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“Plan out what could possibly happen, and the outcomes and you have it written down then you won’t find yourself doing something spur of the moment.” .
|
PMC11697290_p34
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 2.2 – Clinical strategies to improve consumer engagement
| 1.032267 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.02524581551551819,
0.004886896815150976,
0.9698672890663147
] |
[
0.0038424620870500803,
0.9939697980880737,
0.0012489956570789218,
0.0009387772879563272
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
Four findings from four studies ( 10 , 30 , 33 , 38 ) highlight the benefits of ongoing SPI use. Clinicians reported regularly reviewing and updating safety plans, often after consumers had reported recent suicidal ideation or crisis ( 10 , 38 ). The SPI was seen to provide structure to this process of reflection and, within these discussions, opportunities to adapt the existing plan were explored:
|
PMC11697290_p35
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 2.3 – Use of the SPI over time
| 2.31457 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9387699365615845,
0.035525333136320114,
0.025704724714159966
] |
[
0.9466614723205566,
0.048038288950920105,
0.003791992086917162,
0.001508207293227315
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Consumers described a similar trajectory of adding to or refining their plans following each suicidal crisis ( 30 ). This approach was described by one consumer as a process of discovery and personal development:
|
PMC11697290_p36
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 2.3 – Use of the SPI over time
| 1.446069 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.15374988317489624,
0.004256994463503361,
0.8419930934906006
] |
[
0.09718310832977295,
0.8999590277671814,
0.001591342268511653,
0.001266562263481319
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
This process of addition and refinement may lead to incremental improvements in consumers’ commitment to SPI practices, as well as their capacity to enact safety planning strategies ( 33 ).
|
PMC11697290_p37
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 2.3 – Use of the SPI over time
| 1.619363 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.20509378612041473,
0.002605754416435957,
0.7923004031181335
] |
[
0.03571359068155289,
0.9623175859451294,
0.0014148523332551122,
0.0005539360572583973
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Three studies of clinicians ( 10 , 31 , 38 ) provided four findings for this category. Clinicians expressed the need for sufficient time, resources, and support to engage in effective safety planning, with their capacity to create collaborative, person-centered safety plans hampered by insufficient time and competing priorities:
|
PMC11697290_p38
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 2.4 - Organizational factors impacting delivery of the SPI
| 2.117268 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9193981289863586,
0.01788157969713211,
0.06272029131650925
] |
[
0.8950590491294861,
0.09310505539178848,
0.010166731663048267,
0.001669159042648971
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Clinicians acknowledged difficulties establishing staff acceptance of the SPI, suggesting successful implementation of the SPI requires leadership support and clear organizational policies that support best practice ( 31 ). Additionally, for consumers with limited English language literacy it is essential for organizations to provide translators or employ clinicians who speak the consumer’s first language ( 10 ).
|
PMC11697290_p39
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 2.4 - Organizational factors impacting delivery of the SPI
| 1.933521 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.35729458928108215,
0.05549470707774162,
0.5872106552124023
] |
[
0.05414118245244026,
0.9422191381454468,
0.002334096934646368,
0.0013056382304057479
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Sixteen individual findings, extracted from three studies ( 30 , 35 , 37 ) described how digital technologies – specifically, text messages and telehealth – could be used to deliver and/or supplement the SPI. Consumers described the impact of automated, personalized text messages as an adjunct to in-person SPI practices (MYPLAN app, 30; 35). For some, the automated text messages were perceived as impersonal and perhaps insufficient depending on the consumers’ individual circumstances ( 35 ). However, others found benefit from these support text messages. For example, one consumer shared how this version of the SPI eased their transition out of inpatient care:
|
PMC11697290_p40
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 2.5 – Use of digital technology to deliver and/or support the SPI
| 2.587039 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9462071657180786,
0.005763204302638769,
0.04802960529923439
] |
[
0.9849108457565308,
0.010949810966849327,
0.0037692293990403414,
0.0003700906236190349
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Finally, consumers of a group-based SPI program delivered via telehealth (Project Life Force-telehealth) voiced that this SPI version bypassed several barriers of traditional in-person mental health care ( 37 ). These included practical barriers such as long wait-lists for accessing individual support, as well as social barriers to sharing their lived experiences:
|
PMC11697290_p41
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 2.5 – Use of digital technology to deliver and/or support the SPI
| 1.945039 |
biomedical
|
Other
|
[
0.7158212065696716,
0.0072799744084477425,
0.2768987715244293
] |
[
0.4613015651702881,
0.5344245433807373,
0.003130582859739661,
0.0011433088220655918
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
For this synthesis, 15 findings were aggregated into three categories, indicating that including support persons in the SPI process is acceptable and beneficial for the consumer. Some drawbacks might be anticipated relating to confidentiality and support persons experiencing secondary distress.
|
PMC11697290_p42
|
PMC11697290
|
Synthesized finding 3: Navigating the involvement of support persons in the SPI process
| 1.818299 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.572975218296051,
0.0042441776022315025,
0.4227805435657501
] |
[
0.6456095576286316,
0.31127849221229553,
0.04143353924155235,
0.001678438507951796
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Three findings from one study ( 36 ) form this category. Support persons of US military veterans described their concern for consumers’ welfare and a desire to support the consumer. Reflecting on their willingness to attend in-person appointments, one support person shared:
|
PMC11697290_p43
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 3.1 – Support persons are willing to be involved
| 1.451661 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.11641562730073929,
0.003532172180712223,
0.8800522685050964
] |
[
0.19655640423297882,
0.7998669743537903,
0.002093228278681636,
0.0014834312023594975
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Being involved in the safety plan also allowed support persons to better understand consumer behavior and support needs ( 36 ).
|
PMC11697290_p44
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 3.1 – Support persons are willing to be involved
| 1.621806 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.33940252661705017,
0.004663774278014898,
0.6559337377548218
] |
[
0.05988813936710358,
0.9383450746536255,
0.0010383565677329898,
0.0007284389575943351
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Four studies ( 32 – 34 , 36 ) provided ten findings related to the benefits of involving supportive others, such as immediate family members ( 32 – 34 ) friends ( 36 ), or a trusted person from extended family, school or broader community ( 32 ). From a consumer perspective, involving trusted others was helpful for alleviating feelings of isolation:
|
PMC11697290_p45
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 3.2 – Benefits of support persons’ involvement
| 2.006586 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.45746925473213196,
0.0024267828557640314,
0.5401039123535156
] |
[
0.9124582409858704,
0.07057974487543106,
0.016267411410808563,
0.0006945923087187111
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
Clinicians agreed, noting how involving supportive others could provide evidence to contradict consumer feelings of burdensomeness:
|
PMC11697290_p46
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 3.2 – Benefits of support persons’ involvement
| 1.569793 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.29520025849342346,
0.213788241147995,
0.49101147055625916
] |
[
0.04259872809052467,
0.9480572938919067,
0.0037167691625654697,
0.0056272028014063835
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Consumers and support persons described how sharing the SPI with supportive others offered an important external source of feedback and support ( 33 , 34 , 36 ). Support persons could help recognize warning signs, external triggers, and consumer affect and behavior. As a result, support persons may reduce the help-seeking burden placed on consumers and can provide positive reinforcement when the consumer is doing well ( 32 , 36 ). Finally, support persons played a vital role in maintaining safer environments, including restricting access to lethal means in the home ( 34 ).
|
PMC11697290_p47
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 3.2 – Benefits of support persons’ involvement
| 1.798187 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.1204676479101181,
0.0012408541515469551,
0.8782915472984314
] |
[
0.2566439211368561,
0.7382754683494568,
0.004197858273983002,
0.0008827236015349627
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Potential drawbacks of involving support persons were articulated in two findings from one study ( 36 ). Consumers noted that support persons may become overbearing and may share private details with other people without consent. Being involved in the SPI also introduced new emotional challenges for support persons, such as increased worry for the consumer, themselves, and other loved ones who may be affected by suicide-related behaviors:
|
PMC11697290_p48
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 3.3 - Drawbacks of involving support persons
| 1.742961 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.28956514596939087,
0.002565296133980155,
0.7078695297241211
] |
[
0.6973487138748169,
0.2991102337837219,
0.0023643323220312595,
0.001176738296635449
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
The final synthesized finding was supported by 22 findings, aggregated into four categories, describing a range of challenges associated with the SPI.
|
PMC11697290_p49
|
PMC11697290
|
Synthesized finding 4: Barriers and limitations associated with the SPI
| 1.942524 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9384332895278931,
0.0026759833563119173,
0.058890774846076965
] |
[
0.9222374558448792,
0.06090625748038292,
0.0158978421241045,
0.0009584256331436336
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
Five findings from four studies ( 10 , 33 , 34 , 38 ) described stakeholder skepticism about the utility of the SPI. Clinicians were unsure of the SPI’s effectiveness, both in general and in times of crisis ( 38 ). Clinicians also described their experiences with consumers who decline to engage in safety planning at all, perhaps due to stigma attached to suicide-related phenomena ( 10 ). Some consumers expressed doubt that any intervention could deter a person with suicidal intent ( 34 ). Other consumers doubted the helpfulness of SPI strategies, especially whilst experiencing severe neurovegetative symptoms ( 33 ). Finally, one consumer shared the perspective that the SPI was unnecessary:
|
PMC11697290_p50
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 4.1 - The SPI disregarded as unhelpful
| 3.118557 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9595509171485901,
0.007651246152818203,
0.03279780596494675
] |
[
0.9865672588348389,
0.008037703111767769,
0.0050340075977146626,
0.0003610069106798619
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
Barriers to engaging with the SPI were discussed in eight findings across three studies ( 10 , 33 , 37 ). A lack of therapeutic rapport may impair consumer engagement with SPI processes, particularly in situations where consumers lack a regular mental health worker ( 10 ). Lack of privacy in consumers’ home environments may interfere with engagement in SPI-based online therapeutic sessions ( 37 ), and restrict the use of specific strategies (e.g., singing, 30). Ferguson et al. ( 10 ) reported several barriers of relevance to refugee and asylum seeker consumers, particularly related to English language literacy, mental health literacy and/or specific cultural needs. For example:
|
PMC11697290_p51
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 4.2 - Barriers to engaging with safety planning
| 2.943929 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.8290222883224487,
0.0023343986831605434,
0.16864332556724548
] |
[
0.9873381853103638,
0.009804382920265198,
0.0026664333418011665,
0.00019090171554125845
] |
en
| 0.999999 |
Finally, consumer engagement may be impaired if consumers perceive negative ramifications from disclosing suicidality (e.g., refugee and asylum seeker concerns for visa applications and residency; 10).
|
PMC11697290_p52
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 4.2 - Barriers to engaging with safety planning
| 1.261031 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.03336277976632118,
0.0010525570251047611,
0.9655846953392029
] |
[
0.015234715305268764,
0.9833589196205139,
0.000911892217118293,
0.0004944315296597779
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Seven findings from three studies ( 30 , 33 , 34 ) support this category. There was a common perception that, during episodes of severe distress, suicidal ideation dominated conscious awareness and consumers reported feeling unable to consider or initiate behavioral SPI strategies ( 30 , 33 , 34 ):
|
PMC11697290_p53
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 4.3 - Perceived inability to use the SPI during acute distress
| 2.249827 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9729052782058716,
0.0018433089135214686,
0.025251520797610283
] |
[
0.9826011061668396,
0.014636971056461334,
0.0024645254015922546,
0.00029744309722445905
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Given the at-times overwhelming nature of consumers’ distress, some may feel belittled if clinicians suggest ‘simple’ self-care strategies without providing genuine validation of the consumer’s perspective or appropriate justification for strategy suggestions ( 30 ).
|
PMC11697290_p54
|
PMC11697290
|
Category 4.3 - Perceived inability to use the SPI during acute distress
| 1.903201 |
biomedical
|
Other
|
[
0.6028385162353516,
0.07778702676296234,
0.3193745017051697
] |
[
0.026025740429759026,
0.9661948680877686,
0.005951968487352133,
0.0018274518661201
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Other limitations of the SPI were noted in two findings from two studies ( 33 , 37 ). The SPI may be challenging to implement for people with few protective factors (e.g., when consumers cannot identify any support persons or strategies for keeping themselves safe; 37). Finally, the act of formally documenting or reviewing warning signs can itself be a triggering experience for consumers:
|
PMC11697290_p55
|
PMC11697290
|
- Category 4.4 Limitations of the SPI
| 1.911805 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.4888148605823517,
0.002286129631102085,
0.5088990330696106
] |
[
0.6626330018043518,
0.33125802874565125,
0.00498564075678587,
0.0011233579134568572
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Featuring rich data from the perspectives of consumers, clinicians and support persons, this qualitative systematic review provides unique insights regarding the practices and processes perceived to impact on consumers’ experiences with the SPI. Through meta-aggregation, four synthesized findings were produced, with the results indicating that the SPI is a beneficial intervention, enhanced through person-centered collaboration and the involvement of supportive others. However, several perceived limitations impact on perceived acceptability and efficacy, which must be considered by organizations and clinicians involved in service delivery. These findings add an important lived experience lens to SPI literature, complementing previous quantitative studies and reviews of SPI efficacy.
