and the right lobe (the right lobe is way larger than the left one). The liver also has two minor lobes.
1. Right lobe – The upper edge of the larger lobe is almost at level with the top tip of the 5th rib. It is about a half inch below the areola.
2. Left lobe – The upper edge of the smaller lobe is almost at level with the lower tip of the 5th rib. IT is about three quarters of an inch below the areola.
Where is the Liver Located? – Pain in the Liver
Pain in the liver produces a sensation that is much different from pain felt in the kidney, back or abdomen. The pain felt is typically dull in nature and it can be observed at or along the upper area of the right abdomen, just below the rib cage. There are also times when the pain felt is really sharp and can also come with back pain.
Fatty Liver Pain
When excess fat accumulate in the liver, this can cause the vital organ to swell and result to a condition called “steatosis”. Further inflammation inflicts damage to the liver and leads to steatohepatitis. Fatty liver disease is mainly caused by the excessive consumption of alcohol, obesity and diabetes. Once swollen, the membranes of this vital organ stretch. This results to a bulky liver. These give rise to pain felt at the area of the right abdomen and this can grow to something very serious.
Treating Liver Pain
Once you know where is the liver located, determining if the pain felt is indeed in the liver or not becomes easier. In case you feel pain in the area where the liver is located, is there something you can do about it? Treating pain in the liver depends much on what causes it. But generally, some treatment options that can be resorted to include:
1. Medications – Medications used in the treatment of pain of this nature include antiviral agents, 3TC, and Alpha II B.
2. Sufficient hydration and electrolyte repletion
3. Personal hygiene and good sanitary measures
4. Resting on saline treatment – if you are unable to take in food
5. Sufficient water intake
6. Increased consumption of fruits and vegetables
7. Supplemental Intake of vitamins – especially vitamins A, B1, and K
Where is the liver located? It helps greatly to know the answer to this question. While the rib cage normally provides protection for the liver, bad habits and poor diet can easily damage it. And once you feel pain in the upper part of the right abdomen, you know that there might be something wrong with your liver, especially if the pain you feel is quite different from that felt in your back, abdomen or kidneys. Once this happens, it is best to see your doctor right away.
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Basic reasoning
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Health
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Common viruses that cause measles and skin infections may also raise the risk of lung cancer, scientists warn today.
Tests on cancer patients revealed that many had tumours that were infected with measles or the human papilloma virus, which typically causes warts but in some cases can lead to life-threatening cervical cancer.
The research, by two teams working independently in the US and Israel, suggests that viruses play a greater role in cancer than previously thought.
The scientists behind the studies believe the viruses may make healthy cells more vulnerable to dangerous mutations, and so exacerbate the effects of smoking and other well-known causes of cancer.
Lung cancer is the most common cancer in the world, with 1.3 million new cases diagnosed each year. More than 90% of these are caused by cigarette smoking. Lung cancer has one of the lowest survival rates of all cancers, with one person in Britain dying of the disease every 15 minutes.
Arash Rezazadeh, a cancer specialist at the University of Louisville in Kentucky, tested 23 patients with non-small cell lung cancer, which accounts for more than 85% of all lung cancers. Six patients had tumours that were infected with human papilloma virus (HPV), though one was later found to be a cervical cancer that had spread to the lungs.
The five remaining patients tested positive for different strains of HPV, with two patients infected with a type called HPV-16, which is responsible for half of all cervical cancers.
"The fact that five out of 22 non-small cell lung cancer samples were HPV positive supports the assumption that HPV contributes to the development of [the disease]," Dr Rezazadeh said. The work is to be announced at the European Lung Cancer conference in Geneva today.
Signs of infection
A second team of scientists at the conference, led by Samuel Ariad at Soroka Medical Centre in Beer Sheva, Israel, analysed tumour tissue from 65 patients with non-small cell lung cancer and found 54% showed signs of infection by the measles virus. "Measles virus is a ubiquitous human virus that may be involved in the pathogenesis of lung cancer," said Prof Ariad. "Most likely, it acts in modifying the effect of other carcinogens and not as a causative factor by itself."
Ed Yong at Cancer Research UK said: "We know that infections are involved in the development of some cancers such as cervical cancer. It's not impossible that they are also involved in the development of lung cancer in smokers, but we can't say for sure based on these preliminary studies. Neither study examined how common the viruses are in lung tissue from healthy people. The vast majority of lung cancers are caused by smoking, so avoiding tobacco remains the best way to prevent this type of cancer."
Professor Hans Stauss, an expert on cancer and the immune system at the Royal Free Hospital in London said it was too early to say whether vaccines against HPV and measles might reduce a person's risk of developing lung cancer. "There are certainly cancers that are caused by viruses and for those there are already effective vaccines, but at the same time, we are continuing to look at whether there are additional viruses that might cause cancer, in which case they could also effectively be treated with a vaccine."
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Windows let in light and with the light solar heat. There are many forms of passive design control of windows to maximize the light, collect the heat, and maximize or minimize the heat that enters through the window. Heat is energy and can be theoretically transformed into power and electricity. A new type of transparent solar film developed by the U.S. Department of Energy could turn windows into clean electricity generators. Harnessing the power of the sun means placing solar collection devices where they are most likely to be in direct contact with its rays. For many years, that ideal place has been the roofs of homes and businesses, but newer technologies are aimed at expanding this range to windows as well.
Scientists at the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Brookhaven National Laboratory and Los Alamos National Laboratory, have created a new type of self-assembling transparent thin film material that could boost the cost-effectiveness and scalability of solar window production.
The material consists of a semiconducting polymer doped with carbon-rich fullerenes. When the polymer is applied to a surface under controlled conditions, the pattern repeats over a large area.
The material, developed by scientists at the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Brookhaven National Laboratory and Los Alamos National Laboratory, consists of a semiconducting polymer doped with carbon-rich fullerenes — soccer-ball-shaped, cage-like molecules composed of 60 carbon atoms. When applied to a surface under carefully controlled conditions, the material self-assembles in a repeating pattern of micron-sized hexagonal-shaped cells resembling a honeycomb over a relatively large area (up to several millimeters).
The densely packed edges of the honeycomb shape strongly absorb light and could facilitate electrical conductivity, while the centers don’t absorb much light and are relatively transparent, according to the researchers.
Passive solar window design depends more on the angle of the sun and the position of the window to maximize its performance. Such helps with the solar window too but the power that might be developed is a new novelty.
But a solar window is not the only way. Someone is trying to do the same with venetian blinds. The solar panel Venetian blind design by Vincent Gerkens is a green technology that captures solar energy during the day and gives it back at night.
The concept uses a flexible solar cell that fits over the surface of the venation blinds along with an electroluminescent neon foil to transmit the solar power back into light again. The solar energy captured by the flexible solar cells will be stored in the blinds upper housing (where the pull cord enters) and will be available for other uses such as computers or other electrical gadgets.
These new solar power methods are not yet commercial but point to how human ingenuity can supply amazing answers. The final answers as to how solar power will be supplied in the future will ultimately have many different methods working together.
By. Andy Soos of Environmental News Network
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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A: This is a good question, and the answer should begin with discussing exactly what is meant by galvanic corrosion.
When two different metals are electrically coupled in the presence of an electrolyte (i.e., an electrically conductive fluid such as salt water), an electrical voltage or potential is developed between the two metals. This voltage will drive electrical current and will cause accelerated corrosion of one of the metals. The metal that exhibits accelerated corrosion is called the anode while the other is the cathode. The cathode is said to be more “noble” than the anode.
For a given electrolyte, a galvanic series can be developed. This is essentially a listing of metals and alloys in order of their relative nobility—from highest to lowest—in that particular electrolyte. The most common galvanic series is that for seawater. A shortened, simplified version of this series is shown in Figure 1 as an example.
Figure 1. Galvanic series for seawater
Graphite Gold Silver Titanium
Alloy 20 (N08020, CN7M) 316 (S31600, CF8M)
Nickel-Copper (N04400, M35-1) Copper
410 SST (S41000, CA15)
Tantalum Chromium Nickel Copper
Gray Cast Iron
Carbon Steel (A105, A106 Grade B, WCC)
Lead Aluminum Cadmium Zinc
One noticeable factor here is that some of the metals and alloys don’t appear in this list in the order that one might expect. Some materials that are commonly used for resistance to seawater or salt-spray are lower on the list than materials not often used. An example would be zinc vs. carbon steel. Zinc has fairly good corrosion resistance in these environments, whereas carbon steel rusts very quickly. However, when electrically coupled, the zinc becomes the anode and corrodes, and the carbon steel becomes the cathode and does not corrode.
This has practical significance. For example, zinc coatings applied by hotdip galvanizing are often used to protect carbon and alloy steels from corrosion in marine environments. The zinc coating protects the underlying steel in two ways: 1) as a barrier coating by resisting corrosion, and 2) by “galvanic protection,” which protects the underlying steel even if there is a break in the zinc barrier.
Another characteristic of galvanic corrosion is that it exhibits an area effect. If the surface area of the cathode exposed to the electrolyte is increased or the surface area of the anode exposed to the electrolyte is decreased, the anode will corrode at a higher rate. If the exposed surface area of the cathode is much larger than the exposed surface area of the anode, the corrosion rate can be very high. Conversely, if the exposed surface area of the cathode is much smaller than the exposed surface area of the anode, the corrosion rate at the anode will be very low.
This area effect plays strongly into decisions regarding the use of dissimilar metals in corrosive situations. For example, carbon steel is clearly anodic to 300-series stainless steels in corrosive solutions. Because of this, one would expect that using these materials in combination would cause galvanic corrosion of the steel. However, many carbon steel valves are sold with 300-series stainless-steel trims, which don’t cause a problem. The reason is that the carbon steel valve thereby causing very little galvanic corrosion potential. This is also the reason graphite can be used for gaskets and other sealing components in valves, even though it is nobler than any metal.
If this combination is reversed, and a trim material is chosen that is less noble than the valve body, the potential for accelerated corrosion of the trim is increased. If the valve body and the piping are both nobler than the trim, the potential for accelerated corrosion of the trim can be very high.
There have been a number of instances where failure to consider the effects of galvanic corrosion have resulted in excessive corrosion.
- Excessive corrosion in 440C valve trim installed in a duplex stainless-steel body in a duplex stainless-steel piping system in a corrosive refinery application
- Excessive corrosion of CW2M valve bodies and trim installed in a titanium piping system flowing water containing chlorine dioxide in a paper mill
- Excessive corrosion of N05500 shaft and pins in a superaustenitic stainless-steel valve installed in a superduplex stainless-steel piping system in seawater service
- Excessive corrosion of S17400 shafts in butterfly valves with CF8M bodies installed in a 316 stainless-steel piping system (process fluid unknown)
- Excessive corrosion of carbon steel valve bodies installed in a 304 stainless-steel piping system flowing chloride-containing water
- Because of all this, when the process fluid is an electrolyte, it is best to ensure that the trim materials are at least as noble as the body, and that the body material is at least as noble as the piping.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Ulrich Inderbinen, the world's oldest mountain guide, died on June 14th, aged 103
THE Matterhorn in Switzerland, with its bent, jagged peak and steep glacial ridges, is frequently climbed these days. As on many popular yet difficult mountains, ropes and ladders are fixed permanently into the rock and ice, and huts line the route to the summit. But the Matterhorn has long had a reputation for deadliness—half the members of the first group to climb it, in 1865, perished on the descent—and it remains one of the world's most dangerous peaks. Crowds make it more so, as novice climbers are tempted by its fame.
This awesome mountain was a hugely important place in Ulrich Inderbinen's life. He was born in 1900 in Zermatt, at the mountain's foot: a remote village of only 750 people, with tourism a small but burgeoning industry. Mr Inderbinen rarely left the region of his birth, and was 20 before he took the train to the nearest town. To make up for it, he climbed out of the valley quite often—almost daily for nearly 70 years. He scaled all 14,700 feet of the Matterhorn more than 370 times, though he is said to have lost track of the exact number.
Mr Inderbinen thought the Matterhorn “the most beautiful mountain in the world”. Although it was only one of many mountains he climbed over the course of the 20th century, guiding innumerable clients up and down with inexhaustible good cheer, no other so engrossed him. On his first ascent, at the age of 20, he went with his sister Martha and a friend of hers. The girls wore long skirts and their ordinary shoes, and the lanterns they were carrying kept blowing out. Since none of them knew the route, they followed scratch-marks made by previous climbers on the rocks. On his last ascent, bent double under his ropes at the age of almost 90, he conquered the mountain in four hours.
Mr Inderbinen met life with the same equanimity as the mountains, his dry wit punctuating his monumental energy. When asked if he ever got bored, climbing the same peaks again and again, he replied, “Only when the clients walk too slowly.” When one journalist pointed out an enthusiastic review from an American client in the 1930s, Mr Inderbinen replied: “Perhaps he did not know any other guides.”
But rivalry was by no means absent from Mr Inderbinen's life. As a young guide, he would walk for four hours each morning to catch visitors disembarking from the train above Zermatt. He took up ski-racing at 82 when he realised that, with no other competitors in his age-group, he could win every race—which he did. Until almost the end of the century he continued to take climbers up easier local peaks, proving to other guides how sure he still was. For his 95th birthday he was given an ice-axe as a present, which he put to good use. One of his few regrets was his family's veto of an attempt to climb Mount Kilimanjaro, the tallest mountain in Africa, when he was 92.
On larch-wood skis
Mr Inderbinen might have been a farmer like his parents. Much of his early life was spent herding cows and picking edelweiss for tourists. He did not get his first skis, made from local larch, until he was 20. But he eventually chose mountain-guiding in emulation of his uncle Moritz, a famous guide when Mr Inderbinen was a child.
At first, business was slow. Between customers, Mr Inderbinen had to cut trees and shovel snow. Then came the second world war, with no visitors at all. For a while Mr Inderbinen served in the ski patrol of the Swiss army. He would glide in the mountains above Zermatt, often alone and often at night, forbidden even to switch on a torch. Whether or not he truly helped the war effort, it was a billet that suited him exactly.
His chosen profession allowed for a bit more camaraderie in peacetime. Indeed, the profession of a guide entailed a paradoxical combination of solitude amongst the high glaciers and sociability among his fellow mountaineers. And once visitors poured back to Zermatt, he began to be in demand. Unusually in the climbing business, he sought fame through service—guiding others safely up mountains, rather than conquering them for himself.
Mr Inderbinen's life was notably harmonious. He had no car, telephone or even bicycle, and chopped his own firewood deep into old age. He made his living on his feet or his skis, proceeding steadily; he did not believe, he said, in doing anything hastily, on the slopes or elsewhere. (This, however, was not always true; he gave up mountain-guiding, at 97, when he realised he had taken ten minutes longer than he should have done to decend the Breithorn.) He built his house with his own hands, finishing it in 1935, and lived in it for the rest of his life. He knew what he wanted, and had it close by. Especially, he wanted those particular mountains.
George Mallory, a British mountaineer who tried to conquer Everest and died on it, famously said he wanted to climb the peak “because it is there.” Mallory crystallised a romantic vision of the mountaineer, chasing after dreams on ice-wrapped summits far from home and hearth. Ulrich Inderbinen could not have been more different. He went up mountains not because they were there, but because he was. He died gently, in his bed. And though he may not have been the first to climb the Matterhorn, he seems to have climbed it best.
From the print edition: Obituary
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Strong reasoning
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Sports & Fitness
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Electrical Muscle Stimulation
Electrical Muscle Stimulation is the direct of stimulation a muscle using an electric current that is applied via electrode patches on the skin. EMS may be useful in the treatment of Knee Pain, preventing muscle atrophy after injury, and as an addition to regular training.
1 What EMS Can and Can't Do
Like any technology, it's important to understand what it can and can't do.
- Does not cause discomfort. EMS is generally well tolerated and does not cause discomfort. (EMS units have intensity controls, and increasing the intensity too high can be painful.)
- Does Increase strength. Many studies have shown that EMS can increase strength. For instance one study showed an increase in quad strength by over 20% in untrained subjects. (As an aside, this study trained only one leg with EMS, and the other untrained leg gained 15% strength. This effect, where training one limb increases the strength in the other, has been known about since at least 1894 and is called the Contralateral Strength Training Effect. )
- Does Increase Muscle Recruitment. Studies indicate that EMS increases muscular recruitment and that this may be the underlying mechanism for some of the strength gains.
- Does Increase Blood flow. EMS can increase the flow of blood to a muscle. (Lower frequencies of around 7-9Hz seem to be optimal.)
- Does Not Reduce Weight. EMS does not help with weight reduction or fat loss. In 2002 the FTC charged three companies with false claims about Weight Loss from EMS devices.
- Can Cause DOMS. It's not a surprise given that EMS is a form of strength training, but EMS can cause Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness. (EMS may also help relieve DOMS - see below.)
- Endurance - Unclear. They are few studies on the use of EMS for endurance. A study of sedentary subjects showed a 10% increase in V̇O2max, but this study used an unusually large level of EMS over an unusually large area. I found no studies of endurance benefits for trained athletes. A study did show a doubling of the number of abdominal curls that could be performed after EMS training, but this is not "endurance" in the sense a runner would mean.
- Can Activate Deep Muscles. It was generally thought that EMS tends to activate fibers nearer to the surface, but MRI scans have shown that even low levels can activate deep muscles. This may be because EMS is stimulating superficial nerves that control deeper muscles.
- Can Help with Knee Pain. Studies have shown that EMS of the VMO (part of the quad near the knee on the inside of the thigh) can help reduce Knee Pain. The recommendation is for eight weeks of EMS consisting of 20 min. sessions twice a day (18 sec stimulation and 25 sec rest).
- May improve muscle recovery. There is some limited evidence that EMS may help with recovery from DOMS, probably due to increased blood flow.
2 Why use EMS?
The main reasons to use EMS are around injury treatment and rehabilitation. EMS may be able to directly help with Knee Pain (see above), as well as reducing the loss of muscle strength (atrophy) that can occur while injured. EMS may be a beneficial supplement to regular training, but I have not found sufficient guidelines or studies that would define the optimal usage pattern.
3 EMS and TENS
EMS is similar to TENS (Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation), and many devices, such as the one recommended below, a capable of both EMS and TENS. The difference between the two is that EMS is intended to activate muscle fibers, where TENS is used at a lower intensity with the goal of reducing pain.
4 Choosing an EMS device
EMS devices vary wildly in price, from less than $50 to over $800. All devices sold in the US must be FDA certified, so to avoid any device sold in the US without this certification. EMS devices for muscle stimulation can be sold in the US without a prescription, but devices to treat specific medical conditions require a doctor's prescription. In looking at the specifications for a number of devices, it appears that they have generally similar capabilities:
- Max current: ~100mA
- Frequency range: 1-150Hz
- Pulse width: 50-400us
- Wave Form: Square Wave. (Sine wave would be better)
Different devices had two to eight electrodes (one to four channels), and some devices had a TENS mode for pain reduction. Some devices had preset programs for different body parts or for different effects, while others allowed you to set the specific parameters such as current, frequency, pulse width.I looked a wide variety of devices and eventually settled on the InTENSity Twin Stim III. This device provides full control of all parameters with the widest range of settings I found, comes with an AC adapter (useful as EMS devices have a reputation for eating batteries), and was available for only $50. So far I've been remarkably happy with it.
5 Replacement Pads
The sticky electrode pads are reusable and last for 5-20 uses. The sticky on the pads degrades quite slowly, so how many times you use them may depend on the location you're trying to stick them to. Flat, smooth locations like the quad are easy to stick to, where attaching them to the end of the VMO requires a little more adhesion. I ordered these replacement pads from amazon.com and they were $25 for 40 pads, so the running costs are quite low.
6 Important Cautions
Though EMS is generally safe, you should be aware of these critical restrictions:
- Do not apply to the chest area if you have any heart conditions.
- If you have a pacemaker, do not use EMS anywhere on your body.
- Do not apply EMS to the Carotid sinus area of the neck, as this could affect Heart Rate or blood pressure.
- Do not apply through your head.
- Do not apply through cancerous tissue.
- Applying to EMS through broken or irritated skin will cause discomfort.
- Do not apply to protruding metal such as surgical staples or pins.
- Be careful applying high intensity EMS directly over superficial bones, as this can be painful.
- Applying EMS over thick areas of fat may require painfully high intensity to reach the underlying muscle.
- Avoid applying EMS near the uterus if you are pregnant.
If you have any doubts or concerns contact a healthcare professional.
7 EMS and Intermittent Hypoxic Exposure
8 InTENSity Twin Stim III Settings
It's not clear how the settings for EMS change the effect. Here are the settings I use, based on a little trial and error. Don't consider these a recommendation, just some extra information.
- TENS/EMS - EMS
- Synchronous [S/A/D]
- Pulse Width 300 us (longest setting)
- Pulse Rate 7 Hz
- Ramp 6 seconds
- On Time 6 seconds
- Rest Time 6 seconds
9 Electrical Stimulation and Wound Healing
There is some good evidence that electrical stimulation can improve wound healing. The mechanism may be the electrical potential of ~23 mV (10-60mV) that exists in the skin, known as the "transepithelial potential". A skin wound causes this potential to collapse (0 mV) and an "injury current" is created (~10-100 µA), which may attract or repel nearby healthy cells. As the wound heals, different types of cells are required which have different polarization. A review of the research into Electrical Stimulation for Wound Healing indicated that the effective range is 200 to 800 µA, with underlying studies using 130 Hz, 130 μs for >30 minutes/day. The general recommendation is to apply the negative electrode close to the wound and the positive electrode proximally. One study reversed the polarity after 3 days if no infection was seen. If infection did occur than polarity was reversed 3 days after infection had subsided. After that, polarity was reversed each time healing reached a plateau. (NB, EMS devices have current in the 1-100 mA range, so the lowest setting is 1 mA or which is 1,000 µA.)
- Patient tolerance of neuromuscular electrical s... [Med Eng Phys. 2011] - PubMed - NCBI http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20926329
- Electrostimulation training effects on ... [Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005] - PubMed - NCBI http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15741845
- The effects of electromyostimulation traini... [Int J Sports Med. 2000] - PubMed - NCBI http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10961520
- Electromyostimulation training effects ... [Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005] - PubMed - NCBI http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16118574
- Activation of human plantar flexor muscles increases after electromyostimulation training http://jap.physiology.org/content/92/4/1383.full
- European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, Volume 67, Number 5 - SpringerLink http://www.springerlink.com/content/w42n8tn66421416r/
- Strength changes in the normal quadriceps femoris ... [Phys Ther. 1983] - PubMed - NCBI http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6601279
- Contralateral effects of unilateral strength training: evidence and possible mechanisms http://jap.physiology.org/content/101/5/1514.full
- Motor unit recruitment during neuromuscul... [Eur J Appl Physiol. 2011] - PubMed - NCBI http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21870119
- Effect of the frequency of neuromuscular electri... [J Mal Vasc. 1995] - PubMed - NCBI http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7745364
- Consumer Products > Electronic Muscle Stimulators http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/ProductsandMedicalProcedures/HomeHealthandConsumer/ConsumerProducts/ucm142478.htm
- JSSM- 2005, Vol.4, Issue 1, 66 - 75 http://www.jssm.org/vol4/n1/9/v4n1-9abst.php
- FTC Charges Three Top-selling Electronic Abdominal Exercise Belts with Making False Claims http://www.ftc.gov/opa/2002/05/projectabsurd.shtm
- Evidence of skeletal muscle damage following electrically stimulated isometric muscle contractions in humans http://jap.physiology.org/content/105/5/1620.full
- Prolonged electrical muscle stimulation exercise improves strength and aerobic capacity in healthy sedentary adults http://jap.physiology.org/content/99/6/2307.short
- Recruitment Patterns in Human Skeletal Muscle During Electrical Stimulation http://ptjournal.apta.org/content/85/4/358.full
- Mapping of electrical muscle stimulation using MRI http://jap.physiology.org/content/74/2/532.short
- Clinical classification of patellofemoral pain syndrome- guidelines for non-operative treatment, Erik Witvrouw, S. Werner, C. Mikkelsen, D. Van Tiggelen, L. Vanden Berghe, G. Cerulli
- IOS Press - Journal Article http://iospress.metapress.com/content/u7487q33772457g4/
- SD. Bennie, JS. Petrofsky, J. Nisperos, M. Tsurudome, M. Laymon, Toward the optimal waveform for electrical stimulation of human muscle., Eur J Appl Physiol, volume 88, issue 1-2, pages 13-9, Nov 2002, doi 10.1007/s00421-002-0711-4, PMID 12436266
- Contraindications and Precautions to Electrical Stimulation http://faculty.uca.edu/fletcher/electro/unit1_TENS/Contraindications%20&%20Precautions%20to%20E-Stim.pdf
- Combined intermittent hypoxia and surface muscle electrostimulation as a method to increase peripheral blood progenitor cell concentration http://www.translational-medicine.com/content/7/1/91/
- G. Viscor, C. Javierre, T. Pagès, JL. Ventura, A. Ricart, G. Martin-Henao, C. Azqueta, R. Segura, Combined intermittent hypoxia and surface muscle electrostimulation as a method to increase peripheral blood progenitor cell concentration., J Transl Med, volume 7, pages 91, 2009, doi 10.1186/1479-5876-7-91, PMID 19874615
- Electrical stimulation in wound care; Supplements; Wounds International, http://www.woundsinternational.com/supplements/electrical-stimulation-in-wound-care, Accessed on 27 November 2013
- CD. McCaig, AM. Rajnicek, B. Song, M. Zhao, Controlling cell behavior electrically: current views and future potential., Physiol Rev, volume 85, issue 3, pages 943-78, Jul 2005, doi 10.1152/physrev.00020.2004, PMID 15987799
- L. C. Kloth, Electrical Stimulation for Wound Healing: A Review of Evidence From In Vitro Studies, Animal Experiments, and Clinical Trials, The International Journal of Lower Extremity Wounds, volume 4, issue 1, 2005, pages 23–44, ISSN 1534-7346, doi 10.1177/1534734605275733
- KC. Balakatounis, AG. Angoules, Low-intensity electrical stimulation in wound healing: review of the efficacy of externally applied currents resembling the current of injury., Eplasty, volume 8, pages e28, 2008, PMID 18552975
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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The Ultimate Glossary of the Basic Internet Terms and Terminology
Internet Structure and Design
Here is a list of phrases associated with the shape and layout of the Internet.
The acronym stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency Network. ARPA of the US Department of Defense developed ARPANET, which became the sector’s first packet switching network. The Internet is the successor of ARPANET.
Internet Service Provider
A company, which presents customers with getting admission to the Internet, is called an Internet provider or the Internet gets entry to an issuer. ISP, as it is called, offers e-mail bills and other offerings like the remote garage of documents, to its clients.
The Open System Interconnection Model is used to describe a layered verbal exchange and network protocol layout of a community. It consists of seven layers, every of which performs positive functions and gives the layers above it with a few offerings.
Internet Protocol Suite
It is a hard and fast of communication protocols, which can be used for the Internet. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) had been the 2 pioneering protocols to be brought in the Internet protocol preferred. The Internet protocol suite is composed of a hard and fast of layers wherein each layer offers a service to the top layers in the set. The top layers deal with abstract statistics even as the lower layer protocols translate facts into physically transmittable forms.
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- Intranet Vs. Internet – Differences Between Both These Networks
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a records link protocol that helps the status quo of an immediate connection between two nodes in a community.
It is a way of numerically figuring out an entity on a computer community. The authentic addressing gadget known as IPv4 used 32-bit addresses. With the boom of the Internet, IPv6 came to be used in which the addresses are composed of 128 bits.
You would possibly need to understand the way to locate your IP address.
Media Access Control deal with (MAC) is the physical hexadecimal cope with assigned to each device on a network.
Domain Name System
DNS, as it is known as, refers to the hierarchical naming machine used for computers, sources, and offerings on the Internet. It interprets the computer hostnames to IP addresses. By way of the implementation of DNS, the domain call ‘www.Buzzle.Com’ translates to its IP cope with, say, 208.70.178.One hundred fifty. With the assist of DNS, domain names can be assigned to Internet users.
This time period coined by way of William Gibson is used to consult PC networks connected to each different and the content they host. It is frequently used to consult the Internet.
It is a set of interlinked files which might be accessible over the Internet. It consists of thousands and thousands of web pages that comprise textual content, pictures, voice, and videos. Sir Tim Berners-Lee, a British scientist operating at CERN, created the World Wide Web.
It is the acronym used for the World Wide Web Consortium, which develops requirements for the internet community.
An internet site is a hard and fast of net pages including text, audio, and video. Web servers host websites.
It specifies the place of an aid on the Internet. It includes the primary address and direction.
Web pages are resources of records. They are commonly created within the HTML format and provide the net customers with navigational competencies thru links to other pages on the Internet.
The time period domestic page is used to refer to the web page that is the default page of any Internet site. It is the principle page of a complicated website.
Client machines on a community connect with the proxy server, which forwards the patron requests to different servers and returns responses to the clients.
A network server is a PC application that accepts HTTP requests from web customers and presents them with HTTP responses.
An internet browser is a software program utility that allows user interaction with the textual content, audio, video and other records that are placed on the web.
Web browsers maintain a cache of lately visited internet pages. Some of them use an outside proxy internet cache, which is a server program thru which web requests skip. This allows the browsers to cache often visited pages. Even search engines like google and yahoo make to be had already indexed net pages thru their caches.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol, abbreviated as HTTP, is a communications protocol used for the switch of information over the Internet. A customer makes an HTTP request the usage of an internet browser to which an HTTP reaction is despatched from the server.
Also known as an HTTP cookie, it’s miles piece of text that is exchanged between the internet customer and the network server. It is sent by means of the internet server to the web client and lowers back unchanged by the patron on every occasion it accesses the server.
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| 0.900894 | 1,068 | 3.21875 | 3 | 1.078538 | 1 |
Basic reasoning
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Software
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And the Song of Songs is in the Bible.
Old Testament scholar Ellen Davis asks this question about Song of Songs: “Is it the least ‘biblical’ book in the Bible, or the most?”
This question has led scholars to answer in both extremes over the centuries. Premodern teachers almost unanimously agreed: this is a sacred poem. In the modern period, the opposite conclusion was nearly always reached: this is a secular poem (source).
Where they differed was on how to read the Song of Songs. Most premodern Jews and Christians read it allegorically—that is, they saw the two lovers as representing God and Israel, or Jesus and the church. Most modern scholars point out that neither God nor Israel, not to mention neither Jesus nor the church, are mentioned in this work, which for them is to be read in its plain sense as a secular love poem between a man and a woman.
As is so often the case with either/or answers, there is a third way.
What if the Song of Songs is both a love poem shared between two human beings and a look at the relationship between God and God’s people?
Let’s back up for a moment. A lot of what I’m relying on here comes from Ellen Davis, whom I’ve mentioned, and from Robert Jenson. Jenson is not a Biblical scholar but a theologian, and yet he was asked to write about the Song of Songs for a Bible commentary series.
Both of these scholars point out that the language of the Song of Songs is full of language and images that connect it to the Bible. Song of Songs was written relatively late compared to other books of the Old Testament, and it was clearly composed within the same community—that is, Israel. Even the title of the book uses a Hebrew formula designed for the superlative, one that is usually reserved for the divine—like “King of Kings,” “Lord of Lords,” or “Holy of Holies.”
What’s more, the fact that the Song of Songs is in the Bible makes it canonical. When I say something is canonical, I mean it is part of a canon, or a larger work—in this case, Jewish and Christian Scripture. For Jenson, this automatically makes it sacred in nature. Whether it started as a religious poem or a secular one doesn’t really matter. It comes to us as a part of a whole, and despite the differences between it and other books of the Bible, it is not really so out of context, even with all its talk of antelope and vineyards and breasts.
Jenson also questions the dichotomy between the “plain sense” and the “allegorical sense” of the Song of Songs. The “plain sense” as it is often understood is what we might call the “literal sense”—at face value, this is a poem about human love. The “allegorical sense” might also be called the “spiritual sense,” or the metaphorical way in which that poem might be read as talking about the divine. More recent scholars have been willing to say that both senses can be read alongside one another, but Jenson has a different take.
He points out that there is a difference between reading something allegorically and that work being itself an allegory. If you read something allegorically, you read the plain sense and then compare it to something else by metaphor. If something simply is an allegory, then its plain sense is that something else. This is a love poem between two human beings that is about God’s relationship with God’s people.
So maybe we don’t have to decide whether this is secular or sacred. Maybe the two are linked.
If human intimacy and communion with God are tied together in a secular-scared love poem, what does that mean for us?
Let’s take a look at the relationship between the lovers in the Song of Songs. Chana and Ariel Bloch point out that this poem is voluptuous and yet “full of innocent delight.” The lovers give of themselves fully, in total joy and trust. Their desire is erotic yet pure, and their relationship is one of equality. In fact, if there is a dominant person in this relationship, it is the woman.
These lovers might as well be in the Garden of Eden. This is the love that God intended for human beings to share, the love that Adam and Eve shared before sin and distrust separated them. Too often, the church talks about sexuality (or doesn’t talk about it) as if it is dirty and shameful. But sexual intimacy is part of what God called “very good” when he created humanity. Sex is sacred.
Ellen Davis says, “genuine intimacy brings us into contact with the sacred.” If we ever experience the purity, joy, equality and trust of the lovers in the Song of Songs, we catch a glimpse of God’s original purpose for human intimacy. And what’s more, we see something of what it means to have intimacy with God.
Now, this is where things can get tricky. We cannot look at human eroticism and project what we see there on to God. That would be like looking at a human father to know what it means to call God “Father.” If your father was harsh or distant or abusive or absent, you might hear God called “Father” and think that God is all of those things. In the same way, if eroticism for you has meant manipulation or dysfunction or rape, it would be difficult if not impossible to imagine genuine intimacy with God analogous to human intimacy.
But Jenson points out that intimacy is original to God, not to us. Rather than looking to humanity for the paradigm, we should look to God—and the Song of Songs combines the two in such a way that intimacy and eroticism as God intended it and as God offers to us can inform and shape human sexuality.
My favorite part of the Song of Songs comes in chapter 8.
Set me as a seal upon your heart,
as a seal upon your arm;
for love is strong as death,
passion fierce as the grave.
Its flashes are flashes of fire,
a raging flame.
Many waters cannot quench love,
neither can floods drown it.
If one offered for love
all the wealth of one’s house,
it would be utterly scorned.
“Set me as a seal upon your heart.” Jenson says that this “seal” is about identity. When the woman asks her lover to set her as a seal, he says, “We do not have here a simile; the woman wants to be her lover’s seal. That is, she asks him to take her as the visible mark and surety of his own identity; she petitions to be indispensable to his being who he is. They are to be ‘one flesh.’”
Adam and Eve came from one flesh when God fashioned Eve out of Adam’s rib, and Genesis says this is why a man and woman become “one flesh.” Chana and Ariel Bloch say that this “cleaving” is about healing the wound of separation.
Jenson says, “Christ’s death has made us the seal of his identity: he died ‘for’ us, in identification with us. Now he is not who he is without us.” Christ comes to us, his church, as a groom to a bride, seeking to heal the wound of separation for all.
The medieval mystic Julian of Norwich says this: God “loves us and delights in us, and so he wishes us to love him and delight in him.” The innocent, joyful love we find in the Song of Songs is the love that God has for us and the love that God wants us to have for him.
According to Julian, God says this to us: “My darling, I am glad you have come to me. I have been with you always in all your sorrow, and now you see my love and we are joined in joy.” May we be joined in joy to God and to one another, constantly seeking the mutuality, innocence, intimacy, purity, eroticism and love that we see in the Song of Songs. Amen.
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Strong reasoning
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Religion
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Illinois health officials on Friday announced the first death from a severe lung illness that health care providers and officials believe is linked with e-cigarette use and vaping.
Providers earlier this summer began alerting CDC to a mysterious, severe lung illness that appears to be tied to e-cigarette use and vaping, and CDC earlier this month announced that federal and state health officials are investigating the reports.
Emily Chapman—CMO at Children's Minnesota, which treated four teenagers between the ages of 16 to 18 with the lung illness—said teenagers have presented with symptoms such as abdominal discomfort, coughing, fever, and shortness of breath. Chapman said the symptoms typically are consistent with bacterial pneumonia or viral-type infections, and usually are manageable. However, Chapman said standard treatments, including antibiotics and oxygen support, in some cases did not stop the symptoms. A few teens went on to experience respiratory failure and had to be placed on ventilators. Chapman said providers then treated the patients with steroids, which improved the patients' health.
"These cases are extremely complex to diagnose, as symptoms can mimic a common infection yet can lead to severe complications and extended hospitalization," Chapman said.
Michael Gutzeit—CMO of Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, which was the first to detect a cluster of cases of the illness in the state—said, "As the clinical team was trying to get a better understanding about what might be causing this, it became apparent that the one preceding factor was that the patients had been vaping."
Health officials have said reported cases of the illness across various states appear to be similar, but a lot remains unknown. For example, officials said it is unclear whether the lung illnesses are associated with e-cigarettes or the contaminants or ingredients inhaled through the devices, but they noted that patients with the condition have described using vaping "home brews," marijuana-based products, nicotine-based products, and other substances.
Nancy Gerking—assistant director of public health in Kings County, California—said, "We believe that [patients with the illness] are getting empty cartridges from somewhere and filling them with their own products. We don't know what they are cutting it with or anything else."
Michael Lynch, medical director of the Pittsburgh Poison Center at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, said the symptoms providers are describing are consistent with chemical inhalation injuries.
In light of the reports, health officials are urging individuals who experience chest pain or difficulty breathing after vaping to seek immediate medical attention before their symptoms worsen. In addition, health officials are advising providers to ask patients with unexpected respiratory illnesses about their use of e-cigarettes and vaping.
CDC spokesperson Kathy Harben said there currently is no consistent evidence to suggest an infectious disease is causing the condition.
CDC on Friday said 22 states have reported a total of 193 potential cases of the severe lung illness, including the one case involving an Illinois adult who died last month. The Illinois Department of Public Health said the individual used an e-cigarette and subsequently was hospitalized with a severe lung illness. The department did not provide additional details on the individual or which vaping device or product the individual had used. However, the department noted that at least 22 Illinois residents, who range in age from 17 to 38, have experienced the illness after using e-cigarettes or vaping.
CDC said the agency is working with FDA and state officials to investigate cases of the illness and collect any information about products or substances used by patients with the illness. FDA is encouraging patients to report any adverse reactions they experience when using tobacco or e-cigarettes.
Mitch Zeller, who leads FDA's Center for Tobacco Products, said FDA is working to determine which vaping products patients used, where they purchased the products, how they used the products, and whether they added components to the products. "That information needs to be strung together for every single one of these cases to see if any patterns emerge," he said.
Officials said it is unclear why a cluster of cases of the illness is emerging now, noting that e-cigarettes have been on the market for more than a decade. However, Brian King, deputy director for research translation at CDC's Office on Smoking and Health, said cases of the illness might have occurred previously but health care providers and officials "weren't necessarily capturing them." King added that flavorings—including diacetyl, ultrafine particles, and other substances used in e-cigarette aerosols—have been linked to respiratory illnesses.
Juul Labs, an e-cigarette manufacturer, said the company is monitoring reports of the illness and has "robust safety monitoring systems in place."
Gregory Conley, president of the American Vaping Association, said he is "confident" the illnesses stem from devices containing cannabis or other synthetic drugs, but not nicotine.
John Holcomb—a pulmonologist in San Antonio, Texas—said, "The problem is we don't know what's being inhaled through these devices, of which there are five or six hundred different kinds. We have to assume that some of them may be dangerous and some may not be dangerous."
Ileana Arias, a CDC official, said, "More information is needed to know what is causing these illnesses."
Zeller said, "We're at a relatively early stage of understanding" (Owens, "Vitals," Axios, 8/26; Sun, Washington Post, 8/23; Richtel/Kaplan, New York Times, 8/23; Lavietes, Reuters, 8/23; Illinois Department of Public Health release, 8/23).
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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What is lockout/tagout in safety? Lock Out/Tag Out programs are used to prevent contact with a hazard while performing tasks that require the removal, by-passing, or deactivation of safeguarding devices, and the unintended release of hazardous energy (stored energy), or the unintended start-up or motion of machinery, equipment, or processes.8 Sept 2017
What is the purpose of lockout tagout? The lockout/tagout standard establishes the employer’s responsibility to protect employees from hazardous energy sources on machines and equipment during service and maintenance.
What is a lockout/tagout and why is it important? It was created to prevent the unexpected start-up or energizing of equipment during service and maintenance operations which could cause employee injuries and prevent the release of stored energy which could cause employee injury.
What is lockout/tagout standards? l47), which is more commonly known as the Lockout/Tagout Standard, is a Federal Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) program, It is designed to prevent the unexpected startup, or energizing, of machinery and equipment during service and maintenance operations which could cause injury to employees.
What is lockout/tagout in safety? – Related Questions
What is the difference between lockout and tagout?
In practice, lockout is the isolation of energy from the system (a machine, equipment, or process) which physically locks the system in a safe mode. Tag out is a labelling process that is always used when lockout is required.
Who should remove a lockout tagout?
4. Remove Lockout Tagout Devices: The Lockout Tagout devices are finally removed from an energy isolating device, only by the worker who applied it. The removal of employees lock without his knowledge can be dangerous, as a general rule, the Lockout Tagout device should be removed by the employee himself/herself.
Why is LOTO needed?
Protects the equipment, machine and work place from damage.
Following LOTO Procedures reduces incidences of injury, and increases safety at workplace during maintenance or servicing. Having a LOTO plan, helps in protecting workers from life threatening accidents on a regular basis.
What is the final step in lockout tagout?
Step 6: Isolation Verification – Lockout/Tagout
This last step of the Lockout/Tagout safety is all about making sure. Yes, you’ve shut down or turned off the machines, isolated them from their root of the power, locked them out, and inspected for hazardous stored energy.
Why do we need LOTO?
LOTO is a very serious safety practice that helps to provide protection to employees. Equipment and machinery identified for LOTO are capable of unexpected start-ups which may result in the harmful release of hazardous energy. This is why the lock and tag are so crucial to employee and visitor safety.
What is Loto system in safety?
Lockout/tagout (LOTO) is a set of procedures that are used to ensure that equipment is shut down, inoperable, and (where relevant) de-energized. This allows maintenance and repair work on the system to be performed safely.
What are the general steps for locking out a machine?
Shut Down – Power down the machine or equipment. Inform employees that will be affected by the shutdown of the equipment. Isolation – Make sure all sources of energy have been isolated. Turn off power, close valves, block moving parts, or disengage and block lines, etc.
What are the two lockout/tagout types?
The two types of safety hasps are labeled lockout hasps, which feature write-on labels, and durable steel lockout hasps that are made of high-tensile steel.
What LOTO means?
Answer — LOTO (Lock Out Tag Out) is the physical restraint of all hazardous energy sources that supply power to a piece of equipment, machinery or system. LOTO also includes applying a Warning Tag on the physical restraint device. Most equipment and machinery has an Energy Isolation Device.
What is required on a lockout tag?
Lock Out/Tag Out programs are used to prevent contact with a hazard while performing tasks that require the removal, by-passing, or deactivation of safeguarding devices, and the unintended release of hazardous energy (stored energy), or the unintended start-up or motion of machinery, equipment, or processes.
Are tags safer than locks?
The answer is yes. OSHA agrees that lockout provides better levels of safety than just simply using tagout or the use of tags. There are very distinct differences when it comes to using locks (lockout) and tags (tagout), let’s review them below.
What is an example of a lockout?
Lockouts are usually implemented by simply refusing to admit employees onto company premises, and may include changing locks or hiring security guards for the premises. Other implementations include a fine for showing up, or a simple refusal of clocking in on the time clock.
When can a tagout be used in place of a lockout?
Tagout should only be used with lockout, unless locking out the equipment is impossible. Equipment should be locked out while being repaired.
Why is it important to clear the area of personnel before releasing the lockout tagout?
The work area must first be inspected to ensure that nonessential items (e.g., tools, spare parts) have been removed and that all of the machine or equipment components are operationally intact. The work area must then be checked to ensure all workers have been safety positioned or have cleared the area.
What is another name for lockout tagout?
Proper lockout/tagout (LOTO) practices and procedures safeguard workers from hazardous energy releases. OSHA’s Lockout/Tagout Fact Sheet describes the practices and procedures necessary to disable machinery or equipment to prevent hazardous energy release.
What height is fall protection?
OSHA requires that fall protection be provided at elevations of four feet in general industry workplaces, five feet in shipyards, six feet in the construction industry and eight feet in longshoring operations.
Who can LOTO?
1. Authorized employees. As a general rule, this group might include your electricians, maintenance personnel, and some machine operators. These workers are the only ones allowed by OSHA to perform LOTO.
What is LOTO and how it works?
A lockout-tagout (LOTO) procedure is a safety system used to prevent accidental or unauthorized access to electrical power sources that are undergoing maintenance or other work. When multiple areas are being worked on simultaneously, the worker must use as many locks as necessary to secure power from the system.
What is the LOTO process?
Lock out, tag out (LOTO) is a safety procedure used in industry and research settings to ensure that dangerous machines are properly shut off and not able to be started up again prior to the completion of maintenance or repair work.
What is safety tag?
Safety tags are used to prevent accidents in hazardous or potentially hazardous situations that are out of the ordinary, unexpected, or not readily apparent. Tags shall be used until the identified hazard is eliminated or the hazardous operation is completed.
What is a lock out procedure?
To “Lockout” means to neutralise all energies on a vehicle or equipment while performing maintenance/inspection. This is required for inspection on electrically powered equipment or machinery and also in the event of a break down, refuelling or while the vehicle remains in a parked area.
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CC-MAIN-2023-23
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| 0.931581 | 1,553 | 3.234375 | 3 | 1.790475 | 2 |
Moderate reasoning
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Industrial
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This is a drawing which shows how some comets approach the sun.
Click on image for full size
As comets pass into the inner solar system from the outer solar system, they stay in the solar system, in orbit around the sun, only if they are captured into an orbit. That is, the path they follow must change to an elliptic or circular path if they are to stay in the solar system.
This can happen through the action of the gravity of Jupiter or the Sun.
Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store!
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You might also be interested in:
When comets are kicked out of the Oort Cloud, they begin a passage into the solar system, spinning and tumbling as they come. As the comet comes closer to the sun, near the region of space occupied by...more
Comet Hale-Bopp was one of the brightest comets of all time. Astronomers witnessed the comet spew out intermittent bursts of dust. The surface seemed to be an incredibly dynamic place, with 'vents' being...more
Six spacecraft flew to Halley's comet in 1986. There were two spacecraft launched from Japan, named Suisei and Sakigake, and two from the Soviet Union, named Vega 1 & 2. One spacecraft, ICE, was from the...more
Astronomers have noticed a group of comets which they call the Jupiter Family of Comets. This family of comets is to be found circling between Jupiter and the sun, as shown in this picture. The comets...more
Scientists have learned a great deal from the crash of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9. Scientists traced the orbit of the comet backwards in time to guess its origin. The crash of a comet like Shoemaker-Levy 9...more
Mathematical theory suggests that comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 was likely a short-period comet which was captured into orbit around Jupiter in 1929. This orbit ended with a collision of the comet with Jupiter...more
As the ices of the comet nucleus evaporate, they expand into a large cloud around the middle part of the comet. This cloud, called the coma, is the atmosphere of the comet. It can extend for millions of...more
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| 0.939515 | 501 | 3.984375 | 4 | 1.811264 | 2 |
Moderate reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Do you know anything regarding rare earth magnets?
Magnets are the things that have never cannot fascinate us. In our childhood years, we use to play with the simple fridge magnets and desired to understand even more concerning them. In many of our colleges, we have found out about the fundamental magnets and also their polarity. Now something called the rare earth magnets has actually come to be an integral part of our lives. So, allow us understand a little bit a lot more regarding this sensation.
Concerning the Rare Earth Magnets:
The most basic thing that we might state about these magnets is that they are permanent magnets. These magnets are made from alloys of the rare earth minerals which likewise give them their name. The rare earth magnets are the strongest long-term magnets created on this planet. Their electromagnetic field surpasses also 1.4 teslas. The work on creating them started at around 1966 as well as almost all of them was generated by the 80's. The alloys for making these magnets typically aren't in fact unusual yet the places are scattered throughout the globe. Yet many of them are sourced from China.
At times the powerfulness of these magnets can result in dangerous conditions. If the human skin or body organ interposes two large neodymium magnet or a metal and also a magnet surface area, it may harm the individual. This has been seen in kids who have swallowed such magnets.
Type of Rare Earth Magnets:
Samarium-Cobalt: This was the very first sort of rare earth magnet that was generated by the researchers. They are rather costly and also the magnetic area isn't that strong. But one strong factor of these magnets is their greater curie temperature levels. This makes them idle to be utilized in position with even more temperature level. Oxidation does not affect them but they are most definitely extremely fragile and the littlest of the thermal shock may crack or chip them.
Neodynium: This is the extra popular type of rare earth magnets as they are the strongest and additionally less expensive to obtain. The alloy that is made use of to make the magnets are made of iron, iron, as well as neodymium. This sort of magnet has whole lots of work in the fields where strong long-term magnets are required. These kinds of the magnet likewise have greater security. However the Curie temperature of the magnet isn't really high and oxidation does impact the magnets. These kinds of rare earth magnets are likewise susceptible to deterioration and various coatings constructed from zinc, gold or nickel may assist in stopping them.
Some Things that require using the rare earth metals:
The Hard disks of our Laptop and computers
The Audio Headphones and also speakers
Wind Generator Generators
Mechanically Powered Flashlights
Use in Industries
So, below is the required info of the rare earth magnets. Their name could have 'unusual' to it but it isn't rare in all. We discover the application of these magnets in virtually everything that we make use of daily. From digital appliances to deep sea expedition, these solid magnets help us to find the important things that are concealed from our nude eyes.
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| 0.961176 | 646 | 2.546875 | 3 | 1.988158 | 2 |
Moderate reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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A Quantum Achievement
A trio of scientists who defied Einstein by proving the nonlocal nature of quantum entanglement will be honoured with the John Stewart Bell Prize from the University of Toronto (U of T). The prize recognizes the most significant recent achievements in the world in quantum mechanics and is considered by many to be the top international award in the field.
The recipients each led separate experiments in 2015 that showed two particles so distant from one another that no signal could connect them even at the speed of light nevertheless possessed an invisible and instantaneous connection. They are:
- Ronald Hanson, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands
- Sae-Woo Nam of the National Institute of Standards & Technology, United States
- Anton Zeilinger, University of Vienna, Austria
According to quantum entanglement, the world is a very weird place where quantum particles become correlated in pairs. These pairs predictably interact with each other regardless of how far apart they are: if you measure the properties of one member of the entangled pair you know the properties of the other. Einstein was not a believer: in the 1930s, he called it “spooky action at a distance.”
“While many experiments have come close to proving quantum entanglement, the scientists we are honouring have closed previous loopholes,” says Professor Aephraim Steinberg, a quantum physicist at the U of T’s Centre for Quantum Information & Quantum Control (CQIQC) and one of the founders of the Bell Prize. Earlier tests, for example, were plagued by the difficulties of ensuring that no signal could make it from one detector to the other as well as the fact that so many photons were being lost in the test process.
Opening a Door
“Collectively, they have removed all reasonable doubt about the nonlocal nature of quantum entanglement. In so doing they are also opening the door to exciting new technologies including super-secure communications and the ability to perform certain computations exponentially faster than any classical computer,” says Steinberg.
Created by the CQIQC at U of T in 2005, the John Stewart Bell Prize for Research on Fundamental Issues in Quantum Mechanics and their Applications is judged by an international panel of experts and awarded every two years for achievements in the previous six years.
“Advancing understanding of quantum mechanics, along with its technological applications, is something that deserves to be celebrated and recognized around the world. We expect that, in some cases, the Bell Prize will prove to be a precursor to the Nobel Prize in Physics,” says Daniel James, director of the CQIQC.
The prize will be awarded on Thursday, August 31 at 1:25 pm at the Fields Institute on the U of T campus. Recipients will give short talks after the ceremony.
This article was provided by The University of Toronto. Materials may have been edited for clarity and brevity.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Ethnobotanical Leaflets 14: 248-58, 2010.
Phytochemical Screening of Methanolic Extract and Antibacterial Activity of Active Principles of Hepatoprotective Herb, Eclipta alba
Sunita Dalala*, Sudhir K Katariab, KV Sastryb and SVS Ranac
aDepartment of Biotechnology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-136 119, Haryana, India
bDepartment of Zoology(Bioscience), Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak-124 001, Haryana, India
cDepartment of Environmental Sciences,
*Corresponding author: [email protected]
Issued: March 01, 2010
Aerial parts of Eclipta alba are used traditionally for the treatment of several diseases of liver, skin and stomach. Methanolic extract and active principle compound of a well known Indian hepatoprotective herb, Eclipta alba was tested for in vitro antimicrobial studies. It was evaluated using zone of inhibition studies and minimum inhibitory concentration. The extract exhibited activity against all six strains studied. Phytochemical screening of the extract revealed the presence of tannins, flavonoids, coumestans, saponins and alkaloids etc. Ethylacetate fraction and further pure isolated wedelolactone showed enhanced antimicrobial activity. Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhimurium were most susceptible. Shigella flexneri was the most resistant bacterial strain. These results suggest coumestans/wedelolactone as a promising antimicrobial agent.
Key words: Eclipta alba, wedelolactone, antimicrobial activity.
medicine has evolved from folk medicine and traditional system only after
thorough chemical and pharmaceutical screening. The use of synthetic
compounds led to a decline in the use of plants in modern medicine. However,
synthetic medicine can cause side effects and as a result people are more
favorable to use natural compounds obtained from plants. Thus, plants remain
a major source of medicinal compounds. About 20,000 plant species are used
for medicinal purposes (Penos, 1983). Seventy four percent of 119
plant-derived drugs were discovered as a result of chemical studies to
isolate the active substances responsible for their traditional use
(Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1991). So plants, especially the higher
plants contain a variety of substances, which are useful as food additives,
perfumes, and in treatment of various diseases as medicine due to their
versatile therapeutic potential (Mukherjee and Wahile, 2006). The active
secondary metabolites possess various medicinal applications as drugs or as
model compounds for drug synthesis. Phytochemical analysis of plants, used in
folklore has yielded a number of compounds with various pharmacological
activities. In view of the increasing development of resistant
microorganisms, treatment of various diseases caused by microorganisms has
become a major challenge in the human medical field. This may be due on the
one hand, to the synthetic nature of these substances, but also to their
known side effects and in some cases to their unpleasant smell, taste or the
burning sensation felt on the skin. Medicinal plants are important substances
for the study of their traditional uses through the verification of
pharmacological effects and can be natural composite sources that act as new
anti-infectious agents. About 3,000 materials from 2,764 plant species have
been screened for their pharmacological and chemotherapeutic properties (Anon,
Various biological activities are possessed by E. alba, such as memory disorders treatment, general tonic, edema, fevers and rheumatic joint pains treatment, digestion, hepatitis, enlarged spleen, antioxidant activity and skin disorders (Chopra et al., 1956; Karnick and Kulkarni, 1990; Karthikumar et al., 2007). Wedelolactone is active principle compound of this liver disorder treating drug (Wagner et al., 1986). It also exhibits Trypsin inhibitory effect (Samiulla et al., 2003; Syed et al., 2003), suppresses LPS-induced caspase-11 expression in cultured cells by directly inhibiting the IKK complex (Kobori et al., 2004), treatment of cirrhosis of the liver and infectious hepatitis (Murphy et al., 1979). The shoot extract of E. alba showed antimicrobial (Anonymous 1952; Kosuge et al., 1985; Wiart et al., 2004), antifungal activity (Venkatesan and Ravi, 2004) and weak cytotoxicity against the M-109 cell lines by alkaloids Verazine (Abdal Kadar et al., 1998), antiviral activity against Ranikhet disease virus (Khin et al., 1978), effective against internal and external parasites (Lans et al., 2001) G. intestinalis (Sawangjaroen et al., 2005), antibacterial (Kumar et al., 2007). Since E. alba is a weed /herb growing in dump, moist puddles distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. So besides ethnobotanical evidence, it can be hypothesized that plants which survive in media rich in microbes most likely be possessing antimicrobial principles.
However, up to date, research has been done to investigate various pharmacological activities and antimicrobial activity of only crude extracts of this traditionally used herb. We report here our findings on antibacterial effects of wedelolactone (Fig. 1), the principle active compound, extracted from E. alba.
Figure 1. Chemical structure of Wedelolactone (R1-OH, R2-CH3).
Materials and Methods
Plants of E. alba were collected locally from botanical
garden and surroundings of
Qualitative estimation of primary and secondary plant metabolites
All estimations were done following Hunda et al. (1985); Brindha et al. (1981).Different aerial parts of the plant were dried at room temperature, powered, and extracted with methanol (70% v/v) in Soxhlet apparatus for six hours. The extract was filtered and was tested with different alkaloid reagents.
The three months old 950 gm lyophilized leaves were Soxhlet extracted with methanol for 36 h.
Ethyl acetate fraction
The methanol was removed from extract and the residues were suspended in water separately and heated on steam bath below 80 °C for 30 min. After filtration, the aqueous phase was partitioned with ethyl acetate. The organic phase was dried, filtered and the solvents were evaporated to yield 6.8 gm light brown powder.
Isolation of Wedelolactone
The powder was subjected to fractionation by column chromatography on
silica gel, eluted with the solvent of increased polarity i.e. Non-polar - polar
- highly polar. The coumestans are polar compounds so the solvent combination
found suitable for their elution was Chloroform + Methanol (70 + 30). They
were eluted simultaneously in 37 to 48 fractions. The pooled sample was then
subjected to TLC, the solvent system (Toluene : Acetone : Formic acid :: 11 :
6 : 1 v/v) showed two spots with Rf values 0.39 and 0.28 which
matched with the Rf values of reference wedelolactone and
demethylwedelolactone respectively (Courtesy M/s Natural Remedies, Bangalore,
India). The purified sample of wedelolactone
was put to HPLC for further qualitative analysis using instrument - Thermo Finnigan from Thermo Electron Corp.
Figure 2. The chromatogram of extract showing the peak.
Preparation of samples for testing
The zone of inhibition studies were conducted with various extracts diluted with 10% dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO).
from the American/Microbial type culture collection were used in bioassays. Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 9144), Salmonella typhimurium (ATCC
23564), Escherichia coli (ATCC 10536), Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC 155), Shigella flexneri (ATCC 29508) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 25668) were cultured at 37 °C on nutrient medium in aerobic conditions for
24 h. These bacteria were obtained from the
Antimicrobial susceptibility testing
MIC of wedelolactone was determined by microdilution technique as described by the National Committee for Clinical Laboratories standards (2000). The MIC was defined as the lowest concentration of the compound to inhibit the growth of microorganism. The bacteria inoculums were prepared in 5 ml nutrient broth and incubated at 37°C. The final inoculums were of approximately 5 x 106 CFU/ml. Controls with 0.5 ml of culture medium with out the samples and other without microorganisms were used in the tests. Tubes were incubated at 37°C for 24 h. The activity was measured as a function of turbidity at 660 nm. Lack of turbidity was further confirmed by pouring suspension aliquot of 0.1 ml into pre-sterilized Petri dishes with nutrient agar medium. The tests were conducted in triplicate.
Agar well diffusion method was carried out by allowing perforation of extract and wedelolactone dissolved in DMSO at a concentration of 3.5mg/well and 10 mg/ml respectively. Petriplate containing 30 ml nutrient agar medium were kept for the solidification before inoculating the microorganism, desired numbers of holes of uniform diameter of 8mm were made after solidification, using sterile aluminum borer. 0.2 ml of compound, positive (Gentamycin) and negative (solvent blank) controls were poured into wells. After incubation for 24 h at 37 °C the plates were observed and the compound activity was evaluated by measuring zone of inhibition (diameter mm). The tests were conducted in triplicate. Gentamycin (10.0 µg/ml) was used as positive control. The negative control was 10% DMSO.
The results of the presence of various primary and secondary metabolites in methanol extract (Table 1) reported negative for antraquinones throughout herb. Methanol extract and Ethyl acetate fraction showed positive signs of antimicrobial activity against all six strains (Table 2). Wedelolactone exhibited significant antibacterial activity against the six tested strains (Table 3). S. epidermidis and S aureus were found to be highly sensitive. The MIC of S. epidermidis, S. typhimurium, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, S. flexneri and E. coli was, 15 µg/ml, 25 µg/ml, 20µg/ml, 1250 µg/ml ,1300 µg/ml and 1000 µg/ml respectively. The compound showed the highest antibacterial activity (ZOI) in S. epidermidis (10.24 mm), followed by S. typhimurium (9.16 mm), S. aureus(9.14 mm),E.coli (8.60mm) P. aeruginosa (8.00 mm) and S. flexneri (7.60 mm) as zone of inhibition in radius.
Table 1. Quantitative estimation of the various primary and secondary metabolites.
Table 2. Antibacterial activity of Methanol extract and Ethyl acetate fraction against bacterial strains.
The primary and secondary metabolites were analyzed in methanolic extracts. Anthraquinones were found to be absent in the natural plant. While the alkaloids and reducing sugars were absent in root extract of the natural plant. In an earlier study, the extracts of the leaves of E. alba tested positive for steroid, reducing sugars, alkaloids, phenolics, saponins and tannins, but no anthraquinones and flavonoids were detected (Gopalakrishan and Solomon, 1992).
In Gujrat and
Table 3. Antibacterial activity of wedelolactone and gentamycin against bacterial strains.
MIC: minimum inhibitory concentration; ZOI: zone of inhibition (Diameter); A: wedelolactone (10.0 mg/ml); B: gentamycin (10.0 µg/ml); Values are mean of three replicates.
Karthikumar et al., (2007) reported in vitro antimicrobial activities of ethanolic extract of E. prostrate. It indicated good activity against S aureus 7.2mm (ZOI) and MIC 70µl/ml, and for P. aeruginosa 8.8mm (ZOI) and MIC 65µl/ml, at 50 µg concentration. While the present studies exhibited respective ZOI at 9.14 mm, 8.00mm and MIC 20 µg/ml and 1250 µg/ml respectively. Traditional reports on E. alba indicate that it is one of the herb used for treatment of stomach and digestion disorders, skin diseases and conjunctivitis (Poonam and Singh, 2002).Since S. typhimurium, S.flexneri and S. aureus are pathogens responsible for stomach disorders ,while P.aeruginosa is common in skin flora and S. aureus is responsible for most common bacterial conjunctivitis. The results from the current studies revealed that the wedelolactone could be the main constituent responsible for these treatments as it exhibited good activity against them.
On the basis of the antibacterial studies of wedelolactone, it can be suggested that this can be used effectively to treat S. epidermidis and S. typhimurium infections. However, the compound must be studied in animal models to determine the efficacy in vivo against these pathogens and to elucidate their mechanism of action. In vivo data may be helpful in determining the real potential usefulness of this plant for the treatment of infectious diseases.
The authors wish to thanks Dr. T Velpandian, Associate
Professor Ocular Pharmacology Laboratory at All India Institute of Medical
Malone, B.D.B., Werkhoven, S., Van, M.C., David, T.F., Wisse, J.H., Bursuker,
I., Neddermann, K.M., Mamber, S.W., and
Anon, P., 1988. Pharmaceutical and cosmetic compositions containing tomato plant extracts for the treatment of skin diseases. Patent-Israel, 78 (820):15.
(1952). The Wealth of
Brindha, P., Sasikala, B., and Purushothaman, K., 1981. Phytochemical analysis of E. alba. BMEBR. 3(1): 84-96.
R.N., Nayar, S.L., and Chopra, I.C., 1956. In Glossary of Indian Medicinal
Plants. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,
R.N., Nayar, S.L., and Chopra, I.C., 1992. In Glossary of Indian Medicinal
Plants. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research New
N.R., and Soejarto, D.D., 1991. Global importance of medicinal plants. In:
Akerele, O, Heywood, V, Synge, H. (Eds.), The conservation of medicinal
Harborne, J.B., 1989. Recent advances in chemical ecology. Nat Prod Rep. 8: 85-109.
Prakash, P., and Roy, B., 1985. Bioactivity directed extraction and
fractionation of E. alba: An hepatoprotective drug of Indian origin.
Iyengar, M.A., 1976. “Bibliography of investigated Indian medicinal
plants”. (1950-1975). Ist Edn.
Karnick, C.R. and Kulkarni, M., 1990. Ethnobotanical studies of some medicinal plants used in skin diseases. Maharasthra Med J. 37: 131-134.
Karthikumar, S., Vigneswari, K., and Jegatheesan, K., 2007. Screening of antibacterial and antioxidant activities of leaves of Eclipta prostrata (L). Scientific Res Essay, 2(4): 101-104.
Khin, Ma-Ma., Nayunt, N., and Khin, M.T., 1978. The protective effect of Eclipta alba in CCl4 acute liver damage. Toxico Appl Pharmacol. 45: 723-728.
Kobori, M., Yang, Z., Gong, D., Heissmeyer, V., Zhu, H., Jung, Y.K., Gakidis, M.A. , Rao, A., Sekina, K., Ikegami, F., Yuan C., and Yuan, J., 2004. Wedelolactone suppresses LPS-induced caspase 11 expression by directly inhibiting the IKK complex. Cell Death Differentiation. 11(1): 123-130.
