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The first census to report on how well people were housed was that of 1891, but the only statistics gathered were on the number of rooms and the number of people in each household. From 1951 onwards, more questions were asked about 'amenities', meaning specific facilities that households either possessed or had shared access to. One interesting measure of progress is the change in the amenities covered by the census. In 1951, these were piped water, a cooking stove, a kitchen sink, a 'water closet' meaning a flush toilet, and a 'fixed bath', as distinct from a tin bath hung on the wall between uses. In 2001, the list of key amenities was shorter: central heating, and 'sole use of bath/shower and toilet'. Differences in what information was recorded by each census complicate comparisons over time, and none of our three measures are entirely consistent. Our detailed statistics are held in structures called nCubes, which you can think of as tables with one dimension, or with two ... or with twenty. Their dimensions are defined by the variables each nCube combines, and each variable is made up of categories. These nCubes are available at national level for this theme: \|Available nCubes\|\|Period covered\|\|Variables (number of categories) \|Total Households\|\|1931 to 2001\|\| \|Housing Density, redistricted\|\|1931 to 2001\|\| Persons per Room \|Housing Amenity, redistricted\|\|1951 to 2001\|\| Housing amenities, simplified	3.358185
LEESBURG, Va., Aug. 15, 2007 – During the first 30 days of life, newly born horses (called "foals") are especially sensitive to bacteria and other dangers commonly found in their every day surroundings. Each year between January and June, dozens of these foals are brought to Virginia Tech's Marion duPont Scott Equine Medical Center for treatment where the hospital's experts work diligently to return the critically ill young animals to full health. “We work with extremely compromised patients that sometimes arrive to us with diseases involving multiple organs,” said Dr. Anne Desrochers, clinical assistant professor in equine medicine. “It is very fulfilling to see many of these little babies go home happy and healthy after having been so sick.” Common problems that can affect foals include prematurity, neonatal sepsis (infection), hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (brain damage resulting from a lack of oxygen which is also known as “dummy foal”) and diarrhea. “These diseases can occur due to exposure to pathogens in utero or after birth” said Desrochers. Due to their delicate nature, neonates that are brought in for emergency treatment are always seen first by members of the hospital’s internal medicine team who specialize in the physiologic interaction among internal body systems. These board certified experts oversee and implement their care along with help from residents, interns and nurses. “The nature of a neonate’s illness can be more volatile because their immune defenses are not quite as vigorous as those of adults,” said Dr. Martin Furr, the Adelaide C. Riggs Chair in Equine Medicine. Furr notes that all horses have very sensitive organ systems that can be damaged by sitting or lying down for extended periods of time. A foal’s small size (the average healthy neonate weighs approximately 100-120 lbs) allows the clinicians to prevent this problem by moving the patient often and repositioning their body as needed. “Their small size enables us to manage their posture so that they don’t become compromised as a result of lying on the mats,” said Furr. Unlike in human medicine in which infants are often separated from their mothers, foals that are brought to the center are typically kept in the same stall as the mare. This practice is both a convenience for the owner and a benefit to the patient. “When the foal is healthy and gets back home, we want them to have a full and normal life with their mothers so, in most cases, it is best if they stay together during treatment,” said Desrochers. “The mares are usually extremely cooperative because they seem to understand that we’re here to help.” Integral to the success of the center’s neonatal care service is the Foal Watch Volunteer Program which matches volunteers with cases requiring around-the-clock attention. Participants in the program sit with sick patients for assigned periods of time in order to observe and report any physical or behavioral changes. “It is important to be very alert with neonates because their weakened state makes them susceptible to other complications,” said Furr. “Our faculty, staff and volunteers, very carefully monitor these patients to avoid problems such as sores, eye infections and imbalance in blood glucose levels.” According to Penny Archer, director of volunteer services at the center, the Foal Watch Volunteer Program runs from the time that the first foal is admitted in early February to the time that the last patient leaves in late June. Horse experience is not necessary but all participants undergo mandatory training. “The goal is to supplement the equine medical center’s workforce with a capable and trained volunteer team,” said Archer. “They are an extra pair of eyes, hands and ears in the intensive care unit.” Although the task of bringing a sick foal back to health can be very challenging and demanding, those who participate in the healing process note that it is also extremely fulfilling. “The first time they start nursing, the first time that they take steps, it makes your job worthwhile,” said Desrochers. “It’s very demanding to deal with because the foals are usually so sick and vulnerable and not every patient recovers, but at the end of the day, it is always worth it.” Information regarding the Marion duPont Scott Equine Medical Center’s clinicians and services is available online at www.equinemedicalcenter.net. Appointments for neonatal consultations may be scheduled by calling 703-771-6800. Virginia Tech’s Marion duPont Scott Equine Medical Center is a premier full-service equine hospital located in Leesburg, Virginia, that offers advanced specialty care, 24-hour emergency treatment and diagnostic services for all ages and breeds of horses. One of three campuses that comprise the Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, the center’s team of equine specialists is committed to providing exceptional treatment to patients, superior service to clients and cutting-edge research to the equine industry.	3.001997
Credit: NASA's Earth Observatory/NOAA/DOD Earth at Night This new global view of Earth's city lights is a composite assembled from data acquired by the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) satellite. The data was acquired over nine days in April 2012 and 13 days in October 2012. It took 312 orbits to get a clear shot of every parcel of Earth's land surface and islands. This new data was then mapped over existing Blue Marble imagery of Earth to provide a realistic view of the planet. The image was made possible by the satellite's "day-night band" of the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite, which detects light in a range of wavelengths from green to near-infrared and uses filtering techniques to observe dim signals such as city lights, gas flares, auroras, wildfires and reflected moonlight. The day-night band observed Hurricane Sandy, illuminated by moonlight, making landfall over New Jersey on the evening of Oct. 29. Night images showed the widespread power outages that left millions in darkness in the wake of the storm.	3.719373
New from Webteacher Software and partners, GoogleMapBuilder.com An easy interface to turn any spreadsheet into a Google Map Webteacher Software now offers I teach computer classes for a living to corporate clients of all levels. After 2 years of teaching, I have learned a lot about communication between people of various levels of computer experience. This tutorial assumes that you have no prior programming experience, but that you have created your own HTML pages. If you find this tutorial helpful, please let me know (it's my only reward). Also, links are graciously accepted. Actually, the 2 languages have almost nothing in common except for the name. Although Java is technically an interpreted programming language, it is coded in a similar fashion to C++, with separate header and class files, compiled together prior to execution. It is powerful enough to write major applications and insert them in a web page as a special object called an "applet." Java has been generating a lot of excitment because of its unique ability to run the same program on IBM, Mac, and Unix computers. Java is not considered an easy-to-use language for non-programmers. What is Object Oriented Programming? OOP is a programming technique (note: not a language structure - you don't even need an object-oriented language to program in an object-oriented fashion) designed to simplify complicated programming concepts. In essence, object-oriented programming revolves around the idea of user- and system-defined chunks of data, and controlled means of accessing and modifying those chunks. Object-oriented programming consists of Objects, Methods and Properties. An object is basically a black box which stores some information. It may have a way for you to read that information and a way for you to write to, or change, that information. It may also have other less obvious ways of interacting with the information. Some of the information in the object may actually be directly accessible; other information may require you to use a method to access it - perhaps because the way the information is stored internally is of no use to you, or because only certain things can be written into that information space and the object needs to check that you're not going outside those limits. The directly accessible bits of information in the object are its properties. The difference between data accessed via properties and data accessed via methods is that with properties, you see exactly what you're doing to the object; with methods, unless you created the object yourself, you just see the effects of what you're doing. Objects and Properties Your web page document is an object. Any table, form, button, image, or link on your page is also an object. Each object has certain properties (information about the object). For example, the background color of your document is written document.bgcolor. You would change the color of your page to red by writing the line: document.bgcolor="red" The contents (or value) of a textbox named "password" in a form named "entryform" is document.entryform.password.value. Most objects have a certain collection of things that they can do. Different objects can do different things, just as a door can open and close, while a light can turn on and off. A new document is opened with the method document.open() You can write "Hello World" into a document by typing document.write("Hello World") . open() and write() are both methods of the object: document.	3.384094
Estimating child mortality due to diarrhoea in developing countries Cynthia Boschi-Pinto a, Lana Velebit b, Kenji Shibuya c The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were adopted in 2000 with the aim of reducing the severe gaps between rich and poor populations. Most countries have endorsed Goal 4 of the MDGs to “reduce by two thirds [between 1990 and 2015] the mortality rate among children under-five”.1,2 Reliable information on the magnitude, patterns and trends of causes of death of children aged less than 5 years helps decision-makers to assess programmatic needs, prioritize interventions and monitor progress. It is also crucial for planning and evaluating effectiveness of health services and interventions. Yet, data are very scarce in low-income settings where they are most needed and estimations are necessary for these areas. In the 1980s, Snyder and Merson3 generated one of the earliest attempts to estimate the worldwide burden of diarrhoeal diseases, demonstrating the substantial health onus due to diarrhoeal diseases on mortality among children aged less than 5 years. In the following decades, subsequent reviews updated these initial estimates using similar methods of assessment.4,5 These initial estimates were based on average values derived from a limited set of studies without taking into account the epidemiological variations across different regions. Responding to international demand and to the need for better evidence-based cause-specific mortality, the Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group (CHERG) – an independent group of technical experts jointly coordinated by WHO and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) – was established in 2001. CHERG has undertaken a systematic, extensive and comprehensive literature review of published information and developed a methodological approach that is transparent and consistent across different diseases and conditions to produce estimates of the major causes of childhood deaths.6–10 This study is an essential part of the overall CHERG efforts. Its main objective is to provide estimates of deaths from diarrhoea in 2004 at all levels, mainly for countries with incomplete or non-existing civil registration data. Common sources of data for cause-specific mortality include vital registration systems, sample registration systems, nationally representative household surveys, sentinel Demographic Surveillance Sites (DSS) or epidemiological studies of cause-specific mortality. In countries that account for 98% of under-5 deaths worldwide, there is very limited or virtually no functioning vital registration system in place to support attribution of causes of deaths.11–14 A sample registration system, which reports causes of death on a regular basis, is currently available only in China and its coverage and quality for under-5 deaths is challenging.15 Nationally representative household surveys such as Demographic Health Surveys (DHS) and UNICEF’s Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) do not usually report on causes of death, and DSS data were not available until very recently.16 Epidemiological studies currently constitute the main source of data available and were therefore used in this review for estimating diarrhoea-specific mortality. Studies included in the analysis were identified through a systematic search of the scientific literature published since 1980. Medline was searched using the terms: “developing countries”, “mortality/death”, different spellings of “diarrhoea” and combinations of these terms. No restriction was placed on publication language. The search identified a total of 804 papers of which 207 were kept for review of abstracts. The reference sections of the studies retrieved were reviewed to identify additional papers. Studies were then assessed to ensure that they met the main inclusion criteria: (i) direct or derivable diarrhoea-specific proportional mortality data; (ii) a minimum of 25 total deaths; (iii) a maximum of 25% of unknown or undetermined causes of death; (iv) community-based studies with at least 1 year of follow-up; and (v) follow-up time multiple of 12 months to minimize seasonal effects. Data were abstracted onto standardized paper forms by two independent abstractors, double-entered into an electronic database, and validated. Table 1 (available at: http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/9/07-050054/en/index.html) summarizes the main characteristics of the studies retained for the final analysis. Adjustment of age groups As not all studies reported on age ranges that were suitable for immediate inclusion in the analysis, we developed and applied a correction algorithm to adjust for age groups. By doing so, all data referred to the same age group (0–59 months), allowing for the inclusion of a greater number of studies in the analysis. Proportional mortality model A traditional approach to estimating cause-specific mortality is to model mortality rates. Instead, we have decided to model proportional mortality as this is the measure of interest when assessing causes of death by country. Moreover, as the WHO process for estimating causes of death is based on the estimation of under-5 mortality level, followed by the allocation of the causes of under-5 mortality,6 proportional mortality is a more pertinent outcome that can be used in the completion of the estimation process. We employed a weighted regression model to assess the relationship between the observed proportion of deaths from diarrhoea and potential explanatory variables, in an approach similar to those previously used for estimating proportion of deaths from pneumonia.6,10,17 Covariates included in the final model were those available from the studies selected, so that the model could reflect the relationship more accurately than in the conventional approach of using national averages. The variables included were: under-5 all-cause mortality and dummy variables for mid-year of study and for nine WHO subregions.18 All-cause under-5 mortality was obtained for the same (or comparable) site from which the proportional diarrhoea mortality information was derived, as follows: (i) directly abstracted or calculated from available data in the study (30 studies); (ii) obtained from the authors when not possible to calculate from published data (three studies); (iii) obtained from DHS data (11 studies); or (iv) obtained using a method similar to that used for the adjustment of age groups (three studies). As under-5 mortality rates were reported in different measures (rates, risks or ratios) in the publications, we have transformed those provided as mortality rates (5m0) into a single metric – the probability (risk) of a child dying before reaching the age of 5 years (5q0). WHO subregions are defined on the basis of levels of child and adult mortality: A, very low child and very low adult mortality; B, low child and low adult mortality; C, low child and high adult mortality; D, high child and high adult mortality; E, high child and very high adult mortality.18 The nine low- and middle-income subregions included in the model are: African Region (AFR) D and E; Region of the Americas (AMR) B and D; South-East Asia Region (SEAR) B and D, Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR) B and D and Western Pacific Region (WPR) B. Other potentially important variables considered for inclusion in the model, such as coverage of oral rehydration therapy, access to clean water, and health system indicators, were only available for a very limited number of studies at site level and thus could not be incorporated in the model. The regression coefficients obtained from the final model were used to predict the proportion of deaths from diarrhoea at country level by using national information on under-5 mortality in 2004 and data for the corresponding subregion. The number of deaths from diarrhoea in the year 2004 was estimated by applying the model-predicted diarrhoea-proportional mortality to the number of under-5 deaths in each country. These were then aggregated to provide subregional, regional, and global (low- and middle-income countries) estimates. Detailed information on the estimates of all-cause under-5 deaths can be found elsewhere.19 Uncertainty estimates were generated using the standard errors obtained from the prediction model and running 10 000 Monte Carlo simulations. Of the 68 studies that met the inclusion criteria, 47 were kept in the analysis because they provided data that enabled us to either abstract or calculate site-specific under-5 mortality rates (Table 1). Seven studies presented data for more than one point in time, and one study provided data for different study populations, adding up to 56 data points and representing a total of 210 000 all-cause deaths and 33 500 diarrhoea deaths. Three data points were from nationally representative studies, seven from studies carried out in urban settings and 43 (77%) from those carried out in rural areas. This distribution compares well with that of the rural and urban populations in the countries studied. Fig. 1 shows the location of the 47 studies retained from the literature search, revealing the regional distribution of study sites as follows: 23 data points (41%) in AFR, 17 (30%) in SEAR, and 12 (21%) in AMR. There were very few studies or information available from EMR or WPR. The scarcity of information in these two regions is a fact, not only for diarrhoea mortality, but for other diseases and conditions as well.8,13 Fig. 1. Distribution of epidemiological studies used in the analysis Studies were distributed around an average mid-surveillance year of 1990. Two studies were carried out in the 1970s. As for the remaining 54 data points, the mid-year of data collection was between 1980 and 1984 for 14 observations, between 1985 and 1989 for 26 observations and between 1990 and 1994 for 13 observations. Only one study was completely carried out after 1995. In recent years, low-mortality studies were seen more than high-mortality studies, reflecting the secular downward trend in child mortality that has been accompanied by a decrease in the proportion of deaths due to diarrhoea. The age-adjusted (0–59 months) diarrhoea-proportional mortality ranged from 4.6% in Brazil in 199720 to 47.7% in Egypt in 1980.21 The final regression model was (standard errors in brackets): logit(% diarrhoea deaths) = 5.31 + 2.01(time) + 8.56(subregion) [3.67, 1.02, 0.97, 1.92] where ln5q0 is the natural logarithm of the risk of dying between birth and 5 years in the study site, time is a dummy variable for mid-year of study (1 for 1990 and after, 0 for before 1990) and subregion is a dummy variable for WHO subregions (1 for SEAR B and D combined, 0 for the other subregions). The goodness-of-fit was satisfactory, as reflected by the R² of 0.60. There was no systematic deviation among the residual. A simple validation technique that is commonly used is to compare the model outputs with empirical data other than those used in the model. We searched the latest data from DHS and other nationally representative surveys in which verbal autopsy was used to obtain information on causes of death among children aged less than 5 years. We have identified three recently published surveys with available information from Bangladesh (DHS 2005),22 Cambodia (DHS 2005)23 and Liberia (Food Security and Nutritional Survey 2006).24 The difference in cause categories made direct comparison difficult, particularly for Bangladesh and Cambodia. The only comparable data set was that from Liberia where the model-based estimate and empirically observed figure for the proportion of diarrhoea deaths were 15.9% (95% CI: 12.4–19.3) and 16.1%, respectively. This is not sufficient to validate the entire set of extrapolations but it does illustrate the performance of our method in countries where a vital registration system does not exist or is incomplete. Subregional, regional and global estimates Estimates of diarrhoea-proportional mortality for nine low-and middle-income WHO subregions are shown in Table 2, together with point estimates of the number of deaths due to diarrhoea and corresponding uncertainty ranges. The model-based global point estimate of 1.87 million (uncertainty range: 1.56–2.19) diarrhoea deaths corresponds to nearly 19% of the 10 million under-5 deaths that occurred in the world in 2004.14 AFR and SEAR assemble together 78% (1.46 million) of all diarrhoea deaths occurring in the developing world (Fig. 2). Fig. 2. Distribution of deaths due to diarrhoea in low- and middle-income countries in 5 WHO regions SEAR D suffers the highest average burden of diarrhoea-proportional mortality (25%) as well as highest numbers of death (651 000 diarrhoea deaths). It follows AFR D (402 000 deaths), AFR E (365 000 deaths), and EMR D (221 000). In SEAR B, AFR D, and AFR E, the median of diarrhoea-proportional mortality is around 17%. The lowest proportions and numbers of death were observed in the low child mortality region of the Americas (AMR B) and in EMR B. Table 2. Estimates of diarrhoea deaths among children aged less than 5 years in low- and middle-income regions of the world, 2004 Table 3 shows the top 15 countries ranked according to the number of under-5 deaths due to diarrhoeal diseases. These 15 countries account for 73% of all under-5 diarrhoeal deaths occurring worldwide. India alone is responsible for more than half a million diarrhoeal deaths. Table 3. Countries accounting for three-quarters of deaths due to diarrhoea in the developing regions of the world, 2004 Despite several attempts to estimate mortality from diarrhoea over the past decades and in recent years, the uncertainty surrounding its current level remains quite high. This occurs partly because of the lack in quality and number of available data and partly because of the lack of consistency in methods. We systematically reviewed studies that provided child cause-specific mortality published since 1980 and employed a rigorous and transparent approach to estimate current country, regional, and global diarrhoea mortality. Two recent studies presented global estimates of child deaths due to diarrhoea that were equal to 2.5 million5 and 2.1 million.25 A third review has estimated that 22% of all deaths among under-5s in sub-Saharan Africa and 23% in south Asia were caused by diarrhoeal diseases in the year 2000.8 The point estimate in our study resulted in 1.87 million deaths with an uncertainty range of 1.56 and 2.19 million deaths. These results are slightly lower than those calculated in the three other recent reviews. The main reasons for the differences encountered between this study and those by Kosek et al.5 and Parashar et al.25 are most probably due to the different data and methods employed. In the present study, we performed a thorough literature review and took advantage of best available data to adjust for age, time, all-cause under-5 mortality, and regional mortality strata. Our approach has four major advantages when compared to earlier estimates. First, the method used here is transparent with all data sources available on the web. In addition, it is consistent with the CHERG systematic review protocol and comparable to the method used across different causes of under-5 deaths.6–10 Second, the adjustment for age groups had not been previously used in the estimation of deaths from diarrhoea and has enabled the inclusion of a larger number of data points in the analysis. Third, our study did not assume that the locations where studies were carried out were representative of the whole country. The use of local covariates to relate to proportional diarrhoea mortality and the use of national level variables to extrapolate estimates to national levels is intended to provide a correction for this common biased assumption. Finally, our approach enables estimation of diarrhoea mortality at country level, not just of regional averages. The method employed in our study is closer to that used by Morris et al.,8 also developed within CHERG.One of the possible reasons for the somewhat lower estimates calculated in our analysis are the different sources of data. We have included 57 data points in our analysis as opposed to the 38 included in the review by Morris et al., mostly from sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia. In our review, there is a larger number of studies from the Americas, where the proportions of deaths due to diarrhoea are lower than in sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia. Other likely reasons for the differences are the different covariates included for modelling and the different models employed, which have diverse assumptions and statistical properties. It is worth noting that the multicause model has also provided higher estimates for the proportion of malaria deaths in sub-Saharan Africa (24%) than the 18% estimated by the single-cause model proposed by Rowe et al.9 Besides, the all-cause model has not taken into account the high proportion of HIV mortality in the AFR E subregion. It is likely that this may have resulted in an overestimation of the proportion of the other causes of death. There are some limitations intrinsic to the type of review and meta-analysis used in our assessment. Locations where special population studies are conducted are rarely representative of the entire countries as they are usually carried out in populations that are either easy to access or have atypical mortality patterns. However, using local variables in the model and national level variables to predict country estimates should account, at least in part, for this potential site bias. The inclusion of mid-year of study in the model could be seen as reflecting both time and place of study as studies conducted in different years could also be from different places. Yet, time distribution of the studies within each region is very similar. Furthermore, the use of a dichotomous dummy variable for controlling for time in the regression model makes them equivalent for all countries. Our estimates, as well as those obtained from other reviews, rely on published epidemiological studies that used mostly verbal autopsy methods in their assessment of causes of death. Consequently, they have limitations that are inherent to this type of data such as misclassification of causes of death due to imperfect sensitivity and specificity of the instrument. Misclassification of causes of death is likely to be random; therefore it does not necessarily imply that the distribution of these causes will be biased. We have not attempted to correct for the possible measurement errors introduced by the use of verbal autopsy26,27 because there was not enough site-specific information from validation studies to enable an adequate adjustment.27 It is also worth noting that most (68%) of the data used in this review refer to studies that were carried out between the late 1980s and early 1990s and that the latest mid-year of observation was 1997. This represents a lag time of almost 10 years. Currently, available data are unable to capture possible recent changes in diarrhoea mortality either due to changes in interventions, their coverage, or new emerging diseases and competing causes of death, with the exception of HIV/AIDS which is captured by the use of subregional levels of mortality. Public health implications Estimates obtained here can be used as the starting point for the monitoring of cause of death at country, regional and global levels in the future. Clearly, such estimates do not replace empirical data. Nevertheless, they are an invaluable tool for guiding decision-making and prioritizing interventions in child health strategies and planning in countries where vital registration or other sources of community-based data on causes of death are not available. Importantly, such an estimation process is exceptionally useful for identifying gaps in information and for developing approaches to tackling data problems. Information on causes of death for children aged less than 5 years has not increased significantly since the late 1980s. The lack of systems able to generate representative quality data on a regular basis is one of the major obstacles for international and national planning to reduce under-5 mortality. By providing best possible estimates of the distribution of causes of death, CHERG methods have proven to be a transient alternative to countries without adequate information. The main CHERG standards for estimating the burden of mortality, used in this review include: (i) thorough literature search; (ii) data abstraction exercise performed by two independent data abstractors and with two independent data entries; (iii) very strict inclusion and exclusion criteria; and (iv) use of local covariates to predict national estimates. We strongly believe that these rigorous criteria ensured that inputs for the current estimates consisted of the most valid information available and that the modelling of local variables to predict national estimates was performed using an innovative and best possible approach. Results presented here should thus allow settings without adequate information to draw a reasonable picture of the burden of under-5 diarrhoea mortality that should ultimately result in practical planning for the prioritization of interventions and decision-making. ■ This work was done through CHERG, coordinated by the Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development and supported by the Department of Measurement and Health Information Systems of WHO. We thank Bob Black and members of CHERG for their critical review of the methods. We thank Colin Mathers, Doris Ma Fat and Mie Inoue for providing data related to the WHO mortality database. We also thank Cesar Victora and Bernardo Horta for providing additional data from their cohort study. Funding: The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation provided financial support for the work of CHERG. Competing interests: None declared. - United Nations Millennium Declaration 2000. Available from: http://www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm [accessed on 19 May 2008]. - United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Available from: http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ [accessed on 19 May 2008]. - Snyder JD, Merson MH. The magnitude of the global problem of acute diarrhoeal disease: a review of active surveillance data. Bull World Health Organ 1982; 60: 604-13. - Bern C, Martines J, de Zoysa I, Glass RI. The magnitude of the global problem of diarrhoeal disease: a ten-year update. Bull World Health Organ 1992; 70: 705-14 pmid: 1486666. - Kosek M, Bern C, Guerrant R. The global burden of diarrhoeal disease as estimated from studies published between 1992 and 2000. Bull World Health Organ 2003; 81: 197-204 pmid: 12764516. - Bryce J, Boschi-Pinto C, Shibuya K, Black RE. WHO estimates of the causes of death in children. Lancet 2005; 365: 1147-52 doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71877-8 pmid: 15794969. - Lawn JE, Cousens S, Zupan J. 4 million neonatal deaths: When? Where? Why? Lancet 2005; 365: 891-900 doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)71048-5 pmid: 15752534. - Morris SS, Black RE, Tomaskovic L. Predicting the distribution of under-five deaths by cause in countries without adequate vital registration systems. Int J Epidemiol 2003; 32: 1041-51 doi: 10.1093/ije/dyg241 pmid: 14681271. - Rowe AK, Rowe SY, Snow RW, Korenromp EL, Armstrong Schellenberg JRM, Stein C, et al., et al. The burden of malaria mortality among African children in the year 2000. Int J Epidemiol 2006; 35: 691-704 doi: 10.1093/ije/dyl027 pmid: 16507643. - Williams BG, Gouws E, Boschi-Pinto C, Bryce J, Dye C. Estimates of world-wide distribution of child deaths from acute respiratory infections. Lancet Infect Dis 2002; 2: 25-32 doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(01)00170-0 pmid: 11892493. - Black RE, Morris SS, Bryce J. Where and why are 10 million children dying every year? Lancet 2003; 361: 2226-34 doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13779-8 pmid: 12842379. - Mathers CD, Ma Fat D, Inoue M, Rao C, Lopez AD. Counting the dead and what they died of: an assessment of the global status of cause of death data. Bull World Health Organ 2005; 83: 171-7 pmid: 15798840. - Rudan I, Lawn J, Cousens S, Rowe AK, Boschi-Pinto C, Tomaskovic L, et al., et al. Gaps in policy-relevant information on burden of disease in children: a systematic review. Lancet 2005; 365: 2031-40 doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66697-4 pmid: 15950717. - World Health Statistics. Geneva: WHO; 2006. - Rao C, Lopez AD, Yang G, Begg S, Ma J. Evaluating national cause-of-death statistics: principles and application to the case of China. Bull World Health Organ 2005; 83: 618-25 pmid: 16184281. - Adjuik M, Smith T, Clark S, Todd J, Garrib A, Kinfu Y, et al., et al. Cause-specific mortality rates in sub-Saharan Africa and Bangladesh. Bull World Health Organ 2006; 84: 181-8 doi: 10.2471/BLT.05.026492 pmid: 16583076. - Garenne M, Ronsmans C, Campbell H. The magnitude of mortality from acute respiratory infections in children under 5 years in developing countries. World Health Stat Q 1992; 45: 180-91 pmid: 1462653. - The world health report 2004: changing history. Geneva: WHO; 2004. - Mathers CD, Stein C, Ma Fat D, Rao C, Inoue M, Tomijima N, et al. Global Burden of Disease 2000, version 2, methods and results. [Global Programme on Evidence for Health Policy Discussion Paper No 50]. Geneva: WHO; 2002. Available from: http://www.who.int/healthinfo/paper50.pdf [accessed on 19 May 2008]. - Antunes JL, Waldman EA. Trends and spatial distribution of deaths of children aged 12-60 months in São Paulo, Brazil, 1980-98. Bull World Health Organ 2002; 80: 391-8 pmid: 12077615. - Tekçe B. Oral rehydration therapy: an assessment of mortality effects in rural Egypt. Stud Fam Plann 1982; 13: 315-27 doi: 10.2307/1965803 pmid: 6965183. - Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey 2004. Dhaka, Bangladesh, and Calverton, MD, USA: National Institute of Population Research and Training, Mitra and Associates, and ORC Macro; 2005. - Cambodia Demographic and Health Survey 2005. Phnom Penh, Cambodia, and Calverton, MD, USA: National Institute of Public Health, National Institute of Statistics and ORC Macro; 2006. - Food Security and Nutritional Survey. Liberia: World Food Programme; 2006. Available from: http://www.humanitarianinfo.org/liberia/assessments/others/doc/Grand%20Gedeh%20April%2005.pdf [accessed on 27 May 2008]. - Parashar UD, Hummelman EG, Bresee JS, Miller MA, Glass RI. Global illness and deaths caused by rotavirus disease in children. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9: 565-72 pmid: 12737740. - Anker M. The effect of misclassification error on reported cause-specific mortality fractions from verbal autopsy. Int J Epidemiol 1997; 26: 1090-6 doi: 10.1093/ije/26.5.1090 pmid: 9363532. - Chandramohan D, Setel P, Quigley M. Effect of misclassification error of causes of death in verbal autopsy: can it be adjusted? Int J Epidemiol 2001; 30: 509-14 doi: 10.1093/ije/30.3.509 pmid: 11416073. - Amin R. Immunization coverage and child mortality in two rural districts of Sierra Leone. Soc Sci Med 1996; 42: 1599-604 doi: 10.1016/0277-9536(95)00024-0 pmid: 8771643. - Becker SR, Diop F, Thornton JN. Infant and child mortality estimates in two counties of Liberia. Results of a survey in 1988 and trends since 1984. Int J Epidemiol 1993; 22: S56-63 pmid: 8307676. - De Francisco A, Hall AJ, Armstrong Schellenberg JRM, Greenwood AM, Greenwood BM. The pattern of infant and childhood mortality in Upper River Division, The Gambia. Ann Trop Paediatr 1993; 13: 345-52 pmid: 7506881. - Fontaine O, Diop B, Beau JP, Briend A, Ndiaye M. La diarrhée infantile au Sénégal. Med Trop 1984; 44: 27-31. - Ghana VAST Study Team. Vitamin A supplementation in northern Ghana: effects on clinic attendances, hospital admissions, and child mortality. Lancet 1993; 342: 7-12 doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(93)91879-Q pmid: 8100345. - Greenwood BM, Greenwood AM, Bradley S, Tulloch S, Hayes R, Oldfield FSJ. Deaths in infancy and early childhood in a well-vaccinated, rural, West African population. Ann Trop Paediatr 1987; 7: 91-9 pmid: 2441658. - Greenwood BM, Bradley AK, Byass P, Greenwood AM, Menon A, Snow RW, et al., et al. Evaluation of a primary health care programme in The Gambia. II. Its impact on mortality and morbidity in young children. J Trop Med Hyg 1990; 93: 87-97 pmid: 2325198. - Jaffar S, Leach A, Greenwood AM, Jepson A, Muller O, Ota MOC, et al., et al. Changes in the pattern of infant and childhood mortality in Upper River Division, The Gambia, from 1989 to 1993. Trop Med Int Health 1997; 2: 28-37 doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3156.1997.d01-131.x pmid: 9018300. - Jinadu MK, Olusi SO, Agun JI, Fabiyi AK. Childhood diarrhoea in rural Nigeria. I. Studies on prevalence, mortality and socio-environmental factors. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res 1991; 9: 323-7 pmid: 1800564. - Molbak K, Aaby P, Ingholt L, Hojlyng N, Gottschau A, Andersen H, et al., et al. Persistent and acute diarrhoea as the leading causes of child mortality in urban Guinea Bissau. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1992; 86: 216-20 doi: 10.1016/0035-9203(92)90580-6 pmid: 1440794. - Pison G, Trape JF, Lefebvre M, Enel C. Rapid decline in child mortality in a rural area of Senegal. Int J Epidemiol 1993; 22: 72-80 doi: 10.1093/ije/22.1.72 pmid: 8449650. - Victora CG, Huttly SRA, Fuchs SC, Barros FC, Garenne M, Leroy O, et al., et al. International differences in clinical patterns of diarrhoea deaths: a comparison of children from Brazil, Senegal, Bangladesh, and India. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res 1993; 11: 25-9 pmid: 8315250. - Delacollette C, Van der Stuyft P, Molima K, Delacollette-Lebrun C, Wery M. Étude de la mortalité globale et de la mortalité liée au paludisme dans le Kivu montagneux, Zaire. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique 1989; 37: 161-6 pmid: 2772361. - Delacollette C, Barutwanayo M. Mortalité et morbidité aux jeunes âges dans une région à paludisme hyperendémique stable, commune de Nyanza-Lac, Imbo Sud, Burundi. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1993; 86: 373-9 pmid: 8124110. - Georges MC, Roure C, Tauxe RV, Meunier DMY, Merlin M, Testa J, et al., et al. Diarrhoeal morbidity and mortality in children in the Central African Republic. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1987; 36: 598-602 pmid: 3578657. - Kahn K, Tollman SM, Garenne M, Gear JSS. Who dies from what? Determining cause of death in South Africa’s rural north-east. Trop Med Int Health 1999; 4: 433-41 doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3156.1999.00415.x pmid: 10444319. - Mtango FDE, Neuvians D. Acute respiratory infections in children under five years. Control project in Bagamoyo District, Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1986; 80: 851-8 doi: 10.1016/0035-9203(86)90241-5 pmid: 3603635. - Mtango FDE, Neuvians D, Broome CV, Hightower AW, Pio A. Risk factors for deaths in children under 5 years old in Bangamoyo District, Tanzania. Trop Med Parasitol 1992; 43: 229-33 pmid: 1293726. - Shamebo D, Muhe L, Sandström A, Wall S. The Butajira rural health project in Ethiopia: mortality pattern of the under fives. J Trop Pediatr 1991; 37: 254-61 pmid: 1784061. - Watts T, Ngändu N, Wray J. Children in an urban township in Zambia. A prospective study of children during their first year of life. J Trop Pediatr 1990; 36: 287-93 pmid: 2280435. - Diarrheal diseases in Mexico. Morbidity, mortality and management, 1990-1993 Salud Publica Mex 1994; 36: 243-6 pmid: 8073339. - Antunes JL, Waldman EA. Trends and spatial distribution of deaths of children aged 12-60 months in São Paulo, Brazil, 1980-98. Bull World Health Organ 2002; 80: 391-8 pmid: 12077615. - Bailey P, Tsui AO, Janowitz B, Dominik R, Araujo L. A study of infant mortality and causes of death in a rural north-east Brazilian community. J Biosoc Sci 1990; 22: 349-63 doi: 10.1017/S002193200001871X pmid: 2401677. - Barreto IC, Kerr Pontes L, Correa L. Vigilância de óbitos infantis em sistemas locais de saúde; avaliação da autópsia verbal e das informaçães de agentes de saúde. Rev Panam Salud Publica 2000; 7: 303-12 doi: 10.1590/S1020-49892000000500003 pmid: 10893970. - Barros FC, Victora CG, Vaughan JP, Teixeira AM, Ashworth A. Infant mortality in southern Brazil: a population based study of causes of death. Arch Dis Child 1987; 62: 487-90 pmid: 3606182. - Campos G de J. dos Reis Filho SA, da Silva AA, Novochadlo MA, da Silva RA, Galvão CE. Infant morbimortality due to acute diarrhea in a metropolitan area of northeastern Brazil, 1986-1989 Rev Saude Publica 1995; 29: 132-9 pmid: 8525323. - Victora CG, Barros FC, Huttly SR, Teixeira AM, Vaughan JP. Early childhood mortality in a Brazilian cohort: the roles of birthweight and socioeconomic status. Int J Epidemiol 1992; 21: 911-5 doi: 10.1093/ije/21.5.911 pmid: 1468852. - Victora CG, Vaughan JP, Barros FC. The seasonality of infant deaths due to diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases in southern Brazil, 1974-1978. Bull Pan Am Health Organ 1985; 19: 29-39 pmid: 4027452. - Victora CG, Barros FC, Vaughan JP, Teixeira AM. Birthweight and infant mortality: a longitudinal study of 5914 Brazilian children. Int J Epidemiol 1987; 16: 239-45 doi: 10.1093/ije/16.2.239 pmid: 3610450. - Ibrahim MM, Omar HM, Persson LA, Wall S. Child mortality in a collapsing African society. Bull World Health Organ 1996; 74: 547-52 pmid: 9002335. - Khan AJ, Khan JA, Akbar M, Addiss DG. Acute respiratory infections in children: a case management intervention in Abbottabad District, Pakistan. Bull World Health Organ 1990; 68: 577-85 pmid: 2289294. - Tekçe B. Oral rehydration therapy: an assessment of mortality effects in rural Egypt. Stud Fam Plann 1982; 13: 315-27 doi: 10.2307/1965803 pmid: 6965183. - Nazir M, Pardede N, Ismail R. The incidence of diarrhoeal diseases and diarrhoeal diseases related mortality in rural swampy low-land area of south Sumatra, Indonesia. J Trop Pediatr 1985; 31: 268-72 pmid: 3877814. - Anand K, Kant S, Kumar G, Kapoor SK. “Development” is not essential to reduce infant mortality rate in India: experience from the Ballabgarh project. J Epidemiol Community Health 2000; 54: 247-53 doi: 10.1136/jech.54.4.247 pmid: 10827906. - Awasthi S, Pande VK, Glick H. Under fives mortality in the urban slums of Lucknow. Indian J Pediatr 1996; 63: 363-8 doi: 10.1007/BF02751529 pmid: 10830012. - Bang AT, Bang RA, Tale O, Sontakke P, Solanki J, Wargantiwar R, et al., et al. Reduction in pneumonia mortality and total childhood mortality by means of community-based intervention trial in Gadchiroli, India. Lancet 1990; 336: 201-6 doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(90)91733-Q pmid: 1973770. - Khalique N, Sinha SN, Yunus M, Malik A. Early childhood mortality - a rural study. J R Soc Health 1993; 113: 247-9 doi: 10.1177/146642409311300507 pmid: 8230076. - Baqui AH, Black RE, Arifeen SE, Hill K, Mitra SN, al Sabir A. Causes of childhood deaths in Bangladesh: results of a nationwide verbal autopsy study. Bull World Health Organ 1998; 76: 161-71 pmid: 9648357. - Baqui AH, Sabir AA, Begum N, Arifeen SE, Mitra SN, Black RE. Causes of childhood deaths in Bangladesh: an update. Acta Paediatr 2001; 90: 682-90 doi: 10.1080/080352501750258775 pmid: 11440104. - Bhatia S. Patterns and causes of neonatal and postneonatal mortality in rural Bangladesh. Stud Fam Plann 1989; 20: 136-46 doi: 10.2307/1966568 pmid: 2734810. - Chen LC, Rahman M, Sarder AM. Epidemiology and causes of death among children in a rural area of Bangladesh. Int J Epidemiol 1980; 9: 25-33 doi: 10.1093/ije/9.1.25 pmid: 7419328. - Fauveau V, Yunus M, Zaman K, Chakraborty J, Sarder AM. Diarrhoea mortality in rural Bangladeshi children. J Trop Pediatr 1991; 37: 31-6 pmid: 2023300. - Rahmathullah L, Underwood BA, Thulasiraj RD, Milton RC, Ramaswamy K, Rahmathullah R, et al., et al. Reduced mortality among children in southern India receiving a small weekly dose of Vitamin A. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 929-35 pmid: 2205798. - Pandey MR, Daulaire NM, Starbuck ES, Houston RM, McPherson K. Reduction in total under-five mortality in western Nepal through community-based antimicrobial treatment of pneumonia. 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As concern over global warming intensified over the past few years, biofuels derived from food crops quickly emerged as a practical answer to the energy crisis. Adding corn ethanol to gasoline or using palm oil for biodiesel makes the fuel burn more cleanly, stretches oil supplies, and perhaps most attractive to some politicians, provides a nice boost to big agribusiness. In Europe and in the US, increasing biofuels was mandated by law. Fortunately the rush to biofuels production has slowed because of a number of well-documented negative side effects. Biofuels production contributed to a global food shortage and a rise in food prices as farmers sold off their crops to ethanol or biodiesel producers. Deforestation increased in tropical wilderness areas as countries such as Brazil and Indonesia cleared rainforest to make room for biofuels such as soybeans, leading to large losses in biodiversity. Deforestation also increased greenhouse gas emissions, as carbon stored in those forests was released into the atmosphere, offsetting gains from biofuel use and contributing to global warming. In the US, agricultural run-off increased as millions of acres of farmland were brought into production, creating one of the biggest ever dead-zones in the Gulf of Mexico as fertilizers made their way down the Mississippi. Much of the farmlands returned to production were lands previously placed in highly successful, federally funded conservation programs…including some of our last wild prairie lands. With remarkable lack of foresight, some members of Congress have suggested removing even more lands from these programs. The decreased fuel efficiency of vehicles using ethanol – some drivers are also saying ethanol fuels makes their engines sputter – combined with the energy and fertilizer intensive process for producing crop-based biofuels, further combined with serious biodiversity and food supply impacts, all make it clear that biofuels produced from crops are not a solution. Another perverse effect has been that ethanol subsidies driven up the price of corn, slashing profit margins, and making corn-based ethanol production in the US have viable only for some of the larger food producers – the very same large industrial agribusiness companies that drove the rush to ethanol in the first place… Biofuels hold significant promise if they are produced in a way that takes their entire life-cycle into account, from production to indirect impacts such as loss of wilderness areas, and especially if they can be generated using non-food crop sources. Cellulosic ethanol, produced from switchgrass or biowastes has higher cellulose content and is available in abundant quantities without growing crops. Cellulosic ethanol could therefore be a far more efficient and environmentally friendly biofuel alternative, pending investments in the necessary technology and infrastructure. Luckily we‘re now witnessing the first retreat on crop-based biofuel production as politicians are finally forced to admit that crop-based biofuels are hugely problematic. The European Union Parliament’s Environment Committee recently voted unanimously to reduce mandated biofuel targets, though only Parliament can make this decision final. In the U.S., the State of Texas is asking the Environmental Protection Agency for a waiver to temporarily reduce ethanol production. As with the EU, EPA has not yet decided what to do. With a little luck, common sense will prevail, and the result will be a stronger food supply, better economic policy, and more wild nature. Post your Comment here Comments are the sole responsibility of their authors. WILD is not responsible, nor will be held liable, for blog comments. WILD reserves the right to delete any comment that is abusive, profane, rude, or considered spam.	3.320035
Where are we now? Climate "Today" Before we move on to projections of future state of our planet's climate, let's take a few looks at the current state of Earth's climate. These graphs show how carbon emissions, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, and global average temperatures have changed in recent times. This image shows sea surface temperatures (SST) averaged over a whole year (in this case, 2001). Notice how temperatures range from freezing (0° C or 32° F) near the poles to around 30° C (about 86° F) in the tropics. Credits: Image courtesy of Plumbago via Wikipedia, using data from the World Ocean Atlas 2001. Here is Earth's surface air temperature in recent times. This image shows average temperatures for the period from 1961 to 1990. Credits: Image courtesy of Robert A. Rhohde and the Global Warming Art project. Average Global Temperature 1940-2005 \| All values are in comparison to 1940-1980 average (green shading). Map at left shows 1995-2005 averages (the orange shaded region on the graph above). Blue points and lines on the graph are annual values; the red line is the 5-year smoothed average. This map (above) shows recent changes in Earth's surface air temperatures. The colors indicate the temperatures in the decade around 2000 as compared to average values from about 40 years earlier. Specifically, the colors compare average temperatures during the years 1995 through 2004 versus the averages from 1940 through 1980. The global averge temperature increased about 0.42° C during this time. Credits: Map image courtesy of Robert A. Rohde and the Global Warming Art project. Graph is original artwork by Windows to the Universe staff (Randy Russell) using data from NOAA. Use the popup menu in the upper left corner of the interactive below to select a map to view. Choices include contemporary global surface air temperature and sea surface temperature, changes in temperature by 2000, and four climate model projections for possible future climate in 2025 and 2095. Compare maps side-by-side using the viewer below. Shop Windows to the Universe Science Store!Cool It! is the new card game from the Union of Concerned Scientists that teaches kids about the choices we have when it comes to climate change—and how policy and technology decisions made today will matter. Cool It! is available in our online store You might also be interested in: Leaders from 192 nations of the world are trying to make an agreement about how to limit emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mitigate climate change, and adapt to changing environmental conditions....more Climate in your place on the globe is called regional climate. It is the average weather pattern in a place over more than thirty years, including the variations in seasons. To describe the regional climate...more Less than 1% of the gases in Earth's atmosphere are called greenhouse gases. Even though they are not very abundant, these greenhouse gases have a major effect. Carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor (H2O),...more Television weather forecasts in the space age routinely feature satellite views of cloud cover. Cameras and other instruments on spacecraft provide many types of valuable data about Earth's atmosphere...more Predicting how our climate will change in the next century or beyond requires tools for assessing how planet responds to change. Global climate models, which are run on some of the world's fastest supercomputers,...more The world's surface air temperature increased an average of 0.6° Celsius (1.1°F) during the last century according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This may not sound like very...more A factor that has an affect on climate is called a “forcing.” Some forcings, like volcanic eruptions and changes in the amount of solar energy, are natural. Others, like the addition of greenhouse gases...more	3.791268
