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] | 877,700 |
@ - @ scale color and albedo variations across its surface. an exception to the crater morphology is the fresh, asymmetric fingal, which has a sharp boundary between the floor and wall on one side. another significant crater is afon, which marks ida's prime meridian. the craters are simple in structure : bowl @ - @ shaped with no flat bottoms and no central peaks. they are distributed evenly around ida, except for a protrusion north of crater choukoutien which is smoother and less cratered. the ejecta excavated by impacts is deposited differently on ida than on planets because of its rapid rotation
| 1,546 |
[
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] | 877,701 |
, low gravity and irregular shape. ejecta blankets settle asymmetrically around their craters, but fast @ - @ moving ejecta that escapes from the asteroid is permanently lost. = = composition = = ida was classified as an s @ - @ type asteroid based on the similarity of its reflectance spectra with similar asteroids. s @ - @ types may share their composition with stony @ - @ iron or ordinary chondrite ( oc ) meteorites. the composition of the interior has not been directly analyzed, but is assumed to be similar to oc material based on observed surface color changes and ida's bulk density of
| 1,546 |
[
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"por",
"##osity"
] | 877,702 |
2 @. @ 27 – 3 @. @ 10 g / cm3. oc meteorites contain varying amounts of the silicates olivine and pyroxene, iron, and feldspar. olivine and pyroxene were detected on ida by galileo. the mineral content appears to be homogeneous throughout its extent. galileo found minimal variations on the surface, and the asteroid's spin indicates a consistent density. assuming that its composition is similar to oc meteorites, which range in density from 3 @. @ 48 to 3 @. @ 64 g / cm3, ida would have a porosity
| 1,512 |
[
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] | 877,703 |
of 11 – 42 %. ida's interior probably contains some amount of impact @ - @ fractured rock, called megaregolith. the megaregolith layer of ida extends between hundreds of meters below the surface to a few kilometers. some rock in ida's core may have been fractured below the large craters mammoth, lascaux, and undara. = = orbit and rotation = = ida is a member of the koronis family of asteroid @ - @ belt asteroids. ida orbits the sun at an average distance of 2 @. @ 862 au ( 428 @. @ 1 gm ), between the orbits
| 1,639 |
[
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] | 877,704 |
of mars and jupiter. ida takes 4 @. @ 84089 years to complete one orbit. ida's rotation period is 4 @. @ 63 hours, making it one of the fastest rotating asteroids yet discovered. the calculated maximum moment of inertia of a uniformly dense object the same shape as ida coincides with the spin axis of the asteroid. this suggests that there are no major variations of density within the asteroid. ida's axis of rotation precesses with a period of 77 thousand years, due to the gravity of the sun acting upon the nonspherical shape of the asteroid. ida originated in the breakup of
| 1,639 |
[
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"the",
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] | 877,705 |
the roughly 120 km ( 75 mi ) diameter koronis parent body. the progenitor asteroid had partially differentiated, with heavier metals migrating to the core. ida carried away insignificant amounts of this core material. it is uncertain how long ago the disruption event occurred. according to an analysis of ida's cratering processes, its surface is more than a billion years old. however, this is inconsistent with the estimated age of the ida – dactyl system of less than 100 million years ; it is unlikely that dactyl, due to its small size, could have escaped being destroyed in a major collision for longer. the difference in
| 1,540 |
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] | 877,706 |
age estimates may be explained by an increased rate of cratering from the debris of the koronis parent body's destruction. ida has a moon named dactyl, official designation ( 243 ) ida i dactyl ( / [UNK] / dak @ - @ til ). it was discovered in images taken by the galileo spacecraft during its flyby in 1993. these images provided the first direct confirmation of an asteroid moon. at the time, it was separated from ida by a distance of 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ), moving in a prograde orbit. dactyl is heavily cratered, like ida, and consists of similar
| 1,642 |
[
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] | 877,707 |
materials. its origin is uncertain, but evidence from the flyby suggests that it originated as a fragment of the koronis parent body. dactyl was found on 17 february 1994 by galileo mission member ann harch, while examining delayed image downloads from the spacecraft. galileo recorded 47 images of dactyl over an observation period of 5 @. @ 5 hours in august 1993. the spacecraft was 10 @, @ 760 kilometres ( 6 @, @ 690 mi ) from ida and 10 @, @ 870 kilometres ( 6 @, @ 750 mi ) from dactyl when the first image of the moon was captured, 14 minutes before
| 1,552 |
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","
] | 877,708 |
galileo made its closest approach. dactyl was initially designated 1993 ( 243 ) 1. it was named by the international astronomical union in 1994, for the mythological dactyls who inhabited mount ida on the island of crete. = = = physical characteristics = = = dactyl is an " egg @ - @ shaped " but " remarkably spherical " object measuring 1 @. @ 6 by 1 @. @ 4 by 1 @. @ 2 kilometres ( 0 @. @ 99 mi × 0 @. @ 87 mi × 0 @. @ 75 mi ). it was oriented with its longest axis pointing towards ida. like ida,
| 1,541 |
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"200",
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] | 877,709 |
dactyl's surface exhibits saturation cratering. it is marked by more than a dozen craters with a diameter greater than 80 m ( 260 ft ), indicating that the moon has suffered many collisions during its history. at least six craters form a linear chain, suggesting that it was caused by locally produced debris, possibly ejected from ida. dactyl's craters may contain central peaks, unlike those found on ida. these features, and dactyl's spheroidal shape, imply that the moon is gravitationally controlled despite its small size. like ida, its average temperature is about 200 k ( − 73 °
| 1,469 |
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"f",
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".",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
"shares",
"many",
"characteristics",
"with",
"ida",
".",
"their",
"al",
"##bedo",
"##s",
"and",
"reflection",
"spectra",
"are",
"very",
"similar",
".",
"the",
"small",
"differences",
"indicate",
"that",
"the",
"space",
"weather",
"##ing",
"process",
"is",
"less",
"active",
"on",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
".",
"its",
"small",
"size",
"would",
"make",
"the",
"formation",
"of",
"significant",
"amounts",
"of",
"reg",
"##oli",
"##th",
"impossible",
".",
"this",
"contrasts",
"with",
"ida",
",",
"which",
"is",
"covered",
"by",
"a",
"deep",
"layer",
"of",
"reg",
"##oli",
"##th",
".",
"the",
"two",
"largest",
"image",
"##d",
"craters",
"on",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
"were",
"named",
"ac",
"##mon",
"and",
"ce",
"##lm",
"##is",
",",
"after",
"two",
"of",
"the",
"mythological",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
"##s",
".",
"ac",
"##mon",
"is",
"the",
"largest",
"crater",
"in",
"the",
"above",
"image",
",",
"and",
"ce",
"##lm",
"##is",
"is",
"near",
"the",
"bottom",
","
] | 877,710 |
c ; − 100 ° f ). dactyl shares many characteristics with ida. their albedos and reflection spectra are very similar. the small differences indicate that the space weathering process is less active on dactyl. its small size would make the formation of significant amounts of regolith impossible. this contrasts with ida, which is covered by a deep layer of regolith. the two largest imaged craters on dactyl were named acmon and celmis, after two of the mythological dactyls. acmon is the largest crater in the above image, and celmis is near the bottom,
| 1,544 |
[
"mostly",
"obscured",
"in",
"shadow",
".",
"the",
"craters",
"are",
"300",
"and",
"200",
"meters",
"in",
"diameter",
",",
"respectively",
".",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
"'",
"s",
"orbit",
"around",
"ida",
"is",
"not",
"precisely",
"known",
".",
"galileo",
"was",
"in",
"the",
"plane",
"of",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
"'",
"s",
"orbit",
"when",
"most",
"of",
"the",
"images",
"were",
"taken",
",",
"which",
"made",
"determining",
"its",
"exact",
"orbit",
"difficult",
".",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
"orbits",
"in",
"the",
"pro",
"##grade",
"direction",
"and",
"is",
"inclined",
"about",
"8",
"°",
"to",
"ida",
"'",
"s",
"equator",
".",
"based",
"on",
"computer",
"simulations",
",",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
"'",
"s",
"per",
"##ice",
"##nte",
"##r",
"must",
"be",
"more",
"than",
"about",
"65",
"km",
"(",
"40",
"mi",
")",
"from",
"ida",
"for",
"it",
"to",
"remain",
"in",
"a",
"stable",
"orbit",
".",
"the",
"range",
"of",
"orbits",
"generated",
"by",
"the",
"simulations",
"was",
"narrowed",
"down",
"by",
"the"
] | 877,711 |
mostly obscured in shadow. the craters are 300 and 200 meters in diameter, respectively. dactyl's orbit around ida is not precisely known. galileo was in the plane of dactyl's orbit when most of the images were taken, which made determining its exact orbit difficult. dactyl orbits in the prograde direction and is inclined about 8 ° to ida's equator. based on computer simulations, dactyl's pericenter must be more than about 65 km ( 40 mi ) from ida for it to remain in a stable orbit. the range of orbits generated by the simulations was narrowed down by the
| 1,639 |
[
"necessity",
"of",
"having",
"the",
"orbits",
"pass",
"through",
"points",
"at",
"which",
"galileo",
"observed",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
"to",
"be",
"at",
"16",
":",
"52",
":",
"05",
"ut",
"on",
"28",
"august",
"1993",
",",
"about",
"90",
"km",
"(",
"56",
"mi",
")",
"from",
"ida",
"at",
"longitude",
"85",
"°",
".",
"on",
"26",
"april",
"1994",
",",
"the",
"hub",
"##ble",
"space",
"telescope",
"observed",
"ida",
"for",
"eight",
"hours",
"and",
"was",
"unable",
"to",
"spot",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
".",
"it",
"would",
"have",
"been",
"able",
"to",
"observe",
"it",
"if",
"it",
"were",
"more",
"than",
"about",
"700",
"km",
"(",
"430",
"mi",
")",
"from",
"ida",
".",
"if",
"in",
"a",
"circular",
"orbit",
"at",
"the",
"distance",
"at",
"which",
"it",
"was",
"seen",
",",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
"'",
"s",
"orbital",
"period",
"is",
"about",
"20",
"hours",
".",
"its",
"orbital",
"speed",
"is",
"roughly",
"10",
"m",
"/",
"s",
"(",
"33",
"ft"
] | 877,712 |
necessity of having the orbits pass through points at which galileo observed dactyl to be at 16 : 52 : 05 ut on 28 august 1993, about 90 km ( 56 mi ) from ida at longitude 85 °. on 26 april 1994, the hubble space telescope observed ida for eight hours and was unable to spot dactyl. it would have been able to observe it if it were more than about 700 km ( 430 mi ) from ida. if in a circular orbit at the distance at which it was seen, dactyl's orbital period is about 20 hours. its orbital speed is roughly 10 m / s ( 33 ft
| 1,639 |
[
"/",
"s",
")",
",",
"\"",
"about",
"the",
"speed",
"of",
"a",
"fast",
"run",
"or",
"a",
"slowly",
"thrown",
"baseball",
"\"",
".",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
"may",
"have",
"originated",
"at",
"the",
"same",
"time",
"as",
"ida",
",",
"from",
"the",
"disruption",
"of",
"the",
"ko",
"##ron",
"##is",
"parent",
"body",
".",
"however",
",",
"it",
"may",
"have",
"formed",
"more",
"recently",
",",
"perhaps",
"as",
"e",
"##ject",
"##a",
"from",
"a",
"large",
"impact",
"on",
"ida",
".",
"it",
"is",
"extremely",
"unlikely",
"that",
"it",
"was",
"captured",
"by",
"ida",
".",
"da",
"##ct",
"##yl",
"may",
"have",
"suffered",
"a",
"major",
"impact",
"around",
"100",
"million",
"years",
"ago",
",",
"which",
"reduced",
"its",
"size",
".",
"=",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"=",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"(",
"o",
"##cci",
"##tan",
"pronunciation",
":",
"[",
"t",
"##ɾ",
"##u",
"##β",
"##aj",
"##ˈ",
"##ɾ",
"##its",
"]",
")",
"were",
"o",
"##cci",
"##tan",
"female"
] | 877,713 |
/ s ), " about the speed of a fast run or a slowly thrown baseball ". dactyl may have originated at the same time as ida, from the disruption of the koronis parent body. however, it may have formed more recently, perhaps as ejecta from a large impact on ida. it is extremely unlikely that it was captured by ida. dactyl may have suffered a major impact around 100 million years ago, which reduced its size. = trobairitz = the trobairitz ( occitan pronunciation : [ tɾuβajˈɾits ] ) were occitan female
| 1,500 |
[
"tr",
"##ou",
"##bad",
"##ours",
"of",
"the",
"12th",
"and",
"13th",
"centuries",
",",
"active",
"from",
"around",
"117",
"##0",
"to",
"approximately",
"126",
"##0",
".",
"the",
"word",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"was",
"first",
"used",
"in",
"the",
"13th",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"century",
"romance",
"flame",
"##nca",
".",
"it",
"comes",
"from",
"the",
"proven",
"##cal",
"word",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##ar",
",",
"the",
"literal",
"meaning",
"of",
"which",
"is",
"\"",
"to",
"find",
"\"",
",",
"and",
"the",
"technical",
"meaning",
"of",
"which",
"is",
"\"",
"to",
"compose",
"\"",
".",
"the",
"word",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"is",
"used",
"very",
"rarely",
"in",
"medieval",
"o",
"##cci",
"##tan",
",",
"as",
"it",
"does",
"not",
"occur",
"in",
"lyrical",
"poetry",
",",
"grammatical",
"treatise",
"##s",
",",
"or",
"in",
"the",
"biographies",
"of",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"or",
"tr",
"##ou",
"##bad",
"##ours",
".",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"composed",
",",
"wrote",
"verses"
] | 877,714 |
troubadours of the 12th and 13th centuries, active from around 1170 to approximately 1260. the word trobairitz was first used in the 13th @ - @ century romance flamenca. it comes from the provencal word trobar, the literal meaning of which is " to find ", and the technical meaning of which is " to compose ". the word trobairitz is used very rarely in medieval occitan, as it does not occur in lyrical poetry, grammatical treatises, or in the biographies of the trobairitz or troubadours. trobairitz composed, wrote verses
| 2,693 |
[
",",
"and",
"performed",
"for",
"the",
"o",
"##cci",
"##tan",
"noble",
"courts",
".",
"they",
"are",
"exceptional",
"in",
"musical",
"history",
"as",
"the",
"first",
"known",
"female",
"composers",
"of",
"western",
"secular",
"music",
";",
"all",
"earlier",
"known",
"female",
"composers",
"wrote",
"sacred",
"music",
".",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"were",
"part",
"of",
"court",
"##ly",
"society",
",",
"as",
"opposed",
"to",
"their",
"lower",
"class",
"counterparts",
"the",
"jo",
"##gl",
"##ares",
"##sas",
".",
"although",
"tr",
"##ou",
"##bad",
"##ours",
"sometimes",
"came",
"from",
"humble",
"origins",
"—",
"bern",
"##art",
"de",
"vent",
"##ador",
"##n",
"may",
"have",
"been",
"the",
"son",
"of",
"a",
"castle",
"'",
"s",
"baker",
"—",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"were",
"no",
"##bly",
"born",
".",
"the",
"most",
"important",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"are",
"alam",
"##anda",
"de",
"caste",
"##ln",
"##au",
",",
"az",
"##ala",
"##is",
"de",
"por",
"##ca",
"##ira",
"##gues",
",",
"maria",
"de",
"vent"
] | 877,715 |
, and performed for the occitan noble courts. they are exceptional in musical history as the first known female composers of western secular music ; all earlier known female composers wrote sacred music. the trobairitz were part of courtly society, as opposed to their lower class counterparts the joglaressas. although troubadours sometimes came from humble origins — bernart de ventadorn may have been the son of a castle's baker — the trobairitz were nobly born. the most important trobairitz are alamanda de castelnau, azalais de porcairagues, maria de vent
| 277 |
[
"##ador",
"##n",
",",
"ti",
"##bor",
"##s",
",",
"caste",
"##llo",
"##za",
",",
"ga",
"##rse",
"##nda",
"de",
"pro",
"##en",
"##ca",
",",
"go",
"##rm",
"##onda",
"de",
"mon",
"##pes",
"##lier",
",",
"and",
"the",
"comte",
"##ssa",
"de",
"dia",
".",
"=",
"=",
"position",
"in",
"medieval",
"society",
"=",
"=",
"throughout",
"the",
"13th",
"century",
",",
"women",
"of",
"the",
"court",
"were",
"expected",
"to",
"be",
"able",
"to",
"sing",
",",
"play",
"instruments",
",",
"and",
"write",
"jo",