|
PMC11697290_p56
|
PMC11697290
|
Discussion
| 3.979553 |
biomedical
|
Review
|
[
0.9203858971595764,
0.005530373193323612,
0.07408370077610016
] |
[
0.10327550768852234,
0.0015190400881692767,
0.894888162612915,
0.0003173286095261574
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Consumers, clinicians, and support persons viewed the SPI as broadly acceptable and beneficial for reducing consumers’ suicide risk. These qualitative data concur with previous findings ( 39 ), wherein 95% of veterans endorsed the SPI as both acceptable and helpful. In addition, clinicians in the present review perceived SPI practices to be helpful in reducing suicide risk during consumers’ transition from inpatient to home or community settings. This is an important finding, as risk of suicide may be most acute following discharge from psychiatric hospitalization, particularly for those with active suicidal ideation, perceived hopelessness, and history of suicidal behavior ( 40 ). Overall, the efficacy of the SPI in helping consumers to reduce suicidal ideation and behavior is supported by both quantitative systematic reviews ( 17 – 19 ) and by the experiences and perspectives synthesized in the present review.
|
PMC11697290_p57
|
PMC11697290
|
Perceived benefits of the SPI
| 3.945708 |
biomedical
|
Review
|
[
0.9804794788360596,
0.003672704566270113,
0.01584780216217041
] |
[
0.04445146024227142,
0.0011762012727558613,
0.954160749912262,
0.0002115446695825085
] |
en
| 0.999994 |
People involved in the SPI also perceived a range of specific benefits that may help to explain the effectiveness of SPI practices. First, person-centered safety planning was seen to facilitate greater consumer autonomy, giving individuals a greater sense of ownership over their own health care. Consumers and clinicians also described how SPI practices helped to increase consumers’ sense of hope by internalizing and valuing their existing reasons for living. The amplification of reasons for living is an important protective mechanism, with reasons for living associated with reduced suicidal ideation and suicide attempts ( 41 ). In the present results, reasons for living often included loved ones such as children, partners, family, and friends. As such, greater identification of reasons for living appeared to intersect with an improved sense of connection with supportive others. This fundamental need for connection was maximized when support persons were involved in consumers’ safety planning. Similarly, ongoing engagement with SPI practices supported individuals’ self-efficacy in recognizing early warning signs and engaging self-regulatory coping strategies to interrupt the trajectory of escalating distress. This latter result aligns with recent evidence for growth in suicide-related coping as a key predictor of reduced suicidal ideation during an SPI intervention ( 16 ). In sum, the lived experience data synthesized in this review broadly align with some of the psychological mechanisms of effect for the SPI as theorized by Rogers et al. ( 20 ). Specifically, these findings add support to Rogers et al.’s ( 20 ) suggestions that the SPI promotes autonomy among users, both in initial plan creation and in their choices surrounding whether, when and how to use the plan to keep themselves safe; encourages connection with others (including healthcare services, and friends, family and community), which is a known protective factors against suicide; and builds competence through encouraging individuals to identify personalized support strategies and to practice using these to build confidence over time.
|
PMC11697290_p58
|
PMC11697290
|
Perceived benefits of the SPI
| 4.099742 |
biomedical
|
Review
|
[
0.980095386505127,
0.004766914527863264,
0.015137741342186928
] |
[
0.07922529429197311,
0.001219209749251604,
0.9192180037498474,
0.00033750361762940884
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Clinicians and consumers strongly recommended a collaborative, person-centered approach to constructing and using the SPI over time. This approach refers to clinicians and consumers working together, sharing decision making and having a balance of power, to develop plans that address the consumer’s unique needs and circumstances ( 42 ). Unlike a crisis risk assessment process, which can imply a mechanistic and alienating experience of safety planning, collaborative and person-centered approaches allow a normalizing space for consumers to feel supported and to have voice in exploring suicide-related feelings. Recent quantitative evidence suggests that stronger therapeutic alliance established early in psychotherapy is a key predictor of reductions in suicidal ideation and behavior ( 43 ) and this review supports those findings from many consumers using safety plans. Collaborative and person-centered interactions were viewed as essential for helping people in distress to understand and process difficult emotional states, to find meaningful connection with others, and for using their strengths and supports to cope in the future.
|
PMC11697290_p59
|
PMC11697290
|
The importance of a collaborative and person-centered approach
| 4.012522 |
biomedical
|
Review
|
[
0.9726061224937439,
0.009442062117159367,
0.01795182190835476
] |
[
0.008516691625118256,
0.0017798313638195395,
0.9893933534622192,
0.0003100968315266073
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Most mental health professionals would recognize the importance of person-centered therapeutic engagement. However, our results highlight a range of organizational barriers impairing clinicians’ ability to use the SPI according to these core principles. Time constraints were the primary barrier impacting clinicians’ perceived ability to conduct person-centered safety planning. Thus, without sufficient organizational support, the SPI may be more likely to be delivered instrumentally with a focus on risk mitigation, rather than in a person-centered and collaborative way.
|
PMC11697290_p60
|
PMC11697290
|
The importance of a collaborative and person-centered approach
| 3.123623 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9187427163124084,
0.05238105729222298,
0.02887621521949768
] |
[
0.9613681435585022,
0.034887298941612244,
0.002744598314166069,
0.00099997129291296
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Consumers reported experiences of ‘tunnel vision’ or an inability to consider SPI coping strategies, while enduring acute distress. This finding converges with the understanding that the ability to engage cognitive and/or behavioral self-regulatory coping strategies is diminished during heightened periods of crisis ( 44 ). This perceived limitation of SPI utilization further highlights the importance of appropriate and effective methods to work with consumers in deciding to restrict access to lethal means. At an individual level, clinicians and consumers can work collaboratively to make changes to living environments to restrict access to high lethality means should they experience acute and unbearable distress. This part of the planning process should focus on means identified by the consumer that feature in suicidal ideation. Appropriate involvement of support persons may be particularly beneficial in maintaining safe environments and reducing the help seeking burden placed on consumers.
|
PMC11697290_p61
|
PMC11697290
|
Influence of consumers’ current state of distress on SPI strategy use
| 3.664587 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.8511295914649963,
0.005015258211642504,
0.14385516941547394
] |
[
0.8190014958381653,
0.176550954580307,
0.00401751883327961,
0.00043007038766518235
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
In the present results, the SPI was disregarded as unhelpful by some consumers and clinicians. Similar uncertainty regarding the SPI has recently been documented in a quantitative study, with clinicians doubtful of the effectiveness of safety planning in reducing risk of suicidal behavior ( 45 ). As noted by an included study ( 31 ), this hesitancy suggests a need for prior education and training about the efficacy, usability, and acceptability of the SPI. Consumers’ fear of disclosure was another barrier to SPI engagement identified in the present results ( 10 ). Self-stigma and fear of stigmatized responses to disclosure can deter consumers from seeking help for suicide-related concerns ( 46 ), and consumers also report fears of disempowerment from treatment orders under mental health Acts ( 47 ). Similar worries may also deter individuals from engaging with interventions such as the SPI.
|
PMC11697290_p62
|
PMC11697290
|
Barriers to SPI engagement
| 3.979317 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9953861832618713,
0.0008350528078153729,
0.0037788362242281437
] |
[
0.9988206028938293,
0.00035881096846424043,
0.000769452250096947,
0.000051109040214214474
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
The four synthesized findings in this review suggest specific recommendations for practice, policy, and future research. For practice, it is recommended that the SPI is developed via a person-centered and compassionate collaboration, where clinicians are afforded sufficient time (minimum 30 minutes) to develop authentic therapeutic rapport for the person to express their suicidal experiences. Further, to address the transient nature of suicidal thoughts and maximize effectiveness of the safety plan, the SPI should be viewed as a living document that is shared with others (support persons, care providers) and revised regularly. Given that involving support persons appears to enhance the SPI, practitioners should genuinely explore this involvement during the initial safety plan co-construction and at review appointments. Supportive others should receive SPI education with assistance from the clinician and guidance from the consumer regarding how to best provide support.
|
PMC11697290_p63
|
PMC11697290
|
Recommendations and implications for practice, policy, and future research
| 3.977617 |
biomedical
|
Review
|
[
0.9269843697547913,
0.043916236609220505,
0.029099397361278534
] |
[
0.0031294801738113165,
0.008676815778017044,
0.9872825145721436,
0.0009112084517255425
] |
en
| 0.999994 |
Regarding policy recommendations, services that use the SPI should include mandatory training for all staff using the SPI, to ensure consistent, evidence-based skill sets and to address the ambivalence of some clinicians identified in this review. Further, there should be clear guidelines and policies for use of the SPI within and across services to ensure continuity of care. For example, the SPI could be proposed as the recommended safety planning instrument in a local context, to be completed before discharge from emergency/inpatient settings and communicated with follow-up care providers as standard practice. Given the diverse contexts in which safety planning is used, there should be flexibility to adapt the SPI to meet diverse consumer needs (e.g., versions in various languages).
|
PMC11697290_p64
|
PMC11697290
|
Recommendations and implications for practice, policy, and future research
| 2.20183 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.42551085352897644,
0.11708563566207886,
0.4574035406112671
] |
[
0.010670691728591919,
0.6973261833190918,
0.28876474499702454,
0.003238330828025937
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Further research is required to address gaps in our understanding of the SPI and how best to support the people who use it. First, the specific processes which assist consumers to reduce suicidal ideation and behavior require further examination. Our findings indicate that SPI practices may enhance consumers’ connection, autonomy, and competence: three of the processes of SPI effect proposed by Rogers et al. ( 20 ). Further mixed-methods research is required to investigate causal pathways from specific SPI strategy-use to improved suicide and wellbeing-related outcomes via theorized processes of effect. Greater integration of diverse user experiences is required to inform future SPI adaptations that meet the needs of the specific consumer groups for whom they are designed. In the current review, over half of the included papers related to veterans, their support persons and/or people who work with them. There has been little to no focus on the experiences of safety planning from other priority groups known to experience high rates of suicidality, such as LGBTQIA+ communities ( 48 ). Finally, our results reveal a common perception whereby states of acute and severe distress temporarily impair peoples’ capacity to engage in safety planning behaviors. This perceived barrier should be explored in more depth using rigorous qualitative approaches. Research has begun to illuminate the temporal dynamics of suicidal states, often using digital technologies to monitor suicidal distress in real-time ( 49 ). Lived experience research will be crucial to develop a greater understanding of how consumers experience the fluctuating and dynamic nature of suicidal states, as well as the relationship between current distress severity and specific SPI strategy use. Such understandings may assist consumers, support persons, clinicians, and researchers to adapt SPI practices to mitigate the onset and worsening of distress, and to improve safety during peak distress.
|
PMC11697290_p65
|
PMC11697290
|
Recommendations and implications for practice, policy, and future research
| 4.037647 |
biomedical
|
Review
|
[
0.9619400501251221,
0.0043450091034173965,
0.03371491655707359
] |
[
0.058367323130369186,
0.0010671201162040234,
0.9403128623962402,
0.00025266222655773163
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Our search strategy, study selection procedures and meta-aggregation approach were systematic and thorough. In the JBI approach, findings can only be extracted if accompanied by an illustrative participant quotation. Whilst methodologically rigorous, this may have excluded relevant qualitative data if reported in a different format. There is also substantial scope for improvement in the methodological quality of studies in this area. In the present review, the dependability of included studies was limited due to inconsistent reporting of reflexivity details and guiding methodological frameworks. Three of the four synthesized findings were also downgraded due to a mix of unequivocal and credible findings, resulting in “low” overall confidence ratings. To enhance confidence in future qualitative findings, studies should follow best-practice guidelines for reporting qualitative research. Further, some studies lacked SPI details, such as format and delivery modality. We did not attempt to contact the authors of these papers to seek confirmation of these details. Doing so may have improved the generalizability of findings. However, we do not believe these details to be crucial to the results, as the findings relate more to overall experiences with the SPI, rather than specific features (with the exception that we had one finding category related to digital modalities).