Aug. 3, 1492: Columbus Sets Out to Discover … a Trade Route 1492: Christopher Columbus, sailing for the Spanish crown, weighs anchor for the New World. From his flagship Santa Maria, Columbus commanded a squadron that included the caravels Niña and Pinta. The original purpose of the voyage was not to discover new lands but to open up a trade route to the "Indies" or Asia, that would allow Spanish merchantmen to bypass the hostile Muslim fleets sailing out of the Middle East. Columbus tried to interest the Portuguese in his scheme, but they took a pass. He would have been spurned by Spain, too, had that nation’s centuries-long war with the Moors been going badly. Fortunately for Columbus, the Spaniards were winning handily, and victory was in sight. When the last Moorish stronghold fell at Granada, Spain was feeling expansive. And Columbus, the sailor from Genoa, was ready and waiting. He never did find that alternate route around the Muslims, but on Oct. 12, 1492 Columbus made landfall in what is today the Bahamas, and the course of history was changed forever. Although it’s long been known that other outsiders reached North America well before Columbus, his landfall remains the most significant, for good and ill. It opened up the sea lanes to the first permanent back-and-forth traffic of Europeans, their armies, their priests and their commerce. Image: Chromolithograph depicts Columbus claiming possession of the New World. (Prang Education, 1893) This article first appeared on Wired.com Aug. 3, 2007.	3.908493
Term: The Upper Mississippi (Historic Marker Erected 1980) Rest Area, Tourist Info Center No. 31, I-90, French Island, LaCrosse, La Crosse County From Lake Itasca, Minnesota, to Cairo, Illinois, the upper Mississippi River flows through America's heartland for over 1100 miles. Its currents have borne the Indian's canoe, the explorer's dugout, and the trader's packet. Jacques Marquette, Louis Jolliet, and Zebulon Pike tested its strength. Mark Twain gave it life in literature. Paddle-wheelers by the hundreds ferried lesser known passengers over its waters during the halcyon days of steamboating in the 19th century. Into the Great River pour the St. Croix, Chippewa, Black, Wisconsin, Rock, Illinois, Missouri, and Ohio. Along its banks have flourished St. Paul, Winona, La Crosse, Davenport, Keokuk, Quincy, and St. Louis. For a time diminished in importance by the rail-roads, the Great River came back into its.own in the 20th century through dredging and damming. The present nine-foot channel and a series of locks and dams allow 300-foot barges to transport coal, cement, grain, and other products vital to the region's economic well being. Imposing in size and beauty, violent and muddy in floodstage, calm and serene on a summer morn, the Great River sustains life and livelihood within itself, along its banks, and upward in the hinterlands east and west. [Source: Source: McBride, Sarah Davis. History Just Ahead (Madison:WHS, 1999).]	3.442832
Learn something new every day More Info... by email Dark energy is a very sparse, uniform negative pressure that permeates the entire observable universe. It accounts for 70% of the mass/energy in the universe and is responsible for its accelerating rate of expansion. Dark energy is unlike the energy we are familiar with because it is not concentrated locally, as is the case with stars and galaxies, manifestations of conventional matter and energy. There are many other important differences between conventional energy and dark energy, which physicists continue to investigate. The exact form or mechanism of operation of dark energy is unknown. In this respect, it is similar to its cousin, dark matter, which can only be observed by the influence it has on normal matter and energy. There are two major theories for the form of dark energy, although one is more prominent than the other. The first theory, quintessence, describes the dark energy as a fluctuating field that changes its intensity based on location. The second theory, that of a cosmological constant, describes dark energy as constant and uniform. It is this second theory that is believed by most physicists and forms the basis of the Lambda-CDM model, the prevailing model of the structure of the cosmos. The negative pressure of the cosmological constant is thought to originate from vacuum fluctuations at extremely small scales in all space. So-called virtual particles are continuously created and destroyed in this vacuum, creating a quantum foam that itself has energy. The existence of dark energy has implications for the ultimate fate of the universe. If dark energy is an intrinsic property of space, as it looks to be, then it will continue to be exist indefinitely. If dark energy is the cause of the universe’s accelerating expansion, then it will also be the cause of reducing the average density of any parcel of space in the long run. As the universe grows more and more sparse, it will also grow more cold and hostile to life. Therefore, dark energy can justifiably be blamed for bringing on the “Heat Death” of the universe. Is Europe using some type of Dark Energy device to power the Earth? ?My dad read it to me from a news paper. I just Could not find anything about it	3.286531
Microsoft Word styles are powerful tools included in all versions of Word. If you are a new user, you may not know what styles are or how to apply them to format your documents. Whether you own Word 2007 or 2010, this article will help you understand the basics of Microsoft Word styles. It shows you how to find the predefined styles, and includes a tutorial that shows you how to change the style set and easily format your document by applying styles. It also briefly covers the topic of custom styles. A style is a definition that determines the document formatting options that are applied to characters or paragraphs. Note: Sometimes styles are referred to as tags. However, in Microsoft Word, styles is the correct term. How many times have you gone through a lengthy document and manually reformatted the same text over and over again to get it right? It can waste hours of your time and all of that clicking can give you a nasty case of carpal tunnel syndrome. Using styles helps you use consistent formatting throughout your document. Applying a style only takes a click or two so it is much faster than manually formatting block after block of text. Styles can contain definitions for fonts, paragraph spacing, line height, hyphenation, tabs, page breaks, indentation, and more! As you can see from the list, styles can become quite complex. But don't worry, Microsoft Word contains many predefined styles. That means you can use them even if you don't know how to create your own styles from scratch. There are different ways to access the predefined Microsoft Word styles, but the easiest way in Word 2007 or 2010 is to select one from the Quick Style gallery. Quick Styles were introduced in Word 2007 and are located on the Home tab. There are 11 style sets to choose from, 14 style sets in Word 2010. Each set can be altered by selecting different theme colors or fonts, resulting in thousands of unique styles available for document formatting. For the following tutorial, open Word 2007 and start a new document. (These instructions also work for Microsoft Word 2010.) Let's begin by entering some dummy text so you can see how changing the style set affects the document formatting. Here is how to enter random text into a document: Entering this code inserts three paragraphs of text into your document. Now let's see how easy it is to change the look and feel of the document just by changing the style set. Follow these steps to change the style set in your sample document: To change the theme fonts or colors, click Change Styles again, then select either Colors or Fonts from the menu. In Word 2010, there is an additional option on the menu for changing paragraph spacing. Now that you have selected a style set, let's apply some styles to the text in your document. Follow these steps to easily create a title by applying a style: The new style is applied and your document now has a professional-looking title. If you are following the steps in this tutorial, your paragraph formatting is probably set to the default (Normal) style. But just in case it isn't, let's apply the default paragraph and font style to make sure that the formatting is consistent throughout the document. Follow these steps to apply the Normal style: All of the text changes to the default font with the default paragraph spacing. The text looks a bit boring, so let's add emphasis to certain words by applying a character style. Follow these steps to apply bold formatting to selected text: You have just formatted your first document using Microsoft Word styles! Not only does it look professional, but you have created a handy reference guide to Microsoft Word 2007 galleries. Before you close the document, why not print it? The predefined styles give you lots of document formatting options to choose from, but you can also create your own custom Microsoft Word styles. You can create new styles for each document, or you can save your custom styles and reuse them later. Saving styles you use often is a good way to speed up the process of creating Word documents. So how do you save the custom styles you create? You save them to a template. You can save styles you always want available to the default (Normal.dotm) template, or you can save styles to custom templates. You may have already used some of the custom Microsoft Word templates that are available in the Template gallery. Open the Microsoft Office Template Gallery To open the Template gallery, click the Office Button, then click New. To download the free online templates, you must have Genuine Microsoft Office software installed. The next time you use a Microsoft Word template, look at the Quick Style gallery within the document to see the custom styles the author created. Return from Microsoft Word Styles to Document Formatting	3.334502
Galaxy Cluster Takes It to the Extreme Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala. Chandra X-ray Center, Cambridge, Mass. News release: 07-065 Evidence for an awesome upheaval in a massive galaxy cluster was discovered in an image made by NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory. The origin of a bright arc of ferociously hot gas extending over two million light years requires one of the most energetic events ever detected. The cluster of galaxies is filled with tenuous gas at 170 million degree Celsius that is bound by the mass equivalent of a quadrillion, or 1,000 trillion, suns. The temperature and mass make this cluster a giant among giants. "The huge feature detected in the cluster, combined with the high temperature, points to an exceptionally dramatic event in the nearby Universe," said Ralph Kraft of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) in Cambridge, Mass., and leader of a team of astronomers involved in this research. "While we’re not sure what caused it, we've narrowed it down to a couple of exciting possibilities." The favored explanation for the bright X-ray arc is that two massive galaxy clusters are undergoing a collision at about 4 million miles per hour. Shock waves generated by the violent encounter of the clusters' hot gas clouds could produce a sharp change in pressure along the boundary where the collision is occurring, giving rise to the observed arc-shaped structure which resembles a titanic weather front. "Although this would be an extreme collision, one of the most powerful ever seen, we think this may be what is going on,” said team member Martin Hardcastle, of the University of Hertfordshire, United Kingdom. A problem with the collision theory is that only one peak in the X-ray emission is seen, whereas two are expected. Longer observations with Chandra and the XMM-Newton X-ray observatories should help determine how serious this problem is for the collision hypothesis. Another possible explanation is that the disturbance was caused by an outburst generated by the infall of matter into a supermassive black hole located in a central galaxy. The black hole inhales much of the matter but expels some of it outward in a pair of high-speed jets, heating and pushing aside the surrounding gas. Such events are known to occur in this cluster. The galaxy 3C438 in the central region of the cluster is known to be a powerful source of explosive activity, which is presumably due to a central supermassive black hole. But the energy in these outbursts is not nearly large enough to explain the Chandra data. "If this event was an outburst from a supermassive black hole, then it's by far the most powerful one ever seen," said team member Bill Forman, also of CfA. The phenomenal amount of energy involved implies a very large amount of mass would have been swallowed by the black hole, about 30 billion times the Sun's mass over a period of 200 million years. The authors consider this rate of black hole growth implausible. "These values have never been seen before and, truthfully, are hard to believe," said Kraft. These results were presented at the American Astronomical Society meeting in Honolulu, HI, and will appear in an upcoming issue of The Astrophysical Journal. NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala., manages the Chandra program for the agency's Science Mission Directorate. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory controls science and flight operations from the Chandra X-ray Center in Cambridge, Mass. Additional information and images are available at:	3.455476
by Gregory McNamee Talk about your worm’s-eye view of the world. From time to time, I am pleased in this column to announce the discovery of some hitherto unknown species,or the rediscovery of one thought to have disappeared. An international team of scientists has done this one better, announcing the discovery of an entirely new phylum comprising an ocean-dwelling flatworm called Xenoturbella and its kin, collectively the acoelomorphs. Interestingly, these creatures seem to be backward-evolving: their ancestors had gill slits and guts, but the current acoelomorphic configuration lacks them. As researcher Maximilian Telford of University College London puts it, “We’ve got these very simple worms nested right in the middle of the complex animals. How did they end up so simple? They must have lost a lot of complexity.” * * * If in the course of evolution you decided to lose your ears, you would have good reason. The world is a noisy place, thanks to ever-busy humans, and it’s getting noisier. In response, many species of animals are getting noisier themselves in an effort to be heard, a process, notes Rose Eveleth in Scientific American, called the Lombard effect. Right whales and house finches, for their parts, are calling in at different frequencies to get around shipping and urban noise. As Eveleth writes of animals in her provocative piece, “Many of them are doing the vocal equivalent of wandering around asking, ‘Can you hear me now?’ And increasingly, the answer is no.” * * * Gibbons make a fair amount of noise themselves—and perhaps that stands to reason, given that, next to the great apes, they’re our closest living relatives. That noise is more complex than you might think. Indeed, report researchers from the German Primate Center in Göttingen, the crested gibbons of Southeast Asia have distinctive regional accents. These accents suggest both familial typings, as well as the ancient migration of the species from a location to the north of their current range to points farther south. * * * A new phylum is discovered, but a current species declines. That, sadly, is the way of this noisy world. Scottish scientists, reports the BBC’s Highlands and Islands service, are documenting the decline of the common scoter, a kind of duck, in the islands to the north of the country. The scientists are now studying the effects of climate change, which has implications in predation and in food supply. Says one, “We believe climate change may be a factor because warmer winters and springs could lead to aquatic insects such as mayflies and caddis flies hatching earlier in the season and not being available to the scoter ducklings when they hatch out themselves. And warmer winters may, over time, lead to more predators surviving and that could make an impact.” * * * Homer Simpson, his son, Bart, their kin, and the good citizens of Springfield are odd ducks one and all. They’re cartoons, after all, so they’re supposed to be goofy. It’s worth noting, though, that the Homeric lineup lives in the shadow of a nuclear reactor, the river is full of three-headed fish, and the night sky glows unnaturally, all reasons to think that something other than mere cartoonery might be at play. It’s also worth observing, then, that researchers at the University of South Carolina’s Chernobyl Research Initiative have concluded that the offspring of 48 species of birds born in the vicinity of that vast Ukrainian accident site have smaller brain size (by 5 percent, on average) than birds born elsewhere, and that this correlates with both reduced cognitive ability and heightened mortality. This mutation seems to be occurring at relatively low doses of radiation, further correlating with the widespread difficulties of children born in the northern Ukraine since the 1986 disaster, who, the researchers’ report maintains, “have higher rates of neural tube defects and related neurological disorders than other children in uncontaminated regions of the Ukraine and Europe.” Champions of nuclear power, take note.	3.167374
Civic Communications Specialist 2400 S. Scenic Ave. Springfield, MO 65807 September 14, 2012 Packing a Healthy Lunch Means Keeping Food Safety in Mind Too BUFFALO, Mo. With school back in session, many children will bring a packed lunch from home to school. That makes it important to know how to make lunches nutritious and safe according to Christeena Haynes, a nutrition and health education specialist with University of Missouri Extension. "Healthy lunches provide energy and nutrients that your children need in order to learn and play at school. It also helps prevent them from eating junk food that isn't so good for them," said Haynes. Making a healthy and safe lunch requires starting with a clean lunch box. Haynes says to wash it with warm soapy water every time it is used. "Before you begin making the lunch, wash your hands and make sure the food is prepared on a clean surface, using clean utensils," said Haynes. If you pack perishable foods, take steps to keep it cold. These types of foods should not be held at room temperature for more than two hours. "It is best to pack a lunch with an ice pack in an insulated lunch bag or box. An alternative is to pack your child a shelf stable lunch that does not require refrigeration," said Haynes. Examples of non-perishable foods are granola bars, whole fruit, peanut butter, and canned foods. Variety is also the spice of lunches. Try to pack a lunch that includes most of the food groups: fruits, vegetables, grains, protein, and dairy. A whole wheat tortilla filled with ham and cheese, carrot sticks with dip, and an apple is a well-balanced lunch that contains all of these foods groups. Dips and sauces are often a good way to get children to eat their vegetables. Try using healthy dips such as hummus, yogurt, or guacamole. Another way to make lunches more interesting and introduce your child to new foods is to change simple things like the type of bread for sandwiches (bagels or pitas) or the form of cheese (cubes, slices, strings). "If you are limited on time in the mornings, you may want to consider packing their lunch the night before and keeping it refrigerated until the next day. Then, just add a cold pack and they are ready to go," said Haynes. For more information on nutrition issues, go online to extension.missouri.edu or contact one of the nutrition and health education specialists working in the Ozarks: Christeena Haynes, in Dallas County, (417) 345-7551; Dr. Lydia Kaume in Barton County, (417) 682-3579; or Dr. Pam Duitsman, in Springfield, (417) 886-2059. Source: Christeena Haynes, (417) 345-7551	3.091059
Work - Overview The tools, rules, and relationships of the workplace illustrate some of the enduring collaborations and conflicts in the everyday life of the nation. The Museum has more than 5,000 traditional American tools, chests, and simple machines for working wood, stone, metal, and leather. Materials on welding, riveting, and iron and steel construction tell a more industrial version of the story. Computers, industrial robots, and other artifacts represent work in the Information Age. But work is more than just tools. The collections include a factory gate, the motion-study photographs of Frank and Lillian Gilbreth, and more than 3,000 work incentive posters. The rise of the factory system is measured, in part, by time clocks in the collections. More than 9,000 items bring in the story of labor unions, strikes, and demonstrations over trade and economic issues.	3.362079
South Carolina, Southern Georgia, and Northern Florida, west to southern Alabama. Ambystoma cingulatum occupies seasonally wet, pine flatwoods, and pine savannas in the southern United States. The Flatwoods salamander is typically found under logs near small cypress ponds. Traditionally, the Flatwoods salamander was found in sandy, seasonally wet, longleaf pine communities. But, due to European settlement these areas have been replaced by slash pine, or destroyed altogether (Petranka 1998). Adult A. cingulatum are subterranean, living mainly underground in root channels or crayfish burrows (Conant & Collins 1998). Length: 3 1/2- 5 1/16 in. The Flatwoods salamander is a small highly variable ambystomid, with coloration ranging from specks, to grayish lines that resemble a frosted or lichenlike reticulated pattern. About 5% of A. cingulatum lack the frosted appearance altogether, with 2% having light annuli on their dorsum (Petranka 1998). Costal grooves average at about fifteen. The head is small compared to the shoulder and neck. Sexual dimorphism is slight to non-existent, with sexually active males being slightly shorter in length, and having a swollen cloacal region. Hatchling A. cingulatum are 7.5-11.5 mm long, and are pale brown underneath, and dark brown above (Petranka 1998). The young develop a yellow stripe that runs the length of the body. Older larvae have a paler stripe that may be retained up to one year after metamorphosis. While variations in coloration are often geographic, subspecies are not recognized (Conant & Collins 1998). The male Flatwoods salamander reaches sexual maturity at one year, but often does not breed until the following season. The females are mature and breed during their second year (Petranka 1998). Breeding populations range from 200-400 adults. Migration to breeding sites such as ephemeral habitats like ditches, burrow pits, marshy ponds, and swamps is triggered by rainy weather from mid October to early February. The adults move during the heavy rain and cease moving within five hours of the end of rainfall (Petranka 1998). The salamanders travel to the breeding sites located at or near pine flatwoods that support long leaf pine, slash pine, and wiregrass. Males and females migrate together and emigrate in December and January, after spending approximately thirty eight days at the breeding site. They return to their home range, females weighing 37% less after ovipositing. A. cingulatum is one of the only Ambystoma species, other than A. opacum, that courts terrestrially (Petranka 1998). Females lay 1-34 eggs in linear or clumped fashion beneath logs, leaf litter, sphagnum mats, bare soil, bases of bushes, and at the entrances of crayfish burrows (Conant & Collins 1998). The female abandons the eggs and leaves them where they will hatch in about two weeks, triggered by heavy rains that raise the water level. Hatching becomes staggered when it requires multiple rains to fill the pond. The larval period lasts from three to five months (Petranka 1998). Courtship occurs after arriving at the breeding sites, although it has never been witnessed. Other than migration and emigration to and from the sites, the Flatwoods salamander is a solitary species. They live underground and are only triggered to emerge by heavy rain. A. cingulatum has a defense posture where they roll their tails. Because a majority of these salamanders have tail damage due to attacks by invertebrates, it is likely that this is a life saving response (Petranka 1998). Hatchlings begin feeding immediately on invertebrates and zooplankton, which aids them in growing at a rapid pace. As A. cingulatum becomes juveniles and adults, they remain carnivorous, feeding primarily on earthworms and other insects (Petranka 1998). Other than preservation of biodiversity and treasuring a native species to maintain ecosystem equilibrium, there is little economic importance to humans. It could however be hypothesized that salamanders keep insect populations under control The Flatwoods salamander is a small, rare ambystomid with widely distributed populations. Clearing of land, creating ditches, filling wetlands, and conservation of native longleaf pine forests to create managed tree farms, have destroyed and reduced populations. A. cingulatum is a candidate for federal concern because populations seem to be declining throughout the range (Petranka 1998). It is endangered in South Carolina, rare in Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. Management is complicated, involving both aquatic and terrestrial preservation (Conant 1998). It should be noted that A. cingulatum is one of the only terrestrial breeding salamanders that abandons its eggs in North America. (Conat & Collins, 1998) It is also interesting to consider that up to 77-84% of older larvae have damaged tails due to attacks from invertebrates. (Petranka, 1998) Cara Seely (author), Michigan State University, James Harding (editor), Michigan State University. living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico. having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria. animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature forest biomes are dominated by trees, otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality. A large change in the shape or structure of an animal that happens as the animal grows. In insects, "incomplete metamorphosis" is when young animals are similar to adults and change gradually into the adult form, and "complete metamorphosis" is when there is a profound change between larval and adult forms. Butterflies have complete metamorphosis, grasshoppers have incomplete metamorphosis. having the capacity to move from one place to another. the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic. Conant, R., Collins. 1998. Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern Central North America. NY: Houghton Miflin Co. Petranka, J. 1998. Salamanders of the US and Canada. WA: Smithsonian Institution Press.	3.236894
Chronometric Techniques–Part II Most of the chronometric dating methods in use today are radiometric . That is to say, they are based on knowledge of the rate at which certain radioactive isotopes within dating samples decay or the rate of other cumulative changes in atoms resulting from radioactivity. Isotopes are specific forms of elements. The various isotopes of the same element differ in terms of atomic mass but have the same atomic number. In other words, they differ in the number of neutrons in their nuclei but have the same number of protons. The spontaneous decay of radioactive elements occurs at different rates, depending on the specific isotope. These rates are stated in terms of half-lives. One half-life is the amount of time required for ½ of the original atoms in a sample to decay. Over the second half-life, ½ of the atoms remaining decay, which leaves ¼ of the original quantity, and so on. In other words, the change in numbers of atoms follows a geometric scale as illustrated by the graph below. The red curve line shows the of atomic decay The decay of atomic nuclei provides us with a reliable clock that is unaffected by normal forces in nature. The rate will not be changed by intense heat, cold, pressure, or moisture. The most commonly used radiometric dating method is radiocarbon dating. It is also called carbon-14 and C-14 dating. This technique is used to date the remains of organic materials. Dating samples are usually charcoal, wood, bone, or shell, but any tissue that was ever alive can be dated. Radiocarbon dating is based on the fact that cosmic radiation from space constantly bombards our planet. As cosmic rays pass through the atmosphere, they occasionally collide with gas atoms resulting in the release of neutrons. When the nucleus of a nitrogen (14N) atom in the atmosphere captures one of these neutrons, the atom subsequently changes into carbon-14 (14C) after the release of a proton. The carbon-14 quickly bonds chemically with atmospheric oxygen to form carbon dioxide gas. Carbon-14 is a rare, unstable form of carbon. Only one in a trillion carbon atoms in the atmosphere is carbon-14. The majority are carbon-12 (98.99%) and carbon-13 (1.1%). From a chemical standpoint, all of these isotopes of carbon behave exactly the same. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere drifts down to the earth's surface where much of it is taken in by green growing plants, and the carbon is used to build new cells by photosynthesis . Animals eat plants or other animals that have eaten them. Through this process, a small amount of carbon-14 spreads through all living things and is incorporated into their proteins and other organic molecules. of carbon-14 in the atmosphere and its entrance into the As long as an organism is alive, it takes in carbon-14 and the other carbon isotopes in the same ratio as exists in the atmosphere. Following death, however, no new carbon is consumed. Progressively through time, the carbon-14 atoms decay and once again become nitrogen-14. As a result, there is a changing ratio of carbon-14 to the more atomically stable carbon-12 and carbon-13 in the dead tissue. That rate of change is determined by the half-life of carbon-14, which is 5730 ± 40 years. Because of this relatively rapid half-life, there is only about 3% of the original carbon-14 in a sample remaining after 30,000 years. Beyond 40-50,000 years, there usually is not enough left to measure with conventional laboratory methods. Radioactive decay rate for Carbon-14 (N = the number of atoms) Half-Lives Years Past C-14 Atoms C-12 Atoms 0 0 1 N 1 N 1 5,730 1/2 N 1 N 2 11,460 1/4 N 1 N 3 17,190 1/8 N 1 N 4 22,920 1/16 N 1 N 5 28,650 1/32 N 1 N 6 34,380 1/64 N 1 N 7 40,110 1/128 N 1 N The conventional radiocarbon dating method involves burning a sample in a closed tube containing oxygen. The carbon containing gas that is produced is then cooled to a liquid state and placed in a lead shielded box with a sensitive Geiger counter. This instrument registers the radioactivity of the carbon-14 atoms. Specifically, it detects the relatively weak beta particles released when carbon-14 nuclei decay. The age of a sample is determined by the number of decays recorded over a set period of time. Older samples have less carbon-14 remaining and, consequentially, less frequent decays. Knowing the half-life of carbon-14 allows the calculation of a sample's age. A radiocarbon sample being prepared for dating with the AMS technique A relatively new variation of the radiocarbon dating method utilizes an accelerator mass spectrometer , which is a device usually used by physicists to measure the abundance of very rare radioactive isotopes. When used for dating, this AMS method involves actually counting individual carbon-14 atoms. This allows the dating of much older and smaller samples but at a far higher cost. Although, organic materials as old as 100,000 years potentially can be dated with AMS, dates older than 60,000 years are still rare. Radiocarbon and tree-ring date comparisons made by Hans Suess provide needed data to make radiocarbon dates more reliable Paleoanthropologists and archaeologists must always be aware of possible radiocarbon sample contamination that could result in inaccurate dates. Such contamination can occur if a sample is exposed to carbon compounds in exhaust gasses produced by factories and motor vehicles burning fossil fuels such as coal or gasoline. The result is radiocarbon dates that are too old. This has been called the Autobahn effect, named after the German high speed roadway system. Archaeologists in that country first noted this source of contamination when samples found near the Autobahn were dated. The effect of global burning of fossil fuels on radiocarbon dates was verified and calibrated by Hans Suess of the University of California, San Diego when he radiocarbon dated bristlecone pine tree growth rings that were of known chronometric ages. Subsequently, it is also called the Suess effect. Other kinds of sample contamination can cause carbon-14 dates to be too young. This can occur if the sample is impregnated with tobacco smoke or oils from a careless researcher's hands. This is now well known and is easily avoided during excavation. Still another potential source of error in radiocarbon dating that is adjusted for stems from the assumption that cosmic radiation enters our planet's atmosphere at a constant rate. In fact, the rate changes slightly through time, resulting in varying amounts of carbon-14 being created. This has become known as the de Vries effect because of its discovery by the Dutch physicist Hessel de Vries. All of these potential sources of error in radiocarbon dating are now well understood and compensating corrections are made so that the dates are reliable. There are a number of other radiometric dating systems in use today that can provide dates for much older sites than those datable by radiocarbon dating. Potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating is one of them. It is based on the fact that potassium-40 (40K) decays into the gas argon-40 (40Ar) and calcium-40 (40Ca) at a known rate. The half-life of potassium-40 is approximately 1.25 billion years. Measurement of the amount of argon-40 in a sample is the basis for age determination. Dating samples for this technique are geological strata of volcanic origin. While potassium is a very common element in the earth's crust, potassium-40 is a relatively rare isotope of it. However, potassium-40 is usually found in significant amounts in volcanic rock and ash. In addition, any argon that existed prior to the last time the rock was molten will have been driven off by the intense heat. As a result, all of the argon-40 in a volcanic rock sample is assumed to date from that time. When a fossil is sandwiched between two such volcanic deposits, their potassium-argon dates provide a minimum and maximum age. In the example below, the bone must date to sometime between 1.75 and 1.5 million years ago. Using the potassium-argon method to date volcanic ash strata above and below a bone sample in order to determine a minimum and a maximum age Potassium-argon dates usually have comparatively large statistical plus or minus factors. They can be on the order of plus or minus 1/4 million years for a 2 million year old date. This is still acceptable because these dates help us narrow down the time range for a fossil. The use of additional dating methods at the same site allow us to refine it even more. NOTE: the plus or minus number following radiometric dates is not an error factor. Rather, it is a probability statement. For instance, a date of 100,000 ± 5,000 years ago means that there is a high probability the date is in the range of 95,000 and 105,000 years ago and most likely is around 100,000. Radiometric dates, like all measurements in science, are close statistical approximations rather than absolutes. This will always be true due to the finite limits of measuring equipment. This does not mean that radiometric dates or any other scientific measurements are unreliable. Potassium-argon dating has become a valuable tool for human fossil hunters, especially those working in East Africa. Theoretically it can be used for samples that date from the beginning of the earth (4.54 billion years) down to 100,000 years ago or even more recently. Paleoanthropologists use it mostly to date sites in the 1 to 5 million year old range. This is the critical time period during which humans evolved from their ape ancestors. A relatively new technique related to potassium-argon dating compares the ratios of argon-40 to argon-39 in volcanic rock. This provides more accurate dates for volcanic deposits and allows the use of smaller samples. Fission Track Dating Another radiometric method that is used for samples from early human sites is fission track dating. This is based on the fact that a number of crystalline or glass-like minerals, such as obsidian, mica, and zircon crystals, contain trace amounts of uranium-238 (238U), which is an unstable isotope. When atoms of uranium-238 decay, there is a release of energy-charged alpha particles which burn narrow fission tracks, or damage trails, through the glassy material. These can be seen and counted with an optical microscope. Fission tracks in obsidian as they would appear with an optical microscope The number of fission tracks is directly proportional to the amount of time since the glassy material cooled from a molten state. Since the half-life of uranium-238 is known to be approximately 4.5 billion years, the chronometric age of a sample can be calculated. This dating method can be used with samples that are as young as a few decades to as old as the earth and beyond. However, paleoanthropologists rarely use it to date sites more than several million years old. With the exception of early historic human made glass artifacts , the fission track method is usually only employed to date geological strata. Artifacts made out of obsidian and mica are not fission track dated because it would only tell us when the rocks cooled from a molten state, not when they were made into artifacts by our early human ancestors. Thermoluminescence (TL) dating is a radiometric method based on the fact that trace amounts of radioactive atoms, such as uranium and thorium, in some kinds of rock, soil, and clay produce constant low amounts of background ionizing radiation. The atoms of crystalline solids, such as pottery and rock, can be altered by this radiation. Specifically, the electrons of quartz, feldspar, diamond, or calcite crystals can become displaced from their normal positions in atoms and trapped in imperfections in the crystal lattice of the rock or clay molecules. These energy charged electrons progressively accumulate over time. When a sample is heated to high temperatures in a laboratory, the trapped electrons are released and return to their normal positions in their atoms. This causes them to give off their stored energy in the form of light impulses (photons). This light is referred to as thermoluminescence (literally "heat light"). A similar effect can be brought about by stimulating the sample with infrared light. The intensity of thermoluminescence is directly related to the amount of accumulated changes produced by background radiation, which, in turn, varies with the age of the sample and the amount of trace radioactive elements it contains. A ground up placed in a Heat is raised in an energy from the sample Thermoluminescence release resulting from rapidly heating a crushed clay sample What is actually determined is the amount of elapsed time since the sample had previously been exposed to high temperatures. In the case of a pottery vessel, usually it is the time since it was fired in a kiln. For the clay or rock lining of a hearth or oven, it is the time since the last intense fire burned there. For burned flint, it is the time since it had been heated in a fire to improve its flaking qualities for stone tool making. The effective time range for TL dating is from a few decades back to about 300,000 years, but it is most often used to date things from the last 100,000 years. Theoretically, this technique could date samples as old as the solar system if we could find them. However, the accuracy of TL dating is generally lower than most other radiometric techniques. Electron Spin Resonance Dating Another relatively new radiometric dating method related to thermoluminescence is electron spin resonance (ESR). It is also based on the fact that background radiation causes electrons to dislodge from their normal positions in atoms and become trapped in the crystalline lattice of the material. When odd numbers of electrons are separated, there is a measurable change in the magnetic field (or spin) of the atoms. Since the magnetic field progressively changes with time in a predictable way as a result of this process, it provides another atomic clock, or calendar, that can be used for dating purposes. Unlike thermoluminescence dating, however, the sample is not destroyed with the ESR method. This allows samples to be dated more than once. ESR is used mostly to date calcium carbonate in limestone, coral, fossil teeth, mollusks, and egg shells. It also can date quartz and flint. Paleoanthropologists have used ESR mostly to date samples from the last 300,000 years. However, it potentially could be used for much older samples. Comparison of the Time Ranges for Dating Methods Whenever possible, paleoanthropologists collect as many dating samples from an ancient human occupation site as possible and employ a variety of chronometric dating methods. In this way, the confidence level of the dating is significantly increased. The methods that are used depend on the presumed age of the site from which they were excavated. For instance, if a site is believed to be over 100,000 years old, dendrochronology and radiocarbon dating could not be used. However, potassium-argon, fission track, amino acid racemization, thermoluminescence, electron spin resonance, and paleomagnetic dating methods would be considered. EFFECTIVE TIME RANGE OF THE MAJOR CHRONOMETRIC DATING METHODS In addition to the likely time range, paleoanthropologists must select dating techniques based on the kinds of datable materials available. Dendrochronology can only date tree-rings. Any organic substances can be used for radiocarbon and amino acid racemization dating. Calcium rich parts of animals such as coral, bones, teeth, mollusks, and egg shells can be dated with the electron spin resonance technique. In addition, ESR can date some non-organic minerals including limestone, quartz, and flint. Burned clay and volcanic deposits are materials used for paleomagnetic dating. Glassy minerals, such as mica, obsidian, and zircon crystals are datable with the fission track method. Pottery and other similar materials containing crystalline solids are usually dated with the thermoluminescence technique. The potassium-argon and argon-argon methods are used to date volcanic rock and ash deposits. Other chronometric dating methods not described here include uranium/thorium dating, oxidizable carbon ratio (OCR) dating, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating, varve analysis, and obsidian hydration dating. Copyright © 1998-2012 by Dennis O'Neil. All rights	3.712954
Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer. March 11, 1996 Hubble Telescope Maps Pluto Credit: A. Stern (SwRI), M. Buie (Lowell Observatory), NASA, ESA, Explanation: No spacecraft from Earth has yet explored Pluto but astronomers have found ways of mapping its surface. A stunning map of this distant, diminutive planet, the first based on direct images, was revealed late last week in a Hubble Space Telescope press release. Above are two opposite hemisphere views of the computer constructed map of Pluto's surface (north is up). The grid pattern is due to the computer technique used where each grid element is over 100 miles across. The map is based on Hubble images made when Pluto was a mere 3 billion miles distant. It shows strong brightness variations - confirming and substantially improving upon ground based observations. While the brightness variations may be due to surface features like craters and basins they are more likely caused by regions of nitrogen and methane frost. The frost regions should show "seasonal" changes which can be tracked in future Hubble observations. Yes, Pluto is a planet even though it is only 2/3 the size of Earth's Moon! Authors & editors: NASA Technical Rep.: Sherri Calvo. Specific rights apply. A service of: LHEA at NASA/ GSFC	3.806042
Inner City Kids Meet Outdoor Life December 24, 2009 by: Laurie Johnson "Ok get your helpers to open your reagent..." About 30 fifth-graders bundled in sweatshirts and gloves are huddled around Naturalist Teri MacArthur as she demonstrates a water quality testing experiment. "One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight...whoa! Gee whiz! What happened? It turned black. Actually it turned blue." The kids are spending the morning studying Spring Creek on the Montgomery County Preserve. They're here through the No Child Left Inside program, run by Legacy Land Trust. Executive Director Jennifer Lorenz says Legacy Land Trust has preserved more than 8,000 acres of green space in this region. And someone needs to be around in the future to conserve those wilderness areas. That's one of the reasons they're reaching out to middle schoolers. "We want to raise the next generation of conservationists. If they don't get outside, like you and I may have when we were kids, then they can't have any affinity — they can't say that they enjoy nature if they're never in it. So our goal is to get them out into the wilderness areas that we protect and hopefully later, when they're adults, they'll want to help us permanently protect them." Of course the program is more than just a self-serving interest. Research indicates when kids apply classroom learning in the field, their grades are better. "This helps science scores. All across the country many, many scientists have studied kids out in the wilderness and those who are able to get out and do real-world applications of things like water quality testing from streams, their science scores are higher. So that's a great immediate output of this." But eleven-year-old Monica Day isn't really thinking about test scores. "We've been studying how pollution affects waters and how just the tiniest bit of something can change the pH level in water. Whenever we first got the water it looked a little disgusting, actually. And then we added some colored water or something to it and then we tested it to see what the color was and the color had a rating, like 7.0. And I think it tested the acid in the water from acidic to basic to neutral." Day is from the Honor Roll School, a private school in SugarLand. But for urban students in inner city schools it can be difficult to get here. So Legacy Land Trust pays to bus middle schoolers out to these locations so any kid can learn to take care of and love the wilderness. Laurie Johnson. KUHF-Houston Public Radio News. This story first aired on February 3, 2009. podcast feed: > KUHF News	3.14373
In an age of advanced technology, our generation is the key to helping society advance. How are we being prepared for the future? The key to the doors of opportunity and success is an experience of the real world at an early age. This would include responsibilities of a higher level -- mastering time, managing money, entering the work force and driving. All this lies in the hands of the ability to drive as a young adult. Driving has benefits, and also consequences that teenagers can learn from, which are vital to decision-making. States decide at which age to grant the privilege to drive. In some states, incuding Florida, teenagers can begin driving at 16 after having a permit for six months. In other states, teens must wait an extra two years until they can obtain their driver's license and get a job without the hassle of parent transportation to and from school, work and home. Do you think this is fair? While some teens get a head start on life once they've acquired their license, others must wait. Teenagers must learn to be independent from their parents as early as possible, with college only a few years away. Statistics involving teen drunken driving and automobile accidents are frightening, but can we allow this to stop teenagers from driving? Rather, this should be motivation to improve and educate teenagers about the consequences and precautions that must be considered while driving. As children grow, they must be prepared for what the future might throw at them. Driving is a way to prepare for the future, and also for the responsibilities of adulthood and being independent.	3.248225
Bicycles are inherently stable because of their geometry. The geometry causes the bicycle to always turn into the direction it begins to lean, which keeps it upright. The reason is best illustrated through a concept known as counter-steering. Counter steering is how all two wheel vehicles turn. When you want to turn towards the left, you turn the handlebars a little to the right. The friction of the wheels pulls the bottom of the bike towards the right, which initiates a lean towards the left. The handle bars then begin to swing towards the left to track through the turn. When it's time to stop the turn, you turn the handlebars a little more to the left. That pulls the bottom of the bike further towards the left, which brings the bottom of the bike directly under the center of gravity and thus stopping the turn. On many bikes and at low speeds, the counter steering effect can be unnoticed by many riders. However, at high speeds, or with heavier vehicles such as motor cycles it is more significant. So, how does this work where there is no rider? It is because of the rake in the fork and the rail it causes. If you trace an imaginary line through the axis of your fork to the ground, it will hit the ground ahead of where the wheel contacts the ground. Because the wheel contacts the ground behind the steering axis, the wheel will always feel a force from the road trying to bring it to center, pointing straight ahead. When the bike is tipped to one side, the forces begin to push the wheel to the side that the bike is tipped. So all these forces add up. The rake in the fork makes the bike want to go straight forward. And when it feels a bump in one direction or the other, the counter steering will tend to bring the bike the other direction. Then the fork rake will begin pushing the front wheel further away, which will then straighten the bike out, because of the counter steering.	3.685166
The internet can be thought of as the world’s largest database. This is so, because it is comprised of inter-connected databases, files, and computer systems. By simply typing in some keywords, one can access hundreds to millions of websites containing treasure troves of facts, statistics, and other formats of information on an endless array of topics. Because the internet is such a valuable resource, we should seek new and innovative ways to mine the data using ethical means. The goal of scraping websites is to access information, but the uses of that information can vary. Users may wish to store the information in their own databases or manipulate the data within a spreadsheet. Other users may utilize data extraction techniques as means of obtaining the most recent data possible, particularly when working with information subject to frequent changes. Investors analyzing stock prices, realtors researching home listings, meteorologists studying weather, or insurance salespeople following insurance prices are a few individuals who might fit this category of users of frequently updated data. Access to certain information may also provide users with strategic advantage in business. Attorneys might wish to scrape arrest records from county courthouses in search of potential clients. Businesses, such as restaurants or video-rental stores that know the locations of competitors can make better decisions about where to focus further growth. Companies that provide complementary (not to be confused with complimentary) products, like software, may wish to know the make, model, cost, and market share of hardware that are compatible with their software. Another common, but controversial use of information taken from websites is reposting scraped data to other sites. Scrapers may wish to consolidate data from a myriad of websites and then create a new website containing all of the information in one convenient location. In some cases, the new site’s owner may benefit from ads placed on his or her site or from fees charged to access the site. Companies usually go to great lengths to disseminate information about their products or services. So, why would a website owner not wish to have his or her website’s information scraped? Several reasons exist for why website owners may not wish to have their site’s scraped by others (excluding search engines). Some people feel that data that is reposted to other sites is plagiarized, if not stolen. These individuals may feel that they made the effort to gather information and make it available on their websites only to have it copied to other sites. Are individuals justified in feeling that they have been taken advantage of, even if their websites are posted publicly? Interpretation of what exactly “republish” means is widely disputed. One of the most authoritative explanations may be found in the 1991 supreme-court case of Feist Publications v. Rural Telephone Service. This case involved Rural Telephone Service suing Feist Publications for copyright infringement when Feist copied telephone listings after Rural denied Feist’s request to license the information. While information has never been copyrightable under U.S. law, a collection of information, defined mostly in terms of creative arrangement or original ideas, can be copyrighted. The Supreme Court’s ruling in Feist Publications v. Rural Telephone Service stated that “information contained in Rural’s phone directory was not copyrightable, and that therefore no infringement existed.” Justice O’ Conner focused on the need for information to have a “creative” element in order to be termed a “collection” (1). Similarly, information, taken from publicly available websites should not be considered plagiarism or even theft if only the information (numbers, statistics, etc.) is reposted to new sites or used for other purposes. Scraped websites also experience an increase in used bandwidth as a result of being scraped. Some scrapes take place once, but many scrapes must be performed over and over to achieve the desired results. In such cases, the servers that host the pages being scraped inevitably experience an increased load. Site owners may not wish to have the increased bandwidth, but more importantly, excessive page requests can cause a web server to function slowly or even fail. Rarely, however, do most scrapes cause such strain on a server on their own. Accessing a page through scraping is no different from visiting a page manually, except that scraping allows more pages to be visited over a shorter period. Additionally, scrapes can be adjusted to run more slowly, so as to minimize the strain on the server. Scraping is usually slowed when more than a few scraping sessions are being run against a single server at one time. Interestingly, having one’s website scraped can have positive effects. Of course the recipient of the scraped data is pleased to have desired data, but owners of scraped sites may also benefit. Think of the case mentioned above in which home listings are scraped from a site. Whether the information is reposted or stored in a database for later querying to match homebuyer’s needs, the purpose of the original site is met—to get the home-listing information into the hands of potential buyers. Individuals who scrape websites can do so, while still following guidelines for ethical data extraction. Perhaps it would be helpful to review a list of tips for maintaining ethical scraping. One website I consulted gave the following suggestions: · Obey robots.txt. · Don’t flood a site. · Don’t republish, especially not anything that might be copyrighted. · Abide by the site terms of service (2). Occasionally, individuals who scrape websites have paid for access to the material being scraped. Many job- and résumé-posting websites fall into this category. Employers must pay a monthly fee for an account which provides access to the résumés of potential new hirers. Certainly, the fact that employers pay for the service entitles them to use whatever means are necessary to sort through and record the desired data. The only exception would be where the site’s terms of service specifically prohibit scraping. While republishing images, artwork, and other original content without permission is unethical and in many cases illegal, using scraped data for personal purposes is certainly within the limits of ethical behavior. Nevertheless, page scrapers should always avoid taking copyrighted materials. Use of bandwidth is no more deserved by any one person than another. Even making scraped data available to others online can be argued as ethical, especially when the scraped website is posted on public space and the data taken doesn’t include any creative content. After all, the purpose of hosting a website in the first place is to provide information.	3.054225