"##cs",
"part",
"##is",
",",
"or",
"part",
"##ime",
"##n",
"(",
"a",
"debate",
"or",
"dialogue",
"in",
"the",
"form",
"of",
"a",
"poem",
")",
".",
"the",
"cultivation",
"of",
"these",
"woman",
"##ly",
"skills",
"may",
"have",
"led",
"to",
"the",
"writings",
"of",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
".",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"may",
"also",
"have",
"arise",
"##n",
"due",
"the",
"power",
"women",
"held",
"in",
"southern",
"france",
"during",
"the",
"12th",
"and"
] | 877,716 |
##adorn, tibors, castelloza, garsenda de proenca, gormonda de monpeslier, and the comtessa de dia. = = position in medieval society = = throughout the 13th century, women of the court were expected to be able to sing, play instruments, and write jocs partis, or partimen ( a debate or dialogue in the form of a poem ). the cultivation of these womanly skills may have led to the writings of the trobairitz. the trobairitz may also have arisen due the power women held in southern france during the 12th and
| 2,640 |
[
"13th",
"centuries",
".",
"women",
"had",
"far",
"more",
"control",
"over",
"land",
"ownership",
",",
"and",
"o",
"##cci",
"##tan",
"society",
"was",
"far",
"more",
"accepting",
"of",
"women",
"than",
"were",
"most",
"other",
"societies",
"of",
"the",
"time",
".",
"during",
"the",
"crusade",
"##s",
"many",
"men",
"were",
"away",
",",
"which",
"left",
"women",
"with",
"more",
"administrative",
"responsibility",
",",
"and",
"thus",
",",
"power",
".",
"nevertheless",
",",
"this",
"society",
"was",
"not",
"\"",
"feminist",
"\"",
",",
"nor",
"was",
"fin",
"'",
"amor",
",",
"which",
"ex",
"##al",
"##ted",
"women",
"while",
"at",
"the",
"same",
"time",
"ci",
"##rc",
"##ums",
"##cr",
"##ib",
"##ing",
"many",
"aspects",
"of",
"their",
"lives",
"and",
"behavior",
".",
"there",
"is",
"difficulty",
"in",
"labeling",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"as",
"either",
"amateurs",
"or",
"professionals",
".",
"the",
"distinction",
"between",
"these",
"two",
"roles",
"was",
"complicated",
"in",
"the",
"medieval",
"era",
",",
"since",
"professionals",
"were",
"generally",
"lower"
] | 877,717 |
13th centuries. women had far more control over land ownership, and occitan society was far more accepting of women than were most other societies of the time. during the crusades many men were away, which left women with more administrative responsibility, and thus, power. nevertheless, this society was not " feminist ", nor was fin'amor, which exalted women while at the same time circumscribing many aspects of their lives and behavior. there is difficulty in labeling the trobairitz as either amateurs or professionals. the distinction between these two roles was complicated in the medieval era, since professionals were generally lower
| 219 |
[
"class",
",",
"and",
"amateurs",
"had",
"as",
"much",
"time",
"as",
"professionals",
"to",
"devote",
"to",
"their",
"craft",
".",
"jo",
"##gl",
"##ares",
"##se",
"were",
"lower",
"class",
",",
"professional",
"composers",
"far",
"less",
"respected",
"than",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
".",
"both",
"tr",
"##ou",
"##bad",
"##ours",
"and",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"wrote",
"of",
"fin",
"'",
"amor",
"##s",
",",
"or",
"court",
"##ly",
"love",
".",
"women",
"were",
"generally",
"the",
"subject",
"of",
"the",
"writings",
"of",
"tr",
"##ou",
"##bad",
"##ours",
",",
"however",
":",
"\"",
"no",
"other",
"group",
"of",
"poets",
"give",
"women",
"so",
"ex",
"##al",
"##ted",
"a",
"definition",
"within",
"so",
"tightly",
"ci",
"##rc",
"##ums",
"##cr",
"##ibe",
"##d",
"a",
"context",
"of",
"female",
"suppression",
".",
"\"",
"the",
"tension",
"between",
"the",
"suppression",
"of",
"women",
"present",
"in",
"the",
"poetry",
"of",
"the",
"tr",
"##ou",
"##bad",
"##ours",
"and",
"similar",
"themes",
"in",
"the",
"poetry",
"of"
] | 877,718 |
class, and amateurs had as much time as professionals to devote to their craft. joglaresse were lower class, professional composers far less respected than the trobairitz. both troubadours and trobairitz wrote of fin'amors, or courtly love. women were generally the subject of the writings of troubadours, however : " no other group of poets give women so exalted a definition within so tightly circumscribed a context of female suppression. " the tension between the suppression of women present in the poetry of the troubadours and similar themes in the poetry of
| 2,632 |
[
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"is",
"a",
"major",
"source",
"of",
"discussion",
"for",
"modern",
"commentators",
".",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"poetry",
"pertaining",
"to",
"love",
"tended",
"to",
"offer",
"a",
"less",
"ideal",
"##ized",
"conception",
"of",
"the",
"subject",
"than",
"the",
"poetry",
"of",
"their",
"male",
"counterparts",
",",
"with",
"a",
"more",
"conversation",
"##al",
"and",
"less",
"flourished",
"style",
"of",
"writing",
"intended",
"to",
"more",
"closely",
"em",
"##ulate",
"a",
"more",
"grounded",
"vision",
"of",
"relationships",
".",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"wrote",
"in",
"the",
"cans",
"##o",
"(",
"st",
"##rop",
"##hic",
"song",
")",
"and",
"tens",
"##o",
"(",
"debate",
"poem",
")",
"genres",
".",
"besides",
"cans",
"##os",
"and",
"tens",
"##os",
",",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"also",
"wrote",
"sir",
"##vent",
"##es",
"(",
"political",
"poems",
")",
",",
"plan",
"##h",
"(",
"lame",
"##nt",
")",
",",
"sal",
"##ut",
"d",
"’",
"amor",
"(",
"a",
"love",
"letter"
] | 877,719 |
the trobairitz is a major source of discussion for modern commentators. trobairitz poetry pertaining to love tended to offer a less idealized conception of the subject than the poetry of their male counterparts, with a more conversational and less flourished style of writing intended to more closely emulate a more grounded vision of relationships. the trobairitz wrote in the canso ( strophic song ) and tenso ( debate poem ) genres. besides cansos and tensos, trobairitz also wrote sirventes ( political poems ), planh ( lament ), salut d ’ amor ( a love letter
| 2,632 |
[
"not",
"in",
"st",
"##rop",
"##hic",
"form",
")",
",",
"alba",
"(",
"dawn",
"songs",
")",
",",
"and",
"bala",
"##da",
"(",
"dance",
"songs",
")",
".",
"judging",
"by",
"what",
"survives",
"today",
",",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
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"##ela",
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"##mar",
"##ie",
"##e",
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",",
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"their",
"tr",
"##ou",
"##bad",
"##our",
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".",
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",",
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"keeping",
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"tr",
"##ou",
"##bad",
"##our",
"tradition",
",",
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"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
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"to",
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".",
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"de",
"dia",
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"this",
"in",
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"poem",
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"io",
"##i",
"me",
"don",
"'",
"ale",
"##gra",
"##ns",
"##sa",
",",
"stating",
"that",
"\"",
"fin",
"io",
"##i",
"me",
"dona",
"ale",
"##gra",
"##ns",
"##sa",
"/",
"per",
"qu",
"'",
"eu",
"chan",
"plus",
"ga",
"##iam",
"##en",
",",
"\"",
"translated"
] | 877,720 |
not in strophic form ), alba ( dawn songs ), and balada ( dance songs ). judging by what survives today, the trobairitz wrote no pastorelas or malmariee songs, unlike their troubadour counterparts. furthermore, in keeping with the troubadour tradition, the trobairitz closely linked the action of the singing to the action of loving. comtessa de dia demonstrates this in her poem fin ioi me don'alegranssa, stating that " fin ioi me dona alegranssa / per qu'eu chan plus gaiamen, " translated
| 2,640 |
[
"as",
"\"",
"happiness",
"brings",
"me",
"pure",
"joy",
"/",
"which",
"makes",
"me",
"sing",
"more",
"cheerfully",
".",
"\"",
"=",
"=",
"at",
"##tri",
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"=",
"=",
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"attributed",
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"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"is",
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"-",
"@",
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"46",
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"number",
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"number",
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"common",
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"to",
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"as",
"an",
"exchange",
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"letters",
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"or",
"a",
"debate",
",",
"as",
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"a",
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"these",
"may",
"have",
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"by",
"one",
"poet",
";",
"however",
",",
"some",
"were",
"originally",
"an",
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"exchange",
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"ep",
"##istles",
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"gathered",
"together",
"in",
"a",
"manuscript",
".",
"some"
] | 877,721 |
as " happiness brings me pure joy / which makes me sing more cheerfully. " = = attribution = = the number of works attributed to the trobairitz is estimated at thirty @ - @ two songs, but ranges anywhere from 23 to 46. there are a number of reasons why an exact number is not known. in the courtly love tradition it was common for poems to be written as an exchange of letters, or a debate, as in a tenso. some of these may have been originally written by one poet ; however, some were originally an actual exchange of epistles, later gathered together in a manuscript. some
| 2,631 |
[
"of",
"these",
"were",
"between",
"men",
",",
"and",
"some",
"were",
"between",
"a",
"man",
"and",
"a",
"woman",
".",
"some",
"modern",
"editors",
"attribute",
"these",
"solely",
"to",
"the",
"man",
"who",
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"the",
"exchange",
",",
"and",
"some",
"attribute",
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"to",
"both",
"the",
"man",
"and",
"the",
"woman",
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".",
"there",
"is",
"a",
"long",
"history",
"of",
"at",
"##tri",
"##bu",
"##ting",
"these",
"solely",
"to",
"men",
",",
"even",
"when",
"all",
"evidence",
"points",
"to",
"the",
"contrary",
".",
"since",
"poetry",
"was",
"highly",
"stylized",
",",
"it",
"is",
"difficult",
"to",
"determine",
"when",
"a",
"poet",
"speaking",
"as",
"a",
"woman",
"actually",
"was",
"a",
"woman",
",",
"or",
"a",
"man",
"speaking",
"as",
"a",
"woman",
".",
"this",
"adds",
"to",
"the",
"difficulty",
"of",
"at",
"##tri",
"##bution",
",",
"especially",
"of",
"anonymous",
"writers",
".",
"there",
"is",
"some",
"debate",
"as",
"to",
"whether",
"or",
"not",
"the",
"poems",
"by",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob"
] | 877,722 |
of these were between men, and some were between a man and a woman. some modern editors attribute these solely to the man who originated the exchange, and some attribute them to both the man and the woman involved. there is a long history of attributing these solely to men, even when all evidence points to the contrary. since poetry was highly stylized, it is difficult to determine when a poet speaking as a woman actually was a woman, or a man speaking as a woman. this adds to the difficulty of attribution, especially of anonymous writers. there is some debate as to whether or not the poems by the trob
| 2,632 |
[
"##air",
"##itz",
"represent",
"genuine",
"feminine",
"voices",
",",
"since",
"they",
"worked",
"within",
"the",
"highly",
"ci",
"##rc",
"##ums",
"##cr",
"##ibe",
"##d",
"conventions",
"of",
"the",
"tr",
"##ou",
"##bad",
"##ours",
".",
"matilda",
"br",
"##uck",
"##ner",
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"that",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"\"",
"spoke",
"in",
"her",
"own",
"voice",
"as",
"channel",
"##ed",
"through",
"the",
"voices",
"of",
"many",
"others",
"\"",
".",
"by",
"manipulating",
"the",
"strict",
"construct",
"##s",
"of",
"tr",
"##ou",
"##bad",
"##our",
"lyric",
",",
"the",
"tr",
"##ob",
"##air",
"##itz",
"were",
"able",
"to",
"create",
"their",
"own",
"\"",
"fiction",
"##s",
"of",
"the",
"female",
"voice",
"\"",
".",
"there",
"is",
"one",
"notable",
"instance",
"where",
"clear",
"at",
"##tri",
"##bution",
"is",
"given",
"to",
"a",
"woman",
",",
"bi",
"##ei",
"##ris",
"de",
"romans",
"(",
"also",
"given",
"as",
"beat",
"##rit",
"##z",
")",
",",
"but",
"the",
"subject",
"of",
"the",
"poem",
"is",
"another",
"woman",
","
] | 877,723 |
##airitz represent genuine feminine voices, since they worked within the highly circumscribed conventions of the troubadours. matilda bruckner suggests that the trobairitz " spoke in her own voice as channeled through the voices of many others ". by manipulating the strict constructs of troubadour lyric, the trobairitz were able to create their own " fictions of the female voice ". there is one notable instance where clear attribution is given to a woman, bieiris de romans ( also given as beatritz ), but the subject of the poem is another woman,
| 2,640 |
[
"na",
"maria",
".",
"in",
"the",
"poem",
"\"",
"na",
"maria",
"\"",
"beat",
"##rit",
"##z",
"expresses",
"her",
"love",
"for",
"maria",
"in",
"the",
"traditional",
"fin",
"'",
"amor",
"##s",
"style",
",",
"both",
"in",
"terms",
"of",
"physical",
"longing",
"and",
"court",
"##ly",
"admiration",
".",
"this",
"poem",
",",
"if",
"not",
"clearly",
"marked",
"as",
"by",
"a",
"woman",
",",
"would",
"be",
"assumed",
"to",
"be",
"by",
"a",
"man",
".",
"some",
"controversy",
"surrounds",
"the",
"works",
"of",
"the",
"bi",
"##ei",
"##ris",
"de",
"romans",
",",
"as",
"scholars",
"have",
"suggested",
"that",
"her",
"cans",
"##o",
"expresses",
"\"",
"lesbian",
"desire",
".",
"\"",
"the",
"tr",
"##ou",
"##bad",
"##our",
"would",
"typically",
"speak",
"to",
"the",
"dom",
"##na",
"(",
"woman",
")",
";",
"the",
"fact",
"that",
"the",
"lyrical",
"dialogue",
"takes",
"place",
"exclusively",
"between",
"one",
"woman",
"and",
"another",
"is",
"an",
"extreme",
"ra",
"##rity",
".",
"=",
"=",
"list",
"of",
"tr",
"##ob"
] | 877,724 |
na maria. in the poem " na maria " beatritz expresses her love for maria in the traditional fin'amors style, both in terms of physical longing and courtly admiration. this poem, if not clearly marked as by a woman, would be assumed to be by a man. some controversy surrounds the works of the bieiris de romans, as scholars have suggested that her canso expresses " lesbian desire. " the troubadour would typically speak to the domna ( woman ) ; the fact that the lyrical dialogue takes place exclusively between one woman and another is an extreme rarity. = = list of trob
| 2,635 |
[
"##air",
"##itz",
"works",
"=",
"=",
"bon",
"##a",
"dom",
"##na",
",",
"un",
"con",
"##sei",
"##ll",
"vo",
"##s",
"dem",
"##an",
"ala",
"##is",
"is",
"##eld",
"##a",
"and",
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"##nza",
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"na",
"care",
"##nza",
"al",
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"##rs",
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"##inen",
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"de",
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"##ln",
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"##mu",
"##cs",
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"##eu",
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"cap",
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"'",
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"##ca",
"##ira",
"##gues",
"beat",
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"de",
"dia",
"beat",
"##rit",
"##z",
"de",
"romans",
":",
"na",
"maria",
",",
"pre",
"##tz",
"e",
"fin",
"##a",
"valor",
"##s",
"caste",
"##llo",
"##za",
"clara",
"d",
"'",
"and",
"##uz",
"##a",
"fe",
"##lip",
"##a",
"ga",
"##rse",
"##nda",
"de",
"pro",
"##en",
"##ca",
":",
"vo"
] | 877,725 |
##airitz works = = bona domna, un conseill vos deman alais iselda and carenza : na carenza al bel cors avinen alamanda de castelnau almucs de castelnau and iseut de capio : domna n ’ almucs, si @ - @ us plages azalais d'altier azalais de porcairagues beatriz de dia beatritz de romans : na maria, pretz e fina valors castelloza clara d'anduza felipa garsenda de proenca : vo
| 1,245 |
[
"##s",
"q",
"##e",
"’",
"m",
"se",