Kosuge, T., Yokota, M., Sugiyama, K., Yamamoto, T., Ni, M., and Yan, S., 1985. Studies on antitumor activities and antitumor principles of Chinese herbs. I. Antitumor activities of Chinese herbs. Yakugaku Zasshi. 105(8): 791-795.
Kumar, G.S., Jayaveera, K.N., Ashok Kumar, Sanjay, C.K., Swamy, B.M.V., and Kumar, D.V.K., 2007. Antimicrobial effect of Indian Medicinal plants against acne-inducing bacteria. Trop J Pharma Res. 6(2): 717-723.
Lans, C., Harper, T., Georges, K., and
Morales, G., Paredes, A., Sierra,
P., and Loyola, L.A., 2008. Antimicrobial activity of three Baccharis species used in the
traditional medicine of
R.C., Hammerarstrom, S., and Samuelsson, B., 1979. Leukotriene C: A slow
reacting substance from Murine
mastocytoma cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci
Mukherjee, P.K., and Wahile, A., 2006. Integrated approaches towards drug development from Ayurveda and other Indian system of medicines. J Ethanopharmacol. 103: 25-35.
National Committee for Clinical Laboratories standards 2000. Methods for dilution antimicrobial susceptibility tests for bacteria that grow aerobically, 5th ed. Approved standards (M7-A5), Wayne Pa.
Poonam, S., and Singh, G., 2002. A review of plant species used to treat conjunctivitis. Phytoterapy Res. 16(1): 1–22.
Penos, G., 1983. “Index Plantarum Medicinalium Totius Mundi Eorumque Synonymorum (EMPLED)”. Org. (Ed.) Med. Fram.Nfilano. pp. 188-195.
Ross, I.A., 2001. “Medicinal plants of the world”.
Samiulla, S., Mundkinajeddu, D., Shivanna, Y., Arun, C., Keerthi, M., Prashanth, D., Amit A., and Venkataraman, B.V., 2003. Trypsin inhibitory effect of wedelolactone and demethylwedelolactone. Phytoter Res. 17(4): 420-421.
Sawangjaroen, N., Subhadhirasakul, S., Phongpaichit, S.,
Siripanth, C., Jamjaroen K., and Sawangjaroen, K., 2005. The in vitro
antigiardial activity of extracts from plants that are used for
self-medication by AIDS patients in southern
Wagner, H., Geyer, B., Yoshinobu, K., and Govind, S.R., 1986. Coumestans as the Main Active Principles of the Liver Drugs Eclipta alba and Wedelia calendulacea. Planta Medica. 5: 370-2
Warrier, P.K., 1994. “Indian medicinal plants”. Orient Longman Ltd, Chennai Vol-II, 350 pp.
Wiart, C., Mogana, S., Khalifah, S., Mahan, M., Ismail, S., Buckle, M., Narayana A.K., and Sulaiman, M., 2004. Antimicrobial screening of plants used for traditional medicine in the state of Perak, Penisular Malaysia. Fitoteropia. 75 (1): 68-73.
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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0 Replies 377 Views
The Future of Medicine: The Doc-in-a-Phone By Ceci Connolly July 13, 2011 | 6:00 a.m. Reporters don’t like making predictions. And even though I’ve left journalism, the prediction-aversion gene remains dominant. So when National Journal asked what I thought would be the next decade’s great medical innovation, I started reporting. The thrilling news is that the health care field is teeming with possibility. In the developing world, seemingly simple oral-rehydration therapy for children is an innovation that saves lives and money. Researchers tell us that breakthroughs in molecular science could lead to an era of personalized medicine in which the body’s own materials replicate, regenerate, and repair it. But what I heard about the most was the potential explosion of mobile health, the marriage of medical care and cell-phone technology. Think of it as Doc-in-a-Phone. Mobile networks today cover 98 percent of the world’s population. Across the globe, cell phones are used to conduct banking, monitor elections, and teach classes. The technology has broken geographic, socioeconomic, political, and even generational barriers. Early efforts in mobile health care, known as mHealth, have focused on simple information transfers. A Mexican cell-phone company is offering 24/7 medical consultations and deep discounts on items such as lab work and medications for a monthly fee of about $5. More than 1.2 million households subscribe to the service, called MedicallHome. In the United States, mobile communications already deliver medication alerts and appointment reminders. A clinical trial was just launched for patients to track overactive-bladder symptoms with the help of a smartphone. The next step in the mHealth journey involves taking standard tools of the health care trade—stethoscopes, glucometers, and electrocardiogram machines—and connecting them wirelessly to a data hub or medical command center. This two-way communications ability offers the hope of better compliance, earlier detection of warning signs, and faster interventions. Imagine a heart patient who has a tiny chip on her chest. Readings it sends to a nursing station detect an irregularity. The system alerts the patient to go to the emergency room, drastically improving her health prospects and reducing care costs. But to make a truly significant impact, this burgeoning field will need to address fundamental problems such as chronic conditions, physician shortages, and the need for robust outcome measurement. In the United States alone, nearly 26 million people live with diabetes, a disease that exacts an enormous toll on patients, productivity, and budgets. Perhaps mHealth can finally help patients and doctors coordinate a real-time, personalized drug, diet, and exercise regimen. Success will require strategic partnerships. Physicians may love the idea of getting radiology results on their smartphones, but they might be much more skeptical about dispensing medical advice without an in-person examination. The pending demise of Google Health illustrates that high-tech/medical partnerships are far from a sure thing. On the other hand, a 2009 McKinsey survey of 3,000 people in Brazil, China, Germany, India, South Africa, and the United States found that up to one-third of respondents indicated some willingness to pay for mHealth services such as drug delivery, physician phone consultations, and remote monitoring with alerts. In the decade ahead, the ubiquitous mobile device has the potential to help drive down skyrocketing medical costs, improve access, tailor therapies, and improve quality of life. Consumer appetite will play a major role in the future of mHealth. But even more important, the medical community, technology companies, and regulators will have to overcome their differences if Doc-in-a-Phone is to deliver on its most ambitious promises. The author is a senior adviser to the McKinsey Center for U.S. Health System Reform. She previously was a national staff writer at The Washington Post. Source National Journals Innovation Works/ Conference Are you ready for it?
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| 0.9451 | 816 | 2.59375 | 3 | 2.877466 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
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Health
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What's the difference between 言わないでほしい and 言ってほしくない ?
If the intended message is "I don't want you to say it" which of the two above would be more suitable?
You can use these sentences in two ways. One is to use it as in "I don't want you to say x (literary)". Another is to use it as in "I resent what you already said".
So, what's the difference? In the first case, 言わないでほしい is an explicit request. 言ってほしくない merely states that you don't want the other guy to tell anybody, and the request is only implied. As a consequence, the latter is softer, as it would be in English.
In the second case, 言わないでほしい focuses on the fact that you don't like to hear x. Hence it is possible to use this expression when you think the speaker is saying something legitimate, but you just don't want to be told that for personal reason etc.
For example, you may say わかってるから言わないで when you are told something that you know you can't defend, but nevertheless want the other person to stop saying it. Here is an example of this usage. The author doesn't disapprove the motivation itself, but he is explaining that one should not say 頑張って. Note however that you can use 言わないでほしい to express disapproval/disagreement. It's just that you can also use it when you don't want to.
言ってほしくない is much less suitable in this situation because it implies that you believe the speaker is saying something unjustifiable in your opinion. For example, if you'd say わかってるから言ってほしくない, the listener will sense a frustration or disagreement, and that he/she doesn't really mean わかってる. More natural use of 言ってほしくない can be seen here. The author uses 言ってほしくない because he pretty much disapproves the word ヤバイ itself.
This is a question of whether the predicate presupposes the excluded middle. In principle, there should be three possibilities:
When the three possibilities exist, the sentence negation of 1 should mean either 2 or 3. When there is a presupposition that 3 is excluded from the possibilities, then the negation of 1 would mean 2, which is the negation of the proposition. In that case, negating 1 is usually preferred over using 2. WIth English
means the same as
and the former is considered the correct form. With English
I can think of one situation where you use 言わないでほしい instead of 言ってほしくない, when you use the phrase as a request:
The first sentence above is a common way to say "please don't" and is parallel to 「言わないでください」 while if the second sentence is used as a request it would sound indirect like "I don't want this told to anyone." It sounds like a statement but you can imagine what's being implied if it is said straight on your face.
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en
| 0.951773 | 741 | 2.796875 | 3 | 2.549482 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
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Literature
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Today we’re going to write some poems based on imaginary sea voyage journeys. If you’ve been doing my project this week then you can use the things you’ve made as inspiration.
You could also use one of these images of mine if you like:
You could make a little film of the poem over an illustration for the poem. Check with an adult before sharing any films online!
So let’s get started...
Nearly forgot to say…poems do not need to rhyme!!! and it’s harder if you try to make them rhyme.
- If you’ve been doing my project spread out all the things you’ve made this week on a table or on the floor.
- Make sure you have the collection of words you made yesterday for the ‘word-dreaming’ activity. You can always do this today if you haven’t done it yet 🙂 Remember to use your collection of words in your poem!
- Now, write a poem based on any of the things you’ve made using one of the list-poem structures below. I think it’s good to keep your poem to 1 sentence for each line.
- MY ISLAND
My Island is….
My Island is…
My island is…
My island is…
My island is…
2. Island of Days*
On Monday I sailed to the island of…where….
On Tuesday I sailed to the island of…where….
*I particularly like this one…perhaps the things on the islands could be inspired by things that happenned this week…or because we’re at home you can write about where you would have liked to sail to on those days. You can get a bit abstract and think ‘what colour is Monday? and make Monday Island full of things that are that colour etc.
3. I Am..
(write a series of phrases in the voice of one of the monsters you created this week…or make up a monster if you haven’t drawn one yet. It could be your monster is bragging about itself- it can be fun to write big Over-The-Top brags!)
3 Island Poem-Story Challenge
This is a more ambitious project…perhaps for older children and adults. This is why I asked you to do 3 islands way back on Monday! You could spend weeks on this if you wanted to.
A story often has 3 ‘acts’:
- The first act sets the scene, introduces the hero and a problem the hero must face.
- The second act is where the problem gets worse and the hero attempts to solve the problem in different ways, that might fail or succeed.
- The third act is where the story is resolved- the hero might find a way to resolve the problem after several failures and return home having learnt something important from solving the problem.
Here’s the challenge- write a story where:
- Act one is based on onew of your islands
- Act two is based on another one of your islands
- Act three is based on another one of your islands
Here’s a really simple example just to get the idea. You would fill the story with interesting detail and exciting language to make it interesting for the reader. The example blow is very basic!
On the island of home I was really happy, until there was a big noise from across the sea that kept everyone awake. (act 1)
I sailed away to find out what the noise was. It was an angry giant on the Island of Trouble. I tried to get him to be quiet by asking him nicely. (act 2)
Asking him nicely didn’t work so I tempted him with sweets so he followed me across the sea to the Island of Sleep where I left him and sailed home. I told everyone back home the story of my travels. (act 3)
You could write the story in verse or prose. Whichever you prefer. I LOVE stories told as poems- like The Owl and The Pussy Cat by Edward Lear, Room on The Broom by Julia Donaldson…or most of my own Pearbox Books like the ones below…
If you’re enjoying exploring the world of sea voyages and mysterious islands please consider buying one of my books below. They will help with inspiration and help this self-employed person get through the current crisis! 🙂 Click on the images below to find out more about the books and perhaps make a purchase!
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en
| 0.955132 | 959 | 3.109375 | 3 | 1.821453 | 2 |
Moderate reasoning
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Literature
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The Southwestern United States and the Great Plains have suffered droughts recently but scientists have concluded that another drought is on the way. According to Steven D “in the online journal Science Advances by 2050 major portions of the Southwestern and Great Plains will suffer from droughts much, much worse than the ones we have seen over the last 15 years.”
The current projection is that the situation will become much more serious over the next 50 years of our century. The cause is climate change, because billions more people over the next 35 years will have added much more heat to our world. Adding more people will continue to raise the temperatures. And of course, the more people we have, the more hot our planet will become. And 150 million more foreigners added to the U.S. will make the situation beyond saving. Deaths globally and in the U.S. will continue to rise over the last 50 years as the atmosphere in the United States becomes untenable.
And the more people born (up to 78 million per year globally) means the governments (the CEOs) will continue to do what CEOs do, and that will be to continue to make as much money as possible by selling without cease. There is no plan to stop climate change. Leaders of nations will continue with business as usual. However, the North American disaster will not disappoint anyone and it will continue into a massive global hot house from California and across the USA.
Car makers around the world are planning to add as many vehicles they can manufacture. This announcement by Carlos Ghosen, President, Chief and Executive Officer has some news for planet earth.
One trend is the shift in demographics. The world’s population is expanding at a rapid pace. The number of cars in the future is all over the place, but all predictions are up. Carlos Ghosn of Nissan sees 2.9 billion cars in the world by 2050. The Washington Post says there will be 2.5 billion by 2050 (Aug. 4, 2014). Today, the world number is 600 million and growing rapidly.
Notice: In only 35 years the world will have over 2 billion more people added to the earth, on a planet that it cannot maintain with enough food and water, especially in the United States. We have a major drought problem in the U.S., at the same time an earth that is heating up and yet, Carlos ignores the impending destruction of our planet. He is, along with others without a doubt, pouring gasoline on the fire around the world. Does anyone have a message to Carlos and his auto death machine?
In China (above), autos are stuck on highways and cannot move for months. Food vendors all along the highway sell food and drinks day and night.
All automakers globally are tooling up to see how many vehicles they can produce for the planet. No. That will not help at all. But the CEOs can at least see how much money that they have piled up at their hidden castles.
From the dailykos.com:
Eugene Wahl, a paleoclimatologist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Boulder, Co., called the results “stunning.”
“We are talking about extreme drought conditions that will-extend from the Mississippi River to California that will last for thirty or more years, literally leave our highly populated, water dependent society in uncharted territory, threatening our civilization’s ability to adapt to what will be a radically altered future environment.”
More: “Our results show it’s very likely, if we continue on our current trajectory of greenhouse gas emissions and warming, that regions in the west will be drier at the end of the 21st century than the driest centuries during the Medieval era,” Cook told Quartz.
“The study puts the chances of a megadrought in the central and southwest sometime between 2050-2099 at above 80%…Cook.
When asked how a megadrought, if it started today, would affect in the west, Famiglietti said, that public water, aquifers, agriculture, rangelands, wildlife and forests would all be at risk. He added: “In California we’re already in deep trouble. Imagine what the water situation will look like in 2075? Depleted groundwater, decimated agriculture, irreparable damage to ecological habitat. THINK APOCALYPSE.”
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en
| 0.943217 | 961 | 2.734375 | 3 | 2.871312 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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If you want to be taught the basics of driving, you must dive into the expertise of it moderately than theory. There is no such thing as a way to successfully learn to drive a automotive other than getting behind a wheel and driving. However this shouldn’t be conducted in a haphazardly method but a certain semblance of seriousness needs to be observed to be able to succeed in your driving lessons. That is why it is essential to be taught a couple of basics about driving lessons.
Driving lessons are critical because they provide new drivers with the mandatory experience and additional knowledge to be able to drive successfully and safely. With this info, accidents could be averted and drivers who are armed with road safety awareness develop into better drivers than other drivers.
Getting a driving lesson is an ideal first step towards acquiring a driving license. In most countries and certainly states, earlier than one can purchase a driver’s license they must sit for a written exam. This usually entails reading after which making an attempt an oral or multiple alternative series of questions usually revolving round site visitors laws and regulations. If one fails to pass this test, there’s usually a second strive after some days, weeks or months relying on the particular rules and laws of that individual country or state. Once one passes the written driving examination they are then free to schedule an precise driving exam. For a lot of, passing this exam is critical they usually therefore secure driving lessons as a guarantee that they are going to pass
There are some nations where it is necessary to acquire some kind of certification from a credited diving school earlier than they are often deemed certified to acquire a driver’s license. This might or could not embody passing each the written and precise driving test that’s administered by the Department of motor vehicles.
In most cases, driving lessons are carried out in open surroundings removed from any buildings, other people or different cars. Favorite places are schools which have their own unused fields especially when school is out. In a professional driving school the car that is used for driving lesson is customized-made and will resemble any other automotive on the outside but on the inside it may have modified controls which give each the student and the teacher control of the vehicle. This is necessary because the teacher could have to step in and control the automotive when the student has made a mistake.
Before a student can embark on driving lessons, they must be taught some fundamental classroom instructions which involve site visitors awareness and techniques of driving. The students are also furnished with the entire curriculum so that they have a grasp of what will be required during the entire course. It’s also good to say here that driving lessons usually are not just for individuals who are seeking to amass a driver’s license for the first time. Seasoned drivers who have been driving for a few years may additionally go back to school for a refresher.
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Basic reasoning
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Transportation
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The Hebrew term mispat [f'P.vim] is an important Old Testament concept and one closely linkedwith God. It may denote the process whereby a verdict is reached or the verdict itself; itis bound up with the notions of justice (modern translations often have"justice" for mispat) and righteousness and it is of fundamental importance forbiblical religion. Thus Abraham could ask, "Will not the Judge of all the earth do mispat[f'P.vim]?"( Ge 18:25 ); itis fundamental that God engages in judgment. Indeed, God is the God of mispat [f'P.vim].Judgment is essentially his own activity. Nobody taught him ( Isa 40:14 ), and"all his ways are just" ( Deut 32:4 ). Judgmentis linked with righteousness as the foundation of his throne ( Psalm 97:2 ).Judgment is as natural to God as the movements of the birds are to them ( Jer 8:7 ).
We should be clear that judgment is of great importance for biblical religion. The godsof the heathen were capricious and unpredictable; their worshipers could never know whatthey would do next, nor whether what they themselves did would be pleasing to theirdeities or not. The Hebrews knew that God is righteous and that he demands righteousnessof his people.
Sometimes God's judgments are seen in the present life, but often it is the futurejudgment that is in mind. "For he comes, he comes to judge the earth. He will judgethe world in righteousness and the peoples in his truth" ( Psalm 96:13 ). Thistells us something important about God. All people, and not only Israel, will answer tohim. And it tells us something important about the way people live. Somewhere among themany gods he acknowledged the polytheist would come across a deity who was not toodemanding and he could live his life accordingly. But the pious Hebrew knew that in theend every human work would be judged by the all-holy and all-powerful God. There was noescape. And while he had opportunity it was important that the Hebrew should right wrongs,overthrow the oppressor, and deliver the oppressed.
In the New Testament the Old Testament thoughts about judgment, both present andfuture, are continued. But there is a striking new thought, namely, that judgment isconnected with the cross of Christ. As he drew near to his death Jesus said, "Now isthe time for judgment on this world, now the prince of this world will be driven out"( John 12:31 ).And in the upper room as he spoke of the coming of the Holy Spirit, he said that theSpirit would convict the world of judgment, "because the prince of this world nowstands condemned (lit. is judged)" ( John 16:11 ). Theuse of the judgment terminology in connection with the defeat of Satan is important, forit shows that this was no arbitrary happening. Nor did it mean simply that God is strongerthan Satan. That is true, but the manner in which Satan was defeated was righteous.
God's present judgment of people is forcefully brought out in Romans 1 with itsthreefold "God gave them over" (vv. 24, 26, 28). God is hostile to every eviland this is made manifest in his judgments here and now. An interesting aspect of presentjudgment is brought out in the words of Jesus: "This is the verdict (krisis [krivsi"]):Light has come into the world, but men loved darkness instead of light because their deedswere evil" ( John3:19 ). The love of darkness is itself judgment (cf. the words of a poet, "Forthirty pieces Judas sold himself, not Christ"). Paul sees a present judgment in thepunishment of the Corinthian church ( 1 Cor 11:29-32 ).
That there will be a final judgment is regarded as axiomatic ( Rom 3:5-6 )."Eternal judgment" is one of the "elementary teachings about Christ" ( Heb 6:1-2 ), andall face it ( Heb12:23 ). It is as inescapable as death ( Heb 9:27 ). Even"the family of God" is included and indeed judgment begins with them ( 1 Peter 4:17 ).Sinners may not trust that somehow their worst failings may be hid for God will judge oursecrets ( Rom 2:16 ).All evil will be reckoned with for on the day of judgment "every careless word"will be called to account ( Matt 12:36 ).Judgment will be on the basis of works ( Matt 16:27 ). Animportant passage is that in which Paul makes it clear that salvation is on the basis ofChrist's saving work and that alone, but what we build on that foundation will be tested"with fire" ( 1 Cor 3:10-15 ).Believers will be saved by Christ, but their work will be judged on judgment day.
See als o Judgment, Day of; Judgment Seat of Christ.
Bibliography. H. Butterfield, Christianity and History; L. Morris, TheBiblical Doctrine of Judgment.
Copyright © 1996 by Walter A. Elwell. Published by Baker Books, a division of
Baker Book House Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan USA.
All rights reserved. Used by permission.
For usage information, please read the Baker Book House Copyright Statement.
[N] indicates this entry was also found in Nave's Topical Bible
[J] indicates this entry was also found in Jack Van Impe's Prophecy Dictionary
Bibliography InformationElwell, Walter A. "Entry for 'Judgment'". "Evangelical Dictionary of Theology".
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Strong reasoning
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Religion
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by Kimberly Allen RN
Ear infections are the most common reason for trips to the Dr’s office in the US with approximately 30 million visits every year. Nearly half of all prescriptions for antibiotics that are written for children are for ear infections. The estimates are that at least 75% of all children will have at least one ear infection before they are 3 years of age. The cost for treating ear infections is more than $2 billion a year in the US alone.
The medical term for ear infection is otitis media. It is an inflammation and/or infection of the middle ear. The middle ear is the very small space between the ear drum and the inner ear. Also in that small space is a tiny duct or tube called the eustachian tube that goes from the middle ear to the back of the throat. This tube is responsible for maintaining the same pressure inside your middle ear as the air pressure outside and also allows excess mucous to drain from your ear to your throat. In children, especially young children, the eustachian tubes are not only tiny but soft and weak as well as shorter and more horizontal than in adults and older children. Because of these factors bacteria and other microorganisms can easily get into the tubes causing infection.
Though ear infections are not contagious they do usually develop after a cold or other upper respiratory infection which are contagious. Ear infections can be caused by both bacteria and viruses, however, bacterial ear infections are far more common accounting for 85% of ear infections. There are a variety of different bacteria that can cause ear infections. Ear infections have been grouped into 3 different types; Acute Otitis Media (AOM), otitis media with effusion (OME), and otitis externa also known as swimmers ear. In AOM the infection causes pus to form in the middle ear causing increased pressure on the ear drum causing pain and symptoms of an acute infection. The bacteria most often responsible for AOM is the streptococcus pneumoniae which is responsible for a variety of upper respiratory and sinus infections. Of the viruses that can cause AOM the most common are the rhinoviruses and influenza viruses. Where as in OME fluid builds up in the middle ear but without the symptoms of acute infection. This type is more common than AOM and tends to be caused by viruses that lead to upper respiratory infections as well as allergies and usually does not improve with antibiotic therapy. It can also develop after being treated for AOM with antibiotics, sometimes there is residual fluid that stays in the middle ear causing difficulty with hearing and may take a month or more to resolve itself. Otitis externa or swimmers ear is an infection of the outer ear and/or outer canal. In otitis externa the outer ear usually becomes red and inflamed, it is also usually itchy and painful. This type of ear infection usually requires antibiotic therapy to resolve the infection.
Treatment of ear infections vary depending on the age of the child, the severity of symptoms and the type of infection it is. Most ear infections are treated with antibiotics and medications to relieve the pain. In older children Dr’s may opt to have the parents watch their child for a few days because many infections will resolve on their own and as children get older there are more things the Dr needs to consider before prescribing antibiotics. Children can become resistant leading to potentially more virile infections.
The best way to prevent ear infections is to try to prevent the infections that can lead to them. Hand washing can not be emphasized enough, especially during the “flu season”. Also carrying a small bottle of hand sanitizer and using it frequently can be helpful. Though immunizations don’t prevent ear infections they can prevent the illnesses that can lead to them. This would include regular flu vaccines and the pneumonia vaccine. Tale with your Dr about including these in your childs regular vaccination schedule.
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Basic reasoning
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Health
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Water is essential for human life, and most of us know that we should drink plenty daily. But what about the water we drink from bottles? Is bottling water bad for you? Some people believe that bottled water can cause heartburn and other digestive problems. In this blog post, we’ll look at the evidence to see if there is any truth to this claim. Stay tuned!
What are the potential causes of heartburn?
Heartburn is a common condition that affects millions of people every year. There are many causes of heartburn, but most often, it is caused by dietary choices or lifestyle habits.
The following are the potential causes of heartburn:
- Spicy foods can cause the stomach to produce more acid, which can lead to heartburn
- Other common causes of heartburn include eating fatty or greasy foods
- Drinking alcohol
- Lying down after eating a large meal
Heartburn can also be caused by certain medical conditions such as:
- Hiatal hernia
If you suffer from heartburn regularly, you must see a doctor to rule out any underlying medical conditions. Talk to your doctor about the best treatment options for you.
How Can bottled water cause heartburn?
Most people don’t think twice about grabbing a bottle of water from the store or drinking from the tap. But did you know that drinking bottled water can lead to heartburn?
You may not have realized it, but drinking bottled water can lead to heartburn. That’s because the plastic in which the water is stored can leach chemicals into the water, relaxing the lower oesophagal sphincter (LES). The LES is a muscle that helps to keep stomach acid from flowing back into the oesophagus.
When it relaxes, that acid can come back up, and that’s what causes heartburn. The chemicals and pollutants in bottled water can cause indigestion and heartburn. And, if you’re prone to acid reflux, drinking bottled water can make your symptoms worse.
If you’re prone to heartburn, you might want to think twice before reaching for a bottle of water. Stick to tap water instead, and if you drink bottled water, look for certified brands that are free of harmful chemicals. So, next time you’re thirsty, reach for a glass of filtered water instead of a bottle of water. Your stomach will thank you!
Why should we prefer tap water instead of bottled water?
The following are the reasons to choose tap water over bottled water:
- Tap water is more regulated than bottled water. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates tap water, while the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) only regulates bottled water transported across state lines. This means that tap water is held to higher quality and safety standards.
- Tap water is usually more affordable than bottled water. A gallon of tap water costs about a penny, while a gallon of bottled water can cost up to $10.
- Tap water is more environmentally friendly than bottled water. Bottled water creates a lot of waste.
- Tap water is more convenient than bottled water. You can get free tap water from a public water fountain or kitchen sink. You don’t have to worry about carrying heavy water bottles or paying for them.
- Tap water is better for your health than bottled water. Bottled water may contain harmful chemicals, such as bisphenol A (BPA), which can leach into the water. Tap water is also fluoridated, which helps to prevent tooth decay.
Tips for avoiding heartburn caused by bottled water
If you tend to get heartburn after drinking bottled water, there are a few things you can do to avoid it:
1. Check the label
Some bottled waters contain minerals that can contribute to heartburn. Choose a brand that is low in minerals or filter your water at home.
2. Drink slowly
Sipping your water slowly will help prevent heartburn by giving your body time to adjust to the new liquid.
3. Avoid ice-cold water
Cold water can contribute to heartburn by shocking your system and causing spasms in the oesophagus. Stick to room temperature or warm water instead.
Following these tips, you can enjoy bottled water without worrying about heartburn.
Some alternative remedies for treating heartburn
While many over-the-counter and prescription medications are available to treat heartburn, some people prefer to use natural or alternative remedies.
Here are some popular alternative remedies for heartburn:
1. Aloe vera juice
Aloe vera has long been used as a natural remedy for various ailments, including heartburn. Some people find that drinking aloe vera juice helps to soothe their heartburn symptoms.
Ginger is another popular natural remedy for heartburn. Some people find that drinking ginger tea or taking ginger supplements helps to relieve their heartburn symptoms.
3. Apple cider vinegar
Apple cider vinegar is a popular natural remedy for various conditions, including heartburn. Some people find that drinking apple cider vinegar helps to relieve their heartburn symptoms.
4. Chamomile tea
Chamomile tea is a popular herbal tea often used as a natural remedy for various conditions, including heartburn. Some people find that drinking chamomile tea helps to relieve their heartburn symptoms.
5. Lemon water
Lemon water is a popular natural remedy for various conditions, including heartburn. Some people find that drinking lemon water helps to relieve their heartburn symptoms.
If you suffer from heartburn, talk to your doctor about the best treatment options. While natural remedies may offer some relief, they are not a cure for heartburn and should not be used in place of medical treatment.
Verdict of the discussion
The next time you reach for a water bottle to soothe your heartburn, remember that not all bottled waters are created equal. If you’re looking for something to drink that won’t aggravate your condition, stick with still water or seltzer and steer clear of sparkling and flavored waters. And if you struggle with heartburn regularly, be sure to speak with your doctor about the best way to manage it.
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Basic reasoning
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Health
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An audit of the government’s planned carbon cuts shows they will achieve only half of what it claims.
By George Monbiot. Published in the Guardian 5th March 2007.
“If,” said Mr Blair at the launch of the Clinton Climate Initiative last year, “we do not motivate ourselves to take the decisions commensurate with the gravity of the threat that we face, we will betray in the most irresponsible way the generations to come. That is not something I want on my conscience as a political leader.”(1)
Well it looks like he’s going to have to live with it. Tony Blair has had ten years in which to tackle Britain’s contribution to global climate change, and he has blown it. His bold intitiatives and stirring speeches look like little more than greenwash. For the first time, we have the figures to prove it.
With Channel 4’s series Dispatches, I commissioned a team of environmental scientists at University College, London to conduct a peer-reviewed audit of the government’s planned greenhouse gas reductions(2). The scientists, led by Professor Mark Maslin, estimated the real impact of its carbon-cutting policies. Nothing quite like this has ever been done before. The results are staggering.
The government has two formal targets for reducing Britain’s climate changing gases. The first is the one set by the Kyoto Protocol, which commits the UK to a 12.5% reduction by 2012. The second is its long-term goal, of a 60% cut in carbon dioxide by 2050. This target will be made legally binding later this year.
Last year the government’s Energy Review found that to show “real progress” towards the 2050 target, by 2020 the UK’s greenhouse gas emissions would need to be reduced to between 143-149 million tonnes per year(3). This means a cut of 29-31% on 1990 levels. We asked Professor Maslin’s team to assess the policies which are supposed to deliver it.
For an audit, the 2020 aim is more useful than the 2050 target. If we are to have a realistic chance of hitting it, the necessary policies must already be in place or in development. While the Blair government would be only partly responsible if we fail to make 60% by 2050, it will carry almost all the blame if we don’t reach its milestone in 2020.
Our audit reveals that the government’s assessment of its own policies is wildly optimistic. Instead of a 29-31% cut by 2020, it is currently on course to deliver a reduction of between 12% and 17%(4). At this rate the UK won’t meet its 2020 milestone until 2050. This result suggests that the government’s claim to be “leading the world on tackling climate change”(5) is simply another product of the Downing Street spin machine. Its carbon-cutting policies are a sham.
How has this happened? You don’t have to look very far to find out. In almost every sector, government programmes have been characterised by voluntarism, vacillation and surrender to industrial lobby groups.
Take transport, for example. The government expects that national transport emissions (not counting international flights) will rise by 3.8 million tonnes between 1990 and 2020(6). Professor Maslin’s team discovered that the real increase will be between 7 and 13 million tonnes(7).
Faced with a vocal and powerful motoring lobby, Blair’s government has sought to cut emissions in three ways, all of which are failing. The first is a voluntary agreement, struck in Brussels with the major motor manufacturers. In 1998, the car makers promised they would bring the average emissions from new cars down from 188 grams per kilometre to 140 in ten years. The deadline falls due next year, and they will miss their target by half: the real figure is likely to be 164 grams per kilometre(8). They have no incentive to succeed and every incentive to fail, especially in the UK, where we love gas guzzlers.
The second mechanism is the tax we pay to put a car on the road – vehicle excise duty (VED). In 2001, the government replaced the flat rate for VED with a graduated tax. The owners of the most fuel-hungry cars would have to pay more than the owners of efficient models. Seven bands were introduced, starting with A (for cars which produce less than 100 grams per kilometre) and rising to G (more than 225 grams).
A survey carried out by the Department for Transport found that to encourage most drivers to switch to a less polluting model, you would need a difference between the bands of at least £150(9). The government’s Sustainable Development Commission went further: if the tax were to be really effective, the difference between the bands should be £300 and the top whack should be £1800(10). But the government’s top rate is only £215, and the difference between the bands only £35. When you are shelling out £65,000 for a Range Rover, that’s really going to make a difference, isn’t it?
If you want to know just how seriously the government takes this issue, take a look at the fiasco surrounding Band A. By 2012, 10% of all the new cars sold in this country (250,000 vehicles) are meant to be in Band A(11), which is exempt from VED. So how much progress has been made? If you check the tables on the Vehicle Certification Agency’s website, you will find that there is just one car in this category. Astonishingly, it’s the Seat Leon(12).
The Leon is a petrol-snorting, road-eating monster, producing 267 grams per kilometre. It ought to be in Band G. But someone in the agency seems to have moved its noise level, in decibels, into the column for its carbon emissions, in grams. Officially, if you own a Seat Leon, you should not be paying tax.
So where are the real Band A cars? The Department for Transport told me that there should in fact be one car in the band – the Smart Fortwo diesel(13). There’s only one problem: it is not currently on sale in the UK.
The third policy is to encourage us to switch to biofuels – diesel or alcohol made from plants. By 2010, the government wants 5% of all our transport fuels to be made this way(14). By 2020, the EU wants to raise this to 20%(15).
There are two massive problems, which the government consistently refuses to address. The first is that beyond a certain point the production of fuel begins to compete directly with the production of food. A study conducted last year by Sarasin, the Swiss bank, placed “the present limit for the environmentally and socially responsible use of biofuels at roughly 5% of current petrol and diesel consumption in the EU and US.”(16) Already, when only a tiny fraction of our transport fuel comes from plants, the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation reports that the demand for biofuels has helped to cause a “surge in the prices of cereals” to “levels not seen for a decade.”(17) All over the world, the poor are feeling the effect.
The second problem is that the new market has stimulated a massive expansion of destructive plantations, especially of oil palm. Palm oil planting is the major cause of tropical deforestation in both Malaysia and Indonesia. As the forests are cut down, the carbon in both the trees and the peat they grow on turns into carbon dioxide. A study by the Dutch scientific consultancy Delft Hydraulics found that the production of every tonne of palm oil causes 33 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions(18). This makes oil palm 10 times worse than petroleum. Already nine new palm oil refineries are being built, in Malaysia, Singapore and Rotterdam, specifically to meet the growing demand from the European biofuel market(19).
The government urges us not to worry – a “second generation” of biofuels will eventually become available, made from straw, wood and waste. But there is no guarantee that these will outcompete their cheap but destructive rivals, or that they will be ready before the last rainforests in south east Asia have been felled.
In every sector the audit found similar oversights, elisions, and deceptions. In housing, for example, the government has loudly proclaimed its intention to use better building regulations to make new houses more energy efficient – by 2016, it says, every new home in the country will be “zero carbon”(20). But since the energy efficiency regulations were first introduced in 1985 there has not been a single prosecution for non-compliance(21). Building inspectors treat the energy rules as a joke – in one recent survey they dismiss them as “trivial” and “not life threatening”(22). A study by the Building Research Establishment of new houses passed by the inspectors found that 43% of them did not meet satisfactory energy standards(23).
In the power sector, the auditors uncovered what looks like a conjuring trick. The government claims that Phase 2 of the European Emissions Trading Scheme (which allows power companies to buy and sell permits to pollute) will cut carbon emissions by 8 million tonnes against 1990 levels(24). Professor Maslin’s team found that the cut appears to be not a reduction in absolute emissions, but a reduction in future gases which might have been released if the scheme did not exist(25). Somehow this figure seems to have been muddled up with savings made against real emissions of carbon in 1990.
But the biggest greenwash of all involves flying. Under the Kyoto protocol, the pollution from international flights does not count towards a country’s emissions. The government has taken this as a licence to ignore flying even when setting its own targets. The emissions simply don’t appear on the balance sheet. Otherwise it couldn’t justify its instruction to the UK’s airports to double their capacity between now and 2030(26).
Because they were assessing the government’s own programme, the auditors didn’t produce figures for aviation. But even the government proposes that carbon emissions from planes will rise by 10.5 million tonnes between 1990 and 2020(27). Had it been incorporated into the audit, this figure would have reduced the cuts for the whole economy by 2020 to between 8 and 13%.
But the government’s figure is almost certainly a wild under-estimate. It counts only half the emissions from planes flying to and from our airports, on the grounds that only half the passengers belong to this country. In reality, 67% are UK citizens(28). It also ignores the other greenhouse gases – especially high-level water vapour – that flying produces. If international flights were counted in the national total, they could wipe out all the cuts in the UK’s emissions between 1990 and 2020(29).
What makes these failures most shocking is that Blair’s government took office in 1997 with a massive head start. In 1990, the UK’s carbon dioxide emissions were 161.5 million tonnes. By 1997 they had come down to 149.6 million tonnes(30). This had come about through energy efficiency, power stations switching from coal to gas, the maturing of the nuclear power programme and a few small tweaks to some obscure industrial processes, like capturing methane from landfill sites and nitrous oxide from explosives factories(31).
When John Major left office, the UK was one of the few nations on course to meet its Kyoto commitments, with plenty of emissions to spare. That advantage has already been squandered. Today the UK is turning out slightly more carbon dixoide than it was in 1997 (though other greenhouse gases have declined)(32) and we will just scrape in beneath the Kyoto bar, while falling way beneath the trajectory for meeting our long-term target.
And even if the official aim – of a 60% carbon cut by 2050 – were met, it would, I believe, be too little, too late. Climate scientists warn us that if global temperatures rise by two degrees or more above their pre-industrial levels, the warming is likely to trigger runaway feedback. We are already beginning to see some signs of this. In parts of the West Siberian peat bog, the permafrost has begun to melt, releasing methane, a powerful greenhouse gas. The more methane escapes, the more the planet warms, so the more methane escapes. The West Siberian bog alone is believed to contain 70 billion tonnes of the gas whose liberation would equate to 73 years of current manmade CO2 emissions(33).
If runaway feedback sets in on a large enough scale, the biosphere takes over from human beings as the primary source of greenhouse gas emissions. At that point the problem is snatched from our hands – there is nothing more we can do. So it is critical that we make big enough carbon cuts to stop this from happening. But everywhere – in Westminster, in Brussels, even in the Stern report – politicians and officials seem to be abandoning the two degree target, which would mean an 80-90% cut in emissions(34). It is perceived as just too difficult. The government is failing even to hit the wrong target.
Instead of real action to deal with the greatest menace of the 21st Century, the government has sold us a set of fake policies, designed to make us feel better about ourselves, without political pain. Next time Tony Blair gives a heart-rending speech about his legacy to future generations, don’t believe a word of it.
George Monbiot presented Dispatches: “Greenwash” on Channel 4 at 8pm last night.
1. Tony Blair, 1st August 2006. Remarks at the launch of the Clinton Climate Initiative. http://www.pm.gov.uk/output/Page9961.asp
2. Mark Maslin et al, 5th March 2007. UK Greenhouse Gas Emissions: are we on target? UCL Environment Institute. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/environment-institute/pdfs/UCLEI-report.pdf
3. Department of Trade and Industry, July 2006. The Energy Challenge: Energy Review Report 2006, paras 8.6-8.7. http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/file31890.pdf
4. The cuts are against a 1990 baseline of 208.2MtCe (from DEFRA’s Climate Change The UK Programme 2006). The government projected in the Energy Review in July 2006, that on trends prior to the new policies announced in the review would put the UK on track for 168.5MtCe in 2020. The new policies, it suggests, would lead to additional savings of 19.5 – 25.3 MtCe, giving a total saving on 1990 levels of 60.2MtCe and a projected total output in 2020 of 148 MtC. (Even this, the government concedes, is insufficient. The Review said that “in order to demonstrate
our leadership in tackling climate change and make real progress towards our 2050 carbon reduction goal”, MtC emissions (note C, not Ce) must come down to 110-120 by 2020 (from 151.5MtC today). This, it said, required further cuts of 25-35MtC, rather than the proposed 19.5-25.3MtCe (in the case of these proposed cuts, MtC and MtCe can be regarded as equivalent). UCL’s audit found that total cuts on 1990 levels by 2020 will amount to between 19 and 30MtCe in the four sectors examined (domestic, business, energy and national transport). It assumes for the purpose of the study that the government’s proposed cut of 7.4MtCe in the remaining sectors (agriculture, forestry, land management and public) will be delivered.
5. Margaret Beckett, Secretary of State for the Environment, 29th September 2005. We are leading the world on tackling climate change. Speech to the Labour Party conference, Brighton.
6. Department of Trade and Industry, July 2006. The Energy Challenge: Energy Review Report 2006. http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/file31890.pdf
7. Mark Maslin et al, ibid.
8. House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee, 7th August 2006. Reducing Carbon
Emissions from Transport. Volume I, para 44. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmenvaud/981/981-i.pdf
9. Department for Transport, 30th June 2003. Assessing the Impact of Graduated Vehicle Excise Duty: Main Findings. http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roads/environment/research/consumerbehaviour/assessingtheimpactofgraduate3817?page=3
10. House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee, ibid, para 18.
11. ibid, para 20.
12. Vehicle Certification Agency, viewed 29th February and 5th March 2007. http://www.vcacarfueldata.org.uk/search/vedSearchResults.asp
13. DfT press office, pers comm.
14. HM Treasury, November 2006. Pre-Budget Report 2006, para 7.61.
15. The European Union, 8th May 2003. Directive 2003/30/EC: On the Promotion of the Use of Biofuels or Other Renewable Fuels for Transport. Official Journal L 123 , 17/05/2003 P. 0042 – 0046.
16. Bank Sarasin, July 2006. Sustainability Report: Biofuels – transporting us to a fossil-free future?, page 14.
17. Food and Agriculture Organisation, December 2006. Food Outlook 2. http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/j8126e/j8126e01a.htm
18. Wetlands International, 8th December 2006. Bio-fuel less sustainable than realised http://www.wetlands.org/news.aspx?ID=804eddfb-4492-4749-85a9-5db67c2f1bb8
19. Tamimi Omar, 1st December 2005. Felda to set up largest biodiesel plant. The Edge Daily.
http://www.theedgedaily.com/cms/content.jsp?id=com.tms.cms.article.Article_e5d7c0d9-cb73c03a-df4bfc00-d453633e; See e.g. Zaidi Isham Ismail, 7th November 2005. IOI to go it alone on first biodiesel plant.
http://www.btimes.com.my/Current_News/BT/Monday/Frontpage/20051107000223/Article/; No author, 25th November 2005. GHope nine-month profit hits RM841mil. http://biz.thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2005/11/25/business/12693859&sec=business; No author, 26th November 2005. GHope to invest RM40mil for biodiesel plant in Netherlands. http://biz.thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2005/11/26/business/12704187&sec=business; No author, 23rd November 2005. Malaysia IOI Eyes Green Energy Expansion in Europe. http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/33622/story.htm; Loh Kim Chin, 26th October 2005. Singapore to host two biodiesel plants, investments total over S$80m. Channel NewsAsia.
20. Ruth Kelly MP, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government. 13th December 2006 Shaping a low carbon future – our environmental vision. Speech at the ‘Towards Zero Carbon Development’ event. http://www.communities.gov.uk/index.asp?id=1505202.
21. Andrew Warren, March 2006. Time to Put a Stop to the Disdain for Regulations. Energy in Buildings and Industry. http://www.ukace.org/pubs/articles/eibi2006-03.pdf
22. AEA Technology, May 2006. Compliance with Part L1 of the 2002 Building Regulations. The Energy Efficiency Partnership for Homes. http://www.est.org.uk/uploads/documents/partnership/Compliance%20with%20Part%20L1%20of%20the%202002%20Building%20Regulations%2030506.pdf
23. P. Grigg, 10th November 2004. Assessment of energy efficiency impact of Building Regulations compliance. Building Research Establishment. Report for the Energy Savings Trust and Energy Efficiency Partnership for Homes. http://www.est.org.uk/uploads/documents/partnership/Houses_airtightness_report_Oct_04.pdf
24. Department of Trade and Industry, ibid. Table 8.1, page 150.
25. Mark Maslin et al, ibid.
26. Department for Transport, December 2003. The Future of Air Transport. White paper. Para 12.8.
27. Sally Cairns and Carey Newson, September 2006. Predict and Decide: aviation, climate change and UK policy. Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford. p16.
28. ibid, p8.
29. See the figures and sources here: https://www.monbiot.com/archives/2006/12/19/preparing-for-take-off/
30. DEFRA, 23rd January 2006. 2004 UK climate change sustainable development indicator and greenhouse gas emissions final figures. http://www.defra.gov.uk/news/2006/060123b.htm
31. DEFRA, March 2006. Climate Change: the UK Programme. P25. http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/climatechange/uk/ukccp/pdf/ukccp06-all.pdf
33. Fred Pearce, 11th August 2005. Climate warning as Siberia melts. New Scientist. Methane has a warming effect 23 times as great as carbon. Manmade carbon dioxide emissions are currently around 22 billion tonnes a year (this is 3.667 x the weight of the carbon they contain).
34. I explain this in George Monbiot, 2006. Heat: how to stop the planet burning. Penguin, London.
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Strong reasoning
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Politics
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The Role of Proteins in Vesicular Stomatitis Virus RNA Replication
The negative-strand RNA genome of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) serves as template for two types of RNA-synthesis reactions, transcription and replication. A major distinction between the two RNA-synthesis processes is a requirement for protein synthesis. Transcription, the synthesis of the leader RNA and five discrete monocistronic messenger RNAs (mRNAs), does not require protein synthesis. Replication, the production of full-length copies of the viral RNA, requires continuous synthesis of viral proteins. This chapter will focus on the question of what newly synthesized protein or proteins are required to effect and maintain the transition from transcription to replication of the negative-strand RNA. Reviews of negative-strand virus RNA replication, including discussions of the nature of the template and specific sequences involved in replication, were presented by Wertz (1980), Lazzarini et al. (1981), and Ball and Wertz (1981). This chapter will concentrate on work that has been carried out since these previous reviews.
KeywordsVesicular stomatitIs Virus Nucleocapsid Protein Replication System Template Protein Viral Protein Synthesis
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
- Arnheiter, H., Dubois-Dalcq, M., Schubert, M., Davis, N., Patton, J., and Lazzarini, R., 1984, Microinjection of monoclonal antibodies to vesicular stomatitis virus nucleocapsid protein into host cells: Effect on virus replication, in: Nonsegmented Negative Strand Viruses ( D. H. L. Bishop and R. W. Compans, eds.), pp. 393–398, Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
- Blumberg, B. M., Giorgi, C., and Kolakofsky, D., 1983, N protein of vesicular stomatitis selectively encapsidates leader RNA in vitro, Cell 32: 559.Google Scholar
- Hill, V., Marnell, L., and Summers, D., 1981In vitro replication and assembly of vesicular stomatitis virus nucleocapsids, Virology113:109.Google Scholar
- Howard, M., Davis, N., Patton, J., and Wertz, G., 1986, Roles of vesicular stomatitis virus N and NS proteins in viral RNA replication, in: The Biology of Negative Strand Viruses ( B. Mahy and D. Kolakofsky, eds.), pp. 134–140, Elsevier Press, New York.Google Scholar
- Keene, J. D., Kurilla, M., Wilusz, J., and Chambers, J., 1984, Interactions between cellular La protein and leader RNA, in: Nonsegmented Negative Strand Viruses ( D. H. L. Bishop and R. W. Compans, eds.), pp. 103–108, Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
- Patton, J. T., Davis, N. L., and Wertz, G. W., 1984b, Role of VSV proteins in RNA replication, in: Nonsegmented Negative Strand Viruses ( D. H. L. Bishop and R. W. Compans, eds.), pp. 147–152, Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
- Peluso, R. W., and Moyer, S. A., 1984, Vesicular stomatitis virus proteins required for the in vitro replication of defective interfering particle genome RNA, in: Nonsegmented Negative Strand Viruses ( D. H. L. Bishop and R. W. Compans, eds.), pp. 153–160, Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
- Wertz, G., 1980, RNA replication, in: Rhabdoviruses, Vol. II ( D. H. L. Bishop, ed.), pp. 75–93, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.Google Scholar
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Listen to “Living in Sync with Nature”.
“The earth has music for those who listen” – Rumi
Believe it or not, you are part of nature and an essential piece of the puzzle which makes up the bigger picture.
Planet earth is one big ecosystem which connects everything and everyone. Our breath and heartbeat are constant reminders of life’s pulsing rhythm that moves around and within us. The more you live in alignment with nature and its biological rhythms, the smoother your life will flow.
There is no doubt that we humans are falling out of sync with nature. Today, everything is digital, processed and chemically enhanced. We spray poison on the food that we eat and pump it into the water we drink, all the while telling ourselves that we have made great scientific leaps.
The world we are currently living in reflects the decisions that we have made in the past. We have previously viewed ourselves as separate from nature and the environment, but it’s time to wake up and realise that we are one with the world we inhabit.
Deep down, we know human beings have a strong connection to nature, and we know that strengthening that link has a positive impact on our well-being.
Arranging your life a little better and syncing it with the natural cycles of life around you and the planet itself is essential. After all, it is the world you live in, which has made your life the way it is.
Here are some ways to sync with nature:
Spend More Time in Nature
The easiest way to sync with nature is to surround yourself with it. The more high-tech our lives become, the more nature we need.
Spending time in nature, looking at plants, water, birds, and other aspects of the natural world gives the cognitive portion of our brain a break, allowing us to be more focused, patient and energised.
Eat Real Food
Switch to food which is ‘alive’. To stay healthy and live longer, we need to eat live foods which are full of energy.
Alive foods will provide your body with the nutrients it needs to function optimally. The healthiest eating plan is simple. It involves consuming more vegetables, fruits, and protein, and fewer processed carbohydrates. Avoid eating packaged and processed foods whenever possible.
Your body’s primary movement and the most potent force in your life is the quiet cycle of your breath. Yet, few know much about this inner resource. Consciously learning how to breath in movement and stillness, agitation and joy can lower your heart rate, alleviate stress, support sleep and expand your capacity for life-force. Breathwork even helps your health and serves as a bridge to your spiritual nature.
Yoga involves gentle exercises that incorporate both meditation and controlled physical movements. The focus on deep breathing and stretching effectively relieves the symptoms of depression, such as sleep troubles, pain, and loss of energy. Yoga gives you totality and allows you to find space within yourself to unite the body, mind and spirit.
Sound healing is believed to help treat stress, depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, sleep problems, and chronic pain.
According to sound healing practitioners, the body’s cells can be harmonised by sound through vibration, thus promoting healing. Sound baths use repetitive notes at different frequencies to help bring your focus away from your thoughts.
If you find it difficult to find time for a sound healing session, you can try DeepH App Meditations. The app has a specially designed section to help you access meditative states through the transformative and healing power of sound.
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Moderate reasoning
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Health
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Edward I is considered by many to be the mightiest warrior and most formidable leader of the Plantagenet kings; which, considering the competition, is an impressive feat. So, the question has to be asked: with such a formidable background, how on earth was his son so utterly dreadful at both kingship, and warfare? Did he simply not care? Was he distracted? Did he lack the support of his lords and nobles? Is his opposition not given enough credit? Or was he simply weak and incompetent? Now, rather than attempting to directly answer all of these questions, this article endeavours to provide an overview of the situation in Scotland, and of the Battle of Bannockburn, and in doing so, will leave the decision up to you.
A Little Background
Bannockburn is to the Scots what Agincourt is to the English, just a mention of the name is enough to bring a rare smile to even the most stoic Scot. But, what was the cause of the battle? The simple answer is, the English king, Edward II, needed to raise the Scottish siege of his last remaining outpost in Scotland, Stirling Castle. His hand was forced by the mid-summer deadline for relieving the castle that was agreed upon in November 1313 by the English constable in charge at Stirling, Sir Philip de Mowbray, and Edward, the younger brother of the Scottish king, Robert the Bruce.
Now, the much more considered answer involves two decades of conflict between the nations in what became known as the Wars of Scottish Independence. The fighting was sparked by the previous English king, Edward I, and his claim to the Scottish crown in 1296. Edward had previously displayed a strong interest in Scottish affairs after the death of Alexander III in 1286, but pushed for total control after Scotland aligned with arguably England’s greatest rival, the French. The resulting conflict saw the defeat of the Scots at Dunbar in 1296, and the subsequent humiliation and abdication of the then King of Scots, John Balliol, setting the scene for full invasion. Edward sought to conquer Scotland, as he had already done with Wales, and by 1304 he had taken effective control of the land and returned home to England. In doing so, the English king believed that, on top of taking all of the castles of the land, he had crushed the Scottish resolve. This turned out to anything but true and Edward was forced to return only a few years later. The king was however unable to see out the trip, dying en route to Scotland in July 1307; his death gave new rise to rebellion in Scotland.
Robert the Bruce, who had himself proclaimed King of Scots prior to Edward I’s death, used the succession of Edward II and the distraction this caused to embark on his pursuit to remove the English presence, and regain Scottish control of the land. He was extremely successful in his quest, and by June 1314 essentially all that was left to recapture was Stirling Castle. The Battle of Bannockburn followed a number of other infamous clashes that saw both sides achieve memorable victories, and take heavy losses, and led to a showdown between the newly proclaimed Scottish king, and the less than impressive son of Edward I. However, this is a topic that has taken multi volume book series to explain, so let’s refocus this article on the Battle of Bannockburn itself…
A bit of a preview
As discussed in my article looking at the Battle of Auberoche, the events at Bannockburn had a big part to play in the changing nature of English military tactics over the ensuing two centuries. The reason for this was the tactical breakdown of the previously dominant English heavy cavalry by the Scottish and their schiltrons. Up to this point, Bruce had been extremely successful by employing a number of different tactics against the English, especially guerrilla warfare, and would continue to teach the English a lesson with the clever use of: the men at his disposal, the available weaponry, and the terrain his chosen battlefield.
It was once believed that Bruce and the Scots made camp in a wooded area known as the New Park, north of the Bannockburn. The purpose of which was to use the forest as cover to hide from Edward II’s advancing English army, or at least this is what the contemporary sources would have us believe. Investigations by both historians, and recently by environmental scientists, have not only let to an enduring debate over the precise location of the battlefield, but have questioned the existence of a dense enough wooded area in which to conceal an army; even one as small as the Bruce’s. Instead, the Scots must have been positioned on a hill, likely to be either the one now known as Monument Hill where the statue of the Bruce stands, or a similar position in full sight of the English advance. The position blocks not only the direct approach to the castle, but the most appropriate one as well; with paths to both the left and the right leading into boggy and uneven ground, which would significantly delay Edward’s baggage train and leave the English exposed. Bruce was either forcing Edward into battle where it suited the Scots, or forcing him into difficult ground; between a pike and a wet place if you will…
Further improving the situation for the Scots, the Bruce had a number of tricks prepared to give his men the edge. When you get to choose the battlefield, you do so to put your own men at a distinct advantage, and this is exactly what Bruce did. As Barbour (one of the contemporary sources) tells us, ‘in an open field, where he thought the English must needs pass if they held their way through the Park to the castle, he caused many pits to be dug, of a foot’s breadth and the depth of a man’s knee. So thickly were they dug that they might be likened to the wax comb of a hive. He toiled all that night, so that before day he had made these pits, and covered them with sticks and green grass, that they might not easily see them’.
Although they would be deadly for any who failed to see them, the pits were unlikely to actually catch out any of the English due to their exemplary training and significant experience. As such, the primary function of the pits was not offensive, but defensive; their location forced the English cavalry charge to both significantly narrow, and to hold a line that suited the Scots. As the power of a cavalry charge resides in the synchronised arrival of massive numbers of heavily armoured horses and heavily armed knights, the smaller the frontage, the weaker the charge. This forced change to the English tactics fell straight into the hands of the Scots and their fighting style.
The Scottish fighting style was centred around an infantry force, one which the English had encountered earlier in the wars of independence, prior to Edward II’s succession. The key to their strength was the schiltron. This now famous infantry formation consists of multiple lines of spears or pikes, several ranks deep, with the points thrust out in staggered horizontal layers, creating an impressive and intimidating barrier. Just imagine a giant, angry hedgehog. While the ranks hold firm, the schiltron is able to resist the charge of even the likes of the formidable English heavy cavalry. It is believed that the structure was led from a centrally stationed commander, with a reserve force also located within the schiltron. This enabled the formation to replace casualties to prevent the collapse of a section, and additionally, made the schiltron a highly mobile unit, not only capable of defence, but as we will see, capable of moving to attack. In fact, the formation is arguably stronger when mobile, as its one real weakness is ranged attack, such as what Edward I exploited to his significant advantage at Falkirk in 1298. Even though I could happily discuss tactics and formations for a long time, let’s move on to the battle…
At Bannockburn the English lay,
The Scots, they were na far away.
But waited for the break o’ day
That glinted in the east
The Battle: Day One
As touched on earlier, the English were marching north tasked with relieving the garrison of Stirling Castle. Yet, in possibly the first hint of Edward II’s ineptitude, the English would only arrive in the area around Stirling on 23 June 1314; the very brink of mid-summer and the last days before the deadline. Now, not only was Stirling Castle the last stronghold remaining under English control, but it was also considered the key to Scotland due to its location. One would think that this would have prompted a faster response from the English, but this wasn’t the case.
Whilst making their approach, Edward II and his commanders knew that they held a significant advantage with both the size of their army, and the makeup of their troops. At this time in history, the English heavy cavalry was considered one of, if not the, strongest fighting units in the medieval world. The result of this knowledge was an air of arrogance; the English believed that they would march straight through Bruce’s force, and on to Stirling Castle, putting an end to both the siege, and to Bruce’s claim.
Despite the overwhelming confidence of the English, they knew that time was very much against them – but only because they had waited so long to depart Berwick. Only a day before the battle, Edward’s army endured a 20-mile march, and with the deadline fast approaching, could not afford the luxury of a decent rest. On the morning of June 23, as Edward finally approached the Scottish position and the plains near Stirling Castle, de Mowbray rode forth from the safety of the fortification, with a small force of men. He was intent on convincing the English king to hold off his attack in preference of further rest. It becomes evident how dire de Mowbray deemed the situation to be when you consider the risk he took riding around the Scottish position, even more so when I tell you that they were very nearly captured on their return.
Although Edward failed to heed the immediate advice of de Mowbray, it does seem that he took some counsel from his commanders. With what has been described as a ‘hasty council of war’ (not exactly a confidence building portrayal is it), Edward and the English understood the harsh realities of the terrain and the limited options they had before them, and planned accordingly. Determined to mount an immediate, and arguably impulsive, attack, Edward sent forth his cavalry and infantry for a direct assault, along with a flanking force sent through the boggy terrain of the Carse (the location of which can be seen on the maps shown below). The idea was that if the secondary force could slip past Bruce and the Scots, then a technical relief of the castle had taken place. Furthermore, the force could be well positioned for offensive maneuvers. Now, while all of this was taking place, one of the most well-known events in the life of Robert the Bruce was about to occur…
The Bruce and de Bohun
The Scottish king, sat proudly atop his horse, was moseying along the front of the Scottish line, likely both inspecting his troops and inspiring them with his presence. On the opposing side, within the English front line, was a young knight by the name of Sir Henry de Bohun. Now de Bohun did not know this, but his next choice would see his name live on forever, just maybe not how he would have wanted it to do so…
Sensing an opportunity to end the conflict with a single blow of his lance, the young English knight led a brave solo charge at the opposing line. His eyes no doubt fixed on the Scottish king, where he intended to land the finishing blow. The two men could not have looked a less even match; with de Bohun astride a war-horse, or destrier, fully armoured and carrying a lance and shield, while the Bruce was riding a light palfrey, carrying only a short sword and axe, mounted purely to aid his command, unlike de Bohun who was prepared for a heavy cavalry charge.
Now, the response of Bruce to de Bohun’s attack differs depending on where you read it. Some say he turned at the last moment, some say he turned and waited for de Bohun, and some say that he turned and charged in response; but the one thing they all have in common, is what happened next… As the two men came close, the Scottish king avoided the thrust of the English lance, and in a display of both power and skill, struck at the head of de Bohun with his axe, killing him with a single blow. The action has been described rather poetically, and likely highly excessively as, ‘cleaving his head in two’. Barbour wrote that ‘the heavy stroke that he gave clove skull and brain; the axe-handle shivered in two; and de Bohun crashed helpless to the earth’. The battle had undeniably begun, and with it, the first victory to the Scots.
But soon the sun broke through the heath,
And lighted up that field o’ death.
When Bruce, wi’ saul-inspiring breath,
His heralds thus addressed: –
“Scots, wha hae wi’ Wallace bled,
Scots, wham Bruce often led.
Welcome to your gory bed,
Or to glorious victory !
It is important to note at this stage that the main body of the English army had yet to cross the Bannockburn, a significant choke point for such a substantial force. With the obvious enthusiasm gained from witnessing their king strike down a powerful foe with a single swing of his axe, the Scots pushed forward. This resulted in a crush for the English vanguard, between the pits, the boggy terrain, the spikes of the schiltrons, and the advance of rest of their own army. With the ford on the Bannockburn both slowing and narrowing the English line, and the pits maintaining that press, the English heavy cavalry lacked its usual impetus. The result was a slaughter. The harsh realities that the English commanders had reported to their king rang true, and the English were pushed back south of the Bannockburn. Edward’s desire for an immediate attack had cost him a number of troops, the life of de Bohun among others, and no doubt the morale and confidence of his men.
The triumphant Scots had to now decide the best response to their initial success. The commanders of Bruce’s army, filled with confidence, urged him to press home his advantage and continue the fight the next day. At the same time, the English were again meeting for a council of war; likely with much less enthusiasm and much more caution than the previous assembly. It was in this meeting that Edward decided to change tact, and move his entire force away from the main route to the castle, onto the more open ground to the north. The movement is not shown on the maps, but the new location is to the right of the English position as shown in Figure 1 above, between Bannock and Balquiderock. The English believed that the same difficulties they faced in attacking the Scottish position, would prevent the Scots from attacking their position whilst relocating; the Bannockburn was now their protector. Edward was reminded, either by memory or a commander, that the primary purpose of their being in Scotland was the relief of Stirling Castle, and as such, victory in the field was of less importance, arguably not even necessary.
After being pushed back by Bruce and his men, the English army was forced to spend a restless night on the Carse. It is vital to note that not only was the Carse boggy terrain, but it was riddled with small streams and drainage ditches, as the low-lying land was used primarily for agricultural purposes, and it was traversed by the flow of both the Bannockburn, and the other nearby water source, the Pelstream (I know, why on earth did Edward move his army here…). The already soft ground was no doubt trampled into a muddy disaster very quickly by the large English force. Furthermore, it would have been almost impossible for the supply train to make its way down to the site of the camp, and as such the majority of Edward’s men would have gone hungry, and slept rough. It is not difficult to imagine the dire state of morale; the word through the English camp was that God was not on their side, that the fight was unjust and unrighteous, and the result of this was a night of drowned sorrows and drunken soldiers.
The factor that would finally convince the Bruce to commit to a second day of fighting was the word of Sir Alexander Seton, a Scotsman who had fought on the English side on the first day. Oh yeah, Bruce was not only significantly outnumbered, but he was yet to gain the full support of Scotland and so in addition to Edward’s Englishmen, he faced Scots that remained loyal to Edward. Seton informed the Scottish king of the true nature of morale in the English camp, and along with Bruce’s commanders, encouraged him that the time had come. Bruce was convinced. The Scots would fight on.
“Now’s the day, and now’s the hour;
See the front o’ battle lour.
See approach proud Edward’s power, –
Edward ! Chains and slavery !”
The Battle: Day Two
The English decided that their next attack should take place early on the second day, with a crossing of the Bannockburn nearer the River Forth, avoiding the pits that the Scottish had dug prior to the battle. This new position would allow for both an easier crossing, and more importantly, a full charge of the heavy cavalry. Both the Scots and the English rose early, or for the English maybe it was more that they barely slept, either way the day started at dawn and troop movement began. The English movement is shown on the Figure 2 below.
The English crossed the Bannockburn as planned and the Scots were too far removed to prevent them from doing so, or at least that’s how it would have seemed to the English. The Scots meanwhile held mass, as they had done prior to the first day of the battle. Upon noticing the kneeling soldiers opposing him, Edward made comment that they were clearly craving his forgiveness for opposing him. Little was he to know that the same feeling of pride and confidence that the Scots ended with on day one, remained as powerful as ever, while Bruce was knighting the men in his army whom he believed had distinguished themselves on the previous day.
Now, it is at this time that a closer inspection of the map as shown in Figure 2 is warranted. As it stood, the Scottish had moved slightly towards the English position, and had paused to hold mass. Meanwhile, the English had forded the Bannockburn, and amassed on the Carse, ready for their charge. Edward had successfully avoided the pits, had moved his entire army, was protected from a potential flanking move on all sides, and believed he was facing an enemy that was remorseful and as a result lacking in confidence. In reality, he could not have been more wrong.