Shooting sulfur particles into the stratosphere to reflect the sun? Dumping iron into the ocean to boost the absorption of carbon dioxide? Could these far-fetched and dangerous-sounding schemes help avert potentially catastrophic effects of climate change, or would they exacerbate conditions on our ever warming planet? These strategies, which involve the deliberate and large-scale intervention in our climate system to moderate global warming, are known as geoengineering. Fantastical as they seem, billionaires Bill Gates, Sir Richard Branson and others, are investing millions of dollars into the geoengineering research of a few leading climate scientists like Ken Caldeira at Stanford. At first, Caldeira thought geoengineering sounded crazy too, but his research showed that it would basically work. If global warming exceeds 2˚ C, it would be “a prescription for disaster,” said NASA scientist James Hansen. To prevent this from happening, we need to cap atmospheric carbon dioxide levels at 350 parts per million; but in March 2012, we reached almost 394.5 ppm and global greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise. Even if we were able to immediately cut greenhouse gas emissions to zero, however, global warming would continue for the foreseeable future because carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for several hundred years. Moreover, the international community has failed to reach an agreement that tackles the fundamental problem of controlling carbon emissions and prospects for doing so don’t look good. As a result, geoengineering is beginning to sound less like science fiction to some, and more like a possible Plan B. Geoengineering strategies fall into two main categories: - Solar radiation management, which seeks to reduce the amount of sunlight that reaches earth by deflecting it or increasing Earth’s reflectivity (albedo). - Carbon dioxide removal, which tries to take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. Solar radiation management includes efforts like white roofs that deflect sunlight, brightening clouds by shooting seawater into them to increase their albedo (salt provides the nuclei that seed the clouds), and controversial strategies based on the cooling effect that can follow major volcanic eruptions. In 1991, Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines erupted, sending 22 million tons of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere. The sulfur particles scattered around the globe, deflected sunlight, and cooled Earth by 0.4 to 0.5˚ C. Solar radiation management would recreate this effect by using balloons, aircraft or cannons to shoot tiny reflective particles like sulfates into the stratosphere to temporarily block sunlight. The 1992 Panel on Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming calculated that this strategy would cost just pennies per ton of carbon dioxide mitigated. It would also be fast-acting, capable of quickly reducing the impacts of heat stress on crops, resulting in increased productivity since carbon dioxide levels, which boost growth, would remain high. Other solar radiation management ideas include the use of engineered nanoparticles, which could be constructed to ascend high into the atmosphere and keep their shiny side to the sun, and sunshades in space made of mirrors. Solar radiation management would do nothing to address the root cause of global warming—carbon dioxide emissions—or ocean acidification caused by the sea’s absorption of excess carbon dioxide. And while stratospheric aerosols could theoretically produce cooling on a local or global level, they might also create regional problems by affecting rain and snowfall patterns and causing drought. According to Caldeira, a year or two after Mt. Pinatubo, when aerosols dropped from the stratosphere, both the Amazon River and the Ganges had very low flows and droughts occurred. A 2010 study by ETC (Erosion, Technology and Concentration), an international group that opposes geoengineering, states that solar radiation management climate models show a risk of increased drought over Africa, Asia and the Amazon jungle. Putting sulfate particles into the stratosphere could also damage the ozone layer, lead to acid rain and increased ocean acidification, and interfere with solar cells, astronomy and satellites. In addition, solar radiation management techniques carry the risk of a rapid rise in temperature if the program were started then stopped, which would be more dangerous to life on Earth than a gradual temperature rise. Carbon dioxide removal strategies reduce greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, or attempt to manipulate natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly. While they tackle the fundamental problem of carbon emissions, and address ocean acidification, they would require many years to fully take effect. Carbon dioxide removal techniques include tree planting, creating biochar (charcoal) and burying it to increase carbon sequestration, carbon capture and storage, adding carbonate to the ocean to increase carbon dioxide uptake, and capturing carbon from the air. Klaus Lackner, Director of the Earth Institute’s Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy, is developing an “artificial tree” that removes carbon dioxide from the air. Ocean fertilization is perhaps the most controversial carbon dioxide removal strategy of all. Through photosynthesis, phytoplankton in the ocean absorbs half the carbon dioxide taken up annually by all of Earth’s plants. Ocean fertilization involves depositing nutrients (iron, nitrogen or phosphorus) into areas of the ocean lacking one of these key nutrients to stimulate the growth of phytoplankton and increase the absorption of carbon dioxide, which is then carried to the ocean floor when the phytoplankton die. Critics say ocean fertilization could alter food webs; deplete oxygen at deeper ocean levels; produce eutrophication, dead zones and toxic algal blooms; increase ocean acidification in the deep sea; and impact coral reefs. While the cost of ocean fertilization would be relatively low, Britain’s Royal Society says that none of the various carbon dioxide removal methods assessed have proven to be effective at an affordable cost with acceptable side effects. Most geoengineering research today is being done with climate models and mapping; few field tests have been conducted. The Fund for Innovative Climate and Energy Research, run by David Keith of Harvard and Ken Caldeira and funded by Bill Gates’ personal funds, has given out $4.6 million for research on climate modeling, technical feasibility, governance, potential and risks, but it does not support field-testing methods like solar radiation management and ocean fertilization that would actually interfere with the climate system. ETC argues that geoengineering cannot be tested because in order to truly assess its effect on the climate, it would need to be deployed on a massive scale, which would likely also have massive repercussions. Germany, India, Canada, Russia and Britain are studying geoengineering, and more countries will soon be capable of it as well. In 2009, a German-Indian government-sponsored experiment (LOHAFEX) dumped 6.6 tons of iron into 300 square kilometers of the South Atlantic. There was a burst of algae growth, but within two weeks, the algae was eaten by small crustaceans, so less carbon dioxide was absorbed than anticipated. In October 2011, a British project called SPICE (Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering) was scheduled to test a delivery system using a tethered balloon and hose to deliver water one kilometer into the sky. It was put on hold due to opposition from environmental groups. Geoengineering opponents cite many risks. Strategies could be ineffective or incomplete. The technology could fall prey to mechanical failure, human error, natural disasters or terrorism, and lead to devastating and/or irreversible disruption of the climate system. Many want to ban geoengineering research for fear it would reduce the imperative to cut greenhouse gas emissions. Scott Barrett, Lenfest-Earth Institute professor of natural resource economics at Columbia University, takes issue with this point. “People worry that if we use geoengineering, we wouldn’t reduce our greenhouse gas emissions. But we’re not reducing them anyway…And given that we have failed to address climate change, I think we’re better off having the possibility of geoengineering…However it does raise the question of do we have the wisdom and institutions to use it wisely?” Governance is perhaps the thorniest aspect of geoengineering. Because geoengineering is a relatively cheap way to address climate change, it is unilateral—rich countries and billionaires could finance it on their own—yet the consequences would be global. Who then should get to control geoengineering, and under what governance? Some strategies would benefit certain countries and harm others, so who would have the right to decide whether, when and how to use it? Geoengineering would likely create winners and losers—should losers be compensated? Could conflicts lead to geoengineering wars? While there are various international treaties, aspects of which could limit some geoengineering experiments, there is no overarching regulatory framework that governs the broad use of geoengineering technology. In October 2010, the U.N. Convention on Biological Diversity adopted a moratorium on geoengineering activities that could threaten biodiversity (the United States has not ratified the convention). ETC is pushing for a comprehensive test ban on geoengineering at Rio+20, the U.N. Conference on Sustainable Development in June. The 2009 geoengineering report by Britain’s Royal Society calls for an international body to review mechanisms that could regulate geoengineering, and for scientific organizations to develop guidelines for research and evaluate benefits and environmental effects. “The central problem for the governance of geoengineering,” the report says, “is that while potential problems can be identified with all geoengineering technologies, these can only be resolved through research, development and demonstration… Ideally, appropriate safeguards would be put in place during the early stages of the development of any new technology.” Barrett, an expert in international agreements, believes a geoengineering agreement should focus on what countries should do and what they can agree upon. He contends that an agreement should simply require a country intent on engaging in geoengineering, from field research to larger experiments, to let the world know. This would enable other countries to react or discuss the situation beforehand, make deals or participate, and avoid conflicts. It would also encourage collaborative research and development. Countries would be willing to sign on because they would know that other nations would also have to declare their intentions. If an agreement were too restrictive, or included a ban or veto power, Barrett says, countries that wanted to proceed with geoengineering would simply walk away from the table. Despite the risks and uncertainties of geoengineering, many scientists believe we must study the options to ensure that damaging actions are not taken in haste in the future. The Royal Society recommends that further research and development of geoengineering be undertaken, but that policies also continue to focus on reducing carbon emissions and adaptation. It stresses the importance of placing all concerns about geoengineering in the larger context of climate change impacts that would otherwise be likely to occur anyway and comparing the relative risks and potential benefits. “Imagine some point in the future when things are starting to go very wrong. And turning down the sun would have a good chance of limiting damage. Would you really not want to know if the technology worked and what its side effects were?” Barrett asked. “Even if we were to ban geoengineering today, if things get bad in the future, they’d do it anyway…would you want the future to be ignorant?”	3.550826
Border People: Life and Society in the US-Mexico Borderlands While the U.S.-Mexico borderlands resemble border regions in other parts of the world, nowhere else do so many millions of people from two dissimilar nations live in such close proximity and interact with each other so intensely. Borderlanders are singular in their history, outlook, and behavior, and their lifestyle deviates from the norms of central Mexico and the interior United States; yet these Mexicans, Mexican-Americans, and Anglo-Americans also differ among themselves, and within each group may be found cross-border consumers, commuters, and people who are inclined or disinclined to embrace both cultures. Based on firsthand interviews with individuals from all walks of life, Border People presents case histories of transnational interaction and transculturation, and addresses the themes of cross-border migration, interdependence, labor, border management, ethnic confrontation, cultural fusion, and social activism. Here migrants and workers, functionaries and activists, and "mixers" who have crossed cultural boundaries recall events in their lives related to life on the border. Their stories show how their lives have been shaped by the borderlands milieu and how they have responded to the situations they have faced. Border People shows that these borderlanders live in a unique human environment shaped by physical distance from central areas and constant exposure to transnational processes. The oral histories contained here reveal, to a degree that no scholarly analysis can, that borderlanders are indeed people, each with his or her own individual perspective, hopes, and dreams.	3.103513
Formaldehyde is a type of chemical compound that is of essential use to many manufacturing sectors and other industries. When talking of formaldehyde, most people will be more familiar with one of its forms – formalin. Formalin is a solution of formaldehyde that is famous for being used as an embalming fluid. Formaldehyde is quite toxic and it is known to cause cancer and also other health disorders. Formaldehyde is classified as one of the simplest forms of aldehydes, which are chemical compounds that possess a terminal carbonyl group. A carbonyl group is an atom grouping that has, within it, a carbon atom that is double bonded to an oxygen atom. HCHO is the chemical formula for this chemical compound. The unique chemical formula of formaldehyde makes it a very versatile foundation or base for creating more complex aldehydes. Formaldehyde, in its pure form, is a colorless and gaseous compound. It is also quite reactive. Because of these properties, it is usually mixed in with other chemical compounds in order to create a more stable substance. Formaldehyde has many industrial and manufacturing applications. It is an important ingredient in the manufacturing of glue, antiseptics, preservatives, resins, paints, embalming and film processing. Formaldehyde is actually quite abundant in the atmosphere because it is one of the byproducts of combustion. It is also naturally formed through atmospheric reactions. It is actually a major element that makes up smog. Frequent and high exposure to formaldehyde can lead to cancer, as well as respiratory problems. Skin problems and inflammation of the mucus membrane are some of the short term effects of formaldehyde exposure.	3.625233
As broadcast equipment becomes more sophisticated, especially in the digital domains, the speed at which information is transferred, processed, etc., through the equipment itself, becomes a very important factor. With computer processors that drive broadcast equipment today operating in the Gigahertz range, what good does it do if the remainder of the infrastructure works considerably slower? Superconductors will go a long way in resolving this issue. Earlier this year, researchers led by Dr. Jun Akimitsu of Aoyama Gakuin University in Tokyo achieved a significant milestone when they announced that magnesium boride, a readily available metal compound known since the 1950s, has unexpectedly turned into the latest breakthrough in superconductors technology. Magnesium boride is commonly used in some chemical reactions, but no one had ever tested its worth as a superconductor at low temperatures, where it demonstrates properties of moving electrons with virtually no resistance. After hearing about Dr. Akimitsu's discovery and working with the substance, Dr. Paul C. Canfield, a professor of physics at Iowa State University and a researcher at Ames Laboratory said: “It's a fantastic discovery! We've been able to do a lot of neat stuff with it in the past month.” The material is very light and, from reports, is easier to work with as compared with the more complex superconducting materials such as the copper oxides, a so-called high-temperature superconductor. The more complex superconducting materials work at higher temperatures, but magnesium boride is comparatively inexpensive, selling for about $175 per 100-gram bottle. Dr. Canfield said he and his colleagues at Iowa State and Ames Laboratory have worked extensively investigating magnesium boride and have already fashioned superconducting wires by exposing fibers of boron to magnesium vapors. At present, though, the wires are short; only couple of inches long, and brittle. Dr. Canfield said: “It's not something you can curl around your finger.” But then, who'd want to curl it around their finger? Magnesium boride, as a superconductor, is such only at temperatures up to minus 389 degrees, or about 29 degrees higher than any other simple metallic compound. Although not the solution, it is being hailed as a significant step in that direction, so stay tuned. Send questions and comments to: [email protected]	3.355473
The subject of batteries for field shooters used to be as simple as charging them until the red light went out, slapping them on the camera and shooting until they died. Now, the typical ENG/EFP crew carries a much wider array of battery-operated devices. Notebook computers, cell and satellite phones, PDAs, belt-clipped radios, micro-mixers and even GPS receivers may accompany camcorders and batt-lights. Modern field shooters must know their way around battery systems. Modern batteries communicate digitally to chargers like the Anton-Bauer Dual 2702 Powerchager shown above while talking to the user through an LCD window. Batteries are usually defined by the chemistry they use. The three most common types are nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium ion (Li-ion). Each has its strengths and weaknesses. We’ll compare their performance later in the article. But first, let’s define the specifications we use to judge them. Regardless of the battery type involved, there are a few fundamental specifications that field crews will frequently encounter, including energy density, fast-charge time, self-discharge time, maintenance requirement and C-rate. Energy density is a measure of how much power the battery will deliver for its weight, and is usually measured in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg). This is one of the central factors in matching battery type to application. Fast-charge time is another factor to consider. Usually measured as a fraction of the battery’s rated capacity over time, this parameter has seen dramatic advances with the advent of battery-centric charging using smart batteries and chargers. Another primary factor in matching batteries to their uses is a spec called “self-discharge time,” usually measured as a percentage of capacity per month. This refers to the rate at which the fully charged battery will lose its charge while at rest. Self-discharge is an important parameter because this decline in voltage is not linear. This photo shows the two most common camera battery mounts. The camera on the left has the Anton-Bauer Gold Mount. The other has the Sony V-mount. Most battery types tend to lose a significant portion of their charge within the first 24 hours of storage, followed by a slower but steady discharge. Storage at higher-than-normal room temperatures will degrade internal resistance and accelerate self-discharge on any battery. A significant specification is the maintenance requirement. This typically refers to how often an equalizing or topping charge should be applied. In the case of nickel-based batteries, the maintenance requirement will include “exercising” the battery by running it down to its end-of-discharge voltage and then fully recharging to combat the infamous memory effect in NiCd batteries. The C-rate is a measurement of the charge and discharge current of the battery. A discharge of 1C will equal the published current capacity of the battery. A battery rated at 500 mAh (milliamp hours) will discharge at 1C to deliver that current for one hour. If discharged at 2C, the same battery should provide 1000 milliamps for a half hour. Note that the measurement is made from maximum capacity to the end-of-discharge level, not to 0V. On NiCds, for instance, the typical end-of-discharge level is 1V per cell. Li-ions generally discharge to 3V. While there are many other battery specs, such as load current, cost-per-cycle, overcharge tolerance and cycle life, the specs mentioned above will form the basic stepping stones to a good battery-to-application match. Let’s see how the various battery chemistries compare on these main specs. Despite the emergence of new battery types, the nickel-cadmium or NiCd batteries maintain a prominent place in powering professional camcorders, batt-lights and portable comm radios. This is due to their exceptional performance in high-current applications. NiCds also accept fast charges quite well compared to the other battery chemistries. Typical fast-charge time on NiCd units is one hour, while NiMH batteries will fast-charge in two to four hours and deliver about one-fourth the load current. Cameras have shrunk while lenses and batteries have kept their size and weight, allowing each to balance the other. Without rear-mount batteries, smaller cameras would be front-heavy, and on shoulder-mounted cameras, balance rather than weight is the critical factor. NiCd batteries will self-discharge slightly faster than NiMH and much faster than Li-ion types. The big edge that the NiMH and Li-ion batteries have over NiCd is in energy density. In applications that require a high power-to-weight ratio, the Li-ion is the king of these beasts, with a typical spec of 100Wh/kg to 130Wh/kg. By comparison, NiMHs offer a power-to-weight ratio ranging from 60Wh/kg to 120Wh/kg, while NiCds range from 45Wh/kg to 80Wh/kg. The Achilles heel of NiCd batteries is their maintenance requirement. They must be regularly exercised (some harried shooters might say exorcised) to avoid the formation of crystals inside the battery and the resulting tendency to discharge only as far as the minimum voltage level to which they have been frequently run. Also, since cadmium is an environmentally toxic metal, NiCd batteries are increasingly seen as a liability. Some countries now severely limit their use due to disposal problems. Memory or mismatch? Frequently, what appears to be a memory effect may be a mismatch between the cutoff voltage level of the device and that of the battery. To get the full capacity of the battery, its end-of-discharge voltage must be higher than the cutoff voltage for the camcorder or other device being powered. A mismatch in these values will cause the device to quit while the battery still has power. Mimicking the memory effect, this will cause a nickel-based battery to be repeatedly recharged before reaching its own end-of-discharge voltage and eventually develop a real memory. Getting simpler again The latest “smart” batteries, chargers and cameras can communicate digitally. The battery can control the smart charger for the perfect charge cycle and the cameras can display all the needed power parameters right in the viewfinder. Just when the mix of battery chemistries and their characteristics was becoming increasingly complex, the advent of digital communication between the central components promises to make things a good bit easier. Bennett Liles is a writer and TV production engineer in the Atlanta area.	3.04042
Gender-Responsive Climate Change Adaptation and Egypt Neither the impacts of climate change on people, nor the ways in which people respond to climate change are gender-neutral. Women usually bear the burden of climate changes because they are the bulk of the Egypt’s poor and have fewer resources for coping with global warming and the ensuing related disasters already occurring with more frequency and intensity. The mortality rates for women in Egypt continue to be higher than men, and climate change will worsen mortality expectancies for women, who are more likely to die in natural disasters and, indirectly because it is women and girls who sacrifice food to eat when it is scarce. Gender inequalities and different gender roles, needs and preferences that vary over space and over time, influence the different ways in which young, adult, and elderly males and females experience the impacts of climate change and develop strategies to adapt to or mitigate them. Gender equality is both a development goal in itself – reflected, for example, in the third Millennium Development Goal on gender equality and women’s empowerment, the Beijing Platform for Action and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) — and a condition for the achievement of sustainable development. As such, gender equality is also a condition for successful adaptation to climate change, and the successful transition to low-carbon pathways in Egypt, because the women livelihoods are more directly threatened, as they make up the majority of the small farmers. Their ability to migrate in search of economic opportunities makes it easier for men to deal with crisis, and may result in benefits for the family as a whole. However, male migration to Cairo the city capital of Egypt often increases women’s workload, as they are left behind to manage the household in addition to usual tasks. Climate change can also increase women’s exposure to other risks, such as gender-based violence and HIV infection. In addition to the challenges described above, climate change has implications for food preparation and storage (in terms of water for food preparation and the vulnerability of food stores to extreme events, such as cyclones and floods). Harvests may be reduced or even wiped out by floods or droughts. This affects market prices and the availability of surplus to sell, placing pressure on both men and women to identify other sources of income and reduce major expenditures (e.g. school fees). In times of food shortage, women are often expected to feed other members of the family before attending to their own needs. The implementation of several elements of any environmental plan will strongly depend on the input of women. This will, in particular, be the case for a successful implementation of measures in the National Water Resources Plan of Egypt category of ‘Protecting health and environment’ but also for some measures in the other categories in the same plan. The governments of Arab Spring countries should adopt the following policy principles with respect to gender issues in water management: • Equal opportunities for men and women with regard to: − involvement in discussion and decision making on water use and resources issues; − dissemination of information and communication about water resources and water use issues and financial consequences provided by institutions concerned; − Active participation in decision-making bodies dealing with water resources and irrigation management • Equal benefits for men and women deriving from effective and efficient water resources management ., which means promoting the involvement of women as well as men in consultation and decision-making from the community level to the highest level of organizational management. This will require further efforts to be made in creating space for women in planning and implementation processes, as well as to facilitate their participation through capacity building. Gendered water resources management will lead to greater: • Effectiveness: the infrastructure, as well as valuable water resources, will be more widely and optimally used and sustained by all user groups; • Efficiency: the presence of limited water resources the sector agency can reach more individuals; •Development: the service and its social process will not only bring water, it will increase consumption, production, income environmental security, health and overall family welfare; • Sustainable use in freshwater ecosystem: women’s and men’s direct and fair participation in research and project implementation can increase the potential flexibility and creativity in responding to environmental insecurity and changes in resource system; • Equity: burdens and benefits will be shared more equitably between women and men in the community at large, as well as in the household. The importance of involving women as well as men in water resources management is not only to improve women’s situation, but also essential element for effective development, is the utilization and management of water resources. There is an increasing urgency in the need to mainstream a gender perspective at the overall water resources level because of the new emerging international perspectives on water resources. The ugly truth we face is that most gender issues being tackled are merely used as “page filling” in a report without real application in real life. This is likely due to the personal note that such strategies for gender equality related to climate change reports in Egypt that lack effective strategies for systematic integration of gender in their adaptation and mitigation work. Especially with regard to projects funded by donors agencies outside the MENA region, experiences of integrating gender in their work on climate change, some level of awareness, policy commitments and efforts or plans to scale up successful pilot projects exist. Much work remains for gender to become truly and systematically incorporated into their climate change policies and programs. Donors’agencies, such as USAID, do not generally lack gender or climate change capacities, but may lack the capacity, resources and clear mandates to connect them. Both climate change and gender capacities usually exist within each donor organization, backed in some cases by strong gender policies, but gender integration, particularly in climate change portfolios, is often weak. This is in part due to technical barriers and poor communication between climate change and gender experts. A lack of clear mandates and concepts in mainstreaming processes leads to ‘mainstreaming fatigue’, a lack of adequate human and financial resource allocation for gender mainstreaming, and a lack of strategies to identify gender entry points across climate change policy work and program cycles. Ayman Ramadan Mohamed Ayad is an engineer and Water Resources Advisor at National Water Resources Plan (NWRP-CP), and has been involved in the future vision for Alexandria integrated water urban development. He also teaches applied hydraulic at Alexandria Universities, and serves as the Egyptian Coordinator for NAYD (Network of African Youth for Development).	3.926934
Canadian Forest Service Publications Boreal forest fire regimes and climate change. 2001. Stocks, B.J.; Wotton, B.M.; Flannigan, M.D.; Fosbert, M.A.; Cahoon, D.R.; Goldammer, J.G. Pages 233-246 in M. Beniston and M.M. Verstraete, editors. Remote sensing and climate modeling: synergies and limitations. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Available from: Northern Forestry Centre Catalog ID: 18536 Stretching in two broad transcontinental bands across Eurasia and North America, the global boreal zone covers approximately 12 million square kilometres, two-thirds in Russia and Scandinavia and the remainder in Canada and Alaska. Situated generally between 45 and 70 degrees north latitude, with northern and southern boundaries determined by the July 13°C and July 18°C isotherms respectively, the boreal zone contains extensive tracts of coniferous forest which provide a vital natural and economic resource for northern circumpolar countries. The export value of forest products from global boreal forests is ca. 47% of the world total (Kusela 1990, 1992). The boreal forest is composed of hardy species of pine (Pinus), spruce (Picea), larch (Larix), and fir (Abies), mixed, usually after disturbance, with deciduous hardwoods such as birch (Betula), poplar (Populus), willow (Salix), and alder (Alnus), and interspersed with extensive lakes and organic terrain. This closed-crown forest, with its moist and deeply shaded forest floor where mosses predominate, is bounded immediately to the north by a lichen-floored open forest or woodland which in turn becomes progressively more open and tundra-dominated with increasing latitude. To the south the boreal forest zone is succeeded by temperate forests or grasslands. Forest fire is the dominant disturbance regime in boreal forests, and is the primary process which organizes the physical and biological attributes of the boreal biome over most of its range, shaping landscape diversity and influencing energy flows and biogeochemical cycles, particularly the global carbon cycle since the last Ice Age. The physiognomy of the boreal forest is therefore largely dependent, at any given time, on the frequency, size and severity of forest fires. The overwhelming impact of wildfires on ecosystem development and forest composition in the boreal forest is readily apparent and understandable. Large contiguous expanses of even-aged stands of spruce and pine dominate the landscape in an irregular patchwork mosaic, the result of periodic severe wildfire years and a testimony to the adaptation of boreal forest species to natural fire over millennia. The result is a classic example of a fire dependent ecosystem, capable, during periods of extreme fire weather, of sustaining the very large, high intensity wildfires which are responsible for its existence. This chapter presents data on recent and current trends in circumpolar boreal fire activity, with particular emphasis on Canada, Russia and Alaska, and describes the physical characteristics of boreal fires in terms of fuel consumption, spread rates, and energy release rates. The potential impact of a changing climate on boreal fire occurrence and severity, with resultant impacts on atmospheric chemistry and the global carbon budget, is discussed in detail, with reference to current research activities in this area.	3.215113
Tuesday, July 31, 2012 From Wikipedia: Werner Karl Heisenberg (5 December 1901 – 1 February 1976) was a German theoretical physicist and philosopher who discovered (1925) a way to formulate quantum mechanics in terms of matrices. For that discovery, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1932. In 1927 he published his uncertainty principle, upon which he built his philosophy and for which he is best known. He also made important contributions to the theories of the hydrodynamics of turbulent flows, the atomic nucleus, ferromagnetism, cosmic rays, and subatomic particles, and he was instrumental in planning the first West German nuclear reactor at Karlsruhe, together with a research reactor in Munich, in 1957. Considerable controversy surrounds his work on atomic research during World War II.	3.774446
Visual Models of Morphogenesis (Przemyslaw Prusinkiewicz et al.) Grow more plants with algorithm - a population of 1000; [think about local maximum- could be a problem for sparse samples across the set] - some evaluation to score each individual/ fitness function.s - kill the ones underscore certain threshold; - the survivor breed offspring. HOW? - the likely hood of mutation M, say 3% - crossover C, 5% - parametric representation of the individuals. 0000 01110 \| 0000 0011 - repopulate the died portion BOOK an introduction to genetic Algorithms (complex adaptive systems) BRIAN SCAZ lecture Outline of the Basic Genetic Algorithm 1.[Start] Generate random population of n chromosomes 2.[Fitness] Evaluate the fitness of each chromosome 3.[New population] Create a new population by repeating: A.[Selection] Select two parent chromosomes based on their fitness B.[Crossover] With a crossover probability cross over the parents to form new offspring (children). If no crossover was performed, offspring is an exact copy of parents. C.[Mutation] With a mutation probability mutate new offspring at each locus (position in chromosome). D.[Accepting] Place new offspring in a new population 4.[Replace] Use new generated population for a further run of algorithm 5.[Test] If the end condition is satisfied, stop, and return the best solution in current population 6.[Loop] Go to step 2 “Evolving 3D Morphology and Behavior by Competition “ - Evolving Morphology with Control , i.e. body and brain - Evolution at times involves more than competition with the environment	3.772383
This case study was developed for a lower-division lecture class on “World History 1400-1870” with the goal of creating an opportunity for students to “discover” gender. We used a central primary source, “The History of Mary Prince, A West Indian Slave Related by Herself.”1 This first-person account was written by British abolitionists and disseminated through the London Society for the Abolition of Slavery in 1831. We chose “The History of Mary Prince” because the types of labor that Prince performed as a slave cover the three areas of slave work that we specifically ask students to explore: plantation work; housework; and work for other slaves. We departed from the traditional lecture format and pursued a pedagogical method known as “problem-based learning” (PBL). PBL takes a particular “problem” (instead of the more conventional “topic”) as its point of departure, and asks students to generate a collective “solution” by working in research teams. Students develop the skills and acquire the content knowledge needed to solve the issue at hand. Our PBL asked students to produce a mock “script” for a documentary film to be shown on HBO during women’s history month. The film explains how and why male and female slaves in the Americas and/or Africa come to have distinct (or similar) labor responsibilities within local economies and what impact such gender divisions of labor have on women’s and men’s experience of slavery. Students were divided into collaborative teams and presented with a timetable for the completion of the task as well as guidelines for group work. The actual process included the following steps: brain-storming research questions and ranking the questions in order of importance; dividing up the questions; carrying out the research and reporting the findings back to the group; reviewing all findings and generating larger arguments as a group; and finally, writing up project reports and preparing an oral presentation. Students were graded on the basis of their individual project component (submitted in essay form), their collaborative work (such as intermittent electronic reports), and their group participation (including peer evaluation). We provided students with a list of primary and secondary sources for their research and a set of questions to focus their efforts.2 A. Different Types of Work Involved in Producing An Export Commodity Under this rubric we asked students to consider how and why labor for the production of an export commodity was distributed among men and women, female and male children and how authority was maintained at the work site. Mary Prince is mainly involved in making salt on behalf of an owner. Both men and women (as well as young children) are indiscriminately used in gangs that bail water, turn a press, and shovel the end product. The slave-owner directly supervises his slaves and cruelly disciplines them. Students are encouraged to explore how this scenario contrasts with the broader secondary literature about frequent division between the labor performed by men’s gangs and women’s gangs on plantations producing sugar, cotton, and tobacco. To what extent do differences in divisions of labor reflect the requirements or social meanings of specific commodities (salt versus cotton), the size of a property or slave-holdings (Prince’s owner has relatively few slaves for money-making), and/or ideas about what is appropriate male and female work? Finally, students were encouraged to think about how slave women (like Prince) and white abolitionists (like those who sponsored the publication of her history) might have had different investments in constructing women as being “naturally” unsuited for certain types of labor. “The History of Mary Prince” repeatedly bemoans the inhumanity of Mary being forced to do hard labor, the same labor as men. This condemnation is often inseparable from the narrative’s broader condemnation of extraordinarily cruel labor practices, such as whippings or maimings. The absence of gender divisions in labor was, paradoxically, the crux of how slave labor was gendered: slave women were denied qualification as “real (white) women” who might deserve “protection” as “the fairer sex.” B. Different Types of Work Performed by Household-Based Slaves Here we asked students to explore why specific male and female slaves were assigned to particular tasks, and how this division of labor impacted a slave’s relationship to the authority of a master or mistress. If so-called “fieldwork” often blurred distinctions between men and women’s labor, domestic service was more rigidly gender divided, especially when a slave’s work involved proximity to white women’s bodies. Mary Prince worked mostly in arrangements of domestic service, at one point as a chief housekeeper. She was involved in cooking, nursing children, cleaning, washing laundry, and ministering to her owners’ personal needs. In particular, she relates her shame at being forced to bathe her master’s naked body, indicating that female slaves were frequently obliged to perform personal service for white men in an often sexualized, if not explicitly sexually exploitative manner. Prince’s narrative suggests that the oppression that women slaves suffered in arrangements of domestic service was often more arbitrary, violent, and deadly than that they encountered working in commodity production such as in the salt ponds (or tobacco fields). How does Prince’s narrative contribute to ongoing debates about the extent to which “fieldwork” or “housework” were more exploitative and/or enabling of slaves’ ability to resist dehumanization and slavery as an institution? C. Slaves Working For Themselves and the Question of Resistance In this third segment, students were instructed to think about the kind of work slaves perform on their own behalf and how it contributed to forming slave communities and resisting slavery. Prince used her position as head housekeeper to sell coffee, pork products, and yams in local markets in an (ultimately futile) effort to save money to purchase her freedom. Some of the money for manumission came from a certain “Captain Abbott”—a white man with whom Prince had a sexual relationship, although this is not explicit from the text (see Natalie Zemon Davis, below). Prince also mentions various forms of barter, exchange, and charity between slaves that helped sustain crucial friendships and material alliances among slaves, including those with different masters. Here we posed the question why, in the case of “labor on their own behalf,” slaves often observed strict gender divisions of labor, with women at the forefront of agricultural subsistence and marketing activities. How were these divisions similar to/different from assignments by masters in the fields and household? Last, we ask students to consider what sorts of “labor on one’s own behalf” constituted “resistance” to slavery. Prince’s own survival strategies and attempts to escape slavery were highly individualized, involving multiple attempts to save money and broker deals with whites in order to purchase her freedom. She is reportedly most successful when she converts to Christianity, marries, repents past sins, and seeks out an alliance with white abolitionists. Beyond encouraging students to recognize this sequence as reflecting the moral agenda of white abolitionists, we also urge them to think about the differences between collective and more individualized forms of “labor on one’s own behalf” and to make explicit arguments about where they see work connected to “resistance.” Our PBL exercise was an experiment, and we were very pleased with its results. Although students at first expressed some skepticism about the place of collaborative work in a large lecture course, their presentations and papers indicated that we had won them over by the end of the term. Many presentations involved dramatic enactments, multimedia displays or mock pitches to the HBO film board. We apparently struck a real chord with these students and inspired them to be creative. A sizeable group produced some of the best historical writing either one of us had ever seen in an undergraduate setting. Their analysis was simply superb, and the presentation of the material highly imaginative. They had come to understand the meaning of gender as a “category of historical analysis” without us ever introducing the term. This was particularly gratifying. 1 “The History of Mary Prince, a West Indian Slave, Related by Herself,” in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., ed. Six Women’s Slave Narratives, (Oxford, 1988). Full text available online as part of the “Documenting the American South” project at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. 2 In order to explore these questions and prepare the final movie script, students read Mary Prince’s story alongside the following secondary sources. Secondary historical literature allows students to generate answers. Claire Robertson and Martin Klein, for example, argue that American plantation slavery’s preference for employing men in agricultural labor represented a sharp reversal of many West African societies’ custom of entrusting agriculture and marketing exclusively to women. Hilary Beckles and Jacqueline Jones contend in their work on life in the slave barracks that strict sexual divisions of labor were employed as a counter to white efforts to dehumanize slaves by treating men and women as interchangeable. Beckles’ work, which also has chapters on slave women obtaining freedom through their sexual relationships with men, is also of use in getting students to consider Mary Prince’s mention of her connection to “Captain Abbot.” To what extent did “sex” constitute a realm of work that (largely) slave women performed? Could these relationships afford some women limited forms of bargaining power along with heightened vulnerability? Beckles, Hilary Mc D. Natural Rebels: A Social History of Enslaved Black Women in Barbados, (Rutgers, 1989). Davis, Natalie Zemon.” Non-European Stories. European Literature,” in Berichten, Erzaehlen, Beherrschen: Wahrnehmung und Repraesentation in der fruehen Kolonialgeschichte Europas, edited by Susanna Burghartz et al. (Frankfurt a. M.: Vittorio Klostermann, 2003), 200-219. Guy, Jeff. “Gender Oppression in Southern Africa’s Precapitalist Societies” in Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945, edited by Cherryl Walker (Cape Town: D. Philip 1990), 33-47. Jones, Jacqueline. Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work and the Family from Slavery to the Present, (Basic Books, 1985). Karasch, Mary. “Slave Women on the Brazilian Frontier in the Nineteenth Century,” in More Than Chattel: Black Women and Slavery in the Americas, edited by David Gaspar and Darlene Hine (Indiana University Press, 1996), 79-96. Klein, Herbert “African Women in the Atlantic Slave Trade,” in Women and Slavery in Africa, edited by C. Robertson and M. Klein (Madison, 1983), 29-39. Klein, Martin A. “Women in Slavery in the Western Sudan,” in Women and Slavery, 67-94. MacCormack, Carol. “Slaves, Slave Owners, and Slave Dealers: Sherbo Coast and Hinterland,” in Women and Slavery, 271-294. Moitt, Bernard, “Women, Work and Resistance in the French Caribbean,” in Verene Shepard, Bridget Brereton, Barbara Bailey, eds., Engendering History: Caribbean Women in Historical Perspective, (St. Martins, 1995), 155-175. Robertson, Claire and Martin Klein, “Women’s Importance in African Slave Systems,” in Women and Slavery, 3-28. Thornton, John. “Sexual Demography: The Impact of the Slave Trade on Family Structure,” in Women and Slavery, 39-48.	3.501164
I was reminded this morning of why Twitter can be so useful – I usually check the latest #mathchat tweets and saw Richard Wade’s tweet with a link to the latest Teach Maths newsletter, on ‘Ten Great Ideas’. The first item includes this wonderful Composite Number Tree by Jeffrey Ventrella – I’m looking forward to trying that with students after half term. I think it would make a great starter. Students could work out themselves how the tree is being formed and comment on any patterns they notice. Also included in the first Newsletter item is the excellent Primitives application by Alec McEachran, I included this myself with some resources for looking at Prime Factors in an earlier post. It’s a small world! I see the second item is on Craig Barton’s Web Whizz video on Teachmathematics. You can see all Craig’s videos here on TES Resources. On WolframAlpha, if you query on a word you can see a word frequency history, see this on Mathematics for example (the history is based on a Google books sample of one million books). An opportunity for some cross curricular work perhaps? WolframAlpha is still free to check working for as many queries as you want making it very useful for students but now step by step solutions are limited to three a day unless you sign up to WolframAlpha Pro, so choose your three carefully! The new style step by step solutions are clearly presented – see this integration by parts for example: (See this page for WolframAlpha examples showing the syntax for many different queries. I have added a couple of new slideshows for older students recently, on Set Theory & Logic and Differential Equations). Finally, still on the subject of reading, I enjoyed Andrew Old’s post on ‘What Ofsted Say They Want’. Just what is good teaching all about? This is so sensible! For UK teachers I hope you enjoyed half term last week or like me are looking forward to a week off this coming week!	3.14857