|
PMC11697290_p66
|
PMC11697290
|
Strengths and limitations
| 4.064782 |
biomedical
|
Review
|
[
0.9822202920913696,
0.004003544803708792,
0.013776250183582306
] |
[
0.038810327649116516,
0.0012312133330851793,
0.9595922827720642,
0.0003661804075818509
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Finally, although one included study indicated a mental health lived experience academic as part of the authorship team ( 10 ), none of the included studies explicitly indicate involvement or consultation with people with lived experience of suicidality and/or safety planning in designing or conducting the studies. More high-quality qualitative studies of consumer, support person and clinician perspectives, conceived and conducted collaboratively with people with lived experience of suicidality and safety planning, would advance our understanding of peoples’ experiences of using SPI practices.
|
PMC11697290_p67
|
PMC11697290
|
Strengths and limitations
| 3.210744 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9867883920669556,
0.0011088417377322912,
0.012102830223739147
] |
[
0.9111297726631165,
0.029695862904191017,
0.05879538133740425,
0.0003790339396800846
] |
en
| 0.999995 |
While there is scope for improving the methodological quality of future qualitative SPI research and a need to better understand the causal pathways between SPI use and suicide-related outcomes, the findings from this review indicate that SPI practices are regarded positively from the qualitative perspectives of consumers, support persons and clinicians. This complements what is known about SPI effectiveness from quantitative research, and indicates that the SPI is perceived as acceptable and beneficial, and can be an important strategy to support people experiencing suicide-related distress. Use of the SPI could be strengthened by ensuring that services have sufficient time and resources (including training) for staff to engage in safety planning, as well as pathways for support persons to be involved, and strategies to ensure the SPI is tailored to individual consumer needs. Continuing to prioritize diverse lived experience perspectives of this suicide prevention approach is critical to ensuring that the SPI meets the needs of those using it.
|
PMC11697290_p68
|
PMC11697290
|
Conclusion
| 3.884274 |
biomedical
|
Review
|
[
0.940951943397522,
0.012783204205334187,
0.046264879405498505
] |
[
0.004498080816119909,
0.0010557422647252679,
0.9942010045051575,
0.0002451661857776344
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
Miniaturization, a prevailing trend in the manufacturing sector, is characterized by the production of increasingly smaller mechanical, optical, and electronic devices. This trend has been propelled by diverse markets, including but not limited to aerospace, media, energy, medical, and electronic industries, where semiconductor materials are heavily used. The global semiconductor market is projected to reach more than 700 billion USD by 2027. Parallel to this trend, cleaning technologies have evolved to secure particle-free, i.e., better performing, wafers. 1 However, as devices continue to approach the nanoscale following the miniaturization trend, new challenges in cleaning technologies arise, resulting in nanoparticles (NP) having more impact on device efficiency compared to previous technologies (micronscale). Indeed, the presence of NPs (objects with at least one dimension below 100 nm) can deteriorate the electronic performance of miniaturized devices and may even cause short circuits. It is therefore imperative to understand how to remove NPs consistently with high efficiency.
|
39680737_p0
|
39680737
|
Introduction
| 3.971907 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.6937950253486633,
0.0007272881921380758,
0.3054775893688202
] |
[
0.9136472344398499,
0.07320950925350189,
0.01295155193656683,
0.00019170188170392066
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
The key to particle removal is to promote detachment by utilizing external stimuli or by moderating adhesive interactions. For instance, Marangoni drying, which consists of promoting mass transfer at interfaces by imposing a gradient in surface tension, 2 has been extensively used in semiconductor industry, also in combination with solution spinning (Rotagoni method). 1 Nevertheless, this method is strongly limited by variations of surface properties (e.g., wettability), and it is not efficient in removing particles with nanometer dimensions. 3 Megasonic cleaning, which exploits acoustic waves to start cavitation of micrometer-scale bubbles, considerably promotes particle removal efficiency (PRE). The method has been employed to remove nanoparticles, albeit it has been shown that it may lead to distributed damages on the wafer. 4 A further approach is to excite nanoparticles with a laser (or plasma) to exploit the shock-wave propagating underneath the particles acting against the adhesion force. 5 Similarly to the mega-sonic cleaning, laser-induced cleaning damages the substrate by creating pits on the surface due to the local high pressure at the nanoparticle/wafer interface. 6 Solvent water exchange (SWE) has demonstrated a significant particle removal efficiency (PRE) in semiconductor wafer cleaning processes. 7 However, mechanistic details of what promotes particle detachment require nanoscale investigations.
|
39680737_p1
|
39680737
|
Introduction
| 4.298255 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9869879484176636,
0.0006301304092630744,
0.012381887063384056
] |
[
0.9070943593978882,
0.0013689198531210423,
0.09136957675218582,
0.00016715933452360332
] |
en
| 0.999999 |
In 2011 the SWE process was tested at the nanoscale on silicon wafer, demonstrating PRE up to 90%. 8 Nanoparticles were removed without damaging the wafer surface, effectively surpassing the limitation of acoustic or laser cleaning discussed above. The proposed cleaning mechanism consisted of promoting the formation of surface nanobubbles (SNs) by SWE which will then affect the intermolecular forces anchoring NPs to the surface (S). The forces governing bubble-particle interaction at the micronscale have been discussed in in the last 20 years with major breakthroughs in understanding electrostatic, van der Waals (VdW), hydrophobic, and other non-DLVO interactions. 9 − 12 SNs generated by SWE interacting with particle have been studied with atomic force microscopy (AFM), with the tip mimicking the particle and revealing nanomechanical properties of SNs such as friction and adhesion. 13 However, a three-bodies system such as the one formed by SNs-NPs-S presents an additional level of complexity and, to the best of our knowledge, has not been well characterized yet.
|
39680737_p2
|
39680737
|
Introduction
| 4.179921 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9977372884750366,
0.0002673859416972846,
0.0019953364972025156
] |
[
0.9988160133361816,
0.00019054181757383049,
0.0009548640809953213,
0.00003872122033499181
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
In this perspective, we aim to shed light on what has been discussed so far in the literature regarding SNs generated by SWE and their ability to remove NPs attached onto S.
|
39680737_p3
|
39680737
|
Introduction
| 2.272832 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9604066014289856,
0.0011775650782510638,
0.038415905088186264
] |
[
0.651581346988678,
0.26765918731689453,
0.07873979210853577,
0.0020197159610688686
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
In the first section, we give an overview of what SNs are and how we can assert that they exist. In the second section, we will critically discuss the role of SNs on the wafer cleaning process with respect to the current understanding in the literature. Finally, in the last section, we present our standpoints of surface cleaning mechanism with SNs, and we formulate fundamental open questions and technological challenges.
|
39680737_p4
|
39680737
|
Introduction
| 1.251684 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.017112547531723976,
0.0008504168945364654,
0.9820370674133301
] |
[
0.052252788096666336,
0.9276209473609924,
0.018656248226761818,
0.0014699226012453437
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Nanobubbles are classified as gas/vapor phase objects in an aqueous solution presenting at least one dimension in the nanoscale (lower than 100 nm). Bulk nanobubbles have been well characterized in the last decades to a point that now they are used in industry. 14 , 15 In contrast, SNs are still not industrially exploited due to the complexity of their interaction with surfaces. 16 Figure 1 presents selected works on SNs-S interaction leading to the evidence of SNs growth and stability.
|
39680737_p5
|
39680737
|
What Are Surface Nanobubbles?
| 2.860876 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9125099182128906,
0.00044755302951671183,
0.08704256266355515
] |
[
0.9206167459487915,
0.07248638570308685,
0.006583448499441147,
0.00031339775887317955
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
There are many methods to generate SNs such as microwave irradiation, 17 water electrolysis, 18 and SWE. The latter has granted many physical insights on the nature of SNs as it can be easily coupled with AFM. During SWE, a solvent (e.g., alcohol) is substituted by water on a surface. The variations in solubility, surface tension, and the supersaturation of dissolved gases result in the formation of SNs.
|
39680737_p6
|
39680737
|
Experimental Evidence
| 3.128846 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9858118295669556,
0.00030282256193459034,
0.013885293155908585
] |
[
0.6434808373451233,
0.3517634868621826,
0.004295527469366789,
0.00046016013948246837
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
One of the first evidence of the formation of SNs by SWE was delivered in the early 2000s by Lou et al. 19 SNs were produced on a hydrophobic highly oriented pyrolytic graphite using SWE, and monitored using AFM in tapping mode, as shown in Figure 1 a. Phase shift analysis during AFM topography (phase shift approximately 50°) and AFM force spectroscopy were employed to distinguish soft (i.e., SNs) from hard (i.e., NPs or contaminants) objects. 13 , 20 Furthermore, the presence of SNs was validated over surfaces of different wettability. 20 Maximum height profiles of SNs were found in a range from 10 to 100 nm, while the width profiles could vary between 100 to 1000 nm depending on experimental parameters (e.g., temperature, pressure). 21 Such height vs width ratio suggests that the ideal geometrical description of a SN is a spherical cap-shaped surface. 22 These experimental efforts to view and characterize SNs have simultaneously enabled researchers to develop theoretical models capturing the shape and stability of SNs.
|
39680737_p7
|
39680737
|
Experimental Evidence
| 4.180605 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9971399307250977,
0.0003486043424345553,
0.002511480124667287
] |
[
0.9945579767227173,
0.00023120413243304938,
0.005149900913238525,
0.000060924481658730656
] |
en
| 0.999999 |
Epstein and Plesset described in 1950 the full diffusive dynamics of a spherical bubble of radius R 0 (any size) by coupling the diffusion equation, the Laplace pressure, and the Henry’s law. 23 The lifetime of the bubble τ life can be calculated as a function of the gas concentration far away from the bubble c ∞ and the gas solubility c s . τ life is proportional to the square of R 0 , which is inversely proportional to Laplace’s pressure. Thus, eq 1 describes that for extremely small R 0 , τ life converges to an infinitesimal value due to the extremely high Laplace pressure building up inside the bubble. 1 Later in 1997, Ljunggren and Eriksson calculated the lifetime of a nanobubble as τ life ≃10 –6 s using eq 1 . 24 The obtained result was strongly in contrast with the experimental value, where SNs were found stable in time (scale of minutes and hours). 16 This discrepancy started the so-called surface nanobubble paradox . 25
|
39680737_p8
|
39680737
|
The Surface Nanobubble Paradox
| 4.282638 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9972096085548401,
0.0003349680337123573,
0.0024554103147238493
] |
[
0.9764339923858643,
0.000790261197835207,
0.022648682817816734,
0.00012711850285995752
] |
en
| 0.999993 |
Density functional theory (DFT) and kinetic lattice DFT represented the first attempt to describe the thermodynamic metastable state of SNs, introducing the concept of contact line pinning as key enabler of nanobubble’s stability. 26 Then, Lohse and Zhang proposed the pinning-oversaturation theory, solving the paradox. 16 , 22 They highlighted two crucial points: first, that the Epstein and Plesset formulation is not adequate to describe SNs as it does not involve surfaces; second, that the equilibrium radius of curvature R e and the equilibrium contact angle θ e are stabilized by the gas oversaturation ζ: 2 where L is the SN’s footprint radius, θ is the gas-side contact angle, P 0 is the atmospheric pressure, and γ is the surface tension. Due to the pinning process, the initial contact angle θ reduces to an equilibrium contact angle (θ e ). Figure 1 d shows the relation between θ e and L according to the Lohse-Zhang model. The role of ζ is to press gas into the bubble from the bulk to balance the Laplace pressure during interface equilibration. Figure 1 d)iv shows that for ζ > 0, the higher the ζ, the faster is the gradient of θ e for different SN’s footprints, granting the overall stability.
|
39680737_p9
|
39680737
|
The Surface Nanobubble Paradox
| 4.283017 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9981739521026611,
0.00035155360819771886,
0.001474544988013804
] |
[
0.9968068599700928,
0.0002672018308658153,
0.0028617854695767164,
0.00006426459003705531
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
An important limitation of the pinning-oversaturation model was its inability to predict the stability of SNs in open systems and undersaturation conditions ( ), as observed in experiments. 27 , 28 The Tan-An-Ohl theory (TAO) expands the pinning-oversaturation model by taking inspiration from the description of intermolecular forces acting at short distances z . In the first nanometers away from the substrate, short-range forces such as electric double layer (EDL) repulsion or VdW attraction become predominant. Short range forces have been investigated extensively in the last decades, especially with techniques such as the surface forces apparatus (SFA) and AFM. 29 − 31 Specifically, with SFA was demonstrated that substrates possess a short-range hydrophobic potential ϕ ( z ) = ϕ 0 e – z /λ , where λ is the characteristic decay length. 31 The TAO model employs short-range forces to describe real systems where ζ cannot be defined as homogeneous throughout the liquid. Specifically, a hydrophobic potential must be included to act on the spatial distribution of the gas layer adjacent to the solid substrate. 32
|
39680737_p10
|
39680737
|
Tan-An-Ohl Theory - TAO
| 4.293936 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9976649284362793,
0.00028978390037082136,
0.0020452437456697226
] |
[
0.9954016208648682,
0.00040657271165400743,
0.004126865416765213,
0.00006488749932032079
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Consequently, the spherical cap description in Figure 1 d)i, is expanded to a cap cut into vertical slices defining ζ( z ), with each cut having an infinitesimal height dz ii). If the substrate potential is ϕ( z ), the diffusive transport of a liquid layer of thickness l needs to include this perturbation as follows: 3 where D is the coefficient of diffusion. Then, eq 3 can be solved for the hydrophobic potential ϕ ( z ): 4 Therefore, λ can be interpreted as a layer of gas reservoir at the nanobubble-substrate interface that helps the stabilization by expanding θ e .