As noted earlier, the strength of the heavy cavalry charge is in the width of its frontage. So, although Edward had avoided the pits, he had chosen a position that not only pinned his troops in on all sides, but prevented the spread of his cavalry. Although the English had the might and power of the destrier at their disposal, the ground was boggy and their speed was significantly reduced as a result. Although Edward had his entire army at his disposal, he was lacking in room and as a result the lines were overcrowded. Finally, although he believed his enemy regretful and apprehensive, they were in fact hardened and optimistic; and so, to Edward’s sheer astonishment, the Scottish advanced.
To add to the drama of the story, a knight by the name of Gilbert de Clare, the Earl of Gloucester, was at this time still reeling from a slur of cowardice stemming from King Edward II himself. When the English king had been advised to rest prior to the battle, de Clare had agreed with the notion, and had joined in counselling Edward to be cautious. The advice was deemed unnecessary from de Mowbray, but utterly cowardly from de Clare. In a manner similar to the actions of de Bohun the previous day, de Clare, along with a number of other English knights, launched himself at the Scottish advance, desperate to regain his honour in the eyes of his king. Many of the men in the charge died when confronted by the schiltron of Edward the Bruce, including Gilbert de Clare.
The attack of the Scottish demonstrated not just their immense confidence, but also great unity and discipline. They moved in a systematic fashion, advancing on the left flank of the English and preventing the waiting cavalry from gaining speed. At the same time, a small number of archers on the English side, the like that would make themselves famous at battles like Crécy throughout the Hundred Years’ War, gained sufficient room to begin bombarding the unprotected Scottish schiltrons. Although this caused a break in the advance of Bruce’s men, the arrows were halted by the Scottish light cavalry, who unlike the English horse, were able to move swiftly in the boggy terrain, and as such were able to ride down the now unprotected archers. The Scots own archers now rained down missiles of their own on the jam-packed English lines, all the while, the mobile schiltrons continued their disciplined drive forward. The Scottish began to shout cries of victory, as the English trampled their own in their desperate attempts to escape. Hemmed in by water on all sides, the reality would have been atrocious, as many of the English who escaped the fight, would have likely drowned in the crush over the Forth, the Pelstream, and the Bannockburn, no matter which direction they fled.
Once it was clear that the battle was lost, King Edward’s men safely escorted him from the field, but the damage was done. Edward was taken to the gates of Stirling Castle, but was refused entry; de Mowbray urged his king to leave, fearing that he would be taken prisoner as the Scots would inevitably overrun the castle. Edward finally heeded sound advice and fled to Dunbar before returning to safety in Berwick. The Wars of Scottish Independence raged on as a result of the renewed confidence of the Scots under their now proven king, Robert the Bruce. Edward II would eventually be disposed by his nobles, losing the English throne to his son, who would become King Edward III; a welcome return to a strong Plantagenet king.
– Jamie Gatehouse
- Feature image:earliest extant illustration of the Battle of Bannockburn. Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, MS 171B, f. 275r. Scotichronicon. c. 1440.
- John Barbour and George Eyre-Todd, The Bruce, being the metrical history of Robert the Bruce, king of Scots (London: Gowans and Grey Limited, 1907).
- Wendy R. Childs (trans.) Vita Edwardi Secundi (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
- John Sadler, Border Fury (New York: Routledge, 2005).
- Michael Prestwich, Armies and Warfare in the Middle Ages: The English Experience (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996).
- Robert White, A History of the Battle of Bannockburn Fought A.D. 1314: with notices of the principal warrior who engaged in that conflict (London: Forgotten Books, 2015).
- Henry Gough, Scotland in 1298. Documents Relating to the Campaign of King Edward the First in That Year, and Especially to the Battle of Falkirk (London: A Gardner, 1888).
- Michael Prestwich, Plantagenet England 1225-1360 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007)
- William Cullen Bryant, A Library of Poetry and Song: Being Choice Selections from the Best Poets (New York: J. B. Ford and Company, 1872).
Note: the small sections of the poem that feature throughout the article are from ‘Bannockburn’ by Robert Burns, as found in A Library of Poetry and Song, listed in the references.
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RUTH: Our Kinsman Redeemer
The romance of redemption
Ruth gets its title from the heroine of the book. She is a foreigner, from the land of Moab, who becomes the great grandmother of King David. It is not fiction, but is the real story of the lineage of the king and the future Messiah. She is the widow of Mahlon, the son of Naomi and Elimelech who were living in Moab because of famine. Ruth was a Moabitess, a descendent of Lot (Gen. 19:37), who lived in the area east of the Dead Sea. The god of the Moabites was Chemosh, to which children were sacrificed.
Never measure a book by its size. This little booklet of a few pages “is one of the rarest and most beautiful idylls in literature.” It is a delightful picture of the domestic life in time of anarchy and poverty from famine. It is as Clyde T. Francisco says, “one of the master short stories of all time.” This is the story of how God has a witness during the darkest days of Jewish history. God is all-sufficient for those who trust in Him.
AUTHOR: of Ruth is unknown.
DATE: The setting for the events in the book of Ruth is stated in 1:1. “Now it came about in the days when the judges governed, that there was a famine in the land.” Therefore it is placed in the dark ages of Hebrew history, a time of deterioration, apostasy and disorganization. The land was in social chaos. The time covered is about twelve years. Ruth serves as a bridge in the history of Israel between the Judges and the monarchy.
It was probably written during the reign of David, but before Solomon began his reign since it gives only a partial genealogy of David.
PURPOSE: One of the purposes of the book is found in the genealogy in 4:17-22 demonstrating the lineage of the Messiah through Obed, Jesse and David. The majestic sovereignty of God is seen in the unfolding of the plan of redemption through the lineage of David and the Messiah. God did not allow the lineage to be broken even during the dark ages of Hebrew history. A thousand years have passed since God called Abraham to be the father of a nation and another thousand will pass before the coming of the greater Son of David, the Messiah, Jesus Christ (Matt. 1:1-16; Luke 3:31-38). Ruth is important to us because of its teaching on the lineage of the messiah. This foreigner was included in God’s grace. This is a picture of the wonder of God’s love in the midst of human depravity at its worst. God’s eternal purposes were not thwarted by the sinfulness of mankind. He had His person to continue the lineage of the Messiah. The world’s most unimportant people are God’s most important. This Moabitess was excluded by the law, but received by God’s grace.
The main purpose of this book is to make practical application of the law of the kinsman. Ruth demonstrates the providence of a loving God in the lives of ordinary, unimportant people during turbulent times.
THEME: The most important theme is redemption with its main teaching centering on the Kinsman redeemer as a type of the Messiah. The Goel is the one who redeems. He must be a blood relative, have the ability to purchase, be willing to buy the inheritance and be willing to marry the widow of the deceased kinsman. God has provided a kinsman redeemer (Goel) for His people (Lev. 25:23-25, 47-49). “Blessed is the LORD who has not left you without a redeemer today, and may His name become famous in Israel” (Ruth 4:14). Boaz is Naomi’s kinsman redeemer who marries Ruth and keeps the family line alive and illustrates God’s redeeming work to come through Jesus Christ (Titus 2:14; 1 Pet. 1:18-19). In the book of Ruth the kinsman who is able and willing is Boaz.
KEY VERSE: 4:14
STYLE: of Ruth is more similar to 1 and 2 Samuel. It is a literary masterpiece with a symmetrical narrative, a romance that has as its theme the kinsman redeemer. It is full of imagination with its entwined theme of love and romance.
LAW OF THE KINSMAN: Elimelech and Naomi were of the tribe of Judah and the city of Bethlehem where they had rights of ancestral property. They had lost their property through foreclosure and debts and moved to the land of Moab. After her husband and sons died she and Ruth, her daughter-in-law, moved back to Bethlehem hoping to receive back the property. The marriage customs required the nearest relative of a deceased man to marry his widow (Deu. 25:5-10). The offspring of this marriage would carry the name and inheritance of the former husband. Because of age, Ruth became Naomi’s substitute in marriage and bore a son to perpetuate the family lineage. Boaz became the goel (kinsman redeemer) and bought back the property of Elimelech for the family. It fell his duty to redeem the land (Lev. 25:25-28). This person must be near of kin, able to redeem, willing to redeem, and free of need of redemption himself. He accomplishes redemption completely when the price is paid in full. Goel or kinsman redeemer pays the price of redemption. The word goel means, “to redeem, buy back” and is applied to a piece of property, farm, salve, etc.
OUR KINSMAN REDEEMER: meets all of the law of the kinsman. He is our nearest of kin through the incarnation (Jn. 1:14; Heb. 2:10-18; Phil. 2:7; Rom. 8:3; Gal. 4:4-5). He is able and He has the power to redeem (Heb. 1:2-3; Col. 1:15-23; 2:9). Jesus is willing to redeem us (Titus 2:14; Jn. 10:11, 15, 17-18; Matt. 20:28; Heb. 10:7). He is free to redeem us because He did not need to be redeemed Himself (1 Pet. 2:21-24; 2 Cor. 5:21; 1 Pet. 3:18; 1:18-19).
Leonidas Robinson stresses that the following kind of interpretation is not always safe, “but who will say the original meanings of these names have no significance in this beautiful story?” He is referring to a suggestion of George Adam Smith of the type of Christ in Ruth. Ruth “poor and friendless lay at the feet of Boaz, meaning ‘Redeemer’ or ‘in Him strength.’ Orphal (Scull) turns back to death; Ruth (satisfied) cleaves to Naomi (God is sweet) who brings her to Bethlehem (House of Bread) and to Boaz who, like Christ, was the Bread of Life, the Lord of the harvest, and the Giver of Rest” (Gates and Keys to the Bible Books, p. 67).
The book of Ruth demonstrates God’s providential care of His people. Naomi and Ruth were common people in common settings being guided by the supernatural hand of God to prepare for the coming of David and the Messiah. Everything that happens to God’s people is significant. God’s faithfulness is prominent in this book. He enters the poorest of social conditions and works out His eternal purposes through them. God is concerned with the little person, the insignificant, the average person. God cares about you and has sent His Redeemer to redeem you.
|RUTH’S RESOLVE (1:1-22)|
|Naomi’s Family (1:1-5)|
|Ruth’s Choice (1:6-18)|
|Move to Bethlehem (1:19-22)|
|RUTH’S REDEEMER (2:1-23)|
|“Field of Boaz” (2:1-3)|
|Ruth Meets Boaz (2:2-7)|
|Boaz Provides for Ruth (2:8-23)|
|RUTH’S REQUEST (3:1-18)|
|Naomi’s Wisdom (3:1-4)|
|Ruth’s Obedience (3:5-9)|
|Boaz’s Response (3:10-18)|
|RUTH’S REDEMPTION (4:1-22)|
|Boaz Negotiates (4:1-12)|
|A Son is Born (4:13-17)|
|A Greater Son (4:18-22)|
Title: Introduction to Ruth
Series: A Look at the Book
Message by Wil Pounds (c) 2008. Anyone is free to use this material and distribute it, but it may not be sold under any circumstances whatsoever without the author's written consent.
Unless otherwise noted “Scripture quotations taken from the NASB." "Scripture taken from the NEW AMERICAN STANDARD BIBLE®, © Copyright 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation Used by permission." (www.Lockman.org)
Scripture quoted by permission. Quotations designated (NET) are from the NET Bible® copyright ©1996-2006 by Biblical Studies Press, L.L.C. http://www.bible.org/. All rights reserved.
Wil is a graduate of William Carey University, B. A.; New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary, Th. M.; and Azusa Pacific University, M. A. He has pastored in Panama, Ecuador and the U. S, and served for over 20 years as missionary in Ecuador and Honduras. He had a daily expository Bible teaching ministry head in over 100 countries for ten years. He continues to seek opportunities to be personally involved in world missions. Wil and his wife Ann have three grown daughters. He currently serves as a Baptist pastor and teaches seminary extension courses in Honduras.
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One of the most exciting aspects of summer camp is the chance to make new friends. Campers come from all walks of life, creating a diverse and inclusive environment where lifelong friendships can blossom. Whether it's bonding over shared interests, conquering challenges together, or simply sharing stories around the campfire, these connections are a cherished part of the camp experience.
Another reason why summer camp is so much fun is the wide array of activities available. Camps offer an incredible range of options, from traditional favorites like swimming, hiking, and arts and crafts to more unique pursuits like archery, rock climbing, and wilderness survival.
Campers have the chance to explore their interests, try new things, and develop skills they might never have discovered otherwise. The sense of accomplishment that comes from mastering a new activity or conquering a fear is incredibly rewarding, and it builds self-confidence and resilience in campers.
Perhaps the most memorable aspect of summer camp is the sense of freedom and adventure that comes with it. Campers get to unplug from screens and technology, immerse themselves in nature, and experience the joy of living in the moment.
Whether it's exploring the great outdoors, telling stories under a starlit sky, or embarking on thrilling adventures, summer camp creates lasting memories that campers carry with them for a lifetime. It's a time when kids can be their authentic selves, create unforgettable memories, and have an absolute blast in the process. Summer camp truly is an unparalleled source of fun and growth for young minds.
Summer Camp Benefits Help Your Children Year Round
Summer camp is not only a ton of fun for your children. Summer camp benefits extend far beyond the warm months, providing lasting advantages that can positively impact your children year-round. Here are some ways in which summer camp benefits can help your children throughout the year:
1) Social and Emotional Growth
Summer camp fosters social skills, teamwork, and emotional resilience. These qualities acquired at camp help children navigate the complexities of school life, build positive relationships with peers and teachers, and handle stress and challenges effectively. The friendships formed at camp can provide a support network during the school year.
2) Independence and Confidence
Camp encourages children to step outside their comfort zones and try new things. This newfound independence and self-confidence can translate into better academic performance, as kids are more willing to take on challenges, ask questions, and actively participate in their education.
3) Physical Activity
Many summer camps emphasize physical activities and outdoor adventures. The habits of physical fitness and a love for the outdoors acquired at camp can inspire children to stay active throughout the year, leading to improved health and overall well-being.
4) Problem-Solving Skills
Camps often involve problem-solving activities, such as team challenges or wilderness adventures. These experiences equip children with valuable problem-solving skills that can be applied to academic, personal, and social situations in school and beyond.
5) Creativity and Imagination
Camps frequently offer arts and crafts, creative writing, and other artistic pursuits. Encouraging creativity and imaginative thinking at camp can enhance a child's creative abilities, which can be beneficial in various school subjects, such as writing, art, and science.
6) Time Management
At camp, children learn to manage their time effectively, juggling various activities and responsibilities throughout the day. These time-management skills can transfer to their schoolwork, helping them meet deadlines and balance their academic and extracurricular commitments.
7) Cultural Awareness
Many summer camps are diverse and bring together children from various backgrounds. This exposure to different cultures and perspectives can promote tolerance, empathy, and a broader worldview, which can be valuable in today's interconnected world.
8) Resilience and Adaptability
Camp often involves exposure to unpredictable weather, new environments, and unexpected challenges. This helps children develop resilience and adaptability, which are essential life skills that can help them cope with changes and adversity in school and beyond.
The benefits of summer camp extend well beyond the summer season. They equip children with a range of skills and experiences that can enhance their overall development, academic performance, and social interactions throughout the year. Camp provides an enriching and formative experience that contributes to a well-rounded education and personal growth.
Reap Summer Camp Benefits at Camp Tekoa
Camp Tekoa is a summer camp and conference center located in the Blue Ridge mountains of North Carolina. We offer a wide variety of summer resident and day camps for boys and girls. These include elementary day camps and resident camps for elementary, middle school, and high school students. We also offer Adventure Camps for middle and high school students, as well as day programs for homeschoolers and after school.
Our mission at Camp Tekoa is “Touching hearts, changing lives, sharing the light of Christ.” Camp Tekoa is built on Christian principles. Everything we do is built around our mission, and our focus on spiritual growth is one of the things that make us unique. Every child is valued and belongs here.
Camp Tekoa is the perfect place for your child to grow and experience all the benefits of overnight summer camp. For more information about registering your child for Camp Tekoa, contact us or visit our website.
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In his history, Herodotus recounts the remarkable circumnavigation of Africa by Phoenicians in Egyptian service. The Phoenicians of Carthage also made expeditions down the west coast of Africa. Below is a description of one of these explorations.
A Carthaginian Exploration of the West African Coast.
It was decreed by the Carthaginians, that Hanno should undertake a voyage beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and found Liby-Phoenician cities. He sailed accordingly with sixty ships of fifty oars each, and a body of men and women to the number of thirty thousand, and provisions and other necessaries
When we had passed the Pillars on our voyage, and had sailed beyond them for two days, we founded the first city which we named Thymiaterium. Below it lay an extensive plain. Proceeding thence towards the west, we came to Soloeis, a promontory of Libya, a place thickly covered with trees, where we erected a temple to Neptune; and again proceeded for the space of half a day towards the east, until we arrived at a lake lying not far from the sea. and filled with abundance of large reeds. Here elephants, and a great number of other wild beasts, were feeding.
Having passed the lake about a day s sail, we founded cities near the sea, called Cariconticos, and Gytte, and Acra, and Melitta, and Arambys. Thence we came to the great river Lixus, which flows from Libya. On its banks the Lixitae, a shepherd tribe, were feeding flocks, amongst whom we continued some time on friendly terms. Beyond the Lixitae dwelt the inhospitable Ethiopians, who pasture a wild country intersected by large mountains, from which they say the river Lixus flows. In the neighbourhood of the mountains lived the Troglodytae, men of various appearances, whom the Lixitae described as swifter in running than horses.
Having procured interpreters from them, we coasted along a desert country towards the south two days. Thence we proceeded towards the east the course of a day. Here we found in a recess of a certain bay a small island, containing a circle of five stadia, where we settled a colony, and called it Cerne. We judged from our voyage that this place lay in a direct line with Carthage; for the length of our voyage from Carthage to the Pillars, was equal to that from the Pillars to Cerne.
We then came to a lake, which we reacted by sailing up a large river called Chretes This lake had three islands, larger than Cerne from which proceeding a day's sail, we came to the extremity of the lake, that was overhung by large mountains, inhabited by savage men clothed in skins of wild beasts, who drove us away by throwing stones, and hindered us from landing. Sailing thence we came to another river, that was large and broad, and full of crocodiles, and river horses; whence returning back we came again to Cerne
Thence we sailed towards the south twelve days, coasting the shore, the whole of which is inhabited by Ethiopians, who would not wait our approach, but fled from us. Their language was not intelligible even to the Lixitae who were with us. Towards the last day we approached some large mountains covered with trees, the wood of which was sweet-scented and variegated. Having sailed by these mountains for two days, we came to an immense opening of the sea; on each side of which, towards the continent, was a plain; from which we saw by night fire arising at intervals in all directions, either more or less.
Having taken in water there, we sailed forwards five days near the land, until we came to a large bay, which our interpreters informed us was called the Western Horn. In this was a large island, and in the island a saltwater lake, and in this another island, where, when we had landed, we could discover nothing in the daytime except trees; but in the night we saw many fires burning, and heard the sound of pipes, cymbals, drums, and confused shouts. We were then afraid, and our diviners ordered us to abandon the island.
Sailing quickly away thence we passed a country burning with fires and perfumes; and streams of fire supplied from it fell into the sea. The country was impassable on account of the heat. We sailed quickly thence, being much terrified; and passing on for four days, we discovered at night a country full of fire. In the middle was a lofty fire, larger than the rest, which seemed to touch the stars. When day came we discovered it to be a large hill, called the Chariot of the Gods. On the third day after our departure thence, having sailed by those streams of fire, we arrived at a bay called the Southern Horn; at the bottom of which lay an island like the former, having a lake, and in this lake another island, full of savage people, the greater part of whom were women, whose bodies were hairy, and whom our interpreters called Gorillae. Though we pursued the men we could not seize any of them; but all fled from us, escaping over the precipices, and defending themselves with stones. Three women were however taken; but they attacked their conductors with their teeth and hands, and could not be prevailed upon to accompany us. Having killed them, we flayed them, and brought their skins with us to Carthage. We did not sail farther on, our provisions failing us.
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Strong reasoning
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Feeling isolated? You are not alone. A.D.V.I.C.E has some suggestions.
Loneliness or isolation can affect anyone at any time and at any stage of life.
A 2016 survey by the British Red Cross and Co-Op, highlighted by the Campaign to End Loneliness, found that a fifth of the UK population are always or often lonely. Two-thirds of the population wouldn’t feel comfortable admitting it.
It is a taboo subject for many who fear opening up about their feelings.
Many people have been trying to cope with isolation or loneliness during the Covid-19 pandemic.
Loneliness is not always the same as being alone. Even people that have lots of social contact, are in a relationship or are part of a family may still feel lonely, especially if they don’t feel understood or cared for by the people around them.
Likewise, you can be alone and feel peaceful and content.
Many factors cause feelings of loneliness, but where Covid-19 has caused social isolation, it is frequently because of the forced separation from those we love, bereavement or the lack of social connections with other people.
Long-term loneliness is associated with an increased risk of mental health problems including depression, anxiety and increased stress. It is also linked to physical health issues such as cardiovascular impairment, chronic pain, and fatigue.
Loneliness and gender
The Office of National Statistics (ONS) analysed the characteristics and circumstances associated with loneliness in England using the Community Life Survey 2016 to 2017 and found that women reported feeling lonely more often than men.
They concluded that this could relate to differences in how men and women reflect on their personal experiences of loneliness.
Some research suggests that men may be more reluctant than women to report undesirable feelings such as loneliness.
How loneliness can affect your health
- Heart problems
- Higher stress
- Decreased memory
- Risk of drug abuse
- Stay in touch with others, whether via video calls or a good old-fashioned phone call. As guidance changes, meet face-to-face while socially distanced if this feels comfortable to you.
- Keep to routines where possible.
- Consider using talking therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), which may help and is often available through company Employee Assistance Programmes or your local NHS. CBT can help you manage your problems by changing the way you think and behave.
- Remind yourself of all the positive things in your life, however small or big they may be.
- Control the controllable. Change what you can, but it helps if you can recognise and accept when something can’t be changed.
- Try to switch off from social media stories where people are sharing their ‘perfect’ lives. Remind yourself that you do not know what their lives are like away from the screen.
Give to others
- Check in on family, friends and colleagues who may be living on their own.
- Consider how you may be able to volunteer. You could help out at a local food bank, volunteer for the NHS as a ‘check in and chat’ volunteer, or support a scheme such as Age UK’s neighbourly volunteering.
Remain physically active
- Physical exercise helps to release endorphins in the brain. These are natural chemicals in the body that have a ‘feel good’ or pain-relieving effect. Try to get some physical activity into your routine.
- There are online resources and apps available to help you exercise safely where you live, whatever your fitness level.
- If you prefer to manage on your own, the charity Mind suggests planning your week ahead and aiming to do something you enjoy.
- Look at things you could do that you wouldn’t normally have time for. If you aren’t commuting, for example, you could use the time you are saving to meditate, do some cleaning or to prepare and cook new recipes.
A.D.V.I.C.E. was set up in September 2019 to share wellbeing information with transport and construction workers. Members are CIRAS, Barhale, Bovis Homes, Colas Rail UK, Ganymede Solutions, McGinley Support Services, Midland Metro Alliance, Network Rail, RSS Infrastructure, Transport for Wales, Van-Elle and Vital Human Resources.
Are you concerned about someone who is isolated? Or just want to find a different social circle or someone to talk to? These resources may help.
T: 0800 1111
A counselling service for children and young people.
Volunteer in your local community.
Let’s Talk Loneliness
Details of local organisations and support helplines.
More than 9,000 local groups with the goal of making friends and/or improving themselves or their communities.
Mental Health Foundation
Support for mental health concerns.
Free private social network for you and your neighbours to talk online.
Provides a mood assessment and advice on what you can do.
NHS Fitness Studio
Free exercise videos and expert advice.
T: 116 123
A safe place for people to talk any time they like, in their own way.
T: 0800 4 70 80 90
A free helpline for older people across the UK offering information, friendship, befriending calls and links to local groups and services.
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This doesn’t just apply to humans. It’s true for our canine and feline friends too. Yet most manufactured ‘little round dry pellets’ contain nutrient poor, and/or inappropriate ingredients in addition to inadequate levels of moisture that do not support optimal health.
How did we get to the point where we think that all it takes to feed our dogs and cats is the same scoop of ‘dry pet food’ every single day? If kidney diseases and urinary tract issues are common problems in the UAE and our climate is hot and humid, does it make sense to feed a type of pet food that puts your pet’s body in a constant state of dehydration? Did you know that drinking water from a bowl is not sufficient?
If you compare our dog’s and cat’s ‘Ancestral Diet’ to ‘modern’ typical pet foods, the differences are startling! Our pet’s Ancestors, wolves and wild cats depended largely upon high amounts of moisture found in their prey - fresh meat, organs and bone. The moisture levels of an Ancestral Diet were up to 78% moisture. That’s a lot of moisture! Now a days, dry pet foods contain 5-10% moisture, canned foods 40-60%, and raw food nutrition like Furchild contain 65-75% moisture on an as-fed basis.
Our pet’s digestion and urinary tract systems are a moisture intensive process. From the saliva in their mouths and gastric juices in their digestive tract, a high amount of moisture is needed to properly digest foods and aid the flow through the urinary tract to achieve an optimum pH environment. When digesting an entirely dry diet, our pet’s body will pull the needed moisture from other tissues and organs if necessary, leaving little moisture temporarily available for flushing toxins and general hydration. A chronic state of dehydration can lead to health problems including Kidney issues, Crystals and/or Stones, Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease (FLUTD), Bloating, and more.
Plain and simple, drinking H20 from a bowl is not sufficient. Some pet parents think that soaking kibble in water before feeding would replace the moisture level found in fresh food diets, but this is not the case. In order to get the kibble back to the level of moisture found in whole prey, approximately 4 cups of water would need to be added for every 1 cup of dog food. Depending on the quality of kibble, it may or may not actually soak up the water. Cats would need to drink over 1 cup of water for every 10 lb of body weight to adequately digest their dry food diet. Since cats are not inclined to drink as much water from a bowl as dogs, due to their lower thirst levels from their Ancestral diet, they depend upon a high moisture diet more than dogs.
So, how do we ensure our pets are consuming the right amount of moisture and staying hydrated throughout the summer? It’s simple – in addition to controlling the air-conditioning in your home, feed a species-appropriate, high moisture diet! For adequate absorption and assimilation of ingredients, at least a portion of your pet’s meal should consist of two things:
As our own mother and grandparents would encourage us to eat a variety of fresh, healthy foods, we need to apply this commonsense to pets. If cost is of concern, consider feeding 50% or two meals a week of fresh, species appropriate nutrition, as much as you can reasonably afford.
While cats and dogs thrive on species appropriate diets with high moisture levels, they can be challenging for pet owners and veterinarians to find. But Furchild is changing that. Thankfully, they have made it simple and convenient to feed your beloved pets premium, raw meals needed to live full and vital lives.
Furchild is the first raw pet food company of it’s kind in Dubai and the Middle East Region. Not only do they provide the highest quality nutrition, they specialize in Monthly Plans for pets and deliver to your home across Dubai and other Emirates.
Try a Variety of Furchild’s Premium Meals for Dogs – 10 lb for AED 99.
Try a Variety of Furchild’s Premium Meals for Cats – 5 lb for AED 99.
*limited time offer.
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We get a lot of questions about bionic eye technology and where the research is up to.
The short answer is that it is still very early days.
There are at least fourteen separate visual prosthesis projects operating around the world. Most are in their early stages of development.
Here is an overview of what a bionic eye is and where the Australian research is taking place.
Our local Australian teams have supplied us with information about how people might participate in early study.
If you are in another country, I suggest you go to the Wikipedia link and see where your closest research project is.
These universities are often keen to find suitable volunteers to assist with their research. They will be looking for people whose vision is an exact match to their study requirements so it won’t be for everyone. It really will differ from study to study.
It’s also important to note that much of the research is still about helping people which have had normal vision that has degenerated.
How Does A Bionic Eye Work? – The Short Answer
“The bionic eye is a retinal prosthesis designed to restore a sense of vision to people with profound vision loss due to degenerative retinal conditions. This technology makes use of a retinal implant surgically placed in the back of the eye, as well as an external digital camera and processor.”
Source: Bionic Vision Australia
How Does A Bionic Eye Work? – Step by Step
Although this explanation has been around for a little while and the technology is rapidly changing, this is still a useful explanation of the broader principles of one model.
How Stuff Works – The Bionic Eye
Who Can Benefit In Short Term?
Different technologies will benefit people at different stages of visual impairment. Bionic Vision Australia published an updated fact sheet in December 2013 which discusses who will benefit from the bionic eye technology that they are working on.
“Patients with profound vision loss due to retinitis pigmentosa or age-related macular degeneration may benefit from the bionic eye. The bionic eye technology relies on the patient having a healthy optic nerve and a developed visual cortex – patients need to have been able to see in the past for this device to be of benefit to them. Those who have very profound vision loss will benefit most from the technology.”
Read the full Bionic Vision Fact Sheet
Who Is Doing The Work?
Australians teams working on Bionic Eyes have come together to form Bionic Vision Australia, a consortium including;
- Australian Vision Prosthesis Group at UNSW
- University of Melbourne
- University of Western Sydney
- Australian National University
- Centre for Eye Research Australia
- Bionic Ear Institute
- NICTA – Australia’s Information Communications Technology (ICT) Research Centre
Australia – How To Get Involved & Participate In Trials
Melbourne – Second half of 2014. To register your interest visit Bionic Vision Trials
Melbourne – Centre of Eye Research Australia – Royal Victorian Eye & Ear Hospital
If you are interested in participating in clinical trials, contact Dr Chi Luu from the Centre of Eye Research Australia (CERA) on 03 9929 8172 or email [email protected].
Melbourne – Monash University – Trials early 2015
People can register their interest in the program is www.monash.edu/bioniceye/trials.php
Clinical Program Coordinator, Collette Mann
Sydney – University of New South Wales – Volunteers needed mid 2015
Australian Vision Prosthesis Group
Professor Nigel Lovell – [email protected]
The International Overview
This Wikipedia page for Visual Prosthesis offers an international overview of where the research is being carried out and which aspects each party is working on.
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Moderate reasoning
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Health
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It’s bad enough that we have to worry about distracted drivers looking down at their phones, but new research has found an even more vexing trend: Drivers can look straight at cyclists and still not “see” them, leading to dangerous or deadly encounters on the roads.
A recent study out of Australian National University asked 56 adults to examine a series of photographs depicting common roadway scenarios from the driver’s point of view. Some photos were manipulated to include either a motorcycle or a taxi. Overall, the volunteers were more than twice as likely to notice the appearance of the taxi as they were to spot the motorcycle. In fact, a full 65 percent indicated that they didn't see the motorcycle at all.
This phenomenon—a person's failure to notice an unexpected object in plain sight—is known as “inattentional blindness.” It’s the reason why a driver might look right at you, but cut you off anyway. Their eyes see you and your bike, but they don’t register your presence (as they would if you were in a car). And, sometimes, they hit you. That also has a name: looked-but-failed-to-see (LBFTS) crashes.
“When we are driving, there is a huge amount of sensory information that our brain must deal with. We can’t attend to everything, because this would consume enormous cognitive resources and take too much time," study author Kristen Pammer, a professor of psychology and the associate dean of science at Australian National University, said in a press release. "So our brain has to decide what information is most important. The frequency of LBFTS crashes suggests to us a connection with how the brain filters out information.”
See how to safely pass a cyclist in your car:
Though the study focused on motorcycles, it doesn’t take a giant leap of logic to discern how well cyclists would fare in the same scenarios.
“I imagine the issue might be even worse for bicycles that operate in traffic differently from cars or motorcycles,” inattention blindness expert Daniel J. Simons, co-author of the New York Times bestseller The Invisible Gorilla, told Bicycling. “We tend to see what we're looking for, and we often miss unexpected things, especially when they differ from the focus of our attention. So if drivers are always looking for cars and bicycles are rare, they can look right at the cyclist and not see them.”
The study concluded that more driver awareness programs should instruct on how to watch out for non-car road users. In the meantime, Simons said, “assume drivers won’t see you and ride defensively.” Employing some of the same strategies as motorcycles, such as daytime running lights, may help cyclists catch the attention of drivers.
Keep up with the latest cycling news by subscribing to our newsletter.
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Strong reasoning
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Transportation
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A walkout can also mean the act of leaving a place of work, school, a meeting, a company, or an organization, especially if meant as an expression of protest or disapproval.
A walkout can be seen as different from a strike in that a walkout can occur spontaneously, and need not necessarily involve all the workers present, whereas a strike is often voted on beforehand by the workers, giving notification both to all of the workers and to the company affected.
Walkouts have often been staged against the presence of a speaker or the content of an in-progress speech at a meeting. The protest, which is often a silent, non-violent means of expressing disapproval, is often interpreted as an exercise of the freedom of association while allowing the speaker to exercise the freedom of speech, albeit with a reduced audience in attendance.
1968 East Los Angeles
These were a series of 1968 protests against unequal conditions in Los Angeles Unified School District high schools, beginning on March 6.
In the beginning of the 19th century there was a change in economic circumstances with the booming Industrial Revolution and young single women, between ages of fourteen to early twenties felt the need to work to relieve financial pressures from their family and to gain a sense of independence of living on their own. They left home and began a new life in the mill boarding houses. While working in the mills they would send some monthly earnings back home to still fulfill the role as a contributing part of the family. However, the majority of their earnings was saved in the bank for their own desires. Most women who made this change came from a modest farming backgrounds and made the move to areas of New England and Mid Atlantic States.
Economic Crisis of 1834
In the early months of 1834, textile sales were slow and profits were not up to standard to provide sufficient wages for the women mill workers of Lowell, Massachusetts. As a result, wages were cut and the price of room and board went up. The mill factory women saw this wage cut and price increase as an offense to their dignity, social quality, and economic autonomy. The women decided to take action and many started petitions and held meetings during dinner breaks. They pledged that they would quit if the wage rates decreased. On a Friday in February 1834, a sporadic walkout began after a meeting in which an agent of a mill company dismissed a woman factory worker. Protesting began and the women quit work and started parading through the city streets, attempting to persuade other mill women to join. This walkout was short lived and by the middle of the next week the women either returned to work or left town. Only about one-sixth of all women workers in Lowell walked out.
Walkout of October 1836
In October 1836, the women workers in the Lowell, Massachusetts factory mills walked out once again for the same reasons as the strike in 1834. The young women saw the wage-cut and the increasing prices of housing board as a direct assault on their social and economic independence, and they wouldn't let the revolting wage-cut and rising prices undermined their status as "daughters of freemen". Furthermore, as influence by their traditional values the young women, they didn't accept to be treated as slaves so they protested. In this second walkout however, the women workers were more organized, and the number of workers involved in the strikes were far numerous than the one sixth of all the factory workers in 1834 which had a greater impact on the success of their operation. The other cause to their success of this second walkout was the economic prosperity of the 1840s; the mills profits were booming and they needed more workers. Therefore, the walkout of 1836 affected the mills greatly because they were short in workers, and the lengthy absence of the women accentuated the impact. As a result, some of the mills were obliged to cut their charges on housing, and they were forced to cooperate with the women worker's organization.
The women wanted to take a stand for their independence. With the decision making of having walkouts, they portrayed how women started a new revolution with a new idea of feminine autonomy and power. The 1834 and 1836 walkouts symbolized women standing against oppression by employers who wished to lower their wages, as well as increase the price in housing. With these walkouts women took a stand for themselves as well as paved the way for the generations of women to come.
- Dublin. The Early Strikes: 1830s.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walkout
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Strong reasoning
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Politics
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Lotteries are a way to raise funds for various public projects. They are usually run by state or city governments. The money raised is used for a variety of purposes including fortifications, libraries, and bridges. These lotteries are organized so that a percentage of profits is donated to charitable causes.
Lotteries were introduced into the United States by the British colonists. Benjamin Franklin was one of the first to organize a lottery to raise money for cannons for the defense of Philadelphia. Other colonies also organized lotteries to finance local militias, fortifications, and for college education.
A lottery is a low-odds game of chance in which the winning numbers are drawn randomly. Usually, the prize is a large cash amount. However, it is possible to win smaller amounts if you get some of the numbers right. This is why most lotteries offer smaller prizes for matching fewer of the winning numbers.
The history of lotteries dates back to the ancient Roman Empire. The earliest recorded European lotteries were distributed by wealthy noblemen during Saturnalian revels. Several cities of Flanders held state-sponsored lotteries in the first half of the 15th century. In the Netherlands, lotteries were common in the 17th century.
The earliest known record of a lottery in Europe is an advertisement of a lottery, called the “L’Ecluse,” that was held on May 9, 1445. Records from the city of Ghent indicate that lotteries were held in that city earlier.
A group of brokers hired runners to sell tickets to the lottery. Many people bought tickets to be in with a chance of winning a big jackpot. As a result, the tickets were very expensive.
By the early 1800s, the number of lotteries in the United States began to increase. It was estimated that some people below the poverty line spent six percent of their income on lottery tickets.
During the 1740s, several colonies held lotteries to finance their fortifications, local militias, and colleges. Some of these lotteries had the prize in the form of pieces of eight, which are prizes for matching all eight numbers.
There were several successful lotteries in colonial America. In 1755, the Academy Lottery financed the University of Pennsylvania. Also, the Continental Congress used a lottery to raise money for the Colonial Army.
While there are many different ways to play the lottery, they are generally easy to understand and fairly easy to win. Although winning a jackpot is relatively rare, there are some people who have won millions of dollars.
For many people, playing the lottery is a good way to spend a few hours of fun and to fantasize about how they might become rich. If you do win a lot of money, it is important to make sure that you are investing it in an emergency fund. You should also consider investing it in a retirement account or stock options.
There are two types of payment options for lottery winners: a one-time payment and an annuity payment. An annuity payout consists of annual payments that begin when you win and continue to increase by a certain percentage each year.
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Moderate reasoning
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Games
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Single cell codetection of a gene, its RNA product and cellular regulatory proteins is critical to study gene expression regulation. This is a challenge in the field of virology; in particular for nuclear-replicating persistent DNA viruses that involve animal models for their study. Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) establishes a life-long latent infection in peripheral neurons. Latent virus serves as reservoir, from which it reactivates and induces a new herpetic episode. The cell biology of HSV-1 latency remains poorly understood, in part due to the lack of methods to detect HSV-1 genomes in situ in animal models. We describe a DNA-fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) approach efficiently detecting low-copy viral genomes within sections of neuronal tissues from infected animal models. The method relies on heat-based antigen unmasking, and directly labeled home-made DNA probes, or commercially available probes. We developed a triple staining approach, combining DNA-FISH with RNA-FISH and immunofluorescence, using peroxidase based signal amplification to accommodate each staining requirement. A major improvement is the ability to obtain, within 10 µm tissue sections, low-background signals that can be imaged at high resolution by confocal microscopy and wide-field conventional epifluorescence. Additionally, the triple staining worked with a wide range of antibodies directed against cellular and viral proteins. The complete protocol takes 2.5 days to accommodate antibody and probe penetration within the tissue.
26 Related JoVE Articles!
Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) using Drosophila tissue
Institutions: Johns Hopkins University.
Epigenetics remains a rapidly developing field that studies how the chromatin state contributes to differential gene expression in distinct cell types at different developmental stages. Epigenetic regulation contributes to a broad spectrum of biological processes, including cellular differentiation during embryonic development and homeostasis in adulthood. A critical strategy in epigenetic studies is to examine how various histone modifications and chromatin factors regulate gene expression. To address this, Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is used widely to obtain a snapshot of the association of particular factors with DNA in the cells of interest.
ChIP technique commonly uses cultured cells as starting material, which can be obtained in abundance and homogeneity to generate reproducible data. However, there are several caveats: First, the environment to grow cells in Petri dish is different from that in vivo
, thus may not reflect the endogenous chromatin state of cells in a living organism. Second, not all types of cells can be cultured ex vivo
. There are only a limited number of cell lines, from which people can obtain enough material for ChIP assay.
Here we describe a method to do ChIP experiment using Drosophila
tissues. The starting material is dissected tissue from a living animal, thus can accurately reflect the endogenous chromatin state. The adaptability of this method with many different types of tissue will allow researchers to address a lot more biologically relevant questions regarding epigenetic regulation in vivo1, 2
. Combining this method with high-throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq) will further allow researchers to obtain an epigenomic landscape.
Genetics, Issue 61, ChIP, Drosophila, testes, q-PCR, high throughput sequencing, epi-genetics
In vitro Transcription and Capping of Gaussia Luciferase mRNA Followed by HeLa Cell Transfection
Institutions: New England Biolabs.
transcription is the synthesis of RNA transcripts by RNA polymerase from a linear DNA template containing the corresponding promoter sequence (T7, T3, SP6) and the gene to be transcribed (Figure 1A
). A typical transcription reaction consists of the template DNA, RNA polymerase, ribonucleotide triphosphates, RNase inhibitor and buffer containing Mg2+
Large amounts of high quality RNA are often required for a variety of applications. Use of in vitro
transcription has been reported for RNA structure and function studies such as splicing1
, RNAi experiments in mammalian cells2
, antisense RNA amplification by the "Eberwine method"3
, microarray analysis4
and for RNA vaccine studies5
. The technique can also be used for producing radiolabeled and dye labeled probes6
. Warren, et al.
recently reported reprogramming of human cells by transfection with in vitro
transcribed capped RNA7
. The T7 High Yield RNA Synthesis Kit from New England Biolabs has been designed to synthesize up to 180 μg RNA per 20 μl reaction. RNA of length up to 10kb has been successfully transcribed using this kit. Linearized plasmid DNA, PCR products and synthetic DNA oligonucleotides can be used as templates for transcription as long as they have the T7 promoter sequence upstream of the gene to be transcribed.
Addition of a 5' end cap structure to the RNA is an important process in eukaryotes. It is essential for RNA stability8
, efficient translation9
, nuclear transport10
. The process involves addition of a 7-methylguanosine cap at the 5' triphosphate end of the RNA. RNA capping can be carried out post-transcriptionally using capping enzymes or co-transcriptionally using cap analogs. In the enzymatic method, the mRNA is capped using the Vaccinia
virus capping enzyme12,13
. The enzyme adds on a 7-methylguanosine cap at the 5' end of the RNA using GTP and S-adenosyl methionine as donors (cap 0 structure). Both methods yield functionally active capped RNA suitable for transfection or other applications14
such as generating viral genomic RNA for reverse-genetic systems15
and crystallographic studies of cap binding proteins such as eIF4E16
In the method described below, the T7 High Yield RNA Synthesis Kit from NEB is used to synthesize capped and uncapped RNA transcripts of Gaussia
luciferase (GLuc) and Cypridina
luciferase (CLuc). A portion of the uncapped GLuc RNA is capped using the Vaccinia Capping System (NEB). A linearized plasmid containing the GLuc or CLuc gene and T7 promoter is used as the template DNA. The transcribed RNA is transfected into HeLa cells and cell culture supernatants are assayed for luciferase activity. Capped CLuc RNA is used as the internal control to normalize GLuc expression.
Genetics, Issue 61, In vitro transcription, Vaccinia capping enzyme, transfection, T7 RNA Polymerase, RNA synthesis
Chromatin Immunoprecipitation from Dorsal Root Ganglia Tissue following Axonal Injury
Institutions: University of Tuebingen , University of Tuebingen .
Axons in the central nervous system (CNS) do not regenerate while those in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) do regenerate
to a limited extent after injury (Teng et al.
, 2006). It is recognized that transcriptional programs essential for neurite and axonal outgrowth are
reactivated upon injury in the PNS (Makwana et al.
, 2005). However the tools available to analyze neuronal gene regulation in vivo
are limited and
The dorsal root ganglia (DRG) offer an excellent injury model system because both the CNS and PNS are innervated by a
bifurcated axon originating from the same soma. The ganglia represent a discrete collection of cell bodies where all transcriptional events occur,
and thus provide a clearly defined region of transcriptional activity that can be easily and reproducibly removed from the animal. Injury of nerve
fibers in the PNS (e.g. sciatic nerve), where axonal regeneration does occur, should reveal a set of transcriptional programs that are distinct from
those responding to a similar injury in the CNS, where regeneration does not take place (e.g. spinal cord). Sites for transcription factor binding,
histone and DNA modification resulting from injury to either PNS or CNS can be characterized using chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP).
Here, we describe a ChIP protocol using fixed mouse DRG tissue following axonal injury. This powerful combination provides a means for characterizing the pro-regeneration chromatin environment necessary for promoting axonal regeneration.
Neuroscience, Issue 53, Chromatin immunoprecipitation, dorsal root ganglia, transcription factor, epigenetic, axonal regeneration
High-throughput Purification of Affinity-tagged Recombinant Proteins
Institutions: Imperial College London .
X-ray crystallography is the method of choice for obtaining a detailed view of the structure of proteins. Such studies need to be complemented by further biochemical analyses to obtain detailed insights into structure/function relationships. Advances in oligonucleotide- and gene synthesis technology make large-scale mutagenesis strategies increasingly feasible, including the substitution of target residues by all 19 other amino acids. Gain- or loss-of-function phenotypes then allow systematic conclusions to be drawn, such as the contribution of particular residues to catalytic activity, protein stability and/or protein-protein interaction specificity.
In order to attribute the different phenotypes to the nature of the mutation - rather than to fluctuating experimental conditions - it is vital to purify and analyse the proteins in a controlled and reproducible manner. High-throughput strategies and the automation of manual protocols on robotic liquid-handling platforms have created opportunities to perform such complex molecular biological procedures with little human intervention and minimal error rates1-5
Here, we present a general method for the purification of His-tagged recombinant proteins in a high-throughput manner. In a recent study, we applied this method to a detailed structure-function investigation of TFIIB, a component of the basal transcription machinery. TFIIB is indispensable for promoter-directed transcription in vitro
and is essential for the recruitment of RNA polymerase into a preinitiation complex6-8
. TFIIB contains a flexible linker domain that penetrates the active site cleft of RNA polymerase9-11
. This linker domain confers two biochemically quantifiable activities on TFIIB, namely (i) the stimulation of the catalytic activity during the 'abortive' stage of transcript initiation, and (ii) an additional contribution to the specific recruitment of RNA polymerase into the preinitiation complex4,5,12
. We exploited the high-throughput purification method to generate single, double and triple substitution and deletions mutations within the TFIIB linker and to subsequently analyse them in functional assays for their stimulation effect on the catalytic activity of RNA polymerase4
. Altogether, we generated, purified and analysed 381 mutants - a task which would have been time-consuming and laborious to perform manually. We produced and assayed the proteins in multiplicates which allowed us to appreciate any experimental variations and gave us a clear idea of the reproducibility of our results.
This method serves as a generic protocol for the purification of His-tagged proteins and has been successfully used to purify other recombinant proteins. It is currently optimised for the purification of 24 proteins but can be adapted to purify up to 96 proteins.
Biochemistry, Issue 66, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Bioinformatics, Recombinant proteins, histidine tag, affinity purification, high-throughput, automation
Measuring the Kinetics of mRNA Transcription in Single Living Cells
Institutions: Bar-Ilan University.
The transcriptional activity of RNA polymerase II (Pol II) is a dynamic process and therefore measuring the kinetics of the transcriptional process in vivo
is of importance. Pol II kinetics have been measured using biochemical or molecular methods.1-3
In recent years, with the development of new visualization methods, it has become possible to follow transcription as it occurs in real time in single living cells.4
Herein we describe how to perform analysis of Pol II elongation kinetics on a specific gene in living cells.5, 6
Using a cell line in which a specific gene locus (DNA), its mRNA product, and the final protein product can be fluorescently labeled and visualized in vivo
, it is possible to detect the actual transcription of mRNAs on the gene of interest.7, 8
The mRNA is fluorescently tagged using the MS2 system for tagging mRNAs in vivo
, where the 3'UTR of the mRNA transcripts contain 24 MS2 stem-loop repeats, which provide highly specific binding sites for the YFP-MS2 coat protein that labels the mRNA as it is transcribed.9
To monitor the kinetics of transcription we use the Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) method. By photobleaching the YFP-MS2-tagged nascent transcripts at the site of transcription and then following the recovery of this signal over time, we obtain the synthesis rate of the newly made mRNAs.5
In other words, YFP-MS2 fluorescence recovery reflects the generation of new MS2 stem-loops in the nascent transcripts and their binding by fluorescent free YFP-MS2 molecules entering from the surrounding nucleoplasm. The FRAP recovery curves are then analyzed using mathematical mechanistic models formalized by a series of differential equations, in order to retrieve the kinetic time parameters of transcription.
Cell Biology, Issue 54, mRNA transcription, nucleus, live-cell imaging, cellular dynamics, FRAP
Enhanced Northern Blot Detection of Small RNA Species in Drosophila Melanogaster
Institutions: Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia.
The last decades have witnessed the explosion of scientific interest around gene expression control mechanisms at the RNA level. This branch of molecular biology has been greatly fueled by the discovery of noncoding RNAs as major players in post-transcriptional regulation. Such a revolutionary perspective has been accompanied and triggered by the development of powerful technologies for profiling short RNAs expression, both at the high-throughput level (genome-wide identification) or as single-candidate analysis (steady state accumulation of specific species). Although several state-of-art strategies are currently available for dosing or visualizing such fleeing molecules, Northern Blot assay remains the eligible approach in molecular biology for immediate and accurate evaluation of RNA expression. It represents a first step toward the application of more sophisticated, costly technologies and, in many cases, remains a preferential method to easily gain insights into RNA biology. Here we overview an efficient protocol (Enhanced Northern Blot) for detecting weakly expressed microRNAs (or other small regulatory RNA species) from Drosophila melanogaster
whole embryos, manually dissected larval/adult tissues or in vitro
cultured cells. A very limited amount of RNA is required and the use of material from flow cytometry-isolated cells can be also envisaged.
Molecular Biology, Issue 90, Northern blotting, Noncoding RNAs, microRNAs, rasiRNA, Gene expression, Gcm/Glide, Drosophila melanogaster
Development of Cell-type specific anti-HIV gp120 aptamers for siRNA delivery
Institutions: Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope.
The global epidemic of infection by HIV has created an urgent need for new classes of antiretroviral agents. The potent ability of small interfering (si)RNAs to inhibit the expression of complementary RNA transcripts is being exploited as a new class of therapeutics for a variety of diseases including HIV. Many previous reports have shown that novel RNAi-based anti-HIV/AIDS therapeutic strategies have considerable promise; however, a key obstacle to the successful therapeutic application and clinical translation of siRNAs is efficient delivery. Particularly, considering the safety and efficacy of RNAi-based therapeutics, it is highly desirable to develop a targeted intracellular siRNA delivery approach to specific cell populations or tissues. The HIV-1 gp120 protein, a glycoprotein envelope on the surface of HIV-1, plays an important role in viral entry into CD4 cells. The interaction of gp120 and CD4 that triggers HIV-1 entry and initiates cell fusion has been validated as a clinically relevant anti-viral strategy for drug discovery.
Herein, we firstly discuss the selection and identification of 2'-F modified anti-HIV gp120 RNA aptamers. Using a conventional nitrocellulose filter SELEX method, several new aptamers with nanomolar affinity were isolated from a 50 random nt RNA library. In order to successfully obtain bound species with higher affinity, the selection stringency is carefully controlled by adjusting the conditions. The selected aptamers can specifically bind and be rapidly internalized into cells expressing the HIV-1 envelope protein. Additionally, the aptamers alone can neutralize HIV-1 infectivity. Based upon the best aptamer A-1, we also create a novel dual inhibitory function anti-gp120 aptamer-siRNA chimera in which both the aptamer and the siRNA portions have potent anti-HIV activities. Further, we utilize the gp120 aptamer-siRNA chimeras for cell-type specific delivery of the siRNA into HIV-1 infected cells. This dual function chimera shows considerable potential for combining various nucleic acid therapeutic agents (aptamer and siRNA) in suppressing HIV-1 infection, making the aptamer-siRNA chimeras attractive therapeutic candidates for patients failing highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).
Immunology, Issue 52, SELEX (Systematic Evolution of Ligands by EXponential enrichment), RNA aptamer, HIV-1 gp120, RNAi (RNA interference), siRNA (small interfering RNA), cell-type specific delivery
RNA Secondary Structure Prediction Using High-throughput SHAPE
Institutions: Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research.
Understanding the function of RNA involved in biological processes requires a thorough knowledge of RNA structure. Toward this end, the methodology dubbed "high-throughput selective 2' hydroxyl acylation analyzed by primer extension", or SHAPE, allows prediction of RNA secondary structure with single nucleotide resolution. This approach utilizes chemical probing agents that preferentially acylate single stranded or flexible regions of RNA in aqueous solution. Sites of chemical modification are detected by reverse transcription of the modified RNA, and the products of this reaction are fractionated by automated capillary electrophoresis (CE). Since reverse transcriptase pauses at those RNA nucleotides modified by the SHAPE reagents, the resulting cDNA library indirectly maps those ribonucleotides that are single stranded in the context of the folded RNA. Using ShapeFinder software, the electropherograms produced by automated CE are processed and converted into nucleotide reactivity tables that are themselves converted into pseudo-energy constraints used in the RNAStructure (v5.3) prediction algorithm. The two-dimensional RNA structures obtained by combining SHAPE probing with in silico
RNA secondary structure prediction have been found to be far more accurate than structures obtained using either method alone.
Genetics, Issue 75, Molecular Biology, Biochemistry, Virology, Cancer Biology, Medicine, Genomics, Nucleic Acid Probes, RNA Probes, RNA, High-throughput SHAPE, Capillary electrophoresis, RNA structure, RNA probing, RNA folding, secondary structure, DNA, nucleic acids, electropherogram, synthesis, transcription, high throughput, sequencing
Fluorescence Based Primer Extension Technique to Determine Transcriptional Starting Points and Cleavage Sites of RNases In Vivo
Institutions: University of Tübingen.
Fluorescence based primer extension (FPE) is a molecular method to determine transcriptional starting points or processing sites of RNA molecules. This is achieved by reverse transcription of the RNA of interest using specific fluorescently labeled primers and subsequent analysis of the resulting cDNA fragments by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Simultaneously, a traditional Sanger sequencing reaction is run on the gel to map the ends of the cDNA fragments to their exact corresponding bases. In contrast to 5'-RACE (Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends), where the product must be cloned and multiple candidates sequenced, the bulk of cDNA fragments generated by primer extension can be simultaneously detected in one gel run. In addition, the whole procedure (from reverse transcription to final analysis of the results) can be completed in one working day. By using fluorescently labeled primers, the use of hazardous radioactive isotope labeled reagents can be avoided and processing times are reduced as products can be detected during the electrophoresis procedure.
In the following protocol, we describe an in vivo
fluorescent primer extension method to reliably and rapidly detect the 5' ends of RNAs to deduce transcriptional starting points and RNA processing sites (e.g.,
by toxin-antitoxin system components) in S. aureus, E. coli
and other bacteria.
Molecular Biology, Issue 92, Primer extension, RNA mapping, 5' end, fluorescent primer, transcriptional starting point, TSP, RNase, toxin-antitoxin, cleavage site, gel electrophoresis, DNA isolation, RNA processing
Substrate Generation for Endonucleases of CRISPR/Cas Systems
Institutions: Max-Planck-Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology.
The interaction of viruses and their prokaryotic hosts shaped the evolution of bacterial and archaeal life. Prokaryotes developed several strategies to evade viral attacks that include restriction modification, abortive infection and CRISPR/Cas systems. These adaptive immune systems found in many Bacteria and most Archaea consist of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) sequences and a number of CRISPR associated (Cas) genes (Fig. 1) 1-3
. Different sets of Cas proteins and repeats define at least three major divergent types of CRISPR/Cas systems 4
. The universal proteins Cas1 and Cas2 are proposed to be involved in the uptake of viral DNA that will generate a new spacer element between two repeats at the 5' terminus of an extending CRISPR cluster 5
. The entire cluster is transcribed into a precursor-crRNA containing all spacer and repeat sequences and is subsequently processed by an enzyme of the diverse Cas6 family into smaller crRNAs 6-8
. These crRNAs consist of the spacer sequence flanked by a 5' terminal (8 nucleotides) and a 3' terminal tag derived from the repeat sequence 9
. A repeated infection of the virus can now be blocked as the new crRNA will be directed by a Cas protein complex (Cascade) to the viral DNA and identify it as such via base complementarity10
. Finally, for CRISPR/Cas type 1 systems, the nuclease Cas3 will destroy the detected invader DNA 11,12
These processes define CRISPR/Cas as an adaptive immune system of prokaryotes and opened a fascinating research field for the study of the involved Cas proteins. The function of many Cas proteins is still elusive and the causes for the apparent diversity of the CRISPR/Cas systems remain to be illuminated. Potential activities of most Cas proteins were predicted via detailed computational analyses. A major fraction of Cas proteins are either shown or proposed to function as endonucleases 4
Here, we present methods to generate crRNAs and precursor-cRNAs for the study of Cas endoribonucleases. Different endonuclease assays require either short repeat sequences that can directly be synthesized as RNA oligonucleotides or longer crRNA and pre-crRNA sequences that are generated via in vitro
T7 RNA polymerase run-off transcription. This methodology allows the incorporation of radioactive nucleotides for the generation of internally labeled endonuclease substrates and the creation of synthetic or mutant crRNAs. Cas6 endonuclease activity is utilized to mature pre-crRNAs into crRNAs with 5'-hydroxyl and a 2',3'-cyclic phosphate termini.
Molecular biology, Issue 67, CRISPR/Cas, endonuclease, in vitro transcription, crRNA, Cas6
RNAi-mediated Double Gene Knockdown and Gustatory Perception Measurement in Honey Bees (Apis mellifera)
Institutions: Arizona State University , Norwegian University of Life Sciences.
This video demonstrates novel techniques of RNA interference (RNAi) which downregulate two genes simultaneously in honey bees using double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) injections. It also presents a protocol of proboscis extension response (PER) assay for measuring gustatory perception.
RNAi-mediated gene knockdown is an effective technique downregulating target gene expression. This technique is usually used for single gene manipulation, but it has limitations to detect interactions and joint effects between genes. In the first part of this video, we present two strategies to simultaneously knock down two genes (called double gene knockdown). We show both strategies are able to effectively suppress two genes, vitellogenin (vg
) and ultraspiracle (usp
), which are in a regulatory feedback loop. This double gene knockdown approach can be used to dissect interrelationships between genes and can be readily applied in different insect species.
The second part of this video is a demonstration of proboscis extension response (PER) assay in honey bees after the treatment of double gene knockdown. The PER assay is a standard test for measuring gustatory perception in honey bees, which is a key predictor for how fast a honey bee's behavioral maturation is. Greater gustatory perception of nest bees indicates increased behavioral development which is often associated with an earlier age at onset of foraging and foraging specialization in pollen. In addition, PER assay can be applied to identify metabolic states of satiation or hunger in honey bees. Finally, PER assay combined with pairing different odor stimuli for conditioning the bees is also widely used for learning and memory studies in honey bees.
Neuroscience, Issue 77, Genetics, Behavior, Neurobiology, Molecular Biology, Chemistry, Biochemistry, biology (general), genetics (animal and plant), animal biology, RNA interference, RNAi, double stranded RNA, dsRNA, double gene knockdown, vitellogenin gene, vg, ultraspiracle gene, usp, vitellogenin protein, Vg, ultraspiracle protein, USP, green fluorescence protein, GFP, gustatory perception, proboscis extension response, PER, honey bees, Apis mellifera, animal model, assay
Application of MassSQUIRM for Quantitative Measurements of Lysine Demethylase Activity
Institutions: University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences .
Recently, epigenetic regulators have been discovered as key players in many different diseases 1-3
. As a result, these enzymes are prime targets for small molecule studies and drug development 4
. Many epigenetic regulators have only recently been discovered and are still in the process of being classified. Among these enzymes are lysine demethylases which remove methyl groups from lysines on histones and other proteins. Due to the novel nature of this class of enzymes, few assays have been developed to study their activity. This has been a road block to both the classification and high throughput study of histone demethylases. Currently, very few demethylase assays exist. Those that do exist tend to be qualitative in nature and cannot simultaneously discern between the different lysine methylation states (un-, mono-, di- and tri-). Mass spectrometry is commonly used to determine demethylase activity but current mass spectrometric assays do not address whether differentially methylated peptides ionize differently. Differential ionization of methylated peptides makes comparing methylation states difficult and certainly not quantitative (Figure 1A). Thus available assays are not optimized for the comprehensive analysis of demethylase activity.
Here we describe a method called MassSQUIRM (mass spectrometric quantitation using isotopic reductive methylation) that is based on reductive methylation of amine groups with deuterated formaldehyde to force all lysines to be di-methylated, thus making them essentially the same chemical species and therefore ionize the same (Figure 1B). The only chemical difference following the reductive methylation is hydrogen and deuterium, which does not affect MALDI ionization efficiencies. The MassSQUIRM assay is specific for demethylase reaction products with un-, mono- or di-methylated lysines. The assay is also applicable to lysine methyltransferases giving the same reaction products. Here, we use a combination of reductive methylation chemistry and MALDI mass spectrometry to measure the activity of LSD1, a lysine demethylase capable of removing di- and mono-methyl groups, on a synthetic peptide substrate 5
. This assay is simple and easily amenable to any lab with access to a MALDI mass spectrometer in lab or through a proteomics facility. The assay has ~8-fold dynamic range and is readily scalable to plate format 5
Molecular Biology, Issue 61, LSD1, lysine demethylase, mass spectrometry, reductive methylation, demethylase quantification
Detection of Histone Modifications in Plant Leaves
Institutions: RWTH Aachen University, RWTH Aachen University, Leibniz University.
Chromatin structure is important for the regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes. In this process, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, and covalent modifications on the amino-terminal tails of histones H3 and H4 play essential roles1-2
. H3 and H4 histone modifications include methylation of lysine and arginine, acetylation of lysine, and phosphorylation of serine residues1-2
. These modifications are associated either with gene activation, repression, or a primed state of gene that supports more rapid and robust activation of expression after perception of appropriate signals (microbe-associated molecular patterns, light, hormones, etc.)3-7
Here, we present a method for the reliable and sensitive detection of specific chromatin modifications on selected plant genes. The technique is based on the crosslinking of (modified) histones and DNA with formaldehyde8,9
, extraction and sonication of chromatin, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) with modification-specific antibodies9,10
, de-crosslinking of histone-DNA complexes, and gene-specific real-time quantitative PCR. The approach has proven useful for detecting specific histone modifications associated with C4
photosynthesis in maize5,11
and systemic immunity in Arabidopsis3
Molecular Biology, Issue 55, chromatin, chromatin immunoprecipitation, ChIP, histone modifications, PCR, plant molecular biology, plant promoter control, gene regulation
Profiling of Estrogen-regulated MicroRNAs in Breast Cancer Cells
Institutions: University of Houston.
Estrogen plays vital roles in mammary gland development and breast cancer progression. It mediates its function by binding to and activating the estrogen receptors (ERs), ERα, and ERβ. ERα is frequently upregulated in breast cancer and drives the proliferation of breast cancer cells. The ERs function as transcription factors and regulate gene expression. Whereas ERα's regulation of protein-coding genes is well established, its regulation of noncoding microRNA (miRNA) is less explored. miRNAs play a major role in the post-transcriptional regulation of genes, inhibiting their translation or degrading their mRNA. miRNAs can function as oncogenes or tumor suppressors and are also promising biomarkers. Among the miRNA assays available, microarray and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) have been extensively used to detect and quantify miRNA levels. To identify miRNAs regulated by estrogen signaling in breast cancer, their expression in ERα-positive breast cancer cell lines were compared before and after estrogen-activation using both the µParaflo-microfluidic microarrays and Dual Labeled Probes-low density arrays. Results were validated using specific qPCR assays, applying both Cyanine dye-based and Dual Labeled Probes-based chemistry. Furthermore, a time-point assay was used to identify regulations over time. Advantages of the miRNA assay approach used in this study is that it enables a fast screening of mature miRNA regulations in numerous samples, even with limited sample amounts. The layout, including the specific conditions for cell culture and estrogen treatment, biological and technical replicates, and large-scale screening followed by in-depth confirmations using separate techniques, ensures a robust detection of miRNA regulations, and eliminates false positives and other artifacts. However, mutated or unknown miRNAs, or regulations at the primary and precursor transcript level, will not be detected. The method presented here represents a thorough investigation of estrogen-mediated miRNA regulation.
Medicine, Issue 84, breast cancer, microRNA, estrogen, estrogen receptor, microarray, qPCR
Generation of Stable Human Cell Lines with Tetracycline-inducible (Tet-on) shRNA or cDNA Expression
Institutions: UCL Cancer Institute, Friedrich Miescher Institute for Biomedical Research .
A major approach in the field of mammalian cell biology is the manipulation of the expression of genes of interest in selected cell lines, with the aim to reveal one or several of the gene's function(s) using transient/stable overexpression or knockdown of the gene of interest. Unfortunately, for various cell biological investigations this approach is unsuitable when manipulations of gene expression result in cell growth/proliferation defects or unwanted cell differentiation. Therefore, researchers have adapted the Tetracycline repressor protein (TetR), taken from the E. coli
tetracycline resistance operon1
, to generate very efficient and tight regulatory systems to express cDNAs in mammalian cells2,3
. In short, TetR has been modified to either (1) block initiation of transcription by binding to the Tet-operator (TO) in the promoter region upon addition of tetracycline (termed Tet-off system) or (2) bind to the TO in the absence of tetracycline (termed Tet-on system) (Figure 1
). Given the inconvenience that the Tet-off system requires the continuous presence of tetracycline (which has a half-life of about 24 hr in tissue cell culture medium) the Tet-on system has been more extensively optimized, resulting in the development of very tight and efficient vector systems for cDNA expression as used here.