Economics Model Answers Two Introductory: 1. In a free market, the price and quantity at which goods are sold are where __________ equals ___________. supply equals demand 2. Suppose the price demand curve is P = $20 - Q, where P is price and Q is quantity. Also suppose the price supply curve is P = $4 + Q. At what price and quantity will the good be sold? The good is sold where supply equals demand. That means the supply P must equal the demand P, and the supply Q must equal the demand Q. This can be found by graphing the above two equations and seeing where they intersect, or by solving them by setting P to the same value in both: - P = $20 − Q - P = $4 + Q - 20 − Q = 4 + Q - 20 = 4 + 2Q - 4 + 2Q = 20 - 2Q = 16 - Q = 8 Plugging this back into the first equation gives P: - P = $20 − Q = $20 − 8 = $12 Checking our work, we plug this P and Q into the second equation: - 12 = 4 + 8 = 12 Answer: Q = 8, P = $12 Intermediate: 3. Draw the supply and demand for air. In addition, draw the supply and demand for a good that costs $10000000000000000000000000 trillion dollars. The demand curve for air must be at a zero price, which is the x-axis (P=0 everywhere, although note that if the quantity of air ever approached zero then the demand price would sharply increase as people would pay to survive). The supply curve for air must be at fixed quantity, and hence a vertical line. They must intersect at P=0, Q=amount of air in the atmosphere: Note, however, that air is not a scarce good, and that is why its supply and demand curves are so unusual and nonsensical. The point where supply equals demand for an extremely expensive good must be at low quantity Q. From there the supply curve would slope upwards, and the demand curve would slope downwards: (thanks to Kevin for both graphs above) 4. Suppose 1000 persons in a town each have the following weekly demands for gas, and the gas stations have the following weekly supplies: Gallons Demand Price/gallon Supply Price/gallon 10 $2.50 $.50 20 $2 $.75 30 $1 $1 40 $.75 $1.50 (A) What is the price and overall quantity of gas sold each week? The price and quantity at which the good (gas) is sold is where supply equals demand. That means that the P for supply equals the P for demand, and the Q for supply equals the Q for demand. Looking at the above table, where do both the P and Q for supply equal the corresponding P and Q for demand? That occurs on the third line above: Q equals 30 for both supply and demand, and P equals $1 for both supply and demand. The answer is there: P=$1, Q=30. (B) Suppose Congress declares war and imposes a price control of $.75 per gallon. At what price and overall quantity will gas sell each week? When price P is fixed by the government at $.75, then what is the corresponding Q supply and demand? Looking at the table, the corresponding Q in the supply column is 20 gallons, and the corresponding Q in the demand column is 40 gallons. The lower number is what matters, because nothing can be bought unless it is both supplied and demanded. So the supply is 20 gallons and that is what is sold at $.75 per gallon. That is 20 times 0.75 = $15 per person, or $15,000 for the whole town. Some may try to buy and sell gas illegally at a higher price, as illegal markets often develop when there are price controls. 5. Suppose the government limits the supply of Toyota cars that can be imported in 2008 to a certain quota. What effect does this have on the supply curve, and on the equilibrium price? Who is helped by this import quota, and who is hurt? Be as specific as possible. Import quotas cause the supply curve to shift upward, and for the equilibrium where supply meets demand to shift to less quantity at a greater price. the consumers are hurt by import quotas, and everyone pays more for the cars and some people who wanted the car at its lower, free market price, cannot buy it at the higher price. Sellers of Toyota cars are helped because they make bigger profits per car sold, although they cannot sell as many as before. 6. Suppose you went to see the opening of your favorite new movie, but it is sold out. However, there are four independent scalpers are (illegally) reselling their tickets outside. Four strangers are each willing to pay the scalpers at most $15, $10, $9 and $8 for a ticket. The scalpers are initially willing to sell each of their tickets for at least $7, $8, $9, and $12. The eight of you get together and bargain, and then tickets are sold at a common price. What is the price and how many tickets sell at that price? Should scalping be illegal in New Jersey? One customer (C1) is willing to pay $15. Another customer (C2) is willing to pay $10. Likewise, customers C3 will pay $9 and C4 will pay $8. One scalper (S1) scalper willing to sell for $7, scalper S2 will sell at $8, S3 will sell at $9, and S4 at $12. C1, C2, and C3 will all be willing to buy tickets from S1, S2, and S3 at $9. S4 is not willing to sell at the price, and C4 is not willing to buy at the that price, so both choose not to deal. Three tickets are thus sold at the "common price" or market price of $9 each. Scalping is a form of free market activity. If there are willing buyers and sellers for the tickets, then why interfere with these sales? Scalping is illegal in New Jersey, but still happens illegally. Honors: Write an essay of about 300 words total on one or more of the following topics: 7. Should government regulations require and monitor honest and full disclosure of information by sellers to buyers? For the buyer to make informed decisions, he must have information. Even "buyer beware" (caveat emptor) assumes a buyer who can find information. The seller has the information, and regulations requiring it to tell the buyer seem helpful to free enterprise. 8. Should price discrimination be illegal? For banning price discrimination: a common price encourages more economic activity. For allowing price discrimination: if buyers and sellers are willing to exchange at different prices, doesn't this maximize overall benefit? 9. What is an economic incentive for excluding homeschooled athletes from high school sports? Should that be legal? By banning homeschoolers from sports, public and private schools are encouraging students to enroll in their schools. That brings them more money. 10. Describe your view of if or how government should regulate medical prices. It shouldn't. Price controls, as illustrated by the gasoline problem above, results in shortages. 11. “Economic theory of law and the public domain - When is Piracy Economically Desirable?” See http://lexnet.bravepages.com/media1.html Piracy of information can increase market activity. Napster caused much additional traffic on the internet in the late 1990s, and this helped the dot-com boom. But copyright violations are illegal in order to encourage the creation of new works. It is a delicate policy balance between promoting market activity now and promoting creative works for future benefit.	3.892702
B2: A mixture of 2% biodiesel and 98% petroleum diesel based on volume. B20: A mixture of 20% biodiesel and 80% petroleum diesel based on volume. B100: 100% biodiesel, also known as “neat” biodiesel. BIODIESEL: A biodegradable transportation fuel for use in diesel engines that is produced through the transesterfication of organically-derived oils or fats. It may be used either as a replacement for or as a component of diesel fuel. CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2): A colorless, odorless gas produced by respiration and combustion of carbon-containing fuels. Plants use it as a food. E10: A mixture of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline based on volume. E85: A mixture of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline based on volume. ETHANOL (CH3CH2OH): A colorless, flammable liquid produced by fermentation of sugars. Used as a fuel oxygenate and found in alcoholic beverages. FERMENTATION: A biochemical reaction that breaks down complex organic molecules (such as carbohydrates) into simpler materials (such as ethanol, carbon dioxide and water). Bacteria or yeasts can ferment sugars to ethanol. GLYCERIN (C3H8O3): A liquid by-product of biodiesel production. Glycerin is used in the manufacture of dynamite, cosmetics, liquid soaps, inks and lubricants. HYDROCARBON (HC): An organic compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon. In vehicle emissions, these are usually vapors created from incomplete combustion or from vaporization of liquid gasoline. Emissions of hydrocarbons contribute to ground level ozone. METHYL-TERTIARY BUTYL ESTER (MTBE): A fuel oxygenate made from petroleum. It does not biodegrade and can contaminate groundwater. NITROGEN OXIDES (NOx): A product of photochemical reactions of nitric oxide in ambient air, and the major component of photochemical smog. OXYGENATE: A compound which contains oxygen in its molecular structure. Ethanol and biodiesel act as oxygenates when they are blended with conventional fuels. Oxygenated fuel improves combustion efficiency and reduces tailpipe emissions of CO. OZONE: A compound that is formed when oxygen and other compounds react in sunlight. In the upper atmosphere, ozone protects the earth from the sun's ultraviolet rays. Though beneficial in the upper atmosphere, at ground level, ozone is called photochemical smog, and is a respiratory irritant and considered a pollutant. PARTICULATES: A fine liquid or solid particle such as dust, smoke, fumes, or smog, found in air or emissions. PETROLEUM: Any petroleum-based substance comprising a complex blend of hydrocarbons derived from crude oil through the process of separation, conversion, upgrading, and finishing, including motor fuel, jet oil, lubricants, petroleum solvents, and used oil. SULFUR: A natural part of petroleum diesel fuel that is reduced during refining due to an EPA mandate. Sulfur increases petroleum diesel's lubricity and therefore engine life. Sulfur oxides and sulfides in exhaust emissions are major components of acid rain. TRANSESTERFICATION: A chemical process which reacts an alcohol with the triglycerides contained in vegetable oils and animal fats to produce biodiesel and glycerin. Source: Department of Energy, National Biodiesel Board and Renewable Fuels Association. Information At Your Fingertips Industry association Web sites are primed with information on biodiesel and ethanol. Visit the following sites to learn more on both topics, including locations on where to purchase biodiesel in your area:	3.488136
(noun) Middle English < Old French < Latin sententia ‘opinion, decision’, equivalent to sent- (base of sentīre ‘to feel’) + -entia -ence ; (v.) Middle English: ‘to pass judgment, decide judicially’ < Old French sentencier, derivative of sentence A sentence is the largest grammatical unit in language. It communicates a complete thought—an assertion, question, command, or exclamation. In general, assertions and questions—the overwhelming majority of sentences—require a subject and a verb, put together in a way that can stand alone, resulting in what is called an independent clause (see main clause ): He kicked the ball is a sentence. After he kicked the ball is not a sentence; instead it is a dependent clause (see subordinate clause ). Even though it has a subject and a verb, it needs to be connected to something in order to complete the assertion: After he kicked the ball, he fell down; or He fell down after he kicked the ball. In the case of commands, the subject need not be written because “you” is understood: Go home! means You go home! And exclamations clearly express excitement, alarm, anger, or the like with no need for either a subject or a verb: Wow! Gadzooks! Ouch! In everyday speech we routinely use phrases or clauses that would not make a complete sentence—so-called sentence fragments —because the conversation or the circumstances make the meaning clear. For example, we might answer a question like “Where did you go?” with “To the store,” or “Why can’t I stay out till midnight?” with “Because I say so,” or “What are you doing?” with “Trying to fix this toaster,” instead of “I went to the store,” “You can't stay out that late because I say so,” or “I am trying to fix this toaster.” In written dialogue sentence fragments are perfectly acceptable. They would generally be regarded as sentences simply because they begin with a capital letter and end with a suitable punctuation mark. But they are not sentences in a strict grammatical sense. And as a rule, sentence fragments are frowned upon in formal or expository writing. They can be useful—indeed, powerful—but in such writing they are effective only if used sparingly, in order to achieve a deliberate special effect: We will not give up fighting for this cause. Not now. Not ever.	3.055796
Central Asians are therefore today a variable mix of Caucasoids and Mongoloids, formed over the last few millennia, although the constituent elements are still present and recognizable. The Turkicization of the region was, to a large extent, the result of language shift among Iranian populations (Sakas-Scythians), but not without some genetic contribution from the original Turks who were a Mongoloid people akin to their linguistic Altaic cousins, the Mongols. This Mongoloid component is attenuated westward, reaching its minimum among Anatolian and Balkan Turkish speakers. With respect to the admixture proportions (figure top left) presented in the paper, I have a couple of quick comments: - Using modern south Asians as representatives of a source population of Central Asia is problematic, as modern south Asians are admixed, comprised of Caucasoids and indigenous South Asians. While South Asia may have been a population source during remote periods of the Paleolithic, in the more recent post-Neolithic times when Central Asian populations were formed, South Asia was a population sink. - The use of only a few autosomal markers does give a broad overview of the east-west components in these populations, but it should be noted that the use of few markers tends to overestimate minority ancestral components. Even with such a small number of markers, it is evident that the separation of groups at the population level is possible, as the correspondence analysis indicates: green/European, red/East Asian, blue/Indo-Iranian from Central Asia, orange/Turkic from Central Asia. The paper includes STRUCTURE results for K=2 to K=6. Below is the STRUCTURE run for K=6: While less distinct than what we would get with more markers, the emergence of several clusters of individuals is apparent (from left to right: East Asian, Turkic, Central Asian Iranian, South Asian, West Eurasian, Sub-Saharan). Notice how Hazaras and Uyghurs are islands of the Turkic component in the Central/South Asian cluster, and how some Uzbeks are Iranian-like while others are Turkic-like. I am reminded of an older study which found how mythology was used among some Uzbek groups to create a common ancestry for groups of unrelated origin. European Journal of Human Genetics , (8 September 2010) \| doi:10.1038/ejhg.2010.153 In the heartland of Eurasia: the multilocus genetic landscape of Central Asian populations Located in the Eurasian heartland, Central Asia has played a major role in both the early spread of modern humans out of Africa and the more recent settlements of differentiated populations across Eurasia. A detailed knowledge of the peopling in this vast region would therefore greatly improve our understanding of range expansions, colonizations and recurrent migrations, including the impact of the historical expansion of eastern nomadic groups that occurred in Central Asia. However, despite its presumable importance, little is known about the level and the distribution of genetic variation in this region. We genotyped 26 Indo-Iranian- and Turkic-speaking populations, belonging to six different ethnic groups, at 27 autosomal microsatellite loci. The analysis of genetic variation reveals that Central Asian diversity is mainly shaped by linguistic affiliation, with Turkic-speaking populations forming a cluster more closely related to East-Asian populations and Indo-Iranian speakers forming a cluster closer to Western Eurasians. The scattered position of Uzbeks across Turkic- and Indo-Iranian-speaking populations may reflect their origins from the union of different tribes. We propose that the complex genetic landscape of Central Asian populations results from the movements of eastern, Turkic-speaking groups during historical times, into a long-lasting group of settled populations, which may be represented nowadays by Tajiks and Turkmen. Contrary to what is generally thought, our results suggest that the recurrent expansions of eastern nomadic groups did not result in the complete replacement of local populations, but rather into partial admixture.	3.40893
Date: September 14, 1942 Creator: [United States.] Army Orientation Course Description: Front: Text describes action on various war fronts: Russia, Madagascar, New Guinea, North Africa, China, Solomon Islands, Shipping, Galapagos Islands, Western Europe, Iceland. Large world map is keyed to text and illustrates time zones around the world. Inset maps show The push on Port Moresby; The Russian front. Includes photographs: The flag goes up, Marine bombers take off, Badly damged hangar, Inspecting a Flying Fortress at Malta, Memorial services for those killed during the Battle of Midway, Business end of Pom-Pom, Catafighter, U.S. Marines toughen up each other. Back: Maps Are Not True For All Purposes. 15 illustrations are accompanied by text describing some of the methods used to represent the world on a two-dimensional surface. Contributing Partner: UNT Libraries Government Documents Department	3.116182
Surgery is the initial procedure in the treatment of many cancers. Surgery and other invasive procedures work by removing cancerous tissues. Surgical removal of the kidney offers the best option for a cure for patients able to physically tolerate the procedure. Surgery also may be used to remove cancerous lesions that have spread to other organs. This is usually done to control symptoms and not to cure the disease. Nephrectomy is the removal of the whole kidney. Doctors may be able to remove part of the affected kidney (partial nephrectomy) in certain cases, such as: - The tumor is small. - The cancer is in both kidneys. - You have only one functioning kidney. Nephrectomy is recommended for Stage I and II kidney cancer. Nephrectomy plus removal of regional lymph nodes is common for Stage III. If the cancer has spread to the renal vein, the doctor may remove the tumor and repair the vein. The doctor may recommend an arterial embolization prior to surgery to decrease blood flow to the affected kidney. For this procedure, a catheter is inserted through the groin and threaded up to the renal artery. The doctor injects a substance into the artery to block blood flow. The surgeon makes an incision under the ribs or in the back just behind the kidney. Then the surgeon removes the whole malignant kidney (radical nephrectomy) or a portion of the cancerous kidney (partial nephrectomy). He or she may also remove the adrenal gland; one adrenal gland sits above each kidney. Nearby lymph nodes may also be taken out. The incision is closed with stitches or staples, and bandaged to prevent infection. Generally, this has been an open procedure. But the laparoscopic approach has become the preferred method to treat kidney cancer if suitable. With this method, small incisions are made in the skin through which a camera, light source, and surgical instruments are inserted. The surgeon performs the surgery using these tools, without cutting open the abdomen or back. With the laparoscopic approach you should have a faster recovery and spend only a couple of days in the hospital. Open surgery is still performed, usually for larger tumors that require more extensive surgery. You will stay in the hospital for four to seven days. Nephrectomy is very successful. It has a five-year survival rate of 94% for patients with Stage I disease. For Stage II, it offers a five-year survival rate of 79%. The survival rate varies for Stage III, depending on where and how extensively the cancer has spread. - Damage to other internal organs or blood vessels during the procedure - Reaction to anesthesia - Collection of air or gases in the lung cavity (pneumothorax) - Kidney failure, if the remaining kidney does not function well After surgery, you may need certain interventions: - Urinary catheter—A tube is passed through the urethra into the bladder to measure urine output and avoid the need to urinate in the bathroom. - Medications—You may be given antibiotics, pain medication, or antinausea drugs after surgery. - Coughing and deep breathing exercises—Your nurse or respiratory therapist will show you how to do these exercises, which are usually done 3-4 times daily to help keep your lungs clear. In the hospital and after you leave: - Get out of bed often and sit in a chair. Increase your activity as much as tolerated. - Stay well hydrated. - Avoid environments and people that expose you to germs, smoke, or chemical irritants. - Difficulty breathing - Stitches or staples come apart - Bandage becomes soaked with blood - Coughing up mucus that is yellow, green, or bloody - Signs of infection, including fever and chills - Redness, swelling, increasing pain, excessive bleeding, or discharge at the incision site - Cough, shortness of breath, chest pain, or severe nausea or vomiting - Reviewer: Mohei Abouzied, MD - Review Date: 09/2012 - - Update Date: 00/93/2012 -	3.450544
A patch is a piece of software designed to fix problems with, or update a computer program or its supporting data. This includes fixing security vulnerabilities and other bugs, and improving the usability or performance. Though meant to fix problems, poorly designed patches can sometimes introduce new problems. Patch management is the process of using a strategy and plan of what patches should be applied to which systems at a specified time. Programmers publish and apply patches in various forms. Because proprietary software authors withhold their source code, their patches are distributed as binary executables instead of source. This type of patch modifies the program executable. The program the user actually runs, either by modifying the binary file to include the fixes or by completely replacing it. Patches can also circulate in the form of source code modifications. In these cases, the patches consist of textual differences between two source code files. These types of patches commonly come out of open source projects. In these cases, developers expect users to compile the new or changed files themselves.link to this page:	3.796479
We form little groups of kids of approximately the same age. They gather up in different homes each day (the days and hours are agreed before they start). The objective is to play and learn at the same time with the help of one or two teachers. - Educational proposal A group of kids gather up with a teacher and get to do activities like they would do in a kindergarten, but at home by learning through the act of playing. The idea is for them to get used to what they will be doing at the actual kindergarten, for them to have their first experiences with the materials and activities. We give a lot of importance on the forming of a social environment different from their family where they start to learn about sharing and other important activities. - Ludic proposal A group of kids who already attend kindergarten are reunited with the objective of playing and socializing with other kids. The intention is to perform activities that they are already doing in the kindergarten in order to strengthen skills. Learning is always the objective but without setting aside the act of playing. We form little groups of kids of an average age and reunite them in different homes of each of them, during vacations (summer and winter) with the objective of playing. There is always a teacher or two around. We count with special activities for indoors or outdoors, including games with water and without the necessity of a pool. We gather up kids of an average age and reunite them in different homes of each of them that rotate each day with the help of one or two teachers, weekly with the objective of playing or learning about a specific activity. - Mobile Circus and Music The proposal is a fun world with colors, music, laughter and games; a space for playing clown, acrobats or forming bands of music. They can dance, jump, sing, shout, and do acrobatics, juggling, play instruments and much other stuff. - Mobile Little Chefs This is a fun way to learn about the kitchen, it includes: apron, ingredients, utensils, and didactic material for each participant. The kids take with them everything they prepared on material provided by us. - Theater and Music Comedy Workshop Theater classes with a little bit of singing lessons for them to have fun acting among friends. - Art Workshop With an art teacher in charge they can express their artistic skills by drawing and painting. - Mobile Language Workshop We organize little groups of kids of an average age and offer them the opportunity of stimulating their language skills in English and Italian throughout the different games. - Playing workshop – Mother Stimulation – Babies We invite mothers and their babies to share their first social experience with other pairs. The idea is to stimulate their kids through the act of playing. We work with mother/baby bond encouraging their interaction and sharing the experience with other moms that are at the same place. It is the English program of music and movement most respected in the world for more than 25 years. More than 5,000 authorized educators use these workouts with babies and children of up to 7 years old in more than 50 countries. In Dulces Nanas we offer you to form a little Kindermusik group in your house for you and your kid. It is a space for you to share special and magic moments that occur through music, movement, petting, stories, sounds, etc. By this you will help your child to discover the world in different ways. In these classes you will be able to stimulate your child’s learning skills throughout songs, vocal games, object exploration and musical instruments, creative movement, stories, and English in a warm and familiar environment. Classes are one hour a week. Each can come with a companion (mom, dad, grandmother, grandfather, nanny, etc.)	3.166079
The Yi archives refer to books and documents written in Yi language, the native language of an ethnic group located in Southwest China and parts of Southeast Asia. As a writing tradition in the peripheral area, Yi archives have been historically ignored and annihilated by the mainstream Han culture. Social revolutions in the past half century brought large-scale deconstruction of both the archives and the Yi language. The tiny survival collections in Yunnan, either public or private, are now facing further serious preservation conditions due to lack of necessary fund and effective means. Preservation of the Yi archives in Yunnan before they disappear forever is the focus of this project. The unsurpassable significance of the Yi archives for the study of Yi people and Yi culture exists in that they are the only available written resource in the native Yi language, in addition to their extraordinary richness in contents. The Yi language, first appearing in the 14th century, had been actively spoken and written among aboriginal people until the sharply social changes in the middle 20th century. All of the Yi archives are written, kept and disseminated by bimo, the ritual priests, scribes and intellectuals in the traditional Yi society. The Yi archives are therefore also referred to as the Bimo Sutra. Since they cover epic, chronology, philosophy, politics, history, ritual, geography, calendar, divination, literature, music and more, the archives are regarded as the encyclopaedia of Yi people. The Yi archives gradually became endangered in the 20th century and the deconstruction process has even accelerated in past decades. First of all, the Yi language itself has become an endangered or extinct language since the mid 20th century, resulted from increasingly contacts with Chinese during the modernization process. Most of Yi people have adopted Chinese as their first or the only language. The native Yi language is preserved only in distant or isolated locations. Secondly, as the writer, keeper and educator, bimo were deprived of the rights of writing and teaching due to ideological conflicts, and the native knowledge tradition of Yi people was terminated in the 1960s and 1970s. The Yi archives developed over six centuries was brought to an end. Although bimo have been partly allowed to restore their religious activities since the 1980s, the writing tradition has never been restored. Third, the physical characteristics of books and documents as woodblock printing or handwriting on rice paper determines that their life cycle is very short, especially when the preservation condition is far from ideal. Due to neglect, poverty and incapability in archival preservation of the native Yi people, and ignorance and annihilation by zealous revolutionists, the size of the Yi archives shrank dramatically in the middle and late 20th century. A recent preliminary investigation shows that only about 4,000 volumes survive in the world. Of the surviving Yi archives, the largest public collection and most of private collections are preserved in Yunnan, especially in the Chuxiong Autonomous Prefecture of Yi People. Besides 1,400 volumes in public collections formed since the 1980s, another 900 volumes are estimated to be held by private parties, especially by descendants of bimo families. However, in regards to both preservation and readiness for academic purpose, the Yi archives in Yunnan need the most urgent attention. There hasn't been any positive treatment applied to prevent the aging and mildew process, nor has any image conversion work been done, nor has any material been published before. Our pilot investigation shows that only around 40 volumes in the public collection are mounted, and most books are even unaffordable to be stored in desirable spaces. Written on perishable rice paper in fading mineral pigment, Yi documents will be illegible in several years' time if no preservative action is taken immediately. Neglect resulting from poverty will lead to fatal disaster to the archives. In the proposed project, the two major tasks are: (1) a thorough registration of Yi archival collections before they disappear silently, and (2) the digitisation and indexing of all available public and private archives. In the former, since the private collections are not as stable as the public, the project will pay extra attentions to the private collections, in order to keep an updated and complete record of the available Yi archives. The Institute of Studies on Yi Culture, the owner of the largest Yi archives in the world, has eagerly expressed the willingness to join the project. The Bureau of Cultural Affairs is also providing access to small public collections of Yi archives in Wuding, Shuangbai and other counties. Relocation is not included in this stage, but will be pursued later by searching matching funds from the local government. This project has fully achieved its stated objectives: A thorough investigation of endangered Yi archives in Chuxiong, Dali, Kunming, Yuxi and Honghe was undertaken and a detailed field report and preliminary research completed. An interdisciplinary and multimedia Yi archives was produced and the field reports and research monographs are planned to be published in a series on endangered archives supported by Sun Yat-sen University. The Yi archives include: The records copied by this project have been catalogued as: The catalogue is available here.	3.645794
by Piter Kehoma Boll Let’s expand the universe of Friday Fellow by presenting a plant for the first time! And what could be a better choice to start than the famous Grandidier’s Baobab? Belonging to the species Adansonia grandidieri, this tree is one of the trademarks of Madagascar, being the biggest species of this genus found in the island. Reaching up to 30 m in height and having a massive trunk only branched at the very top, it has a unique look and is found only at southwestern Madagascar. However, despite being so attractive and famous, it is classified as an endangered species by IUCN Red List, with a declining population threatened by agriculture expansion. This tree is also heavily exploited, having vitamin C-rich fruits which can be consumed fresh and seeds used to extract oil. Its bark can also be used to make ropes and many trees are found with scars due to the extraction of part of the bark. Having a fibrous trunk, baoabs are able to deal with drought by apparently storaging water inside them. There are no seed dispersors, which can be due to the extiction of the original dispersor by human activities. Originally occuring close to temporary water bodies in the dry deciduous forest, today many large trees are found in always dry terrains. This probably is due to human impact that changed the local ecosystem, letting it to become drier than it was. Those areas have no or very poor ability to regenerate and probably will never go back to what they were and, once the old trees die, there will be no more baobabs there. - – - Baum, D. A. (1995). A Systematic Revision of Adansonia (Bombacaceae) Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 82, 440-470 DOI: 10.2307/2399893 Wikipedia. Adamsonia grandidieri. Available online at <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adansonia_grandidieri>. Access on October 02, 2012. World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1998. Adansonia grandidieri. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Access on October 02, 2012.	3.703689
Current models of global climate change predict warmer temperatures will increase the rate that bacteria and other microbes decompose soil organic matter, a scenario that pumps even more heat-trapping carbon into the atmosphere. But a new study led by a University of Georgia researcher shows that while the rate of decomposition increases for a brief period in response to warmer temperatures, elevated levels of decomposition don’t persist. “There is about two and a half times more carbon in the soil than there is in the atmosphere, and the concern right now is that a lot of that carbon is going to end up in the atmosphere,” said lead author Mark Bradford, assistant professor in the UGA Odum School of Ecology. “What our finding suggests is that a positive feedback between warming and a loss of soil carbon to the atmosphere is likely to occur but will be less than currently predicted.” Bradford, whose results appear in the early online edition of the journal Ecology Letters, said the finding helps resolve a long-standing debate about how unseen soil microbes respond to and influence global climate change. Other scientists have noted that the respiration of soil microbes returns to normal after a number of years under heated conditions, but offered competing explanations. Some argued that the microbes consumed so much of the available food under heated conditions that future levels of decomposition were reduced because of food scarcity. Others argued that soil microbes adapted to the changed environment and reduced their respiration accordingly. Bradford and his team, which included researchers from the University of New Hampshire, the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Duke University and Colorado State University, found evidence to support both hypotheses and revealed a third, previously unaccounted for explanation: The abundance of soil microbes decreased under warm conditions. “It is often said that in a handful of dirt, there are somewhere around 10,000 species and millions of individual bacteria and fungi,” said study co-author Matthew Wallenstein, a research scientist at Colorado State University. “Our findings add to the understanding of how complex these systems are and the role they play in feedbacks associated with climate change.” The researchers studied soil microbes at Harvard Forest in Massachusetts, the site of a soil warming experiment that began in 1991. Scientists took soil samples from two plots, one in which buried cables heat the soil to five degrees Celsius above the ambient soil temperature (a condition that is expected to occur around 2100) and a control condition in which cables are buried but not producing heat. In the first set of experiments, the scientists compared microbial respiration in the two groups and found lower rates of decomposition in the heated plots. This finding supported the idea that respiration decreases after a few years of warming, but didn’t explain whether the cause was substrate depletion in the warmer soils or adaptation by the microbes. In the next set of experiments, they added the simple sugar sucrose to both sets of soils to alleviate any food limitation for the microbes. They found that microbes from both conditions increased their respiration, but that the increase was greater in the unheated control soils than in the heated soils. “That finding told us that substrate depletion played a role,” Bradford said, “but it also told us that there were other factors involved.” The researchers then measured microbial biomass and found that there were fewer microbes in the heated soils. To test whether thermal adaptation occurred, they measured respiration while keeping temperature constant. They found that respiration rates were indeed lower in the heated versus the control soils, even when adjusting for microbial biomass. Wallenstein pointed out that the study is among the first to demonstrate that microbes, like many plants and animals, can adapt relatively quickly to changes in climate. “This research presents a new challenge to scientists trying to predict effects of climate change on forest ecosystems because it shows that these soil microbial communities are very dynamic,” Wallenstein said. “We cannot simply extrapolate from the short-term responses of soil microbes to climate change, since they may adapt over the longer-term.” Bradford notes that there is still much to be learned about how soil microbes respond to global warming. His team is currently working to understand whether the reduced microbial respiration in heated soils is caused by the adaptation of individual microbes, by shifts in species composition or a combination of the two factors. He warns against minimizing the role of soil microbes in global warming, even though his findings suggest that current models overstate their contribution. “Although our results suggest that the impact of soil microbes on global warming will be less than is currently predicted,” Bradford said, “even a small change in atmospheric carbon is going to alter the way our world works and how our ecosystems function.” The research was funded by the U.S. Department of Energy.	3.833516
Watch the miraculous journey of infant sea turtles as these tiny animals run the gauntlet of predators and harsh conditions. Then, in numbers, see how human behavior has made their tough lives even more challenging. Discover what makes a sea turtle so wonderfully adapted for the marine environment, gain a greater appreciation for the challenges they face, follow efforts to rescue and protect sea turtles both domestically and internationally, and uncover what you can do to help celebrate and preserve these amazing marine animals as you explore Saving a Species: Sea Turtles. http://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL084C71BC9EC2EA8F Looking for a rich source of sea turtle information? Look no further than SeaWorld’s Sea Turtle InfoBook! Covering topics such as adaptations for a marine environment, habitat and distribution, diet and feeding habits, conservation issues, and more, this resource will prove a useful and interesting tool. (And if you’re looking for even more, there are a variety of topic-related classroom resources also available on the site.) http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/info-books/sea-turtle/index.htm The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries Office of Protected Resources is responsible for sea turtle management in U.S. waters. They maintain a useful online resource with species, conservation, and management references. http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/turtles/ Offering stunning images of sea turtles and accompanying natural history briefs, National Geographic offers a beautiful and intriguing species resource. http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/photos/sea-turtles/ Have a question about sea turtles? So do scientists! See what mysteries are of foremost interest to researchers as they are trying to better understand these ancient and imperiled species. http://iucn-mtsg.org/about-turtles/key-unsolved-mysteries/ Scientists, policy makers, industry leaders, and citizens are actively seeking ways for humankind to move into a dramatically more balanced relationship with the ocean. Sylvia Earle – renowned ocean explorer – is one of the most important voices in this endeavor. Personally dedicated to globally growing meaningful commitments to ocean stewardship, she seeks to inspire and engage others to come together now so that we might make a difference for our planet’s blue heart. David Gallo shows jaw-dropping footage of amazing sea creatures, including a color-shifting cuttlefish, a perfectly camouflaged octopus, and a Times Square's worth of neon light displays from fish that live in the blackest depths of the ocean. http://www.ted.com/talks/david_gallo_shows_underwater_astonishments.html Ocean explorer Robert Ballard takes us on a mind-bending trip to hidden worlds underwater, where he and other researchers are finding unexpected life, resources, and even new mountains. He makes a case for serious exploration and mapping. Google Ocean, anyone? http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/robert_ballard_on_exploring_the_oceans.html SeaWorld is a powerful and dynamic force working to connect and inspire on behalf of marine life and marine environments. In addition to its own direct efforts, SeaWorld partners with and supports organizations around the world that are actively exploring, protecting, caring for, and inspiring on behalf of our One Ocean and the countless precious forms of life which depend on it. Find out more about what SeaWorld and its partners are doing on behalf of marine life (sea turtles included!) and how you might join in the effort. http://www.seaworldcares.com/	3.220823
Ancient Greek marriage law \|\|This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (October 2009)\| Marriage as a public interest The ancient Greek legislators considered the relation of marriage a matter not merely of private, but also of public or general interest. This was particularly the case at Sparta, where the subordination of private interests and happiness to the public was strongly exemplified in the regulations. For instance, by the laws of Lycurgus, criminal proceedings might be taken against those who married too late (graphe opsigamiou) or unsuitably (graphe kakogamiou), as well as against those who did not marry at all (graphe agamiou). These regulations were founded on the generally recognised principle that it was the duty of every citizen to raise up a strong and healthy progeny of legitimate children to the state. So entirely, in fact, did the Spartans consider the teknopoioia (childbearing) as the main object of marriage, which the state was bound to promote, that whenever a woman had no children by her own husband, she was not only allowed, but even required by the laws, to cohabit with another man. On the same principle, and for the purpose of preventing the extinction of his family, the Spartan king Anaxandridas II was allowed to cohabit with two wives, for whom he kept two separate establishments: a case of bigamy, which, as Herodotus observes, was not at all consistent with Spartan nor indeed with Hellenic customs. Thus the heroes of Homer appear never to have had more than one kouridie alochos: lawfully wedded wife; though they are frequently represented as living in concubinage with one or more. Solon also seems to have viewed marriage as a matter in which the state had a right to interfere, for we are told that his laws allowed agamiou graphe, though the regulation seems to have grown obsolete in later times; at any rate there is no instance on record of its application. Plato too may be quoted to prove how general was this feeling, for according to his laws, any one who did not marry before he was thirty-five was punishable not only with atimia (loss of civil rights), but also with pecuniary penalties, and he expressly states that in choosing a wife everyone ought to consult the interests of the state, and not his own pleasure. Selecting a spouse But independent of any public considerations there were also private or personal reasons (peculiar to the ancients) which made marriage an obligation. Plato mentions one of these the duty incumbent upon every individual to provide for a continuance of representatives to succeed himself as ministers of the Divinity (toi Theoi hyperetas an' hautou paradidonai). Another was the desire felt by almost every one, not merely to perpetuate his own name, but also to prevent his heritage being desolate, and his name being cut off, and to leave someone who might make the customary offerings at his grave. With this view, childless persons would sometimes adopt children that had been left to die or were simply unwanted. By the Athenian law a citizen was not allowed to marry with a foreign woman, nor conversely, under very severe penalties. However, proximity by blood (anchisteia), or consanguinity (syngeneia), was not, with some few exceptions, a bar to marriage in any part of Greece; direct lineal descent was. Thus brothers were permitted to marry with sisters even, if not homometrioi or born from the same mother, as Cimon did with Elpinice, though a connection of this sort appears to have been looked on with abhorrence. In the earlier periods of society, indeed, we can easily conceive that a spirit of caste or family pride, and other causes such as the difficulties in the way of social intercourse would tend to make marriages frequent amongst near relations and connections. (Compare Book of Numbers^ c. xxxvi.) At Athens, however, in the case of a father dying intestate, and without male children, his heiress had no choice in marriage; she was compelled by law to marry her nearest kinsman not in the ascending line; and if the heiress were poor (thessa) the nearest unmarried kinsman either married her or portioned her suitably to her rank. When there were several coheiresses, they were respectively married to their kinsmen, the nearest having the first choice (See Epikleros). The heiress in fact, together with her inheritance, seems to have belonged to the kinsmen of the family, so that in early times a father could not give his daughter (if an heiress) in marriage without their consent. But this was not the case according to the later Athenian law, by which a father was empowered to dispose of his daughter by will or otherwise; just as widows also were disposed of in marriage, by the will of their husbands, who were considered their rightful guardians (Kyrioi). The same practice of marrying in the family (oikos), especially in the case of heiresses, prevailed at Sparta; thus Leonidas married the heiress of Cleomenes[disambiguation needed], as of anchisteia, or next of kin, and Anaxandrides, his own sister's daughter. Moreover, if a father had not determined himself concerning his daughter, it was decided by the king's court who among the privileged persons or members of the same family should marry the heiress. A resemblance to the Athenian law respecting heiresses is also found in the Jewish code, as detailed in Numbers (c. xxvii. 1 — 11), and exemplified in Ruth (c. iv.). But match-making among the ancients was not, in default of any legal regulations, entirely left to the care and forethought of parents, for we read of women who made a profession of it, and who were therefore called promnestriai or promnestrides. The profession, however, does not seem to have been thought very honourable nor to have been held in repute, as being too nearly connected with a panderer (proagogos). Dates for marriage Particular days and seasons of the year were thought auspicious and favourable for marriage amongst the Greeks. Aristotle speaks of the winter generally as being so considered, and at Athens the month Gamelion, partly corresponding to our January, received its name from marriages being frequently celebrated in it. Hesiod recommends marrying on the fourth day of the month and Euripides speaks as if the time of the full moon were thought favourable. In Athens the engyesis, or betrothal, was in fact indispensable to the complete validity of a marriage contract. It was made by the natural or legal guardian (kyrios) of the bride elect, and attended by the relatives of both parties as witnesses. The law of Athens ordained that all children born from a marriage legally contracted in this respect should be legal gnesioi, and consequently, if sons, isomoiroi, are entitled to inherit equally or in gavel-kind. It would seem, therefore, that the issue of a marriage without espousals would lose their heritable rights, which depended on their being born ex astes kai engyetes gynaikos: i.e. from a citizen and a legally betrothed wife. The wife's dowry was also settled at the espousals. At Sparta, the betrothal of the bride by her father or guardian (kyrios) was requisite as a preliminary of marriage, as well as at Athens. Another custom peculiar to the Spartans, and a relic of ancient times, was the seizure of the bride by her intended husband (see Herod, vi. 65), but of course with the sanction of her parents or guardians. She was not, however, immediately domiciled in her husband's house, but cohabited with him for some time clandestinely, till he brought her, and frequently her mother also, to his home. A similar custom appears to have prevailed in Crete, where, as we are told, the young men when dismissed from the agela of their fellows, were immediately married, but did not take their wives home till some time afterwards. Muller suggests that the children of this furtive kind of intercourse were called Parthenioi. In cases of adultery by the wife, the Athenian law subjected the husband to Atimia, if he continued to cohabit with her, so that she was ipso facto divorced. But a separation might be effected in two different ways: by the wife leaving the husband, or the husband dismissing the wife. If the latter supposed her husband to have acted without sufficient justification in such a course, it was competent for her after dismissal, or rather for her guardians, to bring an action for dismissal (dike apopompes): the corresponding action if brought by the husband was a dike apoleipseos. If, however, a wife were ill-used in any way by her husband, he was liable to an action called dike kakoseos so that the wife was not entirely unprotected by the laws, a conclusion justified by a fragment in Athenaeus in which married women are spoken of as relying on its protection. But a separation, whether it originated from the husband or wife, was considered to reflect discredit on the latter independent of the difficulties and inconveniences to which she was subjected by it. At Sparta, barrenness on the part of a wife seems to have been a ground for dismissal by the husband; and from a passage in Dio Chrysostom, it has been inferred that women were in the habit of imposing suppositious children with a view of keeping (kataschein) their husbands: not but that the word admits of, if indeed it does not (from the tense) require, a different interpretation. The duties of an Athenian wife are stated somewhat in detail Oeconomicus (Xenophon). See Also - Pollux, viii. 4 0 - Lycurg. 15. - Mulller, Dorians., iv. 4. § 3. - Xenophon. de Rep. Lac. i. 8. - Herodotus. vi. 39, 40 - Buttmann, Lexilogus, 73 - Platner, Process, &c. vol. ii. p. 248. - Leg. iv. p. 721 - Leg. vi. p. 773. - Isaeus de Apoll. Hered. p. 66. Bek. - Demosth. c.Neaer. p. 1350 - Isaeus, de Oiron. her. p. 72. - Becker, Charikles, vol. ii. p. 448. - Muller, Dorians, ii. 10. § 4. - Demosth. c. Steph. p. 1134 - Demosth. c. Aphob. p. 814. - Herod, vi. 57 ; Muller, /. c. - Pollux, iii. 31. - Plato, Theaet. 2. p. 150. - Polit.'vu. 15 - Oper. 800 - Iphig. in Aulis. 707 - Demosth. c. Steph. p. 1134 - Meicr and Schoeman, p. 415. - Muller, Dorians, ii. 4. § 2. - Xen. de Rep. Lac. i. 5. - Strabo, x. p. 482 - Demosth. c.Neaer. p. 1374. - Athenaeus. xiii. p. 559 - Herod, vi. 61 - Orat. xv. p. 447	3.232134
Baths of Agrippa The Baths of Agrippa (Thermae Agrippae) were a structure of ancient Rome, built by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, the first of the great thermae constructed in the city. In their first form, constructed at the same time as the Pantheon and on axis with it, as a balaneion (βαλανεῖον), they were apparently a hot-air bath with a cold plunge, not unlike a sauna. With the completion of the Aqua Virgo, the aqueduct completed by Agrippa in 19 BC, the baths were supplied with water and became regular thermae, with a large ornamental pool (Stagnum Agrippae) attached. Agrippa furnished his baths with decorations that may have been executed in glazed tiles and with works of art: the Apoxyomenos of Lysippus stood outside. He left the baths to the citizens of Rome at his death, 12 BC. The Baths of Agrippa were damaged by fire in AD 80 (Cassius Dio, lxvi.24), but were restored and enlarged; they were thronged in the times of Martial, and enlarged under Hadrian and later emperors. Sidonius Apollonaris mentions that the Baths of Agrippa were still being used in the fifth century. In the seventh century the structure (no longer in use) was being mined for its building materials, but much of the Baths were still standing in the sixteenth century, when the ruins were drawn by Baldassare Peruzzi and Andrea Palladio, among others. See also - (LacusCurtius website) Samuel Ball Platner, A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (London: Oxford University Press) 1929. See also note by William Thayer. \|This article about an Italian building or structure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\| \|This article about an Ancient Roman building or structure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	3.301299
\|Incense Route - Desert Cities in the Negev (Haluza, Mamshit, Avdat and Shivta)\| \|Name as inscribed on the World Heritage List\| \|UNESCO region\|\|Europe and North America\| \|Inscription\|\|2005 (29th Session)\| Mamshit (Hebrew: ממשית) is the Nabataean city of Mampsis or Memphis. In the Nabataean period, Mamshit was an important station on Incense Road, running from the Idumean Mountains, through the Arabah and Ma'ale Akrabim, and on to Beer-Sheva or to Hebron and Jerusalem. The city covers 10 acres (40,000 m2) and is the smallest but best restored city in the Negev Desert. The once-luxurious houses feature unusual architecture not found in any other Nabataean city. The reconstructed city gives the visitor a sense of how Mamshit once looked. Entire streets have survived intact, and there are also large groups of Nabataean buildings with open rooms, courtyards, and terraces. The stones are carefully chiseled and the arches that support the ceiling are remarkably well constructed. Mamshit was built in 1st century BC as trade post on the way from Petra to Gaza. with time the city was developed and based also on agriculture. When trade in Mamshit waned with the Roman occupation, the occupants found another way to make a living: raising horses. The residents of Mamshit bred the renowned Arabian horse, which brought great wealth to their city. During the Byzantine period Mamshit also received support from the authorities for being a frontier city. When this funding dried up, at the time of Justinian, the city died a natural death. Before the founding of the State of Israel, Prime Minister to-be David Ben-Gurion saw Mamshit as the capital of the future country, which dovetailed with his dream of settling the Negev Desert. Two churches were discovered in Mamshit. The western Nile Church has a mosaic floor with colorful geometric patterns, birds, a fruit basket, and five dedications in Greek (the mosaic is not open to the public). The eastern church has a lectern on small marble pillars, the remnants of which can be seen at the site. The biggest hoard ever found in Israel was uncovered in Mamshit - 10500 silver coins, a lead ingot weighing 158 pounds with foundry signs, a papyrus cluster with ancient Greek texts, and other objects indicative of wealthy people. - Incense Route - Desert Cities in the Negev, UNESCO - Natural Parks Authority - Pictures of Mamshit archeological findings - Mamshit Detailed track and hiking info from Tourism,trip and travel to Israel \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mamshit\|	3.2018
The shortgrass prairie ecosystem of the North American Great Plains is a prairie that includes lands from the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains east to Nebraska and north into Saskatchewan, including rangelands in Alberta, Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Kansas, and extending to the south through the high plains of Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico. These rangelands were formerly maintained by grazing pressure of American bison, the keystone species; the dominant grasses are blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) and buffalograss (Bouteloua dactyloides). The semi-arid climate receives on average less precipitation than that which supports the tallgrass prairie formerly to the east. See also - Hill, R.T. 1901. Geography and Geology of the Black and Grand Prairies, Texas. In: Walcott, C.D. (ed), Twenty-First Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey to the Secretary of the Interior (1899-1900), Part VII - Texas, 666 pp. (See Plate III) \|This article about a specific United States location is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\| \|This ecoregion article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	3.529532