|
39680737_p11
|
39680737
|
Tan-An-Ohl Theory - TAO
| 4.224545 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9975371360778809,
0.0002555938553996384,
0.002207365585491061
] |
[
0.9979164004325867,
0.0017827239353209734,
0.00024169492826331407,
0.00005918025999562815
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
For ϕ 0 = −2 k b T, the equilibrium contact angle θ e as a function of L exists even for undersaturation conditions . (Note that here is utilized c ( z ) instead of c ∞ , but the former converge to the latter in case of no hydrophobic potential, that is Lohse-Zhang.) Figure 1 d)iii illustrates this concept, sided with the Lohse-Zhang output iv). Moreover, for small L , θ e is smaller in the Lohse-Zhang theory. This is because the TAO model predicts θ e increasing with the localized oversaturation surrounding the nanobubbles and driven by hydrophobic forces that collaborate to the formation of the thin gas reservoir. As soon as L increases, the two models converge since λ becomes negligible compared to the bubble height.
|
39680737_p12
|
39680737
|
Tan-An-Ohl Theory - TAO
| 4.178607 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9934161901473999,
0.0002816621563397348,
0.0063021439127624035
] |
[
0.9990507960319519,
0.0006778532988391817,
0.00023207941558212042,
0.00003927149373339489
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
To conclude, the most relevant result of the TAO model is the prediction of nanobubbles surviving in degassed liquids because of the stability of the supersaturated film even in bulk-undersaturated conditions. 32 , 33
|
39680737_p13
|
39680737
|
Tan-An-Ohl Theory - TAO
| 2.873916 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9433071613311768,
0.0006346041336655617,
0.056058261543512344
] |
[
0.9071683883666992,
0.08902697265148163,
0.003396590705960989,
0.0004080978687852621
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
A common point of confusion lies in distinguishing between the concepts of nanodroplets and nanobubbles. A nanodroplet consists of liquid molecules, while nanobubbles are composed of gas molecules. An excellent discussion on nanobubbles and nanodroplets is presented in an earlier review, 16 and will not be detailed here. The key point is that the formation of nanobubbles or nanodroplets highly depends on their atomic characteristics. Thus, we hereby discuss the role of gas concentration of the SNs given that the molecular species that compose air are directly related to the growth and stability of SNs generated from SWE. The solubility of air (approximated to nitrogen) in water, at standard temperature and pressure, is approximately 0.02 g/L and governed by Henry’s law. Alcohols such as isopropyl alcohol are highly soluble in water due to −OH termination forming hydrogen bonds. Their exact solubility depends also on the temperature, pressure, and intermixing within the water reservoir. This interplay is mainly controlled by molecular forces between the atomic species. Therefore, an atomistic description obtained by computational approaches, such as molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, can provide further details on the SWE process.
|
39680737_p14
|
39680737
|
Atomic Description by Simulations
| 4.191748 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9990187883377075,
0.00027643516659736633,
0.0007047325489111245
] |
[
0.9959490299224854,
0.0002850875025615096,
0.0036927140317857265,
0.00007315825496334583
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
MD simulations accompanied SNs research on growth and stability, 34 role of wettability, 35 and the effect of gas species on θ e . 36 The key advantage of MD simulations is that they can simulate the dynamic formation of SNs, which is currently not possible in experiments. Starting from the gas evolution during SWE, it has been shown the actual solvent exchange process in terms of density of dissolved solvent and gas on substrates of different wettability i-iv). MD could visualize on one side the nucleation steps that ended in nanobubbles formation on surface of different wettabilities v-vii), on the other side the interplay between gas and solvent molecules, which defined a solvent–solvent interface. 37 Beyond diffusion, MD simulations provided insights into the effective interaction potential between solvated gas molecules and a planar substrate to appreciate the parameters that influence the stability and characteristics of SNs. By expanding the TAO model, substrate wettability, gas affinities in undersaturated conditions, and gas destabilization in organic solvents, could be investigated and successfully compared to experimental findings. 38
|
39680737_p15
|
39680737
|
Atomic Description by Simulations
| 4.263597 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9985700845718384,
0.00034535155282355845,
0.0010845796205103397
] |
[
0.9940239787101746,
0.00025251173065043986,
0.005638374947011471,
0.00008524469012627378
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
To summarize, the SNs formation and stability can be addressed with experimental, theoretical, and atomistic efforts. If stability has reached a level of maturity, nucleation is still puzzling researchers. For instance, one of the most recent hypotheses , highlights the role of hydrocarbon layers. While being promoted toward adsorption on the interface, they generate a gas enriched layer. 39 Then, when the water flux flushes along the surface, the layer acts as a platform while the dynamics of gas and water molecules catalyze SNs’ formation. The great challenge here remains the limited experimental accessibility to real-time visualization of the nucleation process.
|
39680737_p16
|
39680737
|
Atomic Description by Simulations
| 3.927328 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.984281599521637,
0.00032100745011121035,
0.015397349372506142
] |
[
0.9501858949661255,
0.009435860440135002,
0.040198635309934616,
0.0001796006690710783
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Intermolecular forces drive the interaction between nanobubbles and NPs. 13 For bulk nanobubbles, the surface charge establishing at their interface promotes aggregation of NPs with positive or negative charge. Consequently, flotation can be initiated and controlled with large scope in cleaning technologies. 41
|
39680737_p17
|
39680737
|
Surface Nanobubble-Nanoparticle Interaction as a Cleaning Process
| 2.821633 |
biomedical
|
Other
|
[
0.9830818772315979,
0.0005579298012889922,
0.016360145062208176
] |
[
0.2891194522380829,
0.7067891359329224,
0.0034898254089057446,
0.0006015999824739993
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
However, the current understanding of bulk nanobubble–NPs interaction does not provide sufficient details on the intermolecular forces driving the SNs-NP-S system, calling for further research activities in the field.
|
39680737_p18
|
39680737
|
Surface Nanobubble-Nanoparticle Interaction as a Cleaning Process
| 2.059842 |
biomedical
|
Other
|
[
0.8829272389411926,
0.001134329242631793,
0.11593840271234512
] |
[
0.24573807418346405,
0.7409328818321228,
0.012246162630617619,
0.0010828861268237233
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
The nucleation, growth, and dynamics of SNs affect the stability of particles adhered to a surface. Different formation mechanisms underpin distinct processes of particle detachment. For instance, SNs generated by electrolysis emerge from the electrode’s interface (i.e., S), promoting NPs detachment. 42 This cleaning mechanism relies on the uniform growth and distribution of SNs across the electrode’s interface. In contrast, SWE involves the exchange of fluids on the surface, a less controllable process that results in nonuniformly distributed SNs. Yang and Duisterwinkel presented a seminal work on the exploitation of SNs produced by SWE to remove NPs (i.e., polystyrene) from a surface. 8 SWE was tested for ethanol and isopropanol. The surface was visualized before SWE using scanning electron microscopy and AFM as shown in Figure 1 b)i. Multiple applications of SWE resulted in an improved PRE up to 90% which was associated with the cleaning action of SNs iii). 8 Recently, the impact of SWE on SNs size and density has been well characterized as a function of the SWE’exchange rate, paving the way for controllable and repeatable application of SNs for cleaning purposes. 43
|
39680737_p19
|
39680737
|
Surface Nanobubbles and Cleaning Efficiency
| 4.217994 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9984179735183716,
0.00034085114020854235,
0.001241179066710174
] |
[
0.9970481991767883,
0.0001982295943889767,
0.002694103866815567,
0.00005942063216934912
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
However, the cleaning efficiency depends also on NPs’s characteristics such as pH, surface charge, and their physical/chemical nature. The role of pH was recently investigated by depositing nonacidic and acidic polystyrene latex nanoparticles on silicon wafers. 44 NPs with acidic pH could not be removed after SWE. In contrast, the PRE for nonacidic nanoparticles was in the range of 80 to 90%. 44
|
39680737_p20
|
39680737
|
Surface Nanobubbles and Cleaning Efficiency
| 3.9441 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9979561567306519,
0.0002256865263916552,
0.001818184508010745
] |
[
0.9991351962089539,
0.000549620483070612,
0.00027027117903344333,
0.00004498501220950857
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
To verify if SNs generated by SWE could remove NPs of a different type, we employed silicon nitride NPs (Si 3 N 4 –NPs)with nominal size lower than 50 nm (Sigma- Aldrich, Merck). Before deposition, the NPs are dispersed in an NaOH solution (1:5 proportion, alkaline pH). Then, the solution is centrifuged for 30 min at 5k rpm to select NPs of smaller sizes. Finally, the supernatant is spin coated onto the silicon wafer (spinning velocity ω = 5 × 10 3 rpm). For the SWE, we used ethanol (99% purity) and Milli-Q water. We monitored the cleaning steps using an AFM in tapping mode(Cypher from Oxford Instruments). We employed HQ:NSC18/Al BS from MikroMash with a nominal tip radius smaller than 8 nm.
|
39680737_p21
|
39680737
|
Surface Nanobubbles and Cleaning Efficiency
| 4.107562 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9992652535438538,
0.0002101583668263629,
0.0005246501532383263
] |
[
0.9992924928665161,
0.0005200743325985968,
0.0001453148142900318,
0.00004213338979752734
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Figure 2 illustrates the cleaning process composed of an image of NPs in dry conditions (a), the surface after SWE (b), and a detailed visualization on nano-objects (c). In Figure 2 a, the topography shows a nonuniform spatial distribution of the distributed Si 3 N 4 –NPs with no regular shape. Phase imaging is an ideal method to support topographical images and distinguish Si 3 N 4 –NPs from SNs. The phase image in Figure 2 a presents a low phase shift that complements the topographical information, suggesting that the objects interacting with the tip, i.e., Si 3 N 4 –NPs, possess similar mechanical properties.
|
39680737_p22
|
39680737
|
Surface Nanobubbles and Cleaning Efficiency
| 4.009766 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9962066411972046,
0.0002488758182153106,
0.0035444165114313364
] |
[
0.9977723956108093,
0.001963760005310178,
0.00020364804368000478,
0.00006015314284013584
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Figure 2 b shows the surface after SWE in two different Areas. Area 1 (scanning details: scan rate 3.47 Hz, set point 65.9 mV, integral gain 70.84) is divided into Area 1.1 highly populated with nano-objects and Area 1.2 where no nano-objects are observed. Similarly, Area 2 (scanning details: scan rate 1.17 Hz, set point 105.5 mV, integral gain 157.65) shows no nano features. To better understand the properties of the surface, in Figure 2 c we show a zoom in Area 1.1 from Figure 2 b (red box inset). After SWE, the topography reveals well-defined round cap shaped objects as expected from literature. 20 , 27 , 28 The objects have heights between 2 and 10 nm and widths in the range from 500 to 1000 nm. The large phase shifts found after SWE indicate the tip interacting with softer objects, which we finally address as SNs . 20 The presence of SNs depletes the interaction between the AFM tip and the surface as discussed elsewhere. 31 , 45 , 46 Thus, Area 1.2 and Area 2 from Figure 2 b are zones of high interaction (high adhesion) between the AFM tip and the surface, namely, of a high PRE.
|
39680737_p23
|
39680737
|
Surface Nanobubbles and Cleaning Efficiency
| 4.164303 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9986194372177124,
0.0003132966812700033,
0.0010672681964933872
] |
[
0.9995598196983337,
0.0002159839787054807,
0.00017999712144955993,
0.00004416613228386268
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
In order to critically discuss the cleaning ability of SNs and provide a perspective on the mechanisms of particle detachment, we discuss what is the interface of an isolated nanobubble and then how the nanobubble-nanobubble interaction can be described.
|
39680737_p24
|
39680737
|
Discussion and Perspective
| 2.614941 |
biomedical
|
Other
|
[
0.8995808959007263,
0.0011287796078249812,
0.09929034858942032
] |
[
0.39335155487060547,
0.51933354139328,
0.08602112531661987,
0.001293808571062982
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
SNs possess a permeable interface which allows gas species and alcohol to exchange and interact with the environment, that is, the surface, the bulk, or the NPs. A strong experimental evidence comes from AFM and attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared, which allow to depict the mobility of gases across the SN’s interface, confirming its permeability. 47 This result sustains the TAO model, where a influx/outflux regulated by hydrophobic forces is driving the long-term stability of SNs in saturated and undersaturated conditions. 32 , 33
|
39680737_p25
|
39680737
|
What Is the Interface of SNs?