Shortly after establishment of RNA interference (RNAi) for gene knockdown in mammalian cells4
, vectors expressing short-hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) were described that function very similar to siRNAs5-11
. However, these shRNA-mediated knockdown approaches have the same limitation as conventional knockout strategies, since stable depletion is not feasible when gene targets are essential for cellular survival. To overcome this limitation, van de Wetering et al
modified the shRNA expression vector pSUPER5
by inserting a TO in the promoter region, which enabled them to generate stable cell lines with tetracycline-inducible depletion of their target genes of interest.
Here, we describe a method to efficiently generate stable human Tet-on cell lines that reliably drive either inducible overexpression or depletion of the gene of interest. Using this method, we have successfully generated Tet-on cell lines which significantly facilitated the analysis of the MST/hMOB/NDR cascade in centrosome13,14
and apoptosis signaling15,16
. In this report, we describe our vectors of choice, in addition to describing the two consecutive manipulation steps that are necessary to efficiently generate human Tet-on cell lines (Figure 2
). Moreover, besides outlining a protocol for the generation of human Tet-on cell lines, we will discuss critical aspects regarding the technical procedures and the characterization of Tet-on cells.
Genetics, Issue 73, Medicine, Biomedical Engineering, Bioengineering, Cellular Biology, Molecular Biology, Anatomy, Physiology, Mammals, Proteins, Cell Biology, tissue culture, stable manipulation of cell lines, tetracycline regulated expression, cDNA, DNA, shRNA, vectors, tetracycline, promoter, expression, genes, clones, cell culture
The ChroP Approach Combines ChIP and Mass Spectrometry to Dissect Locus-specific Proteomic Landscapes of Chromatin
Institutions: European Institute of Oncology.
Chromatin is a highly dynamic nucleoprotein complex made of DNA and proteins that controls various DNA-dependent processes. Chromatin structure and function at specific regions is regulated by the local enrichment of histone post-translational modifications (hPTMs) and variants, chromatin-binding proteins, including transcription factors, and DNA methylation. The proteomic characterization of chromatin composition at distinct functional regions has been so far hampered by the lack of efficient protocols to enrich such domains at the appropriate purity and amount for the subsequent in-depth analysis by Mass Spectrometry (MS). We describe here a newly designed chromatin proteomics strategy, named ChroP (Chromatin Proteomics
), whereby a preparative chromatin immunoprecipitation is used to isolate distinct chromatin regions whose features, in terms of hPTMs, variants and co-associated non-histonic proteins, are analyzed by MS. We illustrate here the setting up of ChroP for the enrichment and analysis of transcriptionally silent heterochromatic regions, marked by the presence of tri-methylation of lysine 9 on histone H3. The results achieved demonstrate the potential of ChroP
in thoroughly characterizing the heterochromatin proteome and prove it as a powerful analytical strategy for understanding how the distinct protein determinants of chromatin interact and synergize to establish locus-specific structural and functional configurations.
Biochemistry, Issue 86, chromatin, histone post-translational modifications (hPTMs), epigenetics, mass spectrometry, proteomics, SILAC, chromatin immunoprecipitation , histone variants, chromatome, hPTMs cross-talks
Sequence-specific Labeling of Nucleic Acids and Proteins with Methyltransferases and Cofactor Analogues
Institutions: RWTH Aachen University.
-Adenosyl-l-methionine (AdoMet or SAM)-dependent methyltransferases (MTase) catalyze the transfer of the activated methyl group from AdoMet to specific positions in DNA, RNA, proteins and small biomolecules. This natural methylation reaction can be expanded to a wide variety of alkylation reactions using synthetic cofactor analogues. Replacement of the reactive sulfonium center of AdoMet with an aziridine ring leads to cofactors which can be coupled with DNA by various DNA MTases. These aziridine cofactors can be equipped with reporter groups at different positions of the adenine moiety and used for S
of DNA (SMILing DNA). As a typical example we give a protocol for biotinylation of pBR322 plasmid DNA at the 5’-ATCGA
T-3’ sequence with the DNA MTase M.BseCI and the aziridine cofactor 6BAz in one step. Extension of the activated methyl group with unsaturated alkyl groups results in another class of AdoMet analogues which are used for m
ransfer of A
roups (mTAG). Since the extended side chains are activated by the sulfonium center and the unsaturated bond, these cofactors are called double-activated AdoMet analogues. These analogues not only function as cofactors for DNA MTases, like the aziridine cofactors, but also for RNA, protein and small molecule MTases. They are typically used for enzymatic modification of MTase substrates with unique functional groups which are labeled with reporter groups in a second chemical step. This is exemplified in a protocol for fluorescence labeling of histone H3 protein. A small propargyl group is transferred from the cofactor analogue SeAdoYn to the protein by the histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) MTase Set7/9 followed by click labeling of the alkynylated histone H3 with TAMRA azide. MTase-mediated labeling with cofactor analogues is an enabling technology for many exciting applications including identification and functional study of MTase substrates as well as DNA genotyping and methylation detection.
Biochemistry, Issue 93, S-adenosyl-l-methionine, AdoMet, SAM, aziridine cofactor, double activated cofactor, methyltransferase, DNA methylation, protein methylation, biotin labeling, fluorescence labeling, SMILing, mTAG
A Restriction Enzyme Based Cloning Method to Assess the In vitro Replication Capacity of HIV-1 Subtype C Gag-MJ4 Chimeric Viruses
Institutions: Emory University, Emory University.
The protective effect of many HLA class I alleles on HIV-1 pathogenesis and disease progression is, in part, attributed to their ability to target conserved portions of the HIV-1 genome that escape with difficulty. Sequence changes attributed to cellular immune pressure arise across the genome during infection, and if found within conserved regions of the genome such as Gag, can affect the ability of the virus to replicate in vitro
. Transmission of HLA-linked polymorphisms in Gag to HLA-mismatched recipients has been associated with reduced set point viral loads. We hypothesized this may be due to a reduced replication capacity of the virus. Here we present a novel method for assessing the in vitro
replication of HIV-1 as influenced by the gag
gene isolated from acute time points from subtype C infected Zambians. This method uses restriction enzyme based cloning to insert the gag
gene into a common subtype C HIV-1 proviral backbone, MJ4. This makes it more appropriate to the study of subtype C sequences than previous recombination based methods that have assessed the in vitro
replication of chronically derived gag-pro
sequences. Nevertheless, the protocol could be readily modified for studies of viruses from other subtypes. Moreover, this protocol details a robust and reproducible method for assessing the replication capacity of the Gag-MJ4 chimeric viruses on a CEM-based T cell line. This method was utilized for the study of Gag-MJ4 chimeric viruses derived from 149 subtype C acutely infected Zambians, and has allowed for the identification of residues in Gag that affect replication. More importantly, the implementation of this technique has facilitated a deeper understanding of how viral replication defines parameters of early HIV-1 pathogenesis such as set point viral load and longitudinal CD4+ T cell decline.
Infectious Diseases, Issue 90, HIV-1, Gag, viral replication, replication capacity, viral fitness, MJ4, CEM, GXR25
Genetic Manipulation in Δku80 Strains for Functional Genomic Analysis of Toxoplasma gondii
Institutions: The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth.
Targeted genetic manipulation using homologous recombination is the method of choice for functional genomic analysis to obtain a detailed view of gene function and phenotype(s). The development of mutant strains with targeted gene deletions, targeted mutations, complemented gene function, and/or tagged genes provides powerful strategies to address gene function, particularly if these genetic manipulations can be efficiently targeted to the gene locus of interest using integration mediated by double cross over homologous recombination.
Due to very high rates of nonhomologous recombination, functional genomic analysis of Toxoplasma gondii
has been previously limited by the absence of efficient methods for targeting gene deletions and gene replacements to specific genetic loci. Recently, we abolished the major pathway of nonhomologous recombination in type I and type II strains of T. gondii
by deleting the gene encoding the KU80 protein1,2
. The Δku80
strains behave normally during tachyzoite (acute) and bradyzoite (chronic) stages in vitro
and in vivo
and exhibit essentially a 100% frequency of homologous recombination. The Δku80
strains make functional genomic studies feasible on the single gene as well as on the genome scale1-4
Here, we report methods for using type I and type II Δku80Δhxgprt
strains to advance gene targeting approaches in T. gondii
. We outline efficient methods for generating gene deletions, gene replacements, and tagged genes by targeted insertion or deletion of the hypoxanthine-xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HXGPRT
) selectable marker. The described gene targeting protocol can be used in a variety of ways in Δku80
strains to advance functional analysis of the parasite genome and to develop single strains that carry multiple targeted genetic manipulations. The application of this genetic method and subsequent phenotypic assays will reveal fundamental and unique aspects of the biology of T. gondii
and related significant human pathogens that cause malaria (Plasmodium
sp.) and cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium
Infectious Diseases, Issue 77, Genetics, Microbiology, Infection, Medicine, Immunology, Molecular Biology, Cellular Biology, Biomedical Engineering, Bioengineering, Genomics, Parasitology, Pathology, Apicomplexa, Coccidia, Toxoplasma, Genetic Techniques, Gene Targeting, Eukaryota, Toxoplasma gondii, genetic manipulation, gene targeting, gene deletion, gene replacement, gene tagging, homologous recombination, DNA, sequencing
Mouse Genome Engineering Using Designer Nucleases
Institutions: University of Zurich, University of Minnesota.
Transgenic mice carrying site-specific genome modifications (knockout, knock-in) are of vital importance for dissecting complex biological systems as well as for modeling human diseases and testing therapeutic strategies. Recent advances in the use of designer nucleases such as zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated (Cas) 9 system for site-specific genome engineering open the possibility to perform rapid targeted genome modification in virtually any laboratory species without the need to rely on embryonic stem (ES) cell technology. A genome editing experiment typically starts with identification of designer nuclease target sites within a gene of interest followed by construction of custom DNA-binding domains to direct nuclease activity to the investigator-defined genomic locus. Designer nuclease plasmids are in vitro
transcribed to generate mRNA for microinjection of fertilized mouse oocytes. Here, we provide a protocol for achieving targeted genome modification by direct injection of TALEN mRNA into fertilized mouse oocytes.
Genetics, Issue 86, Oocyte microinjection, Designer nucleases, ZFN, TALEN, Genome Engineering
Chromatin Interaction Analysis with Paired-End Tag Sequencing (ChIA-PET) for Mapping Chromatin Interactions and Understanding Transcription Regulation
Institutions: Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore, A*STAR-Duke-NUS Neuroscience Research Partnership, Singapore, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
Genomes are organized into three-dimensional structures, adopting higher-order conformations inside the micron-sized nuclear spaces 7, 2, 12
. Such architectures are not random and involve interactions between gene promoters and regulatory elements 13
. The binding of transcription factors to specific regulatory sequences brings about a network of transcription regulation and coordination 1, 14
Chromatin Interaction Analysis by Paired-End Tag Sequencing (ChIA-PET) was developed to identify these higher-order chromatin structures 5,6
. Cells are fixed and interacting loci are captured by covalent DNA-protein cross-links. To minimize non-specific noise and reduce complexity, as well as to increase the specificity of the chromatin interaction analysis, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is used against specific protein factors to enrich chromatin fragments of interest before proximity ligation. Ligation involving half-linkers subsequently forms covalent links between pairs of DNA fragments tethered together within individual chromatin complexes. The flanking MmeI restriction enzyme sites in the half-linkers allow extraction of paired end tag-linker-tag constructs (PETs) upon MmeI digestion. As the half-linkers are biotinylated, these PET constructs are purified using streptavidin-magnetic beads. The purified PETs are ligated with next-generation sequencing adaptors and a catalog of interacting fragments is generated via next-generation sequencers such as the Illumina Genome Analyzer. Mapping and bioinformatics analysis is then performed to identify ChIP-enriched binding sites and ChIP-enriched chromatin interactions 8
We have produced a video to demonstrate critical aspects of the ChIA-PET protocol, especially the preparation of ChIP as the quality of ChIP plays a major role in the outcome of a ChIA-PET library. As the protocols are very long, only the critical steps are shown in the video.
Genetics, Issue 62, ChIP, ChIA-PET, Chromatin Interactions, Genomics, Next-Generation Sequencing
Microarray-based Identification of Individual HERV Loci Expression: Application to Biomarker Discovery in Prostate Cancer
Institutions: Joint Unit Hospices de Lyon-bioMérieux, BioMérieux, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Lyon 1 University, BioMérieux, Hospices Civils de Lyon, Hospices Civils de Lyon.
The prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is the main diagnostic biomarker for prostate cancer in clinical use, but it lacks specificity and sensitivity, particularly in low dosage values1
. ‘How to use PSA' remains a current issue, either for diagnosis as a gray zone corresponding to a concentration in serum of 2.5-10 ng/ml which does not allow a clear differentiation to be made between cancer and noncancer2
or for patient follow-up as analysis of post-operative PSA kinetic parameters can pose considerable challenges for their practical application3,4
. Alternatively, noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are emerging as key molecules in human cancer, with the potential to serve as novel markers of disease, e.g.
PCA3 in prostate cancer5,6
and to reveal uncharacterized aspects of tumor biology. Moreover, data from the ENCODE project published in 2012 showed that different RNA types cover about 62% of the genome. It also appears that the amount of transcriptional regulatory motifs is at least 4.5x higher than the one corresponding to protein-coding exons. Thus, long terminal repeats (LTRs) of human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) constitute a wide range of putative/candidate transcriptional regulatory sequences, as it is their primary function in infectious retroviruses. HERVs, which are spread throughout the human genome, originate from ancestral and independent infections within the germ line, followed by copy-paste propagation processes and leading to multicopy families occupying 8% of the human genome (note that exons span 2% of our genome). Some HERV loci still express proteins that have been associated with several pathologies including cancer7-10
. We have designed a high-density microarray, in Affymetrix format, aiming to optimally characterize individual HERV loci expression, in order to better understand whether they can be active, if they drive ncRNA transcription or modulate coding gene expression. This tool has been applied in the prostate cancer field (Figure 1
Medicine, Issue 81, Cancer Biology, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Prostate, Retroviridae, Biomarkers, Pharmacological, Tumor Markers, Biological, Prostatectomy, Microarray Analysis, Gene Expression, Diagnosis, Human Endogenous Retroviruses, HERV, microarray, Transcriptome, prostate cancer, Affymetrix
Non-radioactive in situ Hybridization Protocol Applicable for Norway Spruce and a Range of Plant Species
Institutions: Uppsala University, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.
The high-throughput expression analysis technologies available today give scientists an overflow of expression profiles but their resolution in terms of tissue specific expression is limited because of problems in dissecting individual tissues. Expression data needs to be confirmed and complemented with expression patterns using e.g. in situ
hybridization, a technique used to localize cell specific mRNA expression. The in situ
hybridization method is laborious, time-consuming and often requires extensive optimization depending on species and tissue. In situ
experiments are relatively more difficult to perform in woody species such as the conifer Norway spruce (Picea abies
). Here we present a modified DIG in situ
hybridization protocol, which is fast and applicable on a wide range of plant species including P. abies
. With just a few adjustments, including altered RNase treatment and proteinase K concentration, we could use the protocol to study tissue specific expression of homologous genes in male reproductive organs of one gymnosperm and two angiosperm species; P. abies, Arabidopsis thaliana
and Brassica napus
. The protocol worked equally well for the species and genes studied. AtAP3
were observed in second and third whorl floral organs in A. thaliana
and B. napus
and DAL13 in microsporophylls of male cones from P. abies
. For P. abies
the proteinase K concentration, used to permeablize the tissues, had to be increased to 3 g/ml instead of 1 g/ml, possibly due to more compact tissues and higher levels of phenolics and polysaccharides. For all species the RNase treatment was removed due to reduced signal strength without a corresponding increase in specificity. By comparing tissue specific expression patterns of homologous genes from both flowering plants and a coniferous tree we demonstrate that the DIG in situ
protocol presented here, with only minute adjustments, can be applied to a wide range of plant species. Hence, the protocol avoids both extensive species specific optimization and the laborious use of radioactively labeled probes in favor of DIG labeled probes. We have chosen to illustrate the technically demanding steps of the protocol in our film.
Anna Karlgren and Jenny Carlsson contributed equally to this study.
Corresponding authors: Anna Karlgren at [email protected] and Jens F. Sundström at [email protected]
Plant Biology, Issue 26, RNA, expression analysis, Norway spruce, Arabidopsis, rapeseed, conifers
Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) to Assay Dynamic Histone Modification in Activated Gene Expression in Human Cells
Institutions: University of Virginia.
In response to a variety of extracellular ligands, the STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) transcription factors are rapidly recruited from their latent state in the cytoplasm to cell surface receptors where they are activated by phosphorylation at a single tyrosine residue1
. They then dimerize and translocate to the nucleus to drive the transcription of target genes, affecting growth, differentiation, homeostasis and the immune response. Not surprisingly, given their widespread involvement in normal cell processes, dysregulation of STAT function contributes to human disease, particularly to cancers2
and autoimmune diseases3
. It is well established that transcription is regulated by alterations to the chromatin template4,5
. These alterations include the activities of ATP-dependent complexes, as well as covalent histone modifications and DNA methylation6
. Because STAT activation of gene expression is both rapid and transient, it requires specific mechanisms for modulating the chromatin template at STAT-dependent gene loci. To define these mechanisms, we characterize the histone modifications and the enzymatic activities that generate them at gene loci that respond to STAT signaling. This protocol describes chromatin immunoprecipitation, a method that is valuable for the study of STAT signaling to chromatin in activated gene expression.
Cellular Biology, Issue 41, chromatin, histone modification, transcription, antibody, cell culture, epigenetics, transcription factor, nucleosome
Analysis of RNA Processing Reactions Using Cell Free Systems: 3' End Cleavage of Pre-mRNA Substrates in vitro
Institutions: The Scripps Research Institute, City College of New York.
The 3’ end of mammalian mRNAs is not formed by abrupt termination of transcription by RNA polymerase II (RNPII). Instead, RNPII synthesizes precursor mRNA beyond the end of mature RNAs, and an active process of endonuclease activity is required at a specific site. Cleavage of the precursor RNA normally occurs 10-30 nt downstream from the consensus polyA site (AAUAAA) after the CA dinucleotides. Proteins from the cleavage complex, a multifactorial protein complex of approximately 800 kDa, accomplish this specific nuclease activity. Specific RNA sequences upstream and downstream of the polyA site control the recruitment of the cleavage complex. Immediately after cleavage, pre-mRNAs are polyadenylated by the polyA polymerase (PAP) to produce mature stable RNA messages.
Processing of the 3’ end of an RNA transcript may be studied using cellular nuclear extracts with specific radiolabeled RNA substrates. In sum, a long 32
P-labeled uncleaved precursor RNA is incubated with nuclear extracts in vitro
, and cleavage is assessed by gel electrophoresis and autoradiography. When proper cleavage occurs, a shorter 5’ cleaved product is detected and quantified. Here, we describe the cleavage assay in detail using, as an example, the 3’ end processing of HIV-1 mRNAs.
Infectious Diseases, Issue 87, Cleavage, Polyadenylation, mRNA processing, Nuclear extracts, 3' Processing Complex
Using an Automated Cell Counter to Simplify Gene Expression Studies: siRNA Knockdown of IL-4 Dependent Gene Expression in Namalwa Cells
Institutions: Bio-Rad Laboratories.
The use of siRNA mediated gene knockdown is continuing to be an important tool in studies of gene expression. siRNA studies are being conducted not only to study the effects of downregulating single genes, but also to interrogate signaling pathways and other complex interaction networks. These pathway analyses require both the use of relevant cellular models and methods that cause less perturbation to the cellular physiology. Electroporation is increasingly being used as an effective way to introduce siRNA and other nucleic acids into difficult to transfect cell lines and primary cells without altering the signaling pathway under investigation. There are multiple critical steps to a successful siRNA experiment, and there are ways to simplify the work while improving the data quality at several experimental stages. To help you get started with your siRNA mediated gene knockdown project, we will demonstrate how to perform a pathway study complete from collecting and counting the cells prior to electroporation through post transfection real-time PCR gene expression analysis. The following study investigates the role of the transcriptional activator STAT6 in IL-4 dependent gene expression of CCL17 in a Burkitt lymphoma cell line (Namalwa). The techniques demonstrated are useful for a wide range of siRNA-based experiments on both adherent and suspension cells. We will also show how to streamline cell counting with the TC10 automated cell counter, how to electroporate multiple samples simultaneously using the MXcell electroporation system, and how to simultaneously assess RNA quality and quantity with the Experion automated electrophoresis system.
Cellular Biology, Issue 38, Cell Counting, Gene Silencing, siRNA, Namalwa Cells, IL4, Gene Expression, Electroporation, Real Time PCR
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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The prevalence of obesity in the United States is increasing in all age groups. During the past 30 years, the proportion of older adults who are obese has doubled. In this article the author describes the prevalence and causes of obesity among older adults as well as the consequences of obesity in older adults. Recommendations for interventions to address obesity are also provided. Differences between the two groups of older adults, those 50 to 65 years of age, and those over 65 years of age, will be addressed. The goal of the article is to raise nurses’ awareness of the challenges of obesity in older adults.
Keywords: chronic illness, obesity, older adults
The prevalence of obesity in the United States (US) is increasing in all age groups. During the past 30 years, the proportion of older adults who are obese has doubled (Patterson, Frank, Kristal, & White 2004). The increased number of obese older adults is seen both as an increase in the total number of older obese persons in our population and as an increase in the percentage of the population that is obese (Villareal, Apovian, Kushner, & Klein, 2005). In spite of the increase in obesity among older adults, it is important to note that the majority of older adults are not obese and continue to lead active and healthy lives. The goal of this article is to raise nurses’ awareness of the challenges of obesity in older adults. This article will describe the prevalence and causes of obesity among older adults, as well as the consequences of obesity in older adults. Recommendations for interventions to address obesity will be provided. Differences between two groups of older persons, those 50 to 65 years of age, and those over 65 years of age, will be addressed.
Prevalence of Obesity among Older Adults
Currently, 7% of the world’s population is over 65 years of age. This figure is projected to rise to 12% by 2030. In the US it is projected to rise from 12% (35 million) to 20% (71 million) by 2030 (Yan et al., 2004). These substantial increases among older adults suggest that obesity among older Americans is likely to become a greater problem in the future (Center on an Aging Society, 2003). By 2000, the prevalence of obesity in people 50 to 69 years of age had increased to 22.9%, and for those above 70 years of age to 15%, representing increases of 56% and 36% respectively, since 1991 (Villareal et al., 2005).
Although the prevalence of obesity in persons who are over 80 years of age is about one-half that of older adults between the ages of 50 and 59, the fact is that more than 15% of the older American population is obese (Villareal et al., 2005). Moreover, as the aging population increases in number, so too will the number of chronic illnesses, which often accompany aging, increase in our society (Flood & Newman, 2007). Chronic conditions, such as arthritis, diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease, are among some of the most common, debilitating, and costly chronic conditions in older adults. These conditions are frequently accentuated by obesity (Federal Interagency Forum on Aging, 2006).
Causes of Obesity in Older Adults
An important determinant of body-fat mass is the relationship between energy intake and expenditure. Obesity occurs when a person consumes more calories than she/he burns. We need calories to sustain life and have the energy be active; yet to maintain a desirable weight, we need to balance the amount of energy we ingest in the form of food with the energy we expend (National Institutes of Health [NIH]), 2006). Weight gain occurs when the balance is tipped and we take in more calories than we burn. Most studies indicate that how much we eat does not decline with advancing age (Gary, Hunt, VanderJagt, & Vellas, 1992). Therefore it is likely that a decrease in energy expenditure, particularly in the 50- to 65-year-old age group, contributes to the increase in body fat as we age. In those 65 years of age and older, hormonal changes that occur during aging may cause the accumulation of fat. Aging is associated with a decrease in growth hormone secretions, reduced responsiveness to thyroid hormone, decline in serum testosterone, and resistance to leptin (Corpas, Harman, & Blackman, 1993). Resistance to leptin could cause a decreased ability to regulate appetite downward (Villareal et al., 2005). Genetic, environmental and social, as well as several other factors can all contribute to obesity. These factors will be discussed below.
...science does show a link between obesity and heredity. The observation, often made by nurses, that obesity tends to run in families may lead us to believe that obesity is related to the genes a person has inherited; and science does show a link between obesity and heredity (NIH, 2006). Almost 20 years ago, researchers demonstrated the role of biological inheritance in fat variations (Bouchard, 1989). Bouchard found that visceral fat is more influenced by the genotype than subcutaneous fat. It appears that a genotype-overfeeding interaction component exists for body fat, which suggests that the sensitivity of an individual to changes in body fat following overfeeding is genotype dependent. In a recently released study, researchers used structural equation modeling to identify the specific relationship between genetic loci that affect adiposity and those that affect muscle growth (Brockman, Tsaih, Neuschi, Churchill, & Li, 2008). These important studies provide a substantial contribution toward the understanding of gene expression and how it can be used to expand our knowledge of obesity. While we cannot do anything about genetic inheritance, we can identify other factors that may also contribute to obesity in a given patient and address these modifiable factors as discussed below.
Environmental and Sociological Factors
Just as genetics plays a role in obesity, so does the environment. The environment includes the world around us; it influences access to healthy food and safe places to walk. What we eat, our level of physical activity, and our lifestyle behaviors are influenced by our environment. Our environment can prevent us from eating healthy foods and/or getting adequate exercise in a number of ways. Examples include the trend toward ‘eating out’ rather than preparing food in the home; high-fat, high-calorie foods in our workplace vending machines; neighborhoods that often lack sidewalks; and a deficit of readily accessible recreation areas.
...high-calorie, processed food is less expensive and quicker to prepare than fresh fruits and vegetables. Poverty and lower levels of education have also been linked to obesity (NIH, 2006). It has been suggested that one reason why poverty and lower educational levels are risk factors for obesity is that high-calorie, processed food is less expensive and quicker to prepare than fresh fruits and vegetables (NIH, 2006). Through observation and the anecdotes patients have shared with me, I have come to believe the social environment indeed contributes to the increasing prevalence of obesity. To date, only a few research studies have focused on this factor.
Glass, Rasmussen, and Schwartz (2006) did investigate whether neighborhood psychosocial hazards, defined as “stable and visible features of neighborhood environments that give rise to a heightened state of vigilance, alarm, or fear in residents” (p. 4), independent of individual risk factors, were associated with the increased odds of obesity in older adults. After analyzing data from a cohort study of 1140 randomly selected community dwelling men and women who were 50 to 70 years of age, they found that 38% were obese. Residents living in the more hazardous neighborhoods were more than twice as likely to be obese as those living in the least-hazardous neighborhoods, even after controlling for behavioral and socioeconomic individual-level risk factors. The authors concluded that this significant finding demonstrates that neighborhood conditions can alter patterns of obesity. Community-level interventions that might lead to a reduction in environmental and sociological hazards include increasing educational attainment, increasing public safety, reducing crime rates, and eliminating vacant housing.
Other Causes of Obesity
Other conditions and illnesses that are associated with both weight gain and obesity include: hyperthyroidism, Cushing’s syndrome, polycystic ovary syndrome, and depression (NIH, 2006). The older adults who are obese are more likely than those who are not obese to report symptoms of depression, such as feelings of sadness, worthlessness, and hopelessness (Center on an Aging Society, 2003). Lack of sleep may contribute to obesity, as well as certain drugs, such as steroids and some antidepressants that may stimulate the appetite, cause water retention, or slow the metabolism rate (NIH, 2008). Finally, the complex relationship between functional ability and lifestyle patterns merits attention as a contributor to obesity (Center on an Aging Society). Joint pain, decreased mobility, and activity intolerance may lead to weight gain because of decreased activity. Older adults are more likely than younger adults to experience functional limitations associated with chronic illnesses that may begin a stress-pain-depression cycle that can result in lifestyle patterns leading obesity (Lorig et al., 2006).
Consequences of Obesity in Older Adults
Health problems associated with obesity are classified as either nonfatal or life threatening by the World Health Organization (2005). This section will discuss the consequences of obesity on both nonfatal and life-threatening health problems. Interventions to address these particular consequences will be discussed as each consequence is presented. Specific interventions to decrease obesity will be discussed in the following section titled, “Interventions to Address Obesity.”
Nonfatal Health Problems Related to Obesity
Debilitating conditions, such as those associated with respiratory, chronic musculoskeletal, and skin problems are classified as nonfatal, although it could be argued that any of these conditions could become life-threatening. These conditions, which are aggravated by obesity, will be discussed below.
Respiratory problems. In obese patients, lungs decrease in size. Both the increased weight on the chest wall of obese patients and the difficulty they experience in lifting the heavy chest wall may contribute to difficulty in breathing (Wallace, Schulte, Nakeeb, & Andris, 2003). Obesity is known to induce respiratory mechanical impairment that may be combined with abnormalities in gas exchange (Zerah et al., 1993). In the obese elderly, these changes are accentuated by changes in the lung structure and function associated with normal aging. These changes in the lungs include decreased alveolar surface available for gas exchange, increased chest wall stiffness, and stiffening of the elastin and the collagen tissue supporting the lungs (Tabloski, 2006). The mass loading of the ventilator system induced by obesity alters the static balance within the respiratory system. Obese older patients often have a reduced respiratory efficiency that can reach the point of respiratory insufficiency in the presence of cardiovascular insufficiency of various degrees. The natural decrease in respiratory function in older patients exacerbates the decrease caused by obesity which may in turn lead to an increase in the sleep apnea syndrome, which, in these patients, is related to a greater risk of developing hallucinatory and cognitive disorders caused by hypoxia during sleep (Donini et al., 2006).
Endurance exercise when combined with a dietary weight loss program increases maximal oxygen consumption (Dick, 2004). Diet in conjunction with resistance and endurance exercises improves peak oxygen consumption as well. Nurses can teach patients with respiratory problems to do diaphragmatic or abdominal breathing to help strengthen respiratory muscles. Breathing exercises, as well as good posture, can help patients to exhale and inhale fully (Lorig et al., 2006). Pursed lip breathing may also be helpful for patients who are short of breath or breathless. Pursed breathing includes pursing the lips as if blowing a whistle; using diaphragmatic breathing out through pursed lips without any force; and remembering to relax the upper chest, arms shoulders, and arms while breathing out. Patients with sleep apnea need to be referred for sleep studies.
Arthritis and osteoarthritis. Arthritis is the leading cause of disability in older adults. A high body mass index (BMI) is an associated risk factor for knee osteoarthritis (OA) in older persons (Villareal et al., 2005). By 65 years of age the prevalence of osteoarthritis is 68% in women and 58% in men. This age-related increase in the prevalence of OA may reflect bodily changes as a result of a lifetime of being overweight which results in strain on weight-bearing joints (Villareal et al.).
Obesity, or even being overweight, increases the load placed on joints, especially the knee and hip joints. Breakdown in cartilage, resulting from the increased weight on joints, may result in pain and further functional disability (Lorig & Fries, 2006). Leveille, Wee, and Iezzoni (2005) reported that the relative risk of arthritis in people who are obese increases over time. People with arthritis are particularly vulnerable to the stress-pain-depression cycle mentioned above, in which the pain and stiffness caused by the disease leads to decreased mobility, thereby increasing stress, pain, and depression and likely decreasing quality of life (Newman, 2002). Obese older people above the age of 50 who have arthritis are more likely to say their condition limits their activities than non-obese adults in this age group (Center on an Aging Society, 2003).
For the older person with OA, the most important risk factor that can be modified is obesity. Karlson et al. (2003) noted during the Nurses’ Health Study that of all the hip-replacement risk factors examined, including BMI, hormone replacement after menopause, alcohol use, physical activity, and cigarette smoking, only BMI and cigarette smoking were associated with needing a hip replacement.
The goal of managing arthritis is to maintain the maximum use and function of the joint and the surrounding muscles, tendons, and ligaments (Lorig et al., 2006). Exercise is the key to meeting this goal. However, many people with OA and other joint diseases believe that exercise will cause their arthritis to flare up and increase the pain. This is a misperception that nurses can work to dispel. Stretching exercises of all muscle groups should be done ten minutes a day as well as daily active range of motion for all joints. Isotonic exercises, which move the joint in an arc, are also helpful. Aquatic exercise and walking are usually well tolerated by older adults with mild to moderate lower extremity OA (Resnick, 2001). Heat is also helpful in managing arthritis because it reduces stiffness and makes exercise easier. Rest periods between activities help to control the fatigue of arthritis, which is compounded by obesity.
Although many cognitive-behavioral programs have been found to help people with arthritis manage their chronic condition, The Arthritis Self-Management Course, designed by a nurse and endorsed by the Arthritis Foundation, has been the most successful (Lorig, 2006). Nurses can make referrals to this program, or become self-management course leaders. Many of the interventions described in the upcoming section on Interventions for Obesity in Older Adults also apply to those having OA.
Skin conditions. Brown, Wimpenny, and Maughan (2004) found skin problems, including itching, skin breakdown, redness, and rashes, in 75% of the obese population they sampled. The two main causes of the reported skin problems were perspiration and friction. Groin, limbs, and under breasts were identified as the most troubling areas. Older adults who are obese and have skin problems face additional complications because their skin naturally loses about 20% of its dermal thickness with age (Baranoski, 2001). This combination of older age, fragile skin, and obesity increases the risk for pressure sores (Flood & Newman, 2007).
The first step in addressing skin problems is to conduct a skin assessment of obese patients. The specificity and degree of skin problems will determine the intervention. Nurses are advised to initiate measures to decrease friction as soon as possible after hospital admission. Additionally, in older women, urinary incontinence from a large, heavy abdomen causing the valve on the bladder to weaken may result in the leaking of urine when coughing or sneezing. Nurses should educate patients about keeping the area dry so as to prevent skin problems. Strategies to keep the area dry include wearing absorption pads in their underwear and changing underwear as soon as possible when leakage occurs.
Life-Threatening Illnesses Related to Obesity
The World Health Organization (2005) has noted that life-threatening illnesses related to obesity include cardiovascular disease; conditions associated with insulin resistance, such as type 2 diabetes; certain types of cancers, especially hormonally related and large-bowel cancer; and gallbladder disease. The next few sections will discuss these illnesses.
Cardiovascular disease. Coronary heart disease is responsible for significant morbidity and mortality in older patients who are 65 years and older. It remains a leading cause of mortality in the US with 84% of persons 65 years or older dying from this disease (Hanna & Wenger, 2005).
Dietary modification is the cornerstone of treating cardiovascular disease in older adults who are obese. Grundy (2004) has described obesity as a major underlying factor contributing to atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) and a factor associated with multiple other ASCVD risk factors, including elevated blood pressure, hypertriglyceridemia, low high-density lipoproteins, high cholesterol, and high fasting plasma glucose. It is also a risk factor for type 2 diabetes. Even though there is a strong association between obesity and ASCVD, the relationship underlying the mechanism is not well understood. The fact that obesity acts on so many metabolic pathways, producing so many potential risk factors, makes it challenging to delineate the specific mechanism by which obesity contributes to ASCVD. Gundy suggested that the fundamental question for controlling cardiovascular diseases related to obesity is: how can we intervene at the public health level to reduce the high prevalence of obesity in the general population. He added that indeed, “This approach offers the greatest possibility for reducing the cardiovascular risk that accompanies obesity” (p. 2600). The widely disseminated Healthy People 2010 (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.) challenges individuals, communities, professionals, and indeed all of us, to take specific steps to reduce obesity to ensure that good health, as well as long life, are enjoyed by all. Dietary modification is the cornerstone of treating cardiovascular disease in older adults who are obese. Interventions to decrease obesity are presented in the next section titled, “Interventions to Address Obesity."
Diabetes. Type 2 diabetes, the most common type of diabetes in older adults, results from interplay between genetic factors and environmental factors that contribute to obesity. Even a 15 pound weight gain can increase a person’s risk of diabetes by 50% (Daniels, 2006). There is an age-related increase in total body fat and visceral adiposity until age 65 that is often accompanied by diabetes or impaired glucose intolerance (Wilson & Kannel, 2007). In the Framingham Study 30-40% of people over 65 were found to have diabetes or glucose intolerance. Coronary disease is the most common and lethal sequel of type 2 diabetes. Lean-muscle mass begins to diminish after the age of 65. This decrease may be related to decreased physical activity, disability, anabolic hormone production, or increased cytokine activity. If calorie intake continues at the same rate while the muscle mass decreases, the older person will most likely experience fat weight gain (Tucker, 2006).
The chief goal for obese diabetic persons is to avoid the common cardiovascular sequelae (Wilson & Kannel, 2007). The effect of sedentary behavior, particularly television watching, in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes was studied by a group of researchers who followed a cohort of subjects from the Nurses’ Health Study (Hu, Li, Colditz, Willett, & Manson, 2003). These researchers reported that time spent watching TV was positively associated with risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes. Each two-hour-a-day increment in watching TV was associated with a 23% increase in obesity and a 14% increase in risk of diabetes. As with heart disease, a comprehensive approach to social and environmental factors, including weight reduction is suggested. Specific dietary modifications are suggested in the next section, "Interventions to Address Obesity."
Cancer. Obesity is also linked to higher rates of certain types of cancer (NIH, 2006). Breast cancer in older women is increasingly being linked to obesity (Sweeney, Blair, Anderson, Lazovich, & Folsom, 2004). Twenty-five to 30% of several major cancers, including breast (postmenopausal), colon, kidney, and esophageal, have been linked to obesity and physical inactivity (Vainio & Bianchini, 2002). Men who are obese are more likely to develop cancer of the colon, rectum, or prostate, than men who are not obese. Cancer of the gallbladder, uterus, cervix, or ovaries are more common in women who are obese compared with women who are not obese (NIH, 2006). Management of obesity is needed to decrease the incidence of these cancers.
Gallbladder disease. Obesity is a major risk factor for gallstones because obesity is believed to reduce the amount of bile salts in bile, resulting in more cholesterol. Additionally, gallbladder emptying is decreased as a result of obesity (National Digestive Diseases Clearinghouse, 2004). Again, management of obesity, as described below, is the primary approach for decreasing the incidence of this gallbladder disease.
Interventions to Address Obesity
As care providers for older adults, nurses are in a position to assist older adults who are obese in adopting changes to promote a healthier lifestyle. The primary goal is to achieve sustained lifestyle changes through dietary modifications, exercise, and use of community supports (Villareal et al., 2005). Strategies that promote lifestyle modifications include helping older adults who are obese to overcome barriers related to dietary changes and physical activity. Two well-developed programs, as well as general considerations to facilitate safe dietary changes and safe increases in physical activity, will be discussed below.
The Chronic Disease Self-Management Program
The Chronic Disease Self-Management Program has been developed by Kate Lorig, a nurse, and her colleagues at Stanford University. While this program is not directed specifically at obese older adults, it has been used to help people with heart disease, arthritis, diabetes, and respiratory problems learn to self-manage their conditions through increasing their self-efficacy. It develops confidence in one’s ability to make the changes needed to lead a healthier life style through having participants make an action plan for each week. Each action plan addresses the questions of: what, how much, when, how often, and how confident older adults are that they can carry out the plan. Research has demonstrated that on a scale of one to ten (with ten being the most confident), people who rate themselves as at least a seven are more likely to be able to make the changes to become a more positive self-manager of their chronic condition than are those who score lower on the scale (Lorig et al, 2006). This program can be used as a prototype for nurses helping obese older adults to achieve success in losing weight.
The National Blueprint
...nurses can...assist clients to identify physical activity options that match their interests, lifestyles, and functional abilities; and identify opportunities for them to pursue these activities. The National Blueprint (n.d.) is a guide for organizations, associations, and agencies to help adults 50 years and older to increase their physical activity. This document synthesizes input from more than 65 individuals, representing 48 organizations, including the American College of Sports Medicine, the American Heart Association, and the National Institute on Aging (National Blueprint). The Blueprint addresses the barriers to increasing physical activity among older adults. It outlines suggestions related to addressing home and community, policy and advocacy, research, and other cross-cutting issues to overcome these barriers. Strategies in which nurses can be involved include:
- Disseminating information about the benefits of physical activity in older adults to health professionals via professional journals, professional societies, and professional meetings.
- Assisting clients to identify physical activity options that match their interests, lifestyles, and functional abilities; and identify opportunities for them to pursue these activities.
- Providing health professionals with resources describing physical activity opportunities for the older population so professionals can make referrals and recommendation as appropriate.
The National Blueprint is available online in a printer-friendly version at <www.agingblueprint.org/>. It is an excellent resource for clinical practice as well as for generating ideas and plans for community service opportunities (Flood & Newman, 2007).
General Considerations to Facilitate Safe Weight Loss Strategies
Older persons present special challenges when making changes in diet and activity levels. In patients over 65, the increase in chronic diseases associated with aging reduces physical activity and exercise capacity, making it more difficult for elderly persons to lose weight. Widowhood, loneliness, isolation, and depression are other factors that need to be addressed during weight-loss programs (Villareal et al., 2005). Participation in these programs by family members, as well as caregiver(s) is especially important if the older person’s vision and hearing are impaired or if there is cognitive impairment.
Appropriate nutritional counseling through referral to a registered dietitian is recommended to ensure that the older adult’s daily nutritional requirements are met during weight-loss programs. The benefits and risks of weight reduction in older adults should be carefully considered. Loss of lean body mass, which is already diminished in older adults, may not be appropriate in persons over 65 years of age because the loss of fat-free mass in older adults is associated with significant morbidity and mortality (Flood & Newman, 2007). A weight loss program that minimizes muscle and bone loss is recommended for the older adult who is obese and who has functional impairments or metabolic complications that might be improved by weight loss (Villareal et al., 2005). This is best achieved through a moderate reduction in daily calorie intake (500-750 kcal/d). Appropriate nutritional counseling through referral to a registered dietitian is recommended to ensure that the older adult’s daily nutritional requirements are met during weight-loss programs. It is important that the diet continue to contain 1.0g/kg of protein and include 1500mg Ca/d, as well as 1000 IU vitamin D/d (Villareal et al.).
Improving physical function and helping to preserve muscle and bone mass through regular physical exercise is important in older adults who are obese. Increasing flexibility, endurance, and strength are the goals of regular exercise in older adults who are obese. Stretching, aerobic, and strengthening exercises are recommended by the American Society for Nutrition and the North American Association for the Study of Obesity and the Obesity Society, even for very old or frail persons (Villareal et al., 2005). To avoid musculoskeletal injuries and encourage adherence, exercise should be started at a low intensity and gradually progress over several weeks or months to a more vigorous level.
The number of obese Americans ages 65 and older will increase from 10.3 million to 14.3 million by 2010, averaging 400,000 new obese adults per year (Arteburn, Crane, & Sullivan, 2004). Today, more than 65% of adults in the United States are overweight or obese. Obesity puts people at risk for heart disease, type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, stroke, and some types of cancer.
In patients over 65, the increase in chronic diseases associated with aging reduces physical activity and exercise capacity, making it more difficult for elderly persons to lose weight. The large number of older people with obesity and associated serious health risks make understanding the causes of obesity crucial. Obese older adults are more likely to be severely disabled and require the assistance of another person than those who are not obese (Center on an Aging Society, 2003). Older adults who are obese are more likely to suffer from persistent and chronic symptoms of illness, and to report symptoms of depression. In addition to having difficulty with activities of daily living, older obese adults are more likely to not be able to walk very far, go shopping, or participate in other activities that enrich our lives (Center on an Aging Society).
This article has presented formal programs nurses can use to help patients manage their weight along with general considerations to facilitate weight loss safely in older adults who are obese. As trusted and respected healthcare professionals, it is time for nurses to take the lead in combating the obesity epidemic.
Ann Mabe Newman, DSN, APRN, CNE
Dr. Ann Mabe Newman received a Diploma in Nursing from The University of Virginia, a BSN from The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, a MSN from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and a DSN from The University of Alabama-Birmingham. She received CNE certification in 2007. Currently she is an Associate Professor at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte where she has served as President of the Faculty Senate and received the prestigious Bank of America and Governor’s Award for teaching excellence. Dr. Newman has also served on the State Board of Nursing for North Carolina and most recently on the American Nurses Association Congress on Nursing Practice and Economics. For the past 20 years she has maintained a research program on self-management in chronic illness, and she has published extensively on this topic. Dr. Newman’s work has focused on using the concept of self-efficacy to encourage clients, students, and community groups to accomplish things they thought were not possible. Ann notes that as a healthy, older person, her respect and admiration for older adults who persevere in spite of their chronic illnesses continues to grow.
Article published January 31, 2009
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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Seven Reasons Why Plants Stop Flowering
Plants need to bloom in order to survive. If they do not flower they will not be able to attract pollinators. If they do not attract pollinators they will not be able to produce seeds after flowering. This article will help you understand some of the reasons your plants may have stopped flowering, as well as how to help them to begin producing flowers again.
When a plant stops blooming, you will need to look for clues to explain what environmental conditions have changed from when the plant was flowering to when it stopped. With this knowledge, you can adjust the variables of soil, light, water, temperature and nutrition to help the plant bounce back.
Plants react to stress by shifting from vigorous growth to simply trying to survive. If the plants are growing in poor soil, are overcrowded, lacking water and nutrients, or the weather is hot and dry, they may be reacting to stress. Leaves that have turned a grayish-olive color are a good indicator that the plants are stressed. If this is the case, the plants may begin to die. When threatened with these conditions, plants will attempt to flower and attract pollinators so they can produce seeds to try to survive.
If you think your plants are experiencing stress, try to relieve it. Repot, add fertilizer or water more as needed to help them bounce back.
If your plants look ill, their leaves turning yellow with only a few flowers, they are lacking nutrients. To prevent lack of nutrients, you should apply fertilizer to your potted plants every third time you water or about once a month if your plants are in a garden. Slow release fertilizers work the best because they provide a constant supply of nutrients to the plants and are environmentally friendly.
Tomato plants and impatiens are examples of having thick green leaves but no fruit or flowers and are in a correct state to be able to grow and reproduce. Therefore, they will not produce flowers to attract pollinators. If your plants are overly lush it is most likely that they have been over fertilized and have been put into a vegetative state.
In order for plants to survive they need just the right amount of water. Too much water causes rapid growth of fleshy, weak branches and poor roots. Not enough water causes restricted growth, instigation of the flowering cycle and grayish-green foliage with brittle stems. Water your plants in the early morning at their roots; avoid splashing water on their leaves to prevent diseases.
4. Pot size
Give your potted plants a lot of room to grow new roots. New roots result in more flowers and better plant growth. If your plants are overly crowded, they will stop growing, set seed and die off. When planting in pots in the spring you should plan for a long growing season and provide your plants with enough room to grow. This will be better for your plants and better for you because they won't require as much maintenance.
Sunlight provides your plants with the energy they need to produce large, beautiful flowers. Plants that require full sun need at least six hours of sun each day and plants that require partial shade should only receive about four hours of non mid-day sun. Most flowering plants need about six hours of sun each day.
Gardeners can often underestimate how much sun an area receives. Hanging plant baskets usually look better on one side because that side receives more sunlight. You can prevent this by rotating your hanging baskets about once a week.
If your plants do not receive enough sunlight they will begin to look weak, while too much sunlight can turn their leaves an unhealthy silver or copper color. If your plants are receiving the correct amount of sun and they still look weak, they may need more fertilizer.
Many plants struggle in the summer when the humidity rises and nighttime temperatures are high. These types of conditions cause plants to grow more slowly and stop flowering because they are not able to rest and recuperate from the warm day. It is similar to sleeping without air conditioning and waking up more tired than when you went to sleep. When the nighttime temperatures are high, you should water your plants in the early morning to make sure they have enough water to avoid feeling the stress from the previous day.
If your plants have more dead flowers than new flowers, they need dead-heading. Dead-heading is the process of removing the dead flowers from your plants to help them bloom again so they can produce more flowers.
If environmental conditions have not changed from when your plants were flowering to when they stopped and they are still not producing flowers you should check your plants for insects and diseases.
Properly balancing the variables of soil, light, water, temperature and nutrition will result in healthy flower and foliage development. In order for your plants to produce healthy flowers, you should provide them with a water soluble fertilizer, well aerated soil and a container or area large enough to support healthy root growth. Balance, moderation and observation are the keys to a happy, healthy garden.
- First Published on www.provenwinners.com
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Moderate reasoning
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Home & Hobbies
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At the end of September 2015, in the context of the XIV SBPMat Meeting, around 40 researchers of the Materials field participated in a symposium about the Brazilian Multipurpose Reactor (RMB), a project that has been developed by the Brazilian National Nuclear Energy Commission (CNEN) and that, when inaugurated in Iperó (SP), will add an important research tool to the current facilities that Brazil has.
As a matter of fact, the RMB will provide beams of neutrons that, when interacting with samples and with the mediation of several experimental techniques, will be able to provide unique information about the structure of the materials. For such, the RMB project envisions the construction of a series of laboratories with diffractometer equipment (of high resolution, of high intensity, Laue, of residual tension); small angle scattering; analysis of prompt gamma; triple-axis spectrometry and neutrongraphy, among other techniques. This research infrastructure must comprise a laboratory open to the scientific community and working day and night, more than 300 days a year: the Brazilian National Laboratory of Neutrons.
As indicated by its name, RMB will meet several goals. Besides providing beams of neutrons for scientific research, it will be used in irradiation tests of materials and fuels used in nuclear power plants for electricity generation and submarines propelled by nuclear reactors, for instance. The reactor will also have the important mission of producing radioisotopes and radioactive sources for health, industry, agriculture and environment, replacing imports and even generating exports.
Interview with the technical coordinator
To further explain the RMB project and, in particular, its applications in materials science and technology, we interviewed José Augusto Perrotta, technical coordinator of the RMB enterprise. Master in Nuclear Engineering by the Military Institute of Engineering (IME), and PhD in Nuclear Technology by the São Paulo University (USP), Perrotta works as technologist at CNEN since 1983.
SBPMat Newsletter: – Briefly comment about all the possibilities that the future RMB will offer to the materials science and technology community. In what way the beams of neutrons can be used for research and development in this area?
José Perrotta: – RMB is an enterprise that has as its core part a nuclear multipurpose research reactor and several laboratories to perform research, services and products.
The reactor was conceived with a high flow of neutrons to:
i. Produce radioisotopes in the quality and amount needed to Brazilian applications;
ii. Have the ability to irradiate and test nuclear fuels used in the several applications and irradiation conditions within the Brazilian nuclear program;
iii. Have the ability to irradiate materials with neutrons and check its performance under irradiation;
iv. Have the possibility to irradiate samples to perform a chemical analysis via activation of neutrons;
v. Extract beams of neutrons for research on materials structure in several application areas.
Regarding item (ii), the reactor is prepared to receive fuel samples and irradiation circuits that simulate the conditions of PWR reactors, that is, test fuels of the power reactors used or developed in the country.
Regarding item (iii), inside the reactor core there are two positions with high flow of neutrons for irradiations of materials. In these positions, samples can be placed in capsules with a controlled environment (temperature and medium of insertion of the sample). In these positions, samples of structural materials and samples of components of power reactors used in the country can be tested.
The reactor and the infrastructure of the reactor (pools, hot cells and transport shields) are designed to meet the two previous items (ii and iii).
A Post-Irradiation Analysis Laboratory is designed with hot cells and the entire infrastructure for mechanical, physical and microscopy analysis of the irradiated samples, both for the samples of irradiated fuels and for the structural materials.
Regarding item (iv), a laboratory of analysis by activation and radiochemistry is projected. The laboratory is connected to the reactor via pneumatic pipes that allow sending samples for irradiation in the reactor and bring them back to the laboratory for analysis. Several irradiation positions were defined in the reactor, varying the range of flow of neutrons in which the irradiations can be performed. The laboratory has hot cells to receive and handle the irradiated samples before their destination to the analysis equipment (radiochemistry or gamma spectrometry). The laboratory will be managed as a national laboratory, which will allow its use by the Brazilian scientific community.
Regarding item (v), the reactor is designed with a heavy water reflector tank that, mechanically, allows the extraction of beams of neutrons. These neutrons are thermal, and in order to obtain cold neutrons a small tank with deuterium at 19ºK (cold source) is designed. Thermal neutrons will be extracted in two positions and cold neutrons in two other. Each extraction tube may contain up to three neutrons guides. These guides will conduct the beam of neutrons for positions in a lobby of experiments at the building of the reactor, and in a building called neutron guides building. Scientific and technological equipment can be attached to the neutron guides for the analysis of the samples with the beam of neutrons. There is an additional thermal neutron extraction tube to make images with beam of neutrons (neutrongraphy). The experiments lobby in the reactor building and the guides building will form what we call “National Laboratory of Neutrons” (LNN).
SBPMat Newsletter: – Will there be experimental stations for Materials Science and Technology, analogous to the Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory (LNLS)? Which ones? Will they be open to the entire scientific community? Will they operate constantly while the reactor is working?
José Perrotta: – The neutrons lines, as mentioned, are five: three with thermal neutrons and two with cold neutrons. Four of the lines can have up to three guides. In these guides, the experimental instruments (or stations) will be placed.
The following stations might be available since the beginning of the operation of the National Laboratory of Neutrons
i. Neutrons Guides Building.
- For thermal neutrons: High Resolution Diffractometer; High Intensity Diffractometer; Laue Diffractometer; Residual Tension Diffractometer.
- For cold neutrons: Small Angle Scattering; Prompt Gamma Analysis
ii. Experiments Lobby in the Reactor Building.
- Thermal Neutrons: Triple Axis Spectrometer; Neutrongraphy
The RMB will bring to the country’s research community an important laboratory for utilization of neutrons beams. This laboratory, per its technical characteristics, is complementary to the Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory (LNLS), which also has a large scale project, the Sirius. It is a proposal of the RMB enterprise that the National Laboratory of Neutrons is, like the LNLS, a national laboratory. This will facilitate the access of the Brazilian scientific society to the facility.
The functioning of the neutrons lines is related to the operation of the reactor. The reactor will operate 24 hours a day, in cycles of 25-28 days, in a way to achieve availability higher than 80% of the annual time (more than 300 days in full operation). The LNN can operate during all this time.
An important point is that the LNN will be operationally independent regarding the operation of the reactor, that is, the operation of the reactor offers the beam of neutrons and does not interfere in the operation of the LNN.
SBPMat Newsletter: – From the point of view of materials science and technology, which would be the advantages of the future RMB regarding the other reactors currently existing in Brazil?
José Perrotta: – Brazil has four research nuclear reactors in operation. The oldest one, and also the one with higher power (5 MW), is the IEA-R1 reactor from the Institute for Nuclear and Energy Research (IPEN) in São Paulo, which was unveiled in 1957. Other two low power research reactors, the IPR-R1 reactor of the Center for Nuclear Technology Development (CDTN) in Belo Horizonte (100 kW) and the Argonauta reactor of the Institute for Nuclear Engineering (IEN) in Rio de Janeiro (500 W) were built in the 1960s. These three reactors, of North-American designs, were built inside the university campuses of USP, UFMG and UFRJ, respectively, and originated the main nuclear research institutes of the Brazilian National Nuclear Energy Commission (CNEN), which developed themselves in proportion of the size of the reactors and their applications. These reactors and the CNEN institutes growing around them were essential in the development and use of nuclear technology that we have in the country today, and in the formation of the associated human resources. The fourth research nuclear reactor, the IPEN/MB-01 at IPEN, is an installation of the critical unit type (100 W) and was built in the 1980s, already with national technology, aiming towards the autonomous development of technology for power nuclear reactors.
The RMB reactor´s power is 30 MW and has modern design and conception. The reactors existing today in the country do not have flow of neutrons to ensure commercial operation or adequate characteristics for a high level research. In addition to being a more modern installation, the flow of neutrons of the RMB is one order of magnitude higher than the IEA-R1, and has functions that are not met by this reactor today. The other three reactors have really low flow of neutrons.
SBPMat Newsletter: – Could you estimate when the RMB and its research laboratories would be launched?
The RMB enterprise can be carried out in a period of 6 to 7 years. In the current stage of development, this would occur in 2022, if the full resources for the project are made available. It is important to highlight that, besides the need for intensive financial resources for its execution, the enterprise requires environmental and nuclear licenses for its construction and operation, since it has nuclear and radioactive facilities. This implies additional times for its implementation.
Funders and partners in the development of the RMB
The execution of the RMB project occurs under the responsibility of the Brazilian National Nuclear Energy Commission (CNEN).
The enterprise is coordinated by the Research and Development Directory of CNEN and developed by its research institutes: Nuclear Energy Research Institute (IPEN), Nuclear Engineering Institute (IEN), Nuclear Technology Development Center (CDTN), Northeast Regional Center of Nuclear Sciences (CRCN-NE) and Radiological Protection and Dosimetry Institute (IRD).
Throughout the stages of development of the RMB, CNEN counts and will count on partnerships, as well as contracts of national and foreign companies. Some of the partners participating so far: Brazilian Navy and the São Paulo State government, in the concession of the land where the RMB will be placed; the Brazilian Navy Technology Center in São Paulo (CTMSP); the cooperation of CNEN with the National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA) from Argentina, which develops in Argentina the research nuclear reactor RA-10, similar to RMB. Contracted companies: Argentine company INVAP, which designed the Australian OPAL research reactor, and Brazilian company Intertechne have developed the basic engineering design of the enterprise.
With an estimated cost of US$500 million, the RMB is sponsored by the Brazilian Federal Government through the Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI).
Charles Adriano Duvoisin
Bom dia a todos! No caso de eu possuir uma patente, a qual seja uma hipótese de criar isótopos atraves de um sistema e metodo inédito mundialmente … Todavia esta pesquisa necessitará de alguns ajustes… Pergunto: Onde poderei realizar este experinto de forma rápida e segura? Forte abraco a todos….
Quero umas respostas resumidas de;
sobre o valor do projeto de construção do RMB?
Sua localização geográfica ?
Qual o prazo de conclusão ?
Como esta o andamento ?
Qual a sua dimensão ?
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Science & Tech.
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Atherosclerosis can occur in arteries in the brain, heart, kidneys, other vital organs and the arms and legs. When atherosclerosis occurs in the arteries leading to the brain (carotid arteries), then it could be a stroke. If it occurs in the arteries leading to the heart (coronary arteries), heart attack can occur.
Atherosclerosis begins when white blood cells called monocytes, move from the bloodstream into the arterial wall and transformed into cells that collect fatty materials. In time, monocytes were filled fat will accumulate, causing patches of thickening in the lining of the arteries.
Each area of thickening (called atherosclerotic plaque or atheroma) are filled with soft materials such as cheese, contains a number of fatty material, especially cholesterol, smooth muscle cells and connective tissue cells. Atheroma in the arteries can be dispersed medium and large arteries, but usually they are formed in regions of branching, possibly due to turbulence in this region causes injury to the arterial wall, so here is more easily formed atheroma.
Affected artery atherosclerosis, will lose its flexibility and because atheroma continues to grow, it will be narrowed arteries. Long atheroma accumulate calcium deposits, making it brittle and breakable. Blood can enter into a ruptured atheroma, so atheroma becomes larger and narrow the arteries. Atheroma which rupture could also shed fat content and trigger the formation of a blood clot (thrombus). Furthermore, the clot will narrow even clog arteries, or the clot is released and flow with the bloodstream and cause blockages elsewhere (embolism).
Increased risk of atherosclerosis:
- High blood pressure
- High cholesterol levels
- Overweight (obesity)
- Lazy exercise
Men have a higher risk than women. Patients with hereditary disease homocystinuria have widespread atheroma, especially at a young age. This disease of the arteries but not necessarily a lot of the coronary arteries (the arteries leading to the heart). In contrast, the familia hypercholesterolemia hereditary diseases, high cholesterol levels cause the formation of atheroma were more in the coronary arteries than other arteries.
Before the sudden narrowing or blockage of the arteries, atherosclerosis usually does not cause symptoms. Symptoms depend on the location of the establishment, so that could be a symptom of heart, brain, legs or elsewhere. If atherosclerosis causes a narrowing of the arteries that is very heavy, the body parts in perdarahi will not get adequate amounts of blood, which carries oxygen to the tissues.
Early symptoms of hardening of the arteries can be a pain or cramping that occurs when blood flow can not meet the need for oxygen. For example, during exercise, a person can experience chest pain (angina) due to the flow of oxygen to the heart is reduced, or when walking, someone felt cramps in legs (claudication interminten) because the flow of oxygen to the legs is reduced.
Typical is that these symptoms arise gradually, in line with the narrowing of the arteries by atheroma that also takes place slowly. But if the blockage occurs suddenly (for example, if a clot clogs an artery), the symptoms will arise suddenly.
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Moderate reasoning
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Health
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Eight Kinds of Love according to Ancient Greeks
Love is a special and complicated emotion which is quite difficult to understand. Although most people believe that love revolves around the heart, it actually occurs in the brain. Artists, poets and painters all epitomize the heart as the love symbol, but it’s the brain that generates chemical signals to make people understand love. There are different forms and styles of expressing love.
All of us hold feelings for others, but these feelings differ according to the people and the circumstance. In the English language there is only one word to describe all of them: LOVE.
It wasn’t always so. The Ancient Greeks had around 30 words to describe Love in all its shades and complexities. We have chosen eight of the most powerful of these words to guide us towards a greater understanding of the emotion which makes the world go round.
The Eight Kinds of Love according to Ancient Greeks
Agape – the love of humanity
This is an unconditional love that sees beyond the outer surface and accepts the recipient for whom he/she is, regardless of their flaws, shortcomings or faults. It’s the type of love that everyone strives to have for their fellow human beings. Although you may not like someone, you decide to love them just as a human being. This kind of love is all about sacrifice as well as giving and expecting nothing in return. The translation of the word agape is love in the verb – form: it is the love demonstrated by your behavior towards another person. It is a committed and chosen love.
Storge – family love
It is a kind of family and friendship love. This is the love that parents naturally feel for their children; the love that member of the family have for each other; or the love that friends feel for each other. In some cases, this friendship love may turn into a romantic relationship, and the couple in such a relationship becomes best friends. Storge love is unconditional, accepts flaws or faults and ultimately drives you to forgive. It’s committed, sacrificial and makes you feel secure, comfortable and safe.
Pragma – love which endures
The love between a married couple which develops over a long period of time. The love which endures in sickness and in health. The love which makes a friend care for their former school friend who has become vulnerable in later life.
Philautia – self-respect
The love we give to ourselves. This is not vanity, like narcissism, but our joy in being true to our own values. The strength to care for ourselves so that we can in turn care for others.
Philia – a shared experience
The love we feel for people we strive with to achieve a shared goal – our co-workers, the players in a football or netball team, the soldiers in an army.
Ludus – flirting, playful affection
The feelings we have when we test out what it might be like to be in love with someone. The fluttering heart and feelings of euphoria; the slightly dangerous sensation.
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Moderate reasoning
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Social Life
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Environmental Economics Assignment Help
Environmental economics will assist you comprehend some questionable and crucial problems– such as environment modification policy, nuclear power, recycling policy, and traffic jam charging. This is an interesting field of economics to study, and quite at the heart of lots of public arguments and debates. In
extremely broad terms, environmental economics takes a look at how financial activity and policy impact the environment where we live. Some production produces contamination– for instance, power station emissions cause acid rain as well as add to global warming. Home intake choices too impact the environment– for instance, more usage can indicate more waste sent out to contaminating incinerators or trash discards.
Exactly what is ‘Environmental Economics ‘
Environmental economics is a specialty of economics handling the relationship in between the environment and the economy. Environmental financial experts study the economics of natural deposits from both sides – their extraction and usage, and the waste items went back to the environment. They also study how financial rewards assist the environment or harm, and how they can be used to produce environmental solutions and sustainable policies.
BREAKING DOWN ‘Environmental Economics ‘
The standard argument underpinning environmental economics is that there are environmental expenses of financial development that go unaccounted in the existing market design. These unfavorable externalities, like contamination and other sort of environmental deterioration, might then lead to market failure. Environmental financial experts therefore evaluate the expenses and advantages of particular financial policies, which also includes running theoretical tests or research studies on possible financial effects of environmental destruction.
- – Economics is the research study of the allowance of limited resources.
oNote that the theories of economics can be used to any limited resource, not simply conventional products. oEconomics is not just about earnings or cash. It uses anywhere restraints are dealt with, so that solutions need to be made. oEconomists study how rewards impact people’s habits. Environmental and natural deposit economics is the application of the concepts of economics to the research study of how environmental and natural deposits are established and handled. oNatural resources– resources supplied by nature that can be divided into progressively smaller sized systems and designated at the margin. oEnvironmental resources- resources offered by nature that are indivisible. oNatural resources function as inputs to the financial system. Environmental resources are impacted by the system (e.g. contamination).
Why should there be an unique course in environmental economics?
Environmental and natural resource are foremost and very first resources and ought to be assigned in the very same way we desire to assign all resources. When effectiveness is specified, it is specified in terms of all resources, not simply one classification like trucks or environmental resources.