\|\|The neutrality of this article is disputed. (January 2013)\| \|\|This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2013)\| Sprouting is the practice of germinating seeds to be eaten raw or cooked. Sprouted foods are a convenient way to have fresh vegetables for salads, or otherwise, in any season and can be germinated at home or produced industrially. They are a prominent ingredient of the raw food diet and common in Eastern Asian cuisine. Sprouting is also applied on a large scale to barley as a part of the malting process. A potential downside to consuming raw sprouts is that the process of germinating seeds can also be conducive to harmful bacterial growth. Seeds suitable for sprouting All viable seeds can be sprouted, but some sprouts should not be eaten raw. The most common food sprouts include: - Pulses (legumes; pea family): - Brassica (cabbage family) - Other vegetables and herbs: Although whole oats can be sprouted, oat groats sold in food stores, which are dehulled and require steaming or roasting to prevent rancidity, will not sprout. Whole oats may have an indigestible hull which makes them difficult or even unfit for human consumption. All the sprouts of the solanaceae (tomato, potato, paprika, aubergine or eggplant) and rhubarb cannot be eaten as sprouts, either cooked or raw, as they can be poisonous. Some sprouts can be cooked to remove the toxin, while others cannot. With all seeds, care should be taken that they are intended for sprouting or human consumption rather than sowing. Seeds intended for sowing may be treated with chemical dressings. Several countries, such as New Zealand, also require that some varieties of imported edible seed be heat-treated, thus making them impossible to sprout. Quinoa in its natural state is very easy to sprout but when polished, or pre-cleaned of its saponin coating (becoming whiter), loses its power to germinate. The germination process The germination process takes a few days and can be done at home manually, as a semi-automated process, or industrially on a large scale for commercial use. Typically the seeds are first rinsed to remove soil and dirt and the mucilaginous substances produced by some seeds when they come in contact with water. Then they are soaked for 20 minutes to 12 hours, depending on the type and size of seed. The soaking increases the water content in the seeds and brings them out of quiescence. After draining and then rinsing seeds at regular intervals they germinate, or sprout. For home sprouting, the seeds are soaked (big seeds) or moistened (small), then left at room temperature (13 to 21 °C or 55 to 70 °F) in a sprouting vessel. Many different types of vessels can be used. One type is a simple glass jar with a piece of cloth or nylon window screen secured over its rim. "Tiered" clear plastic sprouters are commercially available, allowing a number of "crops" to be grown simultaneously. By staggering sowings, a constant supply of young sprouts can be ensured. Any vessel used for sprouting must allow water to drain from it, because sprouts that sit in water will rot quickly. The seeds swell, may stick to the sides of the jar, and begin germinating within a day or two. Sprouts are rinsed two to four times a day, depending on the climate and the type of seed, to provide them with moisture and prevent them from souring. Each seed has its own ideal sprouting time. After three to five days the sprouts will have grown to 5 to 8 centimetres (2–3 in) in length and will be suitable for consumption. If left longer they will begin to develop leaves, and are then known as baby greens. A popular baby green is sunflower after 7–10 days. Refrigeration can be used as needed to slow or halt the growth process of any sprout. Common causes for sprouts to become inedible: - Seeds are not rinsed well enough before soaking - Seeds are left in standing water after the initial soaking - Seeds are allowed to dry out - Temperature is too high or too low - Insufficient rinsing - Dirty equipment - Insufficient air flow - Contaminated water source - Poor germination rate Mung beans can be sprouted either in light or dark conditions. Those sprouted in the dark will be crisper in texture and whiter, as in the case of commercially available Chinese Bean Sprouts, but these have less nutritional content than those grown in partial sunlight. Growing in full sunlight is not recommended, because it can cause the beans to overheat or dry out. Subjecting the sprouts to pressure, for example, by placing a weight on top of them in their sprouting container, will result in larger, crunchier sprouts similar to those sold in Polish grocery stores. A very effective way to sprout beans like lentils or azuki is in colanders. Soak the beans in water for about 8 hours then place in the colander. Wash twice a day. The sprouted beans can be eaten raw or cooked. Sprouting is also applied on a large scale to barley as a part of the malting process. Malted barley is an important ingredient in beer and is used in huge quantities. Most malted barley is distributed among wide retail sellers in North American regions. Many varieties of nuts, such as almonds and peanuts, can also be started in their growth cycle by soaking and sprouting, although because the sprouts are generally still very small when eaten, they are usually called "soaks". Nutritional information Sprouts are said to be rich in digestible energy, bioavailable vitamins, minerals, amino acids, proteins, and phytochemicals, as these are necessary for a germinating plant to grow. These nutrients are essential for human health. The nutritional changes upon germination & sprouting are summarised below. Chavan and Kadam (1989) concluded that - “The desirable nutritional changes that occur during sprouting are mainly due to the breakdown of complex compounds into a more simple form, transformation into essential constituents and breakdown of nutritionally undesirable constituents.” “The metabolic activity of resting seeds increases as soon as they are hydrated during soaking. Complex biochemical changes occur during hydration and subsequent sprouting. The reserve chemical constituents, such as protein, starch and lipids, are broken down by enzymes into simple compounds that are used to make new compounds.” “Sprouting grains causes increased activities of hydrolytic enzymes, improvements in the contents of total proteins, fat, certain essential amino acids, total sugars, B-group vitamins, and a decrease in dry matter, starch and anti-nutrients. The increased contents of protein, fat, fibre and total ash are only apparent and attributable to the disappearance of starch. However, improvements in amino acid composition, B-group vitamins, sugars, protein and starch digestibilities, and decrease in phytates and protease inhibitors[disambiguation needed] are the metabolic effects of the sprouting process.” Increases in Protein Quality Chavan and Kadam (1989) stated - “Very complex qualitative changes are reported to occur during soaking and sprouting of seeds. The conversion of storage proteins of cereal grains into albumins and globulins during sprouting may improve the quality of cereal proteins. Many studies have shown an increase in the content of the amino acid Lysine with sprouting.” “An increase in proteolytic activity during sprouting is desirable for nutritional improvement of cereals because it leads to hydrolysis of prolamins and the liberated amino acids such as glutamic and proline are converted to limiting amino acids such as lysine.” Increases in Crude Fibre content Cuddeford (1989), based on data obtained by Peer and Leeson (1985), stated - “In sprouted barley, crude fibre, a major constituent of cell walls, increases both in percentage and real terms, with the synthesis of structural carbohydrates, such as cellulose and hemicellulose”. Chung et al. (1989) found that the fibre content increased from 3.75% in unsprouted barley seed to 6% in 5-day sprouts.” Crude Protein and Crude Fibre changes in Barley Sprouted over a 7-day period \|Crude Protein (% of DM)\|\|Crude Fibre (% of DM)\| Source: Cuddeford (1989), based on data obtained by Peer and Leeson (1985). Increase of protein is not due to new protein being manufactured by the germination process but by the washing out of starch and conversion to fiber -- increasing the relative proportion of protein. Increases in Essential Fatty Acids An increase in lipase activity has been reported in barley by MacLeod and White (1962), as cited by Chavan and Kadam (1989) . Increased lipolytic activity during germination and sprouting causes hydrolysis of triacylglycerols to glycerol and constituent fatty acids. Increases in Vitamin content According to Chavan and Kadam (1989), most reports agree that sprouting treatment of cereal grains generally improves their vitamin value, especially the B-group vitamins. Certain vitamins such as α-tocopherol (Vitamin-E) and β-carotene (Vitamin-A precursor) are produced during the growth process (Cuddeford, 1989) . According to Shipard (2005) - “Sprouts provide a good supply of Vitamins A, E & C plus B complex. Like enzymes, vitamins serve as bioactive catalysts to assist in the digestion and metabolism of feeds and the release of energy. They are also essential for the healing and repair of cells. However, vitamins are very perishable, and in general, the fresher the feeds eaten, the higher the vitamin content. The vitamin content of some seeds can increase by up to 20 times their original value within several days of sprouting. Mung Bean sprouts have B vitamin increases, compared to the dry seeds, of - B1 up 285%, B2 up 515%, B3 up 256%. Even soaking seeds overnight in water yields greatly increased amounts of B vitamins, as well as Vitamin C. Compared with mature plants, sprouts can yield vitamin contents 30 times higher.” Chelation of Minerals Shipard (2005) claims that - “When seeds are sprouted, minerals chelate or merge with protein, in a way that increases their function.” It is important to note that while these changes may sound impressive, the comparisons are between dormant non-sprouted seed to sprouted seed rather than comparisons of sprouts to mature vegetables. Compared to dry seeds there are very large increases in nutrients whereas compared with mature vegetables the increase is less. However, a sprout, just starting out in life, is likely to need and thus have more nutrients (percentage wise) than a mature vegetable. Health concerns Bacterial infection Commercially grown sprouts have been associated with multiple outbreaks of harmful bacteria, including salmonella and toxic forms of Escherichia coli. Such infections, which are so frequent in the United States that investigators call them "sproutbreaks", may be a result of contaminated seeds or of unhygienic production with high microbial counts. Sprout seeds can become contaminated in the fields where they are grown, and sanitizing steps may be unable to kill bacteria hidden in damaged seeds. A single surviving bacterium in a kilogram of seed can be enough to contaminate a whole batch of sprouts, according to the FDA. To minimize the impact of the incidents and maintain public health, both the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Health Canada issued industry guidance on the safe manufacturing of edible sprouts and public education on their safe consumption. There are also publications for hobby farmers on safely growing and consuming sprouts at home. The recommendations include development and implementation of good agricultural practices and good manufacturing practices in the production and handling of seeds and sprouts, seed disinfection treatments, and microbial testing before the product enters the food supply. In June 2011, contaminated bean sprouts in Germany were identified as the source of the 2011 E. coli O104:H4 outbreak. In addition to Germany, where 3,785 cases and 45 deaths had been reported by the end of the outbreak, a handful of cases were reported in several countries including Switzerland, Poland, the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, the UK, Canada and the USA. Virtually all affected people had been in Germany shortly before becoming ill. Antinutritional factors Some legumes, including sprouts, can contain toxins or antinutritional factors, which can be reduced by soaking, sprouting and cooking (e.g., stir frying). Joy Larkcom advises that to be on the safe side “one shouldn’t eat large quantities of raw legume sprouts on a regular basis, no more than about 550g (20oz) daily”. Phytic acid, an antinutritional factor, occurs primarily in the seed coats and germ tissue of plant seeds. It forms insoluble or nearly insoluble compounds with many metal ions, including those of calcium, iron, magnesium and zinc, reducing their dietary availability. Diets high in phytic acid content and poor in these minerals produce mineral deficiency in experimental animals (Gontzea and Sutzescu, 1958, as cited in Chavan and Kadam, 1989). The latter authors state that the sprouting of cereals has been reported to decrease levels of phytic acid. Similarly, Shipard (2005) states that enzymes of germination and sprouting can help eliminate detrimental substances such as phytic acid. However, the amount of phytic acid reduction from soaking is only marginal, and not enough to counteract its antinutrient effects See also - Donald G. Barceloux MD. "Potatoes, Tomatoes, and Solanine Toxicity (Solanum tuberosum L., Solanum lycopersicum L.)". Retrieved 7 August 2011. Paid subscription required to access article. - "The Vegetarian Society - Information Sheet - pulses". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2009-11-16. - "Plant-based nutrition". Spring 2002. Retrieved 2007-11-14. - Neuman, William (10 June 2011). "The Poster Plant of Health Food Can Pack Disease Risks". New York Times. Retrieved 11 June 2011. - Breuer, Thomas et al.. "A Multistate Outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Infections Linked to Alfalfa Sprouts Grown from Contaminated Seeds". Retrieved 19 November 2007. - Gabriel, Alonzo A. et al.; Berja, M; Estrada, A; Lopez, M; Nery, J; Villaflor, E (2007). "Microbiology of retail mung bean sprouts vended in public markets of National Capital Region, Philippines". Food Control 18 (10): 1307–1313. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2006.09.004. - Food and Drug Administration (May 17, 2005). "Transcript of Proceedings of Public Meeting on Sprout Safety". Retrieved 19 November 2007. - Health Canada. "Sprouted Beans and Seeds". Retrieved 19 November 2007. - Harrison, H. C. "Growing Edible Sprouts at Home" (PDF). Retrieved 23 November 2007. - Suslow, Trevor V.; Linda J. Harris. "Growing Seed Sprouts at Home" (PDF). Retrieved 23 November 2007. - Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC): Update on outbreak in the EU, 27 July 2011 - "Outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli in Germany (22 June 2011, 11:00)". ECDC. 22 June 2011. Retrieved 22 June 2011. - "E. coli cucumber scare: Russia announces import ban". BBC News Online. 30 May 2011. Archived from the original on 30 May 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2011. - "E. Two in U.S. infected in German E. coli outbreak". MSNBC Online. 31 May 2011. Retrieved 2 June 2011. - Larkcom, Joy ‘Salads For Small Gardens’, p.98 Hamlyn 1995 ISBN 0-600-58509-3 - "The Influence of Soaking and Germination on the Phytase Activity and Phytic Acid Content of Grains and Seeds Potentially Useful for Complementary Feedin". Food Science. - The Raw Truth by Jeremy A Safron, (Celestial Arts, Toronto, 2003) ISBN 1-58761-172-4 (pbk.) - "The Complete Guide to Successful Sprouting for Parrots" by Leslie Moran, (Critter Connection, US, 2007) ISBN 978-1-4196-8479-1 (110 pgs, pbk.) - Title: Hydroponic grass. Source: In Practice. (Cuddeford, D., 1989). (Relates to Animal Nutrition) - Title: NUTRITIONAL IMPROVEMENT OF CEREALS BY FERMENTATION. Source: CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION (CHAVAN, JK; KADAM, SS, 1989) - Title: How can I grow and use Sprouts as living food. (Shipard 2008) ISBN 978-0-9758252-0-4 1992.Kavas,A.: EL,S.N.Changes in nutritive value of lentils and mung beans during germination.Chem.Mikrobiol.,Technol.,Lebens.,14:3-9. - Sprout Recipes Sprout recipes for every lifestyle and palate - Sprout links - Sprout People - Guidelines on Safe Production of Ready-to-Eat Sprouted Seeds (Sprouts) - Food Safety Authority of Ireland General Fact-sheet Series - Annex I - Proposed Draft Annex for Sprout Production - in Appendix II - Proposed Draft Code of Hygienic Practice for the Primary Production, Harvesting and Packing of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables (at Step 5 of the Procedure) of Report of the Thirty Third Session of the Codex Committee on Food Hygiene - Growing Seed Sprouts at Home - University of California Davis Agricultural and Natural Resources Catalog	3.319659
A stored procedure is a subroutine available to applications that access a relational database system. A stored procedure (sometimes called a proc, sproc, StoPro, StoredProc, sp or SP) is actually stored in the database data dictionary. Typical use for stored procedures include data validation (integrated into the database) or access control mechanisms. Furthermore, stored procedures can consolidate and centralize logic that was originally implemented in applications. Extensive or complex processing that requires execution of several SQL statements is moved into stored procedures, and all applications call the procedures. One can use nested stored procedures by executing one stored procedure from within another. Stored procedures are similar to user-defined functions (UDFs). The major difference is that UDFs can be used like any other expression within SQL statements, whereas stored procedures must be invoked using the Stored procedures may return result sets, i.e. the results of a SELECT statement. Such result sets can be processed using cursors, by other stored procedures, by associating a result set locator, or by applications. Stored procedures may also contain declared variables for processing data and cursors that allow it to loop through multiple rows in a table. Stored procedure flow control statements typically include CASE statements, and more. Stored procedures can receive variables, return results or modify variables and return them, depending on how and where the variable is declared. The exact and correct implementation of stored procedures varies from one database system to another. Most major database vendors support them in some form. Depending on the database system, stored procedures can be implemented in a variety of programming languages, for example SQL, Java, C, or C++. Stored procedures written in non-SQL programming languages may or may not execute SQL statements themselves. The increasing adoption of stored procedures led to the introduction of procedural elements to the SQL language in the SQL:1999 and SQL:2003 standards in the part SQL/PSM. That made SQL an imperative programming language. Most database systems offer proprietary and vendor-specific extensions, exceeding SQL/PSM. A standard specification for Java stored procedures exists as well as SQL/JRT. \|Database system\|\|Implementation language\| \|DB2\|\|SQL PL (close to the SQL/PSM standard) or Java\| \|Firebird\|\|PSQL (Fyracle also supports portions of Oracle's PL/SQL)\| \|Informix\|\|SPL or Java\| \|Microsoft SQL Server\|\|Transact-SQL and various .NET Framework languages\| \|MySQL\|\|own stored procedures, closely adhering to SQL/PSM standard.\| \|Oracle\|\|PL/SQL or Java\| \|PostgreSQL\|\|PL/pgSQL, can also use own function languages such as pl/perl or pl/php\| Other uses In some systems, stored procedures can be used to control transaction management; in others, stored procedures run inside a transaction such that transactions are effectively transparent to them. Stored procedures can also be invoked from a database trigger or a condition handler. For example, a stored procedure may be triggered by an insert on a specific table, or update of a specific field in a table, and the code inside the stored procedure would be executed. Writing stored procedures as condition handlers also allows database administrators to track errors in the system with greater detail by using stored procedures to catch the errors and record some audit information in the database or an external resource like a file. Comparison with dynamic SQL Overhead: Because stored procedure statements are stored directly in the database, they may remove all or part of the compilation overhead that is typically required in situations where software applications send inline (dynamic) SQL queries to a database. (However, most database systems implement "statement caches" and other mechanisms to avoid repetitive compilation of dynamic SQL statements.) In addition, while they avoid some overhead, pre-compiled SQL statements add to the complexity of creating an optimal execution plan because not all arguments of the SQL statement are supplied at compile time. Depending on the specific database implementation and configuration, mixed performance results will be seen from stored procedures versus generic queries or user defined functions. Avoidance of network traffic: A major advantage with stored procedures is that they can run directly within the database engine. In a production system, this typically means that the procedures run entirely on a specialized database server, which has direct access to the data being accessed. The benefit here is that network communication costs can be avoided completely. This becomes particularly important for complex series of SQL statements. Encapsulation of business logic: Stored procedures allow programmers to embed business logic as an API in the database, which can simplify data management and reduce the need to encode the logic elsewhere in client programs. This can result in a lesser likelihood of data corruption by faulty client programs. The database system can ensure data integrity and consistency with the help of stored procedures. Delegation of access-rights: In many systems, stored procedures can be granted access rights to the database that users who execute those procedures do not directly have. Some protection from SQL injection attacks: Stored procedures can be used to protect against injection attacks. Stored procedure parameters will be treated as data even if an attacker inserts SQL commands. Also, some DBMSs will check the parameter's type. A stored procedure that in turn generates dynamic SQL using the input is however still vulnerable to SQL injections unless proper precautions are taken. Comparison with functions - A function is a subprogram written to perform certain computations - A scalar function returns only a single value (or NULL), whereas a table function returns a (relational) table comprising zero or more rows, each row with one or more columns. - Functions must return a value (using the RETURNkeyword), but for stored procedures this is not compulsory. - Stored procedures can use RETURNkeyword but without any value being passed. - Functions could be used in SELECTstatements, provided they don’t do any data manipulation. However, procedures cannot be included in - A stored procedure can return multiple values using the OUTparameter or return no value at all. - A stored procedure can save the query compilation time. Comparison with prepared statements Prepared statements take an ordinary statement or query and parameterize it so that different literal values can be used at a later time. Like stored procedures, they are stored on the server for efficiency and provide some protection from SQL injection attacks. Although simpler and more declarative, prepared statements are not ordinarily written to use procedural logic and cannot operate on variables. Because of their simple interface and client-side implementations, prepared statements are more widely reusable between DBMSs. - Stored procedure languages are quite often vendor-specific. Switching to another vendor's database most likely requires rewriting any existing stored procedures. - Stored procedure languages from different vendors have different levels of sophistication. - For example, Oracle's PL/SQL has more language features and built-in features (via packages such as DBMS_ and UTL_ and others) than Microsoft's T-SQL. - Tool support for writing and debugging stored procedures is often not as good as for other programming languages, but this differs between vendors and languages. - For example, both PL/SQL and T-SQL have dedicated IDEs and debuggers. PL/PgSQL can be debugged from various IDEs. - Stored Procedures in MySQL FAQ - An overview of PostgreSQL Procedural Language support - Using a stored procedure in Sybase ASE - PL/SQL Procedures - Oracle Database PL/SQL Language Reference	3.887848
Rather than mounting each filesystem at a different place in the directory hierarchy, a union mount overlays the filesystems, creating a unified hierarchy. Thus, any given directory (or "folder") in the resulting filesystem may contain files and subdirectories from any or all of the underlying filesystems. Generally one of the filesystems will be mounted read-write, while other filesystems are mounted read-only. Union mounts are implemented by union filesystems such as UnionFS and AUFS, frequently used by Live CDs. They originated with Plan 9 and its concept of union directories. - Pendry, Jan-Simon; Marshall Kirk McKusick (December 1995). "Union Mounts in 4.4BSD-Lite". Proceedings of the USENIX Technical Conference on UNIX and Advanced Computing Systems: 25–33. Retrieved 25 November 2007. - Wright, Charles P.; Jay Dave, Puja Gupta, Harikesavan Krishnan, Erez Zadok, and Mohammad Nayyer Zubair. "Versatility and Unix Semantics in a Fan-Out Unification File System". Stony Brook University Technical Report FSL-04-01b. Retrieved 25 November 2007. - Aurora, Valerie; Henson (March 2009). "Unioning file systems: Architecture, features, and design choices". lwn.net. Retrieved 21 December 2009. - Aurora, Valerie; Henson (March 2009). "Union file systems: Implementations, part I". lwn.net. Retrieved 21 December 2009. - Aurora, Valerie; Henson (April 2009). "Unioning file systems: Implementations, part 2". lwn.net. Retrieved 21 December 2009. - Blunck, Jan (May 2009). "VFS based Union Mount (V3)". lwn.net. Retrieved 21 December 2009. - About GlusterFS. November 2009. Retrieved 4 March 2013. \|This computer storage–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	3.070431
The Life of Captain Matthew Flinders, R.N./Chapter 1 BIRTH AND ORIGINS Matthew Flinders was the third of the triad of great English sailors by whom the principal part of Australia was revealed. A poet of our own time, in a line of singular felicity, has described it as the "last sea-thing dredged by sailor Time from Space;" and the piecemeal, partly mysterious, largely accidental dragging from the depths of the unknown of a land so immense and bountiful makes a romantic chapter in geographical history. All the great seafaring peoples contributed something towards the result. The Dutch especially evinced their enterprise in the pursuit of precise information about the southern Terra Incognita, and the nineteenth century was well within its second quarter before the name New Holland, which for over a hundred years had borne testimony to their adventurous pioneering, gave place in general and geographical literature to the more convenient and euphonious designation suggested by Flinders himself, Australia. But, important as was the work of the Dutch, and though the contributions made by French navigators (possibly also by Spanish) are of much consequence, it remains true that the broad outlines of the continent were laid down by Dampier, Cook and Flinders. These are the principal names in the story. A map of Australia which left out the parts discovered by other sailors would be seriously defective in particular features; but a map which left out the parts discovered by these three Englishmen would gape out of all resemblance to the reality. Dampier died about the year 1712; nobody knows precisely when. Matthew Flinders came into the world in time to hear, as he may well have done as a boy, of the murder of his illustrious predecessor in 1779. The news of Cook's fate did not reach England till 1781. The lad was then seven years of age, having been born on March 16th, 1774. His father, also named Matthew, was a surgeon practising his profession at Donington, Lincolnshire, where the boy was born. The Flinders family had been settled in the same town for several generations. Three in succession had been surgeons. The patronymic indicates a Flemish origin, and the work on English surnames that bids the reader looking for information under "Flinders" to "see Flanders," sends him on a reasonable quest, if to no great resulting advantage.The English middle-eastern counties received frequent large migrations of Flemings during several centuries. Sometimes calamities due to the harshness of nature, sometimes persecutions and wars, sometimes adverse economic conditions, impelled companies of people from the Low Countries to cross the North Sea and try to make homes for themselves in a land which, despite intervals of distraction, offered greater security and a better reward than did the place whence they came. England derived much advantage from the infusion of this industrious, solid and dependable Flemish stock; though the temporary difficulty of absorption gave rise to local protests on more than one occasion. As early as 1108, a great part of Flanders "being drowned by an exudation or breaking in of the sea, a great number of Flemings came into the country, beseeching the King to have some void place assigned them, wherein they might inhabit." Again in the reign of Edward I we find Flemish merchants carrying on a very large and important trade in Boston, and representatives of houses from Ypres and Ostend acquired property in the town. In the middle of the sixteenth century, when Flanders was boiling on the fire of the Reformation, Lincolnshire and Norfolk provided an asylum for crowds of harassed refugees. In 1569 two persons were deputed to ride from Boston to Norwich to ascertain what means that city adopted to find employment for them; and in the same year Mr. William Derby was directed to move Mr. Secretary Cecil, Queen Elizabeth's great minister, to "know his pleasure whether certain strangers may be allowed to dwell within the borough without damage of the Queen's laws." During one of these peaceful and useful Flemish invasions the ancestors of Matthew Flinders entered Lincolnshire. In the later years of his life he devoted some attention to the history of his family, and found record of a Flinders as early as the tenth century. He believed, also, that his people had some connection with two men named Flinders or Flanders, who fled from Holland during the religious persecutions, and settled, in Queen Elizabeth's reign, in Nottinghamshire as silk stocking weavers. It would be very interesting if it were clear that there was a link between the family and the origins of the great Nottingham hosiery trade. A Flinders may in that case have woven silk stockings for the Royal termagant, and Lord Coke's pair, which were darned so often that none of the original fabric remained, may have come from their loom. Matthew Flinders himself wrote the note: "Ruddington near Nottingham (it is four miles south of the town) is the place whence the Flinders came;" and he ascertained that an ancestor was Robert Flinders, a Nottingham stocking-weaver. A family tradition relates that the Lincolnshire Flinders were amongst the people taken over to England by Sir Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutch engineer of celebrity in his day, who undertook in 1621 to drain 360,000 acres of fen in Norfolk, Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire. He was financed by English and Dutch capitalists, and took his reward in large grants of land which he made fit for habitation and cultivation. Vermuyden and his Flemings were not allowed to accomplish their work of reclamation without incurring the enmity of the natives. In a petition to the King in 1637 he stated that he had spent 150,000 pounds, but that 60,000 pounds of damage had been done "by reason of the opposition of the commoners," who cut the banks of his channels in the night and during floods. The peasantry, indeed, resisted the improvements that have proved so beneficent to that part of England, because the draining and cultivation of so many miles of swamp would deprive them of fishing and fowling privileges enjoyed from time immemorial. Hardly any reform or improvement can be effected without some disruption of existing interests; and a people deeply sunk in poverty and toil could hardly be expected to contemplate with philosophical calm projects which, however advantageous to individuals and to posterity, were calculated to diminish their own means of living and their pleasant diversions. The dislike of the "commoners" to the work of the "participants" led to frequent riots, and many of Vermuyden's Flemings were maltreated. He endeavoured to allay discontent by employing local labour at high wages; and was courageous enough to pursue his task despite loss of money, wanton destruction, and many other discouragements. Ebullitions of discontent on the part of fractious Fenlanders did not cease till the beginning of the eighteenth century. A very simple calculation shows that the great-grandfather of the first Matthew Flinders would probably have been contemporary with Sir Cornelius Vermuyden's reclamation works. He may have been one of the "participants" who benefited from them. The fact is significant as bearing upon this conjecture, that no person named Flinders made a will in Lincolnshire before 1600. It is, too, an interesting circumstance that there was a Flinders among the early settlers in New England, Richard Flinders of Salem, born 1637. He may have been of the same family as the navigator, for the Lincolnshire element among the fathers of New England was pronounced. The name Flinders survived at Donington certainly for thirty years after the death of the sailor who gave lustre to it; for in a directory published in 1842 occur the names of "Flinders, Mrs. Eliz., Market Place," and "Flinders, Mrs. Mary, Church Street." The Flinders papers, mentioned in the preface, contain material which enables the family and connections of the navigator to be traced with certainty for seven generations. The genealogy is shown by the following table:— There is also an interesting connection between Flinders and the Tennysons, through the Franklin family. The present Lord Tennyson, when Governor of South Australia, in the course of his official duties, in March, 1902, unveiled a memorial to his kinsman on Mount Lofty, and in April of the same year a second one in Encounter Bay. The following table illustrates the relationship between him who wrote of "the long wash of Australasian seas" and him who knew them as discoverer: The Flinders papers also contain a note suggesting a distant connection between Matthew Flinders and the man who above all others was his choice friend, George Bass, the companion of his earliest explorations. Positive proof is lacking, but Flinders' daughter, Mrs. Petrie, wrote "we have reason to think that Bass was a connection of the family," and the point is too interesting to be left unstated. The following table shows the possible kinship: John Flinders of Donington, born 1682, died 1741 (great-grandfather of the navigator) had: Mary Flinders, third and youngest daughter, born 1734, married as her third husband, Bass, and had:It is clear from the particulars stated above that the tree of which Matthew Flinders was the fruit had its roots deep down in the soil of the little Lincolnshire market town where he was born; and Matthew himself would have continued the family tradition, inheriting the practice built up by his father and grandfather (as it was hoped he would do), had there not been within him an irresistible longing for the sea, and a bent of scientific curiosity directed to maritime exploration, which led him on a path of discovery to achievements that won him honourable rank in the noble roll of British naval pioneers. His father earned an excellent reputation, both professional and personal. The career of a country practitioner rarely affords an opportunity for distinction. It was even less so then than today, when at all events careful records of interesting cases are printed in a score or more of professional publications. But once we find the elder Matthew Flinders in print. The Memoirs of the Medical Society of London contain a paper read before that body on October 30th, 1797: "Case of a child born with variolar pustules, by Matthew Flinders, surgeon, Donington, Lincolnshire." The essay occupies three pages, and is a clear, succinct record of symptoms, treatment and results, for medical readers. The child died; whereupon the surgeon expresses his regret, not on account of infant or parents, but, with true scientific zest, because it deprived him of the opportunity of watching the development of an uncommon case. Donington is a small town in the heart of the fen country, lying ten miles south-west of Boston, and about the same distance, as the crow flies, from the black, muddy, western fringe of the Wash. It is a very old town. Formerly it was an important Lincolnshire centre, enjoying its weekly Saturday market, and its four annual fairs for the sale of horses, cattle, flax and hemp. During Flinders' youth and early manhood the district grew large quantities of hemp, principally for the Royal Navy. In the days of its prosperity Donington drew to itself the business of an agricultural neighbourhood which was so far cultivable as it rose above the level of desolate and foggy swamps. But the drainage of the fens and the making of good roads over what had once been an area of amphibious uncertainty, neither wholly land nor wholly water, had the effect of largely diverting business to Boston. Trade that came to Donington when it stood over its own tract of fen, like the elderly and respectable capital of some small island, now went to the thriving and historic port on the Witham. Donington stopped growing, stagnated, declined. On the map of Lincolnshire included in Camden's Britannia (1637) it is marked "Dunington," in letters as large as those given to Boston, Spalding and Lincoln. On modern maps the name is printed in small letters; on some in the smallest, or not at all. That fact is fairly indicative of its change of fortunes. Figures tell the tale with precision. In 1801 it contained 1321 inhabitants; in 1821, 1638; in 1841 it reached its maximum, 2026; by 1891 it had gone down to 1547; in 1901 to 1484; at the census of 1911 it had struggled up to 1564. The fame conferred by a distinguished son is hardly a recompense for faded prosperity, but certain it is that Donington commands a wider interest as the birthplace of Flinders than it ever did in any other respect during its long, uneventful history. The parish church, a fine Gothic building with a lofty, graceful spire, contains a monument to the memory of the navigator, with an inscription in praise of his character and life, and recording that he "twice circumnavigated the globe." Many men have encircled the earth, but few have been so distinguished as discoverers of important portions of it. Apart from this monument, the church contains marble ovals to the memory of Matthew Flinders' father, grandfather, and great-grandfather. They were provided from a sum of £100 pounds left by the navigator, in his will, for the purpose.It is interesting to notice that three of the early Australian explorers came from Lincolnshire, and were all born at places visible in clear weather from the tower of St. Botolph's Church at Boston. While Flinders sprang from Donington, George Bass, who co-operated with him in his first discoveries, was born at Aswarby, near Sleaford, and Sir John Franklin, who sailed with him in the Investigator, and was subsequently to become an Australian Governor and to achieve a pathetic immortality in another field of exploration, entered the world at Spilsby. Sir Joseph Banks, the botanist of Cook's first voyage, Flinders' steadfast friend, and the earliest potent advocate of Australian colonisation, though not actually born in Lincolnshire, was the son of a squire who at the time of his birth owned Revesby Abbey, which is within a short ride of each of the places just named. - Bernard O'Dowd, Dawnward, (1903). - Not universally, however, even in official documents. In the Report of the Committee of the Privy Council, dated May 1, 1849, "New Holland" is used to designate the continent, but "Australia" is employed as including both the continent and Tasmania. See Grey's Colonial Policy I., 424 and 439.) - Barker, Family Surnames (1903) page 143. - Holinshed's Chronicle (edition of 1807), II 58.) - Pishey Thompson Collections for a Topographical and Historical Account of Boston and the Hundred of Skirbeck (1820) p. 31. - Boston Corporation manuscripts quoted in Thompson, History and Antiquities of Boston (1856). - See Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, for 1619, 1623, 1625, 1638, 1639 et seq; and White's Lincolnshire page 542. - See C. W. Foster, Calendar of Lincoln Wills 1320-1600`, (1902). - Savage, Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England, (Boston, U.S.A. 1860). - William White, History, Gazetteer and Directory of the City and Diocese of Lincoln, (1842), p. 193. - Vol. IV., p. 330 (1779). - Allen, History of Lincolnshire, (1833), 1., 342; Victoria History of Lincolnshire Volume II. 359; Census Returns for 1911.	3.192377
Science: Balls and Ramps These resources explore basic concepts of science related to balls and ramps. Learn about the characteristics and properties of balls and ramps, relationship between the physical properties of balls and their motion, and some of the factors that affect the way balls behave. Includes lesson plans, experiments, and simulations. There are also links to eThemes Resources on force and motion, and gravity. TEACHEngineering: How High Can a Super Ball Bounce? Students learn about elasticity for super balls; includes: prerequisite knowledge, learning objectives, materials list, introduction, vocabulary, procedures, safety issues, troubleshooting tips, investigating questions, assessment, activity extensions,and activity scaling advice. PBS Kids: Balls and Ramp This lesson introduces students to the concept of gravity; includes materials needed and activity instructions. NOTE: This site includes a discussion board (message board, forum, etc). In this experiment, students learn about factors such as temperature and construction that affect the height of a ball bouncing. Basketball: A Physicist Party Trick Through these activities, students learn the relationship between energy of a basketball and how high it bounces. BBC: Force and Movement Play an interactive game and observe the relationship between force, size of a car, and steepness of a ramp. NOTE: The "Talk" link leads to a discussion forum. BBC: Forces in Action Observe how far the truck travels with changing the gradient. Note: The "Talk" link is a link to discussion forum. Ramps 1: Let it Roll In this lesson, students will explore and measure the rate of spherical objects rolling down a ramp. This experiment aims to help students understand things that affect the distance and speed of objects rolling from ramps. eThemes Resource: Physics: Force and Motion These sites cover the basic concepts of physics. Learn about force, motion, and friction using interactive simulations where you can manipulate the variables. Includes links to an eThemes on Simple Machines, Magnets, and Gravity. eThemes Resource: Physics: Gravity These sites explain how the earth's gravity works. Includes photographs, simulations, videos, hands-on activities, and online quizzes. Included are eThemes resources on mass versus weight and force.	4.480605
Pen"guin (?), n. [Perh. orig. the name of another bird, and fr. W. pen head + gwyn white; or perh. from a native South American name.] Any bird of the order Impennes, or Ptilopteri. They are covered with short, thick feathers, almost scalelike on the wings, which are without true quills. They are unable to fly, but use their wings to aid in diving, in which they are very expert. See King penguin, under Jackass. Penguins are found in the south temperate and antarctic regions. The king penguins (Aptenodytes Patachonica, and A. longirostris) are the largest; the jackass penguins (Spheniscus) and the rock hoppers (Catarractes) congregate in large numbers at their breeding grounds. The egg-shaped fleshy fruit of a West Indian plant (Bromelia Pinguin) of the Pineapple family; also, the plant itself, which has rigid, pointed, and spiny-toothed leaves, and is used for hedges. [Written also pinguin Arctic penguin Zool., the great auk. See Auk. © Webster 1913.	3.198864
Botanical Name : Smilax lanceolata Family : Smilacaceae Gender : Smilax Species : S. laurifolia Division : Magnoliophyta Class : Liliopsida Order : Liliales Parillax laurifolia (L.) Raf. Smilax alba Pursh Smilax hastata var. lanceolata (L.) Pursh Smilax lanceolata L. Smilax laurifolia var. bupleurifolia A.DC. Smilax reticulata Std. Common Name :Red China Root Habitat : Smilax lanceolata is native to South-eastern N. America – New Jersey to Florida and Texas.It grows on swamps and low ground. Moist woods and thickets. Bays, bogs, pocosins, swamp margins, marshy banks. Smilax laurifolia is an evergreen Climber growing to 6 m (19ft 8in). It is a vine that forms extensive colonies woody, with rhizomes irregularly branched, tuberous. Stems perennial cylindrical reaching 5 + m in length and 15 mm in diameter, dark spines, flat 12 mm rigid. The leaves are evergreen, ± evenly arranged, with petiole 0.5-1.5 cm, green undersides, dried light brown to brownish green, oblong-elliptic, lance-elliptic, or sometimes linear or broadly ovate , leathery. The inflorescence in umbels numerous, axillary to leaves, branches usually short, 5-12 (-25) flowers. The perianth yellow, cream or white, petals 4-5 mm. The fruits as berries ovoid, 5-8 mm, shiny black, glaucous. The stems of Smilax laurifolia are brutally armed with thorns. It is hardy to zone 8. It is in leaf 12-Jan It is in flower from Jul to August. The flowers are dioecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but only one sex is to be found on any one plant so both male and female plants must be grown if seed is required)The plant is not self-fertile. Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It can grow in semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It prefers moist soil. Succeeds in most soils in sun or semi-shade. This species is not very hardy in Britain. It succeeds outdoors in S.W. England, but even there it is best when grown against a wall. The fruit takes two growing seasons to ripen. The stems have viscious thorns. Dioecious. Male and female plants must be grown if seed is required Seed – sow March in a warm greenhouse. This note probably refers to the tropical members of the genus, seeds of plants from cooler areas seem to require a period of cold stratification, some species taking 2 or more years to germinate. We sow the seed of temperate species in a cold frame as soon as we receive it, and would sow the seed as soon as it is ripe if we could obtain it then. When the seedlings eventually germinate, prick them out into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grow them on in the greenhouse for at least their first year, though we normally grow them on in pots for 2 years. Plant them out into their permanent positions in early summer. Division in early spring as new growth begins. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. We have found it best to pot up the smaller divisions and grow them on in a lightly shaded position in a cold frame, planting them out once they are well established in the summer. Cuttings of half-ripe shoots, July in a frame Edible Uses : Edible Parts: Leaves; Root. Root – cooked. Rich in starch , it can be dried and ground into a powder to be used as a flavouring in soups etc or for making bread. The root can be up to 15cm thick. Young shoots – cooked. Used as an asparagus substitute. Astringent; Birthing aid; Poultice; Rubefacient; Tonic. The stem prickles have been rubbed on the skin as a counter-irritant to relieve localised pains, muscle cramps and twitching. A tea made from the leaves and stems has been used in the treatment of rheumatism and stomach problems. The wilted leaves are applied as a poultice to boils. A tea made from the roots is used to help the expelling of afterbirth. Reports that the roots contain the hormone testosterone have not been confirmed, they might contain steroid precursors, however . The root bark is astringent and slightly tonic. An infusion of the root bark has been used as a wash in treating burns, sores and pox. Chop and boil a small handful of roots in 3 cups of water to use as a pleasant tasting blood tonic and for fatigue, anemia, acidity, toxicity, rheumatism, and skin conditions. Drink with milk, cinnamon, and nutmeg to strengthen and proliferate red blood cells. Disclaimer : The information presented herein is intended for educational purposes only. Individual results may vary, and before using any supplement, it is always advisable to consult with your own health care provider	3.032835
Teachers and Educators of Art, Math and Special challenges, but does not frustrate. too easy, not too hard - the versatile and elegant geometry of Fractiles-7 allows almost anyone to create endless varieties of imaginative and beautiful designs, ranging from simple to complex. With 192 magnetic tiles and a 12"x12" steel board, Fractiles-7 is perfect for focus groups. And unlike pattern blocks, these magnetic tiles stay put, an especially helpful feature for students with fine motor skill problems. Video Introduction to Fractiles-7 on YouTube Click here to view video facilitates an intuitive grasp of spatial relationships and invites deeper exploration. use of Fractiles-7 increases visual perceptual skills and visual analysis skills. Dr. Jerome Rosner's guide for parents and teachers "Helping Children Overcome Learning Difficulties", Walker Publishing Company, 1993: perceptual skills and visual analysis skills are critical to mastering Arithmetic and Mathematics. The child who does not appreciate spatial relationships (whose visual analysis skills are deficient) or who lacks the ability to use spatial analysis strategies will have to resort to keeping the (math) problem in memory in its entirety, then organizing it into a solvable problem - a very difficult task indeed." stated, satisfactory progress in arithmetic depends upon the adequate development of visual perceptual skills. If a child's visual analysis skills are not properly developed, learning difficulties are inevitable. Arithmetic cannot be mastered a youngster begins to acquire better visual perceptual and analysis skills, she begins to exercise these skills in different situations. Signs of progress scores on T.V.A.S. (Test of Visual Analysis and writing improvement. of a more orderly approach to day-to-day situations - such as better organizing of time and efforts, noticing of things that facilitate learning, and so on. Rosner states that visual perceptual skills are strongly linked to learning to read and write. Improving visual analysis skills enables students to respond better to instructional programs. course, Fractiles-7 does not take the place of lessons, but your students may become more teachable by playing regularly with Fractiles-7. AND LESSON PLANS and Lesson Plans are available in the Adobe Portable Document Format (PDF; size:130 KB), a printer-friendly format. You must have Adobe Reader installed on your computer to see and print the games and lesson plans. You can download the free Adobe Reader software here. Included in the Games and Lesson Plans are: Your Friend Game Plus Stars Game IN YOUR IDEAS AND STORIES you successfully use Fractiles in the classroom, if you have a story about how Fractiles has fostered learning, if you have a reference to a book or magazine article that discusses subjects related to Fractiles such as tessellations or seven-fold symmetry, please send us an email with your ideas or your story to: [email protected], and we'll post it as part of what this site offers. use Fractiles in my classroom as an outlet for creativity. It is among the choices awaiting students who have earned 'free time.' The responses have been very positive! The students are at ease with the format and welcome the chance to match the designs on the folder and/or stake out their own artistic territories. I have been delighted to observe two or more students working together in a cooperative manner! Some of them would have loved to see their creations preserved for eternity in a museum! Eventually they conceded the need to yield the board and the pieces to another student knowing that they'll have another go at it when they earn the time!" -Gene Silver, Teacher, Kellogg Middle School, Portland, OR first graders are learning about shapes in our math class and using Fractiles-7 is a complimentary activity which they thoroughly enjoy. It's so popular that we have a sign up for equal turns!" -Marilyn Bowker, First Grade Teacher Willett Elementary School, Davis, CA find my students are captivated by Fractiles-7. Their sense of pride and accomplishment is immense when they show me what they have created. It makes them feel extra special about math. What a motivator! Fractiles is a terrific training aide that disguises learning as fun. It is reasonable to predict that Fractiles will remain a staple in my curriculum." -Bob Curry, Elementary School Teacher The Learning Adventure School, San Diego, 8th grade students are fascinated with Fractiles and enjoy making designs with them. Fractiles is especially applicable because we are studying geometric shapes and their relationships. I know they will be useful for a long time." -Juanita Smith-Nakao, 8th Grade Math Teacher James Curran Middle School, Bakersfield, students love Fractiles!" -Patricia Hardwick, 4th Grade Teacher Zilker Elementary School, Austin, TX 7th and 8th graders live for free time so that they can play with Fractiles." -Sandra Bullard, Teacher, The Prentice School "Where children with dyslexia learn to learn" is a tremendous addition to my grade 2 Math and Design Program - plus the students love them!" -Sydney Tyler-Parker, Cabrillo Elementary School, Pacifica, CA	3.557897
Weather is what is happening in the atmosphere now, at any place on Earth’s surface. It includes the temperature and whether it is wet and windy, or dry and calm. The Sun provides the energy that drives Earth’s weather. The Sun heats the air in various parts of Earth’s atmosphere by different amounts. Masses of warm and cold air then move from place to place, creating winds. Winds bring sunny, wet, or stormy conditions. People find out the type of weather to expect in a FORECAST. A weather forecast is a prediction of weather conditions over a particular area, either for a few days (called a short-range forecast), or for several weeks (called a long-range forecast). The people who study the weather and make weather forecasts are called meteorologists. Weather forecasts help people to plan—what to wear, when to travel, or which products to stock in supermarkets. Forecasts are especially important for farmers, builders, sailors, and anyone else who works outdoors. Sometimes an accurate forecast may mean the difference between life and death. Meteorologists receive information about air temperature, wind speeds, clouds, and rainfall from over 50,000 weather stations worldwide—on land and on ships and buoys at sea. The data is fed into huge computers that produce charts and forecasts. These are used, with satellite images, to predict the weather.	3.848896