"##mb",
"##lat",
"##z",
"del",
"##s",
"coral",
"##s",
"ama",
"##dor",
"##s",
"ga",
"##uda",
"##ire",
"##nca",
":",
"co",
"##bla",
"##s",
"e",
"dans",
"##as",
"(",
"not",
"extant",
")",
"go",
"##rm",
"##onda",
"de",
"mon",
"##pes",
"##lier",
"gui",
"##lle",
"##lma",
"de",
"rose",
"##rs",
"lamb",
"##ard",
"##a",
"maria",
"de",
"vent",
"##ador",
"##n",
":",
"gui",
"d",
"'",
"ui",
"##sel",
",",
"be",
".",
"m",
"pe",
"##sa",
"de",
"vo",
"##s",
"ti",
"##bor",
"##s",
"de",
"sar",
"##eno",
"##m",
"y",
"##sa",
"##bella",
"=",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"airport",
",",
"ham",
"##ner",
"##ab",
"##ben",
"=",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"airport",
",",
"ham",
"##ner",
"##ab",
"##ben",
"(",
"norwegian",
":",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"fly",
"##pl",
"##ass",
",",
"ham",
"##ner",
"##ab",
"##ben",
";",
"icao",
":",
"en",
"##as",
")",
"is",
"an"
] | 877,726 |
##s qe ’ m semblatz dels corals amadors gaudairenca : coblas e dansas ( not extant ) gormonda de monpeslier guillelma de rosers lambarda maria de ventadorn : gui d'uisel, be. m pesa de vos tibors de sarenom ysabella = ny @ - @ alesund airport, hamnerabben = ny @ - @ alesund airport, hamnerabben ( norwegian : ny @ - @ alesund flyplass, hamnerabben ; icao : enas ) is an
| 2,016 |
[
"airport",
"serving",
"the",
"research",
"community",
"of",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"in",
"sv",
"##al",
"##bard",
",",
"norway",
".",
"the",
"airport",
"is",
"owned",
"by",
"kings",
"bay",
",",
"who",
"also",
"owns",
"the",
"company",
"town",
".",
"the",
"only",
"flights",
"available",
"are",
"to",
"sv",
"##al",
"##bard",
"airport",
",",
"long",
"##year",
",",
"operated",
"two",
"to",
"four",
"times",
"a",
"week",
"by",
"lu",
"##ft",
"##tra",
"##ns",
"##port",
"using",
"do",
"##rnier",
"do",
"228",
"aircraft",
".",
"the",
"services",
"are",
"organized",
"as",
"corporate",
"charters",
"and",
"tickets",
"are",
"only",
"available",
"after",
"permission",
"from",
"kings",
"bay",
".",
"between",
"1925",
"and",
"1928",
",",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"saw",
"four",
"air",
"expeditions",
"to",
"the",
"north",
"pole",
",",
"two",
"of",
"which",
"required",
"the",
"construction",
"of",
"an",
"airship",
"hangar",
"and",
"mast",
".",
"the",
"first",
"proposal",
"for",
"an",
"airport",
"in",
"ny",
"@"
] | 877,727 |
airport serving the research community of ny @ - @ alesund in svalbard, norway. the airport is owned by kings bay, who also owns the company town. the only flights available are to svalbard airport, longyear, operated two to four times a week by lufttransport using dornier do 228 aircraft. the services are organized as corporate charters and tickets are only available after permission from kings bay. between 1925 and 1928, ny @ - @ alesund saw four air expeditions to the north pole, two of which required the construction of an airship hangar and mast. the first proposal for an airport in ny @
| 2,016 |
[
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"was",
"launched",
"in",
"1956",
"by",
"nor",
"##sk",
"polar",
"na",
"##vi",
"##gas",
"##jon",
",",
"who",
"proposed",
"an",
"airport",
"at",
"kv",
"##ade",
"##hu",
"##ks",
"##lett",
"##a",
".",
"soviet",
"protests",
"against",
"the",
"airport",
"caused",
"the",
"norwegian",
"authorities",
"to",
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"plans",
",",
"which",
"were",
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"construction",
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"##ner",
"##ab",
"##ben",
"started",
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"1965",
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"##sf",
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"service",
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"temporary",
"landing",
"strips",
"near",
"long",
"##year",
"##by",
"##en",
",",
"but",
"from",
"1975",
"served",
"sv",
"##al",
"##bard",
"airport",
".",
"lu",
"##ft",
"##tra",
"##ns",
"##port",
"started",
"flights",
"with",
"helicopters",
"in",
"the",
"1980s",
",",
"but",
"from",
"1989",
"has",
"flown",
"with",
"fixed",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"wing",
"aircraft",
".",
"ny",
"@",
"-"
] | 877,728 |
- @ alesund was launched in 1956 by norsk polar navigasjon, who proposed an airport at kvadehuksletta. soviet protests against the airport caused the norwegian authorities to oppose the plans, which were laid to rest in the early 1960s. construction at hamnerabben started in 1965 following the decision to build kongsfjord telemetry station. the airport first hosted service to temporary landing strips near longyearbyen, but from 1975 served svalbard airport. lufttransport started flights with helicopters in the 1980s, but from 1989 has flown with fixed @ - @ wing aircraft. ny @ -
| 1,861 |
[
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"was",
"established",
"as",
"a",
"mining",
"company",
"town",
"by",
"kings",
"bay",
"in",
"1916",
".",
"between",
"1925",
"and",
"1928",
",",
"four",
"attempts",
"were",
"made",
"to",
"reach",
"the",
"north",
"pole",
"by",
"air",
"from",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
".",
"in",
"may",
"1925",
",",
"ro",
"##ald",
"am",
"##unds",
"##en",
"used",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"as",
"a",
"base",
"for",
"two",
"flying",
"boats",
",",
"but",
"the",
"expedition",
"failed",
"to",
"come",
"closer",
"than",
"88",
"degrees",
"north",
".",
"on",
"9",
"may",
"1926",
",",
"floyd",
"bennett",
"and",
"richard",
"e",
".",
"byrd",
"used",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"as",
"both",
"the",
"starting",
"and",
"landing",
"for",
"their",
"expedition",
".",
"although",
"they",
"claimed",
"to",
"have",
"reached",
"the",
"pole",
",",
"there",
"is",
"strong",
"evidence",
"that",
"they",
"could",
"not",
"have",
"accomplished",
"this",
".",
"on",
"11"
] | 877,729 |
@ alesund was established as a mining company town by kings bay in 1916. between 1925 and 1928, four attempts were made to reach the north pole by air from ny @ - @ alesund. in may 1925, roald amundsen used ny @ - @ alesund as a base for two flying boats, but the expedition failed to come closer than 88 degrees north. on 9 may 1926, floyd bennett and richard e. byrd used ny @ - @ alesund as both the starting and landing for their expedition. although they claimed to have reached the pole, there is strong evidence that they could not have accomplished this. on 11
| 2,016 |
[
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"23",
"may",
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",",
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"not",
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"infrastructure",
",",
"although",
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"@",
"-",
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"air",
"strip",
"on",
"snow",
".",
"for",
"the",
"airship"
] | 877,730 |
may, amundsen and umberto nobile's airship norge left ny @ - @ alesund and traveled via the north pole to alaska. this is regarded as the first successful expedition to the north pole. after two short skirmishes, nobile's airship italia left ny @ - @ alesund on 23 may 1928 to reach the north pole, but crashed on the return. the flying boats did not require any specific infrastructure, although they had to be brought by ship to ny @ - @ alesund, where they were assembled. they took off from a manually groomed air strip on snow. for the airship
| 2,016 |
[
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"with",
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"@",
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"##p",
".",
"the",
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"was",
"completed",
"on",
"15",
"february",
"1926",
"."
] | 877,731 |
expeditions, a hangar and a mast were needed. twenty @ - @ two carpenters arrived in october 1925 along with supplies on ss alekto. materials were transported to the site by railway after a track had been laid to the site from the port. the 35 @ - @ meter ( 115 ft ) tall steel mast was completed in december. the wooden hangar was 110 by 34 meters ( 361 by 112 ft ) with a height of 30 meters ( 98 ft ). it was covered in 10 @, @ 000 square meters ( 110 @, @ 000 sq ft ) of tarp. the hangar was completed on 15 february 1926.
| 1,786 |
[
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"@",
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"1946",
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"the",
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"@",
"-",
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"##sund",
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"was",
"no",
"ice",
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"fjord",
"and",
"lighting",
"and",
"weather",
"permitted",
"it",
".",
"the",
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"place",
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"10",
"may",
"and",
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"drops",
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"no",
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"out",
"until",
"1949",
";",
"one",
"of",
"the",
"flights",
"that",
"year",
"was",
"an",
"air",
"ambulance",
"operation",
".",
"the",
"service",
"also",
"dropped",
"post",
"at",
"the",
"other",
"norwegian",
"settlements"
] | 877,732 |
mining ceased in ny @ - @ alesund in 1929 ; it was taken up again in 1941, but because of the second world war the town was evacuated the following year. from 1946, the royal norwegian air force started serving ny @ - @ alesund with their consolidated pby catalina amphibian aircraft. the aircraft were able to land if there was no ice on the fjord and lighting and weather permitted it. the first flight took place on 10 may and consisted of post drops. no further flights were carried out until 1949 ; one of the flights that year was an air ambulance operation. the service also dropped post at the other norwegian settlements
| 2,016 |
[
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"##al",
"##bard",
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",",
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"@",
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"##ar",
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"sv",
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".",
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"##ar",
"worked",
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"chief",
"navigator",
"in",
"the",
"scandinavian",
"airlines",
"system",
"(",
"sas",
")",
"and",
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"instrumental",
"in",
"developing",
"the",
"airline",
"routes",
"over",
"the",
"north",
"pole",
".",
"he",
"envisioned",
"that",
"the",
"airport",
"in",
"sv",
"##al",
"##bard",
"could",
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"as",
"an",
"emergency",
"landing",
"aerodrome",
"for",
"intercontinental",
"flights",
",",
"and",
"proposed",
"that",
"the",
"norwegian",
"trunk",
"airline",
"service",
"be",
"extended",
"to"
] | 877,733 |
in svalbard. in 1961, the catalinas were replaced with grumman hu @ - @ 16b albatross aircraft. = = = kvadehuksletta proposal = = = the first proposal for an airport serving ny @ - @ alesund was launched by the brothers einar sverre pedersen and gunnar sverre pedersen. einar worked as chief navigator in the scandinavian airlines system ( sas ) and was instrumental in developing the airline routes over the north pole. he envisioned that the airport in svalbard could serve as an emergency landing aerodrome for intercontinental flights, and proposed that the norwegian trunk airline service be extended to
| 1,052 |
[
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"##al",
"##bard",
".",
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"to",
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"600",
"@",
"-",
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"5",
"@",
",",
"@",
"200",
"ft",
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"long",
"runway",
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"could",
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"3",
"@",
",",
"@",
"000",
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"(",
"9",
"@",
",",
"@",
"800",
"ft",
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".",
"hotel",
"##ln",
"##ese",
"##t",
"and",
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"##dalen",
",",
"both",
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"long",
"##year",
"##by",
"##en",
",",
"were",
"rejected",
"because",
"the",
"areas",
"were",
"too",
"small"
] | 877,734 |
svalbard. the brothers went on an expedition to spitsbergen in 1956 to conduct further surveys. their initial observations concluded that kvadehussletta, the outermost part of brøggerhalvøya, was the best @ - @ suited place for a major airport. they initially planned for a 1 @, @ 600 @ - @ meter ( 5 @, @ 200 ft ) long runway, which could easily be expanded to 3 @, @ 000 meters ( 9 @, @ 800 ft ). hotellneset and adventdalen, both close to longyearbyen, were rejected because the areas were too small
| 1,054 |
[
"and",
"due",
"to",
"poor",
"weather",
"conditions",
".",
"the",
"brothers",
"presented",
"the",
"idea",
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"government",
"of",
"norway",
"and",
"sas",
",",
"but",
"neither",
"party",
"was",
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".",
"they",
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"but",
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"and",
"regulations",
".",
"on",
"22",
"october",
"1958",
",",
"negotiations",
"started",
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"vest",
"##lands",
"##ke",
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"##sel",
"##ska",
"##p",
"to",
"start",
"an",
"airline",
"service",
"from",
"the",
"mainland",
"to",
"sv",
"##al",
"##bard",
".",
"financing",
"of",
"the",
"airport",
"was",
"in",
"part",
"to",
"be",
"secured",
"through",
"a",
"hilton",
"hotel",
",",
"which",
"would",
"provide",
"accommodation",
"for",
"tourists",
",",
"and",
"the",
"\"",
"ro",
"##ald",
"am",
"##unds",
"##en",
"institute",
",",
"\"",
"a"
] | 877,735 |
and due to poor weather conditions. the brothers presented the idea to the government of norway and sas, but neither party was interested in investing in an airport. they contacted kings bay and asked the company to lease or purchase land to build the airport. the company was positive, but required that the airport remained under norwegian ownership and regulations. on 22 october 1958, negotiations started with vestlandske flyselskap to start an airline service from the mainland to svalbard. financing of the airport was in part to be secured through a hilton hotel, which would provide accommodation for tourists, and the " roald amundsen institute, " a
| 1,055 |
[
"planned",
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"station",
".",
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"initial",
"support",
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"the",
"government",
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"the",
"soviet",
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"officially",
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"5",
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"1958",
".",
"they",
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"force",
"base",
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"and",
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"the",
"sv",
"##al",
"##bard",
"treaty",
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"and",
"pointed",
"out",
"that",
"planning",
"was",
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"with",
"american",
"military",
"funding",
"and",
"that",
"gunnar",
"was",
"a",
"military",
"officer",
".",
"from",
"then",
"on",
"the",
"norwegian",
"government",
"started",
"actively",
"opposing",
"the",
"airport",
".",
"at",
"first",
"they",
"asked",
"the",
"company",
"to",
"cease",
"operations",
",",
"then",
"asked",
"the",
"american",
"military",
"to",
"cut",
"funding",
".",
"they",
"also",
"instructed",
"all",
"government",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"owned",
"companies",
"to",
"not",
"allow",
"an",
"airport",
"to",
"be",
"built",
"on",
"their",
"ground",
".",
"the",
"government",
"also",
"used"
] | 877,736 |
planned research station. although the brothers received initial support from the government, the soviet union officially protested the airport on 5 november 1958. they claimed it could be used as an air force base — and thus would be a violation of the svalbard treaty — and pointed out that planning was partially financed with american military funding and that gunnar was a military officer. from then on the norwegian government started actively opposing the airport. at first they asked the company to cease operations, then asked the american military to cut funding. they also instructed all government @ - @ owned companies to not allow an airport to be built on their ground. the government also used