Why an Environmental Economics Degree?
Environmental economics is a location of economics handling the relationship in between the economy, the earth’s systems, and its restricted resource base. Economic systems exist within the boundaries of the closed earth system. Instead of thinking about financial systems in seclusion, environmental economics research studies economics within the bigger context of exactly what we understand about the world from science and other disciplines.
Environmental economic experts research study the economics of resource usage, carry out cost-benefit analyses of environmental policies and other contamination control procedures, and evaluate brand-new fuels and newing environmental markets. They try to designate worth to “ecosystem services” such as natural water and air purification.
MSc Environmental Economics and Climate Change
Environmental economics is playing a significantly main function in both comprehending the causes of, and creating policy solutions to, modern environmental issues. Environmental economics has actually been critical in notifying policy throughout the world, for example, in market production such as for carbon, or the style of brand-new interventions such as payments for community services (PES).
Records of Why Study Environmental Economics?
According to the EPA, by 2010, the yearly expense of the sulfur dioxide tidy up (by electrical energy business) is approximated to be about $3 billion, while the yearly advantages– consisting of lower death; less health center admissions; enhanced presence; cleaner soil, lakes, and streams; and decreased damage to structures– will go beyond $100 billion. “To establish a mutual understanding of environmental economics one need to establish an understanding of the contributions of other disciplines to the field.
Masters in Environmental Economics & Policy
Environmental economics handle the exploitation, allowance and usage of set and eco-friendly natural deposits. Environmental policy describes sets of safe guidelines of conduct that organisations need to execute in order to attend to different environmental problems. Environmental economics and policy check out the financial impacts of around the world environmental policies, through empirical and theoretical research study. Environmental economics is a specialty of economics that studies the monetary effect of environmental policies. Environmental economics is playing a significantly main function in both comprehending the causes of, and creating policy solutions to, modern environmental issues. Environmental economics and policy look into the financial impacts of around the world environmental policies, through empirical and theoretical research study. Environmental Economics Homework assist & Environmental Economics tutors provide 24 * 7 services. Instantaneously contact us on live chat for Environmental Economics project assistance & Environmental Economics Homework aid.
We provide outstanding services for Environmental Economics Assignment help & Environmental Economics Homework assistance. Our Environmental Economics Online tutors are offered for instantaneous assistance for Environmental Economics issues & tasks. Environmental Economics Homework assist & Environmental Economics tutors provide 24 * 7 services. Send your Environmental Economics task at [email protected] otherwise upload it on the site. Instantaneously connect with us on live chat for Environmental Economics task assistance & Environmental Economics Homework assistance.
24 * 7 Online Help with Environmental Economics Assignments include:
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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The famous American artist and poet Marsden Hartley described Dogtown as a cross between Stonehenge and Easter Island. There are 45 numbered "cellar holes" that mark the one time homes of this ghost town. Treasure hunters, nature lovers, writers, artists, historians, photographers, and even business persons are inspired by the landscape.
Bring your Dogtown associated profiles on over.
Dogtown (also Dogtown Commons or Dogtown Common or Dogtown Village) is an abandoned inland settlement on Cape Ann in Massachusetts. Once known as the Common Settlement and populated by respectable citizens, the area later known as Dogtown is divided between the city of Gloucester and the town of Rockport. It is in an area not particularly suited to agriculture, due to poor and very rocky soil. Nevertheless it was settled, beginning in 1693, because its inland location afforded protection from pirates and from enemy natives. Another attraction was the fact that the area lay on what was originally the only direct land route between Sandy Bay (Rockport's original name) and Gloucester. The peak of population, from about 1750 to the turn of the nineteenth century, has been estimated at around one hundred families.
After new coastal roads were opened, and especially after the conclusion of the War of 1812 and its attendant risk of coastal bombardment, most farmers moved away from Dogtown. Their abandoned houses were for a few decades occupied by itinerants and vagabonds, giving the area its bad reputation. Many of the widows of sea-goers and soldiers who never returned kept dogs for protection and company. As these last inhabitants died their pets became feral, roaming the moors and howling, possibly giving rise to the nickname "Dogtown."
In 1814, 6 of the original 80 houses remained in Dogtown. The last resident left in 1830.
Today, since Dogtown is a ghost town, visitors can touch the lives of those who once lived there by finding numbered boulders marking cellar holes and recalling Dogtown stories. In this fashion, all residents of the Commons Settlement and Dogtown whose cellar holes are marked have become legendary.
- Naturalist, historian, economist and philanthropist Roger Babson (1875-1967) mapped and numbered Dogtown’s cellar holes and inscribed boulders to help locate them, thus creating a natural “theme park”.
- Isaac Dade (cellar hole 18) escaped impressment on a British ship to fight in three battles and be badly wounded at the Battle of Yorktown.
- The last resident of Dogtown, a freedman named Cornelius "Black Neil" Finson, was found half-dead living in a cellar-hole in the winter, and was removed to the poorhouse in Gloucester in 1830; he died shortly afterward.
- Peter Lurvey (cellar hole 25) became Gloucester’s most celebrated Minuteman in August 1775, when the British ship “Falcon” sailed into Gloucester harbor. Lurvey quit working in his field and ran to the harbor recruiting comrades along the way. The “Falcon” was driven out to sea, but Lurvey was killed in the action. Over a century later, his heroism was the subject of a poem by Gloucester’s banker-poet Hiram Rich.
- Col. William Pearce (cellar hole 23) earned Patriotic Service in the American Revolutionary War for building and operating the brig called "Friendship.". His large sheep flock attracted the attention of British raiders during the War of 1812.
- John Morgan Stanwood was Peter Lurvey's son-in-law, and tradition was thus led astray as to the name of the patriot, as this was the home of both. "Granther Stannard " believed that his legs were of glass and feared to use them because of their fragility."
- A reputed witch often associated with Dogtown was Peg Wesson, but she lived in Gloucester.
- James Witham was a successful shepard, earning as much as estimated at $300 a year. His house was located on Dogtown Road.
- Thomazine "Tammy" Younger', whom some knew as the "Queen of the Witches." Tammy lived on Fox Hill, by Alewife Brook, and would reputedly place a curse on teams of oxen carrying fish from the harbor as they crossed the bridge there, unless their driver paid her a "toll".
- Registry of cellar holes
- Gloucester's Deserted Village
- Dogtown: Location, history, legends
- Poetry of places in Essex County
- Babson boulders
- Cape Ann - Babson Boulders photographs
- The Dogtown Guide
- The story of Dogtown: Commons people
- Descendants of Thomas and Isabel Babson for Ten Generations
- The Wainwright Family of Essex County Massachusetts
- A history of the Stanwood family in America
- Anita Diamant discusses "The Last Days of Dogtown" (2005) " ... "Set on Cape Ann in the early 1800s, The Last Days of Dogtown is peopled by the kind of characters often forgotten by history: widows, orphans, spinsters, scoundrels, whores, free Africans, and "witches.""
- John Morgan Stanwood of Dogtown: finding ancestors in a novel
- In the Heart of Cape Ann, or The Story of Dogtown by Charles E. Mann (Proctor Brothers, Publishers; Gloucester, Mass.), 1897
- Dogtown Days by Eileen Day McGrath (2009), JLH Publishing. A novel set in Dogtown.
- "The Last Days of Dogtown: A Novel" by Anita Diamant (2005), Scribner. A novel set in Dogtown
- East, Elyssa (2009). Dogtown: Death and Enchantment in a New England Ghost Town. New York, New York: Free Press. p. 291. ISBN 9781416587057.
- Carlotto, Mark (2012). The Island Woods: Abandoned Settlement, Granite Quarries, and Enigmatic Boulders of Cape Ann, Massachusetts. CreateSpace. p. 82. ISBN 9781466492875.
- Gage, Mary (2012). The Stones of Dogtown & Beyond: Dogtown to Poole Hill. Amesbury, MA: Powwow River Books. p. 48. ISBN 9780981614151.
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Strong reasoning
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History
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(Workbook Page 66)
The experience of pleasure usually starts below the level of consciousness, but may be stimulated by conscious processes. Sensory pleasure stimulates the hedonic hotspots deep in the unconscious brain. In turn this stimulation reaches a threshold and we experience conscious pleasure, because of stimulation of higher functional brain sites, that convey this experience to consciousness.
Pleasurable sensory experiences from a good meal to a good hug stimulate hedonic hotspots in the Nucleus Accumbens, Ventral Pallidum, Parabrachial Nucleus and Amygdala below the level of consciousness. These reverberate with each other, ultimately passing that signal of pleasure onto conscious pleasure centers in Lateral Orbital Frontal Cortex, the Ventral Medial Prefrontal Cortex and the Anterior Cingulate Cortex. In turn these stimulate hedonic hotspots, creating a loop of pleasurable experience that fades, once the stimulus decreases.
Reading a particularly poignant passage in a book evokes visual activity in the brain. It activates areas of the brain where conscious and unconscious experience take place. Depending on the nature of the passage, we may experience other sensory perceptions, all without glancing away from what we are reading. The brain generates images, sensations, thoughts, memories, emotions, movement and beliefs without any peripheral input. In fact, the brain may direct the heart rate to increase or decrease, dry the mouth, increase the acid base balance in the bloodstream, flush the skin on the face, or cause other changes in the body completely generated by input from the book. The eyes or other sensory organs are required to start this process, but once it begins the brain is capable of generating great pleasure without any further sensory input and alters the experience of the body. Sometimes there are pleasurable ideas or memories that require no sensory input, but stimulate hedonic hot spots resulting in the experience of pleasure in those same areas that started the process.
This animation shows how cognitive pleasures, such as a good conversation, a pleasurable idea or memory, a problem solved, etc, set off hedonic hot spots in the unconscious part of the brain. Ultimately the stimulation of these hot spots activates cognitive pleasure circuits, as well.
The brain’s reward circuits are involved in the experience of pleasure. There are two separate, but related phenomena processed in these reward circuits. They are liking and wanting. There is a distinct difference between the two. Liking is associated with pleasure. We can like something and derive pleasure from it, even if we do not want it. This involves the pleasure centers of the brain and causes the release of the pleasure neurotransmitters. These are endorphins, oxytocin, anandamide and GABA. On the other hand, wanting is associated with acquiring something. We may or may not like it. When wanting becomes craving it may lead to addiction. Wanting involves release of the neurotransmitters dopamine and glutamate.
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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Emails show the utility could be leveraging the solar array to keep an electric cooperative locked in a long-term power agreement.
Gail Ford retired to a rural community in East Tennessee because she wanted to be closer to nature. A longtime nurse from North Carolina, Ford applied her caretaker mentality to her new surroundings: She planted native bushes for the local beaver population and explored woodland trails in her trademark sneakers. But Ford was unsettled. “It has become very concerning to me what we’re doing to our planet,” she told me over the phone in September.
Four years ago, Gail gathered community members, environmental lawyers, and renewable energy experts in Pleasant Hill, a tiny, tree-covered town of 550 residents between Nashville and Knoxville. The group brainstormed how to lessen their reliance on fossil fuels until they came up with a master plan: a microgrid.
Microgrids are localized grids that can disconnect from the traditional energy grid to operate autonomously, often powered by renewable sources like solar. Ford’s group proposed a three megawatt solar array to power the microgrid, which would store backup energy in a giant battery. After accessing funding through grants and private investors and partnering with their local electric cooperative, the group found land along the interstate to build the solar project. They planned to install a sign that read, “Gaynor Solar Array at Pleasant Hill.”
The name pays tribute to the landowner, organic hemp farmer Beth Gaynor, and her late father Marty. A unionized laborer who spent half his life at the Tennessee Valley Authority’s Watts Bar nuclear plant, Marty was a veteran and self-described environmentalist proud of his work with carbon neutrality. “My father would’ve been extremely proud of the project, and of the use of his land for it,” said Gaynor.
In April, Pleasant Hill’s utility, the Volunteer Energy Cooperative, or VEC — which buys power from TVA — applied to the agency’s Flexibility Research Project. The pilot program, a two-year old initiative, planned to allocate 300 megawatts of privately-owned renewable energy for local utilities to generate a small percentage of their own power. The Gaynor solar array proposal was praised by a TVA executive.
But in August, TVA waffled on the basis that the project was not owned by VEC, but by investors who would own the array for a few years to make their money back before handing it over to the electric co-op — a typical process for solar projects, according to Gil Hough, executive director of Tennessee Solar Energy Industries Association.
An email from July reveals that a TVA employee told VEC it could move forward with the project — but only under programs eligible for utilities that sign a new, 20-year contract with TVA. Now, residents and solar advocates are concerned that TVA could be leveraging the solar array to keep VEC as a customer.
According to its application, VEC’s proposed 3 MW solar project “presents an educational opportunity for the entire Cumberland Plateau area and its visitors,” including field trips for local students and pollinator-friendly landscaping to support bee colonies. The solar project and microgrid would also reduce risks for power outages by serving as backup power supplies. Rural areas like East Tennessee are increasingly impacted by effects of climate change like flooding and storms: In February, heavy spring rains cut power to 100 customers in Pleasant Hill’s Cumberland County; in March, tornadoes ripped across Tennessee, leaving 25 dead and over 70,000 without electricity; in May, a massive windstorm’s power outages impacted a historic 130,000 Tennesseans; in July, a thunderstorm cleaved over 30,000 from the electric grid.
Adam Hughes, an organizer with Statewide Organizing for Community eMpowerment, said Pleasant Hill’s significant elderly population would be safer with a microgrid. “The co-op [VEC] does an amazing job keeping energy on but if the project went through, Pleasant Hill would be the single most protected community for power in the entire state of Tennessee,” Hughes said. “It [the microgrid] could literally save lives in extreme weather events.”
In an email to Southerly, Cumberland County Mayor Allen Foster praised the “entrepreneurship” of Pleasant Hill, saying “it is great to see private projects that can benefit our communities and make us stronger.”
Deborah Holbrook, a county commissioner for the district overseeing Pleasant Hill, was impressed the project didn’t require any county investment. “We’d be very happy to have cheaper electricity around here,” Holbrook said. According to 2018 U.S. Energy Information Administration data, electric bills cost Tennesseans an average of $137.35 each month — the fifth highest rate in the nation. “Folks around here are not wealthy,” she said. “If we can make it work, it’ll be a model for similar situations.”
Research hubs like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology took note of the project’s potential as well. MIT’s Lincoln Laboratory previously partnered with VEC for a national study on the solar array and the Appalachian Regional Commission granted $500,000 for research.
In February, TVA CEO Jeff Lyash referred to the Gaynor Solar Array during a board meeting in Oxford, Mississippi. “I think that is emblematic of the growing impact of solar in TVA’s system,” Lyash said.
Ford, pleased with the enthusiastic response, thought, “done deal.”
But according to environmental lawyer Brian Paddock, of Paddock and Mastin in Cookeville, TVA’s pilot program “turned out to be rather haphazardly put together.” Public information detailing application requirements was difficult to access. Ford and Paddock say it was hard for community members to determine the guidelines for the application except through intermediaries like their local utilities. To ensure their application was sound, the group had the Tennessee Valley Public Power Association vet their application, which they wrote and rewrote several times before submitting in April.
Then, Paddock said VEC received an email in August outlining new requirements for projects that made “it legally and financially impossible to build the array.” Instead of investors owning the solar project, VEC had to — and the co-op couldn’t afford it. Paddock said no investor would “give” away their investment without a return.
“I think TVA made a mistake,” he said. “But there’s also a question of motivation.”
For more than a year, TVA has pushed new 20-year partnership agreements on local utility companies. Several small and large energy customers, including VEC, are considering pulling out of the contract for various reasons, including high costs of electricity. VEC did not return multiple requests for comment.
TVA spokesperson Scott Allen Fiedler said that “the long-term partnership is voluntary and part of public power’s value proposition that TVA provides customers.” He added that TVA rolled out the new option allowing long-term customers to self-generate up to 5% for renewable energy projects. According to Fiedler, 142 out of 153 power companies shifted to this program.
Fiedler said only one project is being considered under the pilot program before it expires at the end of the year. Unless that is approved, none of the 300 MW promised under the Flexibility Research Project will be utilized.
“It’s like it’s dead in the water,” Ford said.
On August 28, after TVA’s board cancelled a virtual listening session for a quarterly board meeting and instead requested written comments, Ford sent a letter pleading to reverse the decision. She said she hasn’t heard anything back. On Sept. 17, Fiedler told Southerly that the Gaynor Project did not qualify.
A day later, Ford got an official response from TVA telling her the project was disqualified under an eligibility requirement that VEC own it. But Paddock said there’s no evidence such an eligibility requirement existed when VEC applied.
Ford has one last-ditch effort. She’s writing a letter that a local organizer has promised to put in the hands of the CEO. She hopes Lyash has the power to tell his staff to reverse the decision before the flexibility program ends or VEC leaves TVA. If not, VEC will be locked into a five-year contract that allows no changes to their energy generation, such as the Gaynor array.
Ford, who will be 78 in November, said, “I ain’t going to live that long.”
Austyn Gaffney is a freelance reporter in Kentucky covering agriculture, energy, and climate change. Her work has been featured in HuffPost, In These Times, onEarth, Sierra, Vice, and more.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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If you struggle with keeping a budget, it may be because you’re trying to predict your spending in time chunks that are just too small. A new study published in the Journal of Consumer Research found that people who made annual budgets were better able to predict their spending than those who made monthly budgets. From the University of Chicago press release:
[Researchers] found that, contrary to popular advice, people were more accurate when constructing an annual rather than a monthly budget, even when they were logging their expenses weekly.
“Consumers’ default tendency is to underestimate their budgets, for both next month and next year frames,” write the authors. “However budgets for the next year are closer to recorded expenses because consumers feel less confident when estimating these budgets, and therefore, adjust them upward.”
One reason yearly budgets are more accurate is that consumers consider a greater number of expense categories when they construct them. If you construct your monthly budget in April, will you remember to include a category for Christmas gifts?
Yearly budgets aren’t very useful, however, for planning your day-to-day spending. The obvious solution is to take the best of both worlds:
- Since people generally do a better job of estimating yearly expenses rather than monthly expenses, create an annual budget.
- Once you’ve arrived at your annual budget, divide your estimated expenses in each category by 12. This will give you a monthly number to work with.
The results of this study reiterate that over-confidence is an enormous drag on the average person’s finances. We believe we’re immune to advertising, that we can handle credit responsibly, that we can pick winning stocks. Yet study after study demonstrates that this just is not the case. In fact, those who lack confidence often make the best financial decisions.
This is also true with budgeting. In this study, subjects who were told that budgeting was difficult made more accurate estimates regarding their expenses than those who were told that budgeting was easy.
[Journal of Consumer Research, August 2008: The effect of ease of estimation and confidence on budget estimates]
GRS is committed to helping our readers save and achieve their financial goals. Savings interest rates may be low, but that is all the more reason to shop for the best rate. Find the highest savings interest rates and CD rates from Synchrony Bank, Ally Bank, GE Capital Bank, and more.
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Strong reasoning
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Finance & Business
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Evidence from Central & South America
This aritfact from the Colima culture dates to roughly the time of Christ at between 200 BC. and 300 AD. The Colima people are known for having made exceptional redware ceramics that are nearly unparalelled in the ancient art world. The figure measures 12 3/4 inches tall and shows a man with a club in his left hand and a shield in his right hand. The strange part is the creature grabbing the man from behind. Many researchers have been unable to identify the animal and have concluded it must be a Caiman, a large Crocodialian species from South America. Yet the figure does not resemble a Caiman nearly as much at it does another type of reptile. The creature on the sculpture most strongly resembles a Theropod dinosaur such as a Tyrannosaurus.
The long neck, large eyes and teeth, and long tail, along with it's bipedal stance and "hands" all point to the creature being a Theropod dinosaur instead of a Caiman, indicating the Colima people of Mexico were familiar with these animals at the time of Christ.
Cocle' Indian vase.
This vase made by Cocle' Indians of Panama and is dated to A.D. 1330-1520. The image on the vase depicts what looks to be a stylized image of a Pterosaur. The discoverer Hyatt Verrill noticed to striking similarityh and said the creature had " Beak-like jaws armed with sharp teeth, wings with two curved claws, short, pointed tail, reptilian head crest or appendages, and strong hind feet with five-clawed toes on each". It seems clear that the Cocle' Indians must have seen these creatures alive to portray them so accurately as if living animals, and not from fossils as many assert.
Dinosaur figurine from Acambaro, Mexico at the foot of El Toro mountain.
The radiocarbon dating given for the figurines, which include things besides dinosaurs such as races of people from around the world, were between 6,500-1,500 years old. This however does not give a fully accurate assesment of when the statues were made. However, once the scientists that were dating the figures discovered what they were actually dating they immediately retracted their statements regarding the age of the figures.
Many have claimed the collection of statues is nothing but a fake, backing up their claims with curious statements such the fact that very few of the clay figurines were broken and that they appeared very clean. However, many artifacts have been discovered in remarkable preservation, and the desert environment is one of, if not the best environments to preserve artifacts over long periods of time.Aside from this, it seems very illogical and unlikely that the many tens of thousands of figurines were all recent forgeries by people with no knowledge of dinosaurs whom immediately sought to bury the treasures they had made and leave them to be discovered without any way to claim financial gain upon their discovery.
More Acambaro figurines. The 2 in this picture seem to best depict sauropod type dinosaurs. One of which is in a reared up stance that is likely to be unknown to anyone ignorant of Dinosaurs. Also, the one reared up seems to have dermal spines on it's neck, a feature unknown of Sauropods until the 1990's.
An Acambaro piece that seems to depict an Apatosaurus, a type of Sauropod that although famous, was little understood when first discovered. The figurine also depicts it with a long, narrow head. Until the 1970's it was thought that Apatosaurus had a short, box shaped head, yet these figurines were discovered long before this was known or corrected.
Here is another figurine from the Acambaro collection. This particular one is clearly depicting a plesiosaur. It even shows scales on the animal as well as other anatomical features that are all correct.
There have been over 50,000 figurines excavated from Acambaro, Mexico. Many of which depict dinosaurs.
The figurines depict specific species. This one appears to be an Iguanadon. It is depicted anatomically correctly, something that has only been established in recent years, yet this clay figurine was made long before such knowledge...How curious...
This figurine from Acambaro, Mexico is one of many that were first discovered at the base of a mountain in 1945 by archeologists.This particular piece strongly resembles a Prosauropod, a type of Dinosaur not typically known of to people not knowledgeable about Dinosaurs. It has a long tail, neck, and skull, and shorter forelimbs than hind limbs. All of which are features of Prosauropods.
A terracotta figure of a what very well resembles a Stegosaurus from Acambaro, Mexico. The piece is actually broken at the tails' base and on one of it's legs, possibly from excavation or natural causes that occured while entombed in the earth. It also appears unfinished or possibly just not as well made as others. The question remains, how could people have made such a piece of artwork without knowing what the aniaml looked like since fossil remains are buried deep and rarely ever have all the animals bones together?
This particular clay figure from the Acambaro collection seems to be an attempt to portray either a Stegosaurus or a Dimetrodon. It is unclear since the tip of the figures tail is missing. Based on the teeth however it may be a Dimetrodon, a reptile believed to have lived before the dinosaurs.
This is another clay model from Acambaro. It strongly resembles an Ankylosaurus. As with many of the Acambaro figurines, this one depicts a species of Dinosaur in great detail including an armored back and a tail with a club tip.
This is another clay figurine from the Acambaro, Mexico collection. This particular one is an obvious attempt to depict a Pterosaur of some kind. Although it is not fully anatomically correct, it may be since they were most likely never seen up close enough or often enough to develop a clear knowledge of their anatomy. What the creature is however is clear, and it is modled in much the same manner as Pterosaurs are in many other cultures and forms of art throughout history.
There are over 50,000 figurines from Acambaro, Mexico. There are numerous things depicted such as humans and even demonic creatures. However a large number of the items are replicas of Dinosaurs. It is clear that if Dinosaurs went extinct millions of years ago these indian peoples could not have known what they looked like.
Decorated Acambaro Stone.
This stone plaque was found along with the many clay figurines of the Acambaro collection. On the stone is picture a snake in the grass on the front, a bird on the top, a walking bird on the opposite end as the snake, and in the middle is a creature that strongly resembles a dinosaur.
This piece of Nazcan pottery was unearthed in Peru. It shows a warrior fighting what seems to be a sauropod dinosaur. The Nazca culture is dated to between 100-800 A.D.
Nazcan clay water vase.
This Nazcan vase also depicts what mostly resembles a type of sauropod dinosaur. Including spines down the length of the back. Modern science didn't know that sauropod dinosaurs had such dermal spines until recent years, yet these ancient depictions clearly show them.
Nazcan Dino pottery.
The creature shown on this ancient Nazcan vase is some sort of reptilian monster. It may depict what is known as a Postosuchus, considered an ancestor to the Dinosaurs. As if these art works didn't already upset Evolutionary time frames enough.
This old Patagonian map shows what appears to be natives hunting giant reptilian monsters that resemble dinosaurs. One creature has a long neck and may be a Plesiosaur, a creature that has been spotted in Patagonia on several ocassions. The other looks more like a Theropod dinosaur walking on two legs, there might be two of them together.
Nazcan water pot.
Nazcan pottery with a dinosaur on it. This piece is dated to between 400-700 AD. The animal looks like a baby Sauropod, something science didn't have knowledge of until recent times and still understands very little.
Water pot creatures' head.
A shot of the animals head. This creature seems to more resemble some type of Sauropod more than any other type of animal.
A Peruvian burial cloth depicting dinosaurs that has been found in the same tombs as the Ica burial stones. The animals appear to be Ceratopsian dinosaurs, maybe Triceratops.
Peruvian dino vase.
Peruvian pottery from the Moche tribe that shows dinosaurs. The Moche culture is dated to between 100 and 800 A.D. This is much later than Evolutionary datings for Dinosaurs yet the Moche people had clear knowledge of such animals as can be seen by the Sauropod on this vase.
A vase from the Moche indian tribe of Peru. It is adorned with a clear depiction of a long necked dragon with spines alogn it's back and even it's throat.
The Ica stones of Peru.
In the 1960's Dr. Javier Cabrera recieved an odd stone for his birthday. He later identified the strange animal depicted on the stone as an extinct species of fish. As the years went by Dr. Cabrera continued to purchase more and more stones from a farmer named Basilio Uschuya, after the farmer stated he had found a number of them. Dr. Cabrera's collection now is over 15,000 stones in many different sizes with many different images. Basilio said he found the stones in a cave along the bank of a river after a great flood had come through and exposed the chamber. Time went on and the stones became a topic of interest to some res4earchers due to the images the stones portrayed leading some people to investigate them. In 1973 Basilio stated in an interview with Erik Von Daniken that he had faked the stones by copying the images from comic book, leading many to abandon research on the mysterious stones. However later in an interview with a German journalist Basilio recanted his admission to faking the stones saying that he had said he made them to avoid being imprisoned for illegally selling national artifacts.
In a 1977 documentary entitled Pathway to the Gods, Basilio made an Ica stone with a dentist drill and told the film makers he made the patina by baking them in cow dung, though this was never confirmed. The stones once again gained popularity when Dr. Cabrera decided to forego his medical career and open a museum dedicated to the stones in 1996. The same year another BBC documentary was released which prompted the Peruvian government to arrest Basilio Uschuya since it is illegal to sell archeological discoveries in Peru. Basilio told the government he had forged the stones himself saying it was easier to amke the stones than it was to farm, but stated he did not make all of the stones.
Dr. Cabrera determined that even if the man worked all day, every day, for his entire life that he could not have created all the stones. Since this, skeptics have chose to forego investigation of these relics and dismiss them as frauds since the farmer claimed to have carved them himself.
One of the largest problems with the assertion that the Ica stones are all fakes begins with the fact that they have been documented much farther back in history than Basilio's account with them.
The first recorded mention of these perculiar stones is from a Spanish missionary, Father Simon who was journeying to the region of Ica in 1535. Father Simon accompanied Pizarro along the Peruvian coast and recorded his asstonishment upon seeing the stones. In 1562 Spanish explorers sent some of the strange stones back to Spain. Later, the Indian Chronicler Juan de Santa Cruz Pachacuti Llamqui wrote at the time of the Inca Pachacutec that many carved stones were found in the kingdom of Chincha in Chimchayunga, which was called Manco. Chimchayunga was known as the low country of the Peruvian central coast and is what is today known as Ica.
Centuries go by before more stones are documented more. In 1906 Javier Cabrera's father was 9 years old when he witnessed his father (Javier's grandfather) excavating tombs outside of Ica and finding several stones. Like other wealthy Peruvians, Javier's grandfather had an extensive collection of Pre-Columbian artifacts. However these stones were lost or stolen long before Javier was born. In 1936 peasants plowing in a field uncovered a stone in the Salas region. The authorities attributed the stone to the Incas due to the preponderance of Incan relics in the Salas region.
The first official collectors of Ica stones were Pablo and Carlos Soldi who owned a plantation in Ocucaje. In 1955 stones were excavated from tombs on their property. Afterwards the brothers began to acquire more stones from hacqueros in Ocucaje. The Soldi brothers were personal eyewitnesses to stones being excavated with mummies and other artifacts from the tombs on their property and were the first to recognize the scientific importance of the stones. They requested official testing be done on the stones. They invited Peruvian archeologists to excavate for themselves or to witness excavations for themself. The archeologists declined sadly. Eventually the Soldi brothers had a large collection of stones as they were passionate archeology buffs and endeavoured to preserve the stones for the museums of Peru. In 1967 the Soldi brothers approached Dr. Javier Cabrera about purchasing the majority of their collection. Javier was skeptical because of the depictions on the stones but realised the significance of them and he eventually purchased 341 stones from the for the low sum of 7,000 old Peruvian Soles, the equivalent of $45 American. Javier had the stones stored in a room in his mansion where they stayed.
In the late 1950's the currator of the Cullao Naval Museum, Commander Elias, acquired stones from hacqueros, including some who resided in Ocucaje. There were deposits of stones located roughly 20 miles south-southwest of Ica near Ocucaje and the Rio Ica (Ica River). The stones were documented to have been discovered in caves and graves. Having an intense interest in archeology, Commander Elias had approximately 300 stones displayed in the Naval Museum by 1973. The Regional Museum of Ica had a few stones from the tombs around Ica. When Carlos Soldi died in 1967 and Pablo in 1968, 114 of their stones were donated to the museum, some of which were on display in the 1960's.
After official government testing Colonel Omar Chioino Carraza, the Director of the Peruvian Aeronautical Museum, declared he had no doubt about the stones' authenticity. In 1974 he declared :
It seems certain to me...that they are a message from a very ancient people whose memory has been lost to history. They were engraved several thousand years ago. They've have been known in Peru for a long time and my museum has more than four hundred of them.
It is worth noting that the aeronautical museums collection was acquired from many locations across Peru and very few were from Ocucaje. An that a fair number of the engraved stones displyed images of dinosaurs on them.
Herman Buse stated that in 1961 there was a flooding of the Ica River and that a large number of stones had been uncovered. Hacqueros (tomb looters) have sold many of the engraved stones to museums and the Soldi brothers. This is where Basilio probably got many of his stones since he references stones being found after the river flooded and exposed them.
In the early 1960's Santiago Agurto Calvo, who was a rector of the National University of Engineering, had a growing collection of the engraved stones. He never gave any of his stones to the Ica museum and the Calvo family still retains the collection in storage. Santiago published an article in the El Comercio newspaper in Lima about the fantastic images carved on the stones. He also submitted the stones to the National University of Engineering and the Maurico Hochschild Mining Company for scientific tests.
The archaeologist Alejandro Pezzio Asserto undertook official excavations in the ancient Paracas and Ica cemetaries of Max Uhle and Toma Luz. Alejandro was a trustee of the Ica museum and in charge of archaeological excavations int he cultural province of Ica. On two distinct occasions engraved stones were excavated from Pre-Hispanic tombs dating from 400 B.C. to 700 A.D. The stones in question were embedded in the side of the mortuary chamber of the tombs next to the mummies. In 1968 Alejandro published his work with descriptions and drawings of the engraved stones including descriptions and drawings of the stones. One stone depicted a five toed Llama that has supposedly been extinct for over 40 million years, another stone showed a bird in flight, and another depicted a species of fish that has been extinct for supposedly over 100 million years. These stones have since become part of the Colca Collection in the Ica Museum.
In 1966 Felix Llosa Romero presented Javier Cabrera with an engraved stone that had an image of a species of fish that has supposedly been extinct for many millions of years (this was the first stone Javier obtained and is often cited in most any account of the Ica stones, though rarely ever accurately). The stone given to Cabrera had been excavated from the Max Uhle and Toma Luz tomb sites near Ocucaje. Dr. Cabrera told Dennis Swift, the current leading authority ont he stones of Ica, that seeing the stone triggered an old memory of seeing a similar stone in 1936 when he was about 10. Being a distinguished Medical doctor he had already established the San Luis Gonzaga Ica National University and established the Casa de Cultura to preserve the engraved stones.
Since Dr. Cabrera's involvement with the Ica stones Dr. Swift has learned much about the stones and their history and has documented much on them and written numerous articles and at least one book about the stones. He has had several stones tested at numerous facilities. The tests have all concluded that the authentic stones are clearly distinguishable from the fakes made with modern tools and that the authentic stones must be quite old judging from the microscopic analysis. Much more could be said of the history of the Ica stones, to read more about their history visit our Facebook page.
Though there have been faked Ica stones, they are easily distinguished by the fact that they lack patina in the carvings of the images whereas the genuine stones' patina is constant all over the stone. In other words, the fake stones' patina is on the rock surface since the rocks are genuine and natural but not in the images since they are recently carved since any carvings in recent times, at least the last several hundred years, would cut through the patina and remove it from where the cuts formed the images. The real stones have patina in the image engravings as well as the surface, meaning that the carvings are several hundred to thousand years old since the patina takes a long time to form, at least hundreds of years and perhaps longer. The faked stones also show the telltale signs of modern tools in the images such as metal flakes from saw blades or power tools, whereas the authentic stones show no such thing since they were made long before such instruments existed and have become glossed over with natural patina since they were carved.
The stones have passed every scientific test they were subjected to, and show a layer of patina, or desert varnish, that can only be made by being exposed to natural processes for a long time, yet undisturbed by human activity. On some stones, the patina is so thick and/or the stones so weathered that the images on the stone are obscured, having been worn off by natural processes. This means that though there are fake stones floating around, the stones from the Cabrera collection, as well as those excavated from tombs are indeed genuine, and that dismissal of all of the Ica stones as fakes is based on rumors and bias, not scientific scrutiny. Many skeptics discount the Ica Stones as being faked because the farmer admitted he made them and because there are some fakes. But the fakes are easily found out and the farmer would obviously say he faked them so he wouldn't go to prison for life. Also the farmer eventually admitted that he had not made them several years later. It should also be noted that while some people claim that he made the stone for profit and made up the stories for money and later retracted his confession because he was paid, it is just as likely, perhaps more likely, that he confessed because he was paid, not the other way around.
“On January 28, 1969 I received word from Eric Wolf that the results of the laboratory analysis conducted by a Professor Frenchen and his assistants at the University of Bonn were available. The stones were andesite and were covered by a patina or film of natural oxidation which also covered the etchings, permitting one to deduce that they are very old.
“In view of the fact that the patina of oxidation that covered the stones proved the general but not precise antiquity of the engravings, and in view of the fact that precision could only be had by using the comparative methods of stratigraphy and paleontology, I requested authorization in April 1970 from the Patronato Nacionial de Arqueologia to carry out excavations in the appropriate zone. This institution alone had the power to authorize such excavations. On July 16, 1970, my request was refused. Thus the only means of dating the Engraved Stones of Ica was closed to me.”
In addition, several Ica Stones were discovered in unearthed tombs in the Ica region by archeologists in the 1960s, self-evidently authenticating these particular stones and bringing into question the almost universal dismissal of the Ica Stones in general:
“In 1968, the archeologist Pezzia Assereto, who had accompanied Agurto Calvo, published a book on the archeology of the province of Ica, in which he makes note of the discovery:
"Agurto was able after several attempts to find an engraved stone inside a tomb in the sector of Toma Luz of the Hacienda Callango del Valle in Ica on 20 August 1966... After informing the Museo Regional of Ica of such an important find, Agurto and I made another excavation on 11 September of the same year, in the hill called Uhle of the sector of La Banda in the Hacienda Ocucaje, and we found for the first time an engraved stone inside a tomb of the Paracas culture, a thing I was not expecting, but which proved, by association, the authenticity of these artifacts"”
K. Doore (Ed); ‘Excerpts from “The Message of the Engraved Stones of Ica” by Javier Cabrera’
These stones depict many different things such as races of people, geography such as lost continents, animals such as dinosaurs and megafauna, alone and some interacting with man, man riding horses long before they were supposedly brought to America, astronomy with telescopes, complicated surgery such as transplants and C sections, brain surgery, heart transplants, and even sexual acts. The stones also show the same images as the famous Nazca lines. These representations are also accurate in that they display animal anatomy that is new to scientists such as frills on dinosaurs which were not known until 1992, the correct head positioning of Apatosaurus that until recently was wrong in museum amd art displays, the correct anatomy of Spinosaurus that was not known to scientists until this millenium, skin patterns on Dinosaurs that were not known until recent finds of fossilized dinosaur skin, correct nostril positioning on Brachiosaurus, and correct tail posture for many dinosaurs (given the room on the stone was ample). So if these stones were faked decades ago by uneducated and impoverished farmers in one of the worst places to live on Earth, why are they not based on incorrect information, even the kind that was considered accurate at the time by scientists?
Many of the stones show dinosaurs and man interacting with them. Some show people fighting dinosaurs, riding dinosaurs, being killed by or killing dinosaurs, and petting dinosaurs. It seems obvious that from the high degree of accuracy of the depictions of dinosaurs on these stones, that they could only be drawn from first hand experience, not from ancient people finding dinosaur fossils as some have suggested. The evidence of knowledge of skin patterns and correct physical anatomyis a great testiment to this fact since fossils are most often disassembled and just a few bones or even a single bone, rarely are fossils ever an even fairly complete skeleton.
Indeed these stones are the subject of much rumor and misinformation however thorough investigation of the facts leads one to the unavoidable conclusion that the carved stones of Ica, Peru are authentic Pre-Indian artifacts from a time when the native people lived alongside and interacted with large reptiles we now call Dinosaurs, and that these stones are a firm testament to the real history of life on this planet as is recorded in Scripture.
An Ica stone depicting a man riding an Apatosaurus.
The depiction of the skin texture and patterning on the dinosaurs on Ica stones is "dead on" as confirmed by every paleontologist that the stones were shown to. Since the discovery of fossilized dinosaur skin in 1992, it has been suggested that the large circles (not the small ones of which there are many more), would have most likely been located on the animals in places where the skin did not move as much, such as the side instead of near joints such as hips. This is how the circular patterning is shown on the animals on these stones.
On this Ica stone a man is shown riding a Triceratops.
Note that the textured skin shown on the animal was not known by scientists until 1992. Not to mention the amazing fact that this stone shows a warrior riding a Triceratops!
Nazca lines on an Ica stone.
This Ica stone shows the famous images known as the Nazca lines. This may well mean that the Nazca people are one of the Pre-Columbian civilizations that made Ica stones.
It is already established that the Nazca were a very intelligent people and it has been found that the lines were made by the use of air balloons to make the giant images on the desert floor and that they had a vast knowledge of their local areas as well as the local flora and fauna. Some of the famous Nazca lines even depict what appear to be dinosaurs.
Human riding Pteranodon.
This stone depicts an image of a man riding a pterosaur for battle purposes. Note the clear skin texture that is clear on all dinosaurs on Ica stones, as well as the dagger in the warriors hand. It even seems to show membraneous skin on the wings and not feathers or hair, indicating these indians must have seen living specimens to have such anatomical knowledge.
Ica stone with a picture of a Triceratops.
This clear depiction of a Triceratops dinosaur is just one of many species of dinosaur that are depicted on the Ica stones.
Notice yet again the skin texture and rossette patterning on the sides of the creature. Scientists have said that these circles may have been on a fair amount of some dinosaurs bodies, in places where the animal would not have to move a great deal.
Ica stone Apatosaurs.
This stone seems to show a man being attacked by an Apatosaurus. It is reported by pygmies living in the Congo that a large animal called Mokele Mbembe, an animal that best fits the description of a sauropod dinosaur, is said to aggressively defend itself and its territory and will attack humans and other animals but never eat them. The scene on this stone seems to show very similar behavior, giving credibility to both accounts.
This Ica stone is one of the best illustrations of presumably extinct animals being depicted by pre-Colubian indians of Peru.
It shows several different "ancient" animals such as an extinct type of fish, a Triceratops, an Apatosaurus, a Brachiosaurus type dinosaur, a Pterosaur of some kind, a Stegosaur species and some species of Theropod dinosaur such as an Allosaurus or Giganotosaurus. All these animals are shown with 100% accuracy in terms of anatomy as attested by every scientist that the stones were submitted to in blind tests.
Thoroughly tested Ica Dinosaur stone.
This Ica stone depicting a Sauropod Dinosaur was found undisturbed in a freshly opened Peruvian tomb in Rio Grande, Nazca. This stone has been tested more than any other Ica burial stone and has been submitted to testing at multiple labratory's and passed every test. The stone was found to have lichen growth on it, salt peeter permeated into the stone including the grooves, as well as patina over the surface of the stone including the grooves. A recently faked stone would not be able to have patina deep in the grooves such as this and the other authentic Ica stones have been found to have.
In addition to lichen, salt peeter and patina, this stone was found to have mummy blood on it from the mummy holding the stone slumping forward til it's head rested on the stone. This act of the mummy resting on an object til it's blood stains said object is known as "burning". Currently the most scientifically authenticated Ica stone is the stone pictured here which depicts a Sauropod Dinosaur. This confounded skeptics that were present at the testing of the stone and they could provide no answers for the conundrum. It is suggested that the stone must be at least 1,000 years old.
Ica stone closeup.
This closeup of an Ica stone shows the desert varnish known as Patina, as well as sand in the grooves that make up the images on the stone. Comparisons and analysis of authentic Ica stones and and faked ones have shown that the authentic stones contain Patina all over the stone, even in the grooves, while the faked stones did not contain patina in the grooves since the images were freshly cut into the stone. The patina was still present on the surface of the faked stones since the stones were authentic and old but the images were not. Only the authentic Ica stones contain the varnish in the grooves that make up the images.
Lichen growth on an Ica stone.
This microscopic photo shows lichen (moss) growth on an Ica stone.
Harsh weatherization on surface of an Ica stone.
This microscopic closeup of an Ica stone with a Dinosaur shows the heavy weathering and patina, even in the grooves that create the images. This is noticeably lacking in the modern day forgeries and sets the two apart.
Closeup of a Cabrera Ica stone.
This photograph shows a closeup of one of the thousands of Ica stones at the Cabrera museum in Lima, Peru. This photograph shows Patina in the carvings on the stone as well as what looks to be lichen growth.
Ica Brachiosaurus statues.
These are two Ica stones and figurine from the Cabrera collection in Peru that depict Sauropod dinosaurs such as Brachiosaurus. Notice that the Brachiosaurid Dinosaurs portrayed on the Ica artifacts show the correct placement of the nostrils that was not known for many decades by paleontologists, yet these ancient people portrayed them fully accurately.
This is a photograph of one of the rarely shown or discussed Nazca dinosaur images. It is believed to be a Styracosaurus.
In the center of this photograph is a Nazca line image that is very easily discernable. This image on the desert floor very clearly depicts a Theropod dinosaur standing on two hind legs with small front arms and tail extended straight outward.
Nazca Dinosaur images.
This photograph shows several Nazca images that are also seldom known of. The images shown depict what appear to be some type of dinosaurs, jsut what species is not quite known but some have suggested Pachycephalosaurus. To the right side of the picture can be seen an image of what looks like a wasp or bee. And behind the animal on the left can be seen a human that appears to be touching the dinosaur.
Ica Tombs with stones.
This is an image of one of the Ica tombs showing bones that archeologists have found as well as an exceptionally preserved mummy. Note the stones in the mummies lap as well as the Peruvian pottery which has been shown to depict dinosaurs.
Ica burial stones in tomb.
Here is a clear picture of a Peruvian Indian tomb freshly opened and ica burial stones can clearly be seen next to a mummy and many can be seen embedded in the walls of the tomb. Such findings go a long way in disproving the claims that the Ica stones were faked by simple villagers. Several findings have been made such as the one in this photograph wherein a tomb was freshly opened and Ica stones were found inside the tomb alongside mummies, textiles and pottery. With such findings it seems that the primary reason for disregarding the Ica stones is personal beliefs and not scientific findings.
Gold Dinosaur mask.
This gold Moche' mask was discovered during an archeological excavation in northern Peru in 1923 and has 2 Dinosaur like animals on the sides of it.
Mayan Raptor vase.
This Mayan pottery piece is dated to just 67 years after the crucifixtion of Christ. It depicts a Theropod Dinosaur and even shows a clearly reptilian tongue. It appears to be a Raptor type dinosaur.
A Pterosaur carving on an ancient Mayan temple. The serpent bird deity Quetzalcoatal was well known to the Mayans and revered as a god. It seems it was more than a mere fanciful legend.
Pterosaur carving at the Mayan temple of Totonacapan.
This Pterosaur carving is widely known of yet this sketching may be the best photograph currently available. The temple of Totonacapan in northeastern Veracruz, Mexico is where the carving was discovered and indicates that the Mayans were familiar with Pterosaurs and that Pterosaurs may well have been the inspiration and identity of the famous Mayan god Quetzalcoatal.
Diquis Golden necklace pendant.
This gold necklace pendant is from the Diquis culture of Costa Rica circa AD 500-1550. It was in the Robert Dowling collection but has since been sold. It is said by many to be a crocodile but based on the appearance of flippers instead of feet, it looks more like a Pliosaur, a large type of marine reptile said have lived with the Dinosaurs many millions of years ago. Then why are Costa Rican natives making necklaces of them during the same era as the Dark Ages?...
Diquis gold pendant.
Notice the flippers and crocodile like body. This pendant looks more like a Pliosaur such as Kronosaurus than it does a crocodile or Caiman.
Mayan Dinosaur Headress.
This is a closeup photo of a scene from the Mayan ruins of Bonampak (A.D. 580-A.D. 800). The image is part of a large judgement scene depicted on a wall of the temple. The headress looks identical to the head of a Dromeosaurid dinosaur, the family that Velociraptors and Deinonychus belong to. It is shown as representing a living animal with skin coloration just like the fish and jaguar headresses worn by other priests in the scene meaning that the Mayans had firsthand knowledge of these saurians alive and not from fossils.
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Strong reasoning
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History
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Get an answer for 'what are the characteristic features of a good essay ' and find homework help for other essay lab questions at enotes. There are many personal characteristics that can affect a person as an individual and his professional success, namely openness, ability to learn and adapt etc. Example admissions essay on one's unique qualities instructions: what qualities or unique characteristics do you possess that would allow you to contribute to the university community. Essay examples would vary according to the type of essay you wish to write four kinds of essays exist including: narration, description, exposition, and argument. 5 main features of an argumentative essay: tips for students when writing an argumentative essay, the primary objective is to show your audience that you have a valid argument.
Introduction: why write essays4 types of essay give the main features or general principles of a subject omitting minor details, and emphasising structure and arrangement relate. A personal essay is a short work of autobiographical nonfiction characterized by a sense of intimacy and a conversational manner. For our academic writing purposes we will focus on four types of essay. Best help on how to write an analysis essay: analysis essay examples, topics for analysis essay and analysis essay outline can be found on this page. Seek help to write an essay find out the characteristics of a good essay and improve your writing skills. The defining features of a cause and effect essay are causal chains that connect from a cause to an effect, careful language, and chronological or emphatic order a writer using this rhetorical method must consider the subject.
Writing introductory paragraphs for essays 1 writing introductory paragraphs for essays the presentation examines the essential characteristics of introductory paragraphs. Elements of an essay created in 1991 by gordon harvey, assistant director, harvard expository writing program edited in 1994 by dr elizabeth s taylor, senior lecturer, nonfiction writing program, department of english, brown university. My step-by-step guide gives outline ideas, sample essays, and editing tips more sign in join 8 owlcation academia essays how to write an exploratory essay with sample papers updated on march 4, 2017 virginia kearney more features of exploratory essay 1. Nebraska department of education statewide writing assessment 2008 characteristics of the descriptive essay purpose portrays people, places, or things with vivid details to help the.
2 personal characteristics essay safeguarding: infection and characteristic 'whoop infection spreads from person to person by coughing, sneezing or picking up germs after shaking hands or touching.
Expository essay characteristics of an expository essay the purpose is to inform, describe, or explain describes important facts writer is a teacher. Many students wonder what an expository essay really is actually, it has the same format and structure as any typical essay the only thing that matters is. Scoring essays automatically using surface features randy m kaplan, susanne wolff, jill c burstein, chi lu, don rock, and bruce kaplan gre board report no 94-21p. Characteristics of an effective essay writing,here i am going to introduce you with some characteristics of effective essay writing.
Note: with all the types of rhetorical strategy mentioned below, we are not talking about essay types, but about rhetorical styles which writers use for particular purposes. Writing an academic essay 1 writing an academic essay the academic essay is one of the most common assignments you will be asked to write in this particular convention is one of the key features that distinguishes an academic essay from other sorts of essays, for example. Essay characteristics of a good student our dedicated student of specialists works extremely hard esssay good writing thousands of new research papers for reference. Help your student understand different types of essays and learn the four major types of essays required for school success. Example: an item of information that is typical of a class or group this patient provides a typical example of the syndrome there is an example on page 10 (google) maybe i haven't unders.
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Moderate reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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Moon* ♓ Pisces
Moon phase on 25 February 2017 Saturday is Waning Crescent, 28 days old Moon is in Aquarius.Share this page: twitter facebook linkedin
Previous main lunar phase is the Last Quarter before 6 days on 18 February 2017 at 19:33.
Moon rises after midnight to early morning and sets in the afternoon. It is visible in the early morning low to the east.
Moon is passing about ∠23° of ♒ Aquarius tropical zodiac sector.
Lunar disc appears visually 4.4% narrower than solar disc. Moon and Sun apparent angular diameters are ∠1855" and ∠1938".
Next Full Moon is the Worm Moon of March 2017 after 15 days on 12 March 2017 at 14:54.
There is medium ocean tide on this date. Sun and Moon gravitational forces are not aligned, but meet at very acute angle, so their combined tidal force is moderate.
The Moon is 28 days old. Earth's natural satellite is moving from the second to the final part of current synodic month. This is lunation 211 of Meeus index or 1164 from Brown series.
Length of current 211 lunation is 29 days, 14 hours and 51 minutes. It is 2 hours and 52 minutes longer than next lunation 212 length.
Length of current synodic month is 2 hours and 7 minutes longer than the mean length of synodic month, but it is still 4 hours and 56 minutes shorter, compared to 21st century longest.
This lunation true anomaly is ∠259.5°. At the beginning of next synodic month true anomaly will be ∠295°. The length of upcoming synodic months will keep decreasing since the true anomaly gets closer to the value of New Moon at point of perigee (∠0° or ∠360°).
6 days after point of apogee on 18 February 2017 at 21:14 in ♏ Scorpio. The lunar orbit is getting closer, while the Moon is moving inward the Earth. It will keep this direction for the next 5 days, until it get to the point of next perigee on 3 March 2017 at 07:24 in ♉ Taurus.
Moon is 386 325 km (240 051 mi) away from Earth on this date. Moon moves closer next 5 days until perigee, when Earth-Moon distance will reach 369 065 km (229 326 mi).
13 days after its ascending node on 11 February 2017 at 19:49 in ♌ Leo, the Moon is following the northern part of its orbit for the next day, until it will cross the ecliptic from North to South in descending node on 26 February 2017 at 06:28 in ♓ Pisces.
13 days after beginning of current draconic month in ♌ Leo, the Moon is moving from the beginning to the first part of it.
3 days after previous South standstill on 21 February 2017 at 20:50 in ♑ Capricorn, when Moon has reached southern declination of ∠-18.848°. Next 9 days the lunar orbit moves northward to face North declination of ∠18.861° in the next northern standstill on 7 March 2017 at 00:43 in ♋ Cancer.
After 1 day on 26 February 2017 at 14:58 in ♓ Pisces, the Moon will be in New Moon geocentric conjunction with the Sun and this alignment forms next Sun-Moon-Earth syzygy.
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Moderate reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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The SEDIMENTARY RECORD provides evidence of the vast changes experienced throughout this planet’s history.
particles of rocks and organisms that are eroded, transported, and deposited by a fluid (wind or water).
erosion of the lithosphere comes about how
Interaction of the atmosphere and hydrosphere with the lithosphere results
The roads, buildings, freeways, etc. that we all enjoy.
What dictates the nature of sediment within a specific environment?
Distance from sediment source
Nature of the sediment source
In general, only the smallest particles make it to the ocean (sand, mud)
Sediments are primarily classified by composition (what makes them) and by grain size (how big are the particles)
1. Terrigenous sediments (derived from erosion of the terra, the Earth) are the most abundant by volume in the ocean (>87% of volume, 45% of ocean floor).
That is why sediments are thickest near the continents (and consist mostly of silt and sand.)
• Sediments are carried from their sources primarily by the activities of currents.
– At beaches, this is primarily by LONGSHORE DRIFT.
– In the deep ocean, this is primarily by turbidity and deep ocean currents.
The energy regime of deep sea currents stays fairly consistent over relatively long time scales.
– Their strengths and directions are impacted by global processes such as climate.
• The energy regime of longshore currents can change seasonally, weekly, daily, or even hourly.
Submarine debris flows
Debris flows off continental shelf into deep water
Turbidity currents provide much of the fine clay that makes it into the deep basins.
sediments formed from remnants of organisms
Shells get broken up at beach and tiny fragments may get transported to the deep ocean
* an ooze is a really gloopy sediment composed of at least 30% biogenous material
are created by the accumulation of skeletal debris
another name for a microscopic shell) are made of either:
silica (SiO2)-------> siliceous ooze or calcite ------->calcareous ooze
Calcium carbonate compensation depth (CCD):
Calcareous ooze is NOT found everywhere because deep seawater contains more carbon dioxide (CO2) which makes the water slightly acidic. Below the CCD, calcium carbonate dissolves.
Do you think that the presence or absence of calcareous ooze
can be used as a measure of water depth?
If most of the deep ocean floor is above 4500 m depth, what do you think is the most common sediment there?
Some continental shelf sediments make it to the continental slopes.
mostly terrigenous sands, silts, clays
Deep ocean (aka pelagic) sediments= Terrigenous clays, biogenous oozes
3. Hydrogenous sediments (produced by water) are precipitated directly from seawater (<1% by volume).
is a chemical process involving the joining of ions in solution to form a compound that becomes a solid particle. Example:
Ca+2 + CO3-2 --> CaCO3 (calcite)*
As seawater evaporates, the dissolved minerals
get more concentrated and begin precipitating.
4. Cosmogenous sediments - interplanetary dust (IPD) and micrometeorites (<<1% by volume typical sediments) (about 15000-30000 metric tons of IPD enters the atmosphere each year)
tiny glassy particles resulting from melting during a meteorite impact.
RARE, but VERY important for evidence of big meteorite (asteroid) collisions with Earth.
• Different environments preserve different sediment types in a variety of fashions.
– Can use the sedimentary record to resolve the types of environments sediments are deposited in
Because the nature of sediments is a function of BOTH the original material they are derived from AND the processes that lead to their deposition, they record evidence of their SOURCES and their DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS.
Processes in the past behaved like the processes we see today (Laws of nature do not change; the present is the key to the past.)
Sediments Are Historical Records of Ocean Processes
What can scientists learn by studying sediments?
Historical information (climatic and biological change) Location of natural resources, especially crude oil and
Marine sediments are important as historical records and a site of natural resources. Scientists study marine sediments using many different methods, including core samples.
Oldest sediments from Isua, Greenland 3.8 billion year old = 3800 million years
we must be able to construct.......
1. Sediments contain a history of the oceans but we must be able to construct a temporal framework by dating the sediments.
•Relative ages (which is older and which is younger) are established by comparing the layering patterns of sediments
-lowest lying layers were deposited before those lying on top
(how many years before present was the sediment deposited) can only be determined with radiometric dating (radioistopes) on volcanic ashes deposited within the sediment Layers
-dating is not performed on the sediment grains themselves
principle of cross-cutting relationships.
• Stuff that cuts other stuff is younger than what is being cut.
principle of superposition.
Stuff on bottom in place before stuff on top.
The half-life is the amount of time for 1/2 of the radioactive element to decay to its daughter product.Radioactive elements are unstable and decay: Uranium 238 --> Lead 206 Potassium 40 --> Argon 40 Carbon 14 --> Nitrogen 14
Half lives 4.5 billion years 8.4 billion years 5,700 years
What are sediments made of?
Particles of other rocks!!
Will radiometric dating of those particles give us the age of formation of the sediment?
NO!!! It will give us only the age of the formation of the rocks from which the particles came.
"The semester I found StudyBlue, I went from a 2.8 to a 3.8, and graduated with honors!"Jennifer Colorado School of Mines
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| 0.901888 | 1,305 | 4.25 | 4 | 2.674562 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Going to school can be a daunting task for many students, especially for girls. The classroom environment can be intimidating, and the pressure to perform can be overwhelming. As a result, many girls experience feelings of nervousness and anxiety in class. In this article, we will explore the reasons behind this phenomenon and provide some tips on how to alleviate these feelings.
The Pressure to Perform
One of the primary reasons why girls feel nervous in class is the pressure to perform well. In many schools, girls are expected to excel academically, and this can create a significant amount of stress. This pressure can come from parents, peers, and even teachers who may have high expectations for their female students.
Furthermore, girls may feel as though they are competing against their male counterparts. Studies have shown that boys are often encouraged to take more risks in the classroom, while girls are praised for being obedient and well-behaved. This can lead to a lack of confidence in female students, making them feel nervous when they are asked to participate in class discussions or answer questions.
The Fear of Being Judged
Another reason why girls may feel nervous in class is the fear of being judged. Girls are often subjected to criticism and scrutiny from their peers, and this can make them feel self-conscious and anxious. They may worry about their appearance, their grades, and how they are perceived by others.
Furthermore, girls may feel as though they are being judged based on their gender. In some classrooms, girls may be stereotyped as being less capable than their male counterparts, which can lead to feelings of inadequacy and anxiety.
The Importance of Self-Care
It is essential for girls to practice self-care to alleviate feelings of nervousness and anxiety in class. Self-care can include activities such as exercise, meditation, and journaling. These activities can help to reduce stress and promote a sense of calmness.
It is also important for girls to take breaks when they need them. If they feel overwhelmed in class, taking a few deep breaths or going for a walk can help to alleviate feelings of nervousness and anxiety.
The Importance of Support
Finally, it is crucial for girls to have a support system in place. This can include family members, friends, and teachers who are supportive and understanding. Having a support system can help girls to feel more confident and less anxious in the classroom.
In conclusion, girls may feel nervous in class for a variety of reasons, including the pressure to perform, the fear of being judged, and a lack of confidence. However, by practicing self-care and having a support system in place, girls can overcome these feelings and feel more confident and empowered in the classroom.
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Moderate reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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They come for the dead. They used to come for the living, but with little funding and far too few health care workers to treat the mushrooming number of the West African nation's sick, Liberia's government employees now arrive only to pick up the bodies of those who have succumbed to Ebola.
Finally, the West is recognizing the scale of the crisis. On Sept. 15, President Obama pledged to send 3,000 people to fight the epidemic in Liberia, Guinea, and Sierra Leone, the three West African nations hit hardest by the virus. Five days later, former President Bill Clinton sent a chartered jet packed with gloves, gowns, and other protective medical equipment — the largest single shipment of aid to the Ebola zone to date — from New York to West Africa.
But even now, it's hard to feel the full impact of this epidemic from millions of miles away. It can be easier to understand how terrifying it is when you look at the numbers.
1.4 million: The number of Ebola cases expected by Jan. 20, 2015, if nothing changes in the way patients are treated.
71%: The death rate of this epidemic: The percentage of people who, after becoming infected with Ebola, die as a direct result of the virus.
718: Number of new Ebola cases between Sept. 8 and Sept. 14 in Liberia, Guinea, and Sierra Leone, as reported by the WHO.
14,607: The approximate number undetected Ebola cases.
15 days: The time it takes for Ebola cases to double in Liberia, according to CDC estimates. In Sierra Leone, cases are doubling every 30 days.
82%: The percentage of Ebola patients in Liberia who are being cared for outside hospitals or other isolated settings necessary to reduce the risk of transmission. To stop the epidemic from spreading further, this number needs to be 30% or lower.
21 days: The time it can take a person infected with the Ebola virus to develop physical symptoms.
While people are not infectious until they develop symptoms, the longer a virus has incubated in someone, the lower their chances of getting rapid treatment and recovering.
49 days: The number of days after recovery that a man previously infected with Ebola can still transmit the virus through his semen.
14x: The number of times larger the current Ebola eruption is than the last largest outbreak, which hit 425 cases in Uganda in 2000.
As of March 2014, the current flare-up was already eight times the size of that outbreak. As of Sept. 2014, more people have been infected and died of Ebola than as a result of all the previous outbreaks combined.
20x: The number of times more health personnel needed to beat back the epidemic, according to the WHO. That's 20,000 national and 1,000 international staff.
54.2%: The percentage of health care workers who have died after becoming infected with the virus, despite being well-informed and having full access to treatment.
2nd: Sierra Leone's global ranking in terms of real GDP growth rate in 2013,before the Ebola outbreak. Liberia held position 11.
For some perspective, the United States was 157th. This is significant when you think about how well the country was doing — in a pure economic sense — before Ebola hit. After the outbreak, this is likely to drop drastically and all the progress the country has been making will be lost.
CIA World Factbook
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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Presentation on theme: " Though the Cold War is considered to be from 1950 to 1991 its origins go back much further. The origins of the war can be traced back to a point when."— Presentation transcript:
Though the Cold War is considered to be from 1950 to 1991 its origins go back much further. The origins of the war can be traced back to a point when the western ideologies of liberal democracy and capitalism found a rival with the birth of the ideology of communism. Communism was, in large part, a response to the excesses and injustices of the capitalist component of our ideology during its growth period; the industrial revolution.
Adam Smith wrote his seminal treatise on the virtues of the free market system in which individual actors within the economy directed it while marks wrote about the value of the workers owning all means of production. While it wouldn’t seem, on the face of it, that these two ideas would lead to such tension and conflict it is their underlying assumptions about human nature and measures of control that brought about the Cold War.
Marx and Engels argued that capitalism inherently divided people into classes and that tension between the classes was unavoidable. Communism teaches that this struggle against inequality is at the heart of conflict within and between nations. Remove the inequality and you remove the conflict.
The gentleman at left, Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov took the last name Lenin when he led the Russian Revolution in 1917. He added the idea of a vanguard for the proletariat to Marx’s philosophy. This vanguard would be the Communist Party. Like Marx, Lenin saw communism as a state of transition for people on the path to equality. Unlike Marx, he saw a role for a secret police within the party to help “guide” the workers to their paradise.
1. No more secret agreements ("Open covenants openly arrived at"). 2. Free navigation of all seas. 3. An end to all economic barriers between countries. 4. Countries to reduce weapon numbers. 5. All decisions regarding the colonies should be impartial 6. The German Army is to be removed from Russia. Russia should be left to develop her own political set-up. 7. Belgium should be independent like before the war. 8. France should be fully liberated and allowed to recover Alsace-Lorraine 9. All Italians are to be allowed to live in Italy. Italy's borders are to "along clearly recognisable lines of nationality." 10. Self-determination should be allowed for all those living in Austria-Hungary. 11. Self-determination and guarantees of independence should be allowed for the Balkan states. 12. The Turkish people should be governed by the Turkish government. Non-Turks in the old Turkish Empire should govern themselves. 13. An independent Poland should be created which should have access to the sea. 14. A League of Nations should be set up to guarantee the political and territorial independence of all states.
The Soviets created Comintern, short for Communist International with the stated goal of spreading communism to every corner of the globe. This started and espionage war that continues to this day. http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/22/us- russia-putin-bomb-idUSTRE81L22H20120222 http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/02/22/us- russia-putin-bomb-idUSTRE81L22H20120222 http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/01/18/decodin g-the-case-of-alleged-canadian-spy-jeffrey-paul- delisle/ http://news.nationalpost.com/2012/01/18/decodin g-the-case-of-alleged-canadian-spy-jeffrey-paul- delisle/ The most effective spy ring during this time were the atomic spies who successfully stole many of the secrets required to produce an atomic bomb.
The defection of Igor Gouzenko in Ottawa touched of a Red Scare that would consume much of the western world and smear innocent people with the worst accusation imaginable. The problem was that there were real spies doing real damage and it was always difficult to tell one from the other.
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Strong reasoning
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Politics
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The “Wikipedia problem” which suggests children turning to internet for readymade responses is the brand-new age phenomenon confusing teachers and mentors internationally. There are nearly equivalent numbers of educators who consider innovation to be a solution as long as a problem. While a common belief is that innovation is hindering the pupils’ capability to think and also analyze, there is likewise a solid opinion in favor of video games and also electronic gizmos’ capacity to involve students and enhance learning by utilizing greater than one sensory stimulators. Even with the growing issue regarding the students’ weakening focus periods, establishments are including them in the process of class discovering.Children are inherently analytical creatures. They have an inquisitiveness to discover brand-new things and also find out using uncovering and trying out also before they go through methods of formal education and learning such as checking out or composing. Science is a technique of experiments and explorations.