| 4.200961 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9989305138587952,
0.00021344034757930785,
0.0008560405694879591
] |
[
0.9989542961120605,
0.0004389622190501541,
0.0005577830015681684,
0.000048903151764534414
] |
en
| 0.999995 |
The gas–water interface, characterized for microbubbles, possesses a negative zeta potential (ζ-potential) stable over a wide pH range. 48 Moreover, for microbubbles, it is demonstrated that alcohol molecules, coming as a result of the SWE, locally change the structure of the interface, affecting the ζ-potential. At the nanoscale, changes in the ζ-potential can be accessed by investigating isolated nanobubbles dispersed in a solvent.
|
39680737_p26
|
39680737
|
What Is the Interface of SNs?
| 4.084809 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9989211559295654,
0.0001759762380970642,
0.0009028472122736275
] |
[
0.9986757636070251,
0.0009563320782035589,
0.0003179555933456868,
0.000049857339035952464
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
The stability and dynamics of a nanobubble dispersion can be investigated by imposing oscillatory pressure fluctuations followed by salting-out effects in water or electrolytes. Dynamic light scattering confirms the negative sign in ζ-potential of nanobubbles. Moreover, it shows that ζ-potential depends on the electrolyte valency and concentration (e.g., ζ-potential is −24 mV at 5 mM NaCl). 46 By considering a Poisson distribution of ions around the single nanobubble (with nanobubbles described in the TAO model), the contribution of ζ-potential and surface tension to the nanobubble stability can be described. Specifically, the interplay of ions across the nanobubbles interface generates an EDL acting in synergy with the interfacial structural deformation provided by the alcohol molecules. If non-DLVO forces are excluded, Figure 3 depicts the total interaction potential w T normalized by k B T at different electrolyte concentrations (NaCl), and plotted against the interspacing distance κD . If the distance D between nanobubbles, normalized by the Debye length κ –1 , becomes small ( κD < 0.5), VdW attractive forces will start contributing to the overall interaction, resulting in an Hamacker constant A = 3.679 –20 J. 46
|
39680737_p27
|
39680737
|
Nanobubble–Nanobubble Interaction
| 4.32318 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9991783499717712,
0.00032905457192100585,
0.000492475985083729
] |
[
0.9993840456008911,
0.00020469196897465736,
0.000351757335010916,
0.000059414556744741276
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Charging nanobubbles via ultrasound demonstrated a variation in electrokinetic surface charge with electrolyte concentration, which implies that ions are highly active at the nanobubble’s interface. The latest finding on the role of alcohol molecules and ion clouds shed light on the nanobubble’s interface. However, the theoretical description of the ion cloud activity presents geometrical limitations (Poisson axial approximation for the electrostatic potential) that cannot be directly transposed to SNs studies. A future challenge in the field is elaborating a novel description of the electrostatic potential adequate for SNs’ geometry.
|
39680737_p28
|
39680737
|
Nanobubble–Nanobubble Interaction
| 4.108801 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9979153275489807,
0.00016914719890337437,
0.0019154909532517195
] |
[
0.9971737861633301,
0.0010945138055831194,
0.0016797533025965095,
0.000051835111662512645
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
In 2008 bulk nanobubbles were found to contribute to particle-surface adhesion rather than detachment in aqueous solution due to weak depletion forces. 45 Nevertheless, in the past decade, nanobubbles (both from bulk or surface) have been associated with cleaning properties. Thus, the short answer to the section title is we still do not know. The experimental and theoretical studies described in the first section and the current understanding on nanobubble-nanobubble interaction do not clarify the question.
|
39680737_p29
|
39680737
|
Are Surface Nanobubbles Responsible for Surface Cleaning?
| 2.230458 |
biomedical
|
Other
|
[
0.866457462310791,
0.0010802170727401972,
0.13246236741542816
] |
[
0.4026392102241516,
0.5000006556510925,
0.09568271785974503,
0.0016773721436038613
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
The way how the cleaning effects of SNs has been described in AFM experiments so far is basically a form of syllogism. (Note: Example of syllogism: it is true that all dogs are animals and it is true that all dogs have four legs. Therefore, all of the animals have four legs.) Let us consider NPs distributed on a silicon wafer (S) in air. After the application of SWE, none or only a few NPs remain on S, but SNs appear. Then, given that SNs are visualized after the cleaning step, the claimed logical conclusion is that SNs are responsible of cleaning. However, what the scientific evidence allow us to assert is only that SWE generates SNs and cleans the surface. In contrast, there is no experimental proof or theoretical verification to support that SNs act against NPs’ adhesion, promoting their detachment. This is the major point we want to stress in this perspective and, in our opinion, the major future challenge in the field.
|
39680737_p30
|
39680737
|
Are Surface Nanobubbles Responsible for Surface Cleaning?
| 3.23364 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.8205665946006775,
0.0006112123955972493,
0.17882220447063446
] |
[
0.7721906304359436,
0.22089964151382446,
0.006487327162176371,
0.00042245275108143687
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
In Table 1 , we detail the possible force contributions in a liquid environment that would enable detachment of NPs. In the last column, we list our perspective in terms of the role of SNs to each force. As an indication for future research pathways, we present in Figure 4 three hypothetical mechanisms that may take place at the SNs/NP/S interface.
|
39680737_p31
|
39680737
|
Possible Cleaning Mechanisms
| 2.458183 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.8672744631767273,
0.0009837670950219035,
0.13174183666706085
] |
[
0.9293293356895447,
0.06839894503355026,
0.0018486202461645007,
0.0004230875929351896
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
The first hypothesis is that SNs are likely formed around the nanoparticles. This phenomenon has been already discussed for bulk nanobubbles and SNs in nanotranches . 8 , 35 , 41 By generalizing this concept, we can hypothesize that the presence of NPs may act as an accumulator of SNs. Then, SNs might change the adhesion by redefining locally NPs’ pinning forces and consequently induce a detachment. The drawback of this hypothesis is, given the proven stability of SNs, that one must find a distribution of SNs around the NPs’ footprint . Such a scenario has never been observed experimentally or computationally so far.
|
39680737_p32
|
39680737
|
Possible Cleaning Mechanisms
| 3.932495 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9904172420501709,
0.0002565142058301717,
0.009326192550361156
] |
[
0.9976710677146912,
0.0018563669873401523,
0.0004180505929980427,
0.000054533356887986884
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
The second hypothesis does not require SNs to be formed around NPs, but rather to nucleate randomly on the surface. Moreover, it requires one to approach the problem from an atomistic point of view to verify the diffusion dynamics of gas and liquid molecules in the confined space defined by SNs and the NPs’ roughness. Some of the forces listed in Table 1 (e.g., VdW repulsion or quantum mechanical effects) are included since we suggest to look at the SNs-NP-S scenario as a confinement problem. The short-range interaction at the SNs/NP/S interface is driven by ion and molecules exchange. As illustrated in Figure 4 b, the transport of alcohol molecules in the confined region, affects the DLVO interaction, possibly reducing the adhesion force and promoting detachment. In such a configuration, the role of SNs is still key, functioning as a local provider of molecules stored within its interface. Such a scenario will need to be approached with experiments and simulations to adequately describe the complexity in confinement. SFA is a technique that can provide insights about how molecules interact in confinement, such as EDL overlay. 29 , 49 , 50
|
39680737_p33
|
39680737
|
Possible Cleaning Mechanisms
| 4.24766 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9980342984199524,
0.0003079845628235489,
0.0016576505731791258
] |
[
0.9991762042045593,
0.0003198101185262203,
0.00045343826059252024,
0.00005048880848335102
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
The third hypothesis presents SNs not as the catalyst of the cleaning process but rather as a byproduct. This possibility should be considered until proven differently. Intermolecular forces between a nanoparticle and a surface change during SWE regardless of the participation of SNs in the process. 7 Indeed, when SWE takes place, fluids can travel underneath NPs (we call it at this point nanochannels) due to the nanoroughness. This diffusion of solvent (e.g., alcohol, water, ...) may strongly reduce molecular attraction forces such as VdW or electrostatic forces between NPs and S. This scenario leads to reduction of active adhesion forces, resulting in NPs’ detachment (see Table 1 ). Still, SNs will be formed because of SWE, in line with the literature , but they would be simply a byproduct of the entire process, not key to the cleaning step. Verifying this hypothesis is extremely complex as requires visualizing the instantaneous SNs-NPs interaction. We believe this is a relevant experimental challenge.
|
39680737_p34
|
39680737
|
Possible Cleaning Mechanisms
| 4.161163 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9988328814506531,
0.0002026408037636429,
0.0009644191595725715
] |
[
0.9991305470466614,
0.0005428565782494843,
0.0002813615428749472,
0.00004523729148786515
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
In this Perspective, we provide a discussion on the fundamental question if surface nanobubbles (SNs) promote detachment of nanoparticles (NPs) from a surface (S). After a brief review on what is known in literature (experimental, theoretical, atomistic investigation) in terms of SNs formation and growth (Section 1), we present the current understanding of cleaning efficiency of silicon wafer based on SWE and SNs, providing further information about removal of silicon nitride NPs via SWE (Section 2). Then, we propose a critical discussion and three possible hypotheses to describe the SNs-NPs-S scenario .
|
39680737_p35
|
39680737
|
Conclusion
| 3.968365 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9737754464149475,
0.0005064209108240902,
0.02571812830865383
] |
[
0.7550155520439148,
0.027134601026773453,
0.21740329265594482,
0.0004464469093363732
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Specifically, in the third hypothesis, we propose that SNs might not be key to promote NPs cleaning, but rather a byproduct formed after SWE. We believe that verifying this hypothesis is relevant in the field and could help shedding light on confined phenomena with a large scope in cleaning technologies.
|
39680737_p36
|
39680737
|
Conclusion
| 1.870643 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.48237717151641846,
0.0014002524549141526,
0.5162225365638733
] |
[
0.295780211687088,
0.6992193460464478,
0.003943354822695255,
0.0010571230668574572
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Finally, we list in Table 1 the forces that SNs may promote during SWE and propose that NPs removal is approached as a confinement question, where the DLVO interaction driven by the EDL overlay can help in expanding the theory. AFM and SFA appear to be ideal experimental approaches to verify the confinement hypothesis. MD simulations are further needed to understand how ions at the nanobubble interface behave across an electrolyte in a volume defined by the nanoparticle’s roughness (confined region).
|
39680737_p37
|
39680737
|
Conclusion
| 4.094879 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9983915686607361,
0.00017224748444277793,
0.0014362421352416277
] |
[
0.998847484588623,
0.0005679083988070488,
0.0005467631854116917,
0.00003786066372413188
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
To conclude, clarifying the nanoparticle detachment mechanism during SWE can pave the way toward effective cleaning at the nanoscale, with large impact in relevant industrial sectors such as semiconductor industry.
|
39680737_p38
|
39680737
|
Conclusion
| 1.954659 |
biomedical
|
Other
|
[
0.537142813205719,
0.0015203725779429078,
0.46133682131767273
] |
[
0.07634355872869492,
0.9203506708145142,
0.0026870688889175653,
0.0006186397513374686
] |
en
| 0.999995 |
Teaching computational thinking requires insights into how learners understand computational concepts and engage in computational practices. Moreover, to involve all learners and optimize inclusive teaching, it is essential to also know how such understanding and engagement can differ for specific groups of learners, such as those with impairments . Specifically for the group of learners with visual impairments, attention has risen the past few years to improve their participation in early programming lessons. Most research has focused on usability and accessibility of programming tools and materials. Learners with visual impairments form a challenging group here, because of the wide variety in their vision (with the majority having low vision in diverse forms, and a smaller group being blind) which results in different possibilities and preferences, especially when it comes to the use of technology . General technology accessibility issues are known in for instance screenreader compatibility. Furthermore, materials designed to introduce computational thinking to younger learners are often very visual in nature. Consequently, studies have been striving to identify which specific issues in these materials hinder the accessibility for low vision and blind learners. This has resulted in several proposed and implemented adaptations of materials. Examples are the improvement of accessibility of block-based environments and the addition of audio feedback to navigate through textual code . Further, new materials have been specifically designed for the target group, including a tangible block-based tool and inquiries are being made into suited instructions and support .