| 1,055 |
[
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"extent",
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",",
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"##sund",
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"the",
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"to",
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"activity",
"in",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"arose",
"in",
"1965",
"with",
"the",
"construction",
"of",
"kong",
"##sf",
"##jord",
"tel",
"##eme",
"##try",
"station",
".",
"the",
"royal",
"norwegian",
"council",
"for",
"scientific",
"and",
"industrial",
"research",
"needed",
"to",
"have",
"an",
"aviation",
"connection",
"with",
"long",
"##year",
"##by",
"##en",
"to",
"send",
"magnetic"
] | 877,737 |
gunnar's military rank to hinder him, to limited extent, from pursuing the plans. the aviation act, which required all airports to have a concession to operate, came into effect from 1961, effectively stopping the plans. following the 1962 mining accident and the subsequent kings bay affair, ny @ - @ alesund was transformed from a mining town to a research outpost. the need for an airport to support commercial activity in ny @ - @ alesund arose in 1965 with the construction of kongsfjord telemetry station. the royal norwegian council for scientific and industrial research needed to have an aviation connection with longyearbyen to send magnetic
| 1,985 |
[
"tapes",
"with",
"the",
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"data",
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"-",
"@",
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"79",
"##0",
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"the",
"road",
"a",
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"of",
"40",
"meters",
"(",
"130",
"ft",
")",
".",
"waste",
"oil",
"was",
"poured",
"on",
"the",
"gravel",
"to",
"bind",
"it",
".",
"a",
"smaller",
"road",
"was",
"built",
"to",
"the",
"north",
"of",
"the",
"runway",
"to",
"allow",
"road",
"transport",
"while",
"the",
"runway",
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"in",
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"the",
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"was",
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"used",
"to",
"fly",
"to",
"long",
"##year",
"##by",
"##en",
",",
"although"
] | 877,738 |
tapes with the downloaded data to germany. a road was built from the settlement to hamnerabben, the site of the telemetry station. the top of the hill was sufficiently flat that a runway could be constructed. it was built by giving a 850 @ - @ meter ( 2 @, @ 790 ft ) long straight section of the road a width of 40 meters ( 130 ft ). waste oil was poured on the gravel to bind it. a smaller road was built to the north of the runway to allow road transport while the runway was in use. the airport was largely used to fly to longyearbyen, although
| 1,599 |
[
"a",
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",",
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"particularly",
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".",
"services",
"were",
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"##j",
"##ø",
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"-",
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"##sund",
".",
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"1970",
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"a",
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"long",
"##year",
"##by",
"##en",
"to",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"and",
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"-",
"@",
"31",
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"mainland",
"for",
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"the",
"tel",
"##eme",
"##try",
"station",
"closed",
"in"
] | 877,739 |
a limited number of flights were undertaken to the mainland. in addition to magnetic tapes, the aircraft were used to transport personnel and cargo, particularly during winter. services were originally operated by ski - og sjøfly, but were later taken over by svalbard @ - @ fly, both of which had their cessna 185 aircraft stationed in ny @ - @ alesund. on 3 june 1970, a miner with a fractured skull was transported by ship from longyearbyen to ny @ - @ alesund and sent on board a piper pa @ - @ 31 navajo to the mainland for treatment. after the telemetry station closed in
| 2,016 |
[
"1974",
",",
"the",
"airport",
"was",
"taken",
"over",
"by",
"kings",
"bay",
".",
"during",
"this",
"period",
",",
"long",
"##year",
"##by",
"##en",
"was",
"served",
"by",
"a",
"plane",
"##d",
"section",
"of",
"tun",
"##dra",
"in",
"advent",
"##dalen",
".",
"sv",
"##al",
"##bard",
"airport",
",",
"long",
"##year",
",",
"opened",
"in",
"1975",
",",
"allowing",
"better",
"facilities",
"and",
"connection",
"with",
"scheduled",
"flights",
"to",
"the",
"mainland",
".",
"at",
"the",
"same",
"time",
",",
"lu",
"##ft",
"##tra",
"##ns",
"##port",
"established",
"itself",
"at",
"sv",
"##al",
"##bard",
"airport",
".",
"during",
"the",
"summer",
"of",
"1975",
",",
"the",
"norwegian",
"polar",
"institute",
"stationed",
"two",
"helicopters",
"at",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"airport",
"to",
"support",
"their",
"expeditions",
".",
"during",
"the",
"late",
"1970s",
"there",
"was",
"little",
"winter",
"activity",
"in",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
",",
"but",
"the",
"air",
"strip",
"was",
"kept",
"operational",
"for",
"the",
"few"
] | 877,740 |
1974, the airport was taken over by kings bay. during this period, longyearbyen was served by a planed section of tundra in adventdalen. svalbard airport, longyear, opened in 1975, allowing better facilities and connection with scheduled flights to the mainland. at the same time, lufttransport established itself at svalbard airport. during the summer of 1975, the norwegian polar institute stationed two helicopters at ny @ - @ alesund airport to support their expeditions. during the late 1970s there was little winter activity in ny @ - @ alesund, but the air strip was kept operational for the few
| 1,985 |
[
"groups",
"of",
"researchers",
"who",
"did",
"visit",
".",
"a",
"radio",
"line",
"repeat",
"##er",
"was",
"installed",
"at",
"kong",
"##s",
"##ve",
"##gp",
"##asse",
"##t",
"in",
"1980",
",",
"resulting",
"in",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"receiving",
"a",
"telephone",
"connection",
".",
"a",
"radio",
"beacon",
"was",
"subsequently",
"installed",
"at",
"the",
"airport",
".",
"during",
"the",
"1980s",
",",
"the",
"services",
"were",
"gradually",
"taken",
"over",
"by",
"lu",
"##ft",
"##tra",
"##ns",
"##port",
",",
"who",
"used",
"both",
"small",
"aircraft",
"and",
"helicopters",
".",
"these",
"gradually",
"became",
"more",
"regular",
"and",
"became",
"de",
"facto",
"scheduled",
"services",
"every",
"fort",
"##night",
".",
"lu",
"##ft",
"##tra",
"##ns",
"##port",
"replaced",
"the",
"helicopter",
"service",
"with",
"a",
"two",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"engine",
"five",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"seat",
"aircraft",
"in",
"1989",
",",
"which",
"cut",
"the",
"cost",
"of",
"transport",
"significantly",
".",
"in",
"1993",
",",
"wider",
"##ø",
"##e",
"established",
"itself"
] | 877,741 |
groups of researchers who did visit. a radio line repeater was installed at kongsvegpasset in 1980, resulting in ny @ - @ alesund receiving a telephone connection. a radio beacon was subsequently installed at the airport. during the 1980s, the services were gradually taken over by lufttransport, who used both small aircraft and helicopters. these gradually became more regular and became de facto scheduled services every fortnight. lufttransport replaced the helicopter service with a two @ - @ engine five @ - @ seat aircraft in 1989, which cut the cost of transport significantly. in 1993, widerøe established itself
| 1,052 |
[
"at",
"sv",
"##al",
"##bard",
"airport",
"and",
"flew",
"services",
"to",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
",",
"but",
"this",
"only",
"lasted",
"the",
"one",
"season",
".",
"in",
"1996",
",",
"lu",
"##ft",
"##tra",
"##ns",
"##port",
"and",
"kings",
"bay",
"made",
"an",
"agreement",
"that",
"the",
"airline",
"would",
"fly",
"once",
"per",
"week",
"during",
"the",
"winter",
"and",
"up",
"to",
"five",
"times",
"per",
"week",
"during",
"the",
"summer",
".",
"the",
"airline",
"would",
"use",
"a",
"do",
"##rnier",
"do",
"228",
",",
"which",
"was",
"also",
"used",
"for",
"flights",
"from",
"long",
"##year",
"##by",
"##en",
"to",
"sv",
"##ea",
"airport",
"for",
"store",
"nor",
"##ske",
"spit",
"##sberg",
"##en",
"ku",
"##lk",
"##omp",
"##ani",
".",
"=",
"=",
"facilities",
"=",
"=",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
"airport",
",",
"ham",
"##ner",
"##ab",
"##ben",
",",
"is",
"located",
"at",
"ham",
"##ner",
"##ab",
"##ben",
",",
"0",
"@",
".",
"@",
"65"
] | 877,742 |
at svalbard airport and flew services to ny @ - @ alesund, but this only lasted the one season. in 1996, lufttransport and kings bay made an agreement that the airline would fly once per week during the winter and up to five times per week during the summer. the airline would use a dornier do 228, which was also used for flights from longyearbyen to svea airport for store norske spitsbergen kulkompani. = = facilities = = ny @ - @ alesund airport, hamnerabben, is located at hamnerabben, 0 @. @ 65
| 2,016 |
[
"nautical",
"miles",
"(",
"1",
"@",
".",
"@",
"20",
"km",
";",
"0",
"@",
".",
"@",
"75",
"mi",
")",
"west",
"of",
"the",
"main",
"settlement",
"of",
"ny",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"ale",
"##sund",
".",
"it",
"consists",
"of",
"a",
"single",
"80",
"##8",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"meter",
"(",
"2",
"@",
",",
"@",
"65",
"##1",
"ft",
")",
"long",
"and",
"30",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"meter",
"(",
"98",
"ft",
")",
"wide",
"gravel",
"runway",
".",
"it",
"is",
"located",
"at",
"40",
"meters",
"(",
"130",
"ft",
")",
"elevation",
"and",
"aligned",
"12",
"/",
"30",
".",
"the",
"airport",
"has",
"a",
"single",
"30",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"by",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"75",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"meter",
"(",
"98",
"by",
"246",
"ft",
")",
"apron",
".",
"the",
"airport",
"has",
"aerodrome",
"flight",
"information",
"service",
"but",
"lacks",
"terminal",
"and",
"hangar",
"facilities",
".",
"=",
"=",
"airlines",
"and",
"destinations",
"="
] | 877,743 |
nautical miles ( 1 @. @ 20 km ; 0 @. @ 75 mi ) west of the main settlement of ny @ - @ alesund. it consists of a single 808 @ - @ meter ( 2 @, @ 651 ft ) long and 30 @ - @ meter ( 98 ft ) wide gravel runway. it is located at 40 meters ( 130 ft ) elevation and aligned 12 / 30. the airport has a single 30 @ - @ by @ - @ 75 @ - @ meter ( 98 by 246 ft ) apron. the airport has aerodrome flight information service but lacks terminal and hangar facilities. = = airlines and destinations =
| 1,054 |
[
"=",
"the",
"only",
"airline",
"to",
"provide",
"service",
"to",
"and",
"from",
"ham",
"##ner",
"##ab",
"##ben",
"is",
"lu",
"##ft",
"##tra",
"##ns",
"##port",
",",
"which",
"operates",
"16",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"seat",
"do",
"##rnier",
"do",
"228",
"aircraft",
"to",
"sv",
"##al",
"##bard",
"airport",
",",
"long",
"##year",
".",
"the",
"airline",
"provides",
"two",
"flights",
"per",
"week",
"during",
"the",
"winter",
"and",
"four",
"flights",
"per",
"week",
"during",
"the",
"summer",
".",
"all",
"departure",
"##s",
"are",
"charter",
"flights",
"organized",
"by",
"kings",
"bay",
"and",
"tickets",
"are",
"only",
"available",
"through",
"the",
"company",
".",
"occasional",
"ad",
"hoc",
"charter",
"flights",
"are",
"also",
"sometimes",
"operated",
".",
"at",
"long",
"##year",
"##by",
"##en",
",",
"connections",
"are",
"provided",
"onwards",
"to",
"tr",
"##oms",
"##ø",
"airport",
"and",
"oslo",
"airport",
",",
"garde",
"##rm",
"##oe",
"##n",
".",
"=",
"louis",
"bra",
"##ille",
"=",
"louis",
"bra",
"##ille",
"(",
"/",
"ˈ",
"##bre",
"##ɪ",
"##l"
] | 877,744 |
= the only airline to provide service to and from hamnerabben is lufttransport, which operates 16 @ - @ seat dornier do 228 aircraft to svalbard airport, longyear. the airline provides two flights per week during the winter and four flights per week during the summer. all departures are charter flights organized by kings bay and tickets are only available through the company. occasional ad hoc charter flights are also sometimes operated. at longyearbyen, connections are provided onwards to tromsø airport and oslo airport, gardermoen. = louis braille = louis braille ( / ˈbreɪl
| 1,052 |
[
"/",
",",
"listen",
";",
"french",
":",
"[",
"l",
"##wi",
"b",
"##ʁ",
"##aj",
"(",
"ə",
")",
"]",
";",
"4",
"january",
"1809",
"–",
"6",
"january",
"1852",
")",
"was",
"a",
"french",
"educator",
"and",
"inventor",
"of",
"a",
"system",
"of",
"reading",
"and",
"writing",
"for",
"use",
"by",
"the",
"blind",
"or",
"visually",
"impaired",
".",
"his",
"system",
"remains",
"known",
"worldwide",
"simply",
"as",
"bra",
"##ille",
".",
"blinded",
"in",
"both",
"eyes",
"as",
"a",
"result",
"of",
"an",
"early",
"childhood",
"accident",
",",
"bra",
"##ille",
"mastered",
"his",
"disability",
"while",
"still",
"a",
"boy",
".",
"he",
"excelled",
"in",
"his",
"education",
"and",
"received",
"scholarship",
"to",
"france",
"'",
"s",
"royal",
"institute",
"for",
"blind",
"youth",
".",
"while",
"still",
"a",
"student",
"there",
",",
"he",
"began",
"developing",
"a",
"system",
"of",
"ta",
"##ct",
"##ile",
"code",
"that",
"could",
"allow",
"blind",
"people",
"to",
"read",
"and",
"write",
"quickly",
"and",
"efficiently",
".",
"inspired"
] | 877,745 |
/, listen ; french : [ lwi bʁaj ( ə ) ] ; 4 january 1809 – 6 january 1852 ) was a french educator and inventor of a system of reading and writing for use by the blind or visually impaired. his system remains known worldwide simply as braille. blinded in both eyes as a result of an early childhood accident, braille mastered his disability while still a boy. he excelled in his education and received scholarship to france's royal institute for blind youth. while still a student there, he began developing a system of tactile code that could allow blind people to read and write quickly and efficiently. inspired
| 2,221 |
[
"by",
"the",
"military",
"crypt",
"##ography",
"of",
"charles",
"barbie",
"##r",
",",
"bra",
"##ille",
"constructed",
"a",
"new",
"method",
"built",
"specifically",
"for",
"the",
"needs",
"of",
"the",
"blind",
".",
"he",
"presented",
"his",
"work",
"to",
"his",
"peers",
"for",
"the",
"first",
"time",
"in",
"1824",
".",
"in",
"adulthood",
",",
"bra",
"##ille",
"served",
"as",
"a",
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"at",
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"institute",
"and",
"enjoyed",
"an",
"av",
"##ocation",
"as",
"a",
"musician",
",",
"but",
"he",
"largely",
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"the",
"remainder",
"of",
"his",
"life",
"refining",
"and",
"extending",
"his",
"system",
".",
"it",
"went",
"unused",
"by",
"most",
"educators",
"for",
"many",
"years",
"after",
"his",
"death",
",",
"but",
"poster",
"##ity",
"has",
"recognized",
"bra",
"##ille",
"as",
"a",
"revolutionary",
"invention",
",",
"and",
"it",
"has",
"been",
"adapted",
"for",
"use",
"in",
"languages",
"worldwide",
".",
"louis",
"bra",
"##ille",
"was",
"born",
"in",
"coup",
"##vr",
"##ay",
",",
"france",
",",
"a",
"small",
"town",
"about",
"twenty"
] | 877,746 |
by the military cryptography of charles barbier, braille constructed a new method built specifically for the needs of the blind. he presented his work to his peers for the first time in 1824. in adulthood, braille served as a professor at the institute and enjoyed an avocation as a musician, but he largely spent the remainder of his life refining and extending his system. it went unused by most educators for many years after his death, but posterity has recognized braille as a revolutionary invention, and it has been adapted for use in languages worldwide. louis braille was born in coupvray, france, a small town about twenty
| 616 |
[
"miles",
"east",
"of",
"paris",
".",
"he",
"and",
"his",
"three",
"elder",
"siblings",
"–",
"monique",
"catherine",
"(",
"b",
".",
"1793",
")",
",",
"louis",
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"-",
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"(",
"b",
".",
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",",
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"(",
"b",
".",
"1797",
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"–",
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",",
"simon",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"rene",
"and",
"monique",
",",
"on",