The National Science Education Standards highlight that “scientific research education and learning requires offering pupils three types of scientific abilities and understandings. Students need to discover the concepts and ideas of scientific research, acquire the reasoning and also step-by-step skills of researchers, and recognize the nature of science as a specific kind of human undertaking. Students for that reason require being able to design and also perform examinations that examine their suggestions, and also they require to understand why such investigations are uniquely effective. Researches show that pupils are a lot more likely to understand and preserve the ideas that they have learned by doing this “. For this reason, it comes to be imperative to engage children in science education and learning at an early stage.
Digital 토토 are much more capable to obtain students’ interests and also focus than other standard methods of conveying education and learning in a classroom. Nevertheless, some educationists likewise regard them as wrongdoers of rapid decline in the interest period in kids. The following sections in this short article review the participation of kids in games in the tech age, kinds of games offered out there and also the effect of electronic gaming as finding out aids in class.Digital technology has actually increased the horizons of video clip gaming in the contemporary world. Children are subjected to far more complex and tough technical atmosphere than their counterparts were from over half a century back. Involvement of children in electronic gaming is an outcome of lots of significant modifications in the way of life and also culture of the modern society. Easy access of innovation, dispensable earnings because of dual earnings households and absence of facilities for exterior activities in numerous cities are some major contributors in making screen games a fundamental part of the kids’s’ lives.
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Strong reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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Source: Brooks, T. M., Mittermeier, R. A. , da Fonseca, G. A. B., Gerlach, J., Hoffmann, M., Lamoreux, J. F., Mittermeier, C. G., Pilgrim, J. D. and Rodrigues, A. S. L. (2006) Global Biodiversity Conservation Priorities. Science 313 (5783), 58.
Crisis ecoregions are terrestrial regions where extensive habitat conversion and limited habitat protection suggest that substantial, irreversible and irreplaceable losses of significant biodiversity and ecological function are likely without successful conservation intervention. 1 This approach uses the delineation of terrestrial ecoregions developed by the World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF). 2 The concept was jointly developed by members of The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and the World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF), and was published in Hoekstra et al (2005). 1 The aim of this approach was to shift attention from the loss of individual species to the wider ‘biome crisis’. The identification of Crisis Ecoregions was intended to help global conservation efforts in expanding beyond hotspots of species diversity, in order to emphasize protection of entire ecosystems at risk. 1
Global in extent, with 305 sites world wide. 1 This was a one-off process which is not being further repeated or supported.
To identify Crisis Ecoregions, a Conservation Risk Index (CRI) in every ecoregion was calculated. 1 The CRI is the ratio between how much area of a biome has been converted into other land uses and how much area has been protected through protected areas (IUCN Management Categories I-VI). As such, a higher conversion-to-protection ratio gives a higher CRI and therefore indicates an ecoregion at higher risk. This method categorized 305 ecoregions as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered based on the following conversion and CRI thresholds: 1
- Vulnerable: Ecoregions in which habitat conversion > 20% and CRI > 2
- Endangered: Ecoregions in which conversion > 40% and CRI > 10
- Critically Endangered: Ecoregions with conversion > 50% and CRI > 25
There is no specific management prescribed for Crisis Ecoregions. Crisis Ecoregions are those places where significant habitat loss has occurred and levels of protection are low, leaving biodiversity and ecological function at risk and suggesting urgent need of management intervention.
Legal and compliance – Legal protection was not a criterion for an area to be identified as a Crisis Ecoregion. Legal protection of Crisis Ecoregions is also not feasible as they are too large to protect in their entirety and national governments are not involved in their identification. Crisis Ecoregions, however, can contain other areas of biodiversity importance to which legal protection or safeguard standards may apply. The identification of large-scale biomes at the highest risk aims to highlight the regions where conservation efforts would be best placed, in order to assure that the most threatened areas are being prioritised. Crisis Ecoregions are therefore not a designation of protection, but a regional identification of high-risk areas which aims to prompt a coordinated conservation response between the relevant stakeholders.
Biodiversity inportance – Crisis Ecoregions are areas of high biodiversity importance, which need protection due to the high vulnerability of habitat within these large geographic regions. As a regional-scale approach, they are of limited use for site-scale assessment and decision making. As these areas include both sites of high biodiversity importance as well as degraded land and urban areas, more detailed assessments are needed to locate the actual distribution of biodiversity within them.
Socio-cultural values – The criteria for identification of Crisis Ecoregions did not explicitly include recognition of socio-cultural aspects. However, as these are large areas where human activity is present, local people may be involved in use, protection and management of at least some parts of these areas.
- Hoekstra, J. M., Boucher, T. M., Ricketts, T. H. & Roberts, C. Confronting a biome crisis: global disparities of habitat loss and protection. Ecol. Lett. 8, 23–29 (2005).
- Olson, D. M. et al. Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World : A New Map of Life on Earth. Bioscience 51, 933–938 (2001).
Download this factsheet as a PDF
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Written By: Logan Kline
Insights from Brittney Owens, LCPC, Director of Therapy Clarity Clinic Loop
Racism has plagued America for centuries, making it impossible for BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, People of Color) to go about their lives unscathed. It can appear in many forms, and each takes a toll on mental health. The systemic racism in this country has caused disparities proven to affect all aspects of life – income, education, incarceration rates, healthcare access, and more.
In fact, CDC Director Dr. Rochelle Walensky recently released a statement declaring racism as a serious public health threat. She states, “…the pandemic illuminated inequities that have existed for generations and revealed for all of America a known, but often unaddressed, epidemic impacting public health: racism.”
Over the past year, we have all witnessed overt forms of racism in our news coverage. The pandemic fueled attacks against Asian people, a Black man named Ahmaud Arbery was shot while on a jog, George Floyd was murdered, and the list of tragedies goes on. Nationwide protests called for justice and reform, and the Black Lives Matter movement gained significant support. Great strides were made culturally and within some Government Institutions, but we still have a long way to go to reach true equality.
How Racism, Trauma, and Mental Health Are Linked
Racial trauma, also known as race-based traumatic stress (RBTS), refers to the emotional and mental impact caused by racism in any form. This can result from a person’s direct experiences with racism, vicarious experiences, and/or transmitted intergenerationally. This trauma does not necessarily occur after one significant incident and can arise due to an accumulation of experiences of racism.
Trigger Warning: The following examples of racism include discussions of abuse and violence.
Experiences of Individual Experiences of Racism:
- In 2020, there was a 149% increase in hate crimes against Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic occurred.
- In 2018, 38% of Latinx people were verbally attacked for speaking Spanish, called a racial slur, told to “go back to their countries,” and/or treated unfairly by others.
Examples of Systemic Racism:
- Black people make up 12% of the population in the U.S. and makeup nearly 33% of the total prison population. This overrepresentation is attributed to racism within the criminal justice system.
- Historical as well as current policies of racial displacement and segregation has caused BIPOC to be less likely to own their homes compared to white people.
Examples of Vicarious Traumatic Stressors:
- Viewing footage of police killings of Black people, such as the murder of George Floyd.
- Traumatization of Native American children due to the high rates of homicide and suicide experienced in their communities.
Examples of Intergenerationally Transmitted Stressors:
- The enslavement of Africans in the U.S. continues to be a source of traumatic stress for Black people today.
- Children of refugees can experience higher levels of stress, depression, and other psychological issues.
When trauma is experienced, our bodies release stress hormones. Repeated exposure to trauma causes negative mental and physical health effects as these stress hormones have a more frequent presence.
Brittney Owens, Director of Therapy at Clarity Clinic’s Loop location, has witnessed firsthand the mental health impacts resulting from racial trauma. They include depression, grief, suicide ideation, loss of hope in our world and justice system, and worries of being the next victim of a violent hate crime.
Increased substance use, fear of engaging with others in certain settings, and nightmares are also symptoms that can be experienced. The ongoing stress resulting from experiencing racism can also cause physical health issues such as high blood pressure and heart disease.
Coping with Racial Trauma
Other than seeking help from a mental health professional, Brittney advises those struggling with mental health issues related to racial trauma to have conversations with those in their community. She recommends setting boundaries when doing so to ensure these conversations do not cause further distress.
Brittney also suggests getting in touch with your racial identity: “Oftentimes, a person can be so focused on the impacts of oppression that they only feel lost and hopeless. Identifying the strengths of your race can become a source of empowerment.”
Exploring activism opportunities can additionally serve as a healing experience and source of empowerment. Be mindful of how this work can affect you physically as well as emotionally and make time for self-care. This includes getting enough sleep, eating regularly, and doing activities you enjoy.
How Can Mental Health Care Professionals Help?
“Therapists need to be open to conversations about the current state of racism in our country, not only with non-white clients.
Instead of avoiding the topic, ask how the past year has affected them not only because of the pandemic but due to the social injustices that have occurred.
Starting this conversation will make clients more comfortable speaking about it.”-Brittney Owens, LCPC
Mental health treatment is most effective when an individual feels understood and heard by their provider. This connection is more difficult for BIPOC to obtain considering the majority of mental health providers are white and are not always culturally competent. In order to provide clients the best level of care, it is vital for providers to be well educated on diverse populations.
When cultural competence is absent, a major impact this can have on BIPOC is misdiagnosis. This can be due to language barriers, differences in cultural presentation of symptoms, and/or stigma of mental illness among BIPOC. For example, Black men are four times more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia than white males presenting with the same symptoms.
Tips for Mental Health Professionals:
- Educate yourself on the history as well as the current presence of racism in your country and more specifically, the geographic area your clients live in.
- Validate your clients when they discuss their trauma by acknowledging the fact that they are experiencing something that you most likely are unable to relate to.
- Be open to having conversations about race. Ignoring the fact that your client has a different racial identity than you will do them no favors.
- Do not expect your BIPOC colleagues to explain how to treat diverse populations, specifics of institutionalized racism, and/or any other relevant information about racism and mental health.
- Keep up with current events that may impact the mental health of BIPOC.
Resources for Learning To Treat Diverse Patient Populations:
- “Best Practice Highlights for Treating Diverse Patient Populations”
- “Culturally Responsive Evaluation and Treatment Planning”
- “Guidelines for Providers of Psychological Services to Ethnic, Linguistic, and Culturally Diverse Populations”
- “Improving Cultural Competence”
Today can be the day you begin to further educate yourself to better serve people who do not look like you, who do not come from the same background as you, and who have experiences you will never be able to relate to.
At Clarity Clinic, we have highly trained staff who specialize in psychotherapy services related to symptoms experienced with racial trauma. To learn more about how we can support your mental health, call Clarity Clinic at (312) 815-9660 or schedule an appointment today.
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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A mixture of drought, development and intensive farming in North Africa could see dust storms regularly rolling across Britain.
The news comes as Britain emerges from a week of extreme pollution which triggered a surge in health complaints including asthma, sore throats and streaming eyes.
Dr Robert Bryant, of Sheffield University, said population growth in African countries has prompted a rise in farming, which has increased dust in the region.
He said the trend is set to continue, with air travelling to the UK more likely to carry the fine red dust which has contributed to severe pollution this week.
There has been a dramatic increase in some aspects of dust flux, which have doubled over the last 50 years
He said: “There has been a dramatic increase in some aspects of dust flux, which have doubled over the last 50 years.
“Population pressure alone is likely to exacerbate the problem and if current trends continue the amount could double again over the next 50 years.
“As climate change increases the frequency and intensity of droughts, the amount of dust blown into the air will increase as more crops die and the soil becomes drier.”
The Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) this week issued a raft of forecasts for high to very high pollution levels across Britain after Saharan dust together with light winds in the UK and pollution from Europe created a “perfect storm” for smog to develop.
Health experts and charities said there had been a rise in the number of people with breathing problems, while emergency services reported a high number of call outs.
Although pollution levels are falling, Public Health England (PHE) last night urged people to check local air quality, especially before taking exercise outdoors.
Dr Sotiris Vardoulakis, head of PHE’s air pollution and climate change group, said: “Although forecasts are for pollution levels to fall over the next 24 hours or so, it’s important that people consider their personal circumstances and the maps before planning any particularly strenuous outdoor activity.
“It’s important people are well informed so they can make their own judgments about their levels of activity.”
The warning comes as tens of thousands of runners prepare to hit the road in preparation for next week’s London marathon.
Mike McKevitt, head of patient services at the British Lung Foundation, said: “It isn’t just people with lung and heart disease that should be diligent.
“Anyone noticing they are more breathless, or coughing or wheezing more than normal, should contact their GP, even if they haven’t experienced any problems.”
Last night Defra warned pollution levels in parts of the country are expected to stay “moderate” through today before finally dropping to “low” tomorrow.
A spokesman said: “Moderate levels of air pollution are forecast for parts of northern England, Wales, south-west Scotland and eastern Northern Ireland, otherwise levels are expected to be low as southwesterly winds continue.
“Low levels of air pollution are expected across almost all parts through Sunday, Monday and Tuesday as cleaner air continues to spread in from the Atlantic.
“It is possible air pollution levels may rise to moderate in isolated areas.”
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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HAVE YOU EVER THOUGHT HOW EVERYTHING LOOKS SUDDENLY GREENER AFTER A STORM? Well, it’s not an optical illusion – IT’S A FACT – lightning did it!
AS DISTANT THUNDER ROLLS DOWN THE VALLEY I thought it was timely to write about the incredible power of lightning and the positive effect it plays on feeding the soil. Farmers love a storm!
Science is like magic – except real.
THUNDERSTORMS ARE AMAZING, striking awe in most of us and fear into some of us – yes, I still want to hide in the pantry – but they are needed in more ways than you may know and, most importantly, create tons of plant fertilizer that drops from the sky when lightning zaps through it.
WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW
- Lightening plays a crucial role in the nitrogen cycle that feeds the earth – and feeds all of us – plants and animals alike.
- The earth’s atmosphere is 78% NITROGEN but plants can only absorb this chemical in the NITRATE form.
- Nitrates are considered a ‘super fertilizer’ that helps plants green up faster – they are derived from nitrogen.
- HOW IS ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN TURNED INTO NITRATES?
WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW NEXT
- Atmospheric nitrogen is composed of two tightly bound molecules and because of that tight bond plants cannot process airborne nitrogen UNTIL a strong bolt of energy passes through it and separates the two.
- When lightning strikes, its incredible power tears apart the bond in airborne nitrogen . WITH UP TO ONE BILLION VOLTS OF ELECTRICITY and HEATING TO 50,000 degrees IT IS HOTTER THAN THE SURFACE OF THE SUN.
- This phenomenal energy tears apart that nitrogen bond and, combining with atmospheric oxygen, CONVERTS IT TO NITRATES – the form of nitrogen that is freely available to be absorbed by plants through their leaves and their roots. THAT’S WHY EVERYTHING DOES SUDDENLY LOOK GREENER AFTER A STORM – it’s had tons of fertilizer dumped on it. This is called ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN FIXATION.
SOME QUESTIONS YOU MAY BE NOW ASKING YOURSELF?
- SO, WITHOUT LIGHTENING, HOW DO PLANTS CONVERT NITROGEN into NITRATES TO FEED THEMSELVES. Simple answer – they don’t. The MICROORGANISMS IN THE SOIL DO IT FOR THEM. That is why healthy soil is so important. Every teacup of soil contains more than ONE BILLION MICROORGANISMS that are busy converting ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN and decaying ORGANIC MATTER into soluble NITRATES and other essential plant foods – all while you were sleeping?
- AND THERE’S MORE. You cannot underestimate the valuable role that the vast LEGUME PLANT FAMILY plays in converting NITROGEN, via nodules on their roots, to enrich the soil around them. Think everything from peas, beans and lentils to trees like poincianas and wattles – anything that has a pod-like seed case is a legume. INTERESTING FACT. This is why the pioneer plants around the edge of forests, and Australian natives on degraded soils, have evolved to mostly be LEGUMES – they are making NITROGEN in the soil for their survival – and for later on.
NITROGEN FIXING PLANTS and the NODULES on their roots where they make it.
I’ve tried to get the grandkids to do a flashmob of this story to ‘Grease Lightning’, but I’m still working on that one!
HOW TO KEEP YOUR SOIL ALIVE WITHOUT LIGHTNING
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Earlier this month, Denver City Council passed an ordinance that now allows graywater to be used in commercial and residential applications. As one of the nation’s driest cities , the new ordinance helps drought-strickened Denver conserve community water supplies by using graywater for toilet-flushing and irrigation. It also helps modernize Colorado’s over 125 year old water rights, which are based on a first-come, first-served precedence , by providing an additional water management option through graywater reuse.
The city of Denver hopes to reduce potable water use 20 percent by 2020; however, the state’s current water right laws have made that goal difficult to meet. Persistent drought and population growth have created the need for a long-overdue transformation to the state’s current water rights. As a progressive step forward, the use of graywater, water from bathroom and laundry sinks, bathtubs, showers and laundry machines, may help Denver meet its water reduction goals.
While participation is voluntary, Denver anticipates a large number of bulk-water consumers, such as hotels and colleges, to use graywater for their irrigation and toilet flushing needs.Denver Water CEO, Jim Lochhead says, “Water conservation has been key to ensuring we meet the needs of future generations, and it’s time that as a city and state we take additional steps to embrace an integrated, sustainable approach to urban water management.”
Published: May 31, 2016
Berwyn, Bob. Denver authorizes gray water program. Summit County Citizens Voice, May 3, 2016. Web. https://summitcountyvoice.com/2016/05/03/denver-authorizes-gray-water-program/ Breslin, Sean. America’s Driest Cities 2015. The Weather Channel, February, 2015. Web. https://weather.com/health/news/driest-cities-in-the-united-states Hernandez, Lance. Denver City Council okays use of ‘graywater’ to meet sustainability goals by the year 2020. The Denver Channel, May 3, 2016. Web. http://www.thedenverchannel.com/news/local-news/denver-city-council-okays-use-of-graywater-to-meet-sustainability-goals-by-the-year-2020 Colorado Department of Natural Resources. Water Rights. Colorado Department of Natural Resources, N.D. Web. http://water.state.co.us/surfacewater/swrights/Pages/default.aspx
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Moderate reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Climate Strategies Must Include Adaptation and Resilience
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is essential—but so is building adaptation and resilience into your climate strategy. Here’s what BCG experts have to say.
The global community has made good progress in the fight to mitigate climate change. Governments and companies alike are committed to reaching ambitious net-zero targets in two or three decades. But mitigation alone won’t be enough. It’s critically important that leaders also address the challenges of adapting to climate change and making communities resilient to its impact.
Climate change isn’t just a problem for the future. It’s here, and we’re seeing the effects now. Yet few governments or companies are adequately preparing for the consequences.
Not a day goes by without a jolt of hard reality. Consider: Extreme heat and drought across the northern hemisphere. Wildfires across Australia. Devastating floods in Pakistan, India, and China. Populations in Fiji and the Solomon Islands being moved to escape rising sea levels. Lost incomes, damage to property and infrastructure, and economic disruption are mounting. What’s more, extreme weather events in one part of the planet pose major risks to manufacturing networks and supply chains around the world. We also know these problems will grow progressively more severe—even under the most optimistic scenarios.
The world is waking up to this crisis. Adaptation and resilience will be a key focus at this November’s COP27 climate conference in Egypt. The funding devoted to adaptation and resilience efforts in low- and middle-income nations has doubled over the past five years, to around $50 billion.
But this isn’t enough. By some estimates, up to $300 billion will be required annually for adaptation alone by 2030. The most vulnerable nations—such as those in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia—are often also those with the fewest resources available to adjust to climate change and address the needs of their populations. Yet today, much of the climate-change assistance for low-income economies comes from development financial institutions and aid agencies. Going forward, corporations and governments in higher-income nations will need to contribute much more, both abroad and at home.
I recently spoke with government officials in one Western economy. “We’re comfortable with our mitigation agenda to meet net zero,” one said. “But our electorate is asking what we’re doing now to deal with the ever-increasing number of wildfires, floods, and heat waves.” Many nations have yet to prepare adequate action plans for addressing the immediate threats of climate change.
What does a robust adaptation and resilience action plan entail? It starts with getting a firm handle on climate risks. We need to develop a set of fact-based scenarios from the best available data on projected sea levels, temperatures, and the likely impact on the most vulnerable populations, economies, and ecosystems. Then leaders need to develop national strategies that identify the optimal portfolio of solutions and investment priorities for addressing the socioeconomic and environmental impacts. A successful strategy will involve a range of government agencies as well as the private sector and will mobilize much-needed finance.
There should, of course, be no easing up on action to mitigate climate change. But business and government leaders must also actively address this challenge on a second front—adaptation and resilience.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Many of the world’s largest companies may have pledged to remove deforestation from their supply chains, but most of them are lagging on delivering these promises, a new study has found.
Sustainability non-profit CDP, formerly known as the Carbon Disclosure Project, on Sunday released a report titled ‘Realising zero-deforestation: Transforming supply chains for the future’, showing a significant gap between company’s promises to protect forests and their ability to achieve a supply chain which is truly sustinable.
Katie McCoy, head of CDP’s forest programme told Eco-Business that companies wanting to implement their zero-deforestation commitments have to engage everyone in their supply chain to operate sustainably too.
“There’s no way they are going to get there without transforming their supply chain”, she added.
CDP’s programme helps investors understand how firms address the impact of deforestation on their business.
Launched at the Global Landscapes Forum, held on the sidelines of the UN climate change conference in Paris, the report is based on survey responses from 171 of the world’s largest companies.
The questionnaire, administered by CDP on behalf of 298 investors with US$19 trillion in assets, asked these businesses how they manage their cattle products, palm oil, timber, and soy supply chains. These four commodities are ubiquitous in daily life but are widely linked to deforestation.
Jonas Kron, director of shareholder advocacy at US-based Trillium Asset Management, noted in a statement that investors want to know what companies are doing about the risk that deforestation poses to their business.
“This is particularly true when we talk about agriculture,” he added. “It’s about the impact we have on climate change, and the impact that climate change has on supply chains”.
The negative impacts of climate change and deforestation on companies include disputes with communities over land use, damage to a company’s brand and reputation, and difficulty in securing financing as banks stop deforestation-linked lending.
About 70 per cent of companies surveyed recognise these risks, and have committed to address deforestation in their supply chain. These include food giants McDonald’s and Mars, palm oil firms First Resources Limited and Wilmar International and paper firms such as Asia Pulp and paper, among others.
Protecting our forests is one of the best things we can do to prevent dangerous global warming.
Katie McCoy, head of forests, CDP
However, half of the companies which have promised to buy sustainable soy have yet to get any into their supply chains, the report found. For palm oil, this figure stands at 26 per cent.
CDP also found that 77 per cent of the manufacturers and retailers surveyed had sustainable sourcing standards for forest commodities, but a majority 76 per cent of them did not provide training to suppliers on how to avoid deforestation-linked products.
Five steps forward
To address these shortcomings, the report suggested five ways in which companies can work with suppliers to produce more deforestation-free products:
- Enhance the procurement process: Buyers need to set clear requirements, certifications requirements, and traceability rules for suppliers. They also need to train their procurement teams on how to integrate these rules into their sourcing.
- Communicate expectations: Companies need to do more to show suppliers that deforestation-free practices can yield benefits such as increased productivity, improved product quality, and higher income. Firms should achieve this by holding workshops for their suppliers, and communicate such messages to the wider sector. Joining industry associations for sustainability - such as the Roundtable for Sustainable Palm Oil- is a good avenue for this.
- Track progress transparently: Corporations must track their progress on sustainability goals, and make these reports available to the public. This data needs to be verified by external auditors.
- Collaborate to drive progress: Companies need to collaborate with suppliers. Both parties can jointly agree on targets and work plans, and big firms can even help smaller suppliers seek sustainability certification. Buyers must also work with policymakers and other stakeholders such as environmental groups to address broader challenges around deforestation.
- Review, revisit, reward: Companies must conduct regular reviews of supplier performance, act swiftly against suppliers that violate their policies, and reward those which comply with them.
One firm which was showcased in the report for its efforts to engage suppliers on zero-deforestation is Indonesian pulp and paper giant Asia Pulp and Paper (APP).
Speaking at the report’s launch, Aida Greenbury, managing director of sustainability, APP, shared that the company has had a zero-deforestation policy in place since 2013, and has dedicated resources to engaging and training suppliers to abide by this.
When the company started this initiative, there was no business model or guarantee that this investment would pay off, said Greenbury.
“But we just had to believe in our values,” she said, adding that the investment ultimately paid off and APP’s market access has expanded in the past three years.
CDP’s McCoy urged more companies to proactively engage their suppliers on deforestation, noting that “protecting our forests is one of the best things we can do to prevent dangerous global warming”.
While policymakers work at the UN climate change conference in Paris work out an agreement to reduce greenhouse gases, companies must also do their part, she added.
“The long-term viability of agricultural production, food security, and climate action depend on this”.
Thanks for reading to the end of this story!
We would be grateful if you would consider joining as a member of The EB Circle. This helps to keep our stories and resources free for all, and it also supports independent journalism dedicated to sustainable development. It only costs as little as S$5 a month, and you would be helping to make a big difference.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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The leaves and twigs of the yerba mate plant are dried, typically over a fire, and steeped in hot water to make an herbal tea. Yerba mate may be served cold or hot. This beverage, commonly known simply as mate, is popular in parts of South America. Like black tea, yerba mate contains caffeine, which is a stimulant.
In the U.S., yerba mate is widely available in health food stores and online. Proponents of yerba mate say that it can relieve fatigue, promote weight loss, ease depression, and help treat headaches and various other conditions. There's no definitive evidence that these claims are valid.
Yerba mate isn't likely to pose a risk for healthy adults who occasionally drink it. However, some studies indicate that people who drink large amounts of yerba mate over prolonged periods may be at increased risk of some types of cancer, such as cancer of the mouth, esophagus and lungs. Drinking very hot yerba mate — 149 F (65 C) or hotter — is associated with a higher risk of cancer than is drinking yerba mate served at cooler temperatures.
One possible explanation is that yerba mate contains polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are known to be carcinogenic. (Tobacco smoke and grilled meat also contain PAHs.) More investigation needs to be done into the safety and side effects of yerba mate.
If yerba mate is your cup of tea, enjoy it in moderation. But, as always, check with your doctor before trying any herbal product.
Jan. 15, 2019
See more Expert Answers
- Yerba mate. Natural Medicines. https://naturalmedicines.therapeuticresearch.com. Accessed Dec. 5, 2018.
- IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Vol. 116. Drinking coffee, mate, and very hot beverages. In: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2018.https://monographs.iarc.fr/monographs-and-supplements-available-online/. Accessed Dec. 10, 2018.
- Lopes AB, et al. Urinary concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites in mate drinkers in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. American Association for Cancer Research. 2018. http://cebp.aacrjournals.org/content/27/3/331.long. Accessed Oct. 29, 2018.
- Zeratsky KA (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. Dec. 10, 2018.
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Moderate reasoning
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Health
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If you are confused about eggs, you are not alone. Are eggs healthy to eat, or aren’t they? We’re here to dish out the latest recommendations and help you figure out the best way to work eggs into your meal plan.
Eggs are a natural source of high-quality protein and numerous other nutrients, all for about 70 calories per large egg. The benefits of eating eggs don’t stop there. While the egg white contains most of the high-quality protein (60%) plus riboflavin and selenium, the yolk is nutrient-rich and provides the remaining 40% protein, and nutrients such as:
Research on the science of dietary cholesterol and eggs continues. Studies are scrambled as to whether eating eggs affects one’s chances of getting heart disease.2,3,4 Conflicting research combined with knowing the nutrient benefits of eating eggs has created some confusion as to how to add eggs into a healthy eating pattern.
So, can you eat eggs or not? The answer may depend on one’s personal health history and lifestyle choices. The key is to know your risk factors and assess your individual situation. In addition to maintaining a healthy, active lifestyle, people at risk for heart disease need to pay close attention to all foods they are eating and the portions they choose, especially those that contain cholesterol and saturated fats. If you maintain a balanced diet with fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins and low-fat dairy, with few high-cholesterol foods, eggs may fit into your meal plan nicely. A healthy, moderate suggestion is to limit eggs to 3 whole eggs per week.
Eggs are versatile and can be used at any meal or snack. Just Crack an Egg breakfast bowls make breakfast easy to prepare in less than 2 minutes and are free of artificial flavors, dyes or preservatives. Try a new way of cooking eggs by checking out the Cheese and Pepper Omelet plus other Healthy Living recipes that use eggs. Whether you decide to have your egg sunny-side up, scrambled, poached, or boiled, you will be making a tasty decision.
1 Egg Nutrition Center. Credible Science, Incredible Egg. https://www.eggnutritioncenter.org. Accessed July 27, 2020.
2 Zhong VW, et al. Associations of Dietary Cholesterol or Egg Consumption with Incident Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality. JAMA. 2019; 321(11): 1081-1095. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2019.1572
3 Clayton ZS, et al. Egg Consumption and Heart Health: A Review. Nutrition. 2017; 37:79-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2016.12.014
4 Astrup A. Goodbye to the egg-white omelet – welcome back to the whole-egg omelet. The Am J Clin Nutr. 2018; 107(6):853-854. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy106
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Moderate reasoning
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Health
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Even though you're good at it, even though you're famous for it, even though you earn big money doing it, can an artist do so much of a particular type of painting that he grows sick of them, even though their popularity demands he continue? That was the predicament in which John Singer Sargent found himself shortly after the turn of the century as wealthy European dowagers and their debutante daughters practically lined up outside his front door in an effort to join the elite group of rich and famous society ladies to be portrayed by perhaps the most successful portrait painter in history. He came to despise the "paughtraits" for which they heaped obscene amounts of money upon him to paint, referring to many of them from the latter part of his career as "mug shots."
This was not the only difficulty Sargent faced. Coupled with the fact that his portraits had ceased, even in his own eyes, to be great art; was the uprising known as "modern art." His style and subject matter came to appear dated as compared to the work of Picasso, Matisse, even as compared to a painter from his own generation--Monet. Critics declared him passe`. His work was that of another century. He sought refuge painting murals. Today, even though they were painted in England, his mural work can be found in numerous public buildings in the Boston area. He often journeyed to Boston to supervise their installation. So great was his reputation, he was even known to demand changes in the architecture to accommodate them.
Sargent died suddenly in 1925 as he once more prepared to depart London for America, this time to supervise the installation of a series of murals in Boston's Museum of Fine Arts. Today, these works are being prepared to augment the biggest retrospective of his work ever mounted--113 paintings. They come to Boston June 23 through September 26, 1999, following an initial showing in Washington starting May 31. Included in the show will be the infamous portrait of the American-born Paris socialite, Judith (Virginie) Gautreau. It was this daring depiction of a pasty-white dilettante in a sleek black dress with it's scandalous cleavage and slipped shoulder-strap that drove Sargent from Paris to London in 1884. Sargent eventually sold this painting to the Museum of Modern Art in New York, insisting upon the title "Madame X." He described his subjects as having a complexion of "...uniform lavender or blotting paper color all over." (She is said to have regularly ingested small amounts of arsenic to keep it this way.) Her mother told Sargent, "My daughter is lost--everyone in Paris is making fun of her. My son-in-law will have to challenge you to a duel." Sargent is said to have joked in response, "Every time I paint a portrait I make at least one enemy."
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Strong reasoning
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Art & Design
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In what’s becoming an increasingly common sight, tens of thousands of walrus have hauled out on the coast of the Chukchi Sea near the Native Village of Point Lay.
An estimated 35,000 Pacific walrus are currently crowding a barrier island just north of Point Lay, a phenomenon that has become more and more common.
The U.S. Geological Survey, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Native Village of Point Lay hosted a media teleconference last month to offer updates on the haulout and guidelines for the media. Tony Fischbach, a USGS wildlife biologist started off the call with an overview of the issue.
“So the main point here is that this is a new phenomenon of large coastal haulouts forming on the U.S. shores of the Chukchi Sea that has only been seen during years of complete loss of sea ice in the Chukchi Sea.”
The haulouts were first observed in 2007, coinciding with a record sea ice melt in the Arctic, as sea ice extent plummet to 39 percent below average. Female walruses and their young generally spend their summers on the sea ice, foraging in shallower areas for food. But as summer sea ice retreats, walrus are forced to spend summers on shore.
The haulout are concerning both to scientists and those who rely on them for food, as any disturbance can lead to deadly stampedes. Last year an estimated 60 young walruses were killed due to the concentrated haulouts.
Wildlife biologist Jonathan Snyder with Fish and Wildlife Service commended the nearby village for providing a safe place for the animals to haul out.
“I think the fact that walrus continue to haul out near the community of Point Lay year after year is testament of the fact of the great stewardship role that that community has taken. I’d imagine if that were not a safe place the walrus would not keep returning.”
Point Lay is doing its best to keep the walrus safe, but the village frustrated by the media that won’t keep their distance. In conjunction with Fish and Wildlife Service, USGS, and NOAA, the village of Point Lay issued a statement urging the media to keep their distance.
“The community does not have the capacity to house anybody visiting. This is a small community. Our population is only about 246 and it’s a subsistence community.”
Leo Ferreira the III, Tribal Council President of the Native Village of Point Lay, says the media isn’t listening. At least one person has disobeyed the villages’s multiple requests to keep their distance.
Gary Braasch, an environmental photographer, flew over the haulout on August 23rd. While he says he obeyed flight guidelines, a spokesperson for the Fish and Wildlife Service speaking to the Guardian newspaper, says his photos show walruses that appear to be agitated, fleeing the area.
Ferreira vented his frustration at the media.
“It’s very disturbing when you guys disrespect our way of living, disrespect our community and our wishes for the fact that you guys want a story and want a.. think you guys can come here and then go rent a boat, rent somebody’s boat and go across and disturb the walruses on your guys’s own. That’s not permitted. Not even our own people are permitted to go over there and disturb the walruses with a mass haulout like this.”
The community is working with the Federal Aviation Administration to issue notices and guidelines to pilots in the region. Ferreira says resident hunters have also have been reduced or redirected away from the haulout.
With freeze-up not expected until mid-October, the walruses are hunkered down on shore and the community and scientists hope that disturbances are kept to a minimum.
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<urn:uuid:b5c9a8e1-facc-44d0-ad75-c3f3bea407b9>
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https://www.alaskapublic.org/2015/09/11/in-unnerving-trend-35000-walrus-haul-out-at-point-lay/
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en
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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City dwellers tend to live longer if they are in leafy neighborhoods, according to a study published on Wednesday that linked green areas to lower rates of premature death. The research, which pulled data from nine other studies involving more than eight million people in seven countries from China to Canada, was the largest ever conducted on the subject.
The city of San Diego is moving ahead with an $8 million overhaul of Children’s Park. The renovation effort, which is expected to be finished in the summer of 2021, will replace an urban forest area which has been used primarily by homeless people with a number of family-friendly amenities intended to activate the entire space. The project will include amenities such as forest-themed playground equipment, space for vendors and a dog park.
The newly launched Youth Outdoor Policy Playbook is a tool to help legislators and community leaders advance state policies to get kids outside. Highlighting existing and promising policy solutions, the website provides a platform for sharing and advancing new ideas, and connects cross-sector leaders working on statewide policy initiatives. Partners involved in the development of the Playbook include the Children & Nature Network, National Caucus of Environmental Legislators, North American Association for Environmental Education, Outdoors Alliance for Kids, and Meridian Institute.
The Growing Green Schoolyards Executive Summary is a a new resource featuring initial research findings from a national survey and best practice design principles to continue momentum in the green schoolyards movement. The resource was produced out of a collaborative partnership PlayCore and the Children & Nature Network, which joined forces to raise awareness and help scale the implementation of green schoolyards.
A team of researchers in Australia looked at the mental health benefits of being in nature, placing a dollar figure on the mental health benefits. They did so by calculating what they call “quality-adjusted life years,” which measured a person’s ability to carry out the activities of daily life free from pain and mental disturbance. The team of ecologists, psychologists, and economists say that protected areas such as national parks around the world provide $6 trillion in benefits.
Kids from Low-income Families Suffer as Designated Play Spaces Remain Scarce and Streets Unsafe in India
Forty percent of schools in India do not have a playground, with the number rising as high as 70 percent in some states, according to surveys by the government. The lack of outdoor play spaces appears to have a harmful effect on children’s health. A recent survey of 85 cities across India revealed that 40 percent of children do not have a healthy Body Mass Index (BMI). Most caregivers surveyed hope for safe places for their children to play near their homes rather than a single park, a 20-minute walk away.
Washington State now offers the first licensed full-day, outdoor preschool in the nation. Kaleidoscope Forest Preschool on Orcas is a preschool that takes place entirely outdoors in all weather conditions. In 2017, the Washington State Department of Children, Youth and Families launched a 4-year pilot program to develop official requirements that all licensed outdoor preschools must follow. Until now, no outdoor preschools in the United States were licensed, which meant there were no industry standards, and they couldn’t offer full-day programs, an important factor for many working families. Unlicensed outdoor preschools also can’t offer state financial assistance to families.
UNICEF Canada has launched a new campaign, The Right to a Childhood, that advocates for children’s rights and challenges Canadians to support its global efforts to ensure every child grows up in a safe and supportive environment. The campaign highlights many of the rights and freedoms that allow children to be children as are outlined in The Convention on the Rights of the Child. Among those rights is the right to play outside without fear.
In Grand Rapids, Michigan, a new wave of projects combining outdoor classrooms and green spaces in neighborhoods that lack park access are underway across the city. Working with city government and other agencies, Grand Rapids Public Schools is working to strategically enhance school parks and playgrounds in parts of the city that lack sufficient green spaces. C&NN’s Cities Connecting Children to Nature (CCCN) team (an initiative co-led with the National League of Cities) extended technical assistance to the effort, supporting cities in raising the visibility of city-school partnerships for green schoolyards as a means of creating equitable access to nature. Similar efforts are underway in Austin, Texas where a construction bond passed in 2017 set up a requirement for outdoor learning space anytime a new school is built or an existing building is renovated.
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CC-MAIN-2019-47
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https://www.childrenandnature.org/author/rich/
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en
| 0.957791 | 937 | 2.703125 | 3 | 2.950982 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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According to the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), web accessibility means that websites, tools and technologies are designed and developed so that people with or without disabilities can use them. As a franchise system, it is important to be aware of this and the risks it poses to your business.
Here’s a question to ask yourself: Have you ever thought of your website needing a wheelchair ramp? Most people will say no because it doesn’t make sense, but the truth is that there are many people on the web who have similar disabilities. If your website is not accessible, you’re at the same risk as if you didn’t have a wheelchair ramp or accessible doors at your business.
Web accessibility is required by law in many situations. Losing out on business from a consumer leaving your site is one thing, but being faced with a lawsuit is another. Businesses are being targeted specifically for their site not being accessible so it’s best to fix any problems as soon as possible. W3C develops these international standards for the Web, HTML, CSS and more and have many resources on their website www.w3.org. Some free resources to check if your site is accessible are https://wave.webaim.org/ and https://achecker.ca
Although this article is not meant to be an exact guide, or definitive answer to avoid legal ramifications, these tips are a great place to start for any franchise system who is concerned about this topic.
How To Make A Site Accessible
- Video Captions – Video isn’t just about pictures, it’s about sound. Captions make videos accessible for those who have hearing disabilities.
- Colors With Good Contrast – Good design is crucial. Poor contrast makes viewing the content on your site difficult. Content includes any text, images, links, icons and buttons. If it’s important enough to be seen, it needs to be clear. This is crucial for people with low contrast sensitivity which is common as we age.
- Voice Recognition – Many people rely on voice recognition for searching the web, dictating emails, controlling a navigation app and more. In order to have voice recognition, your site needs to be properly coded. This helps people with injured arms, repetitive stress injury and more.
- Text-To-Speech – Text-to-speech is important for people who are blind, have dyslexia, have trouble reading or simply like to multi-task. Similar to voice recognition, the coding makes this possible.
- Clear Layout & Design – A good design involves a good layout. It is important that the user is having the best experience on your site. To achieve a good user experience, a site must have clear headings, navigation bars and consistent styling. A complex layout makes finding information difficult or impossible for people with visual disabilities. People with cognitive and learning disabilities require clarity and consistency in design. It’s important to note that not everyone is confident working on computers and a clear layout design is one way to help.
- Notifications and Feedback – People are easily confused without clear notifications and feedback. Error messages are complex and confusing for the consumer. Make sure your notifications are easily understandable so that people with cognitive and learning disabilities are not frustrated.
- Large Links, Buttons & Controls – People with reduced dexterity have trouble with trying to hit a small target. Links, buttons and controls should be larger on your website to minimize the amount of effort needed.
- Customizable Text – This is crucial for people with low vision and dyslexia. Your site’s text should be able to customize the size, spacing, font and colors without a loss of clarity or functionality.
- Understandable Content – It is unappealing to read complex language such as jargon or unexplained acronyms. Non-native speakers and people with cognitive and learning disabilities are impacted by this.
- Keyboard Compatibility – Whether preference or circumstance, many people only use the keyboard to navigate websites. A person this impacts might have a temporary limited mobility, permanent physical mobility or simply a broken mouse.
As you can see, there are many different ways on how to make a website accessible. However, there has to be a balance with customer satisfaction and user experience. The user experience of your website will determine how satisfied they actually are. Afterall, a happy customer has a higher chance of purchasing your services, thus creating a higher conversion rate for your business’s digital marketing efforts. Here is some guidance on what to think about when it comes to customer satisfaction and user experience.
We all want happy customers for many different reasons. However, a happy customer must have a good experience with you first. With face-to-face interaction, it’s much easier to be gracious and help your customer with any problems or questions they may have. On the web, it’s a different story. Your website functions as a digital version of your best salesperson, but with limited capabilities. When a consumer has a problem accessing your site, they are more likely to move on to another business then spend the time trying to figure out your site.
People like choices. Some people prefer texting over calling, similar to how some people prefer text-to-speech over reading. Other people require text-to-speech, such as those who have trouble reading, have dyslexia or are blind. It’s important that your user is able to have the best experience possible, and utilizing web accessibility is a way to achieve that.
W3C states on their website that accessibility overlaps with other best business practices such as mobile web design, device independence, multimodal interaction, usability, design for older users and search engine optimization. Websites could have the ability to rank higher on search engine pages with a web accessible site. Along with the better search results, having an accessible site reduces maintenance costs and increases your audience reach. If you do not have control over your website, make the call now to see what your vendor is doing to make sure your business is not exposed to liabilities and lawsuits.
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Research Reveals Over 85’s are Becoming Increasingly Isolated
A recent study undertaken by researchers from the University of Lincoln and Sheffield Hallam University has revealed that many people over the age of 85 suffer from isolation. With an increasingly ageing population, this is a worrying statistic that needs urgent attention.
Over 10,000 people over the age of 65 were surveyed as part of the study carried out by university social policy researchers. Findings revealed that 16% of people over the age of 85 have problems accessing vital services such as healthcare or shopping for food. The study found that women were more likely to have trouble accessing these services than men. Crucially, more than half of those over 85 years old don't go out on a social basis, even if they're still living with their partner. This paints a fairly bleak picture, suggesting that the very elderly are often confined to their homes. The study also found that declining health wasn't the defining factor for over 85s experiencing social exclusion. Even when health factors were taken into account, this group were still at increased risk of social isolation.
The Younger Old People
Interestingly, this study highlighted that there is a difference between those who are between the ages of 65 to 84 and those over the age of 85. The findings found that the younger old people in the 65- to 84-year-old age group didn't experience isolation to the same degree as those older than them. Just 4% of people within this younger category found it difficult to access food shops and healthcare, and 17% in this group suffered from social exclusion.
Differentiating Older Populations
The findings from this research suggest that lumping the elderly into one group makes little sense, as there is a definite distinction between the young old and the older old. Making this distinction will become more important than ever as we live longer and ageing populations increase. In particular, the Office for National Statistics estimates that by 2039 there could be 3.2 million people in the UK over the age of 85.
Supporting Older People
This study highlights the pressing need to make sure that the oldest of our populations are not left to fend for themselves in isolation. Experts are already aware that lack of social contact can have a negative impact on physical and mental health of anyone of any age, but when this is coupled with the fact that the very elderly can't get out easily to fulfil basic tasks such as buying food or seeing the doctor, this can put this vulnerable groups at greater risk of health problems. In order to tackle this pertinent issue, but also to ensure that older people can continue to live as independently as possible, a number of measures should be put in place to ensure these people can get out and about, whether to access vital services or socially. The use of telecare services and technology such as Skype, pendant alarms for the elderly and easier access to online shopping and banking for the elderly are effective measures that may help the situation. Certainly, assistive telecare services and technology are becoming common, with increasing options to choose from, ensuring independent living is still a possibility.
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We're starting February with a dip back into the 'Lost Archives'- heading back to Africa for a double feature, this week in vexillology we've got Ethiopia and Eritrea:
Ethiopia's flag is the original flag that set the design standards for so many other countries on the continent of Africa. The three traditional colors of green, yellow and red date back to the beginning of the 20th Century. The green in the flag stands for 'the richness and fertility of the land', the yellow stands for 'religious freedom and peace' and the red stands for 'the sacrifice of our fathers, who spilled their blood in defense of Ethiopia.' The central emblem on the flag stands for both the diversity and the unity of the country. The blue in the emblem stands for peace, the star stands for diversity and unity and the rays coming out of the star stand for prosperity.
Right next door to Ethiopia, we've got Eritrea. Their flag looks like this:
The flag of Eritrea was adopted on December 5th, 1995 and bears a passing resemblance to the flag of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front, which helped lead the fight for independence from Ethiopia. The green in the flag stands for the agriculture and livestock of the country, blue is for the sea (in this case, the Red Sea) and red is for the blood lot in the fight for freedom. (Interestingly enough, the flag's wiki-page cites an interesting interpretation from the CIA World Factbook, which points out that the red triangle imitates the shape of the country itself- which is an interpretation I'm totally down with, by the way. I'll buy into that.)
The wreath has it's own symbolism: derived from the 1952 flag, the wreath replaced the gold star of the EPLF- the number of leaves I guess was fluid up until 1995 when it was set with a grand total of 30 leaves- each leaf symbolizes a year spent in civil war before achieving independence.
I'll take a mild tangent here for a second... the whole history of Ethiopia and Eritrea is kind of complicated and caught up first in the European colonization of the continent (which Ethiopia managed to avoid- maintaining it's independence and serving as an inspiration for the Pan-African movement across the continent) but most especially, the whole mess seems to have started in the immediate aftermath of World War II.
The Italians had designs on Ethiopia- but already had Eritrea- they conquered the former and added it's territory to the latter, but then the British came along and kicked them out after 1941 and placed Eritrea under military administration until they could figure out what to do with the place after the war. The Great Powers, in their wisdom post-war, sort of forced a shotgun marriage between the two countries after the war into a federation that was supposed to afford Eritrea democratic rights and a broad scoop of autonomy, but the distance between what was supposed to happen and actually happened turned out to be pretty big and Eritrea wanted independence anyway. They just took awhile to get there.
The two countries remain uneasy neighbors to this day- and these are their flags. Remember, until next time, keep your flags flying, FREAK or otherwise!
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The most remarkable fact in connection with the case is that both the men, though in separate cells, without any communication with each other, protested all through, and above all, at the last supreme moment, their absolute innocence. Derry Journal, 26 January 1883
In 1919, it was remarked that ‘Tralee Gaol contains the calcined remains of Poff and Barrett, Hayes and other innocent victims of the Land War – the people of Kerry should acquire possession of the jail to make it an edifice worthy of respect’.1
Another century of history now covers the memory of Sylvester Poff and James Barrett, and tons of concrete their unmarked graves at the site of the former prison, which was developed in the 1990s.2 Modern architecture, however, has not effaced events that occurred there in January 1883 nor has the passage of time diminished Poff and Barrett’s cries of injustice.
On Thursday evening 18 January 1883, five days before the men suffered the death penalty at the gallows in Tralee jail for the murder of Thomas Browne on 3 October 1882, William Marwood, the executioner, arrived in Tralee on the Limerick train to prepare the gallows.3
Marwood was accompanied by carpenters from Dublin as no local tradesmen would assist in erecting the scaffold.4 The gallows was constructed in the capstan mill yard, in the east angle of the prison yard, and was a substantial structure of 12 feet high and 10 feet square, boxed in all round. A dozen steps led to the floor of the scaffold which was hidden from any view outside the jail.5
On the wet and miserable morning of 23 January 1883, masses were offered across the county for the condemned men. In Tralee, Rev Father Sampson, a missionary priest, prayed for the ‘grace of a happy death’.6
At the prison, the press were refused admission to report on the execution. However, it was established that the men rose early, and declined food and refreshment. Fr O’Riordan administered the sacraments to them and celebrated mass in the chapel of the hospital.
They were then conducted into the pinioning room at a few minutes before 8am, where Marwood pinioned them, in the process of which both declared their innocence. From there, they were led to the gallows, a distance of about 18 paces.
The melancholy procession consisted first of William Harnett, Sub Sheriff, and Robert Harris, Governor of HM Prison Tralee, followed by Sylvester Poff, who was attended by the chaplain, Fr H O’Riordan, and two warders; Barrett came next accompanied by assistant chaplain, Fr O’Callaghan and two warders; each man was attentive to the exhortations of the priest and fervently repeated the responses to the service for the dying as read by Fr O’Riordan. The jail officials, including Dr William Hilliard Lawlor, Surgeon to the Jail, accompanied by Marwood, followed.
Poff first and then Barrett mounted the steps of the scaffold unassisted; on the platform, Marwood strapped their legs, and placed white caps over their heads covering their faces. The nooses were then placed on their necks, Poff first, with some roughness. The bolt was drawn at five minutes past eight. Both men died simultaneously, and ‘with calm and dignified courage.’ 7
The black flag was hoisted.8
A short time after, the clergymen in attendance went outside the jail and informed the people that the dead men had declared their innocence on the scaffold.
The Irish Executive can do many things, it can proclaim districts, extinguish newspapers, and prevent members of parliament addressing their constituents; but it cannot prevent the universal circulation of the dying protestations of the dead Derry Journal, 26 January 1883
Inside the prison, the bodies of Poff and Barrett were left hanging for an hour, then removed and placed in shell coffins for the inquest, from which the press were also excluded:
A new surprise now broke upon the representatives of the press. They had waited for nearly an hour and a half outside the prison upon the understanding that the inquest was to be public but on seeking admission, they were point blank refused.9
The inquest began at 9.45am. Officials in attendance included Captain Thomas F Spring, District Coroner; William Harnett, Sub Sheriff; Robert Harris, prison governor and Dr William Hilliard Lawlor, prison surgeon.10 A small number of representatives of the press were reluctantly admitted to the jury; these would appear to have been Mr Harrington, Mr Raymond and Mr Brassill.11
After viewing the bodies, the proceedings were held in the Old Debtors’ Hall of the prison. A transcript of the hearing revealed the extraordinary difficulties experienced by the representatives of the press with officialdom. Mr P Divane, Tralee town commissioner, was threatened with jail and a fine of £2 for contempt for voicing his objection that reporters be excluded.12
However, the efforts of the jury ensured that it was placed on record that Poff and Barrett had left written statements as to their innocence.
The jury returned the usual verdict:
We find that Sylvester Poff and James Barrett came by their deaths by fracture of the vertebrae with laceration of the spinal cord caused by hanging, in due course of law, about eight o’clock this morning at Her Majesty’s Prison, Tralee.
And to it was appended a rider:
We desire to express our great dissatisfaction at the action of the sub-sheriff in excluding the representatives of the press from the execution, and we also strongly condemn the exclusion of the representatives of the press from the inquest.
The inquest completed, the bodies of Poff and Barrett were interred within the jail.13
The Dying Declarations
It was stated that the object of excluding the press from the execution and inquest may have been to conceal from the public the fact that the unfortunate men left in writing the most emphatic declarations of their innocence:
Luckily they handed these testaments to the chaplain, and thus they have escaped suppression.14
It is to the eternal credit of Fr Humphrey O’Riordan, prison chaplain, that the last words of Poff and Barrett come down to us. The Dying Declarations of Sylvester Poff and James Barrett were rapidly published and widely circulated, the first appearing in print on the day of the execution.
There was much commentary. One writer stated the declarations contained an ‘assertion of utter innocence of the crime, or of knowledge of or connection with the perpetrators of the crime’:
We believe that men about whose necks lay the halter of the hangman and who had nothing more to hope for in this world – that Catholics upon whose souls gleamed the eyes of the Almighty would never utter, between their responses to the Litany of the Dying, the lie which would plunge them into eternal hell.15
The writer also remarked on the attempt to keep the statements away from the public:
If all this was done to keep from public ears a terrible accusation, it was of a piece with a policy which confesses its guilt by its desperation in endeavouring to stifle the truth. But through bolts, and bars, and bayonets, and the ring of sub-sheriffs and jail-governors, the dead hand struggled its way, and in the words it traces on the wall a blood-stained system reads a fresh denunciation.16
Mr John Kelly of the Tralee Board of Guardians spoke about the execution at the board meeting the day after the execution. Mr Kelly, who would fall foul of the law himself in the coming months, stated that he knew Poff well, ‘a gentle inoffensive, honourable man’.17
He described Poff and Barrett’s deaths as legal murder. That the dying declarations were true, he had no doubt:
I don’t care what any man’s religion may be as long as he believes in a future state. I don’t believe – no matter what his profession may be, even if I went as far as to say that he was an Atheist, but that he must believe the declaration made by them on the verge of the grave was true.18
An English paper commented on the ‘tragedies from Ireland’ and suggested ‘the tragedies on Tuesday were committed by Marwood under the sanction of the law’:
Even Lord Spencer, who, as Mr Froude said of an English queen, has already enswathed himself in an opi that which is likely to cling to his memory, must have some misgiving as to the propriety of the double execution on Tuesday … In the first place, there was not a particle of evidence to show any motive for the committal of the crime; the prosecution acknowledged as much. Men don’t commit crimes in Ireland without motives any more than they do in this country. In the second place they were convicted on the evidence of a single woman who might have been mistaken. And even this one witness on different occasions contradicted herself.19
In line with Poff’s dying wishes, a fund was opened for the families of both men. People subscribed from all over the county, and names of contributors from Castleisland, Tralee, Killarney, Ardfert, etc, were published.
John Stack, vice-chairman of the Listowel Board of Guardians, opened the subscription in Listowel, contributing £2 himself.20
In the parish of Ballymacelligott, Fr John O’Leary, parish priest, opened the list there during Mass on the Sunday after the executions.21 He addressed a tearful congregation and said he hoped the fund would help Mrs Poff and the parents of Barrett ‘to get a new start in life’.22
Fr O’Leary described how he had visited Poff in his prison cell, and Poff had informed him that ‘he hoped for nothing but that God would not allow innocent men be hanged.’ He asked the congregation to offer up their fervent prayers for the eternal rest of Sylvester Poff and James Barrett and said that their prayers would not be needed long, for Poff and Barrett, he assured, were on the road to Heaven.23
The Michael O’Donohoe Collection has received a donation of research papers from Dorothy Dowgray, a Poff descendant (http://www.odonohoearchive.com/poff-and-barrett-global-search-for-justice/). Included are documents which reveal that the authorities conducted an investigation following the publication of the Dying Declarations. Robert Harris, Governor of Tralee Prison, wrote to the Chairman of the General Prisons Board on 27 January 1883 to explain how Poff and Barrett had come by the writing materials.
He informed the board that Poff had requested the materials to arrange some family affairs on 19th January. They had been given to him on 20th January. On the 21st January, Mr Harris found that the assistant chaplain, Rev O’Riordan, had taken a portion of the paper to Barrett upon which the statements were made.
Robert Harris also stated that Poff proclaimed his innocence on being pinioned, the words repeated as nearly as possible by Barrett immediately after Poff. ‘I think it right to add that whenever I visited those prisoners, whether accompanied by the chief warder or any member of the visiting committee – they invariably declared their innocence of the murder of Thomas Browne.’24
1 Kerryman, 13 September 1919. 2 In 1916, parliament announced that four Irish prisons were to be closed, those of Londonderry, Dundalk, Galway and Tralee. Ballymullen (Tralee) prison closed in 1920 and was used as a military prison until 1925 when it was handed over to the local authority. Kerry County Council subsequently utilised the premises as a machinery depot. In 1995, Dick Spring launched the Lee Valley Action Plan which incorporated the redevelopment of the prison site. Kelleher's Electrical, built on the site, incorporated the facade of the old jail. It was reported in 1996, 'Since the gaol is a preserved building, every care is being taken to conserve its unique character'. In a letter to the Kerry's Eye newspaper in 1999 (19 August), Peter Locke sketched the history of the prison, which was built in 1812, and of those who died there: 'Tons of concrete and tarmac cover their resting places'. In 1923, troops discovered two tunnels in Tralee gaol, one from the cookhouse allotted to Irregular prisoners and the other from the hospital – both practically completed (Nottingham Journal, 6 February 1923). The polka, Tralee Gaol, is a tuneful reminder of the jail. ‘Murder of the Gaoler of Tralee Gaol’ described the earlier prison in the town (see Kerryman, 19 September 1904, extracted from the Kerry Magazine). 3 In the preceding days, Marwood, who also lost his life in 1883, had performed executions in Galway. He had also been in Galway the previous month, arriving in Dublin on Wednesday 13 December 1882, to perform the executions of the Maamtrasna Murders, Patrick Joyce, Myles Joyce and Patrick Casey. It is worth noting that at the time Marwood was present in Tralee jail, the ghost of Myles Joyce appeared within the precincts of Galway jail. The apparition was kept a secret at first by the officials who believed it a joke or delusion. But two soldiers on guard within the prison were followed by the ghostly figure which approached them and ‘actually touched their rifles’ before it vanished. The matron and warders of the prison were said to have applied for transfers. 4 Indeed, a week earlier, on Tuesday 9 January 1883, a force of military over one hundred strong and some forty of the constabulary paraded round the outer walls of the prison as it was rumoured that an attempt would be made to it up and rescue the condemned prisoners. See Kerry Sentinel, 12 January 1883. 5 Someone privy to the intimate conditions of the condemned men in the jail corresponded with the Freeman’s Journal. They observed that ‘Yesterday he [Marwood] resorted to a strange experiment – namely, the hanging of a sack of broken stones corresponding in weight to one of the condemned men. The result he pronounced thoroughly satisfactory’ (Freeman’s Journal, 23 January 1883). 6 ‘Several masses were offered up in Tralee this morning for the repose of their souls and in the parish church on Sunday evening the prayers of a crowded congregation were asked for the grace of a happy death to the unfortunate men by the Rev Father Sampson, who has been for some time past conducting a mission in Tralee’ (Freeman’s Journal, 24 January 1883). In Dingle, mass was offered for the eternal repose of their souls. ‘High Mass is to be offered up here on tomorrow for the eternal repose of the souls of Sylvester Poff and James Barrett. Printed cards, in mourning, are also to be posted on the prominent places outside the chapel doors asking for the executed men the prayers of the congregation. The money necessary to defray the expenses incurred in those pious works has been collected in this town [Dingle] solely through the exertions of Mrs Herlihy, formerly from near Tralee. It is only right to add that around this locality the belief that the men were innocent of the awful crime for which they had to suffer is almost unanimously felt’ (Kerry Sentinel, 30 January 1883). 7 The Irishman, 27 January 1883 and Freeman’s Journal, 24 January 1883. The report in the latter was from a special correspondent, and evidently a person privy to events inside of the prison. Marwood was expected to leave Tralee by the 5.15 pm train, where a large crowd had assembled, but did not appear. He left Tralee the following morning, on the 6am train on the North Kerry line. 8 A group of soldiers assembled in one of the drill fields was said to have cheered on the hoisting of the black flag. ‘We think a wise discretion would be exercised in the interests of public peace by the removal of this regiment. This is the mildest thing we can say under the circumstances. These heroes may have reverentially saluted Mahomedan freak of the holy carpet in Egypt, but they could not be expected to conduct themselves when the spirits of the two Irish Catholics were passing before their God (‘The Gallant 80th’, Kerry Sentinel, 26 January 1883). 9 The Freeman’s Journal, 24 January 1883. ‘They remonstrated with the coroner and his reply was that he would readily admit them himself but the governor had read the rules to him and stated that they empowered him (Mr Harris) to exclude everyone but the jurors and officials until the execution was completed and the bodies buried. The coroner then consented to summon three or four of the representatives of the press upon the jury and this expedient has enabled me to forward a detailed report of the proceedings at the inquest.’ 10 Robert Harris, deputy (and in 1863 acting) governor of Tralee, was appointed governor in succession to the late Mr Christopher Gallwey, brother of the agent of the Earl of Kenmare, in October 1870, on a salary of £200 a year. The High Sheriff was at that time in Italy ‘and his subordinate it is that takes upon himself the whole responsibility of excluding the representatives of the public journals’ (Freeman’s Journal, 23 January 1883). 11 For further reference to Kerry press, see page, ‘Stop Press: Michael O’Donohoe and the Kerry Newspapers’ on the O’Donohoe website. A Mr McKay was also named as a juror. 12 The inquest was covered by a number of papers including the Freeman’s Journal, 24 January 1883 and The Irishman, 27th January 1883. 13 Harrington’s impassioned summation of press reportage of the execution was contained in the item, ‘The Herd of Swine’ in the Kerry Sentinel of 26 January 1883. He also wrote, ‘We could unmask these informants of the government whose malignant misrepresentations, working through stupid mediums on a fluttered Executive, got these innocent men hanged, but for many reasons we refrain.’ 14 The Irishman, 27 January 1883 and Flag of Ireland, 27 January 1883. 15 Flag of Ireland, 27 January 1883. 16 Flag of Ireland, 27 January 1883. ‘These words were written by hands now rotting in the prison quick-lime. They were spoken by two men who stood upon the threshold of Eternity. There is nothing vague or incomplete about them. They contain an assertion of utter innocence of the crime, or of knowledge of or connection with the perpetrators of the crime, for which the men were suffering death, or of any other outrage which men might lay to their charge. We, at any rate, believe these words – if we are permitted to say that much.’ 17 Kelly was charged with using seditious language. See The Queen at the prosecution of Sub Constables Conroy and O’Brien v John Kelly, TC, Tralee, for having on the night of 7th April 1883 used seditious language. Case in Kerry Sentinel, 17 April 1883. He was arrested in the offices of the Kerry Sentinel on Monday 23 April and committed to a fortnight’s imprisonment. He was at the time in company with Edward Harrington and John Stack TC Listowel. At the jail gate, Kelly shook hands with a number of officials including M Quinlan, PLG. Report of arrest in Kerry Sentinel, 24 April 1883. He was released two weeks later: ‘On Sunday morning Mr John Kelly TC was released from Tralee Gaol after a fortnight’s imprisonment in default of bail, as reported recently in our columns. Mr Kelly looks little the worse of his dip. He was met at the gaol gate by a number of friends’ (Kerry Sentinel, 8 May 1883). 18 Details of the meeting of the Tralee Board of Guardians on Wednesday, 24 January 1883, were published in the Kerry Sentinel, 26 January 1883. ‘Mr J Kelly, ‘I believe you would agree with me when I say that Poff and Barrett would now exchange places with the Lord Lieutenant, even with the Queen, who sent him over here to do the dirty work of a coercive government. The dying statements of Poff are a telling and terrible reply to the cool answer from Dublin Castle which has been read. I don’t care what any man’s religion may be as long as he believes in a future state. I don’t believe – no matter what his profession may be, even if I went as far as to say that he was an Atheist, but that he must believe the declaration made by them on the verge of the grave was true; and we must also admit that they died innocent; that they were murdered – if they could be legally murdered – that the men who died on yesterday were not the perpetrators of the one of which a Cork jury found them guilty. Sylvester Poff – I knew him well – was a gentle inoffensive, honourable man. He was unfortunately one of a class in this country who are subjected to very harsh treatment by their landlords – evicted tenants. He was evicted from his home, arrested as a suspect, an outcast upon the world – this inoffensive and honourable man who died such an edifying death. Though they tried to make it an ignominious death, Sylvester Poff, I say here with pride, was a brother [illeg] of mine, the man who yesterday paid the penalty of the law through some misrepresentation. I don’t wish to touch further on the subject because you gentlemen, as well as I believe them innocent. I can now only offer a suggestion that his last words when he made an appeal on behalf of his family will not be forgotten’. 19 ‘The Latest Tragedies’ Kerry Sentinel, 26 January 1883 (from the Echo). 20 ‘At the Listowel Board of Guardians yesterday, a subscription list was opened, on the suggestion of Mr J Stack, Vice-chairman, in aid of the family of Sylvester Poff, executed last Tuesday in Tralee Gaol. Mr Stack himself subscribed £2 and all the other members also subscribed’ (Kerry Sentinel, 26 January 1883). The fund seems to have wound down in April 1883. A list of subscribers from exiled Kerry people appeared in the Kerry Independent in July and August 1883. 21 Fr O’Leary addressed the congregation on Sunday 28 January. He opened the subscription list with his name in the sum of £2. 22 Fr O’Leary spoke of how he had seen several people reading accounts of the execution in tears, and asked his congregation to hearken to the last dying request of Poff that his family be taken care of. ‘You know that family much better than I do,’ he said. ‘It consists of an aged and respectable mother, a sister, a wife, and four young children … together with two orphans belonging to his deceased sister … That was all he had in the world to leave us; he was evicted and cast homeless on the world and having nothing left to us but his family, he bequeathed that family to the kindness and generosity of his neighbours (At this a number of women burst into tears).’ 23 Kerry Sentinel, 30 January 1883. 24 IE MOD/C69. Robert Harris wrote to the board again on 9 February 1883 to inform them that he had only Barrett’s dying declaration and not Poff’s which was ‘probably taken by the person, whoever he was, that communicated it to the press.’