|
PMC11697380_p0
|
PMC11697380
|
Introduction
| 2.11009 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.01840021274983883,
0.0006429060595110059,
0.9809567928314209
] |
[
0.3075008690357208,
0.6110203862190247,
0.07890118658542633,
0.0025775886606425047
] |
en
| 0.999999 |
Importantly however, the area of specificities in cognitive processing in visually impaired individuals has been rather unexplored. Especially in the subgroup of blind learners it is likely that such specificities exist, due to known particularities in visual-spatial mental modeling and spatial navigation of this group . The resulting complexity of conveying abstract cognitive concepts to learners with visual impairments has been documented in other educational fields such as science and music . In this study, we focus on the field of programming education, and explore how blind and low vision learners approach the computational concept of abstraction. By observing these learners during programming assignments with the educational robots the Bee-bot and Blue-bot, we assess their approach to and experience of this concept through concrete behaviors. This will provide insight into how the process of abstraction emerges in this group of learners. Ultimately, these insights can contribute to understand specificities within their cognitive processing in the context of computational concepts, as well as to provide tailored educational support.
|
PMC11697380_p1
|
PMC11697380
|
Introduction
| 4.028781 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.9261296391487122,
0.000714300200343132,
0.07315607368946075
] |
[
0.9982622265815735,
0.0006114477873779833,
0.0010691762436181307,
0.00005709909964934923
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
Concerning our language use, we are aware of the discussions on appropriate terms when referring to people with impairments . Through this paper, we use the terms currently in place in our educational practice as well as in the academic literature we build on: learners with visual impairments, and blind or low vision learners. As a result, we use the term “braille learner”, following this indication by the schools of blind learners (with possibly some residual vision) who are being taught braille.
|
PMC11697380_p2
|
PMC11697380
|
Introduction
| 1.158729 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.021918360143899918,
0.000505919277202338,
0.9775757789611816
] |
[
0.020001649856567383,
0.9779941439628601,
0.0013629134045913815,
0.0006411893991753459
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Computational thinking is a widely applied but complex term in the context of programming education to young learners . Several definitions of computational thinking are in use (both in academia and in practice), originating from early papers . In line with these earlier understandings, at its core computational thinking can be understood as a set of problem solving processes. Three aspects can be distinguished: computational concepts, computational practices, and computational perspectives . Computational concepts refer to the content of the processes engaged in while programming, for instance iteration or parallelism. Further, computational practices refer to the activities (which can be cognitive) employed to engage with the concepts, for instance debugging. Finally, less relevant here, computational perspectives involve perspectives designers have of themselves and the world.
|
PMC11697380_p3
|
PMC11697380
|
The computational concept of abstraction
| 1.05872 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.0029400228522717953,
0.000661174301058054,
0.9963988065719604
] |
[
0.004607818089425564,
0.9830410480499268,
0.011116116307675838,
0.0012350685428828
] |
en
| 0.999995 |
A core computational process is abstraction, which involves viewing a situation at various levels of detail, and deciding what details we need and can ignore . It can be seen as a form of problem solving, as in the model by Perrenet where four layers of abstraction are described to understand how novice learners approach programming tasks. In the original model, these layers were identified in Computer Science education students’ thinking. The layers included the problem layer (the highest layer, where a verbal description of the problem is provided), the design layer (where a detailed depiction of the solution is provided without a reference to the specific programming language), the code layer (referring to the code in the specific programming language) and the execution layer (which involves running the code or referencing to the output, the lowest level). The model has been applied in the context of elementary school-level learners , where concrete observable behaviors of young learners while working with an educational robot have been operationalized for each layer . This enables identifying which layer a learner is engaged in during an assignment. Behaviors include tactile expressions (for instance, pointing towards the robot), verbal expressions (describing the route of the robot) and observing the environment, route, or robot carrying out the task. In addition to observing the behaviors within layers, the model can also be used to assess how learners switch between the layers through pattern analyses . Previous research with the educational robot revealed that young learners spend little time on the problem layer but do switch between layers in a matter that suggests debugging (switching back to the code layers after the execution) and redesigning (switching back to the design layer).
|
PMC11697380_p4
|
PMC11697380
|
The computational concept of abstraction
| 3.480452 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.18003326654434204,
0.0007187906885519624,
0.8192479014396667
] |
[
0.8832190632820129,
0.10248559713363647,
0.013673042878508568,
0.0006223651580512524
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
Level of complexity or abstraction of the problem or task itself can also be taken into account by looking at the dimensions of control and representation . Control can range from direct manipulation (moving a physical robot or dragging a character in a programming environment) to computational control (where a sequence of instructions is constructed that is executed later on). Representation refers to the manner in which such a sequence is presented. This can range from the programmer having no representation to the programmer having an external plan outside of the unit that is being programmed . More abstract and complex tasks consequently imply moving away from more direct computational control .
|
PMC11697380_p5
|
PMC11697380
|
The computational concept of abstraction
| 1.544783 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.029571404680609703,
0.0010698375990614295,
0.9693588018417358
] |
[
0.008828981779515743,
0.9895283579826355,
0.0012500729644671082,
0.0003926329663954675
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
Understanding and operationalizing abstraction at this observable level is an essential step in optimizing programming education, since it provides direct starting points for teachers to recognize and support the development of this process. It is consequently also key to identify how abstraction emerges in learners with diverse needs. Learners with visual impairments have received quite some attention in the topic of programming education (though young learners more recently) mostly at the level of identifying practical usability and accessibility in programming materials and environments . Various barriers have been described . These include inaccessibility in programming languages and environments and code navigation . Specifically for the younger learners, there are relevant issues with block-based languages (including the reliance upon the mouse and the drag and drop interface) as well as the visual properties of tangible materials such as robots and robotic kits . At the cognitive level (of comprehending and representing computational concepts and employing particular computational practices) however, specificities in the group of learners with visual impairments have been rather unexplored. We know from other educational fields such as science and music that teaching abstract cognitive concepts to learners with visual impairments can be challenging.
|
PMC11697380_p6
|
PMC11697380
|
Abstraction and mental modeling in young blind learners
| 1.42655 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.00538568664342165,
0.0004319181607570499,
0.9941824078559875
] |
[
0.11890850216150284,
0.8584578633308411,
0.02068152092397213,
0.001952195423655212
] |
en
| 0.999999 |
This challenge in conveying abstract knowledge to learners with visual impairments can be grounded in specificities in visio-spatial mental modeling and spatial navigation in this group. This is a highly complex area. Generally, qualitative differences can exist for specifically blind compared to sighted individuals in how spatial information is encoded, as a result of the absence of visual experience and the quantitative advantage of vision over other senses . However, performance is influenced by several factors, including the onset of blindness, other experiences, taught or developed compensatory mechanisms as well as the specific spatial processing aspects involved or task used. Ultimately, visio-spatial mental images of blind individuals can in practice be functionally equivalent to those of sighted individuals, but differences on specific mental imagery tasks can also be identified. To further understand the implication of this complex picture within the context of young learners with visual impairments’ education, it is recommended to focus on distinct spatial contexts and representations within a particular discipline . Within programming education, the core concept of abstraction provides a suitable starting point. The approach of the layers of abstraction and the previously identified behaviors emphasize how more complex tasks and approaches entail less direct manipulation and consequently require more mental modeling. In order to explore this, we use the educational robots Bee-bot and Blue-bot, since these are widely applied in early programming education and have been proven to be at the concrete level relatively accessible for learners with visual impairments . Further, the two types of this bot provide different options for the dimension of control within a programming task, with the Bee-bot being directly programmed with buttons on the bot and the Blue-bot having the option to be programmed through an external device.
|
PMC11697380_p7
|
PMC11697380
|
Abstraction and mental modeling in young blind learners
| 3.986105 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.7071123123168945,
0.0009894618997350335,
0.291898250579834
] |
[
0.9796516299247742,
0.013183551840484142,
0.0069811055436730385,
0.00018371549958828837
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Our research question is: which patterns and specific behaviors, approached from the layers of abstraction model, do children with visual impairments engage in when working on a programming task with the Bee-bot or Blue-bot? Specifically, we will assess how the children move through the abstraction layers during a task, and which behaviors they show within the different layers. In our understanding of the four layers, we follow previous work on this model . Consequently, the problem layer refers to the most abstract level where the problem is discussed, the design layer involves a depiction of the solution, the code layer involves being directly concerned with the code as applicable in the specific tool or language, and the execution is the least abstract layer where the code is ran or where there is preoccupation with the output. In our study, first, frequency of the different layers and switching between the layers can reveal whether learners with visual impairments engage in these higher levels of abstraction, that require mental representation of the problems they work on. Second, how exactly these learners engage in these layers, that is what type of concrete behaviors and practices, are being employed, can indicate what information is used and needed to build these mental representations. This also illuminates the extent to which the original model of the layers of abstraction, based on sighted learners , is applicable to other learners with certain specificities. Together these insights explore how the cognitive concept of abstraction in the context of programming is experienced by learners with visual impairments. Our primary interest lies in blind children, however given the low prevalence of this group as well as the unexplored nature of this topic in learners with visual impairments overall, we include in our study pairs of learners with visual impairments with each pair containing at least one blind child.
|
PMC11697380_p8
|
PMC11697380
|
Abstraction and mental modeling in young blind learners
| 3.891568 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.7104654908180237,
0.0011944277212023735,
0.28834009170532227
] |
[
0.9982934594154358,
0.0012873390223830938,
0.00034913496347144246,
0.00007004378858255222
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Nine children from three special education schools for learners with visual impairments in the Netherlands participated in pairs in sessions with the Bee-bot (three sessions) and/or the Blue-bot (four sessions). Table 1 summarizes the pairs and characteristics of the children. There were two pairs who participated in both a Bee-bot and Blue-bot session (the pair of sessions 2 and 5 and the pair of sessions 3 and 6). In session 1 and 4 Child 1 was the same, but Child 2 was different. Table 1. Overview of the seven sessions and the participants. */**/*** indicates same pair or same child within pair. No. Child1 Child2 Level Bot 1 Braille (f)* Braille (m) Lower Bee-bot 2** Low vision (m) Braille (m) Lower Bee-bot 3*** Braille (m) Braille (m) Higher Bee-bot 4 Braille (f)* Low vision (m) Lower Blue-bot 5** Low vision (m) Braille (m) Lower Blue-bot 6*** Braille (m) Braille (m) Higher Blue-bot 7 Braille (f) Low vision (f) Middle Blue-bot
|
PMC11697380_p9
|
PMC11697380
|
Participants
| 1.907264 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.15813925862312317,
0.0013585990527644753,
0.8405022025108337
] |
[
0.9130114912986755,
0.08549672365188599,
0.0007767182542011142,
0.0007151357713155448
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
In total, out of the nine children there were three girls and six boys. Three children had low vision in various forms, including for all of them blurred vision and additional effects such as distorted view or images. The other six children were blind, with two of them being completely blind, and four having some residual vision or light perception. In the results, we refer to the blind learners as “braille learners”, which is how they are indicated at school. This indication reflects that these learners could have some residual vision but were all in any case taught braille, in addition to working with various other tools and assistive technologies such as screenreaders. Because the policy in the Netherlands is that learners with visual impairments enroll in regular education unless not possible, all participants had additional learning issues or other specificities. These included specific behavioral issues or specific learning needs.
|
PMC11697380_p10
|
PMC11697380
|
Participants
| 2.034307 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.4867297410964966,
0.0018906056648120284,
0.5113796591758728
] |
[
0.7243857383728027,
0.2737085819244385,
0.0009357387898489833,
0.0009699459187686443
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
The participants were enrolled at the lower, middle or higher level of special education elementary schools. Although there is flexibility in age ranges in this school context, these ranges generally include learners of resp. 6–8, 9–10, and 10–12 years old. The schools were located in different parts of the Netherlands, with the school from pairs 1/4 and 2/5 being in a more rural part and the schools from pair 3/6 and pair 7 in a more urban part. The classes of these schools were similar in size and the schools overall had a similar educational approach and support.
|
PMC11697380_p11
|
PMC11697380
|
Participants
| 1.26869 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.023402569815516472,
0.0006315882783383131,
0.9759658575057983
] |
[
0.4287244379520416,
0.5681809186935425,
0.0013670166954398155,
0.0017276337603107095
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
The primary focus of this qualitative study was to explore visually impaired learners’ experience of the concept of abstraction in a programming assignment, in order to gain insight into the reality of this topic as experienced by our subjects. Fitting with such a design and focus, we intended to obtain trustworthiness of our study through establishing the four criteria of Guba: trust value, applicability, consistency, neutrality . In our collection of the data, we followed a tailored approach fitting the subjects’ specific setting and needs, providing space to find and express their experience. Further, we documented this approach, our sample, and the findings in detailed descriptions (see the relevant sections of the methods and the results sections). As such, we established truth value by staying close and true to the direct experience of subjects and documenting this experience in detail. Further, applicability refers to the extent to which (a type of) generalization is aimed for. In this study, this was limited to enabling transferability to similar participants and contexts by providing details on these participants and contexts. Third, consistency is established in the results section by working with a detailed coding scheme that allows for both pre-defined and newly observed behaviors, and in addition through providing full descriptive pictures for each pair of learners. Finally, neutrality is established again through staying close to our participants’ experience and documenting these experiences in detail.