"three",
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"of",
"land",
"and",
"vineyards",
"in",
"the",
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".",
"simon",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"rene",
"maintained",
"a",
"successful",
"enterprise",
"as",
"a",
"leather",
"##er",
"and",
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"of",
"horse",
"tack",
".",
"as",
"soon",
"as",
"he",
"could",
"walk",
",",
"bra",
"##ille",
"spent",
"time",
"playing",
"in",
"his",
"father",
"'",
"s",
"workshop",
".",
"at",
"the",
"age",
"of",
"three",
",",
"the",
"child",
"was",
"toy",
"##ing",
"with",
"some",
"of",
"the",
"tools",
",",
"trying",
"to",
"make",
"holes",
"in",
"a",
"piece",
"of",
"leather"
] | 877,747 |
miles east of paris. he and his three elder siblings – monique catherine ( b. 1793 ), louis @ - @ simon ( b. 1795 ), and marie celine ( b. 1797 ) – lived with their parents, simon @ - @ rene and monique, on three hectares of land and vineyards in the countryside. simon @ - @ rene maintained a successful enterprise as a leatherer and maker of horse tack. as soon as he could walk, braille spent time playing in his father's workshop. at the age of three, the child was toying with some of the tools, trying to make holes in a piece of leather
| 2,210 |
[
"with",
"an",
"aw",
"##l",
".",
"squinting",
"closely",
"at",
"the",
"surface",
",",
"he",
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"down",
"hard",
"to",
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"the",
"point",
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",",
"and",
"the",
"aw",
"##l",
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"across",
"the",
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"leather",
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"in",
"one",
"of",
"his",
"eyes",
".",
"a",
"local",
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"and",
"patch",
"##ed",
"the",
"affected",
"eye",
"and",
"even",
"arranged",
"for",
"bra",
"##ille",
"to",
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"day",
"in",
"paris",
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"surgeon",
",",
"but",
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"treatment",
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"save",
"the",
"damaged",
"organ",
".",
"in",
"agony",
",",
"the",
"young",
"boy",
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"for",
"weeks",
"as",
"the",
"wound",
"became",
"severely",
"infected",
";",
"an",
"infection",
"which",
"then",
"spread",
"to",
"his",
"other",
"eye",
",",
"likely",
"due",
"to",
"sympathetic",
"op",
"##ht",
"##hal",
"##mia",
".",
"a",
"louis",
"bra",
"##ille",
"survived",
"the",
"torment",
"of",
"the",
"infection",
"but",
"by",
"the",
"age",
"of"
] | 877,748 |
with an awl. squinting closely at the surface, he pressed down hard to drive the point in, and the awl glanced across the tough leather and struck him in one of his eyes. a local physician bound and patched the affected eye and even arranged for braille to be met the next day in paris by a highly respected surgeon, but no treatment could save the damaged organ. in agony, the young boy suffered for weeks as the wound became severely infected ; an infection which then spread to his other eye, likely due to sympathetic ophthalmia. a louis braille survived the torment of the infection but by the age of
| 1,700 |
[
"five",
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"was",
"completely",
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"both",
"eyes",
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"age",
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"bra",
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"and",
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"and",
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"and",
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"education",
".",
"=",
"=",
"education",
"=",
"="
] | 877,749 |
five he was completely blind in both eyes. due to his young age, braille did not realize at first that he had lost his sight, and often asked why it was always dark. his devoted parents made great efforts – quite uncommon for the era – to raise their youngest child in a normal fashion, and he prospered in their care. he learned to navigate the village and country paths with canes his father hewed for him, and he grew up seemingly at peace with his disability. braille's bright and creative mind impressed the local teachers and priests, and he was accommodated with higher education. = = education = =
| 2,113 |
[
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"##ay",
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"##ille",
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"##ckle",
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"taught",
"how",
"to",
"read",
"by",
"a",
"system"
] | 877,750 |
braille studied in coupvray until the age of ten. because of his combination of intelligence and diligence, braille was permitted to attend one of the first schools for blind children in the world, the royal institute for blind youth, since renamed to the national institute for blind youth in paris. braille, the last of the family's children to leave the household, departed for the school in february 1819. at that time the royal institute was an underfunded, ramshackle affair, but it provided a relatively stable environment for blind children to learn and associate together. the children were taught how to read by a system
| 613 |
[
"devised",
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",",
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".",
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"bra",
"##ille",
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"but",
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"the",
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".",
"because",
"the",
"raised",
"letters",
"were",
"made",
"in",
"a",
"complex",
"art",
"##isan"
] | 877,751 |
devised by the school's founder, valentin hauy. not blind himself, hauy was a committed philanthropist who devoted his life to helping the blind. he designed and manufactured a small library of books for the children using a technique of embossing heavy paper with the raised imprints of latin letters. readers would trace their fingers over the text, comprehending slowly but in a traditional fashion which hauy could appreciate. braille was helped by the hauy books, but he also despaired over their lack of depth : the amount of information kept in such books was necessarily small. because the raised letters were made in a complex artisan
| 2,664 |
[
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".",
"despite",
"their",
"draw"
] | 877,752 |
##al process using wet paper pressed against copper wire, the children could not hope to " write " by themselves. so that the young louis could send letters back home, simon @ - @ rene provided him with an alphabet fashioned from bits of thick leather. it was a slow and cumbersome process, but the boy could at least trace the letters'outlines and write his first sentences. the handcrafted hauy books all came in uncomfortable sizes and weights. they were laboriously constructed, exquisitely delicate, and greatly expensive to obtain : when hauy's school first opened, it had a total of three books. despite their draw
| 2,664 |
[
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"##al",
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"reading",
".",
"ha",
"##uy",
"'",
"s",
"only",
"personal",
"limitation",
"was"
] | 877,753 |
##backs, hauy promoted their use with zeal. to him, the books presented a new and handsome system which would be readily approved by those with eyesight. certainly no better method yet existed for the blind to read, and the books seemed – to the sighted – to offer the best achievable results. braille and his schoolmates, however, could detect all too well the books'crushing limitations. nonetheless, hauy's well @ - @ intentioned efforts still provided a breakthrough achievement – the recognition of the sense of touch as a workable strategy for sightless reading. hauy's only personal limitation was
| 2,664 |
[
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"he",
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"he",
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"bra",
"##ille",
"stayed",
"at",
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"where",
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",",
"geometry",
",",
"and",
"algebra",
".",
"bra",
"##ille",
"'",
"s",
"ear",
"for",
"music"
] | 877,754 |
that he was " talking to the fingers [ with ] the language of the eye. " = = = teacher and musician = = = braille read the hauy books repeatedly, and he was equally attentive to the oral instruction offered by the school. he proved to be a highly proficient student and, after he had exhausted the school's curriculum, he was immediately asked to remain as a teacher's aide. by 1833, he was elevated to a full professorship. for much of the rest of his life, braille stayed at the institute where he taught history, geometry, and algebra. braille's ear for music
| 2,690 |
[
"enabled",
"him",
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"##ist",
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"-",
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"nicholas",
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"##ille",
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"-",
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"-",
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"-",
"@",
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"-",
"@",
"paul",
".",
"=",
"=",
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"##ille",
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"=",
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"##ille",
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"to",
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"that",
"could",
"bridge",
"the",
"critical",
"gap",
"in",
"communication",
"between",
"the",
"sighted",
"and",
"the"
] | 877,755 |
enabled him to become an accomplished cellist and organist in classes taught by jean @ - @ nicholas marrigues. later in life, his musical talents led him to play the organ for churches all over france. a devout catholic, braille held the position of organist in paris at the church of saint @ - @ nicolas @ - @ des @ - @ champs from 1834 to 1839, and later at the church of saint @ - @ vincent @ - @ de @ - @ paul. = = braille system = = braille was determined to fashion a system of reading and writing that could bridge the critical gap in communication between the sighted and the
| 593 |
[
"blind",
".",
"in",
"his",
"own",
"words",
":",
"\"",
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"we",
"must",
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"about",
".",
"\"",
"in",
"1821",
",",
"bra",
"##ille",
"learned",
"of",
"a",
"communication",
"system",
"devised",
"by",
"captain",
"charles",
"barbie",
"##r",
"of",
"the",
"french",
"army",
".",
"some",
"sources",
"depict",
"bra",
"##ille",
"learning",
"about",
"it",
"from",
"a",
"newspaper",
"account",
"read",
"to",
"him",
"by",
"a",
"friend",
","
] | 877,756 |
blind. in his own words : " access to communication in the widest sense is access to knowledge, and that is vitally important for us if we [ the blind ] are not to go on being despised or patronized by condescending sighted people. we don't need pity, nor do we need to be reminded we are vulnerable. we must be treated as equals – and communication is the way this can be brought about. " in 1821, braille learned of a communication system devised by captain charles barbier of the french army. some sources depict braille learning about it from a newspaper account read to him by a friend,
| 2,282 |
[
"while",
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"bra",
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"completed",
"by",
"1824",
",",
"when",
"he",
"was",
"fifteen",
"years"
] | 877,757 |
while others say the officer, aware of its potential, made a special visit to the school. in either case, barbier willingly shared his invention called " night writing " which was a code of dots and dashes impressed into thick paper. these impressions could be interpreted entirely by the fingers, letting soldiers share information on the battlefield without having light or needing to speak. the captain's code turned out to be too complex to use in its original military form, but it inspired braille to develop a system of his own. braille worked tirelessly on his ideas, and his system was largely completed by 1824, when he was fifteen years
| 2,274 |
[
"old",
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"-",
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",",
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".",
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"designing",
"his"
] | 877,758 |
old. from barbier's night writing, he innovated by simplifying its form and maximizing its efficiency. he made uniform columns for each letter, and he reduced the twelve raised dots to six. he published his system in 1829, and by the second edition in 1837 had discarded the dashes because they were too difficult to read. crucially, braille's smaller cells were capable of being recognized as letters with a single touch of a finger. braille created his own raised @ - @ dot system by using an awl, the same kind of implement which had blinded him. in the process of designing his
| 1,522 |
[
"system",
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".",
"\"",
"it",
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"\"",
"wrote",
"dr",
".",
"richard",
"sl",
"##ating",
"french",
",",
"former",
"director",
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"california",
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",",
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"itself",
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"\"",
"=",
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"to",
"include",
"bra",
"##ille",
"musical",
"notation",
".",
"passionate",
"about",
"his",
"own",
"music"
] | 877,759 |
system, he also designed an ergonomic interface for using it, based on barbier's own slate and stylus tools. by soldering two metal strips across the slate, he created a secure area for the stylus which would keep the lines straight and readable. by these modest means, braille constructed a robust communication system. " it bears the stamp of genius " wrote dr. richard slating french, former director of the california school for the blind, " like the roman alphabet itself. " = = = musical adaptation = = = the system was soon extended to include braille musical notation. passionate about his own music
| 1,017 |
[
",",
"bra",
"##ille",
"took",
"met",
"##ic",
"##ulous",
"care",
"in",
"its",
"planning",
"to",
"ensure",
"that",
"the",
"musical",
"code",
"would",
"be",
"\"",
"flexible",
"enough",
"to",
"meet",
"the",
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"requirements",
"of",
"any",
"instrument",
".",
"\"",
"in",
"1829",
",",
"he",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"and",
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".",
"ironically",
"this",
"book",
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"printed",
"by",
"the",
"raised",
"letter",
"method",
"of",
"the",
"ha",
"##uy",
"system",
".",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"publications",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"bra",
"##ille",
"produced",
"several",
"written",
"works",
"about",
"bra",
"##ille",
"and",
"as",
"general",
"education",
"for",
"the",
"blind",
".",
"method",
"of",
"writing",
"words",
",",
"music",
",",
"and",
"plain",
"songs",
".",
".",
".",
"(",
"1829",
")",
"was",
"revised"
] | 877,760 |
, braille took meticulous care in its planning to ensure that the musical code would be " flexible enough to meet the unique requirements of any instrument. " in 1829, he published the first book about his system, method of writing words, music, and plain songs by means of dots, for use by the blind and arranged for them. ironically this book was first printed by the raised letter method of the hauy system. = = = publications = = = braille produced several written works about braille and as general education for the blind. method of writing words, music, and plain songs... ( 1829 ) was revised
| 410 |
[
"and",
"republished",
"in",
"1837",
";",
"his",
"mathematics",
"guide",
",",
"little",
"syn",
"##opsis",
"of",
"arithmetic",
"for",
"begin",
"##ners",
",",
"entered",
"use",
"in",
"1838",
";",
"and",
"his",
"monograph",
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"for",
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"by",
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"the",
"form",
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",",
"maps",
",",
"geometric",
"figures",
",",