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Writing good characters is an essential part of a well-developed story. They are the heart and soul of a story, and it is from their point of view that the readers are able to witness a plot unfold. The impression they make on your audience often comes from a mixture of their backstories, their personality traits, and their current quest.
In order to write a character that leaves a lasting impression on your audience, it is essential to create your character’s personality properly and have it remain fairly consistent throughout the story (what you want to avoid is a character that doesn’t have any defining traits or is very inconsistent with their personality). However, although you want your character to have a strong presence & character traits, you still want them to be able to grow and show flexibility in the way humans naturally do.
Developing a strong personality from scratch is often a daunting task and can be difficult for many. This article is here to serve as a step-by-step guide to writing detailed characters with strong personalities.
What is Personality?
First, let’s define what personality is. Personality can be defined as a series of feelings, thoughts, and behaviors that are characteristic and unique to a person. These thoughts and behaviors are consistent across time and situations.
Step 1 – Defining his/her core traits using the big 5
The big five personality traits is a personality scale used by psychologists. It is said to be one of the most reliable personality tests at the moment and I found that it is the best and simplest way to determine your character’s core traits with little effort. The big five traits are conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience & extraversion. Let’s define each of these traits in depth.
Let us start by exploring the first trait which is extraversion. This trait, as you may have already guessed, relates to your level of sociability and how you react in social settings. If your character has a high level of extraversion, they most likely have an extroverted personality.
Hence, they’ll enjoy social gatherings and feel energized by them. They’ll also be more assertive and outgoing. Scoring high in this category also means your character is more comfortable expressing themselves to others and is the opposite of reserved.
However, If you decide to write a more introverted character (someone who would score poorly in the extraversion category) they should feel drained from social events and prefer to stay home most days. They would also have a tendency to hate small talk and not be socially dominant, especially in large groups.
Next, you should think about your character’s level of neuroticism. Is your character emotionally unstable? Do they have high levels of anxiety and tend to overthink? If you’ve answered yes to these questions, then your character most likely has a high level of neuroticism (which can be used as an interchangeable term for emotional stability). Neuroticism is the second trait measured in the big five personality scale and it defines whether you are more prone to mood swings and are highly irritable and/or anxious.
On the other side of the spectrum, a character with a very low level of neuroticism will be viewed as emotionally resistant and/or calm-tempered.
Openness to experience
Next on our list is openness, a category that describes one’s level of curiosity, imagination, and artistry. A character with a high score of openness will have most likely have multiples interests and be driven to learn and experience new things. They would also be described as someone who is open-minded.
On the other hand, a character who has low levels of openness will tend to be described as closed-minded. This type of person is uncomfortable with the unfamiliar. They would rather stick to what they know, and they rarely like to experience new things. Those who score low in this category will also tend to lack creativity.
This is generally the category that determines a person’s likelihood of success. If your character is someone with a high level of conscientiousness, they’ll be highly motivated, goal-orientated, and very organized. This type of person also tends to be very reliable.
A character who is on the other side is impulsive and less meticulous, tends to be disorganized, and is irresponsible.
Last but not least is agreeableness, the category that, as the name suggests, measures one’s level of friendliness and trustworthiness. A high level of agreeableness means that your character is polite, positive, and cooperates nicely with others. Your character will also tend to be very empathetic and sensitive.
A character with low levels of agreeableness will be viewed as less friendly, less empathetic, and is more inclined to create conflict around them because they have little regard for what others think and/or feel.
Determining where you what your characters to fit on the big five scales will give you a general layout of your character’s main traits.
Step 2 – Go a little deeper
Now that you’ve determined your character’s core traits. It’s time to go a little deeper and determine what are their goals, motivations, habits, faults & interests. Although the big five traits are an important aspect of determining one’s personality, they’re not what makes your character unique and memorable.
Their hobbies, their backstory & their weird little quirks are truly what will bring your character’s unique personality to life.
First, start by determining what they’re interested in. Do they like art and music or Science and nature? Then ask yourself what motivates your character? What do they want to accomplish in life and who do they want to be? Keep in mind that your character’s motivations can and should be related to their backstory and the environment they grew up in.
Step 3 – General impression
Step 3 is where you determine your character’s physical appearance and the general impression they have on others. Do they look mean? Do they intimidate others? Do they have a baby face and naturally look trustworthy? Imagine your character and think about what meeting them for the first time would feel like.
Then, you need to decide whether the first impression of your character embodies a true reflection of their personality. Are people’s first impressions of your character accurate? For example, your character might come off as mean and intimidating at first but may actually be a kind-hearted and loving person.
Your character’s overall “look”, the general impression they embody, and their personality are all important aspects that make your characters unique and memorable.
If you want more tips on how to create intriguing main characters, you can read the following article.
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Growing Grain in a Warming World
Some scientists are rethinking the positive effects global warming may have on agriculture.
Plant biologist Stephen Long, is worried about the future of agriculture in the U.S. “corn belt,” and the possibility that future harvests of corn, wheat, and other staple crops will be smaller than most climatologists’ current projections. “We don’t know what train crash is up ahead and how to prepare for it,” he said.
Long, a professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, believes that current crop models rely too heavily on the old idea that global warming will have a dramatic, positive effect on plant growth and that will result in bumper crops. This is particularly troubling news for developing nations, which are expected to rely increasingly on North American food exports as the climate warms.
“The projection of future food supplies needs to be changed,” said Long, who has grown crops under conditions that mimic an atmosphere with higher levels of carbon dioxide and found harvests to be smaller than expected. Increased levels of carbon dioxide are associated with a warmer climate.
Many climate modelers disagree with Long’s results and think that their projections are conservative enough to account for the lower crop estimates found by Long’s team. They acknowledge that food shortages are inevitable if the climate continues to warm, but believe that those shortages will come later than Long suggests.
“Models suggest…that climate change is not likely to seriously compromise the ability to meet demand [for food] – at least until 2050,” said Penn State geographer William Easterling. “For the latter half of the century, it is a different story…and food production will slip below demand.”
Easterling, along with hundreds of other scientists, examines the scientific evidence of climate change as part of the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The first portion of the 2007 IPCC report was issued on February 2, 2007; the impacts portion, which would look at global warming’s effect on agriculture, will not be released until April.
The physiology of plants drives the disagreement about future crop sizes. Plants use carbon dioxide, in combination with light and water, to create energy through photosynthesis. Theoretically, the higher carbon dioxide levels associated with global warming should boost plant growth in a process called “carbon fertilization.”
Studies conducted in greenhouses since the 1980s have suggested that carbon fertilization can increase crop yields by as much as thirty percent. However, scientists have suspected that the greenhouse results were skewed because even crops like corn and sorghum, thought to be less affected by extra carbon, showed increased growth under high carbon dioxide conditions.
Years of outdoor experiments by Long and colleagues have culminated in data that contrasts starkly with the findings from greenhouse studies. Using rings of Free Air Concentration Enrichment (FACE) towers that blow carbon dioxide onto the crops, researchers found that rice, wheat, and soy showed less than half the increased crop yields in comparable greenhouse studies. Long’s conclusion is that the crops in the greenhouse studies were benefiting from the artificially superior growing conditions where soil conditions, temperature, and moisture are all carefully controlled.
“When we elevate carbon dioxide, with conditions as natural as we can make them, the yield response is less,” said Long, who published his work in the journal Science last June.
Long is supported by experiments presented by German scientists this past November at the Agronomy Society of America annual meeting. In their study on winter barley, sugar beet, and winter wheat, the Germans’ results were “very much in line with what we saw,” according to Long. The yield increase due to carbon fertilization was also half of what had been found in prior greenhouse experiments.
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In Depth Tutorials and Information Skeletal Analysis Introduction Because they are so durable, bones and teeth are often pivotal to the solution of human remains cases. The skin, flesh, organs and body fluids the domain of forensic pathologists that provide such a wealth of data for identification and the interpretation of events that surround death, normally disappear after a few months or weeks. But the skeleton may endure, often intact, for centuries. Of course, in events like fires, remains may become skeletonized within minutes.
Discovery[ edit ] Mary and Louis Leakey had conducted excavations in Tanzania since the s, though most such work was postponed due to the outbreak of World War II.
They returned infinding mostly ancient tools and fossils of extinct mammals for the next few years. Zinj is an ancient Arabic word for the East African coast; anthropus refers to the fossil's humanlike characteristics; and boisei refers to Charles Watson Boisewho had been making financial contributions to the Leakeys' work since The Discovery by L.
Leakey of Zinjanthropus Boisei", his account of the dig, was published in the January issue of Current Anthropology. It was annotated by anthropologist Francis Clark Howellwho had been allowed to examine the Leakeys' Olduvai findings before public announcements of their discovery.
After the cranium was reconstructed with a model of the absent mandible, contemporaneous newspapers referred to it as "Nutcracker Man" due to the large posterior teeth and jaws which gave it a resemblance to vintage nutcrackers.A common creationist claim is that humans existed alongside or predated all of their presumed ancestors in the fossil record.
Taylor () contains a long list of supposed examples, and Bowden () discusses a number of them in more detail.
The violent death suffered by King Richard III at the battle of Bosworth has been revealed in new detail by analysis of his skull and jaw found under a car park in. The skull is a bony structure that forms the head in vertebrates.
It supports the structures of the face and provides a protective cavity for the brain. The skull is composed of .
List of 73 disease causes of Jaw pain, patient stories, diagnostic guides, 6 drug side effect causes. Diagnostic checklist, medical tests, doctor questions, and related signs or symptoms for Jaw pain.
The Skull Theory This theory continues to fascinate mothers-to-be, as many claim this at-home technique can be up to 92% accurate. While we cannot corroborate this statistic with significant evidence, this may be a helpful indicator when trying to predict the sex of your baby – just for caninariojana.com theory was developed based on scientific dating and sex determination techniques [ ].
Hard Jaw Lump Symptoms, Causes & Common Questions Read below about hard jaw lump, including causes and common questions. Or get a personalized analysis of .
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Our eyes are the most sensitive, exposed part of the body and the effects of an eye injury can be life-changing and devastating. The outer layer of the eye, the cornea, is vulnerable as it is only 0.5mm thick, making it easy for foreign objects and hazardous substances to penetrate.
Occupatations such as welding, chemistry and forestry obviously require eye and face protection, but many other hazards are present in almost all environments which might often be overlooked. Before starting a task, think about what you're about to do and ask yourself 'what are the risks?'
Working outside, as a gardener for example, presents minor risks; scratches to the eyes from twigs or canes; chemicals in weedkiller; soil particles getting into the eye - soil and even pond water can contain a nasty bug called acanthamoeba which causes corneal ulcers. Sunglasses are a great, simple way to stay safe outdoors and will also shield your eyes from harmful UV rays.
If using chemical cleaning products you should take care to avoid contact with the eyes. If contact occurs with any chemical substance, or dirt, you should immediately rinse them well with fresh, cold water, or eyewash - this should be an item that is included in your workplace first aid kit.
Nail and staple guns can cause terrible injury if something goes wrong. There is always the risk that a nail may be deflected or that splinters could be ejected towards the operator. Accident analysis has shown that the vast majority of eye injuries caused by nail guns would have been avoided if eye protection had been worn.
This video highlights these risks and the importance of wearing eye protection (warning; it does contain some images of eye injury) > http://bit.ly/1jG3YEz
HSE have this short guide to working with nail guns, here.
When selecting safety eyewear you first need to consider the tasks for which you will be wearing them and the hazards and substances you will be in contact with.
The general safety standard for eye protection is EN166 but within this, different specifications and values will be designed for specific hazards.
EN175 sets the specification for Eye and Face Protection
EN379 sets the specifications for Personal Eye Protection – Automatic Welding Filters
EN1731 covers mesh type Eye and Face Protectors
Lenses with a filtering effect are rated using scale numbers. The scale numbers consist of a code number and a shade number separated by a hyphen – except for welding filters which have no code number. Higher shade numbers have a stronger filtering effect (eg, they are darker for welding).
No code number but a shade number between 1.2 and 16. Suffix 'a' denotes filter for use in gas welding with flux .
2 or 3 code number denoting UV filter without or with good colour recognition, respectively. Plus a shade number between 1.2 and 5.
Infra Red Filters.
4 code number for IR filters, plus a shade number between 1.2 and 10.
Using the scale numbers, an Infra Red filter with a shade number of 4 would be written as 4-4.
A UV filter, with good colour recognition and a shade number of 5 would be written as 3-5.
The optical class denotes the optical quality of the lens on a scale of 1, 2 or 3 with Class 1 being the best.
Applicable to both lenses and frames.
S – increased robustness (lenses only)
F – high speed particles, low energy impact (any type)
B – high speed particles, medium energy impact (goggles and faceshields only)
A – high speed particles, high energy impact (faceshields only)
Fields of Use
3 - resistant to liquid droplets (goggles) or liquid splashes (faceshields, but not mesh)
4 – resistant to coarse dust particles
5 – resistant to gas and fine dust particles
9 – resistant to molten metals and hot solids
9 – resistant to molten metals and hot solids.
Other Lens Markings
You might also see these markings used;
K or AS – resistant to surface damage by fine particles/ Anti-Scratch
N or AF – resistant to fogging
On some products you may see them labelled with ANSI z87. This is the American National Standards Institute and their rating may appear on products from American manufacturers. Z87 is the equivalent of our EN166, a specification or standard for Personal Eye and Face Protection.
Looking at some of the products on our Eye Protection page, we can see many examples of these markings in use.
We can see that this product is labelled as conforming to EN166. This means that it meets the minimum requirements of safety eyewear, but would not be suitable for more specialist applications. This product will protect the wearer from minor hazards.
This product is labelled EN166 4.9.BT So we know that it meets the required EN166 spec for safety glasses. The 4 & 9 tell us that its fields of use. It is resistant to coarse/ large dust particles (4) and molten metal and hot solids (9). The lettering denotes its mechanical strength. 'B' shows that it is resistant to high speed particles, medium energy impact and 'T' means it is resistant to these hazards at extremes of temperature. It is also labelled ANSI z87 showing that this product also meets the American standards for Eye and Face Protection.
We can see that these are high quality goggles. They are labelled EN166 1B 3459 so conform to the safety standard EN166. 1B denotes the optical class (lens quality) with 1 being the highest and 'B' denotes the mechanical strength - resists high speed particles, medium energy impact. The fields of use 3459 mean that these goggles meet all fields of use; liquid droplets (3); large dust particles (4); gas and fine dust (5); and molten metal and hot solids (9).
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11 Problems Music Can Solve
Music is a splendid thing. It can cheer you up when you're sad, make you dance like a fool, and allow you to drown out the world when you need to. But music has its scientific uses, too. The documentary Alive Inside details how dementia patients react positively when given iPods filled with their old favorite songs. The music seems to help them "come alive" again. While listening to familiar songs, many of the documentary's patients can sing along, answer questions about their past, and even carry on brief conversations with others.
"Music imprints itself on the brain deeper than any other human experience," says neurologist Oliver Sacks, who appears in the film. "Music evokes emotion, and emotion can bring with it memory."
The documentary follows recent studies showing that music can improve the memories of dementia patients, and even help them develop new memories.
Here, a look at some other things music has been known to "cure":
1. Low Birth Weight
Babies born too early often require extended stays in the hospital to help them gain weight and strength. To help facilitate this process, many hospitals turn to music. A team of Canadian researchers found that playing music to preemies reduced their pain levels and encouraged better feeding habits, which in turn helped with weight-gain. Hospitals use musical instruments to mimic the sounds of a mother's heartbeat and womb to lull premature babies to sleep. Researchers also say that playing calming Mozart to premature infants significantly reduces the amount of energy they expend, which allows them gain weight.
It "makes you wonder whether neonatal intensive care units should consider music exposure as standard practice for at-risk infants," says Dr. Nestor Lopez-Duran at child-psych.org.
2. Droopy Plants
If music helps babies grow, can it do the same thing for plants? Dorothy Retallack says yes. She wrote a book in 1973 called The Sound of Music and Plants, which detailed the effects of music on plant growth. Retallack played rock music to one group of plants and easy listening music to another, identical group. At the end of the study, the 'easy listening' plants were uniform in size, full and green, and were even leaning toward the source of the music. The rock music plants had grown tall, but they were droopy, with faded leaves, and were leaning away from the radio.
3. The Damaging Effects of Brain Damage
Of the 1.5 million Americans who sustain brain damage each year, roughly 90,000 of them will be left with a long-term movement or speech disability. As treatment, researchers use music to stimulate the areas of the brain that control these two functions.
When given a rhythm to walk or dance to, people with neurological damage caused by stroke or Parkinson's disease can "regain a symmetrical stride and a sense of balance." The beats in music help serve as a footstep cue for the brain.
Similarly, rhythm and pitch can help patients sing what words they can't say. A study of autistic children who couldn't speak found that music therapy helped these children articulate words. Some of these kids said their first words ever as a result of the treatment.
"We are just starting to understand how powerful music can be. We don't know what the limits are." says Michael De Georgia, director of the Center for Music and Medicine at Case Western Reserve University's University Hospitals Case Medical Center in Cleveland.
4. Teen Loitering
Public libraries, malls, and train stations already know this: Teenagers typically don't like classical music. In fact, they dislike it so much that "it sends them scurrying away like frightened mice," says the LA Times. The theory is that when the brain hears something it dislikes, it suppresses dopamine, "the pleasure chemical." And as teenagers' moods fall, they go elsewhere to find something to bring it back up.
So if you want the neighbor kids to get off your lawn, turn up the Tchaikovsky.
5. Hearing Loss
OK, maybe music can't cure hearing loss, but it may help prevent it. A study of 163 adults, 74 of them lifelong musicians, had participants take a series of hearing tests. The lifelong musicians processed sound better than non-musicians, with the gap widening with age. "A 70-year-old musician understood speech in a noisy environment as well as a 50-year-old non-musician," explains Linda Searling at the Washington Post.
6. A Broken Heart
Not the kind caused by rejection, but the kind caused by a heart attack. Music can help patients who are recovering from heart attacks and heart surgery by lowering blood pressure, slowing the heart rate and reducing anxiety. As a preventative, try listening to "joyful" music, or songs that make you feel good. Research says listening to songs that evoke a sense of joy causes increased circulation and expanded blood vessels, which encourages good vascular health.
7. Poor Sport Performance
In 2005, a UK study found that listening to music during sports training can boost athletic performance by up to 20 percent. That's roughly equal to the boost some athletes get from illegal performance-enhancing drugs, except music doesn't show up on a drug test. For best results, try music with a fast tempo during intense training and slower songs during cooldown.
8. Grumpy Teens
In a 2008 study, researcher Tobias Greitemeyer wanted to study how lyrics impacted teenagers' attitudes and behavior. To do so, he exposed one group of teens to "socially conscious" songs with a positive message, like Michael Jackson's "Heal the World." Another other group listened to songs with a "neutral" message. The researchers then "accidentally" knocked over a cup of pencils. The group listening to positive songs not only rushed to help more quickly, but picked up five times as many pencils as the other group.
A 2009 study comparing two groups of second graders from similar demographics suggests learning music boosts reading abilities. The only major difference between the two groups was that one learned music notation, sight-reading and other skills, while the control group did not. Each group was tested for literacy before and after the school year. The end-of-year scores for the control group improved only slightly from their beginning of the year scores, while the kids with a music education scored "significantly higher," especially on vocabulary tests.
10. Sluggish Alcohol Sales
Are you a wine store owner suffering from an overstock of German vino? Try pumping some German tunes through your store. A 1999 study showed that doing so boosted German wine sales, and similarly, playing French music boosted French wine sales. Customers said they were completely oblivious to what music was being played.
11. Wine Snobbery
Ever purchased a bottle of wine with recommended listening printed on the bottle? Well, makers of cheap wine may want to consider that tactic. A group of researchers say certain types of music can "enhance" the way wine tastes by up to 60 percent. In a study, wine-drinkers rated white wine as 40 percent more refreshing when it was accompanied by "zingy and refreshing" music ("Just Can't Get Enough" by Nouvelle Vague was their go-to zingy song). The taste of red wine was altered 60 percent by "powerful and heavy music" like Orff's "Carmina Burana."
"The tongue is easy to dupe." says Jonah Lehrer at Wired.
Now if you'll excuse me, I have some $8 chardonnay that needs a little help from Tina Turner.
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Today’s blog by Matthew P. Johnson relates his article in Environment and History ‘Thirsty Sugar Lands’: Environmental Impacts of Dams and Empire in Puerto Rico Since 1898‘, (online first Autumn 2019, due in print August 2021) to the recent United Nations University report on ageing dams.
In September 1928, Hurricane San Felipe, one of the most powerful storms in Caribbean history, swept across Puerto Rico. The hurricane took the lives of hundreds of people and tore apart homes and other buildings, leaving hundreds of thousands more homeless. Upon surveying the wreckage after the storm had passed, then Governor Horace Towner compared the island to ‘war-devastated areas of France or Belgium.’
Among the infrastructure the storm imperilled was the island’s big dams, which held back reservoirs containing tens of thousands of cubic metres of water. In 1908, the Puerto Rican government—under US control after 1898—created an Irrigation Service charged with building dams to irrigate sugar cane, the island’s leading cash crop. In the 1910s, it built three big dams and a canal system in island’s semi-arid southeast, which was then the domain of wealthy absentee sugar companies from the mainland. The following decade, it built a fourth big dam, Guajataca, in the northwest. Engineers completed the dam in 1927, and the irrigation system began operating the following January, just in time to face the coming storm.
Guajataca Dam escaped the powerful hurricane relatively unscathed. The governor’s report for that year noted that the storm had caused almost no damage, apart from some mudslides alongside irrigation canals, which were promptly remediated. Overall, the report concluded that the storm ’caused little damage to the system.’
Nearly a century later, another powerful hurricane nearly destroyed the dam. In the aftermath of Hurricane Maria in September 2017, torrents of water toppled over the floodgates and ripped a hole in the spillway. The rapidly deteriorating spillway raised fears that continued erosion would compromise the earthen dam itself, putting tens of thousands of people in immediate danger. The fear of collapse caused widespread panic and prompted evacuation orders. Over the following weeks, teams of engineers from different government agencies hurriedly worked to reinforce the dam, and they successfully forestalled disaster.
Guajataca, now 94 years old, is among a global cohort of ageing dams that have suffered near-collapse or collapse in recent years. Together, these incidents have highlighted the catastrophic potential of dam failure and encouraged researchers to investigate the degree of the threat. In January 2021, the United Nations University published a report on ageing dams with the stated goal of bringing attention to the subject and encouraging international efforts to deal with it. Subsequent articles helped shine an even bigger spotlight on the issue. The UNU report highlighted that tens of thousands of large dams across the world are reaching the end of their expected lifetimes and will thus require costly retrofits and repairs to remain safe. The report also explored the potential for decommissioning obsolete dams, which the authors argue is cheaper than repairing them.
Puerto Rico and the rest of the Caribbean, which the report does not cover, face at least three exceptional circumstances that make the challenge of maintaining ageing dams especially arduous.
First, Caribbean dams must contend with hurricanes and rapid siltation. Heavy rains and intense flooding batter the dam structures. Storms also cause severe erosion upstream, leading to massive amounts of sediment accumulating in reservoirs. Because of these storms, Puerto Rican dams silt up at a much faster rate than dams in most other regions of the world. Rapid sedimentation, which my article in Environment & History discusses at length, limits the amount of water that reservoirs can store, which makes them less able to control floodwaters that overtop spillways. Earthquakes are another natural hazard that Puerto Rico’s dams face. The island sits near an active fault line, and though big earthquakes are infrequent, they have the potential to be disastrous.
Puerto Rican engineers, well aware of these threats, have repaired and retrofitted dams in response to major flooding events and the findings of annual assessments. In the 1950s, engineers retrofitted the Guayabal Dam – one of the Irrigation Service’s first three dams in the southeast – after a flood. Over the subsequent decades, engineers retrofitted the spillways and intakes of the southeast’s other two big dams, Patillas and Carite. Thus far, Puerto Rico’s ageing irrigation dams have performed well during hurricanes, but, as Guajataca attests, the hazard potential remains high and will rise higher as a result of climate change, which is projected to bring fiercer and more frequent storms. The government has also periodically dredged reservoirs, but such efforts are infrequent and costly.
The second exceptional feature of Puerto Rico’s ageing dams is that decommissioning them is not an option because the island relies on them for municipal water supply. The UNU report suggests that removing dams is a cost-effective means of mitigating the threat of collapse in some scenarios. Dams can become obsolete when demand for water or electricity disappears, or when replacement sources are found. Indeed, Puerto Rico’s old dams are obsolete as irrigation dams: during the second half of the twentieth century, the island gradually abandoned sugarcane, and manufacturing became the leading economic activity. Yet, these dams immediately took on a new purpose, which they retain today: municipal water supply. People moved to cities that depend on water storage reservoirs (94 percent of Puerto Ricans now reside in urban areas). Puerto Rico is a small island with few alternatives for securing fresh water, and groundwater cannot replace surface storage.
Third, Puerto Rican dams also face exceptional financial constraints. The island is currently in the throes of a severe recession and debt crisis that has cut the amount of money available for maintaining infrastructure. The island’s debt crisis has its long-term origins in a series of policies implemented by both the imperial and local government throughout the twentieth century. These policies created an economy catering to companies from the mainland that siphoned income off the island, and also encouraged the local government to use debt as a means of balancing its budgets. The debt crisis began in earnest between 1996 and 2006, when the federal government phased out tax exemptions that had attracted manufacturing companies to the island. Businesses pulled out, triggering a recession. The 2008 global financial crisis and a series of natural disasters have compounded the catastrophe, along with increasing emigration to the US mainland, which has reduced the tax base and local purchasing. Puerto Rico’s debt is now more than US$70 billion and is mostly held by wealthy hedge and vulture funds.
Puerto Rico’s debt crisis has been exacerbated by the island’s political status as a commonwealth territory. Its status means that the government cannot apply for bankruptcy protection, as municipalities on the mainland can, and it cannot borrow in global markets. Its subordinate status also enabled the federal government to take over its finances. After the commonwealth government defaulted on its debt in 2016, the federal government created a Financial Oversight and Management Board to control the island’s spending. The Board consists of seven members appointed by the US Congress, only one of whom resides in Puerto Rico.
Guajataca’s close call after Hurricane Maria had the smallest of silver linings: the crisis compelled the release of funding for repairing and retrofitting dams. In the aftermath of the near collapse, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), granted US$150 million to the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) to repair the dam, and the state-owned company has since requested roughly US$1 billion more to retrofit both Guajataca and Patillas, two of the island’s oldest and most important dams. PREPA is also preparing requests for FEMA funding to dredge its reservoirs, though the US$200 million it hopes to secure would only cover the removal of sediment that FEMA deems Hurricane Maria responsible for.
Such funding would help, but it would do little to mitigate the long-term sedimentation burden, a problem that is costly to remediate.
Puerto Rico is entering the age of ageing dams with grounds for both optimism and serious concern. On the one hand, the island has teams of capable and dedicated engineers who oversee dams that have performed well during the past century’s storms. On the other hand, their dams face the threats of hurricanes and rapid siltation, the former of which will likely become more intense as a result of climate change, and the latter of which will continue to accumulate in the absence of dredging. Moreover, the government is hamstrung by the debt crisis and related funding shortages, and the island’s territorial status impedes its ability to get resources from the federal government that US states can access.
Matthew P. Johnson is an environmental historian of modern Latin America and the Caribbean. His dissertation is an environmental history of the Brazilian military dictatorship’s mega dams, which he recently defended at Georgetown University. For more on the environmental history of Puerto Rico’s dams, check out his articles “‘Thirsty Sugar Lands’” in Environment & History, and “Swampy Sugar Lands,” in the Journal of Latin American Studies. Both are about the South Coast Irrigation Project (built 1910–914). The former discusses socioeconomic inequalities and sedimentation, and the latter discusses the role of the irrigation system in engendering malaria.
Quoted in Stuart B. Schwartz, Sea of Storms: A History of Hurricanes in the Greater Caribbean from Columbus to Katrina (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 233.
Horace A. Towner, Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Governor of Porto Rico (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1930), p. 62.
Frances Robles, “Cracks in a Puerto Rican Dam Send Neighbors a Message: Leave Now,” New York Times, 23 Sept. 2017; Carrie Kahn, “Guajataca Dam’s Failure Highlights Puerto Rico’s Infrastructure Issues,” National Public Radio, 9 Oct. 2017.
Duminda Perera, et al., Ageing Water Storage Infrastructure: An Emerging Global Risk (Hamilton: United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment, and Health, 2021); Fred Pearce, “Water Warning: The Looming Threat of the World’s Aging Dams,” Yale Environment 360, 3 Feb. 2021.
César Ayala, “Behind Puerto Rico’s Debt: Corporations that Drain Profits from the Island,” published online by the Committee for the Abolition of Illegitimate Debt on 10 Dec. 2018; Amelia Cheatham, “Puerto Rico: A U.S. Territory in Crisis,” published online by the Council on Foreign Relations, 25 Nov. 2020.
Phone call with Engineer Jose Miguel Bermudez, Chief Engineer of the Puerto Rican Electric Power Authority’s Division of Dams and Reservoirs, 1 March 2021.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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While going for a walk in the woods, or a wander out in the bush - canoe camping, hiking or just plain picnicking - it is important to have with you some sort of stove. A campfire is ideal for when you are staying in place for a while, but a stove can be a quick, transportable, low-impact and temporary set up. Boiling water for food, for hygiene, for comfort and for a cup of tea is a important coping mechanism during a survival situation, and a worthwhile activity for when you are just plain out and about.
I read somewhere once that the first thing you should do if you are lost in the wilderness is to sit down and make a cup of tea. You see, making a cup of tea allows the survivor to engage in several useful and meaningful activities. To start with, sitting down prevents you from continuing to move through the woods without knowing where you are. This will increase the likelihood of being found. Next, gathering water is obviously important for survival, as is making a fire. But I think the most (non life-essential) aspect of making a cup of tea is that of focusing a lost survivor onto a simple, confidence-building set of tasks, and providing the comfort and relaxation that is needed in a crisis situation. Obviously without a tea bag, you can use anything from willow shoots to Ephedra to Spruce or pine needle tea.
I have used various fuels to power my stoves - most recently methyl hydrate (methyl alcohol), to white gas (naptha fuel), to propane, to wood. There are different reasons to use all of the fuels.
Propane: Reliable, but doesn't work well at sub-freezing temperatures. Very cold winter weather will cause the pressure within the heavy cylinders to drop, and result in a low gas output and subsequent low temperature flame. The upside to it is that for long camp stays, the cost is relatively low, so it is an economical fuel.
Naphtha: Great in cold temperatures, heat output is reliably constant. You don't have to worry about non-refillable containers as with propane. You do need specialized equipment to burn it, and you need to pump the cannister to maintain pressure. This isn't a big deal generally. It is quite smelly if it leaks in your knapsack though.
Methyl Alcohol: Universally available, it is easy to transport in a regular plastic bottle. You can burn it in a variety of stoves, some which can be made simply with a can of Coke. The flame isn't particularly hot, as compared to the other fuels however.
Wood: You can find this practically anywhere you camp. It is sooty and messy to burn, compared with the other refined fuels above. Not having to transport it is a plus.
Inspired by Wayland's wood hobo stove, by Pablo's Bushbuddy stove review, and by various forum threads, I decided to make my own hobo stove. Made primarily for wood, I can also place an alcohol stove in the container for a source of heat.
I started with a stainless steel cutlery drainer bought from IKEA for $4.00. Spring bought this for me. She knew it meant something to me at the time, but likely was not able to put her finger on exactly what it meant to me. Combined with a pair of steel tent stakes, bent slightly with pliers and trimmed short with tin-snips, I had the makings of my hobo stove.
Using a felt-tip pen, I drew a door on the stove where I would fuel it with small sticks, pine cones and organic matter. I used my new Dremel tool to cut out the door with a shower of sparks. I like my new Dremel tool.
The tent stakes are pushed through the top to act as a pot support. I put an empty can which can be used to boil water, or cook food into the stove. The stove itself fits nicely into my kettle, and the kettle slides nicely into my cooking pot.
All that remains is for me to cut the leg off of a pair of old pants, sew up on end, and run a cotton drawstring through holes around the top to make a bag that will keep the sooty pot from messing up my other gear while in transport.
And all you need to do after burning the wood is shake out the ashes once it has all cooled. I haven't used it yet, but expect to have a few test fires out in the backyard soon.
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Moderate reasoning
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Home & Hobbies
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Just when you think that the story of King Richard III, whether Shakespeare’s version or factually-based, has been depicted in every form of media, something new comes along. In recent years, Richard has made his way into the popular pages of manga.
“What is manga?” the older among us may ask. A brief definition is, “Manga is an umbrella term for a wide variety of comic books and graphic novels originally produced and published in Japan. Unlike American comic books, which are usually printed in full color, Japanese manga are almost always published in black and white.”
As with most comics, the art is highly stylized, but manga art has a very distinct visual style. Characters are frequently drawn with an androgynous look. In content, manga runs the gamut from titles for children, to romance, adventure, fantasy, and erotica. Social issues such as gender-questioning and LGBTQ themes are frequently explored in manga books.
Richard III Manga Titles
Requiem of the Rose King
“Prince Richard III is fighting a battle within himself. Despised by his mother, adored by his father (the Duke of York, a claimant to the throne), and alienated from most others, he grapples with frightful spirits haunting him, unsteady and unintentional alliances with his enemies, and his own passion for a throne.”
Loosely based on Shakespeare, with elements of history and soap opera in the mix, Requiem is a very popular manga title. The first issue was released in 2014 with the final issue published in 2021. In this story, Richard’s “deformity” is not a hunchback, but the fact that he was born intersex, with male and female anatomy.
It has since spawned a spin-off manga comic, audio adaptations, and an anime tv series. (Trailer above) Requiem for the Rose King is available for purchase on Amazon in paperback and Kindle format, and it can be borrowed from larger US public libraries.
Manga Shakespeare: Richard III
The “Manga Shakespeare” series by UK publisher Self Made Hero includes manga adaptations of fourteen of Shakespeare’s most popular plays. Their “Richard III,” first published in 2007, is illustrated by London artist Patrick Warren. Warren is the winner of a UK Rising Stars of Manga competition.
Manga Shakespeare: Richard III is a straightforward retelling of the play, simplified to make it more accessible, but retaining the original language. The publisher makes learning resource packs available to educators.
Manga Shakespeare: Richard III is also available to purchase on Amazon, Comixology, or used on AbeBooks.
We hope to have full reviews of both of these titles in upcoming issues of the Ricardian Register.
More about manga– NYPL
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Moderate reasoning
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Literature
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Year 6 English worksheets by School Year
The prefix pre- means ‘before’. The word prefix includes the prefix pre! Do you know the meaning of these pre- words? Look up any you don’t know in the dictionary, then write a sentence containing each word in the right-hand box.
The prefix audi- means ‘to hear’, ‘to listen’ or ‘sound’. Write down what you think each of the words below mean in the middle box, then look each one up in the dictionary and write down the definition. How close were you?
All these words have the prefix aqua-. Look in a dictionary to find the meanings of these words and write them in the spaces. What do you think the prefix aqua- means?
Can you cut out these definitions and match them to the correct words? What do you think the prefix aero- means?
Help your child prepare for the Year 6 English SATs, taken at the end of Key Stage 2, with some revision and at-home practice. These complete 2017 Y6 SATs past papers are the official past papers from the Department for Education, used in schools.
Can you complete this tricky quiz to show how much you’ve learned?
Can you write a short description of a train journey, as a poem or a piece of prose? Remember to infer your thoughts rather than spelling them out and to include interesting adjectives, adverbs (or adverbial phrases), nouns, similes and metaphors.
Prepositions show the position and relationship between things. Prepositional phrases are phrases which begin with a preposition as their head word. Can you identify whether the prepositions before, after and until are functioning as prepositions or subordinating conjunctions in the following sentences?
Noun phrases are phrases built around nouns. Make noun phrases out of the following nouns, the longer and more interesting the better!
It’s not just poetry that uses figurative, poetic language. Advertising slogans use a range of language techniques to persuade us to buy a product or favour a particular brand. See if you can identify the techniques used in these fake slogans.
Adverbial phrases are a group of words that do the same job as an adverb, telling us how, where or when something is happening. Read the following famous passage Dombey and Son by Charles Dickens and underline any adverbial phrases you find.
Can you fill in the blanks from these options? Then choose a suitable conjunction to connect the following complex and compound sentences.
Reading poetry isn’t just about ‘feature spotting’; working out a poem’s overall meaning and message and responding to it is the most important thing. Learning the definitions and spellings of the poetic terms in this crossword will help you express your thoughts about language in poetry, fiction and non-fiction texts, though.
Read this extract from A Child’s History of England by Charles Dickens then answer the questions below.
Pronouns all stand in the place of nouns, but there are lots of different kinds! Can you match the pronouns with their title in the table?
Adjectives are words use to modify or describe nouns. Using adjectives in your writing makes it more interesting, but only if you use interesting adjectives! Here is a list of nouns. For each of them, come up with AT LEAST TEN ADJECTIVES. The first few will probably be quite easy – and boring! These might be colours, for example. The trick is to really think about each subject and focus on different aspects of it. What does the subject look like, smell like, sound like, feel like?
If the word ‘poetry’ makes you panic, don’t! It’s easier than you think to write a short descriptive poem that creates a striking image in the reader’s mind. Why not have a go?
After reading this Robert Louis Stevenson poem, answer the questions.
Modal verbs are related to this idea and can indicate the level of certainty, possibility, permission or obligation. Insert the correct modal verb into these sentences.
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Basic reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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Catharine MacKinnon (1946– ), one of America’s foremost feminist legal scholars and theorists, is a passionate advocate of women’s rights.
MacKinnon is an advocate of women’s rights
Her book Sexual Harassment of Working Women (1979) helped lay the foundations of sexual harassment law in the United States.
Her most controversial work has dealt with pornography. In MacKinnon’s view, there exists a tension, embodied in the pornography debate, between the First Amendment’s guarantee of free speech and the Fourteenth Amendment’s guarantee of equal protection.
Born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, MacKinnon graduated from Smith College. She earned a law degree and a doctorate in political science from Yale University. Currently, she serves as the Elizabeth A. Long Professor of Law at the University of Michigan and is a visiting professor at the University of Chicago.
Pornography harms women, perpetuates gender subordination
In her writings, MacKinnon argues that pornography — along with sexual violation, physical violence, and prostitution — helps perpetuate the dominance of men over women in society. Pornography harms women in two ways.
- First, the women who appear in pornographic films are debased by the filming itself. Most of them are forced to do so by pimps or because of drug abuse, past sexual abuse, or lack of other avenues for income — not by free choice.
- Second, pornography conveys the message that women exist not as equal human beings but as things to satisfy men’s sexual appetites; it teaches and encourages men to treat women as inferior. MacKinnon argues that pornography is a form of sex discrimination, and sex equality becomes impossible unless pornography is eliminated.
MacKinnon argues pornography should not have First Amendment protection
MacKinnon’s opposition to pornography brings her into conflict with advocates of free speech, including many feminists. MacKinnon does not dispute that free speech has great value; however, it is only one of many values, and social equality is another. She notes that the courts have said that free speech is not unlimited and argues that it should give way to the greater good of equality for women.
Indeed, under established sexual harassment law, it is not inconsistent with the First Amendment to ban certain forms of expression in the workplace because they interfere with women’s equal employment rights. Moreover, she considers pornography to be hate speech, not free speech.
Finally, since women are trapped in a subordinate sociopolitical position, they cannot be said to have the same free speech rights as men. Therefore, pornography should be banned — not as a question of morality but as a matter of women’s equal rights.
MacKinnon finds the Miller test insufficient
Although the courts have ruled, in Miller v. California (1973), that materials may be banned if they are found to be obscene, MacKinnon finds the Miller test deficient on two grounds.
- First, the test has proved in practice to be so vague as to be almost useless.
- Second, even if not obscene, a work may still convey the message of female subordination that perpetuates inequality between the sexes. Even if enforceable, the Miller test fails to achieve MacKinnon’s goal of creating equality between the sexes.
Indianapolis anti-pornography ordinance overturned
MacKinnon’s ideas found practical application when the city of Indianapolis passed an anti-pornography ordinance that she and Andrea Dworkin had drafted. The law provided for civil penalties for those distributing pornography, which it defined as “[t]he graphic sexually explicit subordination of women through pictures and words that also includes women being sexually used and abused, for example being dehumanized as sexual objects who enjoy pain, humiliation or rape, bound, mutilated, dismembered, in positions of servility or submission or display, or penetrated by objects or animals.” (MacKinnon distinguishes pornography from erotica, which she defines as sexually explicit materials showing men and women as equals in giving and receiving pleasure.)
A group of adult bookstores challenged the ordinance. The Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals, in American Booksellers Association v. Hudnut (7th Cir. 1985), affirmed a lower court’s decision overturning the law.
Although it accepted the argument that pornography can influence behavior, the court ruled that the law was overly broad and was a content-based restriction on speech and was therefore unconstitutional.
MacKinnon butts heads with First Amendment advocates
MacKinnon’s approach to pornography has sparked controversy.
Her critics argue that:
- her definition is overly inclusive and would ban many works considered to be art;
- that the practical meaning of terms such as subordination and objectification are subjective; and
- that her approach would limit women’s ability to express their sexuality.
Although no other laws have incorporated her approach, the debate between MacKinnon and free speech advocates continues.
This article was originally published in 2009. Stephen Robertson is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of Political Science and International Relations at Middle Tennessee State University, where he has taught for about 25 years. He has always had a deep interest in constitutional law and the First Amendment and explores these topics in his courses on American government and women’s rights under American law.
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Strong reasoning
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Crime & Law
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Education: State Board of Education Biennial Report (NC Dept. of Public Instruction)
Education Statistics, School Districts Profile (National Center for Education Statistics)
Education Statistics, State Education Data Profiles (National Center for Education Statistics)
Education Statistics, Data by Category (School Buses) [School Transportation News magazine]
Statistical Abstract of Higher Education in NC (University of North Carolina, Office of the President) Links to the Statistical Abstracts back to 1994. This is an annual publication including everything "from simple counts of enrollment and degrees conferred to complex analyses of the flow of student transfers among institutions."
Election Results (Historical) (NC State Board of Elections) Results for gubernatorial and senate elections by county as early as 1992 and all primary and general elections, including all races and referenda, from 1996 on by voting district; voter registration statistics (back to 1998); and campaign finance reports (instructions on downloading these reports are strongly recommended reading).
See also Comparative Statistics
Concealed Handgun Permit Statistics (NC State Bureau of Investigations)
Data Compendium (Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, formerly the Health Care Financing Administration)
See also Comparative Statistics
County Level Estimates of the Number of Uninsured in North Carolina - 2005 Update (UNC Cecil G. Sheps Center for Health Services Research) - At the end of this report, there are tables listing numbers, percentages, and rankings of North Carolinians without health insurance.
North Carolina Health Statistics (NC Dept. of Health & Human Services, Division of Public Health) Clicking on the Reports and Publications near the top of the page. Provides detailed reports of service in state-run alcohol and drug abuse treatment programs, psychiatric hospitals, mental retardation centers and special care facilities.
Annual Statistical Reports (NC Dept. of Health & Human Services)
Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) (Centers for Disease Control) - Contains Prevalence Data (how common is health problem's occurrence) and Trends Data (how common is negative health behavior over time) at the state level. Also features selected local Metropolitan/Micropolitan statistics as well as some maps (nationwide and state levels).
Wonder (Centers for Disease Control) A system to search several health-related databases individually on topics such as AIDS, Births, Cancer, Deaths, Sexually Transmitted Diseases and more. The data, in many instances, can be charted, mapped, and exported.
Medicare/Medicaid-Certified Nursing Home Compare database (Medicare) provides performance reviews for every nursing home in the country certified by Medicare or Medicaid. Searchable by state, county, city, and zip code as well as individual nursing home.
E-Stats – Measuring the Electronic Economy(e-NC Authority) Covers Internet connectivity issues by county.
Local Employment Dynamics (U.S. Census Bureau) - This mega-website contains a list of useful Data Tools:
- Quarterly Workforce Indicators Online Includes quarterly employment (including average monthly earnings and new hire earnings) data broken down by NAICS industry, state, metro area or region, gender, age, and other factors. Detailed Comparison Reports can be created and all datasets can be downloaded to Excel or printed.
Industry Focus, and Industry Focus permits creating additional customized reports and ranking these employment variables by industries.
- OnTheMap (as well as OnTheMap Version 2) Shows where people live and work. It provides map and reports depicting age, earnings, and industry information, and workforce indicators.
Employment (NC Employment Security Commission) Provides employment and wages, labor force, announced closings and layoffs, and employer data among other things.
Census 2000 EEO Data Tool (U.S. Bureau of the Census) Detailed In-depth race and gender breakdowns can be created by occupation. Also, detailed race, gender, and age breakdowns are available by Educational Attainment for total workforce. Depending on the variable, data can be tabulated for many geographic levels (entire U.S., state, county, and MSA.) and by employee residence or workplace.
State of North Carolina Employee and Teacher Salaries (Annual Increases Average)-Back to 1970-1971 fiscal year.
State Employees Statistics (NC Office of State Personnel)
State Government Budget, see Budget Charts
Safety and Injuries:
Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (NC Department of Labor in cooperation with the U.S. Dept. of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics) Look under CFOI data
Occupational Fatality Investigation Review (NC Department of Labor)
Incidence Rates and Case Counts of Nonfatal Occupational Injury & Illnesses (NC Dept. of Labor) Look under SOII data.
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Annual Comparison Report (NC Dept. of Labor)
Statistics (NC Dept. of Cultural Resources, State Library of NC, Library Development Branch)
Division of Marine Fisheries Catch Statistics (NC Dept. of Environment and Natural Resources)
Charts State Government (NC Dept. of Budget & Management)
Log Into North Carolina (LINC) (North Carolina State Data Center) - The Best First Resource for North Carolina Data on All Topics
LINC features data and projections from the 1970s to 2030, geographic coverage at the state, county, municipality, township, and includes an array of topics.
North Carolina and Federal Government Resources - List of links to state and federal agency websites that contain data.
QuickFacts Profile (Census Bureau) - includes population, business and geography statistics from various surveys conducted by the Bureau. Also, the Census Bureau provides a look-up tool to find profiles for counties or municipalities (for other states as well as NC).
Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates (U.S. Census Bureau)
AARDVARC, (An Abuse, Rape and Domestic Violence Aid and Resource Collection) - Statistics by State.
Eugenics Statistics (NC Dept. of Cultural Resources, State Library of NC, Library Services Section) - The 1966 Biennial Report of the Eugenics Board of North Carolina (p. 23) includes statistics from 1934 to 1968. This table has cases handled from 1964-1973. More information and resources about eugenics in North Carolina can be found in NCpedia.
State Level Data (U.S. Health and Human Services Administration, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), Office of Applied Statistics) - Can obtain state and sub-state level data on usage of alcohol and certain illegal drugs.
North Carolina Boating Accidents and Fatalities Report (NC Dept. of Environment & Natural Resources, Wildlife Enforcement Division)
NC Census Lookup (U.S. Bureau of the Census via the NC State Data Center)
North Carolina Alcohol Facts (UNC Highway Safety Research Center) - Data on various facets of alcohol-related crashes, injuries, and impaired driving court cases is searchable from 2000 to 2005 and can be accessed at the county and state level. Additional Crash Overview data and thematic maps showing percentage of crashes caused by alcohol are also available.
North Carolina Crash Data (UNC Highway Safety Research Center) - 2001 to 2006 data for state, county and city. A large number of filtering characteristics (driver's age, type of vehicle, day of week, road surface, etc.) and table creation options (one variable or two cross-tabulated) are available.
North Carolina Bicycle and Pedestrian Crashes (NC Dept. of Transportation, Division of Bicycle and Pedestrian Transportation)
Traffic Stops (NC State Bureau of Investigations) - Data available 30 days after the end of the prior month. Click on Stop Reports link along the left banner of the page to access the search form. Agencies include city police departments, county sheriff's offices, state agencies (either police units or investigations divisions [under NC]), and public university police departments.
Statistical Abstract of the United States (U.S. Bureau of the Census)
Zip Code Statistics (U.S. Bureau of the Census)
The State Library of North Carolina is not responsible for any material found in Web sites not under its direct control. This list is provided for informational purposes only and does not indicate any particular endorsement by the State Library. All resources listed here immediately lead the user out of the State Library's Web site. This page is maintained by the Reference Staff at the Government & Heritage Library.
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Science & Tech.
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Doctors injected HIV into a six year-old girl, and they aren't the worst people in the world, they are geniuses.
"Emma was incredibly matter-of-fact about all of this," said Dr. Carl June, referring to his sick, six year-old patient. This was a child who had had her leukemia come back twice."
Emma, if left to fend for herself, and even if given traditional treatments, was going to die, probably very soon. It is a peculiar fact of medical research that these patients are extremely valuable to science, because they are willing to try anything that has a chance. Emma's parents agreed to something they never would have had traditional treatments had a hope of working: they would have her injected with a modified form of HIV.
"It's a procedure where we collect their T-cells," explains David L. Porter, MD at the University of Pennsylvania. "And they are infected with a virus that will genetically change them so they will now see and react against their leukemia cells."
Dr. David June picks up the story: "And we actually used the HIV virus to do that....The virus has been engineered so that it can't cause disease anymore, but it still retains the ability to reprogram the immune system so that it will now attack cancer cells."
"We need to make it clear when we talk to a family that it may not work," Stephan A. Grupp, MD, PhD. at Philadephia Children's Hospital adds. These treatments are new, unusual, relatively untested, and not all bodies react the same way to them. This could have done nothing or even accelerated Emma's death.
"Emma received the T-cell treatment, and within a few days, she was very sick," said Grupp. "She had breathing difficulties, she had blood pressure difficulties. We knew that she could not have gotten any sicker without actually dying."
"But then," Porter picks up, "a remarkable thing happened. The T-cells were growing, they were starting to fight the cancer. Within hours, Emma's fever disappeared. Her modified T-cells defeated her leukemia. She went on to, and continues to live a healthy life.
HIV, in its typical malignant form, reprograms the body's T-cells to attack its own immune system. The innovation of Dr. June's lab to use them to target cancer cells is absolutely genius. And one day it might cure cancer. After all, it did for Emma.
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The First World War Poetry Digital Archive is an online repository of over 7000 items of text, images, audio, and video for teaching, learning, and research. The heart of the archive consists of collections of highly valued primary material from major poets of the period, including Wilfred Owen, Isaac Rosenberg, Robert Graves, Vera Brittain, and Edward Thomas. This is supplemented by a comprehensive range of multimedia artefacts from the Imperial War Museum, a separate archive of over 6,500 items contributed by the general public, and a set of specially developed educational resources. Freely available to the public as well as the educational community, the First World War Poetry Digital Archive is a significant resource for studying the First World War and the literature it inspired. The Great War Archive was highly commended at the Times Higher Educational Awards 2008 for 'Outstanding ICT Initiative'
Related: World War One
WWI BattlefieldsWelcome + Witches in Early Modern EnglandDigital Collection - NZYou are here: Home > Digital Collection > Wars & conflict Heritage Digital Collection Home The Canterbury Aviation (N.Z.) A brief history by Henry Wigram recounting the beginnings of the Canterbury Aviation Company. The Canterbury (New Zealand) Aviation Co. Details of services and training offered by the company following World War I. Christchurch War Memorial: Bridge of Remembrance The history and symbolic features of the Bridge of Remembrance opened By Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa, on Armistice Day, November 11, 1924. City of Christchurch, N.Z. : peace celebrations Programme of Christchurch peace celebrations, held on 19-21 July 1919 to mark the end of World War I. Cecil Malthus: World War I papers [letters, telegrams, documents] A collection of Malthus letters has been digitised and made available online by Christchurch City Libraries. Diggers’ poems A small collection of poems by returned soldiers published after World War I. Ephemera A selection of public notices. Gallipoli papers H.H. The Kiwi
Life in Elizabethan England: A Compendium of Common Knowledge - ContentsWritten and edited by Maggie Secara 11th Edition Spring 2011 Newly expanded incorporating all previous editions & appendices Designed for the World Wide Web by Paula Kate MarmorThe Long, Long Trail - UKLondon Sewers & London's Main Drainage | sub-urban.comEuropean stories & official historiesChurchill and the Great RepublicThis exhibition examines the life and career of Winston Spencer Churchill and emphasizes his lifelong links with the United States—the nation he called “the great Republic.” The exhibition comes nearly forty years after the death of Winston Churchill and sixty years after the D-Day allied invasion of Nazi-occupied France during World War II. It commemorates both of these events. On April 17, 1945, British Prime Minister Winston S. Churchill addressed the House of Commons on the occasion of President Franklin Roosevelt's death. He said of his friend and ally: “In war he had raised the strength, might and glory of the great Republic to a height never attained by any nation in history.” Photograph above: The Prime Minister's Return Journey Across the Atlantic, August, 1941. This exhibition and its programming were made possible by the generous support of John W. Additional support was provided by the Annenberg Foundation. February 5–July 10, 2004 Northwest Gallery Look for these “Discover!”
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Strong reasoning
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Christmas is a holiday for animals, too
December 22, 2012By Alaina Mabaso
Pack up those tiny oxen. In his latest book on the life of Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth: the Infancy Narratives, Pope Benedict XVI writes that there were no animals present at the birth of Jesus.
There are other surprises in the Pope's new book — apparently we've miscalculated the actual date of the birth of Christ, for one. But in the media, this paled in comparison to the Pope's revelation that no horses or lambs were watching over the baby Jesus.
As The Christian Post reports, "contrary to what millions across the globe are doing by decorating their nativity scenes with popular animals, Jesus' birth was not surrounded by oxen, horses, sheep and other such animals." According to Pope Joseph Ratzinger, "there is no mention of animals in the gospels."
(No word on whom the manger was for, if the stable in question was, indeed, empty.)
What is it about the presence of those animals that draws worshippers all over the world into the scene of Jesus's birth? Why do they love to imagine Mary, Joseph and the babe in a warm and placid ring of sheep, camels and cows?
We'd be hard-pressed to find a Christmas hymn without a verse that references sheep, cattle or oxen. And what artist presents the Three Wise Men without their camels?
Animals abound in Christmas lore
Animals are a fixture of our favorite Christmas songs, poems and stories.
'Twas the night before Christmas, and all through the house, not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse.
What's the holiday season without singing about that one-horse-open sleigh? And who celebrates the Twelve Days of Christmas without dozens of swans-a-swimming, geese-a-laying, colly birds, French hens, turtle doves and partridges? (It doesn't end there: apparently the "five gold rings" are long-mistaken references to ring-necked pheasants.)
Ebenezer Scrooge understood the importance of birds (ornamental or nutritious) in the celebrations as well: Upon his Christmastide awakening, the first thing he does is buy a goose.
And what is Santa without his reindeer? In 1939, Chicago-based Montgomery Ward copywriter Robert May, tasked with writing a Christmas pamphlet the store could pass out to customers as a promotional stunt, dreamed up an underdog reindeer with a glowing red nose.
I love Rudolph and the 1964 stop-motion film, but as a child, privately I found the 1979 song "Grandma Got Run Over By a Reindeer," a Christmas standard on the family record-player, somewhat disturbing: The family matriarch drinks too much spiked eggnog, forgets her meds, sets off into a snowstorm, and is found dead the following morning with "hoofprints on her forehead."
There was one other animal-themed Christmas album that rocked the household. "A Meowy Christmas" consisted entirely of cat meows synthesized into carols, and the tape was immediately and permanently banned by Dad.
My mother has over 100 nativity sets from all over the world, full of cattle, donkeys, camels, sheep and even a llama and zebra or two. I once showed her a set composed entirely of dogs, but she found it sacrilegious.
A special time for pets, too
This is no reflection on how she views her pets' role in the holiday. December was a thrilling time for the family cat (may she rest in peace), as she ignored her water bowl for weeks in favor of the Christmas tree's watering stand and took to the piney branches like a tiny, manic puma. The dogs were as happy at Christmas as they were any time of year — we learned early on to put the glass ornaments out of reach of their whipping tails.
Last year, the Huffington Post reported that 51 percent of Americans polled planned to purchase Christmas presents for their pets, with an average budget for pet gifts of just under $50.
As long as I can remember, our family dogs' and cat's own Christmas stockings hung alongside ours. One year, my brother and I worried because the pets weren't joining us for Christmas at Granny and Papa's. We conspired secretly, and the night before the dogs were bundled off to the boarding kennel, we got up in the dark and filled their stockings with toys and treats, figuring an early Christmas was better than none.
Those dogs went to their reward many years ago, but the tradition continues with Cuda, my mom's poodle mix, who after 12 Christmases has developed an uncanny ability to locate his own stocking every year in the family line-up, and knows he cannot open it until after breakfast.
Cruzer, my parents' six-month-old Spanish Water Dog, will have his first Christmas this year. As we were shopping for his presents last weekend, Mom confided that she is repurposing a stocking that belonged to my brother's ex-girlfriend — she is almost finished sewing Cruzer's name on instead.
So woe betide anyone who attempts to take the animals out of Christmas. Fortunately, the Pope himself realizes the futility of promoting a humans-only vision of Christians' most hallowed story: "No one will give up the oxen and the donkeys in their nativity scenes."
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In five pages this paper examines speech recognition technology in terms of language processing system applications and uses. research in these areas, and in particular the success of deep learning, is leading natural language processing research papers to unprecedented acknowledgement for research paper improvements in applications such as text understanding. xiaodan zhu. – blogs and white papers including academic papers – research papers including those from research analyst natural natural language processing research papers language processing natural language processing (nlp) research at google focuses on algorithms that apply at scale, across how to write a paper format languages, and across domains. may 31, 2018 · companies use natural language processing applications, such as sentiment analysis, to identify opinons apa essay title page and sentiment online to help them understand what customers think about their products and services (i.e., “i love the natural language processing research papers new iphone” and, a few lines later “but how to start an apa research paper sometimes it doesn’t natural language processing research papers work well” where the person is still mar 01, 2009 · abstract this paper discusses example illustration essay emerging opportunities for natural sample college essays 2014 language processing (nlp) researchers in the development of educational applications for writing, reading and content knowledge acquisition the special issue (si) focuses on two kinds of research. our team an informative essayӳ conclusion should advances the state of the art in natural language understanding and generation, and deploys these systems at scale to break down language barriers, enable people to understand and communicate. natural how to say works cited in spanish language processing (nlp) opposing viewpoints argumentative essays can be defined as a theoretically motivated range of computational techniques for analyzing and representing naturally occurring texts at one or more levels, for the purpose of achieving human-like language processing of difference between expository and narrative writing tasks and applications “theory and applications of natural language processing” is a series of volumes dedicated to selected topics in nlp natural language processing research papers and language technology. college admittance essay final projects: also known as opinion mining, it helps to analyse the attitude and emotional state (happy, sad, angry, annoyed, natural language processing research papers etc) of the consumer who is commenting/engaging with the company through social media posts artificial intelligence and natural language processing making sense of human communication is at the heart of our work in natural subway business plan language processing and artificial intelligence. homework help sites it is becoming more and more challenging to keep track of the […].
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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- For the Steel Panther song, see Feel the Steel.
Community property is a marital property regime that originated in civil law jurisdictions and is now also found in some common law jurisdictions. The states of the United States that recognize community property are primarily in the West; it was inherited from Mexico's ganancial community system, which itself was inherited from Spanish law (a Roman-derived civil law system) and ultimately from the Visigoths. Even Louisiana, in a rare departure from the Napoleonic code, was forced to adopt the ganancial community system while under Spanish rule (renamed "community of acquests and gains"), thus ousting the traditional French community of movables and acquests.
In a community property jurisdiction, most property acquired during the marriage (except for gifts or inheritances) is owned jointly by both spouses and is divided upon divorce, annulment or death. Joint ownership is automatically presumed by law in the absence of specific evidence that would point to a contrary conclusion for a particular piece of property. The community property system is usually justified by the idea that such joint ownership recognizes the theoretically equal contributions of both spouses to the creation and operation of the family unit.
Division of community property may take place by item, by splitting all items or by value. In some jurisdictions, such as California, a 50/50 division of community property is strictly mandated by statute, meaning that the focus then shifts to whether particular items are to be classified as community or separate property. In other jurisdictions, such as Texas, a divorce court may decree an "equitable distribution" of community property, which may result in an unequal division of such. In non-community property states property may be divided by equitable distribution. Generally speaking, the property that each partner brings into the marriage or receives by gift, bequest or devise during marriage is called separate property (i.e., not community property). See division of property. Division of community debts may not be the same as division of community property. For example, in California, community property is required to be divided "equally" while community debt is required to be divided "equitably".
Property that is owned by one spouse before the marriage is the separate property of that spouse, unless the property is "transmuted" into community property. The rules for this vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.
In the United States there are nine community property states: Arizona, California, Idaho, Louisiana, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Washington and Wisconsin. Puerto Rico allows property to be owned as community property also as do several Indian jurisdictions. Alaska is an opt-in community property state; property is separate property unless both parties agree to make it community property through a community property agreement or a community property trust.
If property is held as community property, each spouse technically owns an undivided one-half interest in the property. This type of ownership applies to most property acquired by the husband or the wife during the course of the marriage. It generally does not apply to property acquired prior to the marriage or to property acquired by gift or inheritance during the marriage. After a divorce, community property is divided equally in some states and according to the discretion of the court in the other states.
It is extremely important to bear in mind that there are no two community property states with exactly the same laws on the subject. The statutes or judicial decisions in one state may be completely opposite to those of another state on a particular legal issue. For example, in some community property states (so-called "American Rule" states), income from separate property is also separate. In others (so-called "Civil Law" states), the income from separate property is community property. The right of a creditor to reach community property in satisfaction of a debt or other obligation incurred by one or both of the spouses also varies from state to state.
Community property has certain federal tax implications, which the Internal Revenue Service discusses in its Publication 555. In general, community property may result in lower federal capital gain taxes after the death of one spouse when the surviving spouse then sells the property. Some states have created a newer form of community property, called "community property with right of survivorship." This form of holding title has some similarities to joint tenancy with right of survivorship. The rules and effect of holding title as community property (or another form of concurrent ownership) vary from state to state.
Because community property law affects the property of all married persons in the states in which it is in effect, it can have catastrophic consequences upon dissolution of the marriage from the perspective of the spouse forced to share a valuable asset which he or she thought was separate property. Indeed, one sign of community property's importance is that the states of Arizona, California, Idaho, Louisiana, and Texas have made it a mandatory subject on their bar examinations, so that all lawyers in those states will be able to educate their clients appropriately. Consumers who are considering how to hold property during marriage should either research reliable legal source materials, or consult with a family lawyer, an estate planning lawyer, a Certified Public Accountant, or an Enrolled Agent.
Often a new couple acquires a family residence. If the marriage terminates in subsequent years, there can be difficult community property problems to solve. For instance, often there is a contribution of separate property; or legal title may be held in the name of one party and not the other. There may also have been an inheritance or substantial gift from the family of one of the spouses during the marriage, whose proceeds were used to buy a property or pay down a mortgage. Case law and applicable formulas vary among community property jurisdictions to apply to these and many other situations, to determine and divide community and separate property interest in such a residence and other property.
Community property issues often arise in divorce proceedings and disputes after the death of one spouse. These disputes can often be avoided by proper estate planning during the spouses' joint lifetime. This may or may not involve probate proceedings. Property acquired before marriage is separate and belongs to the spouse who acquired it. Property acquired during marriage is presumed to belong to the community estate except if acquired by inheritance or gift, or by exchange for other separate property. This definition leads to numerous issues that can be difficult to ascertain. For instance, where a spouse owns a business when marrying, it is clearly separate at that time. But if the business grows during the marriage, then what of the additional property acquired during marriage? Do they not result from labor of the spouses? Were some of the funds that were used to pay for the property community funds while a portion of the funds were separate property?
Community property may consist of property of all types, including real property ("immovable property" in civil law jurisdictions) and personal property ("movable property" in civil law jurisdictions) such as accounts in financial institutes, stocks, bonds, and cash.
A pension or annuity may have first been acquired before a marriage. But if contributions are made with community property during marriage, then proceeds are partly separate property and partly community property. Upon divorce or death of a party to the marriage, there are rules for apportionment.