|
PMC11697380_p12
|
PMC11697380
|
Research design and establishing trustworthiness
| 3.421168 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.31399551033973694,
0.0013501463690772653,
0.6846543550491333
] |
[
0.9976093769073486,
0.001729220966808498,
0.0005313253495842218,
0.0001300611620536074
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
The Bee-bot and Blue-bot sessions were conducted in the context of a larger project on usability and accessibility of programming materials for learners with visual impairments. Classes participating in this project were all part of special education schools part of the two Dutch expertise centres for visual impairments, and three programming lessons focusing on specific materials. The three classes participating in the Bee-bot and Blue-bot lessons had each received the first lesson on an unplugged material, after which they used the Bee-bot in the second lesson and the Blue-bot in the third lesson. Informed consent was obtained from parents, who were approached through the teachers with a letter explaining the lessons and research. Parents were asked to give permission for the participation of their child in the research and for the video recording that took place in the classroom. If a parent would not give consent, their child would still take part in the programming lessons but no data would be collected on this specific child, who would also not be part of the video recording. The latter was ensured by having the children for whom no permission was obtained sit in a separate classroom during the assignment. Half to all of the parents gave consent in the three classes.
|
PMC11697380_p13
|
PMC11697380
|
Procedure
| 1.767495 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.07635799050331116,
0.0010746584739536047,
0.9225672483444214
] |
[
0.5376290678977966,
0.4596118628978729,
0.0014404329704120755,
0.0013186605647206306
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
The programming lesson consisted of a short introduction, after which the children were divided into pairs to work on an assignment. The introduction was given by the researcher. During the assignment, each pair of children was guided and supported by a tester, this was either the researcher or a research-assistant. The research-assistants were students in social sciences or computer sciences who had received a training on working with children with visual impairments as well as on facilitating the set-up of the assignment as explained below.
|
PMC11697380_p14
|
PMC11697380
|
Procedure
| 1.758158 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.19756659865379333,
0.00150306336581707,
0.8009304404258728
] |
[
0.07244439423084259,
0.9258581399917603,
0.0010661572450771928,
0.0006313624908216298
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
The educational floor-robot Bee-bot and the more advanced version Blue-bot were both used. These robots have the same basic look and functions, shaped as a bee with a clear front (distinguished by the protruding eyes and nose) and seven buttons on top which can be used to move the bot forward, backwards, turn right or left, pause, and run or erase the program. The type of functions are distinguished by different shapes and colors of the buttons. The bot makes sounds when it is being programmed (with different sounds for a step, for erase, and for run) and when it executes the program (making a sound for each step and a different sound at the end). Whereas the Bee-bot can only be programmed with the buttons on top, the Blue-bot has the option to be programmed externally using the accompanying materials (the tactile reader and tactile reader cards), or the Blue-bot app on a PC or tablet device (the latter was not used in the current study). The tactile reader is an external card holder, which connects to the Blue-bot through Bluetooth. A total number of nine cards, that hold the same five functions as the buttons on top of the robot, can be placed in this holder. Compared to programming the bot with the buttons on top, this external device makes it possible to lay out the program. The original cards indicate their function (step forward, pause, etc.) with a small picture. Since this is unsuited for blind learners, adapted tactile versions of these cards were used (previously created by one of the expertise centres and explored in some of the schools), which contained small tactile shapes attached to the cards below the original pictures. One consideration in the design of the tactile shapes was to find an appropriate alternative for the arrow shape, which had been proved in these previous explorations to be a difficult concept to convey to braille learners. Throughout this study, the tactile versions of the Blue-bot cards were used, as well as (in order to compare) the original versions. Finally, for the environment in which the bots were programmed (see Assignments below), either the wooden board that distinguishes different plates indicating the steps of the Blue-bot and that can be build into a maze was used or loose Kapla blocks to create the environment or a maze.
|
PMC11697380_p15
|
PMC11697380
|
Materials and assignment
| 3.169864 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.2529717683792114,
0.0008079148828983307,
0.7462203502655029
] |
[
0.9653651714324951,
0.03337575122714043,
0.0009608768159523606,
0.0002982303558383137
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
The sessions with the Bee-bot and Blue-bot started with a plenary introduction to the whole class by the researcher. Since the children had already been introduced to programming during the previous (unplugged) lesson given in the context of the project, this introduction focused on explaining the bot. During this introduction, the children and researcher all sat together, and the bot was passed around all the children for a visual and/or tactile exploration while the researcher explained the buttons (emphasizing the visual, tactile, and auditory elements). In the following Blue-bot sessions, the reader and cards were introduced and passed around all the children. In the lower level class (Sessions 1, 2, 4 and 5) the teacher preferred to conduct most of the explanation individually, after the children had been divided up into pairs.
|
PMC11697380_p16
|
PMC11697380
|
Materials and assignment
| 1.259924 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.026169082149863243,
0.000827444891911,
0.9730034470558167
] |
[
0.026013366878032684,
0.9724680781364441,
0.0008095005759969354,
0.0007089971331879497
] |
en
| 0.999996 |
Once the children had been divided up into pairs and matched to a tester, the tester explained the constructive interaction protocol (described in the next section), after which the video recording was started. Next, the tester checked whether the children had understood the explanation on the bot and if needed provided additional instructions. The assignment always started with the children programming a few steps in order to move the bot from one child to the other. The tester then choose an appropriate assignment to continue, out of several available worked-out assignments with different levels (including having the bot move from point A to point B within an open environment or within a maze, or having the bot perform a dance with a repeated pattern). The children were also allowed to (co-)design the environment and/or think of the end goal for the bot themselves. The children always worked with the bot in a structured manner towards a specific goal. This set-up was designed and carried out following the recommendation for an individually guided, tailored and flexible approach in research with children with impairments . In addition to the specific content of the assignment being adapted to the children’s level, tailored extra instruction was provided when required and the teacher was present to intervene for instance when a child got too distracted. Further, in order to gain insights into children’s experience while working with the bots, the think-aloud method of constructive interaction was used . Constructive interaction uses the set-up of a collaboration between children in order to create a natural situation for them to verbalize their experiences . We explicitly stimulated this by providing the children with an elaborate instruction on verbalizing your thoughts at the start, including a concrete example . The children were instructed to work together and try to verbalize what they were thinking of the material and what they were doing. The tester reminded them throughout the assignment, using neutral prompts (“don’t forget to think aloud”, “what are you doing now”).
|
PMC11697380_p17
|
PMC11697380
|
Materials and assignment
| 3.704849 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.4854663610458374,
0.0013979215873405337,
0.5131357312202454
] |
[
0.9613873958587646,
0.03728887811303139,
0.0010966536356136203,
0.00022705580340698361
] |
en
| 0.999995 |
The sessions were all recorded individually on video. These recordings were processed by coding and transcribing verbal and non-verbal behavior, using a detailed pre-defined coding scheme in line with a theory driven thematic analysis approach . Continuing on establishing trustworthiness for our study as described in the research design section above, our data analyses were also aimed at capturing the experience of reality of our subjects. This was obtained first of all by staying close to this experience in coding our data, and second by taking into account the learners’ overall approach to the assignment and providing a full picture for each pair of participants on how they proceeded through the assignment. The coding scheme consequently included the primary focus of the study, distinguishing the four layers of abstraction, but also information on additional aspects of the learners’ experience. In addition, the overall impression of the sessions is included in the descriptions in the results as well. The scheme included 17 categories of behaviors referring to specific features of usability and accessibility (for instance-independent use, needed assistance, positive or negative experience) and the computational practices. The behaviors were based on previous insights on the use of programming materials with sighted and visually impaired learners .
|
PMC11697380_p18
|
PMC11697380
|
Analyses
| 3.873089 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.7879670262336731,
0.001312933978624642,
0.21072009205818176
] |
[
0.9986714124679565,
0.0008445082348771393,
0.000406623468734324,
0.00007744404865661636
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Concerning the coding of the computational practices, for each layer, plausible pre-defined behaviors were hypothesized based on previous work with sighted learners and fitting the Bee-bot and Blue-bot (pre-specified behaviors for each layer can be found in Tables 3–6 ). In addition, for each layer it was possible to indicate non-anticipated behaviors. This enabled the important intention of the research set-up to explore the current subjects’ behaviors in an open way. For all seven sessions included in this study, a coding scheme was completed, including verbatim transcriptions of verbal behaviors. Behavior occurring during one time or stimulus could be coded within multiple layers, for instance, when children were simultaneously discussing the end point and the steps towards it, which would be coded as pre-defined behavior in the problem as well as design layer. Further, multiple behaviors could also be coded within one layer, when for example children were following the output while discussing whether the outcome was anticipated, which would be coded as two pre-defined behaviors within the output layer. With the detailed and elaborate coding scheme, we aimed to establish consistency in our study, allowing for full descriptive pictures where observed behaviors are embedded in context and connected to the overall experience. Further processing was conducted by first taking an inventory of the frequency of and switching between the layers, by creating frequency tables and a graph for each session representing the switching per layer. We followed the previous paper by Faber et al. with this representation through graphs of young learners’ switching through the abstraction layers. Second, the behaviors within the layers were inventoried by creating frequency tables for the pre-specified behaviors within each layer and structuring the open answers for non-anticipated behaviors into patterns. Finally, information from other (not computational practice-related) categories was scanned to obtain an overall picture of the course of the assignment as well as any specificities for each session. Microsoft Excel was used for the coding scheme’s, further processing of the data and creation of the graphs was done in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), version 27. Table 2. Occurrence of layers within and across sessions. Percentages are relative to specific session. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Problem Layer 24 19 17 5 8 4 5 82 (8.9%) (7.3%) (6.3%) (3.7%) (6.5%) (3.6%) (7.2%) (7.0%) Design Layer 83 106 54 35 21 26 18 343 (30.6%) (40.5%) (19.9%) (26.1%) (17.1%) (23.4%) (26.1%) (27.6%) Code Layer 112 104 73 61 35 18 28 431 (41.3%) (39.7%) (26.9%) 45.5%) (28.5%) (16.2%) (40.6%) (34.7%) Execution layer 52 33 127 33 59 63 18 385 (19/2%) (12.6%) (46.9%) (24.6%) (48.0%) (56.8%) (26.1%) (31.0%) Total 271 262 271 134 123 111 69 1241 Other 94 43 124 73 30 58 43 Table 3. Behaviors within problem layer. Behaviors Low vision Braille Total Anticipated Point to starting point 8 (28.6%) 11 (15.1%) 19 (18.8%) Point to end point 6 (21.4%) 13 (17.8%) 19 (18.8%) Discuss starting point 2 (7.1%) 8 (11.0%) 10 (9.9%) Discuss end point 9 (32.1%) 14 (19.2%) 23 (22.8%) Non anticipated 3 (10.7%) 27 (37.0%) 30 (29.7%) Total 28 73 101 Table 4. Behaviors within design layer. Behaviors Low vision Braille Total Anticipated Point to route 3 (2.1%) 19 (7.9%) 22 (5.7%) Following route 13 (8.9%) 22 (9.1%) 35 (9.0%) Describing route 89 (60.1%) 89 (36.8%) 178 (45.9%) Counting steps route 12 (8.2%) 7 (2.9%) 19 (4.9%) Non anticipated 29 (19.9%) 105 (43.4%) 134 (34.5%) Total 146 242 388 Table 5. Behaviors within code layer. Behaviors Low vision Braille Total Bee-bot Anticipated Make program 0 8 (2.9%) 8 (2.6%) Follow program 1 (3.2%) 15 (5.5%) 16 (5.2%) Press one button 22 (71.0%) 149 (54.2%) 171 (55.9%) Press multiple buttons 0 64 (23.3%) 64 (20.9%) Erase steps 7 (22.6%) 38 (13.8%) 45 (14.7%) Non anticipated 1 (3.2%) 1 (.4%) 2 (.7%) Total 31 275 306 Blue-bot Anticipated Make program 1 (.8%) 4 (3.0%) 5 (1.9%) Follow program 2 (1.6%) 4 (3.0%) 6 (2.3%) Take card 49 (39.8%) 51 (38.1%) 100 (38.9%) Put card in reader 44 (35.8%) 47 (35.1%) 91 (35.4%) Take card out reader 12 (9.8%) 8 (6.1%) 20 (7.8%) Change order cards 2 (1.6%) 2 (1.5%) 4 (1.6%) Non anticipated 13 (10.6%) 18 (13.4%) 31 (12.1%) Total 123 134 257 Table 6. Behaviors within output layer. Behaviors Low vision Braille Total Anticipated Execute program 14 (18.4%) 109 (31.2%) 123 (28.9%) Follow bot 45 (59.2%) 165 (47.3%) 210 (49.4%) Relate outcome 7 (9.2%) 40 (11.5%) 47 (11.1%) Predict outcome 6 (7.9%) 27 (7.7%) 33 (7.8%) Non anticipated 4 (5.3%) 8 (2.3%) 12 (2.8%) Total 76 349 425
|
PMC11697380_p19
|
PMC11697380
|
Analyses
| 3.993231 |
biomedical
|
Study
|
[
0.866594135761261,
0.0009932391112670302,
0.13241258263587952
] |
[
0.9991695880889893,
0.0004973846371285617,
0.00027479924028739333,
0.000058269146393286064
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
The results consist of two main parts. The first part (3.1) focuses on the abstraction layers : their occurrence and the patterns of switching between the layers. This section starts with a display of the occurrence of the layers for each pair within an overall table, which enables a descriptive overview of the frequency of occurrence within and across the pairs. The experience of each pair of switching through the layers while working on the assignment is captured through a description of the pair and an accompanying graph. The graphs should be viewed as qualitative illustrations of the patterns of switching through the layers. The second part of the results (3.2) focuses on the behaviors within the layers. This section contains a detailed assessment of the behaviors as they occur in the layers, by reporting and describing the anticipated and non-anticipated behaviors. The focus is more across than within the pairs here, but specific behaviors continue to be ascribed to specific pairs.