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",",
"etc",
".",
",",
"for",
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"in",
"1839",
".",
"many",
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"bra",
"##ille",
"'",
"s",
"original",
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"works",
"remain",
"available",
"at",
"the",
"bra",
"##ille",
"birthplace",
"museum",
"in",
"coup",
"##vr",
"##ay",
".",
"new",
"method",
"for",
"representing",
"by",
"dots",
".",
".",
".",
"(",
"1839",
")",
"put",
"forth",
"bra",
"##ille",
"'",
"s",
"plan",
"for",
"a",
"new",
"writing",
"system",
"with",
"which",
"blind",
"people",
"could",
"write",
"letters",
"that",
"could",
"be",
"read",
"by",
"sighted",
"people",
".",
"called",
"dec",
"##ap",
"##oint",
",",
"the",
"system",
"combined"
] | 877,761 |
and republished in 1837 ; his mathematics guide, little synopsis of arithmetic for beginners, entered use in 1838 ; and his monograph new method for representing by dots the form of letters, maps, geometric figures, musical symbols, etc., for use by the blind was first published in 1839. many of braille's original printed works remain available at the braille birthplace museum in coupvray. new method for representing by dots... ( 1839 ) put forth braille's plan for a new writing system with which blind people could write letters that could be read by sighted people. called decapoint, the system combined
| 426 |
[
"his",
"method",
"of",
"dot",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"punching",
"with",
"a",
"new",
"specialized",
"grill",
"which",
"bra",
"##ille",
"devised",
"to",
"over",
"##lay",
"the",
"paper",
".",
"when",
"used",
"with",
"an",
"associated",
"number",
"table",
"(",
"also",
"designed",
"by",
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"##ille",
"and",
"requiring",
"memo",
"##rization",
")",
",",
"the",
"grill",
"could",
"permit",
"a",
"blind",
"writer",
"to",
"faithful",
"##ly",
"reproduce",
"the",
"standard",
"alphabet",
".",
"after",
"the",
"introduction",
"of",
"dec",
"##ap",
"##oint",
",",
"bra",
"##ille",
"gave",
"assistance",
"to",
"his",
"friend",
"pierre",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"francois",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"victor",
"f",
"##ou",
"##ca",
"##ult",
",",
"who",
"was",
"working",
"on",
"the",
"development",
"of",
"his",
"rap",
"##hi",
"##graph",
"##e",
",",
"a",
"device",
"that",
"could",
"em",
"##bos",
"##s",
"letters",
"in",
"the",
"manner",
"of",
"a",
"type",
"##writer",
".",
"f",
"##ou",
"##ca",
"##ult",
"'",
"s",
"machine",
"was",
"hailed",
"as",
"a",
"great",
"success"
] | 877,762 |
his method of dot @ - @ punching with a new specialized grill which braille devised to overlay the paper. when used with an associated number table ( also designed by braille and requiring memorization ), the grill could permit a blind writer to faithfully reproduce the standard alphabet. after the introduction of decapoint, braille gave assistance to his friend pierre @ - @ francois @ - @ victor foucault, who was working on the development of his raphigraphe, a device that could emboss letters in the manner of a typewriter. foucault's machine was hailed as a great success
| 427 |
[
"and",
"was",
"exhibited",
"at",
"the",
"world",
"'",
"s",
"fair",
"in",
"paris",
"in",
"1855",
".",
"although",
"bra",
"##ille",
"was",
"admired",
"and",
"respected",
"by",
"his",
"pupils",
",",
"his",
"writing",
"system",
"was",
"not",
"taught",
"at",
"the",
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"during",
"his",
"lifetime",
".",
"the",
"successors",
"of",
"valentin",
"ha",
"##uy",
",",
"who",
"had",
"died",
"in",
"1822",
",",
"showed",
"no",
"interest",
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"altering",
"the",
"established",
"methods",
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"the",
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",",
"and",
"indeed",
",",
"they",
"were",
"actively",
"hostile",
"to",
"its",
"use",
".",
"dr",
".",
"alexandre",
"francois",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"rene",
"pig",
"##nier",
",",
"headmaster",
"at",
"the",
"school",
",",
"was",
"dismissed",
"from",
"his",
"post",
"after",
"he",
"had",
"a",
"history",
"book",
"translated",
"into",
"bra",
"##ille",
".",
"bra",
"##ille",
"had",
"always",
"been",
"a",
"sick",
"##ly",
"child",
",",
"and",
"his",
"condition",
"worsened",
"in",
"adulthood",
".",
"a",
"persistent",
"respiratory",
"illness",
","
] | 877,763 |
and was exhibited at the world's fair in paris in 1855. although braille was admired and respected by his pupils, his writing system was not taught at the institute during his lifetime. the successors of valentin hauy, who had died in 1822, showed no interest in altering the established methods of the school, and indeed, they were actively hostile to its use. dr. alexandre francois @ - @ rene pignier, headmaster at the school, was dismissed from his post after he had a history book translated into braille. braille had always been a sickly child, and his condition worsened in adulthood. a persistent respiratory illness,
| 593 |
[
"long",
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"to",
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"tuberculosis",
",",
"dogg",
"##ed",
"him",
",",
"and",
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"age",
"of",
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",",
"he",
"was",
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"re",
"##lin",
"##qui",
"##sh",
"his",
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".",
"when",
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",",
"he",
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"at",
"the",
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"institution",
",",
"where",
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"in",
"1852",
",",
"two",
"days",
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"@",
"-",
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"three",
".",
"through",
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"pupils",
",",
"bra",
"##ille",
"'",
"s",
"system",
"was",
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"by",
"the",
"institute",
"in",
"1854",
",",
"two",
"years",
"after",
"his",
"death",
".",
"the",
"system",
"spread",
"throughout",
"the",
"french",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"speaking",
"world",
",",
"but",
"was",
"slower",
"to",
"expand",
"in",
"other",
"places",
".",
"however",
",",
"by",
"the",
"time",
"of",
"the",
"first"
] | 877,764 |
long believed to be tuberculosis, dogged him, and by the age of forty, he was forced to relinquish his position as a teacher. when his condition reached mortal danger, he was admitted to the infirmary at the royal institution, where he died in 1852, two days after he had reached the age of forty @ - @ three. through the overwhelming insistence of the blind pupils, braille's system was finally adopted by the institute in 1854, two years after his death. the system spread throughout the french @ - @ speaking world, but was slower to expand in other places. however, by the time of the first
| 613 |
[
"all",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"european",
"conference",
"of",
"teachers",
"of",
"the",
"blind",
"in",
"1873",
",",
"the",
"cause",
"of",
"bra",
"##ille",
"was",
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"by",
"dr",
".",
"thomas",
"rhodes",
"arm",
"##ita",
"##ge",
"and",
"thereafter",
"its",
"international",
"use",
"increased",
"rapidly",
".",
"by",
"1882",
",",
"dr",
".",
"arm",
"##ita",
"##ge",
"was",
"able",
"to",
"report",
"that",
"\"",
"there",
"is",
"now",
"probably",
"no",
"institution",
"in",
"the",
"civilized",
"world",
"where",
"bra",
"##ille",
"is",
"not",
"used",
"except",
"in",
"some",
"of",
"those",
"in",
"north",
"america",
".",
"\"",
"eventually",
"even",
"these",
"hold",
"##outs",
"re",
"##lent",
"##ed",
":",
"bra",
"##ille",
"was",
"officially",
"adopted",
"by",
"schools",
"for",
"the",
"blind",
"in",
"the",
"united",
"states",
"in",
"1916",
",",
"and",
"a",
"universal",
"bra",
"##ille",
"code",
"for",
"english",
"was",
"formal",
"##ized",
"in",
"1932",
".",
"new",
"variations",
"in",
"bra",
"##ille",
"technology",
"continue",
"to",
"grow",
",",
"including"
] | 877,765 |
all @ - @ european conference of teachers of the blind in 1873, the cause of braille was championed by dr. thomas rhodes armitage and thereafter its international use increased rapidly. by 1882, dr. armitage was able to report that " there is now probably no institution in the civilized world where braille is not used except in some of those in north america. " eventually even these holdouts relented : braille was officially adopted by schools for the blind in the united states in 1916, and a universal braille code for english was formalized in 1932. new variations in braille technology continue to grow, including
| 569 |
[
"such",
"innovations",
"as",
"bra",
"##ille",
"computer",
"terminals",
";",
"rob",
"##ob",
"##rail",
"##le",
"email",
"delivery",
"service",
";",
"and",
"ne",
"##met",
"##h",
"bra",
"##ille",
",",
"a",
"comprehensive",
"system",
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"mathematical",
"and",
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".",
"almost",
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",",
"bra",
"##ille",
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"a",
"system",
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"and",
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".",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"honors",
"and",
"tribute",
"##s",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"the",
"immense",
"personal",
"legacy",
"of",
"louis",
"bra",
"##ille",
"was",
"described",
"in",
"a",
"1952",
"essay",
"by",
"t",
".",
"s",
".",
"eliot",
":",
"bra",
"##ille",
"'",
"s",
"childhood",
"home",
"in",
"coup",
"##vr",
"##ay",
"is",
"a",
"listed",
"historic",
"building",
"and",
"houses",
"the",
"louis",
"bra",
"##ille",
"museum",
".",
"a",
"large",
"monument",
"to",
"him",
"was",
"erected",
"in",
"the",
"town",
"square",
"which",
"was",
"itself",
"renamed",
"bra",
"##ille",
"square",
".",
"on",
"the",
"centenary",
"of",
"his"
] | 877,766 |
such innovations as braille computer terminals ; robobraille email delivery service ; and nemeth braille, a comprehensive system for mathematical and scientific notation. almost two centuries after its invention, braille remains a system of powerful and enduring utility. = = = honors and tributes = = = the immense personal legacy of louis braille was described in a 1952 essay by t. s. eliot : braille's childhood home in coupvray is a listed historic building and houses the louis braille museum. a large monument to him was erected in the town square which was itself renamed braille square. on the centenary of his
| 862 |
[
"death",
",",
"his",
"remains",
"were",
"moved",
"to",
"the",
"pantheon",
"in",
"paris",
".",
"in",
"a",
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"gesture",
",",
"bra",
"##ille",
"'",
"s",
"hands",
"were",
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"##vr",
"##ay",
",",
"rev",
"##ere",
"##ntly",
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"near",
"his",
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".",
"statues",
"and",
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"memorials",
"to",
"louis",
"bra",
"##ille",
"can",
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"found",
"around",
"the",
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".",
"he",
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"stamps",
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",",
"and",
"the",
"asteroid",
"99",
"##6",
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"##ille",
"was",
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"in",
"1992",
".",
"the",
"en",
"##cy",
"##cl",
"##op",
"##æ",
"##dia",
"brit",
"##ann",
"##ica",
"lists",
"him",
"among",
"the",
"\"",
"100",
"most",
"influential",
"inventor",
"##s",
"of",
"all",
"time",
"\"",
".",
"the",
"200",
"##th",
"anniversary",
"of",
"bra",
"##ille",
"'",
"s",
"birth",
"in",
"2009",
"was",
"celebrated",
"throughout",
"the",
"world",
"by",
"exhibitions",
"and",
"symposium",
"##s",
"about",
"his",
"life",
"and",
"achievements"
] | 877,767 |
death, his remains were moved to the pantheon in paris. in a symbolic gesture, braille's hands were left in coupvray, reverently buried near his home. statues and other memorials to louis braille can be found around the world. he has been commemorated in postage stamps worldwide, and the asteroid 9969 braille was named for him in 1992. the encyclopædia britannica lists him among the " 100 most influential inventors of all time ". the 200th anniversary of braille's birth in 2009 was celebrated throughout the world by exhibitions and symposiums about his life and achievements
| 593 |
[
".",
"among",
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"##s",
",",
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"and",
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",",
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".",
"=",
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",",
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",",
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"number",
"of",
"works",
"of",
"juvenile",
"literature",
".",
"other",
"appearances",
"in",
"the",
"arts",
"include",
"the",
"american",
"tv",
"special",
"young",
"heroes",
":",
"louis",
"bra",
"##ille",
"(",
"2010",
")",
";",
"the",
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"tv",
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"lu",
"##mie",
"##re",
"dans",
"la",
"nu",
"##it",
"(",
"2008",
")",
"(",
"released"
] | 877,768 |
. among the commemorations, belgium and italy struck 2 @ - @ euro coins, india struck a 2 @ - @ rupee coin, and the usa struck a one dollar coin, all in braille's honor. = = = in popular culture = = = because of his accomplishments as a young boy, braille holds a special place as a hero for children, and he has been the subject of a large number of works of juvenile literature. other appearances in the arts include the american tv special young heroes : louis braille ( 2010 ) ; the french tv movie une lumiere dans la nuit ( 2008 ) ( released
| 2,478 |
[
"in",
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"as",
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"of",
"bra",
"##ille",
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";",
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"##ille",
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"=",
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"the",
"tenth",
"episode",
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"the",
"fourth",
"season",
"of",
"the",
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"series",
"the",
"x",
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"-",
"@",
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".",
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"on",
"the",
"fox",
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"on",
"december",
"15",
",",
"1996",
".",
"it",
"was",
"written",
"by",
"vince",
"gill",
"##igan",
",",
"directed",
"by",
"rob"
] | 877,769 |
in english as the secret of braille ) ; and the dramatic play braille : the early life of louis braille ( 1989 ) by lola and coleman jennings. in music, braille's life was subject of the song called " merci, louis ", composed by the halifax singer @ - @ songwriter terry kelly, chair of the canadian braille literacy foundation. = paper hearts = " paper hearts " is the tenth episode of the fourth season of the american science fiction television series the x @ - @ files. it premiered on the fox network on december 15, 1996. it was written by vince gilligan, directed by rob
| 2,079 |
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] | 877,770 |
bowman, and featured guest appearances by tom noonan, rebecca toolan and vanessa morley. the episode is a " monster @ - @ of @ - @ the @ - @ week " story, unconnected to, but conversant with, the series'wider mythology. " paper hearts " was viewed by 16 @. @ 59 million people in its initial broadcast, and received positive reviews, with critics praising noonan's guest role. the show centers on fbi special agents fox mulder ( david duchovny ) and dana scully ( gillian anderson ), who work on cases linked to the paranormal, called x @ - @
| 2,940 |
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] | 877,771 |
files. mulder is a believer in the paranormal, and the skeptical scully has been assigned to debunk his work. in this episode, mulder and scully find that a child killer ( tom noonan ) who mulder had helped to apprehend several years earlier had claimed more victims than he had confessed to ; and in the resulting investigation, learn that the killer is now claiming to have killed mulder's sister samantha. gilligan came up with the concept for " paper hearts " when thinking about the series'longest running storyline, the abduction of samantha mulder ; he came up with a story questioning whether samantha had not