- 1 of 5 Jogjakarta region was once the territory of the Kingdom of Mataram Classical (Hindu-Buddhist) that debuted in the 8th century AD and 9. The kingdom is leaving a trail that shows how high civilization in the land of Java at the time, in the form of temples that have been very popular in the world of tourism such as Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, Prambanan, and Boko. In addition there are so many small temples heritage of this kingdom are not popular like the temples above. It is estimated that the temples around Yogyakarta has been around since the 1st century and rapidly expanding construction at 8-10 AD. Although in the year 928 AD Mataram Classical government center was moved to East Java, but the development of small temples still lasted until the 13th century (Sri Mulyaningsih, 2006). This fact suggests that Java man was very religious, thoughtful, fond of purification and worship to God. Here some small temples are often missed to be visited that are actually very nice to be your the next tourist objects reference : SAMBI SARI TEMPLE (unique temple is located 6.5 meters below ground surface) Sambisari temple is a Hindu temple (Shiva), built in the 9th century in the reign of Rakai Garung in 812-838 AD in the kingdom of Mataram Classical era. Located about 12 miles to the east of the Yogyakarta city or about 4 miles before the Prambanan temple complex in the Sambisari Village Purwomartani, Kalasan, Sleman. Around the year 1966, this temple was discovered by a farmer, named Karyowinangun, who was hoeing his field. Inadvertently spade on carved stone. In 1987, restoration and reconstruction of the temple complex can be finished by the position of the temple at a depth of 6.5 meters from the ground so that the temple Sambisari often referred to as the underground temple. This is most likely due to buried under lava from Mount Merapi, which erupted on a large scale at the beginning of 9th century. This is proved from the many volcanic rock material around the temple. But some experts of archaeological predict the temple was above the soil surface like as other temples. Sambisari temple complex surrounded by original walls of the temple with a size of 50 mx 48 m, and has a main temple accompanied by three Perwara temples (supporting temple). Inside the temple there are statues of Durga (the north), the statue of Ganesha (east), the statue of Shiva Agastya (south), and on the west there are two gods statues of gate guard: Mahakala and Nadisywara. Inside the main temple there are statues of Linga and Yoni in sizes large enough. Linga-Yoni represents God Shiva and Goddess Parvati who refers to the nature of men and women, so that meaningful fertility and the beginning of life. The main temple building is unique because it does not have a base like as other temples in Java. Foot of the temple also functions as a base so that parallel to the ground. The foot of the temple left plain, without reliefs or decorations. Various decorations are generally in the form of new simbar found on the body until the top of the temple exterior. At the time of excavation was found also other historical objects such as some pottery, jewelry, metal mirror and a gold plate inscription. The temple is very unique ecause not visible from a distance! Please visit to the temple to see the uniqueness! SARI TEMPLE (a place to teach prospective monks and religious book store) Candi Sari is a Buddhist temple located in Bendan Village, Tirtomartani, Kalasan, Sleman. Built in the 8-9th during the reign of Rakai Panangkaran. Construction of this temple is mentioned in the inscription Kalasan (700 Saka / 778 AD), explained that the religious advisers of Syailendra dynasty have suggested the King Maharaja Tejapurnama Panangkarana (Rakai Panangkaran), founded a shrine to worship the goddess Tara, and a monastery for Buddhist monks. To worship the goddess Tara was built Kalasan, while for the dormitory was built Buddhist temple priest Sari. Function as a dormitory or residence visible from the overall shape and parts of the building and from the inside. The temple is a Busdhist building visible from the Buddhist stupa located on the top. The shape of the temple is very beautiful that consists of legs, body and roof, with a height of 17 meters, 17.3 meters long and 10 meters wide.The temple foot is only visible in part, because many stones are missing, a part of the body temple is terraced, has shape of rectangle, entrance is located in the middle facing east, and at the bottom, there are sculptures of people who are riding an elephant. On each side are evenly split window which surrounds the upper and lower levels. The Sari temple was originally a two-story building. The upper floor was used to store goods for the religious interests, while the lower floor is used for religious activities, such as teaching and learning, discussion, etc. On the top of this temple there are 9 stupas as seen on the stupa at Borobudur and arranged in three parallel rows, the temple walls decorated with Dhyani-Bodhisattva. Candi Sari-rise buildings, each has three interconnected rooms, are used a ladder to climb. In the outer parts of the body temple carved statues are placed in two rows of windows. This statue is God Bodisatwa and Goddess Tara amount 36 statues, ie, 8 on the east side, 8 on the north side, 8 on the south side and 12 on the west side. In general, this statue holds a red or a blue lotus, and all statues are described in a graceful manner, namely by Tribangga attitude, as well as his features are illustrated much more calm, smooth and not too fancy ornaments adapted with the Buddhist shrine. More over, on the left-right window is a sculpture Kinara Kinari or heavenly beings in the form of half-man half-bird. On the outside of the temple is coated with Vajralepa intended to soften the stone walls and preservatives that do not quickly wear out. Inside the temple there are three rooms lined each measuring 3.48 m x 5.80 m. The middle room and the two other rooms connected by doors and windows. Cubicles was originally built as a multilevel booths. High walls were divided in two with a wooden floor supported by fourteen wooden cross beams, so in the temple is contained six rooms. Wall of the plain room with no decoration. On the back wall of each room there is a kind of rack was located high, formerly used as a place of religious ceremony and put the statue. Downstairs there are several placemat of statues and niches to put statues. On the north wall and south rooms there are niches to put lighting. Based on these data, there is no doubt that the temple is a monastery, which is a place of meditation for the Buddhist monks, monk dormitory for monks to teach their students, in which there are a temple and also to keep religious books. In this beautiful Sari Temple, you can slightly to imagine the daily lives of the monks who studied religious sciences. Do not miss to visit this temple! KALASAN TEMPLE (the oldest Buddhist relics and the worship of a mother figure) Kalasan Temple or famous also with Kalibening Temple is the oldest Buddhist relics in the area of Yogyakarta and Central Java, located in the Kalasan village on the edge of the roadway Yogya-Solo at km 13 bit into about 50 meters. Construction of this temple is mentioned in the inscription Kalasan (700 Saka / 778 AD), explained that religious advisers of Syailendra dynasty have suggested Maharaja Tejapurnama Panangkarana (Panangkaran Rakai, the second king of the Kingdom Matarm Classical), founded a shrine to worship the Goddess Tara and a monastery for Buddhist monks. To worship the goddess Tara was built the Kalasan temple, beside dedicated to Goddes Tara is also representation of the sacred figure of Java Maharaja's mother, in-law of King Tejahpurnapana Panangkaran. Tara itself is a figure of Buddha's holy woman (Bodhisattvas) who are still practiced and preserved until now as Tantra Buddhas in Tibet Buddhism. Tara Or goddess Tara is the symbol of freedom or independence of spirit. It also claimed success, and achievement of real life and is sacred. Tara is also a symbol of compassion and emptiness (sunyata, lack of worldly existence and non eternity) is taught in Buddhism. Kalasan temple built in honor of Mother-in-law Rakai Panangkaran, in Syailendra dynasty. Because of that, the building is very luxurious, beautiful and has a unique ornaments. Around the temple there is Balekambang. The body temple is decorated by 52 stupas and has four rooms. There are the Goddess Tara statue in the largest space of the middle room as high as 3-6 meters. The top body of the temple there is a statue of Dhyani-Buddha on the four corners of the wind that is Aksobhya, Amogasidhi, Amitabha and Ratnasambhawa. Kala Makara arch with heaven ornaments on it engraved above the entrance so beautifully. In addition Kalasan temples and other supporting buildings there are also three small temples outside of the main temple building, shaped stupa. In the southern part of the temple there are two reliefs of bodhisattvas, while the roof consists of three sections. There are 8 rooms in the top roof, second roof is in octagonal, while the lower roof of the temple is similar with a square 20 which is equipped rooms on each side. Ornaments of the temple are carved with smooth and coated with "vajralepa", a yellowish material made from the sap of certain trees. The function of Vajralepa is as a protector of moss and mold, smooth the carving to be good. Kalasan built to honor the death of the king's mother-in-law. This illustrates how the moral heights of the Javanese Kings at that time. You should see the splendor of the Kalasan that was built by the king with great strength, which is dedicated to the figure of a mother! IJO TEMPLE (the most high temple that is located in Jogjakarta) Ijo Temple is a Hindu temple. Situated on a hill named Gumuk Ijo (Gumuk = Hill, Ijo = green) in the Groyokan Village, Sambirejo, Prambanan, Sleman. Ijo Temple Complex was built around 9th-10th century was found by HE Doorpaal, administrators of Sorogedug sugar factory in 1886. In the same year, C.A.Rosemeier found three areas of stone. In 1887 archaeological research and excavations the main temple by DR. J. Groneman found gold pieces lettered, gold rings, and several types of seeds.Ijo Temple is a temple that located on highest place compared other temples in Yogyakarta area. This temple is at 375 m above sea level. So that the temple is also known as "the Highest Temple in Jogjakarta ". Highest temple not because the high of the temple building but because it is at a high place. This temple consists of 11 terraces are increasingly rising backward. Rearmost part is as the center of the temple. This pattern is very different from the pattern of enshrinement area of Prambanan temple is mostly patterned concentrated in the middle. On the eleventh terrace to which is the center of the temple found a main temple and three supporting temples that are in front of the main temple(west). Inside the main temple there are lingga-yoni statue with a large enough size. Linga-Yoni in Ijo temple is one of the Linga-Yoni of the largest in Indonesia. In the middle of supporting temple (Candi Perwara), there are cow statue named Nandini and Padmasana statue. In Hindu mythology Nandini regarded as the god Shiva's vehicle. In the supporting temple on the south side there is a Yoni with the shape almost similar to the smaller main temple. Temple building on a lower terrace, (terrace number 1 until 10) the building has crumbled, just a stone temple can be seen here, may have many missing , so it can not be united again. The primary function of the Ijo temple is unknown until now but it is interesting to visit the temple because you will see the temple built on a hill combined with a very beautiful natural scenery around it. Try to imagine about how the construction of the temple on the hill without equipment as it is now! BARONG TEMPLE (worship to the gods and goddesses of fertility) Barong temple is one of the unique temples located in the south of Prambanan temple, precisely in theBatur Agung hills, Sari Temple, Sambirejo Village, Prambanan, Sleman. Named Candi Barong by locals because of the Kala decoration on each side of the temple. The decoration resembles a lion / barong. Barong Temple is built around the 9th -10th century to. The temple was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century in collapse condition by a Dutch around 1913 when the expansion of sugar plantations to support the production of sugar mills. At that time, the condition of the temple still in ruins and difficult to identify its original form. Candi Barong restoration began in 1987 until 1992. Barong Temple is a ritual complex to worship the God Vishnu and his wife, Goddess Laksmi or known by the name of Dewi Sri (the goddess of fertility for agriculture). There are ornament of winged shells (Sankha) which is one of the symbols (laksana) the god Vishnu, and the top of the building (kemuncak) in the form of jewels (ratna). Worship to the God Vishnu and Goddess Sri is probably caused by soil conditions around the temple are barren and infertile. Thus, by worshiping God Vishnu and Goddess Sri expected it to be fertile soil conditions. Page of the temple complex is three terraces that higher to the east, which is the back. On the highest terrace there is a hallway and two temples which have no windows and doors. The highest terrace is the most sacred pages. The difference between of them lies in the decoration and statue. Based on those two things, it is estimated the first temple built to worship for the god Vishnu, while the second temple for the Goddess Sri. On page two there is a building structure sized12.30 mx 7.80 m and some pile of stones sized the octagonal. Allegedly this structure is the foundation building the gazebo with a roof of wood. While on the first terrace page not found building structure. Dewi Sri in Java is very popular and regarded as the Goddess of Rice. There is no loss if you take the time to visit the temple dedicated to worship of the farmer goddess in Java! BANYUNIBO TEMPLE (temples with reliefs of fertility goddess and the god of wealth) Banyunibo Temple (which in Javanese means falling water-dripping) is a Buddhist temple located south of Cepit, Bokoharjo, Prambanan, Sleman, about 14 km east of Yogyakarta. The location is shown alone in the agricultural area with the background hills of Gunung Kidul in the south. The temple is named Banyunibo because according to local residents when viewed from a distance resembles a moisture (water) that drips or tibo (Javanese), which means fall.This temple was built around the 9th century during the reign of King Balitung in Mataram Kingdom Classical era. This temple was built on a wide enough area and surrounded by hills on the north side, east, and south. On these hills are also located many other temples such as Boko temple, Dawangsari temple or Saragedug temple, Site Gupala, and Ijo temple. There is stupa on the top of the temple is the hallmark of Buddhism. The condition of the temple still look strong and sturdy with kala-makara relief carvings and other forms of relief are still visible. The temple was first discovered and repaired again in the 1940's to 1962 it consisted of one main temple, facing west, is surrounded by 6 (six) Candi Perwara (supporting temple) in the form of stupas are arranged in an array on the south and east of the Main Temple. Foot of the temple which has a height of 2.5 m was built on a stone floor. On the western side of the foot of the temple there are stairs inside. At each corner of the foot of the temple and in the middle of each side of the temple legs (except the west side), there is an ornament of "Jaladwara" that is placed on the floor above the foot of the temple and serve as channels for rainwater. On the front side of the temple there is a stall door of the temple. Because of the size of the temple with an area smaller than the foot of the temple then not all parts of the upper floor of the temple is covered by the foot of the temple. Body parts that are not closed is called the temple hall and serves as a corridor for the surrounding temples. Banyunibo Temple including Buddhist shrine that is quite rich in ornamentation. Almost in every part of the temple is filled by a variety of ornaments and reliefs, although part of one another often found the same decorative motifs. On the walls, the south entrance of the temple, there are reliefs depicting a male figure. The Relief of his own figure has been damaged lived part of his left hand. To the left there is a follower (pariwara) in a sitting position "ardha paryangka". The right hand above the right thigh, the left hand acted as if protecting a large bag. The reliefs depict Gods Kauravas, who was considered the god of wealth, but in Indonesia the god is known by Buddhists. Above of the reliefs field there is ornament in the form of "recalcitrant" or "selur gelung". On the north wall there are reliefs of female figures in a sitting position. The left foot bent upwards, the right leg in a cross-legged position. The right hand ride on the thigh while his left hand carrying (cradle) child. Around it there are little children that many in number, gathered around the woman. Both reliefs depict Hariti, the goddess of fertility in Buddhism and her husband, Vaisaravana (the god of wealth). In the Banyunibo temple reliefs you can enjoy the reliefs of the goddeses of wealth and fertility combined with the natural beauty surrounding such as the shooting rice field. Evidence of religious harmony can also be found here by looking at the position Banyunibo temple not far even mingle with the temples that are Hindu. In this temple you can enjoy prosperity and fertility goddess relief combined with the natural beauty surrounding such as the rice field. Evidence of religious harmony can also be found here by looking at the Banyunibo position temple that is not far even mingle with the temples that are Hindu. KEDULAN TEMPLE (inscription of village tax exemption for dam and irrigation) Kedulan temple is a Hindu temple located not far from Temple Sambisari, namely Kedulan, Village Tirtomartani, Kalasan, Yogyakarta. This temple was built around the 8th century and 9th during the kingdom of Mataram Classic. Kedulan temple was found on November 24, 1993 in collapsed and buried in sand conditions. The discovery of the temple happened by accident, when a group of society was being mined the sand. If viewed from the sand material that was stockpiled Kedulan Temple, estimated material was come from the eruption of Mount Merapi, which occurred in several periods. Judging from the type of soil that covers temple, visible there are 13 layers of lava types, estimated that the lava that buried the temple is derived from 13 times the eruption of Mount Merapi. The base of the temple located at a depth of about seven meters. Since found in 1993 until 2010 Kedulan temple restoration is still not over. On June 12, 2003, found two inscriptions, Pananggaran and Sumudul in Kedulan Temple area at the excavation site. Inscriptions written in Sanskrit Pallawa and is successfully read by two epigraf from the Department of Archaeology, University of Gadjah Mada in Yogyakarta, namely Dr. Riboet Darmoseotopo and Tjahjono Prasodjo MA.The inscription dates to the year 791 Saka (869 AD, or about 10 years after the Prambanan temple stands), the contents of the land tax exemption at the Pananggaran and Parhyangan village, making dams for irrigation, establishment of the sacred building called Tiwaharyyan and threats of condemnation for anyone who does not obey the rules. Some archaeologists suspect that the inscription relating to the establishment Kedulan Temple.The Tiwaharyyan sacred building is estimated Kedulan itself. Pananggaran village as told in the inscription believed to be in the area around the temple, as well as the dam. But until now have not found traces of an ancient dam in question. Perhaps the dam was built on the River Opak within ± 4 km from the location of the temple, or perhaps also in the river which is now no longer exists as it is covered by lava eruption of Mount Merapi, a thousand years ago. Kedulan temple facing the east and art decoration approached with Ijo and Barong temple ornament. In the Kedulan temple there are also stairs at Supporting Temple (Candi Perwara).The ornaments on the stairs is shaped a snack and at the mouth of the snake carved bird figure. There are distinctively at Kedulan Temple located at Kala reliefs. In Central Java, relief of Kala had no lower jaw as in East Java. But Kedulan Temple that is located in Central Java, the relief of Kala has the lower jaw. Because of that, it is estimated Kedulan temple built in the late period of the Hindu kingdoms of Central Java, which was shifted to East Java around the 8th century and 10th. Kedulan temple is one more proof that the Javanese Kings at classical era not only religious but also pay attention to the prosperity of its people by build dams and irrigation which is very meaningful for irrigating rice fields at that era. So you should make time to see tangible evidence of how religious and wise of the Javanese Kings at that time! GAMPINGAN TEMPLE (place of worship to the god of fortune) Gampingan temple is a Buddhist temple, situated in the Gampingan, Sitimulyo, Piyungan, Bantul, the south of the Jogja City. Based on the art of building style and statue, this temple is built in the 9th century. The temple was discovered in 1995 by a brick maker, Sarjono who then reported to the Asylum and Archaeological Heritage DIY. Rescue excavations conducted by the SPSP DIY on August 3-10, 1995. Excavation found four of white stone structure. The fourth building consists of a main building, two of building stupas and buildings located in the southwest of the southern stupa. Others artifacts that were found in the form of a statue of Bodhisattva, three Buddha statues, nine plates of gold, pottery fragments, and fragments of pottery. Although until now not been fully completed restoration, the ruins of this temple complex has seven buildings of the temple that is not intact, with the main building measuring approximately 5m x 5m and height of 1.2 meters. The main temple building facing to the west. This is indicated by the rest of the stairs as much as seven traps on the west side of the main building. This stairs has a makara decoration at the ends. Inside the main building there are three of Dhyani Buddha Wairocana statues made from bronze, two statues of Jambhala and Candralokesvara from andesite stone, the objects of gold, and some ceramic objects. Gampingan temple which is built between the years 730-850 AD is believed to be a place of worship Gods Jambhala (God of fortune, the son of the God Shiva). Jambhala is described as being in a meditation position, sitting cross-legged while his eyes is closed. The body is decorated by iconographic elements (asana) formed a lotus leaf amounted to eight pieces as a symbol of chakra in the human body. Although its small size and incomplete, Gampingan temple is still rich in amazing relief. At the foot of the Gampingan Temple there are various kinds of animals reliefs such as frogs, roosters, and various species of birds. There are reliefs crows appear to have a large beak, sturdy body, the wing inflates upward and fan-shaped tail. There are also reliefs of woodpecker that has a crest on the head, beak rather long and pointy and wings that do not expand. In addition, there is also a rooster that has swollen chest and inflate the wing down. Making large quantities of bird reliefs in this temple as it related to public belief that the bird is the manifestation of the gods as well as natural messengers of the gods, or heaven. Birds are also associated with human absolute freedom that is achieved after successfully left the world, the symbol of the human soul is separated from the body. Relief of many other animals are depicted is a frog. Javanese people at that time believed that frogs have supernatural powers that can bring rain, so the frog is also believed to increase productivity because the rain that is brought frogs could improve yields. Frogs are often emerge from the water also symbolizes the renewal of life and resurrection to a better direction . While the figure of Jambhala in this temple is different from other temples. Generally, Jambhala other temples is depicted with wide eyes that looked at the devotees along with a variety of ornament that symbolizes prosperity and luxury. Believed, different depictions is based on worship motivation, not to invoke prosperity but guidance in order to achieve true happiness. Do not miss to visit this temple. Take a look at various kinds of animals that are considered have sepernatural power at that time in any reliefs of the temple , especially birds that brought message of paradise MORANGAN TEMPLE (the temple that has many kind of animals relief) Morangan temple is a Hindu temple located in Morangan, Sindumartani, Ngemplak, Sleman, Yogyakarta and occupies the most northerly position of the whole temple complex in the region of Jogjakarta. The temple is very close to the river Gendol (100 meters west) and the northernmost approached Mount Merapi. This temple was built in approximately the 9th - 10th century in the kingdom of Mataram Classical era, contemporaneous with the founding of Hindu temples, such as Prambanan and others. This temple damaged one of the causes of damage caused by flooding rivers Gendol that is located not more than 200 meters on the east side of the temple complex. This temple was discovered since the Dutch colonial era. After the Dutch left Indonesia temple was re-covered with soil. Excavation in 1982, managed to show two of temple building that are the main temple and ancillary temple, previously buried 6.5 meters below ground. The main temple consists of legs, body and roof of the temple. This temple has many reliefs that is carved on the trunk legs and torso of the temple. Ancillary temples facing east, is currently building that can be found is part of the body and the foot of the temple of the temple. The north, west, and south side of the temple has a niche containing the statue, but the statue has been secured by the local archaeological government. One thing that distinguishes the Morangan temple with other temple is the presence of a relief panel that is expected is part of Tantri Kamandaka story about a tiger that were deceived by a goat, because during this time, Tantri Kamandaka relief is only found in a Buddhist temple. In Morangan temple complex is also found Yoni statues, hermit sculptures and a number of other statues in the niches of the temple. The reliefs depict two men flanking the pile of flowers, the two women flanking a large jug with bring a small jugs, two women riding elephants, three hermits, head of sculture in the niche, and the rooster is propped Gana. In addition there are kind of birds such as sparrows, parrots and peacocks. Other animals reliefs are cows, deer, and mouse deer. Carvings of animals and lotus flowers dominate the walls of this temple reliefs. The number of animal reliefs show the closeness of human relationships with the environment. The majority of Hindu temples is richer with Kresnayana the Ramayana story. But Morangan temple look more unique in that it carries a lot of animal life. Relief of these animals spread over on two buildings that had assembled, either in the form of the main temple and ancillary temples. So this temple other than as a medium of meditation or prayer, it is also used as a learning media-friendly nature to safeguard the environment by not cutting trees. Temple for Hindu's people is like dwelling of gods that is very beautiful and comfortable, inhabited by various animals with the forest and the plants are still preserved. Please come to the Morangan temple! You can see the harmony between human life and nature here. GEBANG TEMPLE (small temple in the middle of village) Gebang temple is located in Gebang, Wdomartani, Ngemplak, Sleman. The name of the temple is taken from the village name where people found the Ganescha Statue on November 1936. This temple is without relief or plain that indicates that the temple was derived from old period, between the years 730-800 AD, or about the 8th century AD when the Sanjaya dynasty which ruled the kingdom of Mataram Classical era (Hindu). The temple is restored by Prof. Dr. Ir. Van Romondt years 1937-1939, is a square with a single chamber, measuring about 5 x 5 meters with a height of about 8 meters. Location Gebang temple is now in the middle of residential, west Maguwoharjo Stadium. To go to the temple Gebang have to enter residential areas and walkways are pretty quiet from the crowd. Gebang Temple is a Hindu temple. This is proven by the peak of the roof-shaped Lingga cylinder that is placed on the Seroja bearing, besides that it is also a statue of Ganesha, Nandhiswara and Yoni are respectively located on the west niche, niche of the east and to the left of the entrance and the chambers of the temple. You have to visit to this small beautiful temple in the middle of the village. Small but describes the glory of the ancestor in the past! The description of temples above are small temples in Yogyakarta that can still be identified although the overall not yet fully revealed. There are many other temples and sites in the Yogyakarta area that has not been identified even abandoned. The temples are a wealth of priceless relics of our ancestors and we have to take care of these heritage which shows just how high on the classical civilization on the island of Java. The heritage also show the identity of this nation are very religious and harmony in difference. (compiled from various sources/Augus, 2011/Tour Department-wi2n)	3.038397
Dominican Republic: History The island of Hispaniola, of which the Dominican Republic forms the eastern two-thirds and Haiti the remainder, was originally occupied by Tainos, an Arawak-speaking people. The Tainos welcomed Columbus in his first voyage in 1492, but subsequent colonizers were brutal, reducing the Taino population from about 1 million to about 500 in 50 years. To ensure adequate labor for plantations, the Spanish brought African slaves to the island beginning in 1503. In the next century, French settlers occupied the western end of the island, which Spain ceded to France in 1697, and which, in 1804, became the Republic of Haiti. The Haitians conquered the whole island in 1822 and held it until 1844, when forces led by Juan Pablo Duarte, the hero of Dominican independence, drove them out and established the Dominican Republic as an independent state. In 1861, the Dominicans voluntarily returned to the Spanish Empire; in 1865, independence was restored. Economic difficulties, the threat of European intervention, and ongoing internal disorders led to a U.S. occupation in 1916 and the establishment of a military government in the Dominican Republic. The occupation ended in 1924, with a democratically elected Dominican Government. In 1930, Rafael L. Trujillo, a prominent army commander, established absolute political control. Trujillo promoted economic development--from which he and his supporters benefited--and severe repression of domestic human rights. Mismanagement and corruption resulted in major economic problems. In August 1960, the Organization of American States (OAS) imposed diplomatic sanctions against the Dominican Republic as a result of Trujillo's complicity in an attempt to assassinate President Romulo Betancourt of Venezuela. These sanctions remained in force after Trujillo's death by assassination in May 1961. In November 1961, the Trujillo family was forced into exile. In January 1962, a council of state that included moderate opposition elements with legislative and executive powers was formed. OAS sanctions were lifted January 4, and, after the resignation of President Joaquin Balaguer on January 16, the council under President Rafael E. Bonnelly headed the Dominican Government. In 1963, Juan Bosch was inaugurated president. Bosch was overthrown in a military coup in September 1963. Another military coup, on April 24, 1965, led to violence between military elements favoring the return to government by Bosch and those who proposed a military junta committed to early general elections. On April 28, U.S. military forces landed to protect U.S. citizens and to evacuate U.S. and other foreign nationals. Additional U.S. forces subsequently established order. In June 1966, President Balaguer, leader of the Reformist Party (now called the Social Christian Reformist Party--PRSC), was elected and then re-elected to office in May 1970 and May 1974, both times after the major opposition parties withdrew late in the campaign. In the May 1978 election, Balaguer was defeated in his bid for a fourth successive term by Antonio Guzman of the Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD). Guzman's inauguration on August 16 marked the country's first peaceful transfer of power from one freely elected president to another. The PRD's presidential candidate, Salvador Jorge Blanco, won the 1982 elections, and the PRD gained a majority in both houses of Congress. In an attempt to cure the ailing economy, the Jorge administration began to implement economic adjustment and recovery policies, including an austerity program in cooperation with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In April 1984, rising prices of basic foodstuffs and uncertainty about austerity measures led to riots. Balaguer was returned to the presidency with electoral victories in 1986 and 1990. Upon taking office in 1986, Balaguer tried to reactivate the economy through a public works construction program. Nonetheless, by 1988 the country had slid into a 2-year economic depression, characterized by high inflation and currency devaluation. Economic difficulties, coupled with problems in the delivery of basic services--e.g., electricity, water, transportation--generated popular discontent that resulted in frequent protests, occasionally violent, including a paralyzing nationwide strike in June 1989. In 1990, Balaguer instituted a second set of economic reforms. After concluding an IMF agreement, balancing the budget, and curtailing inflation, the Dominican Republic experienced a period of economic growth marked by moderate inflation, a balance in external accounts, and a steadily increasing GDP that lasted through 2000. The voting process in 1986 and 1990 was generally seen as fair, but allegations of electoral board fraud tainted both victories. The elections of 1994 were again marred by charges of fraud. Following a compromise calling for constitutional and electoral reform, President Balaguer assumed office for an abbreviated term and Congress amended the constitution to bar presidential succession. Since 1996, the Dominican electoral process has been seen as generally free and fair. In June 1996, Leonel Fernandez Reyna of the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD) was elected to a 4-year term as president. Fernandez's political agenda was one of economic and judicial reform. He helped enhance Dominican participation in hemispheric affairs, such as the OAS and the followup to the Miami Summit. On May 16, 2000, Hipolito Mejia, the PRD candidate, was elected president in another free and fair election, defeating PLD candidate Danilo Medina and former president Balaguer. Mejia championed the cause of free trade and Central American and Caribbean economic integration. The Dominican Republic signed a free trade agreement (CAFTA-DR) with the United States and five Central American countries in August 2004, in the last weeks of the Mejia administration. During the Mejia administration, the government sponsored and obtained anti-trafficking and anti-money-laundering legislation, sent troops to Iraq for Operation Iraqi Freedom, and ratified the Article 98 agreement it had signed in 2002. Mejia faced mounting domestic problems as a deteriorating economy--caused in large part by the government's measures to deal with massive bank fraud--and constant power shortages plagued the latter part of his administration. During the Mejia administration, the constitution was amended to permit an incumbent president to seek a second successive term, and Mejia ran for re-election. On May 16, 2004, Leonel Fernandez was elected president, defeating Mejia 57.11% to 33.65%. Eduardo Estrella of the PRSC received 8.65% of the vote. Fernandez took office on August 16, 2004, promising in his inaugural speech to promote fiscal austerity, to fight corruption and to support social concerns. Fernandez said the Dominican Republic would support policies favoring international peace and security through multilateral mechanisms in conformity with the United Nations and the OAS. On May 16, 2008, President Fernandez was re-elected president with 53.8% of the vote. The Fernandez administration works closely with the United States on law enforcement, immigration, and counterterrorism matters. Congressional and municipal elections were held in May 2010, with Fernandez’s PLD winning a slim majority of seats in the House of Representatives and 31 of 32 Senate seats, as well as a plurality of mayoral seats. President Fernandez’s role in the victorious congressional campaign led his supporters to promote his candidacy for re-election in 2012. The new constitution promulgated in January 2010 would seem to prohibit this, and ultimately Fernandez announced that he would not run in the 2012 elections. Following primary contests, the 2012 presidential race is divided between the ruling PLD's candidate, Danilo Medina, and the opposition PRD's candidate, former President Hipolito Mejia. Sources:CIA World Factbook (March 2012) U.S. Dept. of State Country Background Notes ( March 2012)	3.396043
Old State Capitol Delve into the politics and everyday life of the tumultuous 19th-century by touring this National Historic Landmark that served as Kentucky's capitol from 1830 to 1910. In the galleries of this stately building, witness the changing tastes of 19th-century Kentuckians in "Great Revivals: Kentucky Decorative Arts Treasures ," an exhibition that highlights five stylistic design eras and the commonwealth's treasures from those times. Estimated time: 1 hour. Visit the re-created 1850s State Law Library in its original site or debate legislative matters in the re-created 1850s House and Senate chambers . Estimated time of historical building tour: 1 hour. All Old State Capitol tours begin at the Thomas D. Clark Center for Kentucky History. History of the Building Gideon Shryock, an early Kentucky architect, designed the Old State Capitol when he was only 25 years old. Shryock used architectural symbolism to connect the vigorous frontier state of Kentucky with the ideals of classical Greek democracy. The building, which introduced Greek-Revival architecture to the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains, is widely recognized as a beautiful masterpiece of 19th-century American architecture and boasts a self-supporting stone stairway, a light-flooded rotunda and dual legislative chambers. This was the only pro-Union state capitol occupied by the Confederate army during the Civil War. Plans to swear in a Confederate governor and establish a Confederate state government were ruined by the approach of the Union army just days before the Battle of Perryville in 1862. In the aftermath of the bitterly contested gubernatorial election in 1899, the state legislature met here in 1900 to decide the winner. An assassin, hiding in an office in the Old Capitol Annex next door, shot the Democratic claimant, William Goebel, as he approached the Capitol. Armed citizens and State Guard soldiers occupied the grounds, and here for a time Kentuckians threatened to fight their own miniature civil war. A plaque marks the site outside the building where Goebel, the only governor in United States history to be assassinated while in office, fell. Replaced by the New Capitol in South Frankfort early in the 20th century, the building has served as the home of the Kentucky Historical Society since 1920. The subject of extensive restoration work since the early 1970s, the Old State Capitol looks today much as it did in the 1850s. Old State Capitol 300 West Broadway Frankfort, KY 40601 Tours of the Old State Capitol Available March 9 - Dec. 14, 2013: All tours begin at the Thomas D. Clark Center for Kentucky History. Wednesdays: 3 p.m. Thursdays: 3 p.m. and 4:30 p.m. Fridays: 3 p.m. Saturdays: 10:30 a.m., noon, 1:30 p.m. and 3 p.m. Hours and Admission Plan a Field Trip Calendar of Events Old State Capitol Packet - Fourth and Fifth Grades	3.091492
Air Traffic Control and Radar Air Traffic Control and Radar Every day tens of thousands of people board airplanes to travel from one place to another. These flights, thousands of which take off and land daily, are among the safest forms of travel. Although airplane crashes are tragic and headline grabbing, the fact is the sky is a very safe place to be. But how, with so many airplanes in the air, does air travel maintain such a good safety record? The answer is, in large part, air traffic control, the complex system of directing planes and telling them how high or low to fly, and when and where to land safely. Air traffic control systems rely heavily on radar. Radar first made a huge impact during World War II when it was largely developed for use by battling nations. After the war the civil (that is, non-military) aviation community began to apply radar techniques developed during the war to civil aviation guidance and surveillance. The first use of this technology involved using radar to aid landing. In 1943 U.S Air Force air traffic controllers began routinely using Ground Controlled Approach (GCA) equipment to help military pilots land safely in poor visibility. GCA employed a pair of oscillating radar antennas with narrow “pencil beams,” one scanning side to side (azimuth), the other up and down (elevation). A controller observed the precise angle returns from these azimuth and elevation radars and radioed landing guidance to the pilot. GCA also included a 360-degree rotating radar for surveillance of the entire terminal area. This radar used a “fan” beam (narrow in azimuth and tall in elevation) that detected planes out to about 20 miles from the airport and up to altitudes of about 3000 meters (10,000 feet). Civil controllers first used military GCA equipment at LaGuardia Airport in 1945, where it helped triple the landing rate to 15 planes per hour. GCA experienced occasional problems, but it worked well enough so that by 1952 it was being used at many airports. By the mid-1950s, however, GCA landing guidance components were being replaced by a new landing aid called the Instrument Landing System (ILS). ILS uses similar course guidance principles, but uses receivers in aircraft that display course deviation directly to the cockpit. While it’s crucial that planes land safely, it is equally important that they be safe during flight. Thus, as ILS replaced the GCA scanning pencil beams, improved rotating radars with faster scan rates and larger coverage areas also replaced the GCA terminal area surveillance radars. As air traffic continued to grow it also became important to track planes in high-altitude airspace. Accordingly, the coverage of air traffic radar surveillance grew throughout the 1960s as long-range radars were deployed along important air routes. Initially, these aircraft surveillance radars had no automatic tracking capability. Controllers pushed plastic markers called “shrimp boats” around the screen to track the movement of an aircraft. By the 1960s radar surveillance of civil aircraft routinely included automatic aircraft tracking. Air traffic control radars now track both aircraft and hazardous weather. Modern air traffic control radars use the Doppler effect to discriminate moving aircraft from stationary targets and to measure storm velocities. Another system developed during World War II, and which had great impact on civil aviation, was the Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) system. IFF depended on special radar receiver/transmitter units located in friendly aircraft. These radar “transponders” responded to coded radar “interrogations” with coded replies to indicate that they were not hostile aircraft. In the late 1950s it was proposed that IFF technology be used for surveillance of civil aircraft. The use of transponders increases the detection range of the radar, eliminates clutter interference from other reflectors, and provides a means of aircraft identification and altitude reporting. In the early 1960s the U.S Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) published a national standard for air traffic control interrogators and transponders. By the end of the decade over 200 ground-based interrogators were in use in the U. S and the FAA made it mandatory to equip aircraft with transponders before they could operate in positive controlled airspace at high altitudes and near major airports. In the 1970s the FAA enlisted the aid of the MIT Lincoln Laboratory to upgrade the original air traffic control radar beacon system to improve its surveillance performance in dense airspace and to expand its coded transmissions to transmit air traffic control data between the ground and individual aircraft. This “discrete addressed” beacon system uses ground sensors and airborne transponders that are interoperable with the original beacon system, but which achieve surveillance accuracy, capacity, and reliability that is adequate to support automatic safety warning functions for controllers and pilots. In the 1980s the FAA developed an airborne collision avoidance system based on air-to-air surveillance of the same air traffic control transponders used for surveillance from the ground. Today the use of this collision avoidance system is required on all air carrier aircraft operating in the United States and Europe. The last part of the air traffic control system to benefit from radar surveillance was the airport runways and taxi-ways. Radar surveillance to assure safety of aircraft on the airport surface is difficult because of reflections from the ground and from airport structures and service vehicles. Although several generations of airport surface detection radars have been deployed since the 1990s, and surface surveillance performance has improved, reflections continue to cause unreliable tracking. As with other radar environments, surveillance quality on the airport surface can be improved by the use of transponders. Unfortunately, the resolution of the beacon system used for airspace surveillance is inadequate to distinguish between closely spaced aircraft at airports. However, high-resolution surface surveillance can be achieved with multiple receivers on the airport surface that estimate transponder locations by comparing arrival times of replies from conventional transponders. Systems that combine this “multilateration” technique with primary radar surveillance can now achieve surveillance accuracies and reliabilities that are good enough to input to automatic safety warning devices on the airport surface. Related recommended reading The story of the invention of the Klystron. <span id="fck_dom_range_temp_1365634644485_748" />[[Category:Navigation	3.685135
Note: This message is displayed if (1) your browser is not standards-compliant or (2) you have you disabled CSS. Read our Policies for more information. Governor of Indiana December 5, 1822-February 12, 1825 Artist: Samuel Burtis Baker, American, 1882-1967 oil on canvas, 32 3/16 x 26 5/16 (81.7 x 66.8) WILLIAM HENDRICKS, born in Pennsylvania, was educated in a common school, read law, and was admitted to the bar in Cincinnati. In 1812 he came to Madison, Indiana Territory, where he practiced law and established the Eagle, the second newspaper published in Indiana. After only a few years in Madison he was elected to the territorial house of representatives and was secretary of the Indiana Constitutional Convention in 1816. A Democratic-Republican, Hendricks won election in August, 1816, as the first state representative to Congress from Indiana and was re-elected twice to this office. Hendricks, running unopposed, was elected governor in 1822. It was during this term of office that the capital was moved from Corydon to Indianapolis. Hendricks resigned in 1825 upon election to the United States Senate. Re-elected to the Senate in 1830, Hendricks served until 1837, having been defeated for re-election by Oliver H. Smith in 1836. After twenty-one years in public office, he returned to Madison to practice law and manage his large estate. Smith and Hendricks were friends, and Smith remembers him: "He had a smile on his face and a warm shake of the hand for all he met. He was not of the very first order of talents, but made all up by his plain, practical, good sense. He never attempted to speak upon subjects he did not understand." He was about six feet tall and had red hair and blue eyes. His nephew, Thomas A. Hendricks was elected governor of Indiana in 1873. Source: Peat, Wilbur D. Portraits and Painters of the Governors of Indiana 1800-1978. Revised, edited and with new entries by Diane Gail Lazarus, Indianapolis Museum of Art. Biographies of the governors by Lana Ruegamer, Indiana Historical Society. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society and Indianapolis Museum of Art, 1978.	3.004872
Holidays & Observances Holidays and Observances Individually Cinco de Mayo Account of the events that occurred during the Battle of Puebla, Mexico, on May 5, 1862, and a brief explanation of why this day is important. Includes a bibliography. From a community college class project. Montes de Oca de Marshall, Assunta	3.023419
Does your child ever have difficulty speaking? Does he or she hesitate or repeat syllables, words, or phrases? While your first inclination may be to call the issue stuttering, it may be a normal part of language development. So when should you be worried about a youngster struggling to get words out, how can you know if it's a true problem or just normal development, what causes stuttering, what can you do as a parent to help, and when should you seek professional help? These are just a few of the important questions to consider if you suspect your child is suffering from stuttering. As children learn to talk, many will stutter on occasion as part of normal language development. This interruption in speech is mistaken for stuttering, but it is actually known as dysfluency. Many toddlers and preschoolers stumble on or mispronounce words, repeat sounds, hesitate as they talk, or have difficulty making certain sounds. A dysfluent child may occasionally repeat words or syllables once or twice. For example, they may say, “I li-li-like that.” Normal dysfluency comes and goes and is more common in boys. It may be especially noticeable when a child is tired, stressed, or excited. While this may be worrisome to parents, most children learn to have normal speech and leave the dysfluency behind. As opposed to normal dysfluency, a child with a true stuttering problem will continue to stutter for longer than six months and will not improve during that time. A child with mild stuttering will repeat sounds more than twice. (“I li-li-li-li-like that.”) You may notice tension in the facial muscles, usually around the mouth. The child's voice may get higher in pitch with the repetitions and the child may get quiet and not breath for several seconds. A child with severe stuttering will struggle with more than 10 percent of his or her words and show considerable tension and effort. This child may even change words to avoid stuttering. A variety of factors contribute to the problem of stuttering. Experts say that genetics play a large role, as nearly 60 percent of people who stutter have a family member who also stuttered. Additionally, other developmental delays or language problems contribute to stuttering. For those who stutter, language is processed in a different area of the brain. There seems to be a communication problem between the brain and the body muscles responsible for speaking. If your child has a stuttering problem, it is important for parents and other family members to model relaxed, slow, normal-sounding speech when talking with the affected child. Speaking in this manner is better than telling your child to slow down or to take a deep breath. Each day, parents should give their child a time of undivided attention so the child can talk freely about what is on his or her mind. Parents should never show annoyance or frustration at a child's stuttering, and you should avoid correcting or interrupting a stuttering child. Being patient and reassuring is immensely important if your child is to outgrow stuttering. A large part of overcoming stuttering is often more a matter of overcoming the fear of stuttering. Therefore, drawing attention to or making fun of a stuttering child will only make it worse for the child. Also try to avoid putting your child in uncomfortable situations in which they must talk in front of people. If your child's stuttering lasts more than six months, if the stuttering is frequent and doesn't seem to be improving, if it is accompanied by facial or body movement, or if it is making your child self-conscious or anxious, speech therapy should be pursued. With effective treatment, your child can overcome stuttering and gain complete control over his or her use of language.	3.508124