Options are also difficult to ascertain. A stock option is a right to purchase shares of a company at a fixed price. Companies with growth potential sometimes award stock options as compensation to employees, during times when there is not enough money to pay a suitable salary. By accepting a stock option for compensation, an employee invests his or her own trust in the belief that he or she will help make the company acquire a higher value. Thereafter, the employee works and contributes value to the company. If the company later acquires a higher share valuation, then the employee may "cash in" his options by selling them at the fair market value. The employee's trust in this future value motivates his work without immediate compensation. That effort has value. If the marriage is terminated before the shares are cashed in, then the parties must decide how to apportion the community property portion of the options. This can be difficult. Case law precedents are not yet available for all situations involving stock options.
Quasi-community property is a concept recognized by some community property states. For example, in California, quasi-community property is defined by statute as
"all real or personal property, wherever situated, acquired before or after the operative date of this code in any of the following ways: (a) By either spouse while domiciled elsewhere which would have been community property if the spouse who acquired the property had been domiciled in this state at the time of its acquisition. (b) In exchange for real or personal property, wherever situated, which would have been community property if the spouse who acquired the property so exchanged had been domiciled in this state at the time of its acquisition.
Typically, such property is treated as if it were community property at the time of divorce or death of a spouse, but in California, at least, property acquired while married and domiciled in a non-community property jurisdiction does not become community property just because the married parties move to a community property jurisdiction. It is the new event of divorce or death while domiciled in the community property state that allows that state to treat such property as quasi-community property. As of 2007[update], only Washington, California, New Mexico and Arizona have such laws.
- Van Camp accounting, one of two methods used in California for determining the community property interest in a separate business, where one of the spouses has contributed labor to the business
- Pereira accounting, the other such method
- ^ The half-borrowed term ganancial (from Sp sociedad de gananciales) was used in some early U.S. community property opinions, such as Stramler v. Coe, 15 Tex. 211, 215 (1855).
- ^ Jean A. Stuntz, Hers, His, and Theirs: Community Property Law in Spain and Early Texas, (Lubbock, Texas: Texas Tech University Press, 2005), 1-31. This source explains at length the Visigoths' legal protections for the property rights of married women and how later legal systems on the Iberian peninsula continued such rights.
- ^ The author of the Louisiana Code was Moreau Lislet; see Hans W. Baade, "Transplants of Laws and of Lawyers", [Doc], retrieved 3 Dec. 2010 <>.
- ^ See v. See, 64 Cal. 2d 778 (1966). Chief Justice Roger J. Traynor of the Supreme Court of California wrote: "If funds used for acquisitions during marriage cannot otherwise be traced to their source and the husband who has commingled property is unable to establish that there was a deficit in the community accounts when the assets were purchased, the presumption controls that property acquired by purchase during marriage is community property. The husband may protect his separate property by not commingling community and separate assets and income. Once he commingles, he assumes the burden of keeping records adequate to establish the balance of community income and expenditures at the time an asset is acquired with commingled property." The See family, of course, was the family that founded See's Candies, a major manufacturer and retailer of candy on the West Coast of the United States.
- ^ See Meyer v. Kinzer and Wife, 12 Cal. 247 (1859). Chief Justice Stephen Johnson Field of the Supreme Court of California wrote: "The statute proceeds upon the theory that the marriage, in respect to property acquired during its existence, is a community of which each spouse is a member, equally contributing by his or her industry to its prosperity, and possessing an equal right to succeed to the property after dissolution, in case of surviving the other."
- ^ See California Family Code section 2550.
- ^ See In re Marriage of Eastis, 47 Cal. App. 3d 459 (1975).
- ^ California Family Code Section 125
- ^ Addison v. Addison (1965) 62 Cal.2d 558, 399 P.2d 897.
- ^ Divorce Support.com Divorce legal resources
Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.
Look at other dictionaries:
community property — see property Merriam Webster’s Dictionary of Law. Merriam Webster. 1996. community property … Law dictionary
community property — Property owned in common by husband and wife each having an undivided one half interest by reason of their marital status. The nine states with community property systems are Louisiana, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Washington, Idaho,… … Black's law dictionary
community property — ☆ community property n. in certain states of the U.S., property acquired by a husband or wife, or by both, during marriage and consequently owned in common by both … English World dictionary
community property — U.S. Law. (in some states) property acquired by a husband, wife, or both together, that is considered by law to be jointly owned and equally shared. [1920 25] * * * Property held jointly by a husband and wife. In states having a community… … Universalium
Community Property — A U.S. state level legal distinction of a married individual s assets. Property acquired by either spouse during the course of a marriage is considered community property. For example, an IRA in the name of an individual with a spouse,… … Investment dictionary
community property — A system, derived by several states through adoption or succession from the Spanish, Mexican, or French law, relative to property rights of husband and wife, the essential principle of which is that the earnings of either spouse by his or her… … Ballentine's law dictionary
community property — noun property and income belonging jointly to a married couple • Hypernyms: ↑property, ↑belongings, ↑holding * * * comˌmunity ˈproperty 7 [community property] noun … Useful english dictionary
community property — Assets of a married couple belonging to both people. Divorce laws vary in the United States, with some states being community property states … American business jargon
community property — com munity .property n [U] law property that is considered to be owned equally by both a husband and wife in US law … Dictionary of contemporary English
community property — com munity ,property noun uncount LEGAL the idea that property owned by either a husband or wife is considered to be owned equally by both … Usage of the words and phrases in modern English
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Strong reasoning
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Crime & Law
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Over the past six months the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has issued two weighty reports, each accompanied by a strongly worded message that rests on the work of many hundreds of individual scientists.
Together those two messages – that climate change is undeniable and that its impacts are already being felt in every part of the globe – underscores a dilemma for a world in which the strongest drivers of fossil fuel emissions are economic growth and population.
Now comes a third message, politically the most difficult to deliver and consequently the most delicately worded: Without significant near-term action to reduce the output of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, the planet is on track to warm by roughly four celsius degrees by the end of this century. Such an outcome would be costly for the developed world and potentially catastrophic for poorer nations that cannot adjust to a changing planet.
To avoid it, global emissions will have to shrink at least 40 per cent and possibly as much as 70 per cent in the next 35 years, according to the latest IPCC report, released Sunday.
For Canada and other oil-rich nations, that report comes with a troubling corollary. Locking in to carbon-intense industries that anticipate many decades of future growth could prove a costly choice in a world that urgently needs to move its energy consumption in a different direction.
“I think the takeaway message is we should not be investing in long-lived expansion of fossil fuel infrastructure,” said Danny Harvey, a University of Toronto climate scientist and one of the Canadian lead authors of the report, accepted by the IPCC last week in Berlin.
Together, the three reports form the IPCC’s most comprehensive assessment of climate change to date. The document is expected to be a key point of reference for international negotiators as they work toward a meeting in Paris in late 2015, where a binding agreement on climate change mitigation could be on the table.
The latest report, which encompasses the work of 235 authors, also looks at where progress can be made by curbing forest loss and by improvements to transportation systems, industrial processes and buildings.
“You can design buildings that use one half or less of the energy of buildings recently built for no extra cost,” said Dr. Harvey, who worked on the chapter of the report that dealt specifically with building practices.
More broadly, the report estimates that the overall cost of limiting the average global temperature to just two degrees over its pre-industrial level – the current international goal – is relatively modest, and would amount to slowing economic growth by 0.06 per cent annually.
“You don’t have to spend the world to save the planet,” Ottmar Edenhofer, a German economist and co-chair of the working group behind the report, said at a news briefing on Sunday. But lurking behind the report’s diplomatic language is the continuing tension between emerging economies that are still growing and using more fossil fuels – including coal – and the developed world, which is scaling back but is responsible for the bulk of the carbon already released into the atmosphere.
The report shows that emissions are currently flattening or in decline in the developed world but experts note that if emissions are tagged to the countries that consume the products made by generating greenhouse gases, the picture is dramatically different.
Seen in that light, “we have not reduced our emissions at all. We’ve exported dirty industries to the developing world,” said Jake Rice, a lead author on the report and chief scientist with Fisheries and Oceans Canada.
One positive note is that while multilateral climate talks have bogged down for the past several years, “there’s been an enormous explosion of other sorts of international agreements,” said Matthew Paterson, a professor of political science at the University of Ottawa who contributed to a chapter on international co-operation.
Some of those agreements involve networks of cities, institutional investors and carbon markets that are operating in different sectors and regions of the globe.
“I think the question for policy makers is no longer, ‘How do we have a single international treaty that will solve everything?’ but ‘How do we design international treaties that can maximize the impact of all this effort?’” Dr. Paterson said.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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from The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, 4th Edition
- transitive v. To make simple or simpler, as:
- transitive v. To reduce in complexity or extent.
- transitive v. To reduce to fundamental parts.
- transitive v. To make easier to understand.
from Wiktionary, Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License
- v. To make simpler, either by reducing in complexity, reducing to component parts, or making easier to understand.
- v. To become simpler.
from the GNU version of the Collaborative International Dictionary of English
- transitive v. To make simple; to make less complex; to make clear by giving the explanation for; to show an easier or shorter process for doing or making.
from The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia
- To make simple; reduce from complexity to simplicity; also, to make easy of use, execution, performance, or comprehension.
- To produce or effect simplicity.
from WordNet 3.0 Copyright 2006 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.
- v. make simpler or easier or reduce in complexity or extent
The word 'simplify,' the word 'sanctuary,' the word 'relax.'
I like that, this is what I call simplify the model if it start to get too complex.
A man can, in short, simplify the problem somewhat by a process of reasoning based on memory.
You said it's okay to "simplify" -- which in the context of the discussion was about politicians lying.
One way to simplify is to stop legislating without constitutional jurisdiction.
Questions concerning ceteris paribus clauses are closely related to questions concerning simplifications and idealizations, since one way to simplify is to suppose that the various disturbing causes or interferences are inactive and to explore the consequences of some small number of causal factors.
The easiest way to simplify is to start cutting back on your energy use right now, since using less means you'll be responsible for providing less (and trust us: come the rainy season, you and your solar panels will be grateful for that).
But I did hear the president talk about some things that we can do to create jobs in this country such as simplify the tax code, lower the corporate rate so we can get people back to work, work on these trade deals so we can create more jobs at home.
To "simplify" Nature's ghost might be to "know the mind of God."
David Ellison, manager of FBR Large Cap Financial Fund, which held 175,000 Citigroup shares as of its latest report, said the government shadow could help motivate management to "simplify" its balance sheet.
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Moderate reasoning
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Literature
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Webinar Salmon & Orcas: The Stories of Science with NOAA Fisheries & Lynda Mapes
This webinar is presented by NOAA’s Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary and NOAA Fisheries West Coast Region and Northwest Fisheries Science Center
The new book ORCA: Shared Waters, Shared Home, due out in June 2021, describes how NOAA Fisheries scientists seek to unravel connections between endangered Southern Resident killer whales, threatened Puget Sound Chinook salmon, and the rest of the marine ecosystem. Hear from those scientists and an award-winning journalist who covers them as they examine the smallest organisms in the ocean, looking for clues to understanding salmon survival. Hear also from the biologists who have recently identified the sources of Southern Resident prey across the West Coast. Together they will tell the stories of salmon survival and the native Northwest habitat our salmon and steelhead depend on—and that we can all help restore.
Lynda Mapes is a Seattle Times reporter and author of the new book, ORCA: Shared Waters, Shared Home. Lynda's series, Hostile Waters: Orcas in Peril told the stories of the Southern Residents and threats to their survival. Mapes and her colleagues shared the 2019 AAAS Kavli Science Journalism Gold Award for the series.
Lynne Barre is the Recovery Coordinator for the Southern Resident killer whales and Branch Chief of NOAA Fisheries Protected Resources Division in Seattle. She has worked on Southern Resident killer whale recovery since 2003, and has led the development of a proposal to protect critical habitat for the whales and an Action Plan for their recovery.
Brian Burke leads the Ocean Ecology Team at NOAA's Northwest Fisheries Science Center. He focuses on how ocean conditions and other factors affect the habitat and survival of Pacific Chinook and other salmon and steelhead. He was chief scientist of a NOAA research voyage off the Northwest Coast that Lynda Mapes joined and reported on in 2019.
Brad Hanson is a wildlife biologist and ecologist with NOAA's Northwest Fisheries Science Center studying foraging and habitat use of Southern Resident killer whales. He leads the Science Center’s research on Southern Residents and recently published new research on Southern Resident prey.
Marla Holt is a Research Wildlife Biologist at the Northwest Fisheries Science Center, focusing on acoustics. She has led research using digital acoustic recording tags, temporarily affixed to whales with suction cups, to understand their behavior and the underwater soundscape. She is interested in how the whales use sound, especially during foraging, and are affected by sound from other sources.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Despite the efforts of the US military to defend French standards of hygiene, however, the mud [i.e. the fact that American GIs thought the French didn't smell good because they didn't wash enough] seemed to stick. It is no accident that in 1945 - just as the GIs were returning home - a new Looney Tunes cartoon character appeared on American television screens: Pepé Le Pew. A skunk with a heavy French accent given to strolling around Paris in the springtime filled with thoughts of 'lurve', Pepé's numerous attempts to find a mate are stymied by his rand orour and obdurate refusal to take 'no' for an answer. and - like the Gallic male stereotype - he also spends a lot of time spraying on perfume to try and put his victims off the scent. (His surname, Le Pew, was probably an allusion to the words pooh or phew, a traditional exclamation in response to a disagreeable smell. Hard as it may be to believe, linguists have spent entire careers debating its etymological origins. Some believe it derives from the Latin puteo, meaning to stink; while others maintain it comes from the Indo-European word pu, meaning to rot or decay - as in 'putrid'. The most appealing theory - although, sadly, probably apocryphal - ascribes a Chinese origin to the exclamation, namely the Confuciian saying, "He who fart in church sit in own pew'.) Most French people are blissfully unaware of the true nationality of Pepé Le Pew, since, in the French version of the cartoon, he was dubbed with an Italian accent...So you mean to say that, in French, Pepé Le Pew sounds a lot like, say, Marcello Mastroianni?
No need to thank me for bringing you this crucial but heretofore obscure bit of info. I do it as a public service.
Update: They Eat Horses, Don't They? mentions another occasion when an American cartoon insult was lost in translation:
The most notorious national slur against the French for their alleged uwillingness to fight derives from Matt G Groening's television cartoon series The Simpsons. In a 1995 episode called 'Round Springfield', the dour Scottish school janitor Groundskeeper Willie - who is unexpectedly saddled with the task of taking a French lesson at Springfield Elementary Schoool - addresses the class with the greeting, 'Bonjour, you cheese-eating surrender monkeys'.
Since the day it was first uttered, the phrase has been endlessly repeated as a staple in the stock arsenal of insults against the French. It became especially popular in 2003, when it was used by the conservative US columnist Jonah Goldberg of the National Review to attack France's opposition to the invasion of Iraq.
Interestingly, if you mention the phrase to a French person, he or she will look at you blankly. This is because the voice-over was modified to 'cheese-eating monkeys' (singes mangeurs de fromage), when the series was broadcast in France.
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Strong reasoning
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Entertainment
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A luminary in cancer research brought a message of hope to the Fordham community on Sept. 19, outlining the medical advances scientists have made in recent decades and identifying ways to address the remaining challenges.
Ronald A. DePinho, M.D., FCRH ’77, president of the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, presented “Conquering Cancer” for the Fordham University Science Council’s fall lecture, held at The University Club in Midtown.
Dr. DePinho, an internationally recognized researcher who spent 14 years at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Harvard Medical School before assuming presidency of MD Anderson, said that medical advances have placed humanity at a turning point.
“This period of human history is going to go down as a major turning point for the human race,” Dr. DePinho told students, faculty, administrators, alumni, and others involved with the sciences. “I believe that it’s going to rank up there with the discovery of fire and the advent of socialization.”
Dr. DePinho said that cracking the genetic code in 1953 was a “seminal event” that prepared scientists today to understand life “on its most elemental level” and, moreover, have a huge impact on the successful treatment of disease.
However, there are new challenges as a result.
Thanks to improvements in vaccination, antibiotics, hygiene, and surgery, life expectancy has doubled worldwide; however, a larger older population means greater incidences of cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.
By 2050, Dr. DePinho said, we could be spending $1 trillion on Alzheimer’s disease alone.
“We have a very significant issue . . . and that is the changing demographics and the impact that this is going to have on our children and their children with respect to handling the burden of age-related disease,” he said.
Nevertheless, Dr. DePinho said he is confident that there is a solution.
“The answer is quite simple. It’s science. It’s to understand these diseases sufficiently so that we can prevent them from happening in the first place, detect them early, or, if they do occur, definitely resolve them. And with today’s knowledge and technology, we actually can do that.”
Two days after he spoke at Fordham, Dr. DePinho publicly announced that MD Anderson would be launching a $3 billion initiative to dramatically reduce cancer deaths over the next 10 years. The Moon Shots Program, as the center has termed it, will capitalize on technological advances to accelerate the pace at which scientific discoveries are turned into clinical practices. For patients diagnosed with the five leading cancers—including lung cancer, melanoma, breast and ovarian cancers, prostate cancer, and three types of leukemia—Dr. DePhinho announced that a cure is in sight.
At the Fordham lecture, Dr. DePinho explained some of the key achievements that augured well for finding a cure. He said that when the human genome was first sequenced in the 1990s, the project took 12 years and cost $3.6 billion to map one genome. Today, a human genome can be sequenced in just a few hours for $300.
Scientists have also made great strides in genetic engineering: by manipulating genes, they can target genetic mutations and “silence” them before they can become a disease.
Between the curtailed cost of sequencing and improvements in genetic engineering, interdisciplinary researchers across the country have begun mapping tens of thousands of tumors so that healthcare professionals can target treatments for specific cancers.
“Imagine trying to do battle with an enemy that’s over a ledge and you can’t see it,” he said. “Now we can go onto the summit with the technology that we have. We can see all the enemy troops and we can actually say which ones are the generals, as opposed to the privates, and use sniper instead of carpet bombing to go after those key generals so that, if we target them in the right way, the whole mission will collapse.”
Dr. DePinho, who was the 1977 Fordham salutatorian, also had a message for the students.
“When history writes how we conquered the great diseases, your generation will write the final chapter,” he said.
“You’re going to bear a very special responsibility, because the human race is counting on you to take what we have done and bring it to a point where it impacts on people—including the indigent, including the third world. Those are the values that I learned at Fordham.”
The lecture was sponsored by the Fordham University Science Council, which promotes science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) initiatives at Fordham by supporting both students and faculty in their careers and research. Council members provide students with mentoring and advising and help provide opportunities for assistantships and internships.
A video of Dr. DePinho’s talk is available here.
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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Location of South Ossetia (purple) within Georgia.
|Georgia|| South Ossetia
The Georgian–Ossetian conflict is an ethno-political conflict over Georgia's former autonomous region of South Ossetia, which evolved in 1989 and developed into a 1991–1992 South Ossetia War. Despite a declared ceasefire and numerous peace efforts, the conflict remained unresolved. In August 2008, military tensions and clashes between Georgia and South Ossetian separatists erupted into the Russo-Georgian War.
- 1 Origins of the conflict
- 2 Post-Soviet timeline
- 3 Timeline before 2008
- 4 Events in 2008
- 5 After the 2008 war
- 6 See also
- 7 References
Origins of the conflict
Early years of the Soviet Union
The conflict between Georgian and Ossetians dates back until at least 1918. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, Georgia declared independence (26 May 1918) under Mensheviks, while the Bolsheviks took control of Russia. In June 1920, a Russian-sponsored Ossetian force attacked the Georgian Army and People's Guard. The Georgians responded vigorously and defeated the insurgents, with several Ossetian villages being burnt down and 20,000 Ossetians displaced in Soviet Russia. Eight months later, the Red Army successfully invaded Georgia.
The Soviet Georgian government, established after the Red Army invasion of Georgia in 1921, created an autonomous administrative unit for Transcaucasian Ossetians in April 1922 under pressure from Kavburo (the Caucasian Bureau of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party), called the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast. Some believe that the Bolsheviks granted this autonomy to the Ossetians in exchange for their help in fighting the Democratic Republic of Georgia and favoring local separatists, since this area had never been a separate entity prior to the Russian invasion.
Late years of the Soviet Union
In the late 1980s, Ossetian nationalistic organization, Adamon Nikhas (Voice of the People) was created. On 10 November 1989, the South Ossetian Supreme Soviet asked the Supreme Soviet of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic for the status of the region to be upgraded to that of autonomous republic. However this application was rejected on 16 November and the Georgians besieged Tskhinvali on 23 November 1989.
South Ossetia declared about its state sovereignty on 20 September 1990. In October 1990, the Georgian parliamentary elections were boycotted by South Ossetia, which held elections to its own parliament in December of the same year. On 11 December 1990, the Georgian Parliament passed a bill that effectively abolished South Ossetia's autonomous status. Russia intervened and a state of emergency was declared in South Ossetia.
On May 4, 1991, the South Ossetian Parliament declared its intention to separate from Georgia and to unite with the North Ossetia, which was located within the borders of the Russian Federation.
1991–1992 South Ossetia War
Amidst rising ethnic tensions, war broke out when Georgian forces entered the capital of South Ossetia, Tskhinvali. More than 2,000 people are believed to have been killed in the war. The separatists were helped by former Soviet military units, who by now had come under Russian command. Approximately 100,000 Ossetians fled Georgia proper and South Ossetia, while 23,000 Georgians left South Ossetia. A ceasefire agreement (the Sochi Agreement) was reached on 24 June 1992. While it ended the war, it did not deal with the status of South Ossetia. A Joint Control Commission for Georgian–Ossetian Conflict Resolution and peacekeeping force, composed of Russian, Georgian and Ossetian troops, was set up. The Ossetian de facto government controlled the region independently from Tbilisi. The JPKF’s activities were mainly concentrated in the Conflict Zone, which included an area within a 15-km radius from Tskhinvali.
The separatists retained control over the districts of Tskhinvali, Java, Znauri and parts of Akhalgori. The Tbilisi central government controlled the rest of Akhalgori and the Georgian villages in the Tskhinvali district.
In 1996, the Ergneti market was opened and soon became the place where Georgians and South Ossetians traded. In 1996, Lyudvig Chibirov won the presidential elections. A memorandum on "Measures for providing security and confidence building" was signed in Moscow on 16 May 1996, which was regarded as the first step towards a rapprochement between Georgia and the separatists of South Ossetia. This was followed up by several meetings between President of Georgia, Eduard Shevardnadze, and de facto President of South Ossetia Chibirov. They met in Vladikavkaz in 1996, in Java in 1997, and in Borjomi in 1998. These resulted in some positive developments as the talks about IDP return, economic development, a political solution to the issues, and the protection of the population in the conflict zone.
There was no military confrontation for twelve years. While the peace process was frozen, Ossetians and Georgians engaged in lively exchanges and uncontrolled trade. The unresolved conflict encouraged development of such illegal activities as kidnapping, drug-trafficking and arms trading. Up to the end of 2003, a number of law enforcement officials from South Ossetia and Georgia proper allegedly were participating in criminal economic activities. Authorities on both sides reportedly co-operated to profit from illegal trade, as did Russian customs and peacekeeping troops.
Timeline before 2008
The 2004 flare-up
In June, the Georgians shut down the Ergneti market, which was a major trading point for contraband goods. This made the situation more tense. Georgia's regional administration began to restore the alternative road to Didi Liakhvi.
On 7 July, Georgian peacekeepers intercepted a Russian convoy. The next day around 50 Georgian peacekeepers were disarmed and detained by the South Ossetian militias. The Georgian peacekeepers captured were all released on 9 July, with three exceptions. On 11 July 2004, Georgian president Saakashvili said the "crisis in South Ossetia is not a problem between Georgians and Ossetians. This is a problem between Georgia and Russia."
On 5 August 2004, Russian State Duma issued an official statement concerning the aggravation of situation around South Ossetia and Abkhazia in connection with political actions of Georgian authorities. The statement warned that Russia could get involved in the conflict and would take appropriate actions in case the lives of Russian citizens were jeopardized. Hundreds of Russian volunteers, mainly Cossacks, stated their readiness to protect the people of South Ossetia should the conflict escalate any further.
The tensions increased on the night of 10–11 August, when Georgian and South Ossetian villages in the area north of Tskhinvali, came under fire and civilians were injured. Georgian and South Ossetian members of the JPFK are said to have been involved in the exchange of fire. On 13 August, Georgian Prime Minister Zhvania and de facto South Ossetian President Kokoev agreed on a ceasefire, which was breached multiple times by both sides. During the tensions in July and August, 17 Georgians and 5 Ossetians were killed. In emergency sessions of the JCC on 17 and 18 August in Tbilisi and Tskhinvali, the sides debated complex ceasefire proposals and demilitarization projects. At the same time, they expected fighting to resume and used the truce to improve their military positions and strengthen defences. A ceasefire agreement was reached on 19 August.
On 24 August, in an interview broadcast by Imedi television, the chairman of the Georgian parliament's Defense and Security Committee, Givi Targamadze said that Russian military was prepared to launch a strike into Georgian territory, but the raid was preempted by Saakashvili's decision on August 19 to withdraw Georgian forces from strategic positions in South Ossetia. Targamadze said the Georgian government possessed secretly recorded video of Russian military preparations near the Georgian border.
At a high level meeting between Georgian Prime Minister Zurab Zhvania and South Ossetian leader Eduard Kokoity on 5 November in Sochi, Russia, an agreement on demilitarization of the conflict zone was reached. Some exchange of fire continued in the zone of conflict after the ceasefire, apparently primarily initiated by the Ossetian side.
New peace efforts
Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili presented a new vision for resolving the South Ossetian conflict at the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) session in Strasbourg, on 26 January 2005. His proposal included broader forms of autonomy, including a constitutional guarantee of free and directly elected local self-governance. Saakashvili stated that South Ossetia's parliament would have control over issues such as culture, education, social policy, economic policy, public order, organization of local self-governance and environmental protection. At the same time South Ossetia would have a voice in the national structures of government as well, with a constitutional guarantee of representation in the judicial and constitutional-judicial branches and in the Parliament. Georgia would commit to improving the economic and social conditions of South Ossetian inhabitants. Saakashvili proposed a transitional 3-year conflict resolution period, during which time mixed Georgian and Ossetian police forces, under the guidance and auspices of international organizations, would be established and Ossetian forces would gradually be integrated into a united Georgian Armed Force. Saakashvili also said that the international community should play a more significant and visible role in solving this conflict.
Zurab Zhvania's premature death in February 2005 was a setback in the conflict resolution.
2006 attack on a Georgian helicopter
On 3 September 2006, the South Ossetian forces opened fire at a Georgian MI-8 helicopter carrying Defense Minister of Georgia, Irakli Okruashvili, when it flew over the separatist-held territory. It landed safely in Georgian government-controlled territory. Although the South Ossetian authorities reported that the Georgian helicopter had entered their air space and fired shots at the ground, the Georgians denied the charge that shots had come from the helicopter. The South Ossetian officials confirmed their troops were responsible for the attack, but rejected the claim that the aircraft was targeted because of prior intelligence that Okruashvili was on board. "We are not interested in having either Okruashvili or [Georgian president Mikheil] Saakashvili killed, as they are helping us to achieve independence," declared South Ossetian interior minister Mikhail Mindzayev.
2006 October incident
On October 31, 2006, the South Ossetian police reported a skirmish in the Java, Georgia district in which they killed a group of 4 men. The weapons seized from the group included assault rifles, guns, grenade launchers, grenades and explosive devices. Other items found in the militants' possession included extremist Wahhabi literature, maps of Java district and sets of Russian peacekeeping uniforms. Those findings led the South Ossetian authorities to conclude that the militants were planning to carry out acts of sabotage and terrorist attacks. The South Ossetian authorities identified the men as Chechens from Georgia's Pankisi Gorge. South Ossetia accused Georgia of hiring the Chechen mercenaries to carry out terrorist attacks in the region.
The Georgian side flatly denied its involvement in the incident. Shota Khizanishvili, a spokesperson for the Georgian Interior Ministry, supposed that the incident could be connected to "internal conflicts in South Ossetia".
Rival elections of 2006
On 12 November 2006, presidential election and referendum were held in South Ossetia. The separatist-controlled part of the region re-elected Eduard Kokoity as de facto president and voted for independence from Georgia. In the areas under Georgia's control, the Ossetian opposition organized rival polls electing Dmitry Sanakoyev, as an alternative president and voted for negotiations with Georgia on a future federal agreement. The pro-Georgian government was never able to draw significant support away from the separatist authorities.
Georgia's new initiative
On 29 March 2007, the Russian Foreign Ministry warned in a statement that Tbilisi’s plan to set up a temporary administrative unit in the part of breakaway South Ossetia would "shatter an already fragile situation". On 10 May 2007, Dmitry Sanakoyev was appointed as head of the Provisional Administrative Entity of South Ossetia by the President of Georgia. The next day, Sanakoyev addressed the Parliament of Georgia, outlining his vision of the conflict resolution plan. In response the South Ossetian separatists enforced mass blockade of Georgian villages in the conflict zone and Eduard Kokoity demanded the withdrawal of Georgian special-task troops and South Ossetia’s interim government headed by "alternative president" Dmitri Sanakoev.
On 24 July 2007, Tbilisi held its first state commission to define South Ossetia's status within the Georgian state. Chaired by Georgian Prime Minister Zurab Noghaideli, the commission included Georgian parliamentarians, representatives of the Ossetian community in Georgia and representatives of several Georgian human rights organisations. The talks were held with Sanakoev's administration.
Tsitelubani missile incident 2007
On 6 August 2007, a missile landed, but did not explode, in the village of Tsitelubani, some 65 km (40 mi) from Tbilisi. Georgian officials said that Russian attack aircraft, an SU-24 Fencer, violated its airspace and fired Raduga Kh-58 anti-radar tactically guided missile. Russia denied the allegations. The group of defense specialists from the United States, Sweden, Latvia, and Lithuania stated late on 15 August that the plane flew from Russian to Georgian airspace and back three times.
Events in 2008
Events prior to August 2008 are described in 2008 Russo-Georgian diplomatic crisis.
2008 War in South Ossetia
Tensions between Georgia and Russia began escalating in April 2008. On 1 August 2008 a Georgian military vehicle was blown up on a road near Tskhinvali. The explosion of a roadside bomb wounded five Georgian policemen. Though there was no official inquiry into the incident, some accounts presumed that this act was commited by South Ossetian seccessionists. In response, Georgian snipers assaulted the South Ossetian militiamen during the evening, killing six of them. The artillery exchanges across the border with South Ossetia began on August 1. Civilians on both sides were injured, though it was unclear which side was the first to start the bombardment. Sporadic shelling and skirmishes continued through the week. On August 3, South Ossetian authorities began the evacuation of children to North Ossetia.
At around 19:00 on 7 August 2008, Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili announced a unilateral ceasefire and no-response order. Some time later, during a late night news broadcast, Georgian side claimed that despite the ceasefire, Georgian villages located in the conflict zone were being shelled, and declared an operation to restore constitutional order in South Ossetia. At around 23:45, the bombardment of Tskhinvaly began. However, according to the monitors from the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, no shelling of Georgian villages could be heard in the hours before the Georgian attack. During the night of 8 August Georgian troops advanced towards the capital of the self-proclaimed Republic of South Ossetia, Tskhinvali.
According to Russian military expert Pavel Felgenhauer, the Ossetians were intentionally provoking the Georgians, so Russia would use the Georgian response as a pretext for premeditated military invasion. However, some observers uphold the view that president Mikheil Saakashvili made a strategic error by trying to establish control over the South Ossetian territories and overreacted in sending Georgian troops to attack Tskhinvali. According to Georgian intelligence, parts of the regular (non-peacekeeping) Russian Army had already moved to South Ossetian territory through the Roki Tunnel before the Georgian military operation. At the same time, Georgian forces had also begun moving their troops toward Tskhinvali at the time the ceasefire was announced. That gave the Ossetian government a ground to claim that the cease-fire was a ruse used to position rockets and artillery for the assault.
The centre of Tskhinvali was reached by 1,500 men of the Georgian ground forces by 10:00 on 8 August. One Georgian diplomat told Kommersant on the same day that by taking control of Tskhinvali they wanted to demonstrate that Georgia wouldn't tolerate killing of Georgian citizens. Russia accused Georgia of "aggression" against South Ossetia, and launched a large-scale 'peace coercion' operation against Georgia on 8 August. Russian military captured Tskhinvali in five days and expelled Georgian forces. Russia also launched airstrikes against military infrastructure in Georgia in order to weaken the ability of Georgian army to support its' troops. Abkhaz forces opened a second front by attacking the Kodori Gorge, held by Georgia. Russian forces occupied the Georgian cities of Zugdidi, Senaki, Poti,. Later, Russian units entered Gori, which had been abandoned by Georgian troops, without making a shot. Russian Black Sea Fleet blockaded the Georgian coast.
President of France Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated a ceasefire agreement on 12 August 2008. On 17 August, Russian president Dmitry Medvedev announced that Russian forces would begin to pull out of Georgia the following day. Russian forces withdrew from the buffer zones adjacent to Abkhazia and South Ossetia on 8 October and control over them was transferred to the European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia.
After the 2008 war
On 26 August 2008, Russia officially recognized both South Ossetia and Abkhazia as independent states.
The Georgian side accused Russian, South Ossetian forces and irregular militia in conducting a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Georgians in South Ossetia, with Georgian villages around Tskhinvali being destroyed after the war had ended. Nevertheless, the International Court of Justice has dismissed Georgia’s case against Russia. Also, in 2015, the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court requested authorisation from the Court's Judges to begin an investigation into the alleged war crimes in relation to the conflict. This case includes alleged crimes committed as part of a campaign to expel ethnic Georgians from South Ossetia as well as attacks on peacekeepers by Georgian and South Ossetian forces.
On 4 August 2009, it was reported that tensions were rising before the war's first anniversary on 8 August. The European Union urged "all sides to refrain from any statement or action that may lead to increased tensions at this particularly sensitive time."
The war displaced 192,000 people, and while many were able to return to their homes after the war, a year later around 30,000 ethnic Georgians remained displaced. In an interview published in Kommersant, South Ossetian leader Eduard Kokoity said he would not allow Georgians to return, although he pointed out that his government would investigate the cases of burning and looting of their property.
- Abkhaz–Georgian conflict
- South Ossetian independence referendum, 2006
- International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia
- East Prigorodny Conflict
- Georgian Civil War
- Politics of Georgia
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- A Modern History of Georgia, pp. 232–6. Lang, David Marshall (1962). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
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Schizophrenia: Positive, Negative & Cognitive Symptoms, Case Studies & Controversial Approaches
Schizophrenia, a complex, often severe and disabling, disease may be one of the most misunderstood and misquoted of all mental illnesses. How often have we heard someone disparage another as being a “schizo”, when in fact that person is perhaps conflicted, depressed, or even suffering from multiple-personality disorder, which is not schizophrenia at all. The treatments for schizophrenia have come a long way since the first anti-psychotic drug therapies were introduced in the 1950s, but the disease is so complicated and entrenched with so many potential symptoms, and deviations, that research shows no signs of slowing down.
Key to understanding the complexity of schizophrenia and to knowing if you or someone you love may be at risk of developing it is recognizing and acknowledging that it is not a form of depression. Even though schizophrenics may become depressed and share some of the symptoms, especially the early ones, it should not be mistaken for depression. In fact, it is often those who are caregivers for schizophrenics that end up with clinical depression. It’s a painful role to play and is one of many reasons why schizophrenics are often placed in specialized group homes.
So, if it’s not a Split Personality, What is it?
According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), based in Maryland, there are, among thousands of unanswered questions about schizophrenia, at least a handful of facts:
- Schizophrenia affects about 1% of the American population over the age of 18.
- It seldom occurs in children, although children may exhibit certain behaviors that suggest they may be at risk of developing the disease in their teens or early adulthood. Research into childhood-onset schizophrenia is commanding greater attention these days.
- Men and women are affected in equal numbers, but males tend to exhibit symptoms at an earlier age.
- All ethnicities are equally liable to have members that become schizophrenic.
- After a person reaches age 45 it is highly unlikely they will develop schizophrenia.
- Two common symptoms of schizophrenia, namely hallucinations and delusions (both detailed later), tend to materialize between the ages of 16 and 30.
- Schizophrenics are not usually violent, but some of the symptoms they suffer are associated with violence upon them.
- Schizophrenics attempt suicide more often than the general population, even those with major depression; 10% of schizophrenics die as the result of suicide.
- People with schizophrenia are 3 times more likely than the general population to smoke cigarettes, and they suffer more addictions to drugs and alcohol.
- The disease runs in families. Although 1% of the population becomes schizophrenic, 10% of those with an immediate relative who has schizophrenia are apt to develop it. That figure leaps to 45-60% if an identical twin has it.
- Schizophrenia cannot be predicted with accuracy, but there are ways to tell and test if there might be a propensity toward it.
- Autopsies and brain scans have shown that a schizophrenic brain demonstrates differences to a “normal” brain, including having bigger ventricles (the fluid-filled cavities that rest at the center of the brain), less or more brain activity than is common, and less “gray matter”.
- Psychiatric treatments help, but for diagnosed schizophrenics, medications are virtually mandatory to control the symptoms.
- There is no known “cure” for schizophrenia. No one appears to have simply grown out of it.
- The greatest issue in treating schizophrenia is that the patients are often delusional (a common and widespread symptom), so when the medications start to work, they begin to believe that they are cured, and go off the drugs, frequently resulting in a serious relapse.
There is a tendency among mentally well people to distance themselves from schizophrenics, probably because they know few truths about the disease, are ignorant and therefore afraid, and don’t realize that these patients are not dangerous, by and large. Ironically, not many schizophrenics can manage without some form of human support, so they need others, badly in some cases, to assist them in overcoming their daily challenges of staying alive and coping with what can be terrifying emotional experiences. Always remember that schizophrenics are not necessarily in complete control, but they do not “do” this on purpose. There is no point in being frustrated by the behavior of a schizophrenic, and yet, they can be confounding and trying at times.
What Causes Schizophrenia?
Because the disease is so complex, there are arguably more theories than facts when it comes to documented causes of schizophrenia. Science still has a lot to learn about this illness.
Schizophrenia tends to become evident in the teen years and this can be very difficult to diagnose given that the teen years invoke some of the most bizarre behavior exhibited by humans during the course of their lives. Warning symptoms and signs such as suddenly changing friendships, school grades going down in an otherwise normally good student, general irritability, sleep problems (often hypersomnia or over-sleeping) and withdrawing from social activities may seem like normal teen angst and hormonal fluctuations.
In the diagnostic process, this is known as the “prodromal” period. If the normally shifting, erratic and confounding behaviors of teens also include an abnormal tendency to isolate themselves (staying in their room for days on end), a family history of psychosis or a diagnosis of schizophrenia in a first-line relative, unsubstantiated suspicions (such as a former friend who they believe is trying to hurt them or has betrayed them in a profound and implausible way), and strangely illogical thoughts, there is an estimated 80% change of that teenager being at risk for developing schizophrenia. A saliva test can help expose people who are seriously at risk.
Schizophrenia has been proven to run in families. Scientists believe that a multiple gene mutation, essential to the normal development of brain cells and chemicals, malfunctions and can trigger schizophrenia. The problem is that research has not yet been able to demonstrate all the gene variations that might be involved, hence the onslaught being hard to predict, even where there is a family history.
Most doctors agree; the schizophrenic brain looks different from other brains. So much is yet to be learned about this complex and devastating disease, but scientists and researchers are basing their studies on what they do know thus far, not what they don’t know; facts as we know them (and they are still evolving) as to the causes of schizophrenia are:
- There is likely an interaction between genetic make-up and environment and most experts agree that this is the primary cause.
- The combination of genetic predisposition and such physical factors as exposure to a virus either in-vitro or at birth, malnutrition of the mother prior to giving birth, and problems during the birthing process can be “to blame”.
- Brains that possess a different structure or chemistry, resulting in a degree of imbalance in the cerebral cortex, may affect neurotransmitters in the brain and prevent or limit their functional capacity.
- The inability of the brain’s neurotransmitters to deliver messages from cell to cell, causing a disconnection.
- The pre-natal period is emerging as a crucial time period in the development of risk for schizophrenia. Lack of sufficient nutrients in the womb (the result, usually, of the mother’s dietary intake) can predispose the unborn child to the possibility of certain disease, including schizophrenia. Scientists think the connection may be hormonal and the hormones just “go to sleep” until the individual hormones wake up at the time of puberty. This makes sense because most people diagnosed with schizophrenia began to exhibit some form of symptoms in their early teens.
The causes of schizophrenia have some certainty and a lot of mystery. Research continues apace, but it is of little comfort to those who suffer now from this debilitating disease.
Symptoms and Signs of Schizophrenia
Part of the reason schizophrenia is so complex and frustrating is the range of different symptoms and the varying ways that individuals may manifest them. The ultimate objective of therapy is to control the symptoms, rather than to mask them. Masking them can and almost always does make people, including the sufferer, believe they are cured. They go off their medications and the results can be awful.
Schizophrenia is regarded as a life sentence. Once it manifests, there is no known cure. Most people who are diagnosed with it live a compromised quality if life, but many can still lead a reasonably decent life if they stick with the treatment plan. If left untreated, schizophrenia will assuredly be a terrifying experience for the individual who has it; the voices that almost all schizophrenics hear are cruel, demeaning and can be life-threatening with their direct instructions for self-destruction. The symptoms and signs of schizophrenia are grouped into three general categories, addressed as follows:
The term “positive” in this instance as akin to having “positive results” or “testing positive” for a certain condition; is it not the synonymous “happy” that you might think at first glance. The positive symptoms are known to wax and wane, sometimes suggesting the disease has been cured or vanished on its own; beware, for this is not the case. One positive symptom, being out of touch with reality, is a sensibility that a lot of people seem to suffer in this day and age, but it’s not necessarily a cue for schizophrenia; some doctors believe that the modern tendency to “plug in” to music or other distractions provided by personal electronic devices has removed people from reality. A positive symptom almost invariably involves a series of psychotic behaviors that are not present in people without schizophrenia. These symptoms include:
- Delusions. Imagining that your next-door neighbors are doing more than clipping off your prize roses at night, but plotting to enlist the aid of Russian spies to murder you the next time you are up a ladder pruning the crabapple tree is an example of a deluded thought. Delusions are abstract and extreme ideas and thoughts that bear no base in reality. Deluded individuals sometimes think they are close friends with famous people; some celebrity stalkers might fall into this profile. Others may believe that they are a famous person, or are the reincarnation of a well-known historical figure. Far and away the most prevalent form of delusions in schizophrenics is “delusions of persecution”, almost always precipitated by the mysterious voices that only the victim can hear. These voices suggest that others are trying to kill the schizophrenic individual, stalking or attempting to poison them, or harassing or cheating them. None of these suspicions is based in fact.
- Hallucinations. Most people regard hallucinations as just being images that are not, in fact, there, but hallucinations also involve other senses, such as touch, smell and even taste. The hearing of voices is the most common type of hallucination, and in fact one of the most common symptoms in general of schizophrenia. Some schizophrenics also visualize the embodiment of their voices, but no such individuals actually exist. Some catch the scent of odors, such as roses outdoors in the wintertime, that cannot possibly be there. Others may feel the sensation of someone touching them when there is no other person present.
- Disorderly Thinking. This is a broad-stroke category of symptoms, but means any form of abnormal thought processes, including “warped” ways of thinking such as extreme illogic, and disorganized thinking in which thoughts come in the wrong order, somewhat like putting the cart before the horse, or in disjointed fashion. In some cases, stories are made up, or the invention of words sworn to be in every dictionary are used in speech. Another example is the sudden stoppage of speech, often mid-sentence, for no explicable reason, and the inability to recall what was being said. Some schizophrenics speak in garbled sentences, and many deliver words in monotone structure. A few come up with their own language, and claim their voices also speak in this tongue.
- Uncontrolled Movement. A symptom, but one of the lesser ones, this can involve sudden movements of limbs that have no sense of control; many schizophrenics could be called “fidgets” as their body movements, such as tapping of fingers or toes, convey a sense of impatience. Motions are sometimes made as though there is a drumbeat giving them rhythm, and they may be repetitive, possibly for hours without variation. The opposite to this is being catatonic, and schizophrenics almost all experience at least occasional bouts of this, whereby they will sit still, potentially transfixed, for long periods of time without moving, not even to eat or use the bathroom. Fortunately, the catatonic state is one of the symptoms that is readily controlled by the drug therapies available today.
Negative symptoms do not suggest an absence of diagnosis, but they are harder to detect and can be mistaken for other mental illnesses such as depression. And yes, if you are a schizophrenic and suffering from these, they impact your life negatively. The definition of negative symptoms as they relate directly to schizophrenia is: disruptions or extremes to what would be regarded as “normal” human emotions or behaviors. For example, it would be normal to cry at a funeral; a schizophrenic may laugh or just turn off their emotions completely. Some negative symptoms and signs of include:
- Neglect of personal care and hygiene; this is not just someone being lazy or slovenly about appearance.
- The inability to perform mundane tasks that are more like repetitive physical labor than jobs or chores requiring much thought.
- What is known as “flat effect” or the tendency to speak perhaps slowly, almost invariably in monotone, devoid of inflection, often with complete lack of facial expression.
- The inability to derive pleasure from life (this is very much akin to a symptom of clinical depression, hence the confusion in the interpretation of some negative symptoms).
- Silence and being unwilling to speak, even in social situations, is a classic example.
- Confusion or a sense of being overwhelmed at the prospect of having to plan ahead, and the inability to maintain such plans if they are put into place.
This set of symptoms can be confusing because of the great variation in their subtle difference. Cognitive symptoms are frequently overlooked until a test is performed relative to any type of symptom altogether. Because of their understated nuances, cognitive symptoms may go undetected or be misconstrued; they may not appear to be a part of the schizophrenic profile. But they are the aspects of schizophrenia that can have a profound effect on lifestyle; these symptoms are often the elements that prevent a sufferer from being able to earn a living, and they are the root of emotional upheaval and deep distress. Cognitive symptoms include:
- Difficulty in getting and remaining focused on any task or even a thought.
- Not being able to pay attention to instructions or directions.
- Low “executive functioning”, which means the individual will have a twofold problem: 1. understanding information; and 2. acting upon that in order to make decisions.
- The inability to make choices when more than one option is presented.
- Trouble with a normal “working memory”, which involves the capacity to use information immediately after it has been presented and/or learned. This is very much like acute short-term memory loss.
- Emotional overreaction or complete lack of reaction to otherwise normal occurrences. An insect bite, for example, soars out of proportion in importance, but a car crash is just another incident in a day of incidents.
With emotions out of control and the inability to remember input and do anything with it, cognitive function is impaired and prospects for a normal life are comprised, sometimes to an extreme.
The emphasis of treatment for schizophrenia is the eradication of symptoms, but that is a lofty ambition. Controlling them is probably the best aim, with the hope that some will diminish in severity to the point of seeming to not be there. Unlike most forms of mental illness that can be treated with psychotherapy alone, schizophrenia requires, almost without exception, drug intervention to stabilize patients’ symptoms before a psychiatrist can conduct psychotherapy. At least if the doctor and patient harbor any hope for a positive outcome.
Prior to the 1950s, there was little hope for a diagnosis of schizophrenia. Patients languished in mental hospitals or proved an endless challenge to their families. With the advent of the first round of “typical” anti-psychotic drugs in the mid-1950s, combined with psychosocial therapy, victims of schizophrenia began to have hope for some level of life, albeit compromised. Since then, a second generation of “atypical” anti-psychotics, released in the mid-1990s, has helped a broad swath of the schizophrenic mosaic attain a better life.
All anti-psychotic drugs are powerful and come with inherent side-effects. Doctors usually find it necessary to experiment with different potential prescriptions before they find the one that suits an individual patient’s symptoms and metabolism; occasionally they have to try various individual drugs or combinations of drugs, until the required benefits are produced. Most come in pill form, some in liquid and a few are administered through an injection. Results typically take a few days to begin, and by six weeks most patients feel relatively normal, but that frequently prompts the risk of them going off their drugs because they feel so much better.
Not only do anti-psychotic drugs have a long list of negative side-effects, they often don’t combine well with other medications, should the schizophrenic have secondary diseases, and their interaction with simple things like vitamin and mineral supplements can be seriously problematic. Even over-the-counter cold reliefs or headache remedies can mix badly with anti-psychotics.
Treatments for schizophrenia are classed in two categories, drug and psychosocial therapy. Here is the essential list of antipsychotic drugs, together with their brand names in parentheses:
- Chlorpromazine (Thorazine)
- Fluphenazine (Prolixin)
- Haloperidol (Haldol)
- Perphenazine (Etrafon and Trilafon)
- Aripiprazole (Abilify)
- Olanzapine (Zyprexa)
- Poliperidone (Invega)
- Quetiapine (Seroquel)
- Risperidone (Risperdal)
- Ziprasidone (Geodon)
Another anti-psychotic drug used in treating schizophrenia is riddled with problematic side-effects, rendering it a prescription recommended only after the others have been tried, and failed to produce results. The downside to Clozapine (Clozaril) is that it sometimes causes a condition known as “agranulocytosis”, the reduction or loss of the white blood cells that help us battle infections. While the drug is often effective, it is frequently held back as an end-of-the-line option due to its issues, and once it is prescribed, patients are subject to bi-weekly blood tests to check that their white cell count is not compromised. But its ability to corral hallucinations and problems with perception of reality make it worth a shot, especially where other drugs have failed to work.
The normal side-effects of typical anti-psychotics include: skin rashes and sensitivity to the sun; menstrual irregularity in females; drowsiness and dizziness; a rapid heartbeat; and issue with eye focus. The side-effects of atypical anti-psychotics are commonly regarded as a bit worse, but it’s a balancing act given that these newer drugs appear to be more effective, by and large. A major issue is significant weight gain, but they also cause a series of problems that affect body movement. Patients report complaints of rigidity, restlessness, tremors and muscle spasm. But it’s the long-term use (and since schizophrenia is not curable, these drugs tend to be ingested for the life of the patient) that is the real concern; it can lead to a condition called “tardive dyskinesia” that results in muscular movement that’s out of control.
It is crucial to remember that anti-psychotic drugs are strong and anti-social in that they react poorly with almost all other medications. Given that alcohol and other substance abuse is common in schizophrenics, it is a major factor in prescription drug safety, and the effectiveness of treatments is compromised by alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana use. While we should all quit smoking, it’s harder for a schizophrenic because the nicotine withdrawal can trigger or exacerbate psychotic episodes.
The psychosocial version of treatments is designed to help patients already stabilized by taking the anti-psychotic medicines. The concept is to teach skills that help patients manage the daily challenges that form the core of their lives as schizophrenics. What were once simple tasks become complex efforts for schizophrenics and the basic life skills we take for granted may have to be re-instilled. It also involves educating a patient’s family in living with and managing the disease, and the frequent occurrence of substance abuse that accompanies the already complicated world of the schizophrenic.
We followed the lives of two people with schizophrenia to get an insight into the reality of the disease. Once we have reported on these two cases, we’ll give you some tips in handling people you know or complete strangers that may be suffering from schizophrenia. Given that 1 in 100 people have schizophrenia, odds are you know one or two already.
Jamie was 20 and enrolled at a prestigious university, getting top grades, but he was struggling with choosing a major. Caught between medicine and dramatic arts, which are significantly different paths, he knew he had the brains to get through medical school, but his free-spirit side longed to work in theater, to be creative and part of a collaborative process.
In his teens, he’d suffered from depression, with bouts of major depressive periods, but never what anyone would call a manic episode. His parents, both professionals, and his siblings knew him as a bit of a lone wolf, but never found anything startling about him. No one in his family had schizophrenia or, for that matter, depression. But Jamie had heard cruel voices since he was in his early teens. He was confused by them and not certain if they were voices or just weird dreams, and so he told no one.
As time passed, the voices (there were, he recalls, about 6 distinctly different ones, sometimes all shouting at once, and occasionally speaking to one another, not just to Jamie) got worse, shouting at him and telling him he was useless, stupid, a “waste of skin”. Then one night, alone in his dormitory room, unable to sleep for the cacophony in his head, Jamie tried to silence the sound by having a glass of whisky and a cigarette. It had the opposite results to what he had hoped for.
The voices became intense, threatening, and argumentative. They fought among themselves and then united in one vile scream instructing Jamie to kill himself. Luckily, his suicide attempt failed. Shortly after, Jamie was tested and then diagnosed with schizophrenia. He moved back home, gave up his university studies and began treatments. Medications greatly reduced Jamie’s symptoms. A sympathetic friend of his parents who owned a restaurant gave Jamie a part-time job as a dishwasher. For a while, things were calm, if not sadly reduced for a young man who once had such promise.
One day, Jamie overheard his parents complaining about the high cost of his numerous medications, and he simply figured he was better, so he quit his prescriptions, without mentioning it to anyone, and one night, a few days later, when he was at work, the voices came back. This time they told him to get the kitchen knives and kill himself right then and there. James growled back at them, under his breath, and was unable to continue operating the dishwashing machine.
An astute cook recognized that something was wrong with Jamie and attempted to find out what was troubling him. Jamie brandished a knife and began to scream. He was about to run out the back door of the building, still with the knife in his hand, when the kitchen staff tackled him, dropped him to the ground, and took the knife from his hands. The police were summoned. The owner knew right away what had happened and Jamie was taken to hospital, where his doctor placed him back on his medications and held him for observation until he stabilized.
This was a major lesson for Jamie, and while it may have been embarrassing for him, now that the restaurant staff know he has schizophrenia, they are all aware of what danger signs to look for. Jamie can’t drive because of his disease, so he rides his bike to work every day, and has made some friends among his fellow staff members. Awareness helped them better understand him and he feels safe; so do they because they know Jamie isn’t normally violent, just a good guy with a serious mental illness. Jamie is a chain-smoker, but on his doctor’s advice he gave up beer and all other forms of alcohol. He recently got a small apartment, and he’s one of the few schizophrenics that is coping with life on his own.
Jamie is almost 30 now. He also suffers from occasional depression (his doctor thinks that might be a side-effect of one of Jamie’s many prescription drugs, or the result of a combination of them) and is sometimes hard to talk to, even for his parents, friends and co-workers, but everyone understands and if Jamie is low, they try to be respectful and show kindness. Jamie is aware of himself to that degree, and is very thankful that people teat him so well. Jamie is one of the lucky ones.
Mary and Greg’s Story
Schizophrenia doesn’t just affect the victim. In fact, some people who suffer from schizophrenia are so out of touch with reality, they don’t comprehend the nuances of the disease or the fact that they have it (another reason why schizophrenics sometimes withdraw from taking their medications). The people who have a strong bond with the schizophrenic individual have their work cut out for them; this includes institutional care-givers, parents, spouses, friends, co-workers (such as is the case with Jamie), siblings and children.
Greg met Mary when he suffered an acute bout of depression and had to be hospitalized. At that time, nearly 20 years ago, Mary’s mother thought her daughter was depressed; she had no idea what schizophrenia looked like and suspected Mary was depressed. Greg and Mary became friends and then were romantically involved. Greg felt a deep bond because they shared the scourge of depression and were able to be fully empathetic with one another. Then Mary began to hear voices and Greg, a well-read, intelligent person, recognized this as a possible, if not likely, symptom of schizophrenia. And the descent began.
When Greg decided he had better learn all he could about schizophrenia, he discovered that symptoms are generally classified as “positive”, “negative” and “cognitive”; he found nothing positive about it and over the many years that he fought to keep Mary living at their mutual home, rather than in a group home, he watched her deteriorate as her doctors paraded her through the numerous prescriptions that are supposed to control the symptoms. The only one that worked, the “last ditch” effort, posed a danger to her white blood cells.
Luckily, Mary exhibited only very mild paranoia, a common symptom of schizophrenia; some schizophrenics demonstrate severe paranoia. On occasion Greg and Mary would watch a television program and then the next day, Mary would be found mimicking the behavior of a character on the show. She stopped bathing and he had to regulate a new routine of hygiene for her. She would, if she went unchecked, wear the same clothing day in and day out for weeks; she had a large wardrobe of outfits, but defaulted to the same sloppy set of sweats, and the same underwear, every day; Greg had to manage laundry, and help her dress every day to ensure she wore clean clothes.
Mary lost track of the passage of time; a day would pass and she would think it was an hour, or an hour would pass and she believed it was a year. She went from being gregarious to withdrawing from other people, even her sons, and when she did speak in social situations, her voice was flat and monotone. They stopped going out and having friends over. Trips to the doctor or hospital became their only outings; they even ordered grocery store items to be delivered. Greg’s friends and family hardly saw him; they were uncomfortable with Mary’s decline (she had also stopped wearing make-up, and would not even brush her hair unless Greg did it for her).
Two elements dominated Mary’s “behavior” (in quotation marks because the actions were not of her own free will, which had been consumed by schizophrenia): 1. the prevalence of voices; and 2. her removal from reality.
The hearing of voices is a very common symptom of schizophrenia, but each victim experiences something slightly different. In Mary’s case, it was a group of four individuals and she had names for each of them. It was unclear if they told her their names or if she named them. There were two men and two women, Sam and Carl, Ellen and Susan. Sitting alone on the patio, having a cigarette, Mary would hold court with her voices, sometimes being powerfully in charge of them and issuing orders, but mostly they told her what to do and when they did it was invariably meant to be destructive towards Mary, and sometimes towards Greg or their pet cat.
Mary’s voices urged her to kill herself, telling her she was useless and no good. They also directed her to do things that could damage the few people, like Greg, who still cared about her. He found such things as bleach in his glass of drinking water, old cat food in teacups, and bits of metal in his food; Mary’s voices were getting more creative. The day that Mary urinated on their bed and several piles of laundry, Greg was at wit’s end.
Mary’s removal from reality is also common in schizophrenics and doctors regard this as a type of defense mechanism. For example, if Mary had been negligent in the few household duties Greg assigned to her, she would not notice. A pile of rotting food scraps in the under-sink compost bin would be left until Greg couldn’t cope with the stench; Mary smelled nothing unusual. And it wasn’t just not embracing reality, it included grandiosity; she decided that she and the late Doors singer, Jim Morrison, were close friends. She became obsessed with every lyric of every Doors song and believed they were written for her.
Other symptoms either stealthily infiltrated their lives, or co-existed with the major ones, including: Mary always living in the immediate moment and being unable to plan ahead, not even a few minutes ahead; Mary seeing a form of halo composed of glittering diamonds surrounding the heads of people she knew or who were strangers passing by in a hospital hallway; hypersomnia in which there were periods that saw Mary sleep 12 to 16 hours a day for a week or so, and then return to the normal 8 hours; brief or long periods wherein Mary was catatonic (there are degrees of this in schizophrenics and Mary’s was not as acute as some) and would fixate on something, such as an object in a store window, and refuse to walk away from it until she became catatonic in staring; Mary would sometimes fixate on a person’s face, never altering her gaze, much to the chagrin of the person (most often a child) under her constant, steely stare; and her drifting off, perhaps in mid-conversation, to the point where Greg had to gently shake her and shout to bring her back around to the moment.
While Mary was the technical victim of schizophrenia, it was Greg that arguably suffered most; at least he was conscious of what was going on, and because Mary had a much less acute understanding of her world, Greg found that he had to watch her constantly. This affected his ability to work outside their home, and to take care of his own needs. As time passed, the clutter in their house accumulated, and the housework piled up. With less income, due to Greg not working, they couldn’t afford to pay someone to do housekeeping.
Finally, Greg decided that Mary had to be moved to a group home; he had virtually lost his own life in the necessity of caring for Mary. His depression had returned with a vengeance. She found something in her diseased mind to fight him all the way, registering as immense guilt for Greg. Unfortunately the group home where Mary was to live turned out to be less than well-managed. She lasted there 2 weeks and Greg brought her home. The cycle resumed and Greg’s mental health declined. At one point he declared that the only sane being in the house was the cat.
Greg sought counsel with his psychiatrist, and part of their discussion involved a provocative question that doctors treating schizophrenics must repeatedly ask themselves: is the behavior entirely the fault of the disease, or partly to do with the powerful medications being used to treat the symptoms? There is no easy answer. Over time, Mary’s behaviors grew worse and Greg’s friends sat him down to say, “What you have tried to do for Mary over the last 15 years is noble, but it’s killing you.” Greg enlisted Mary’s two sons, now adults, and insisted they take their turn at housing Mary for as long a Greg needed to regain his own mental and physical health (this gargantuan stress and responsibility had resulted in a heart condition and diabetes for Greg).
Mary moved in with one of her sons, theoretically on a temporary basis; Greg never saw her again. He heard that she had been moved into a group home, one that was supposed to have a great reputation. He wished her well, but had to forge his own way to recovery. As the caregiver to a schizophrenic, a large chunk of his life had been compromised. At 60 years old, Greg is starting over.
In the early days of educating himself about schizophrenia, Greg came across a book called “How to Live with Schizophrenia” by Dr. Abram Hoffer and Dr. Humphrey Osmond (published in 1974 by Citadel Press and re-released with updates in 1992). The book addresses not just how to live with this disease if you have it yourself, but the effect it has on caregivers, families and friends, and society. What Greg learned from this somewhat controversial time is Dr. Hoffer advocates that schizophrenia can be prevented, and even cured if caught in its early stages of development.
Key to Dr. Hoffer’s approach is that there are signs of impending schizophrenia, and a number of risk factors that become evident in adolescence or early adulthood. As soon as these show themselves, huge doses of Vitamin B-3 (niacin) are supposed to effectively stop schizophrenia in its tracks. He believes that even if the disease has manifest to some degree, it can be stopped or assuaged by this massive vitamin therapy. Dr. Hoffer has also published a book on “curing” alcoholism, a radical concept, but also based on his theory that all alcoholics have a Vitamin B-3 deficiency.
In Greg’s situation (Mary’s case) it was too late once he learned about the potential curative and restorative properties of B-3, but he met some people through Mary’s many hospital visits, who swore by the therapy and said it had eliminated the development schizophrenia in them or their loved ones. The one thing that must not be overlooked about this extreme and controversial method of controlling schizophrenia is the toxicity of large doses of niacin; is the benefit worth the risk?
Things You Should Never Say to a Schizophrenic
Schizophrenics waver between being present and being “elsewhere”, and very few people, even those that live with schizophrenics, can tell at a quick glimpse what state they are in at any given moment. Therefore, always err on the side of caution and assume they are in the removed state, or in a state of mind that is full of classic symptoms. If they happen to be having an especially lucid or “normal” moment, or if their medications are working sufficiently well that they appear not to have the disease, still be cautious in your approach.
Here are things you should never say to someone that you know has schizophrenia, or even a stranger that you suspect may have it (now that you have learned what it “looks” like):
- 1. Who are you talking to?
- 2. You seem really nervous.
- 3. Cheer up; you look glum.
- 4. Hey, nobody’s going to hurt you, it’s all in your imagination.
- 5. You’re just depressed; you’ll get over it.
- 6. Why can’t you keep a job!
- 7. You’re not making sense; just put your thoughts in order.
It might seem insignificant that 1% of the population develops schizophrenia, but if you frame that within the population of the U.S.A., that’s an astonishing 3 million people! Many schizophrenics appear to be normal until something challenges their tightly, necessarily regimented world. The risks appear early enough that we can be prepared, and maybe even take steps to ward off what seems to be the inevitable, but once schizophrenia has sunk its claws into a human being, their lives, and those who care about them, will shift forever.
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The World Land Trust is an international conservation charity based in Halesworth, Suffolk. Since its foundation in 1989 the World Land Trust has been working to preserve the world's most biologically important and threatened lands, and has helped purchase and protect over 350,000 acres of habitats rich in wildlife, in Asia, Central and South America and the UK. The Trust’s key objective is to protect and sustainably manage natural eco-systems.
The World Land Trust’s flagship site in the UK is the Kites Hill Reserve. The beech woodland area is designated as a Site of Special Scientific interest and has also been included on English Nature's "Natura 2000" site list, as part of a "network of the most important nature conservation sites in Europe.
The project will include enhancing the biodiversity of the site through the creation of a pond; enhancing the educational value of the nature reserve by extending a number of trails with educational boards to explain the species diversity, and involving volunteers, community members and schools in a bio diversity monitoring project. This transformation will involve the extension of the beech woodland, the conversion of currently grazed fields to organic status, and encouraging the rehabilitation of butterflies, bats and owls and other species lost to the area, by providing suitable breeding and feeding sites.
Following advice from a wildlife consultant late in 2008, Natural England, The Environment Agency, Gloucestershire Wildlife Trist and Stroud District Council, preparations for the Kites Hill Project were almost complete. However, due to an unexpected demand by the Council for an application for planning permission, work was halted on the creation of the pond. This was resolved in the autumn of 2009 and the pond installed during October and November. The aim is that it will become an important aquatic habitat for threatened UK species that are being lost to the area and to the UK as a whole, including frogs, newts and toads. The planting of 110 mixed broadleaved trees and some coppicing work was also carried out on another part of the site during the spring of 2009.
During 2010, WLT carried out a floristic survey of the pond, which showed that the first floral colonisers were beginning to be established in the pond, and dragonflies and mayflies have been attracted to it. The woodland area of the site was improved through coppicing, installation of bird boxes, thinning work and the creation of woodland habitats for invertebrates and small animals. The nature trail on the site has been extended to expose visitors to a wider range of habitats and species in the reserve, including the new pond. Interpretation panels, information boards and a map of the site have been produced. Links have been made with more community members who are now engaged in the future of the site.
return to projects
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Strong reasoning
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