| 2,509 |
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] | 877,772 |
been abducted by aliens, but was rather murdered by a child killer instead. " paper hearts " was written specifically with tom noonan in mind for the role of roche, and was amongst the first television work the actor had done. fox mulder ( david duchovny ) dreams of a red light that leads him to the corpse of a young girl buried in a park in manassas, virginia. when he awakens, he heads to the park and finds the girl's skeleton. the girl was determined to have been murdered by john lee roche ( tom noonan ), a serial killer who murdered thirteen girls throughout the 1980s
| 2,717 |
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] | 877,773 |
; his modus operandi was cutting a heart out of the clothes of each victim. mulder had captured roche by deducing that he committed the murders while traveling as a vacuum cleaner salesman. roche's hearts were never found, although he confessed to all of the murders. dana scully's ( gillian anderson ) autopsy of the skeleton finds that the victim died in 1975, suggesting that roche's killing spree started much earlier than the fbi had previously thought. the agents search roche's old car, where they discover sixteen cut @ - @ out hearts. mulder and scully subsequently visit roche in prison, hoping to learn
| 2,510 |
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] | 877,774 |
the identities of the remaining two victims. roche, however, tries to play mind games with mulder. that night mulder dreams of the night of samantha's abduction, seemingly showing that his sister was abducted by roche rather than aliens. the next day, mulder asks roche where he was the night samantha was abducted. roche claims he was on martha's vineyard and had sold a vacuum cleaner to mulder's father. mulder later finds the vacuum in his mother's house. after convincing walter skinner to grant them further access to roche, the agents question the killer and are told the location of one of his remaining victims
| 2,509 |
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] | 877,775 |
. he also claims exactly what happened the night of samantha's abduction. an autopsy of the body reveals it does not belong to samantha. roche tells mulder the final body is samantha's, but says that he will only reveal where it is if mulder takes him to the scene of her abduction. mulder secretly releases roche from prison and brings him to martha's vineyard. upon arriving at his family's old summer house, roche explains exactly what happened the night of samantha's abduction. however, mulder tells him that the house was bought by his father after samantha's abduction, convincing him that roche is not
| 2,509 |
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] | 877,776 |
telling the truth. mulder plans to bring roche back to prison, but — following another dream about samantha — awakens to find roche gone, with his badge, gun, and phone stolen. using mulder's credentials, roche kidnaps a girl in swampscott, massachusetts whom he met on his flight with mulder to boston. scully and skinner arrive the next day and the agents head to the site of roche's old apartment in revere. they find him with the girl in an abandoned bus nearby. roche holds the gun on the girl and tells mulder that he'll never know for sure whether the last victim is
| 2,509 |
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] | 877,777 |
samantha or not if he kills him. mulder is then forced to shoot roche, as he starts to pull on the trigger of the stolen gun. in his office mulder stares at the final cloth heart and puts it away, unsure of whether it belonged to samantha or not. = = production = = " paper hearts " was written specifically with tom noonan in mind for the role of roche, and was amongst the first television work the actor had done. writer vince gilligan came up with the concept for the episode when thinking about the series'longest running storyline, the abduction of samantha mulder. gilligan came up with a story
| 2,717 |
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"mu",
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"victims",
"'",
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] | 877,778 |
questioning whether samantha had not been abducted by aliens, but was rather murdered by a child killer instead. he decided to help convince fox mulder of this through a series of prophetic dreams. the laser lights in mulder's dreams were influenced by gilligan's experience with laser holograms while he was a film student. the laser was supposed to be the color blue, but was changed to red in production to reduce costs. wanting to include some kind of fetish for the killer, gilligan settled on having roche cut heart shaped fragments from his victim's clothing, thinking that having him mutilate his victims'bodies
| 2,509 |
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"season",
",",
"it",
"was",
"the"
] | 877,779 |
would be going too far. guest actor tom noonan, who played the killer john lee roche, recalled filming the scene in which his character is introduced, playing basketball in prison. noonan, a capable basketball player, was asked to " downplay " how well he could play ; although he regretted not being able to play against david duchovny, who had played basketball for princeton university. episode writer vince gilligan and director rob bowman assert that duchovny's successful basketball shot in this scene was filmed in just one take, without special effects. while the episode was the eighth produced in the season, it was the
| 2,706 |
[
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",",
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",",
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"two",
"on",
"november",
"12"
] | 877,780 |
tenth aired, having been delayed to free up production resources for the two part episodes " tunguska " and " terma ". the episode's climactic scene was filmed in a " bus graveyard " in surrey, british columbia, a location which had been scouted months previously with the intention of eventually including it in an episode of the series ; although filming at the location did not even last a full day despite the long wait to use it. = = broadcast and reception = = " paper hearts " premiered on the fox network on december 15, 1996, and was first broadcast in the united kingdom on bbc two on november 12
| 2,942 |
[
",",
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".",
"the",
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"'",
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",",
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".",
"website",
"ign",
"named",
"\"",
"paper",
"hearts",
"\"",
"their",
"sixth"
] | 877,781 |
, 1997. the episode's initial broadcast was viewed by approximately 16 @. @ 59 million people, which represented 16 % of the viewing audience during that time. both gillian anderson and david duchovny consider this among the best episodes of the fourth season. composer mark snow was nominated for an emmy award for the music he produced for this episode. he said of the episode's music, " it was a different kind of texture for the show. light, magic, nothing terribly threatening ". snow received many requests for a recording of the music used at the end of the episode. website ign named " paper hearts " their sixth
| 2,961 |
[
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"\"",
",",
"noting",
"that",
"the",
"actor",
"\"",
"makes",
"roche",
"into"
] | 877,782 |
favorite " standalone " episode of the show, calling it " creepy and unsettling ", and claiming noonan's character was " one of the most disturbing villains to make an appearance in the series ". noonan's acting has also been praised by vince gilligan, who says the " understated " manner in which roche is portrayed " sends chills down [ his ] spine every time ". the a. v. club's todd vanderwerff reviewed the episode positively, rating it an a. he felt that noonan's performance was " terrific ", noting that the actor " makes roche into
| 2,705 |
[
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".",
"\"",
"star",
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"the",
"second",
"best",
"episode",
"of",
"the",
"series",
".",
"=",
"retreat",
"of",
"glaciers",
"since"
] | 877,783 |
one of the series'great human monsters " ; and believed that the episode's premise was important to developing the character of mulder further. the website later named the episode the sixth best example of a television dream sequence, noting that it " suggest [ s ] how this methodical man [ mulder ] might puzzle over cold cases in his subconscious ". the article also complimented the entry's metaphor that laser pointers were mulder's mind that pointed " out bits of evidence his conscious brain missed all those many years ago. " starpulse named it the second best episode of the series. = retreat of glaciers since
| 2,509 |
[
"1850",
"=",
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"retreat",
"of",
"glaciers",
"since",
"1850",
"affects",
"the",
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"and",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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".",
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",",
"the",
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"with",
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"gas",
"##ses",
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"##iary",
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"##pin",
"##ning",
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"global",
"warming",
".",
"mid",
"@",
"-",
"@",
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"ranges",
"such",
"as",
"the",
"himalayas",
",",
"alps",
",",
"rocky",
"mountains",
",",
"cascade",
"range",
",",
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"andes",
",",
"as",
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"as",
"isolated",
"tropical",
"summit",
"##s",
"such",
"as",
"mount",
"ki",
"##lim",
"##an",
"##jar",
"##o",
"in",
"africa",
",",
"are"
] | 877,784 |
1850 = the retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use, mountain recreation, animals and plants that depend on glacier @ - @ melt, and, in the longer term, the level of the oceans. studied by glaciologists, the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gasses is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming. mid @ - @ latitude mountain ranges such as the himalayas, alps, rocky mountains, cascade range, and the southern andes, as well as isolated tropical summits such as mount kilimanjaro in africa, are
| 1,476 |
[
"showing",
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"and",
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"##lation",
",",
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"the",
"little",
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"age",
"was",
"a",
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"from",
"about",
"1550",
"to",
"1850",
"when",
"the",
"world",
"experienced",
"relatively",
"cooler",
"temperatures",
"compared",
"to",
"the",
"present",
".",
"subsequently",
",",
"until",
"about"
] | 877,785 |
showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses. glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier. if the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation, the glacier will retreat. glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances, and if they don't find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation, will eventually disappear. the little ice age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present. subsequently, until about
| 1,480 |
[
"1940",
",",
"glaciers",
"around",
"the",
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"as",
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",",
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"as",
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"of",
"south",
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"and",
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"in",
"asia",
",",
"the",
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"of",
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"in",
"these",
"regions",
"has",
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"supplies",
"in",
"those",
"areas",
".",
"the",
"retreat",
"of",
"mountain",
"glaciers",
",",
"notably",
"in",
"western",
"north",
"america",
",",
"asia",
",",
"the",
"alps",
"and",
"tropical",
"and",
"subtropical"
] | 877,786 |
1940, glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially. glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily, in many cases, between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly. since 1980, a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous, so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether, and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened. in locations such as the andes of south america and himalayas in asia, the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas. the retreat of mountain glaciers, notably in western north america, asia, the alps and tropical and subtropical
| 1,480 |
[
"regions",
"of",
"south",
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",",
"africa",
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"indonesia",
",",
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",",
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"##lim",
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")",
",",
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".",
"climate",
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"and",
"snowfall",
",",
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"negative",
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"loses",
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"and",
"retreat",
"##s",
".",
"a"
] | 877,787 |
regions of south america, africa and indonesia, provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century. the acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the greenland and west antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level, which would affect coastal regions. = = glacier mass balance = = the mass balance, or difference between accumulation and ablation ( melting and sublimation ), of a glacier is crucial to its survival. climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall, resulting in changes in mass balance. a glacier with a sustained negative balance loses equilibrium and retreats. a
| 1,485 |
[
"sustained",
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"and",
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"to",
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"currently",
",",
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"-",
"@",
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",",
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",",
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"and",
"potentially",
"rees",
"##ta",
"##bl",
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".",
"if",
"the",
"mass",
"balance",
"of",
"a",
"significant",
"portion",
"of",
"the",
"accumulation",
"zone",
"of",
"the",
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"is",
"negative",
",",
"it",
"is",
"in",
"di",
"##se",
"##quil",
"##ib",
"##rium",
"with",
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"and",
"will",
"melt",
"away",
"without",
"a",
"colder",
"climate",
"and",
"or",
"an",
"increase",
"in",
"frozen",
"precipitation",
".",
"methods",
"for",
"measuring",
"retreat"
] | 877,788 |
sustained positive balance is also out of equilibrium and will advance to reestablish equilibrium. currently, nearly all glaciers have a negative mass balance and are retreating. glacier retreat results in the loss of the low @ - @ elevation region of the glacier. since higher elevations are cooler, the disappearance of the lowest portion decreases overall ablation, thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium. if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative, it is in disequilibrium with the climate and will melt away without a colder climate and or an increase in frozen precipitation. methods for measuring retreat
| 1,480 |
[
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",",
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"size",
"but",
"at",
"a",
"slowing",
"rate",
"of",
"reduction",
"and",
"stabilize",
"at",
"that",
"size",
"despite",
"the",
"warmer",
"temperature",
"over",
"a",
"few"
] | 877,789 |