\|Search results for: All About Kerala & Kerala History Over 15,000 square miles of land live a population of some 24 million people with an overall density of 1,600 persons per square mile. About one-sixth is forest; of the rest, most of the land is cultivated often with maximum efficiency according to current Indian standards. Rice still dominates,being the staple food of the masses. Rice cultivation is becoming extremely expensive due to high wages and high price of fertilizers; often cheap rice can be purchased from neighboring AndhraPradesh and Tamil Nadu,Kuttanad, the rich alluvial coastland is no longer considered the granary of Kerala; the soil is no longer fertile; and labor troubles and socialist land-reforms have driven hard-working farmers out of business. Farmers are paying increasing attention to cultivating tea, coffee, pepper, cardamom, and rubber in the High Ranges and the middle laterite hill region. After rice, coconut is the chief crop; the coconut acreage is nearly equal to that of rice. Next to rice as the essential food. coconut palm is the basis of economy for a very large number of people. The chief products of coconut are coir, copra, oil, and oil-cake. Coconut is used as a staple article of diet in meat curries, vegetable curries, and pastries. The coconut-leaves are frequently used as thatch, for the manufacture of brooms, baskets, umbrellas, tattis (screens kept soaked to cool rooms), fans, and firewood. A large number of cottage industrial workers are employed in the production of coir-yarns (rope) which will later be used to make coco-mats (coir-mats). Tapioca or Cassava is the next important crop which like potato has saved millions of people from starvation during times of famine; people eat less tapioca these days. Spices like cardamom, pepper, gingelly, cloves, and ginger are important peasant-produced cash crops. Nearly every homestead still has its plantains (banana), areca-nut palms, and mango trees. In the past ten years the Gulf countries of the Middle East have become avid buyers of Kerala's agricultural products, so much so, greedy farmers ship the best of all their products including livestock abroad leaving the natives with only the second best produce. The cashew industry, once the monopoly of Kerala, is still going strong in spite of stiff competition from China and Africa. Fishing- plays a big part in Kerala's cultural and commercial life. Motorization of boats, better storage, and more efficient marketing have been undertaken during the past twenty-five years. They all have helped the fishing industry. Because of the lack of minerals, coal, and iron ore, Kerala can never become an industrial state like Maharashtra,Gujarat, and Punjab. However, the abundance of forest products, availability of electric power, efficient supply of water, and the abundance of skilled workers have attracted many industries to Kerala, notwithstanding the businessman's fear of the ever-looming specter of Communism that Kerala flaunts. Except for local clay and laterite, the only minerals of Kerala are ilmenite, monazite, and zircon sands on the beaches from Quilon to Kovalam. These contain 8-10% thorium oxide which is of strategic importance in relation to atomic power. Titanium from ilmenite and cerium from monazite are essential in some electrical and chemical industries -- for electrodes, tracer bullets, and benzine synthesis, among others. The Titanium Plant near Trivandrum is a profitable undertaking. The Keltron Plant that manufactures radios and television sets makes Kerala's name synonymous with T.V. The Space Research Center of Thumba is one of its kind in all of India. In short, like India, Kerala also has entered the world of high technology and the age of space exploration. Human Potential Export The major export of Kerala today is its skilled workers and college graduates who go to most parts of India and abroad to places like the Gulf countries. When immigration to Europe and America opened up in the fifties and sixties, a large number of educated Keralites went abroad seeking employment and fortune. Their financial success in foreign lands resulted in increasing inflation in Kerala due to higher wages and short supply of indigenous products and the rising cost of real estate. The Gulf emigres hope that they would some day build a mansion and retire in glory in Kerala, Though the rate of immigration to the Gulf countries has leveled off, immigration from Kerala to other parts of India continue. This immigration phenomenon and the spread of education and prosperity have succeeded in checking Kerala's population growth. Kerala has almost achieved zero population growth. Flora and Fauna Kerala's forests abound in a variety of rare animals and birds. The elephant, tiger, lion-tailed monkey, Indian gaur, python, striped mountain goat, and wild fowl are still found in Kerala's forests, though in reduced numbers because of man's encroachment on animal territory.. Mahogany, sandal-wood, teak-wood, and rose-wood are still the proud products of these forests. During the past thirty years, the forest department has been taking meticulous care to plant new teak-wood trees and eucalyptus trees to prevent deforestation. It is to be mentioned that teak-wood from Kerala had found its way before the Christian era for the construction of buildings in places like the Ur of Chaldea; Kerala's teak-wood went into the construction of British ships used by Admiral Nelson in the battle of Trafalgar against Napolean.	3.045889
What exactly is anthrax, and should you be worried about it? Anthrax is an infection caused by a bacterium (a type of germ) called Bacillus anthracis (B. anthracis). Although it's most commonly seen in grazing animals like sheep, pigs, cattle, horses, and goats, anthrax also can occur in humans — although it's very rare. In the environment, the anthrax-causing bacterium forms spores (a version of the germ covered by a hard protective shell) that can live in the soil for years. People can become infected by coming into contact with these spores through a break in the skin (such as a cut or scrape), by eating food (usually undercooked meat) contaminated by them, or by inhaling spores (breathing them into the lungs). But anthrax is not contagious, which means that it can't spread from person to person. It's extremely unlikely that you or someone you know could get anthrax. In fact, there are usually only one or two reported cases of anthrax per year. Most of these have been in people who work with animals or animal products. Why Are People So Concerned? Anthrax that occurs naturally in the environment isn't a huge threat. But B. anthracis can be grown in a laboratory and some people are worried about anthrax germs being grown as a weapon. The issue of laboratory-grown B. anthracis received lots of attention in 2001 after an anthrax outbreak in the United States. The outbreak scared many people, in part because five people died (which is very rare) and also because the outbreak coincided with the September 11 terrorist attacks. However, bioterrorism experts believe that it is technologically difficult to use anthrax effectively as a weapon on a large scale. Types of Anthrax The three main types of anthrax are: Cutaneous or skin anthrax, can occur if someone with a cut or scrape handles contaminated animals or animal products. More than 95% of anthrax cases are of the cutaneous type, which is the least dangerous form. A person with cutaneous anthrax will notice a small sore that develops into a painless ulcer with a black area in its center. If left untreated, the infection can spread to other areas of the body. Intestinal anthrax can occur if someone eats undercooked contaminated meat. Intestinal anthrax is far less common than cutaneous anthrax, but it can make someone much sicker. Intestinal anthrax symptoms include severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, severe diarrhea, and bleeding from the digestive tract. Pulmonary, or inhaled, anthrax is the rarest form of anthrax — but it's also the most dangerous. Pulmonary anthrax can only occur if someone breathes thousands of anthrax spores into the lungs. Pulmonary anthrax usually seems like a common cold or the flu at first, but it rapidly turns into severe pneumonia and requires hospitalization. It usually takes fewer than 7 days for a person to show signs of anthrax after being infected. However, symptoms of pulmonary anthrax can sometimes take months to appear. It's very difficult to get anthrax. Just being exposed to the spores or coming into contact with an infected animal doesn't mean that a person will automatically develop the disease. For example, to get pulmonary anthrax (the type of anthrax that killed the five people in the 2001 outbreak), a person has to inhale thousands of spores. This is extremely difficult to do when the anthrax spores are found in soil or on infected animals. Even in the case of the manmade outbreak in 2001, several of the people who were exposed were found to have B. anthracis spores only in their nostrils when tested. These spores hadn't made it to their lungs in sufficient amounts to cause a problem. In other words, the people had been exposed to the bacteria but had not developed the disease. How Is Anthrax Diagnosed and Treated? Medical professionals can diagnose anthrax by taking samples from the skin sores, blood, or other bodily fluids of people who are believed to have been exposed to B. anthracis. These samples are then sent to a lab to check whether the person has the bacteria in his or her system. If anthrax is caught early, it is almost always successfully treated with antibiotics. If a person is known to have been exposed to B. anthracis but has no signs or symptoms of the disease, antibiotics may be given (after exposure) to prevent the disease from occurring. Although there is a vaccine for anthrax, in the United States it is currently only recommended for people who are at risk of coming into contact with B. anthracis. They include people who work with B. anthracis in laboratories, people who handle potentially infected animal products, and U.S. military personnel. The vaccine is not given routinely to people in the United States and it hasn't been studied for use in people younger than 18. If you worry when you hear about anthrax, remember that it's very rare, and it's unlikely that you will ever be exposed to the germs that cause anthrax. If you're worried about it, talk to a science teacher or medical professional — someone who can help you find the answers to any questions you may have about anthrax.	3.62229
Hereditary hemochromatosis is a genetic disease that causes the body to absorb and store too much iron. The condition gets its name from "hemo" for blood and "chroma" for color, referring to the characteristic bronze skin tone that iron overload can cause. Someone with hereditary hemochromatosis who has never taken an iron supplement could find out in later years that iron overload is causing serious health problems. Iron is a trace mineral that plays a vital role in the body. Every red blood cell contains iron in its hemoglobin, the pigment that carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. We get iron from our diet, and normally the body absorbs about 10% of the iron found in foods. People with hemochromatosis absorb double that amount. Once absorbed, the excess iron doesn't leave the body. Instead, it's stored in synovium (joints) and major organs such as the liver, heart, brain, pancreas, and lungs. Over many years, iron accumulates to toxic levels that can damage or even destroy an organ. The iron overload can cause many health problems, most frequently a form of diabetes that's often resistant to insulin treatment. Because of this, hereditary hemochromatosis is sometimes called "bronze diabetes." Some people with the disease develop symptoms by age 20, although signs of the condition usually appear between ages 40 and 60, when iron in the body has reached damaging levels. Women are less likely to develop symptoms of iron buildup than men, probably due to normal iron loss during menstruation. However, hereditary hemochromatosis should not be considered a disease of older people or men. Iron buildup is often present and silently causing problems long before symptoms occur — in men, women, adolescents, and in rare cases, children. Causes of Hereditary Hemochromatosis Although many people have never heard of hereditary hemochromatosis, it is not rare and affects as many as 1 in every 200 people in the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Hereditary hemochromatosis is a genetic disorder caused by a mutation on a gene that regulates iron absorption — 1 in every 8 to 10 people in the United States carries a single copy of this defective gene, called HFE. Carriers don't necessarily have the condition themselves, but can pass the mutated gene on to their children. Hereditary hemochromatosis is an autosomal recessive condition, which means that in order to get it, a child must inherit two mutated HFE genes — one from each parent. If a child inherits just one mutated HFE gene, the normal gene essentially balances out the defective HFE gene. Even with two mutated genes, not everyone becomes ill. Although a majority of those with two mutated genes will eventually develop some type of iron overload, far fewer of them will absorb enough iron to develop serious problems. In some cases, inheriting only one mutated gene may still eventually lead to iron overload, possibly affecting the heart, according to the Iron Disorders Institute. In these people, the iron overload may be triggered by a precipitating factor, such as hepatitis (inflammation of the liver) or alcohol abuse. Individuals with one mutated gene who become ill may also have mutations in other genes, yet to be discovered, that increase iron absorption. Some people who test positive for hereditary hemochromatosis remain symptom-free for life. Kids who test positive rarely have any symptoms because iron takes years to accumulate. Patients who do have symptoms may experience: muscle aches and joint pain, primarily in the fingers, knees, hips, and ankles; one of the earliest symptoms is arthritis of the knuckles of the first and second fingers depression, disorientation, or memory problems stomach swelling, abdominal pain, diarrhea, or nausea loss of body hair, other than that on the scalp gray or bronze skin similar to a suntan increased susceptibility to bacterial infections With such a wide range of possible symptoms, the disease can be extremely difficult to diagnose. As symptoms progress, it's frequently misdiagnosed as chronic hepatitis, other forms of diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, iron deficiency, gallbladder illness, menstrual problems, thyroid conditions, or polycythemia (an increase in the number of red blood cells). It's important to understand that someone with hereditary hemochromatosis can have some symptoms without having all of them (i.e., heart problems without skin color changes, diabetes, or liver problems). Luckily, the damage from hereditary hemochromatosis is completely preventable if it's diagnosed and treated early. Doctors may use these blood tests to measure the amount of iron in the blood and diagnose iron overload: serum ferritin measures the blood level of the protein that stores iron many places in the body serum iron measures iron concentrations in the blood total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) measures the amount of iron that can be carried in the blood With these results, a transferrin saturation percentage (transferrin is a protein that carries iron in the blood) is calculated by dividing the TIBC into the serum iron. An elevated transferrin saturation percentage or serum ferritin level indicates iron overload. Several gene mutations can cause hemochromatosis. A genetic test is available for the most common type of hemochromatosis, which accounts for about 85% of cases in the United States. However, only some of those who test positive will actually develop serious illness. The other 15% of individuals with symptomatic hemochromatosis will have mutations not in the HFE gene, but in other genes, which may be unknown or for which gene testing isn't routinely available. Therefore, in cases in which high transferrin saturation and high serum ferritin are found but gene testing doesn't confirm hemochromatosis, a liver biopsy may be done to determine whether symptomatic hemochromatosis exists or is likely to develop. Also, the doctor may recommend a DNA test to confirm hereditary hemochromatosis when a spouse or first-degree relative (parent, child, or sibling) has been diagnosed with it. Given the prevalence of the condition, some specialists suggest screening to detect hereditary hemochromatosis before it causes problems. The following approaches to screening have been suggested: transferrin saturation testing on all adults at age 20, and every 5 years thereafter for anyone who has a family history of the condition (recommended by the College of American Pathologists) genetic screening for newborns to potentially benefit both the child and the rest of the family (proposed by the American Hemochromatosis Society) routine iron testing of all kids at age 4; those who have a genetic risk, but remain symptom-free, continue to be tested every 5 years thereafter If you have a family history of hereditary hemochromatosis and are concerned about your child, talk to your doctor about screening tests. Besides specific treatment for complications of the condition — such as insulin for diabetes — most individuals with hereditary hemochromatosis are treated by regularly drawing blood, a process called phlebotomy that's similar to making a blood donation. Initially, blood may be drawn once or twice weekly during the "de-ironing" phase until the level of iron in the body has dropped to normal. In many cases, it requires 2 or 3 years of periodic phlebotomy to reach the desired level. After the de-ironing phase, when the serum ferritin level has fallen into the normal range, the patient usually remains on a maintenance schedule of three to four phlebotomy sessions a year. Doctors check ferritin levels annually to monitor iron accumulation. For most people, this treatment will continue for life. When detected and treated early, any and all symptoms of hereditary hemochromatosis can be prevented, and the person can live a normal life. If left untreated, however, it can lead to damaging or even fatal iron overload. Complications of untreated iron overload include: diabetes, arthritis, depression, impotence, hypogonadism (deficient production of sex hormones by the testicles or ovaries), gallbladder disease, cirrhosis (disease and scarring of the liver), heart attack, cancer, and failure of other organs. Caring for Your Child Treatment for kids typically isn't as aggressive as for adults, and making some minor dietary changes can help slow iron accumulation. Talk to your doctor about taking steps to delay or reduce iron overload. You might: Limit red meat in your child's diet. Iron-rich vegetables are fine because the body doesn't absorb iron from plant sources very well. Include moderate amounts of black, green, or oolong tea in your child's diet. The tannin from tea helps minimize iron absorption (note: herbal tea doesn't contain tannin). Avoid breakfast cereals, breads, and snacks that are enriched with iron. Ensure your child is immunized against hepatitis A and B. Limit vitamin C supplements to less than 100 milligrams per day, because vitamin C enhances iron absorption. Use a children's multivitamin that doesn't contain iron. Avoid raw shellfish, which occasionally can be contaminated with bacteria that might be harmful to someone with an iron overload. These simple steps can help ensure that your child will remain free of symptoms of the disease.	3.726618
My daughter needs to undergo a surgical procedure, and the doctor has recommended "minimally invasive" surgery. What type of surgery is this? Will it be as safe — and effective — as standard surgery? - Julianne Minimally invasive surgery is becoming more and more common in hospitals. These procedures are performed through tiny incisions instead of one large opening. Because the incisions are small, patients tend to have quicker recovery times and less discomfort than with conventional surgery — all with the same benefits. During a minimally invasive procedure, surgeons make several small incisions in the skin — just a few millimeters, in some cases. A long, thin tube with a miniature camera attached at the end (called an endoscope) is passed through one of the incisions. Images from the endoscope are projected onto monitors in the operating room so surgeons can get a clear (and magnified) view of the surgical area. Special instruments are passed through the other openings. These instruments allow the surgeon to perform the surgery by exploring, removing, or repairing whatever's wrong inside the body. In some cases, a patient might be scheduled for a minimally invasive procedure, but after getting a view inside the body the surgeon might have to "convert" the procedure to an open (conventional) surgery. This may be because the problem or the anatomy is different from what the surgeon expected. Minimally invasive surgery can take longer than conventional surgery, but the pros usually outweigh the cons. Because the incisions are small, the child usually feels less pain, has less scarring, and may recover more quickly than with conventional surgery. Not all procedures can (or should) be done through minimally invasive methods, however. The removal of cancer tumors, for example, is often best performed through open surgery. Your doctor will tell you what type of procedure is best for your child. Be sure to ask about the possible risks associated with any procedure, as well as the potential benefits.	3.08094
Toddlers this age are moving from the eating habits they had as infants toward a diet more like your own. Your job is to keep introducing new flavors and textures. Food preferences are set early in life, so help your child develop a taste for healthy foods now. Toddlers have little tummies, so serve foods that are packed with the nutrients they need to grow healthy and strong, and limit the sweets and empty calories. Your toddler will continue to explore self-feeding, first with fingers and then with utensils at around 15 to 18 months of age. Give your child many opportunities to practice these skills, but lend a hand when frustrations arise. As skills develop, step back and let your little one take over. Toddlers also like to assert their independence, and the table is one place where you should give yours some sense of control. Allow your toddler to respond to internal cues for hunger and fullness but set the boundaries. Remember: You decide what variety of healthy foods to offer at a meal and your child decides which of those foods to eat, how much to eat, and whether to eat at all. A Word About Milk Milk is an important part of a toddler's diet because it provides calcium and vitamin D, which help build strong bones. Kids under age 2 should drink whole milk for the dietary fats needed for normal growth and brain development. When your child is 2, you can probably make the switch to low-fat or nonfat milk, but talk with your doctor before doing so. Between 12 and 18 months of age is a good time for transition to a cup. Instead of cutting out bottles all at once, you can gradually eliminate them from the feeding schedule, starting with mealtime. Offer whole milk in a cup after the child has begun the meal. If you are breastfeeding, only offer milk in a cup and avoid the bottle habit altogether. Some kids don't like cows milk at first because it's different from the breast milk or formula they're used to. If that's the case, it's OK to mix whole milk with formula or breast milk and gradually adjust the mixture so that it eventually becomes 100% cow's milk. It's important to watch out for iron deficiency after kids reaches 1 year of age. It can affect their physical, mental, and behavioral development, and also can lead to anemia. To help prevent iron deficiency: Limit your child's milk intake to 16-24 full ounces (480-720 milliliters) a day. Increase iron-rich foods in your child's diet, like meat, poultry, fish, beans, and iron-fortified foods. Continue serving iron-fortified cereal until your child is 18 to 24 months old. Talk with your doctor if you're concerned that your child drinks a lot of cow's milk or isn't getting enough iron, or if you're thinking of giving your child a vitamin supplement. Foods to Avoid By now your child should be eating a variety of foods. Continue to watch for allergic reactions when introducing new foods. Be aware that a child is at higher risk of developing food allergies if the child or one or more close family members have allergies or allergy-related conditions, like food allergies, eczema, or asthma. Talk to the doctor if you have any concerns. Avoid foods that could present choking hazards, like popcorn, hard candies, hot dogs, raw vegetables and hard fruits, whole grapes, raisins, and nuts. Supervise your child at all times when eating. How Much Should My Child Eat? Offer your child three meals and two or three healthy snacks a day, but keep in mind that it's common for toddlers to skip meals. Allowing kids to skip a meal is a difficult concept for many parents, but kids should be allowed to respond to their own internal cues for hunger and fullness. Don't push food on a child who's not hungry, but kids shouldn't be allowed to eat on demand all day long either. Maintain a regular schedule of meals and snacks so your kids will come to expect that food will be available at certain times of the day. If you have any questions about how much your child should eat, speak with your doctor.	3.553526
Thu October 20, 2011 'Living Fossils' Just A Branch On Cycad Family Tree Although dinosaurs died out 65 million years ago, there are still thought to be a few species left over from those days. Plants called cycads are among these rare "living fossils" — they have remained pretty much unchanged for more than 300 million years, but a study in Science magazine suggests that glamorous title may not be deserved. There's no time machine in Washington, D.C., but Harvard botanist Sarah Mathews leads me to what's arguably the next best thing — a room made of glass in the U.S. Botanic Garden, just downhill from the U.S. Capitol. The sign says "The Garden Primeval — The First Land Plants." Right away we see something that looks like a fern growing out of the top of a palm trunk. But it's not a fern or a palm. In fact, it's more closely related to a pine tree. Cycads produce seeds but not flowers. They evolved along with dinosaurs, which presumably munched them for lunch. So they've earned the title living fossil. But "that assumption began to break down as we began sequencing DNA," Mathews says. She and her colleagues — notably Nathalie Nagalingum from the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney — have used that DNA to reconstruct the "family tree" of cycads. They find that the "trunk" of the family tree may reach back 300 million years, but the "branches," today's 300 species, actually burst onto the scene about 12 million years ago. "And then it looks like around the world on multiple continents, cycads became more species-rich," Mathews says. What caused that sudden burst of new species? "That's the really fun puzzle of course," she says. It's probably not a coincidence that other plants also put forth a burst of new species around that time, including cacti, ice-plants and agave. Mathews suspects climate change played a role. "There was drying out and cooling going on, globally," she says. This research is part of a broader effort to understand how all plants — most notably flowering plants — evolved. That story is gradually taking shape as scientists study more and more of the DNA from plants. Of course, you might argue this research has some broader philosophical repercussions as well. By finding that these species of cycads are just 12 million years old — and so were not survivors from the days of the dinosaurs — has Mathew's team demoted these species from their lofty status as living fossils? She says not. "I think that we've actually found some interesting patterns for people who didn't think much about cycads before," she says. What about people who think a lot about cycads? Bart Schutzman edits the Cycad Society's journal (global circulation: 500 copies). He's attracted to these plants because he feels a primal bond with this ancient species. And he says the news does not rock his world. Today's cycads still predate human species, and by a lot. "What's the difference between old, older and very old, and very, very old? I mean they're all still very old," he says with a chuckle. As for the moniker, living fossil? "It won't stop people from glamorizing the cycads as the living fossils because their lineage extends so far back," Schutzman says. So here's a little good news from Washington: A walk through the "Garden Primeval" greenhouse still offers a reasonable glimpse of foliage from the days of the dinosaurs, though the species themselves don't have quite the same bragging rights.	3.433225
As regular readers know, I constantly have my students interact with text in many ways both in the classroom and in the computer lab. In the classroom, Post Its are my favorite tool of choice if students are reading something they can’t actually write on. I’ve recently added some to that list, so I’m not quite sure which one I’ll have students use next year. And now, there’s one more I like. It’s called Rooh It!. Since the Make Use of blog has written a good post describing it, I’m going to encourage you to read their explanation. I’d like to highlight a couple of great features, though. One, you don’t have to register for it. And, two, all you have to do is put “roohit.com/” before any web URL address and you can start highlighting and leaving notes about it. The only negative I see is that it looks a little “busy” — English Language Learners could be a bit confused by all the initial options and text. But a short teacher explanation should take care of that.	3.177019
Drayton Hall, Charleston vicinity, South Carolina. Begun in 1738 for John Drayton, a prominent official and businessman in colonial South Carolina, Drayton Hall is one of the finest and best-preserved Georgian Palladian houses in the nation. Known for its symmetrical design, two-story portico (porch), and exquisite interior decorative wood and plasterwork, the house was the only plantation house on the west bank of the Ashley River not to be burned during the Civil War. Still without running water, central heat, or electricity, Drayton Hall is now a National Trust historic site. Old Blacksmith Shop, Fort Bennett, Pierre vicinity, South Dakota. The old wagon wheel rims and wire resting against the wall of this run-down blacksmith shop were but a few of the items made or repaired for the United States Army garrison at Fort Bennett. The U.S. government established the fort on the outskirts of the Great Sioux Nation [Indian] Reservation in 1870 in order to provide protection to the personnel overseeing and implementing governmental policies following the Red Cloud War. Built in 1880, the sod-covered shop is Fort Bennett’s only surviving structure. First Presbyterian Church (Downtown Presbyterian Church), Nashville, Tennessee. The interior columns, moldings, and illusionistic fresco ornament shown here along the south wall of Nashville’s First Presbyterian Church are in the Egyptian Revival style, an exotic style of architecture that became popular in the first half of the nineteenth century following Napoleon’s conquests. The Egyptian Revival style is noted for its lotus-leaf-inspired capitals, bulging columns, and Egyptian gorges, the dramatically curved cornice topping many Egyptian buildings. Begun in 1849 by William Strickland, the architect of the Tennessee State Capitol, this is the largest and best-preserved Egyptian Revival church in the United States. Minion Nuestra Senora de la Purisima Concepcion de Acuna, San Antonio, Texas. The church depicted in these axonometric views is one of the oldest surviving mission churches in the American Southwest. Built in the mid-eighteenth century by Franciscan monks from Spain, the church once served as the centerpiece of a large missionary compound. In its heyday, the mission included a convent, farmland, workshops, a granary, and a pueblo, or quarters, for christianized American Indians. In common with many Catholic churches built at the same time in Spain and Europe, this church features a vaulted stone roof, twin towers, and a dome over the crossing.	3.019016
Whose Point of View? The Journey of Three Generations (Literature Link for the book Whale Journey) In her 50 years, Old Gray has traveled a distance equal to traveling to the moon and home again. What's in store for her baby, about to make his first migration? Whale Journey by Vivian French (1998, Zero to Ten Limited) is a fact-filled picture book and gripping tale about the life cycle of the gray whale. You'll want to "journey" through the book more than once as you join three generations of whales on their migration. For Three Scars, it may be the last of her journeys, bittersweet with memories and quite exhausting. For Old Gray, it's a middle journey, one of many more to come. She's been there and done that many times in her life. And for Baby Gray, this is a first. It's a time of wild excitement, challenging thrills, and unknown dangers. It's the same journey, yet different for each one making it. The journey of three generations provides rich opportunities for personal connections, science learning, and author's craft. Begin with the point-of-view writing activity and expand with the extensions that follow. Whatever the age of your students, you'll find something for everyone! Try This! Writing Activity After reading the story, ask students to choose one of the whales in the story: Three Scars, Old Gray, or Baby Gray. Tell them they will write a journal entry from that point of view. Students may use events from the book or events they imagine will happen along the migratory journey. (Older students may wish to write a short story, essay, or memoir from their chosen character's point of view.) Then follow these steps in the writing process: - Prewriting: For students who would benefit, encourage brainstorming with other writers who chose the same character. What is it like to be that whale? What are their fears, concerns, joys, satisfactions? What have they experienced to make them feel that way? What lies ahead for each? How do they view this migration? What memories do they have? Other students may prefer freewriting or clustering to get their ideas and "experiences" flowing. - Drafting: Encourage students to freely write first drafts, leaving blanks to which they can return instead of spending time fleshing out details. Have them review their drafts, then read them aloud to partners. A partner's questions and comments can help writers decide what to change. - Revising: Remind students that revising is the most important step, where 85 percent of a writer's time should be spent. This is the chance to make their writing better, more exact, more descriptive--or even shorter! - Editing: Have students check for errors, make corrections, and prepare final copies. Students may wish to illustrate their stories using a favorite art - Publishing and Sharing: Provide time for authors to share their works! - Look at the author's craft. Take another journey through the book to collect descriptive phrases that create mental pictures. Then take a journey to collect strong, active verbs. Next, have students imagine they've been hired to create a travel brochure that makes a whale want to come along and join the 5,000-mile journey. Display brochures or share with other classes. - Have students create a timeline or draw a map that shows the annual migratory cycle of a gray whale. students to come up with a list of whale biology or migration questions for which they can research answers. Journey North's Archives or Answers from Experts (See Site Map) are great places to start. - Encourage students to make personal connections. Ask them to identify "big journeys" they are making in their lives. Ask them to think about their life journey until now, and to identify big landmarks. How would they answer the same questions from a parent's or a grandparent's point of view? What advice would they give about life's journeys or milestones to children they may have in the future? What "words to live by" can they contribute?	3.506907
In this section... Pathologies Detected by Cardiac Catheterization Cardiac catheterization, as discussed earlier, involves the insertion of a catheter into the heart for the diagnosis of various diseases. Cardiac catheterization is typically used for diagnosing the following pathologies. Aortic Dissection - Cardiac catheterization is a method used in treating aortic dissection. The catheter called a stent is inserted and threaded to the location of the tear. The stent then provides as a channel for blood flow with minimal leakage. Aortic Aneurysm – As with aortic dissection, cardiac catheterization is a method of treatment. A stent is inserted and threaded to the location of the affected blood vessel. The stent provides a channel for blood flow without further damaging the widened blood vessel. Congenital Heart Disease – Cardiac catheterization is performed to measure oxygen levels and pressures within the heart chambers. Cardiac catheterization may also be used as a way to treat conditions by closing holes to prevent mixing of the blood between chambers. Aortic Regurgitation - Cardiac catheterization can be used as a diagnostic tool since it is a method of measuring blood pressure in the various chambers. Atrial Septal Defects (ASD) – Cardiac catheterization has been used to evaluate this defect. This invasive procedure allows the analysis of the oxygen saturation in both right and left sides of the heart. Cardiomyopathy – Cardiac catheterization has been used to measure blood pressures in the various cardiac chambers to diagnose this condition. Coronary Heart Disease – Cardiac catheterization is used to inject dye to make the coronary arteries visible on x-rays, thereby showing where blockages are.	3.287196
Faces, Vertices, and Edges of Cylinders, Cones, and Spheres Date: 12/28/2003 at 17:21:33 From: Cara Subject: Characteristics of polyhedra I need to know how many faces, vertices, and edges do cylinders, cones, and spheres have? Logically I would say that a sphere has 1 face, 0 vertices and 0 edges. Problem: a face is flat, sphere is not flat. Secondly this does not satisfy Euler's formula v - e + f = 2. I would say a cone has 2 faces, 1 edge, and 1 vertex. Problem: while this does satisfy Euler, it does not satisfy the definitions. Date: 12/28/2003 at 20:41:45 From: Doctor Peterson Subject: Re: Characteristics of polyhedra Hi, Cara. To start, take a look at this page: Cone, Cylinder Edges? http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/sets/select/dm_cone_edge.html Properly speaking, Euler's formula does not apply to a surface, but to a network on a surface, which must meet certain criteria. The "natural" faces and edges for these surfaces, or those determined by applying the definitions used for polyhedra, do not meet these criteria. Just taking the natural parts of a cone, as you say, it has one presumed vertex, the apex; one edge, the circle at the base; and two faces, one flat and one curved. (I say "presumed" because the apex is not really a vertex in the usual sense of a place where two or more edges meet, but it is a point that stands out.) This gives 1 - 1 + 2 = 2 So it does fit the formula; but there is no reason it should, really, because it doesn't fit the requirements for the theorem, namely that the graph should be equivalent to a polyhedron. Each face must be simply connected (able to shrink to a disk, with no "holes" in it), and likewise each edge must be like a segment (not a circle). One of our "natural" faces has a "vertex" in the middle of it, so it is not simply connected; and the "edge" has no ends, so it doesn't fit either. These errors just happen to cancel one another out. As another example, take a cylinder, which in its natural state has no vertices, two "edges", and three "faces": 0 - 2 + 3 = 1 It doesn't work, and the theorem doesn't claim it should. In each case you can "fix" the graph by adding one segment from top to bottom. In the cone, this gives one extra vertex (on the base), and one extra edge, so the formula still holds. In the cylinder, it gives two new vertices and one extra edge, and the formula becomes correct. What do you have to do to "fix" the sphere? Here is a deeper discussion of these ideas: Euler's Formula Applied to a Torus http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/51815.html If you have any further questions, feel free to write back. - Doctor Peterson, The Math Forum http://mathforum.org/dr.math/ Search the Dr. Math Library: Ask Dr. MathTM © 1994-2013 The Math Forum	3.460763
T2T \|\| FAQ \|\| Ask T2T \|\| Teachers' Lounge \|\| Browse \|\| Search \|\| Thanks \|\| About T2T View entire discussion From: Dee Bedwell <[email protected]> To: Teacher2Teacher Public Discussion Date: 2012052219:37:04 Subject: Assessment defined Authentic Assessment - An assessment in which the student is expected to create or design to show knowledge of a skill. Alternative Assessment - Any assessment which gives a student the opportunity to show what they know in a variety of modalities. Commonly associated with the multiple intelligence theory. Performance Assessment/Event - An assessment which requires the student to perform a task to show knowledge and explain their thought process for solving. All of these assessments are closely related in that they require a student to "produce" as they show what they know. The performance event is thorough in that it requires the student to go full circle in not only producing an answer, but evaluate how they got to their answer and synthesise as they "regurgitate" the information in an explaination. Math Forum Home \|\| The Math Library \|\| Quick Reference \|\| Math Forum Search	3.877316
In his essay, "Tradition and the Individual Talent," T. S. Eliot said that "not only the best, but the most individual parts of [the poet's] work may be those in which the dead poets, his ancestors, assert their immortality most vigorously."1 The poet's ancestors are those to whom he is indebted for all that he has inherited—his language, his sensibility, his outlook, and his standards of conduct. He acknowledges his debt by letting these forebears speak through his work. Paradoxically, the more freely and fully he allows them to speak—which is to say the less he self-indulgently tries to make his work appear original with him—the more completely his work bears the stamp of his individuality. Tradition provides discipline; out of the discipline springs the unselfconscious and uncontrived quality of all good writing, which in this essay we will call "spontaneity." Eliot wrote this essay before he was converted to Anglicanism. He thought he was describing a general cultural phenomenon, which is that a cultural tradition (for example, that of Europe) could liberate the artist who assimilated it. We agree with Eliot's thesis, but only if it is taken to its proper conclusion. That conclusion is that tradition will liberate the artist only if he becomes a guileless and self-forgetful individual, and we believe self-forgetfulness is possible only by yielding one's heart to God. Why are assimilation of the tradition and personal self-forgetfulness indispensable qualities of a genuine artist? Why do we add this to Eliot's thesis? Because the artist's talent is more than flair and ability that he possesses naturally. It is also a sensitivity to the ways and heritage of his people; probably without being aware of it he speaks for them, because he uses the language and images bequeathed to his people by its forebears. So, in significant part, his talent is something entrusted to him by others, and it is just for this reason that using this talent self-servingly is forbidden. If he does (and nonuse, too, is a kind of self-service), what he will produce will be artificial. On the other hand, the tradition is given fresh life in and through artists who magnify their talents without self-regard. Nowhere else does literary tradition live. Nowhere but in such artists can a living past be encountered. Without them, ritual petrifies and folk art becomes sentimental or vulgar. We have inverted the title of Eliot's essay because we want to express this modification of Eliot's thesis. The inversion expands the usual connotations of the terms "talent" and "tradition." It suggests that there is a strong sense in which talents are fully employed by individuals only when they do not regard them as their own (or simply, do not regard them), and that there is an equally strong sense in which tradition exists only in the form of individuals in whom it is reincarnated. We use this word rather than "transmitted" because it suggests that tradition is not merely transported intact by individuals along the passageway of time, but renewed and revitalized. Eliot was thinking of the literary tradition in a way that comprehends the whole of that tradition, including the writing of philosophy, criticism, drama, social tracts, psychology, and history. What we have to say about the historian in this essay might be said (with appropriate adjustment of detail) about any practitioner of any literary art, and this is a point that needs to be kept firmly in mind if our thesis is to be intelligible. For our motivation in thinking about the subject is not accusatory. We would do ill to write of other people, present or past, as if their plight were not ours. Indeed, we have keenly felt the moral hazards that beset historians in our own disciplines of philology and philosophy. The discipline that must be acquired in order to assimilate one's tradition is more than an accumulation of information. In the historian's case this discipline is a matter of care, in every sense of that word: carefulness in studying the random residue which past people have left of themselves and caring for them even though they are no longer with us. Without careful discipline there can be no incarnation of tradition, and without incarnation there is no individuality. By defining the historian's discipline this way, we want to distinguish it from method. Method can be mastered and misused. For some practicing historians (philosophers, psychologists, and so forth), this is just what happens; their method is not simply the thoroughgoing care with which they set out a story of the past. Instead it is an affectation, a style deliberately adopted with an eye for professional legitimacy and success. In the writing of the disciplined historian who is absorbed in what is to be done rather than in any social advantage that might accrue from doing it, there is unmistakable freshness, individuality. On the other hand, the historian who employs method and style for social recognition's sake cannot duplicate these results. The reason is, in seeking recognition he is withholding part of himself from his work, controlling his response as a whole human being to historical situations in favor of what he thinks is an ideal response of a historian. However he may try to make it "original," his work will be stylistically stereotyped. He will produce less than he understands in order to conform to the accepted canons of historical writing. Method and rigor are necessary for the sort of historical work we want to praise, but not sufficient—just as the law is honored by all who live the gospel, but not all who live the law honor the gospel. Our subject, then, is the abuse of method which might be thought of as an academic analogue of self-righteousness. And our thesis is that those who are in the historian's profession primarily for themselves will, like the self-righteous, make sounds of brass. Until recent years, stylistic anonymity among historians for self-promotional purposes masqueraded as "objectivity." But the issue is not an epistemological one about the possibility of telling the past's story "wie es eigentlich gewesen ist," even though historiographers may have thought otherwise for decades. The issue is a psychological one about the quality of the historian's motivation. With the breakdown of philosophical positivism in our century, many historians have disclaimed any profession of objectivity, yet even some of these still assess one another's work against (largely tacit) methodological and stylistic norms. It is not the objectivity/subjectivity axis that should command our ultimate historiographical concern, but the purity-of-heart/impurity axis. The question is not whether the historian, like other craftsmen, colors what he makes with his own personality, for inevitably he does. Rather, the question is what sort of colors he gives it. Does he discolor it by harboring self-seeking intentions? We have no disposition to pick on historians. Philosophers are probably even more self-crippling, because the modes of philosophical thinking are more explicit, canonized, and coercive than the modes of historical thinking. For example, many philosophers assume that, except in its most extreme speculative reaches, contemporary logic defines not only the standard of one type of discourse among others, but the single type of discourse in which certain kinds of truths may be stated. Historically, logic was no such standard; instead, it was considered a branch of rhetoric—and that in fact is what it is. To speak with philosophical precision is to adopt a very narrow register of human speech in which much that human beings experience cannot be expressed or described. Why would anyone speak so artificially? Why would anyone be willing to censor his responses as a whole person in deference to narrow philosophical canons of expression? Recent work in the rhetoric of scientific discourse suggests that at least some of the motives are self-assertion and professional legitimacy, and if there are others, we do not know them. So philosophers and historians alike make myths when they take themselves too seriously: when they promote themselves in their work. (Of course, this means not taking themselves seriously enough as individual human beings—trusting the canons of their discipline more than their own sensibility.) Believing that a disciplinary method is a mode of knowing rather than a heuristic device for arranging material for specific purposes may not be simply an error. It may be a sin. The historian or philosopher who uses his discipline self-promotionally finds immediate promise of exoneration in the view that the discipline can validate his work independently of his intentions. He clings to the idea that his social purposes are professionally irrelevant. By this means, he provides himself with an alibi if his conscience accuses him of seeking his own interest. How can he be accused of coloring his materials, he insists, when his constant aim is to rid them of coloration? Preoccupation with technique and method fits Plato's definition of sophistry and pinpoints the self-seeking in it: one sends out a highly controlled signal in order to elicit a highly manipulated response. One can sin in scholarship as anywhere else. It is wrong in writing to do anything but write what is in us to be written. Understanding Past People The problem of understanding people in the past, including their policies and institutions, is only a form of the problem of understanding people generally. By setting out certain features of our ability to understand our contemporaries, we may illuminate the claims we are making about historical knowledge. Consider the following points: Knowing about people is not knowing them; that is, it is not understanding them. One cannot but withdraw from other human beings—and thus render them humanly unreal—if one concentrates on what properties they have, for that construes them as objects. Nietzsche, Heidegger, Buber, Polanyi, and Levinas have all taught us this by numerous cogent insights. When we know a person, we know more than we can tell; and supposing otherwise is a mode of pushing that person away. Understanding people, as opposed to knowing about them, comes in the course of being with them unselfconsciously; it is a residuum of living in a sharing, trusting, and caring community with them. Hence to observe people in order to know about them rather than to respond unguardedly to them is to withdraw from the conditions which must obtain if they are to be understood. Thus, acting as if one is an observing center rather than a person does not mean one is disinterested. Such action is an apparent self-obliteration in the form of a perceptual and stylistic anonymity which is actually an intense preoccupation with guarding, vindicating, and advancing the self. It is an intense form of self-assertion. A historian can live with and understand past people only if he regards the accoutrements of his profession (the habits, the jargon, the frame of reference, and so forth) as inferior to, and less valuable than, himself as a man and any man as a man. Only then can he enter with unselfconscious empathy into others' situations. The Historian as Tradition Incarnate Contrast the self-seeking, depersonalizing writer of history with the guileless one. The former imposes generalizations and theories upon "the data." The latter expresses patterns of selection in his work that go beyond what he can deliberately produce or even completely comprehend. These living patterns of selection taken together are an expression of what he is as one who by historical study has assimilated tradition through his language, in his interaction with his immediate forebears. This tradition then expresses itself in his unselfconscious writing and teaching. And therefore what he produces is right. It is not false to what he transforms. When he speaks or writes it is as if history is finding one expression of its accumulating truth in his responses to that part of the world which has preceded him. The self-serving historian, on the other hand, stylizes what he comprehends of the past and thwarts the flow of tradition through him. He is untrue to the living tradition that has enabled him to become both a person and a historian. If a historian accepts the gospel, he is adopted; he gains a new ancestry; a fresh heritage becomes active in him. His open, artless, and fresh way of seeing and speaking about the past will be a correlative, an expression, of the new person he has become. If purely motivated, he gives the history he has absorbed a spontaneous—that is, an unguarded and guileless—expression. That kind of expression is wisdom. On the other hand, the self-deceived historian performs something extraneous to the purpose of the history which had made him what he is, and he is thereby unfaithful to himself. And if he knows anything about the gospel, he is unfaithful to the Lord. He does not produce wisdom. Let us further contrast generalization and wisdom. Generalizations are generally valid for general purposes; they are not valid for specific purposes. We may induce a generalization from a number of specifics, but when we have done so we find that it does not completely apply to any of them. Perhaps in natural science it could (or could it?), but historically it will not. Any generalization to be valid has to be one arising totally from a total specific situation, not a generalization inductively arrived at over many instances. This is where the word "wisdom" comes in: We read history in order to gain the great historian's wisdom. In him we encounter a unique historical situation alive in a living, interfusing, and blending individual, the historian. And we discover in the nature of that unique totality something of the nature of all other unique totalities—something which cannot be expressed in any list of generalizations, however lengthy. That is why history is an art rather than a science (we are assuming, we suspect incorrectly, that there are in fact sciences, the essence of which can be expressed in a theory, i.e., in an adequate and consistent set of generalizations). It is why a fine history, like a Baucis-and-Philemon pitcher, is inexhaustible (though not unfathomable). There is no essential difference between the way in which Herodotus and Thucydides use their material and the way in which Aeschylus and Sophocles use theirs. The Swedish philosopher, Hans Larsson, said in 1892 (in spite of the shadow of Herbert Spencer) that social scientists should not ignore the fact that literature has given them far more subtle exemplars of human behavior than they themselves describe. (The converse is also true: When social scientists describe behavior well, they write literature; Adler is not literature but Freud is, and that is the only reason why Freud is worth more attention.) The historian can be true to the history reposited within him only if he