|
PMC11697380_p20
|
PMC11697380
|
Analyses
| 2.293923 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.26883164048194885,
0.0008092417265288532,
0.7303590774536133
] |
[
0.6507405638694763,
0.34380561113357544,
0.00467335619032383,
0.0007804827764630318
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
The overview of the occurrence of the four layers ( Table 2 ) as well as the pattern analysis indicates how the children within the seven sessions move and switch through the layers of abstraction while they work on their assignments with the Bee-bot (Sessions 1, 2, 3) and Blue-bot (Sessions 4, 5,6,7). Most sessions lasted around 30 min, session 7 lasted only 15 min. Behavior unrelated to the layers is coded with 0 and displayed in the graphs and included in Table 2 as well. Overall, it can be seen that within all sessions all layers occur. The problem layer occurs least frequently (on average about 7% of the time), as the graphs show it differs per session at which point during the session this usually is. In sessions 1, 2, 3 and 5 the problem layer arises all through the session, whereas in sessions 4, 6, and 7 there are one or two occasions where this layer occurs. The design, code and execution layer usually each take in between 20% and 40% of the behaviors, with some exceptions (for instance the execution layer occurring less often in session 2, and the code layer occurring quite frequently in session 4). In some sessions, the design layer stands out by being less frequently engaged in compared to the code and execution layer (sessions 3 and 5 most clearly) while in session 2 the design layer occurs most often. “Other” behaviors are seen throughout all sessions in between processes related to abstraction. Consistently across sessions, these other behaviors mostly involve the children listening to instructions, generally discussing the material or their collaboration with it, or distractions and actions outside of the material and assignment. Figure 1. Session 1 pattern of layers. Line graph for session 1 describing the pattern of moving through the layers of abstraction with the Bee-bot. The X-as represents time during the assignment and the Y-as represents the four abstraction layers. After a start where the children spent some time at the code and execution layer, the graph shows the children most frequently switch between the design and code layer. Six dense stretches going back and forth between these layers can be seen. In between these stretches the children visit the execution layer, and mostly during the second half they also go to the problem layer. Figure 2. Session 2 pattern of layers. Line graph for session 2 describing the pattern of moving through the layers of abstraction with the Bee-bot. The X-as represents time during the assignment and the Y-as represents the 4 abstraction layers. The graph shows 6 stretches of switching back and forth between the design and code layer, spread through the assignment. At the start or during each of these stretches the problem and execution layer are also visited once or twice. Figure 3. Session 3 pattern of layers. Line graph for session 3 describing the pattern of moving through the layers of abstraction with the Bee-bot. The X-as represents time during the assignment and the Y-as represents the 4 abstraction layers. The graph shows a not very dense pattern of mostly switching between the code and execution, and less frequently, design layer. The problem layer is switched to on occasion all through the assignment.
|
PMC11697380_p21
|
PMC11697380
|
Abstraction layers
| 3.146632 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.28795701265335083,
0.0011032697511836886,
0.7109397053718567
] |
[
0.9936936497688293,
0.005453906953334808,
0.0006786532467231154,
0.00017371973081026226
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Looking in more detail at the individual graphs, complemented by the accompanying behavior and atmosphere during the different sessions, several observations can be made. A general trend is that sessions 1, 2 and 3 (the Bee-bot sessions) have a denser pattern compared to sessions 4, 5, 6, and 7 (the Blue-bot sessions). Further, especially in sessions 1 and 2 the dense pattern involved several stretches of quickly switching back and forth between coding and designing. Taking a closer look at these sessions, session 1 concerned two braille learners who often relied on their residual sight by bringing themselves very close to the material. The children preferred to work by themselves and the coding-designing stretches always involved one child programming step by step by pressing the button (code layer) and moving the bot through the environment along to plan the next step (designing). Session 2 consisted of one low vision and one braille learner. The latter did not have any residual sight and relied upon the audio function of the bot and tactile exploration both while programming and while following the bot go on his route, as well as upon quite some verbal and tactile assistance by the tester and the other child. The two boys worked enthusiastically and well together. Whereas Figure 2 shows similar coding-designing stretches as in session 1, in session 2 this always involved both children working together while dividing the tasks, with one child coding and the other child designing. In most of the stretches it was Child1 (low vision) who took on the design and Child2 who coded, only in the third stretch this was the other way around. As the graph indicates, this stretch, which takes places between 1300–1500 seconds within the assignment, is a bit slower paced compared to the other stretches. The tester intensely guided the braille child here in tactilely exploring the maze to think of the next step. In session 3 both children were braille learners (Child1 had some very limited residual sight) primarily using tactile and auditory access, receiving some support by the tester or each other for instance in confirming which button they were to press or in getting oriented. The graph in Figure 3 shows a calmer pattern, which includes the execution layer more frequently in between coding and designing. This reflects the children working on smaller sub-parts of the program which were tested in between. Generally, both boys worked together through the different layers, though Child2 was a bit more active. Figure 4. Session 4 pattern of layers. Line graph for session 4, describing the pattern of moving through the layers of abstraction with the Blue-bot. The X-as represents time during the assignment and the Y-as represents the 4 abstraction layers. The graphs shows a spacious not very dense pattern switching between code and execution, and code and design layer, moving to the problem layer twice at the end of the first half of the assignment. Figure 5. Session 5 pattern of layers. Line graph for session 5, describing the pattern of moving through the layers of abstraction with the Blue-bot. The X-as represents time during the assignment and the Y-as represents the 4 abstraction layers. The graph shows a spacious not very dense pattern switching between the 4 layers. During the second half the graph becomes somewhat more dense and there is a stretch going back and forth between the design and code layer, and a stretch going back and forth between the code and execution layer. Figure 6. Session 6 pattern of layers. Line graph for session 6, describing the pattern of moving through the layers of abstraction with the Blue-bot. The X-as represents time during the assignment and the Y-as represents the 4 abstraction layers. The graph shows a spacious not very dense pattern switching mostly between the code, execution, and (less often) design layer). During the second half of the assignment the children switch 3 times to the problem layer.
|
PMC11697380_p22
|
PMC11697380
|
Abstraction layers
| 3.320091 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.3663206994533539,
0.0011837341589853168,
0.6324954628944397
] |
[
0.9894956946372986,
0.009569821879267693,
0.0007095835171639919,
0.00022487087699119002
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
The remaining sessions involved the Blue-bot. Session 4 included a braille girl (same as in session 1) and low vision boy, with the graph in Figure 4 indicating a much less dense pattern. The code layer was most frequent here as well, and the problem layer clearly less frequent. There was some, but less frequent and quick, switching back and forth between designing and coding. Because the children did not work well together, similar to session 1 they worked in turn-on designing, coding and running their own program. Session 5 included the same two boys (one braille and one low vision) as session 2. The execution layer was most prevalent here and the graph in Figure 5 is much less dense. This seems to reflect slower steps of coding, where every time the next step was identified the correct card first had to be found. The tasks were not so clearly defined as in their Bee-bot session, coding and designing were both more frequently engaged in by Child 1 who had low vision. In session 6 as well a similar pair (in this case as in session 3, of two braille learners) worked with the Blue-bot. Their overall experience was much less positive than in their Bee-bot session, they were not very interested in working with the bot anymore and thought it was very limited. The execution layer is again most prevalent, there is however a somewhat slower switching between the four layers, with the problem layer being only included a couple of times later on. Finally, session 7 included a braille girl and low vision girl. This was a relatively short session during which the code layer was most prevalent . The children worked well together and both children are involved through all layers. The braille learner was aware of and asked for what worked for her. Figure 7. Session 7 pattern of layers. Line graph for session 7, describing the pattern of moving through the layers of abstraction with the Blue-bot. The X-as represents time during the assignment and the Y-as represents the 4 abstraction layers. The graph is shorter than the other graphs in duration, and shows the children switch between code and execution layer at first, after which they start to involve the design layer. During the second half the problem layer is involved in a stretch with the design and code layer, after that the execution layer is visited.
|
PMC11697380_p23
|
PMC11697380
|
Abstraction layers
| 1.390951 |
other
|
Other
|
[
0.020424166694283485,
0.0006873098900541663,
0.9788885712623596
] |
[
0.4458991289138794,
0.5488632321357727,
0.002892071381211281,
0.0023455643095076084
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
The behaviors the learners displayed within the layers are categorized into anticipated (observed in or referred from previous research) and non-anticipated (first observed in our study). These anticipated and non-anticipated behaviors are indicated in Tables 3 to 6 , specified per session as well as by vision type (braille or low vision learner). First, Table 3 provides the behaviors occurring within the problem layer. All anticipated behaviors are engaged in by both low vision and braille learners, though no single behavior is consistently present across all sessions. Discussing the endpoint is overall most frequent within the behaviors occurring within this layer. Further, it can be noticed that relatively more non-anticipated behaviors are engaged in by the braille compared to the low vision learners, taking in almost 40% of all behaviors amongst the braille learners. The inventory of these non-anticipated behaviors showed that they most commonly involved an alternative way to be occupied with the start or ending. This included placing the Bee-bot at the start (multiple times by both children in session 1), discussing the start position/stance of the Bee-bot (once in session 3), coding the final step for the Blue-bot in advance (session 5, by a low vision child), or discussing different routes towards the end. Some additional non-anticipated behaviors that occurred were being generally occupied with the plan or environment, making a drawing of the environment (in session 1) or depicting the goal of the assignment in a physical way. The latter occurred in session 6, and involved Child 1 standing up and physically taking several turns to explain to the other child what kind of turn the bot took (“Look, look, I take a step, turn, step, step, turn, step, turn”).
|
PMC11697380_p24
|
PMC11697380
|
Behaviors within layers
| 3.327572 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.4943968653678894,
0.0011662144679576159,
0.5044369101524353
] |
[
0.997188150882721,
0.0023581706918776035,
0.0003469972580205649,
0.00010674154327716678
] |
en
| 0.999997 |
Second, Table 4 provides the behaviors within the design layer. All anticipated behaviors occurred, and describing the route was by far the most common anticipated behavior, occurring in all sessions. Whereas with the low vision learners this took up over half of their behaviors, in the braille learners this was somewhat less. For the braille learners, similar to the problem layer, non-anticipated behaviors were most common and took up almost half of their behaviors within this layer. The inventory of the non-anticipated behaviors showed that several of these behaviors involved manually moving the bot forward either step by step while programming (Sessions 1, 2, 4) or in one go to plan or check an entire route (Sessions 4, 6 and 7). Though most of this frequently occurring behavior occurred in sessions 1 and 4, in other sessions it was also observed. In session 2 one of the learners (the low vision learner) placed his hand in the route to indicate the position of the bot. Comparable but involving the cards for the Blue-bot was the behavior to hold a card in or next to the route to check its direction. Other behaviors that occurred were drawing a route on paper or working on the environment (which occurred in most sessions).
|
PMC11697380_p25
|
PMC11697380
|
Behaviors within layers
| 2.366617 |
other
|
Study
|
[
0.18539118766784668,
0.0008960163686424494,
0.8137128353118896
] |
[
0.9719427824020386,
0.027037106454372406,
0.0006937846192158759,
0.00032624954474158585
] |
en
| 0.999998 |
Subsets and Splits
SQL Console for rntc/test-pp-aa
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