include staking terminus location, global positioning mapping, aerial mapping and laser altimetry. the key symptom of disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier. this indicates a diminishment of the accumulation zone. the result is marginal recession of the accumulation zone margin, not just of the terminus. in effect, the glacier no longer has a consistent accumulation zone and without an accumulation zone cannot survive. for example, easton glacier in washington state, u. s. will likely shrink to half its size but at a slowing rate of reduction and stabilize at that size despite the warmer temperature over a few
| 1,469 |
[
"decades",
".",
"however",
",",
"the",
"grin",
"##nell",
"glacier",
"in",
"montana",
",",
"u",
".",
"s",
".",
"will",
"shrink",
"at",
"an",
"increasing",
"rate",
"until",
"it",
"disappears",
".",
"the",
"difference",
"is",
"that",
"the",
"upper",
"section",
"of",
"easton",
"glacier",
"remains",
"healthy",
"and",
"snow",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"covered",
",",
"while",
"even",
"the",
"upper",
"section",
"of",
"the",
"grin",
"##nell",
"glacier",
"is",
"bare",
",",
"is",
"melting",
"and",
"has",
"thin",
"##ned",
".",
"small",
"glaciers",
"with",
"minimal",
"altitude",
"range",
"are",
"most",
"likely",
"to",
"fall",
"into",
"di",
"##se",
"##quil",
"##ib",
"##rium",
"with",
"the",
"climate",
".",
"=",
"=",
"middle",
"latitude",
"glaciers",
"=",
"=",
"middle",
"latitude",
"glaciers",
"are",
"located",
"either",
"between",
"the",
"tr",
"##op",
"##ic",
"of",
"cancer",
"and",
"the",
"arctic",
"circle",
",",
"or",
"between",
"the",
"tr",
"##op",
"##ic",
"of",
"cap",
"##ric",
"##orn",
"and",
"the",
"antarctic",
"circle",
".",
"both",
"areas",
"support"
] | 877,790 |
decades. however, the grinnell glacier in montana, u. s. will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears. the difference is that the upper section of easton glacier remains healthy and snow @ - @ covered, while even the upper section of the grinnell glacier is bare, is melting and has thinned. small glaciers with minimal altitude range are most likely to fall into disequilibrium with the climate. = = middle latitude glaciers = = middle latitude glaciers are located either between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle, or between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle. both areas support
| 1,480 |
[
"glacier",
"ice",
"from",
"mountain",
"glaciers",
",",
"valley",
"glaciers",
"and",
"even",
"smaller",
"ice",
"##cap",
"##s",
",",
"which",
"are",
"usually",
"located",
"in",
"higher",
"mountainous",
"regions",
".",
"all",
"are",
"located",
"in",
"mountain",
"ranges",
",",
"notably",
"the",
"himalayas",
";",
"the",
"alps",
";",
"the",
"pyrenees",
";",
"rocky",
"mountains",
"and",
"pacific",
"coast",
"ranges",
"of",
"north",
"america",
";",
"the",
"pat",
"##ago",
"##nian",
"andes",
"in",
"south",
"america",
";",
"and",
"mountain",
"ranges",
"in",
"new",
"zealand",
".",
"glaciers",
"in",
"these",
"latitude",
"##s",
"are",
"more",
"widespread",
"and",
"tend",
"to",
"be",
"greater",
"in",
"mass",
"the",
"closer",
"they",
"are",
"to",
"the",
"polar",
"regions",
".",
"they",
"are",
"the",
"most",
"widely",
"studied",
"over",
"the",
"past",
"150",
"years",
".",
"as",
"with",
"examples",
"located",
"in",
"the",
"tropical",
"zone",
",",
"virtually",
"all",
"the",
"glaciers",
"in",
"the",
"mid",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"latitude",
"##s",
"are",
"in",
"a",
"state"
] | 877,791 |
glacier ice from mountain glaciers, valley glaciers and even smaller icecaps, which are usually located in higher mountainous regions. all are located in mountain ranges, notably the himalayas ; the alps ; the pyrenees ; rocky mountains and pacific coast ranges of north america ; the patagonian andes in south america ; and mountain ranges in new zealand. glaciers in these latitudes are more widespread and tend to be greater in mass the closer they are to the polar regions. they are the most widely studied over the past 150 years. as with examples located in the tropical zone, virtually all the glaciers in the mid @ - @ latitudes are in a state
| 1,480 |
[
"of",
"negative",
"mass",
"balance",
"and",
"are",
"retreating",
".",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"eastern",
"hemisphere",
"=",
"=",
"=",
"in",
"france",
"all",
"six",
"of",
"the",
"major",
"glaciers",
"in",
"that",
"country",
"are",
"in",
"retreat",
".",
"on",
"mont",
"blanc",
",",
"the",
"highest",
"peak",
"in",
"the",
"alps",
",",
"the",
"argent",
"##iere",
"glacier",
"has",
"rec",
"##eded",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"150",
"m",
"(",
"3",
"@",
",",
"@",
"770",
"ft",
")",
"since",
"1870",
".",
"other",
"mont",
"blanc",
"glaciers",
"have",
"also",
"been",
"in",
"retreat",
",",
"including",
"the",
"mer",
"de",
"g",
"##lace",
",",
"which",
"is",
"the",
"largest",
"glacier",
"in",
"france",
"at",
"12",
"km",
"(",
"7",
"@",
".",
"@",
"5",
"mi",
")",
"in",
"length",
"but",
"retreated",
"500",
"m",
"(",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"600",
"ft",
")",
"between",
"1994",
"and",
"2008",
".",
"the",
"glacier",
"has",
"retreated",
"2",
"@",
",",
"@"
] | 877,792 |
of negative mass balance and are retreating. = = = eastern hemisphere = = = in france all six of the major glaciers in that country are in retreat. on mont blanc, the highest peak in the alps, the argentiere glacier has receded 1 @, @ 150 m ( 3 @, @ 770 ft ) since 1870. other mont blanc glaciers have also been in retreat, including the mer de glace, which is the largest glacier in france at 12 km ( 7 @. @ 5 mi ) in length but retreated 500 m ( 1 @, @ 600 ft ) between 1994 and 2008. the glacier has retreated 2 @, @
| 39 |
[
"300",
"m",
"(",
"7",
"@",
",",
"@",
"500",
"ft",
")",
"since",
"the",
"end",
"of",
"the",
"little",
"ice",
"age",
".",
"the",
"boss",
"##ons",
"glacier",
"once",
"extended",
"from",
"the",
"summit",
"of",
"mont",
"blanc",
"at",
"4",
"@",
",",
"@",
"80",
"##7",
"m",
"(",
"15",
"@",
",",
"@",
"77",
"##1",
"ft",
")",
"to",
"an",
"elevation",
"of",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"050",
"m",
"(",
"3",
"@",
",",
"@",
"440",
"ft",
")",
"in",
"1900",
".",
"by",
"2008",
"boss",
"##ons",
"glacier",
"had",
"retreated",
"to",
"a",
"point",
"that",
"was",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"400",
"m",
"(",
"4",
"@",
",",
"@",
"600",
"ft",
")",
"above",
"sea",
"level",
".",
"other",
"researchers",
"have",
"found",
"that",
"glaciers",
"across",
"the",
"alps",
"appear",
"to",
"be",
"retreating",
"at",
"a",
"faster",
"rate",
"than",
"a",
"few",
"decades",
"ago",
".",
"in",
"a",
"paper",
"published",
"in",
"2009"
] | 877,793 |
300 m ( 7 @, @ 500 ft ) since the end of the little ice age. the bossons glacier once extended from the summit of mont blanc at 4 @, @ 807 m ( 15 @, @ 771 ft ) to an elevation of 1 @, @ 050 m ( 3 @, @ 440 ft ) in 1900. by 2008 bossons glacier had retreated to a point that was 1 @, @ 400 m ( 4 @, @ 600 ft ) above sea level. other researchers have found that glaciers across the alps appear to be retreating at a faster rate than a few decades ago. in a paper published in 2009
| 1,480 |
[
"by",
"the",
"university",
"of",
"zurich",
",",
"the",
"swiss",
"glacier",
"survey",
"of",
"89",
"glaciers",
"found",
"76",
"retreating",
",",
"5",
"stationary",
"and",
"8",
"advancing",
"from",
"where",
"they",
"had",
"been",
"in",
"1973",
".",
"the",
"tri",
"##ft",
"glacier",
"had",
"the",
"greatest",
"recorded",
"retreat",
",",
"losing",
"350",
"m",
"(",
"1",
"@",
",",
"@",
"150",
"ft",
")",
"of",
"its",
"length",
"between",
"the",
"years",
"2003",
"and",
"2005",
".",
"the",
"gross",
"##er",
"ale",
"##ts",
"##ch",
"glacier",
"is",
"the",
"largest",
"glacier",
"in",
"switzerland",
"and",
"has",
"been",
"studied",
"since",
"the",
"late",
"19th",
"century",
".",
"ale",
"##ts",
"##ch",
"glacier",
"retreated",
"2",
"@",
".",
"@",
"8",
"km",
"(",
"1",
"@",
".",
"@",
"7",
"mi",
")",
"from",
"1880",
"to",
"2009",
".",
"this",
"rate",
"of",
"retreat",
"has",
"also",
"increased",
"since",
"1980",
",",
"with",
"30",
"%",
",",
"or",
"800",
"m",
"(",
"2",
"@"
] | 877,794 |
by the university of zurich, the swiss glacier survey of 89 glaciers found 76 retreating, 5 stationary and 8 advancing from where they had been in 1973. the trift glacier had the greatest recorded retreat, losing 350 m ( 1 @, @ 150 ft ) of its length between the years 2003 and 2005. the grosser aletsch glacier is the largest glacier in switzerland and has been studied since the late 19th century. aletsch glacier retreated 2 @. @ 8 km ( 1 @. @ 7 mi ) from 1880 to 2009. this rate of retreat has also increased since 1980, with 30 %, or 800 m ( 2 @
| 39 |
[
",",
"@",
"600",
"ft",
")",
",",
"of",
"the",
"total",
"retreat",
"occurring",
"in",
"the",
"last",
"20",
"%",
"of",
"the",
"time",
"period",
".",
"the",
"mort",
"##era",
"##ts",
"##ch",
"glacier",
"in",
"switzerland",
"has",
"had",
"one",
"of",
"the",
"longest",
"periods",
"of",
"scientific",
"study",
"with",
"yearly",
"measurements",
"of",
"the",
"glacier",
"'",
"s",
"length",
"commencing",
"in",
"1878",
".",
"the",
"overall",
"retreat",
"from",
"1878",
"to",
"1998",
"has",
"been",
"2",
"km",
"(",
"1",
"@",
".",
"@",
"2",
"mi",
")",
"with",
"a",
"mean",
"annual",
"retreat",
"rate",
"of",
"approximately",
"17",
"m",
"(",
"56",
"ft",
")",
"per",
"year",
".",
"this",
"long",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"term",
"average",
"was",
"markedly",
"surpassed",
"in",
"recent",
"years",
"with",
"the",
"glacier",
"rec",
"##eding",
"30",
"m",
"(",
"98",
"ft",
")",
"per",
"year",
"during",
"the",
"period",
"between",
"1999",
"–",
"2005",
".",
"similarly",
",",
"of",
"the",
"glaciers",
"in"
] | 877,795 |
, @ 600 ft ), of the total retreat occurring in the last 20 % of the time period. the morteratsch glacier in switzerland has had one of the longest periods of scientific study with yearly measurements of the glacier's length commencing in 1878. the overall retreat from 1878 to 1998 has been 2 km ( 1 @. @ 2 mi ) with a mean annual retreat rate of approximately 17 m ( 56 ft ) per year. this long @ - @ term average was markedly surpassed in recent years with the glacier receding 30 m ( 98 ft ) per year during the period between 1999 – 2005. similarly, of the glaciers in
| 1,480 |
[
"the",
"italian",
"alps",
",",
"only",
"about",
"a",
"third",
"were",
"in",
"retreat",
"in",
"1980",
",",
"while",
"by",
"1999",
",",
"89",
"%",
"of",
"these",
"glaciers",
"were",
"retreating",
".",
"in",
"2005",
",",
"the",
"italian",
"glacier",
"commission",
"found",
"that",
"123",
"glaciers",
"in",
"lombardy",
"were",
"retreating",
".",
"a",
"random",
"study",
"of",
"the",
"sf",
"##or",
"##zell",
"##ina",
"glacier",
"in",
"the",
"italian",
"alps",
"indicated",
"that",
"the",
"rate",
"of",
"retreat",
"from",
"2002",
"to",
"2006",
"was",
"much",
"higher",
"than",
"in",
"the",
"preceding",
"35",
"years",
".",
"to",
"study",
"glaciers",
"located",
"in",
"the",
"alpine",
"regions",
"of",
"lombardy",
",",
"researchers",
"compared",
"a",
"series",
"of",
"aerial",
"and",
"ground",
"images",
"taken",
"from",
"the",
"1950s",
"through",
"the",
"early",
"21st",
"century",
"and",
"de",
"##duced",
"that",
"between",
"the",
"years",
"1954",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"2003",
"the",
"mostly",
"smaller",
"glaciers",
"found",
"there",
"lost",
"more",
"than",
"half",
"of"
] | 877,796 |
the italian alps, only about a third were in retreat in 1980, while by 1999, 89 % of these glaciers were retreating. in 2005, the italian glacier commission found that 123 glaciers in lombardy were retreating. a random study of the sforzellina glacier in the italian alps indicated that the rate of retreat from 2002 to 2006 was much higher than in the preceding 35 years. to study glaciers located in the alpine regions of lombardy, researchers compared a series of aerial and ground images taken from the 1950s through the early 21st century and deduced that between the years 1954 @ - @ 2003 the mostly smaller glaciers found there lost more than half of
| 39 |
[
"their",
"area",
".",
"repeat",
"photography",
"of",
"glaciers",
"in",
"the",
"alps",
"indicates",
"that",
"there",
"as",
"been",
"significant",
"retreat",
"since",
"studies",
"commenced",
".",
"though",
"the",
"glaciers",
"of",
"the",
"alps",
"have",
"received",
"more",
"attention",
"from",
"g",
"##la",
"##cio",
"##logists",
"than",
"in",
"other",
"areas",
"of",
"europe",
",",
"research",
"indicates",
"that",
"glaciers",
"in",
"northern",
"europe",
"are",
"also",
"retreating",
".",
"since",
"the",
"end",
"of",
"world",
"war",
"ii",
",",
"st",
"##org",
"##la",
"##cia",
"##ren",
"in",
"sweden",
"has",
"undergone",
"the",
"longest",
"continuous",
"mass",
"balance",
"study",
"in",
"the",
"world",
"conducted",
"from",
"the",
"tar",
"##fa",
"##la",
"research",
"station",
".",
"in",
"the",
"ke",
"##bn",
"##eka",
"##ise",
"mountains",
"of",
"northern",
"sweden",
",",
"a",
"study",
"of",
"16",
"glaciers",
"between",
"1990",
"and",
"2001",
"found",
"that",
"14",
"glaciers",
"were",
"retreating",
",",
"one",
"was",
"advancing",
"and",
"one",
"was",
"stable",
".",
"in",
"norway",
",",
"glacier"
] | 877,797 |
their area. repeat photography of glaciers in the alps indicates that there as been significant retreat since studies commenced. though the glaciers of the alps have received more attention from glaciologists than in other areas of europe, research indicates that glaciers in northern europe are also retreating. since the end of world war ii, storglaciaren in sweden has undergone the longest continuous mass balance study in the world conducted from the tarfala research station. in the kebnekaise mountains of northern sweden, a study of 16 glaciers between 1990 and 2001 found that 14 glaciers were retreating, one was advancing and one was stable. in norway, glacier
| 1,480 |
[
"studies",
"have",
"been",
"performed",
"since",
"the",
"early",
"19th",
"century",
",",
"with",
"systematic",
"surveys",
"undertaken",
"regularly",
"since",
"the",
"1990s",
".",
"inland",
"glaciers",
"have",
"had",
"a",
"generally",
"negative",
"mass",
"balance",
",",
"whereby",
"during",
"the",
"1990s",
",",
"maritime",
"glaciers",
"showed",
"a",
"positive",
"mass",
"balance",
"and",
"advanced",
".",
"the",
"maritime",
"advances",
"have",
"been",
"attributed",
"to",
"heavy",
"snowfall",
"in",
"the",
"period",
"1989",
"@",
"-",
"@",
"1995",
".",
"however",
",",
"reduced",
"snowfall",
"since",
"has",
"caused",
"most",
"norwegian",
"glaciers",
"to",
"retreat",
"significantly",
".",
"a",
"survey",
"of",
"31",
"norwegian",
"glaciers",
"in",
"2010",
"indicated",
"that",
"27",
"were",
"in",
"retreat",
",",
"one",
"had",
"no",
"change",
"and",
"three",
"advanced",
".",
"similarly",
",",
"in",
"2013",
",",
"of",
"33",
"norwegian",
"glaciers",
"surveyed",
",",
"26",
"were",
"retreating",
",",
"four",
"showed",
"no",
"change",
"and",
"three",
"advanced",
".",
"eng",
"##ab",
"##reen",
"glacier",
"in",
"norway"
] | 877,798 |
studies have been performed since the early 19th century, with systematic surveys undertaken regularly since the 1990s. inland glaciers have had a generally negative mass balance, whereby during the 1990s, maritime glaciers showed a positive mass balance and advanced. the maritime advances have been attributed to heavy snowfall in the period 1989 @ - @ 1995. however, reduced snowfall since has caused most norwegian glaciers to retreat significantly. a survey of 31 norwegian glaciers in 2010 indicated that 27 were in retreat, one had no change and three advanced. similarly, in 2013, of 33 norwegian glaciers surveyed, 26 were retreating, four showed no change and three advanced. engabreen glacier in norway
| 1,480 |
[
",",
"an",
"outlet",
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"of",
"the",
"sv",
"##art",
"##isen",
"ice",
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",",
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"several",
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"20th",
"century",
",",
"though",
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"m",
"(",
"660",
"ft",
")",
"between",
"1999",
"and",
"2014",
".",
"br",
"##en",
"##nda",
"##ls",
"##bre",
"##en",
"glacier",
"retreated",
"56",
"m",
"(",
"184",
"ft",
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"between",
"the",
"years",
"2000",
"and",
"2014",
",",
"while",
"the",
"re",
"##mbe",
"##sd",
"##als",
"##ska",
"##ka",
"glacier",
",",
"which",
"has",
"retreated",
"2",
"km",
"(",
"1",
"@",
".",
"@",
"2",
"mi",
")",
"since",
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"of",
"the",
"little",
"ice",
"age",
",",
"retreated",
"200",
"m",
"(",
"660",
"ft",
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] | 877,799 |
, an outlet glacier of the svartisen ice cap, had several advances in the 20th century, though it retreated 200 m ( 660 ft ) between 1999 and 2014. brenndalsbreen glacier retreated 56 m ( 184 ft ) between the years 2000 and 2014, while the rembesdalsskaka glacier, which has retreated 2 km ( 1 @. @ 2 mi ) since the end of the little ice age, retreated 200 m ( 660 ft ) between 1997 @ - @ 2007. the briksdalsbreen glacier retreated 230 m ( 750 ft ) between 1996 and 2004 with 130 m ( 430 ft ) of
| 39 |
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