endeavors to give it the form that suits the whole of it, and not merely parts of it. In doing this, he is doing the same thing as someone who makes a poem. He should from this point of view recognize himself as an artist and realize that his totality of knowledge should be expressed through a totality of means. The historian who has a style that is true to him will produce history that is also true to him, and because it is true to him in this naive sense it will have truth in it. This is a patently different sense of "truth" than is current among many social scientists. It is predicated upon the view that contact with history is not contact with the past as such but with the historian who embodies the tradition in his own unique way. The book he writes is only an aspect of what he has achieved in human terms and cannot be understood apart from that achievement. The historian whose style is true to him will be one in whom the tradition will have been truly incarnated; style and what we are calling "incarnation" are but aspects of the same thing. And if the style is wrong, the history written will be wrong. There is no question of the style's varying independently of the "facts"—of the style's being wrong and the "facts" right or of the style being right and the "facts" wrong. To think otherwise is to have a befuddled—an objectivist—view of factuality. In the light of this personifying view of truth Gibbon comes off as a great historian, for his style expresses himself. The same can be said of Thucydides, Herodotus, and Livy; it could not be said of those nineteenth-century historians who were eager to put rational order onto the material; or of those twentieth-century historians who consider it imperative to order the material professionally and impersonally. There is never a more significant result of the study of history than the historian himself. Historical Uniqueness and Moral Universalizability These three things happen together if they happen at all: the author is self-forgetful, the historical situation is captured in its uniqueness, and—we have not mentioned this yet—the history written serves as an inexhaustible fund for moral lessons. Yet it is not didactic in any ordinary sense of that term. Only a history that in the first instance tried to abstract out the moral content of a past situation would in the second instance be compelled to try to reimpose it in the form of cautionary conclusions. A situation captured in its uniqueness has moral relevance because it is a whole situation like our own situation. We are free to see it in any of indefinitely many ways, including those most instructive for us. But when the historical situation is subsumed under a generalization, it is seen in just one way, and we can easily exclude ourselves from it. Many similarities between that situation and our circumstance are artificially suppressed. (This is one of the great lessons of Nietzsche's doctrine that all events, including the propagation of ideas, have multiple genealogies.) We let our preoccupation with discrete personal properties and comparisons become a pseudo-Mosaic alternative to conscience. (Why aren't we led by everything we see to have a broken heart and contrite spirit? Certainly it is not because we don't have ample cause.) But letting the story tell itself in all of the completeness with which we spontaneously apprehend it is tantamount to a repudiation of this pseudo-Mosaic context. The reader is left to face up to the whole of the matter—to be impressed by moral dimensions and standards inherent in the story, dimensions which even the author may not suspect are there. Take the example of David. David is not just any oriental monarch. He has been chosen by the Lord to be the leader of Israel. He has shown himself obedient in every particular to the Lord. He has not tried to hasten or evade the Lord's plan for him; he has not anticipated the time when he is to take over the kingdom; he has left the shape and direction of his destiny to the Lord. He spares Saul's life more than once. He makes his way faultlessly to the throne. Who else in history ever did that? Only after he has achieved the throne does he fail, and the story of his failure, down to his last bloody deathbed utterance, is told in more detail than the story of his success. Now to make the moral point of the story of David other than the way in which Nathan did would be to hide that point. That is, to impose a superficial moral generalization on the story would be to rob it of its moral applicability to every reader— its moral universalizability. What Nathan did was to set David a trap by presenting a parable, and David fell into the trap. The climax of David's life is Nathan's statement: "Thou art the man." This climax is not set out in detail and the moral point is not put in a proposition: it could not be. We cannot even say that the story shows the moral point (i.e., the punishment for adultery and murder). That is too cut and dried and limited a characterization, for the punishment does not "fit the crime": the crime's consequences are its punishment—to be an adulterer is the punishment for adultery. Instead, the history's moral point pulsates throughout the whole of it, as through a parable, and cannot be abstracted from it. And we in our own individual and different ways—in ways apposite to our individual cases—draw the parable's conclusion—a conclusion which may well differ from what we may discover upon returning to the story later, after further experiences have altered us. We are allowed to experience David's life totally, to sense its emotive tides, to work out the ironical implications of the account. The inspired historian has produced, in a language of the whole man which uses all the devices of rhetoric (including juxtaposition), a better biography, a finer account, than any other anywhere. It is written for a spiritually educated and subtle people. It goes as far as history can go, which is to re-create the story of a past human being in the terms in which it is lived and valued, which is to say, in predominantly moral terms. The closest a self-deceiving historian can come to morality is this: "There but for the grace of God go I." This effort at self-decontamination is not found in a historian who produces pure history, precisely because his acknowledgment of impurity has been for him a path to purity. The response of the guileless historian is therefore, "Lord, have mercy on me, there go I also." This is what the prophet Nathan, speaking for the Lord, meant when he said, "Thou art the man." And for us, in all of the pages of history, there is implicit in every line the unarticulated reminder: "We are the men." Thus does the response of the guileless historian place him in community with the past people he encounters in his work. He understands them as people. It is remarkable that only as we become more individual, rather than less, can we live in community with one another. And conversely: Only as we live in and through one another in our individual uniqueness—the historian taking past people to understand and they taking him to be understood by—is it possible for us to partake of each other's strengths and be individually richer for it. Otherwise, our relation to one another is manipulative: we treat ourselves and each other as replicable—indeed, as artifacts which in our social interaction with one another we ourselves are continuously producing. For those of us who insulate ourselves from one another by using each other, even the present is a sort of past, cadaverized, an unbridgeable distance away; whereas for the pure even the past is present, vivified and immediately felt. This is in the spirit not only of the gospel but of thinkers like Heidegger, who have tried to clear away the intellectual debris from our modern mentality so that we might receive the revelation from God if only it were to come. What Shall It Profit a Man? It cannot profit a person to try to be individualistic in his way of perceiving others' situations or in his way of writing about them. It is as unprofitable as trying to be nonchalant or sincere. One who does not feel exigencies in his present situation is nonchalant; one who tries to be nonchalant is tense. One who is concentrating wholly on something other than himself in what he is doing is sincere; one who is trying to be sincere is concentrating on himself, no matter how hard he pretends he is not. Taking thought to make ourselves or our work be some particular way or other is in principle self-defeating. Another reason why it is profitless to try to be an individual is that taking thought to make ourselves is self-delimiting. Taking thought for the morrow in any way at all means trying to conform to an anticipated pattern of self which in principle is too simple to be a self. The more we conform to that pattern, the more we make of ourselves not an individual but rather a replicable artifact—our own artifact. And the work we produce is also too simple to be the work of the self, for behind it was the motivation to produce that which will reflect a character too simple to be a self. A third reason why we cannot by taking thought add a cubit to our stature as historians: By trying to conform ourselves to a replicable model of what a historian should be we block our own creativity. How? Taking thought for the morrow means substituting an imagined tomorrow for the one that is really going to be there. And as we do not know the one that is really going to be there, we prepare ourselves for a number of hypothetical tomorrows that will never come. We do this instead of being ready, by merely being ourselves, for any tomorrow that will come. When we wake up in the morning, we don't readily pick up the thread of the day that awaits us, for we have determined in advance where it will be, and therefore we do not see where it really is. Alas for Benjamin Franklin, planning his day at 5:00 A.M., how he will manipulate various Philadelphians! He must compulsively and obsessively try to extrude many threads, to manipulate many clues to the labyrinth in order to convince himself that he is on the right track. And Franklin's kind of planning for the future is simply the mirror image of the self-serving historian's planning for the past. The generalizations the historian has convinced himself are the right guidelines for interpreting history preclude him from discovering new patterns in the history he encounters; he is only able to gather more details. Here is a fourth reason why writing the kind of history we have suggested is not something a person could possibly set out to do: To try to get for ourselves in any fashion is to be anxious over the treasure we seek, and to be thus anxious is to forfeit the freedom and spontaneity or openness necessary for a total response to a total situation. That is a message of W. H. Auden's poem, "The Bard." He was their servant—some say he was blind— And moved among their faces and their things; Their feeling gathered in him like a wind And sang: they cried—'It is a God that sings'— And worshipped him and set him up apart And made him vain till he mistook for song The little tremors of his mind and heart At each domestic wrong. Songs came no more: he had to make them. With what precision was each strophe planned. He hugged his sorrow like a plot of land, And walked like an assassin through the town, And looked at men and did not like them, But trembled if one passed him with a frown.2 The moment we start to care about succeeding we forfeit every possibility of it. Auden's bard was, to begin with, a servant; later, a slave. At first he did not regard himself as being original. He did not repeat himself at all. Instead he expressed what came to him to be expressed and thus passed on an oral tradition. Later, he insisted on his originality and individuality and suffocated his creativity. In the first phase he was a classicist; in the second, a romantic. A Milton landscape is a characteristic landscape—it is a typical landscape; yet at the same time it is Milton's landscape. He did not try to make it his: it is his because in looking in another direction than himself he did not obstruct the expression of his personality in and through it. It is only the inferior artist who feels a need to make a highly individual response in order to be able to do something original, new, and different. The result is strained. The result is precious. The result, ironically, is replicable: the original of the piece is already a stereotype. For his part, the classicist is never concerned with individuality for its own sake. He is concerned with tradition. Were we living in 1798 and afflicted with tremors of insecurity about whether what we were writing would be regarded as individual, we might take exception to this statement, because our contemporaries would be interpreting the tradition as a means of throttling individuality. But the truth is that tradition can liberate the person who interacts with it. Almost any moderately intelligent human being could produce something highly individual and profound if he took no thought for what was in it for him, provided he had assimilated a good deal of the tradition. The old statement that everyone has at least one book in him is relevant here; and, indeed, we have had occasional examples in English literature of a peculiar pellucidity appearing just once. John Woolman's Journal is an example. Compare it with Franklin's Autobiography. The inadequacy and arrogance of Franklin resemble the explanations of the knights in Eliot's Murder in the Cathedral. They are murderers who rationally explain away their act. (Whatever books there may have been in Franklin, he murdered them.) It is not beside the point that in creating the rationalizing knights Eliot was satirizing Shaw. Shaw's plays are appealing to many, for they offer an easy clarity, and (like many psychiatrists and psychotherapists and like Eliot's knights) a facile—a reasonable—mode of explaining away personal guilt. The witch doctor, the advertiser, and the politician make similar offers—reasonable offers. These offers are quackery. An essential feature of this kind of quackery is its respectability. The offers come in the guise of a virtuous practice to be followed, an approved technique or method, with all of the half-suspected quasitheory shared by the people who endorse it. The quacks rail at historicism and point to the history Hitler wrote as a misuse of history. That is a way of establishing their respectability by comparison. Their doctrine is almost irresistible when made so respectable—so decently indecent. From that point they can perpetrate immoralities in an atmosphere of legitimacy, as in the contemporary theater where lewdness frolics on the stage without being condemned as such because, besides being immoral, it is also dishonest about what it is. Was not Hitler partly seduced by the wrong kind of history that he read? For a person to be a historian—a genuine historian—is for him cheerfully to run the risk that he may never be acknowledged as such. He will also have to concede in advance that he himself may discover what he has had to say after, rather than before, he writes his words. He will draw his identity at a source different from the well of his peers' opinions. We have been advocating what used to be called "enthusiasm." Contrary to what some would have us believe, enthusiasm has nothing to do with romanticism; and if they think it historically has nothing to do with classicism, it is because they tend not to consider the classicists, like Milton and Dante, who were enthusiastic Christians. We acknowledge that nothing could be more alien to the intellectualist ideal of calculated impersonality. It is true that this ideal seems not altogether unwarranted, for historical instances of enthusiasm have been justifiably attacked. There is this danger in enthusiasm, that impure people, like Hitler, will yield to an impure spirit. Our thesis in this paper is that by the same token, there is an equally horrifying danger in the repudiation of enthusiasm—namely, in the protection which some erect against novelty and spontaneity in themselves—a disguised form of demonism in which seizure by the Holy Spirit is precisely what is resisted. The one alternative to being possessed by some sort of devil is to yield to—voluntarily to let ourselves be taken over by—God's Spirit. The depersonalizing "wisdom" of the age, like the so-called wisdom of ages generally, will when unmasked be seen to be only the self-protective smoke screen of a professional clique so fearful of self-revelation through their productions that they have yielded themselves up proudly to the demon of reasonableness. What was to be the value of the long looked forward to, Long hoped for calm, the autumnal serenity And the wisdom of age? Had they deceived us Or deceived themselves, the quiet-voiced elders, Bequeathing us merely a receipt for deceit? The serenity only a deliberate hebetude, The wisdom only the knowledge of dead secrets Useless in the darkness into which they peered Or from which they turned their eyes. There is, it seems to us, At best, only a limited value In the knowledge derived from experience. The knowledge imposes a pattern, and falsifies, For the pattern is new in every moment And every moment is a new and shocking Valuation of all we have been. We are only undeceived Of that which, deceiving, could no longer harm. In the middle, not only in the middle of the way But all the way, in a dark wood, in a bramble, On the edge of a grimpen, where is no secure foothold, And menaced by monsters, fancy lights, Risking enchantment. Do not let me hear Of the wisdom of old men, but rather of their folly, Their fear of fear and frenzy, their fear of possession, Of belonging to another, or to others, or to God. The only wisdom we can hope to acquire Is the wisdom of humility: humility is endless. —T. S. Eliot, "East Coker"3 If you ask us to point to a historian who represents much of what we say, we can readily do it: Hugh Nibley, of whom we thought as we wrote. Who among us has been more completely absorbed in peoples of the past and less occupied with impressing anyone with his style? Who has expressed his own personality so well, with so little thought for it? Who has better inspired us to care about and learn from the vast population of historical souls who have intrigued and delighted him over the years? And he has done this not by exhortation but by his example of wonder and absorption in his constant learning and his gracious acts of sharing it with us. This essay originally appeared in a slightly different form in the unpublished "Tinkling Cymbals: Essays in Honor of Hugh Nibley," John W. Welch, ed., 1978. 1. T. S. Eliot, Selected Essays, new ed. (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1960), 4. 2. W. H. Auden, A Selection by the Author (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1958), 60. 3. T. S. Eliot, Collected Poems 1909-1962 (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1963), 184-85.	3.004006
\| \|\| \| Ask Marilyn: You and Your Vocabulary Theresa Douglas of Townville, Pennsylvania, writes: Marilyn: You once wrote about the inherent differences in one's reading, writing, listening, and speaking vocabulary. Could you please repeat that question and answer? Here it is: Question: Why can I understand programs about complicated or philosophical subjects when I struggle for the right words and a more sophisticated level of conversation myself? Answer: You're normal. Educators define four categories of vocabulary: Our reading vocabulary is the largest by far, followed by our listening vocabulary. Our speaking vocabulary is much smaller, followed by a much, much smaller writing vocabulary. The more demanding the category, the smaller it is. To listen, one need only rapidly recognize the word as the speaker voiced it and comprehend its meaning in context. To speak, one must recall the particular word without prompting and insert it instantly into the appropriate context. That's much more difficult. People with large speaking or writing vocabularies are almost always professionals.	3.109378
A Reference Resource William Jennings Bryan (1913–1915): Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan was born in Salem, Illinois, on March 19, 1860. He graduated from Illinois College in 1881 and earned his law degree in 1883 from the Union College of Law in Chicago. After practicing law for two years, Bryan moved to Nebraska, becoming, in 1890, only the second Democrat to win a Nebraska seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. Bryan remained in the House for two terms before running unsuccessfully for the U.S. Senate in 1894. As a delegate to the 1896 Democratic convention, Bryan's rousing "cross of gold" speech, advocating a silver standard for U.S. currency, rallied the masses behind him and brought him his party's nomination for the presidency. He would lose the election that November to Republican candidate William McKinley of Ohio. Following the outbreak of the Spanish-American War in 1898, Bryan served as a colonel in Nebraska's Third Regiment. He ran for the presidency once again in 1900, only to meet with the same result. Bryan subsequently founded a newspaper -- The Commoner -- to disseminate his ideas, writing editorials for the sheet between 1901 and 1908 and speaking often in public. In 1908, Bryan chose once again to run for the presidency, losing to the popular secretary of war, William Howard Taft. Four years later, Bryan became President Woodrow Wilson's secretary of state. He would resign from that position on June 8, 1915, following the sinking of the British cruise liner Lusitania, fearing that the President's stern warnings to Germany, and Wilson's reluctance to ban passenger travel on belligerent ships, would involve the United States in hostilities. Bryan continued to write and lecture, and in the famed Scopes Trial in Dayton, Tennessee, defended the teaching of creationism in public schools. William Jennings Bryan died in Dayton on July 26, 1925, shortly after the trial's conclusion.	3.368056
Commemorated on February 25 Saint Tarasius, Patriarch of Constantinople was of illustrious lineage. He was born and raised in Constantinople, where he received a fine education. He was rapidly promoted at the court of the emperor Constantine VI Porphyrogenitos (780-797) and Constantine's mother, the holy Empress Irene (August 7), and the saint attained the rank of senator. During these times the Church was agitated by the turmoil of the Iconoclast disturbances. The holy Patriarch Paul (August 30) although he had formerly supported Iconoclasm, later repented and resigned his office. He withdrew to a monastery, where he took the schema. When the holy Empress Irene and her son the emperor came to him, St Paul told them that the most worthy successor to him would be St Tarasius (who at this time was still a layman). Tarasius refused for a long time, not considering himself worthy of such high office, but he then gave in to the common accord on the condition, that an Ecumenical Council be convened to address the Iconoclast heresy. Proceeding through all the clerical ranks in a short while, St Tarasius was elevated to the patriarchal throne in the year 784. In the year 787 the Seventh Ecumenical Council was convened in the city of Nicea, with Patriarch Tarasius presiding, and 367 bishops attending. The veneration of holy icons was confirmed at the council. Those bishops who repented of their iconoclasm, were again received by the Church. St Tarasius wisely governed the Church for twenty-two years. He led a strict ascetic life. He spent all his money on God-pleasing ends, feeding and giving comfort to the aged, to the impoverished, to widows and orphans, and on Holy Pascha he set out a meal for them, and he served them himself. The holy Patriarch fearlessly denounced the emperor Constantine Porphyrigenitos when he slandered his spouse, the empress Maria, the granddaughter of St Philaretos the Merciful (December 1), so that he could send Maria to a monastery, thus freeing him to marry his own kinswoman. St Tarasius resolutely refused to dissolve the marriage of the emperor, for which the saint fell into disgrace. Soon, however, Constantine was deposed by his own mother, the Empress Irene. St Tarasius died in the year 806. Before his death, devils examined his life from the time of his youth, and they tried to get the saint to admit to sins that he had not committed. "I am innocent of that of which you accuse me," replied the saint, "and you falsely slander me. You have no power over me at all." Mourned by the Church, the saint was buried in a monastery he built on the Bosphorus. Many miracles took place at his tomb. Troparion - Tone 4 You appeared to your flock as a rule of faith,An image of humility and a teacher of abstinence.Because of your lowliness, Heaven was opened to you.Because of your poverty, riches were granted to you.O holy bishop, Tarasius, pray to Christ our God to save our souls! Troparion - Tone 3 You shone forth as a light of the Spirit, adorned with an exemplary life and clothed in hierarchical vesture.You stilled the turbulence of heresyand became a pillar and foundation of the Church,which praises your struggles, holy Father Tarasius. Kontakion - Tone 3 You illumined the Church with Orthodox doctrineand taught all to venerate and honor the precious image of Christ.You vanquished the godless doctrine of the iconoclasts.Therefore we cry to you:"Rejoice, wise Father Tarasius."	3.278138
While seagrasses can be damaged by random and unpredictable natural phenomena, following several simple steps can prevent the damage caused by humans. Each species of seagrass recovers from damage at a different rate, but in general, recovery can take anywhere between a few months to several years. Injuries to leaves and stems are less detrimental than damage to the underground root system, from which seagrasses may not be able to recover. As Florida's population grows, the number of boats on the water also increases. The negative effects of careless boating on seagrasses are becoming more pronounced, especially in nearshore communities and popular boat access areas. When a boat's propeller cuts through seagrasses, it fragments the bed and can restrict the movement of the species found in that habitat. This loss is detrimental to not only the animals that depend on seagrasses, but to the economy of the area and the state of Florida. The institute's 1995 publication, Scarring of Florida's Seagrasses: Assessment and Management Options, analyzes damage resulting from propeller scars in Florida's seagrass beds. This document includes many GIS-based maps documenting areas where scarring is present, information about the recovery of seagrasses after prop scar damage, and management options that address the problem. Another important factor to consider when boating is what can happen to personal property when grounding in a shallow bottom area or seagrass bed: vessel engines, hulls, and propellers can be damaged. In addition to towing fees, groundings that cause damage to seagrasses can result in both federal and state fines. The economic and environmental importance of seagrasses has led to regulations that can hold boaters that scar seagrass beds responsible for the costs of assessing damage, restoring habitat, and long-term monitoring of the restored area. The easiest way to protect seagrasses is by preventing damage in the first place. The tips that follow on how to protect seagrasses are taken directly from the institute's publication, Florida's Seagrass Meadows. - Be Aware: If you live near the coast or along a river, be careful when applying fertilizers and pesticides to your lawn. Use only the amount of fertilizer required and consider using a slow-release fertilizer. Gutters and storm drains transport excess lawn chemicals to the water. - Read the Waters: Wear polarized sunglasses when boating to reduce the surface glare to help you see shallow areas and seagrass beds. Polarized sunglasses can also help you see and avoid manatees and underwater hazards. - Know Your Boating Signs and Markers: Operate your boat in marked channels to prevent running aground and damaging your boat and seagrass beds. Know the correct side to stay on when approaching channel markers. Learn the shapes and markings of signs warning boaters of dangerous shallows and areas where boats are prohibited by law. - Know Your Depth and Draft: When in doubt about the depth, slow down and idle. If you are leaving a muddy trail behind your boat, you are probably cutting seagrass. Tilt or stop your engine if necessary. If you run aground, pole or walk your boat to deeper water. Never try to motor your way out. This will cause extensive damage to seagrass and may harm your motor. Know the times for your low and high tides. - Be On the Lookout: Docks, boathouses, and even boats can block sunlight from reaching the seagrass below. When building or repairing a dock, consider building the dock five feet above the water and using grating rather than planks. Extend the dock to deeper water so your boat does not shade seagrass. - Study Your Charts: Use navigational charts, fishing maps, or local boating guides to become familiar with waterways. These nautical charts alert you to shallow areas so you don't run aground and damage seagrass. Know before you go.	3.283586
Circulating Tumor Cells Can Reveal Genetic Signature of Dangerous Lung Cancers Using a miniature laboratory-on-a-chip device, a team of investigators at the Massachusetts General Hospital, led by Daniel Haber, M.D., Ph.D., and Mehmet Toner, Ph.D., both members of the MIT-Harvard Center for Cancer Nanotechnology Excellence (CCNE), has developed a method that detects and analyzes the genetic signature of rare tumor cells in the bloodstream. The results from this analysis allowed the researchers to identify those patients most likely to respond to a specific targeted treatment. This chip-based analysis also allowed the researchers to monitor genetic changes that occur during therapy. According to Dr. Haber, this chip opens up a new field of studying tumors in real time. “When the device is ready for larger clinical trials, it should give us new options for measuring treatment response, defining prognostic and predictive measures, and studying the biology of blood-borne metastasis, which is the primary method by which cancer spreads and becomes lethal.” Dr. Haber and his team published their results in The New England Journal of Medicine. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are living solid-tumor cells found at extremely low levels in the bloodstream. Until the development of the CTC-chip by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)-Harvard CCNE team, it was not possible to get information from CTCs that would be useful for clinical decision-making. The current study was designed to determine whether the device could go beyond detecting CTCs to helping analyze the genetic mutations that can make a tumor sensitive to treatment with targeted therapy drugs. The researchers tested blood samples from patients with non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), the leading cause of cancer death in the United States. In 2004, cancer researchers had discovered that mutations in a protein called epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) determine whether NSCLC tumors respond to a group of drugs called tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), which includes gefitinib (Iressa) and erlotinib (Tarceva). Although the response of sensitive tumors to those drugs can be swift and dramatic, eventually many tumors become resistant to the drugs and resume growing. The CTC-chip was used to analyze blood samples from 27 patients—23 who had EGFR mutations and 4 who did not—and CTCs were identified in samples from all patients. Genetic analysis of CTCs from mutation-positive tumors detected those mutations 92 percent of the time. In addition to the primary mutation that leads to initial tumor development and TKI sensitivity, the CTC-chip also detected a secondary mutation associated with treatment resistance in some participants, including those whose tumors originally responded to treatment but later resumed growing. Blood samples were taken at regular intervals during the course of treatment from four patients with mutation-positive tumors. In all of those patients, levels of CTCs dropped sharply after TKI treatment began and began rising when tumors resumed growing. In one patient, adding additional chemotherapy caused CTC levels to drop again as the tumor continued shrinking. Throughout the course of therapy, the tumors’ genetic makeup continued to evolve. Not only did the most common resistance mutation emerge in tumors where it was not initially present, but new activating mutations—the type that causes a tumor to develop in the first place—appeared in seven patients’ tumors, indicating that these cancers are more genetically complex than expected and that continuing to monitor tumor genotype throughout the course of treatment may be crucial. “If tumor genotypes don’t remain static during therapy, it’s essential to know exactly what you’re treating at the time you are treating it,” says Haber. “Biopsy samples taken at the time of diagnosis can never tell us about changes emerging during therapy or genotypic differences that may occur in different sites of the original tumor, but the CTC-chip offers the promise of noninvasive continuous monitoring.” This work, which was supported in part by the National Cancer Institute’s Alliance for Nanotechnology in Cancer, is detailed in the paper “Detection of Mutations in EGFR in Circulating Lung-Cancer Cells.” An abstract of this paper is available through PubMed.	3.423887
- Collection care - Information and records management - Digital preservation - What to keep - Reform of public bodies - Public inquiry guidance - Information principles The Digital Preservation department at The National Archives was set up in July 2001 and charged with developing a method of storing, preserving and providing access to electronic government records. Following an intensive development period, the digital archive was launched in 2003. For the first time a digital repository, successfully storing and making available electronic records of government held here at The National Archives, was available to users. Our work on this digital repository (in partnership with private company Tessella) led to us winning the prestigious Queen's Award for Enterprise: Innovation, for developing a system for preserving digital information. This system, Safety Deposit Box, has since been adopted by archives and libraries around the world. The digital archive's holdings include the records of high-profile public inquiries, parliamentary committees and royal commissions. Electronic records exist in an enormous variety of formats, including email and other office documents, applications, virtual-reality models and audio-visual material. Our presentation system, Electronic Records Online, was launched in 2005 and makes digital records available on the internet, allowing access to our readers around the world.	3.129467
for National Geographic News If a worker ant dares to reproduce in the presence of the queen, her sisters will smell her attempt and attack, according to a new study. Typically, only queens produce offspring in an ant colony, and males die after mating. The sons and the daughter queens fly away, with hopes of reproducing elsewhere, while the worker daughters stay on to build the colony and care for the next generation. These worker ants are biologically capable of a type of parthenogenesis, the process that allows a female to produce offspring without a mate. When they try, however, they produce chemicals called pheromones that their sisters detect with antennas. "It's basically smell, but not the smell we know," said study co-author Jürgen Liebig of Arizona State University. If the colony lacks a queen, workers are permitted to have their own babies, Liebig explained. But when a queen is present, only she is allowed to produce the pheromone that signals fertility status. If a worker tries to "cheat," her sisters will physically restrain the disobedient ant from successfully reproducing. (Related: "Ants Practice Nepotism, Study Finds" [February 26, 2003].) The research was published online January 8 in the journal Current Biology. Scent of a Woman Ant Previous studies showed a correlation between ant's reproductive policing behavior and these pheromones, Liebig said, so there was strong reason to believe the chemicals were tipping them off. "The problem was that nobody could ever show it," he said. Liebig's team studied the ant species Aphaenogaster cockerelli because it uses a simple version of the compound that the scientists could easily obtain. SOURCES AND RELATED WEB SITES	3.429454
You’ve heard that you should lower your cholesterol, but do you know why? Sometimes we tend to ignore advice when we don’t understand the reasons. That’s why it’s important to learn what cholesterol is, what it does in your body and why you need to make sure too much isn’t flowing in your blood. Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that your body needs to function normally. It’s used in the cell membranes that surround cells throughout your body. You also use cholesterol to make important chemicals, including hormones, vitamin D and the acids that help you digest fat. “Cholesterol has a variety of uses in the body that are very important,” says Dr. James Cleeman, coordinator of NIH’s National Cholesterol Education Program, “but the body makes all it needs and we don’t need to get any more from our food.” In fact, when the level of cholesterol in the blood gets too high, it can start to cause trouble. The landmark Framingham Heart Study, funded by NIH, first showed that the higher the cholesterol level in your blood, the greater your risk for heart disease—the number 1 killer of Americans, both women and men. What’s the connection? Well, there are 2 forms of cholesterol in your blood: LDL and HDL. When there’s too much cholesterol in your bloodstream, the cholesterol from LDL can build up in the walls of your arteries. Along with fats like triglycerides and other things in the bloodstream, it forms a growing “plaque” that bulges out of the artery wall and can begin to block blood flow—a process called atherosclerosis. Problems get even worse if a plaque bursts and a blood clot forms on top, which can block an artery. “Where LDL cholesterol does its most harm,” Cleeman says, “is in the walls of the arteries going to the heart—the coronary arteries.” That’s why a high LDL cholesterol level increases your risk for heart disease. Like any muscle, the heart’s own muscle needs a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients, delivered by the blood in the coronary arteries. When these arteries become narrowed or clogged by plaque, the result is coronary heart disease. If the blood supply to a portion of the heart is completely cut off, the result is a heart attack. HDL cholesterol seems to have the opposite effect of LDL; higher HDL levels are associated with a lower risk for heart disease. Some factors affecting your cholesterol level are out of your control. As you get older, for example, your cholesterol level naturally rises. Before menopause, women have lower total cholesterol levels than men of the same age, but after menopause women’s LDL levels tend to rise. High blood cholesterol can also run in families. Your genes affect how fast you make cholesterol and remove it from the blood. However, there are things you can control. “The clinical trial data are absolutely conclusive that lowering LDL cholesterol reduces your risk for heart disease,” Cleeman says. “This is true both for those with high cholesterol levels and for those with average cholesterol levels.” How do you know whether your cholesterol levels are where they should be? In general, the higher your risk for heart disease, the lower your LDL level should be. Cleeman says, “Your goal is individualized to your risk for a heart attack. The number depends on your own risk factors.” NIH has a heart disease risk calculator online at http://hp2010.nhlbihin.net/atpiii/calculator.asp, but you should also talk to your doctor about your risk factors and what your cholesterol levels should be. “A person who has a cholesterol level higher than their goal LDL should follow the TLC program,” Cleeman recommends. TLC stands for Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes. It involves 3 things: changing what you eat, doing more physical activity and controlling your weight. First, diet. Saturated fat raises your LDL cholesterol level more than anything else in your diet. It’s found mostly in meats and full-fat dairy products like whole milk, cheese and butter. Another type of fat called trans fat raises cholesterol similarly, but makes up far less of the American diet. Cholesterol in foods can also raise blood cholesterol levels, but its effect is not as strong as these fats’. Saturated fat, trans fat and cholesterol are all listed on food labels so that you can choose foods with lower amounts to help lower your LDL cholesterol level. Foods with soluble fiber—such as whole grain cereals, fruits and beans —help lower your cholesterol, too. And some products, such as specially labeled margarines, orange juices and yogurts, contain the LDL-lowering compounds “stanols” and “sterols.” Excess weight can increase your LDL cholesterol level. “Fat tissue is not inert,” Cleeman says. “It’s chemically active and produces all kinds of changes.” One is raising LDL blood cholesterol levels. Losing weight can help lower your LDL and total cholesterol levels, as well as raise your HDL and lower your triglycerides. Regular physical activity can help you control your weight, lower your LDL and raise your HDL levels. You should try to be physically active for at least 30 minutes a day. If these lifestyle changes don’t lower your LDL cholesterol enough, medication can help. “Medication should be added to lifestyle changes,” Cleeman advises, “not substituted for them.” Lifestyle changes can bring benefits medications can’t. While both can lower LDL, lifestyle improvements can lower blood pressure and other risk factors as well. NIH’s National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute recommends that everyone older than 20 have their blood cholesterol measured at least once every 5 years. Learn your numbers. Then talk to your doctor about whether you need to take steps to alter your diet, lose weight or get more physically active to lower your blood cholesterol and stay healthy.	3.144174
New tool developed to trace brown fat, fight obesity London, July 19 (IANS) Scientists have enlisted a pioneering new tool which uses thermal imaging to spot brown fat - the body's good fat - to fight obesity. Brown fat plays a vital role in quickly burning away the calories and produces 300 times more heat than any other tissue in the body. It means that the more of it we have, the less likely we are to store excess energy or food as harmful fat. Michael Symonds, professor of developmental physiology at the University of Nottingham, who led the study, said: "This completely non-invasive technique could play a crucial role in our fight against obesity," the Journal of Paediatrics reports. "Potentially, we could add a thermogenic index to food labels to show whether that product would increase or decrease heat production within brown fat. In other words, whether it would speed up or slow down the amount of calories we burn," added Symonds, according to a Nottingham statement. Helen Budge, clinical associate professor in neonatology at Nottingham, who worked with Symonds, said: "Babies have a larger amount of brown fat which they use up to keep warm soon after birth making our study's finding that this healthy fat can also generate heat in childhood and adolescence very exciting." Read More: University Grants Commission (UGC) \| Guru Nanak Dev University \| Kumaon University Nainital \| Gorakhpur University \| Agra University \| Ayurvedic University \| Bundelkhand University So \| Mds University Ajmer Dtso \| Madras University Po \| World University Centre \| Pondicherry University \| Annamalai University \| Kannur University Campus \| Calicut University \| Kochi University \| Jadavpur University \| Kolkata University \| Budge Budge Natun Bazar S.o. \| Budge Budge S.o. (hsg-ii) \| Vidyasagar University So 4TH C V RAMAN INT'L FELLOWSHIP LAUNCHED FOR RESEARCH May 21, 2013 at 10:07 PM WE WILL BRING A NEW LAW TO REGULATE FIXING : JITENDRA SINGH May 21, 2013 at 10:00 PM COURT ALLOWS FIVE DAY POLICE CUSTODY FOR THE IPL FIXERS May 21, 2013 at 9:58 PM	3.104632
In 1860–61 Robert O’Hara Burke and William John Wills led an expedition to cross Australia from Melbourne in the south to the Gulf of Carpentaria in the north. After arriving at their base camp at Cooper’s Creek, Burke selected Wills, John King and Charles Gray to accompany him to the gulf and left four men at the base camp. They reached the gulf but on their return journey Gray died of exhaustion, and when the others arrived back at the base camp it was deserted, the reserve party having departed only nine hours before they arrived. Burke decided to try to reach a police station at Mount Hopeless, but they eventually became too weak to continue, and he and Wills died from exhaustion and starvation. Only King survived, kept alive by Indigenous Australians until a search party found him. Lambert depicted the exhausted body of Burke slumped against a tree, with King standing looking into the far distance and Wills crouching near an exhausted camel. He placed the event within a harsh and desolate Australian outback scene, overlooked by ominous black crows. He made this watercolour as an illustration for W.H. Lang’s account of the expedition. It was published with the caption: ‘On the way to Mount Hopeless’ in a volume of boys’ stories, Romance of empire: Australia, in 1908. This was the first attempt to present Australia’s history in the form of an illustrated book for boys and met with considerable success. Many artists depicted this story, including Ludwig Becker and Hermann Beckler, who participated in the expedition. John Longstaff painted Arrival of Burke, Wills and King at the deserted camp at Cooper’s Creek, Sunday evening, 21st April 1861 (National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne)in the same year that Lambert made this watercolour.	3.568151
During the 1980s the number of babies born annually was around 12. The total twice fell sharply in the 1990s until just a single calf appeared in 2000. Since then, the average has risen to more than 20 calves a year. Yet this remains 30 percent below the whales' potential rate of reproduction. Why? If scientists are to guide the species' salvation, they need more data and more answers. Fast. One August morning in 2006, when the sea was a sheet of dimpled satin shot through with silver threads, I joined Scott Kraus, the New England Aquarium's vice president of research, and Rosalind Rolland, a veterinarian and senior scientist with the aquarium, on an unlikely quest in the Bay of Fundy. When leviathans rose in the distance through the sea's shimmering skin, Kraus steered the boat downwind of where they had briefly surfaced, handed me a data sheet to log our movements, and zigzagged into the faint breeze. Rolland moved onto the bow. Beside her was Fargo, the world's premier whale-poop-sniffing dog. Fargo began to pace from starboard to port, nostrils flaring. Rolland focused on the rottweiler's tail. If it began to move, it would mean he had picked up a scent—and he could do that a nautical mile away. Twitch … Twitch … Wag, wag. "Starboard," Rolland called to Kraus. "A little more. Nope, too far. Turn to port. OK, he's back on it." A quarter of an hour ran by like the bay's currents. All I saw were clumps of seaweed. Suddenly, the dog sat and turned to fix Rolland with a look. We stopped, and out of the vast ocean horizon came a single chunk of digested whale chow, bobbing along mostly submerged, ready to sink from view or dissolve altogether within minutes. Kraus grabbed the dip net and scooped up the fragrant blob. You'd have thought he was landing a fabulous fish. "At first, people are incredulous. Then come the inevitable jokes. But this," said the man who has led North Atlantic right whale research for three decades, "is actually some of the best science we've done." With today's technology, DNA from sloughed-off intestinal cells in a dung sample can identify the individual that produced it. Residues of hormones tell Rolland about the whale's general condition, its reproductive state—mature? pregnant? lactating?—levels of stress, and presence of parasites.	3.185457
Draw a square. A second square of the same size slides around the first always maintaining contact and keeping the same orientation. How far does the dot travel? Points A, B and C are the centres of three circles, each one of which touches the other two. Prove that the perimeter of the triangle ABC is equal to the diameter of the largest circle. An AP rectangle is one whose area is numerically equal to its perimeter. If you are given the length of a side can you always find an AP rectangle with one side the given length? Tom and Jerry started with identical rectangular sheets of paper. Each of them cut his sheet into two. Tom obtained two rectangles, each with a perimeter of $40$cm while Jerry obtained two rectangles, each with a perimeter of $50$cm. What was the perimeter of Tom's original sheet of paper? If you liked this problem, here is an NRICH task which challenges you to use similar mathematical ideas. This problem is taken from the UKMT Mathematical Challenges.	3.507436
Find A Physician More on Flu (Influenza) More on Flu (Influenza) Research and Clinical Trials More on Flu (Influenza) What is influenza (flu)? Influenza (or flu) is a highly contagious viral respiratory tract infection. An estimated 5 to 20 percent of the population in the US contract influenza each year. Influenza is characterized by the abrupt onset of fever, muscle aches, sore throat, and a nonproductive cough. Influenza can make people of any age ill. Although most people are ill with influenza for only a few days, some have a much more serious illness and may need to be hospitalized. Influenza can also lead to pneumonia and death. Influenza viruses are divided into three types, designated as A, B, and C. - Influenza types A and B are responsible for epidemics of respiratory illness that occur almost every winter and are often associated with increased rates for hospitalization and death. Efforts to control the impact of influenza are focused on types A and B. - Influenza type C usually causes either a very mild respiratory illness or no symptoms at all. It does not cause epidemics and does not have the severe public health impact that influenza types A and B do. Influenza viruses continually mutate or change, which enables the virus to evade the immune system of its host. This makes people susceptible to influenza infection throughout their lives. The process works as follows: - A person infected with influenza virus develops antibody against that virus. - The virus mutates or changes. - The "older" antibody no longer recognizes the "newer" virus. - Reinfection occurs. The older antibody can, however, provide partial protection against reinfection. Currently, three different influenza viruses circulate worldwide: two type A viruses and one type B virus. Immunizations given each year to protect against the flu contain the influenza virus strain from each type that is expected to cause the flu within that year. Facts about the flu: Although each flu season is different, approximately 5 to 20 percent of the population will get the flu each year. Approximately 36,000 of those who get the flu will die from it or from complications. What causes influenza? The influenza virus is generally passed from person to person by airborne transmission (i.e., sneezing or coughing). But, the virus can also live for a short time on objects - such as doorknobs, pens, pencils, keyboards, telephone receivers, and eating or drinking utensils. Therefore, it may also be spread by touching something that has been handled by someone infected with the virus and then touching your own mouth, nose, or eyes. What are the symptoms of the flu? The following are the most common symptoms of the flu. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Influenza is called a respiratory disease, but the whole body seems to suffer when a person is infected. People usually become acutely ill with several, or all, of the following symptoms: - high fever - clear nose - sneezing at times - cough, often becoming severe - severe aches and pains - fatigue for several weeks - sometimes a sore throat - extreme exhaustion Fever and body aches usually last for three to five days, but cough and fatigue may last for two weeks or more. Although nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea may accompany the flu, these gastrointestinal symptoms are rarely prominent. "Stomach flu" is an incorrect term sometimes used to describe gastrointestinal illnesses caused by other microorganisms. The symptoms of the flu may resemble other medical conditions. Always consult your physician for a diagnosis. Treatment for influenza: Specific treatment for influenza will be determined by your physician based on: - your age, overall health, and medical history - extent and type of influenza, and severity of symptoms - your tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies - expectations for the course of the disease - your opinion or preference The goal of treatment for influenza is to help prevent or decrease the severity of symptoms. Treatment may include: - medications to relieve aches and fever (Aspirin should not be given to children with fever without first consulting a physician). The drug of choice for children is acetaminophen (Tylenol). - medications for congestion and nasal discharge - bed rest and increased intake of fluids antiviral medications - when started within the first two days of treatment, they can reduce the duration of the disease but cannot cure it. Four medications have been approved and include amantadine, rimantadine, zanamivir, and oseltamivir. Some side effects may result from taking these medications, such as nervousness, lightheadedness, or nausea. Individuals with asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease are cautioned about using zanamivir. Viral resistance to these drugs may vary. Some drugs may be ineffective if current viral strains have developed resistance. All of these medications must be prescribed by a physician. Consult your physician for more information. How to prevent the flu: A new influenza vaccine is introduced each September. It is usually recommended for specific groups of people (see below), as well as for persons who want to avoid having the flu. In addition, three antiviral medications (amantadine, rimantadine, and oseltamivir) are approved for use in preventing the flu. All of these medications are available by prescription, and a physician should be consulted before any medication is used for preventing the flu. A nasal-spray flu vaccine, called FluMist, is currently approved to prevent flu due to influenza A and B viruses in healthy children and adolescents (ages two to 17), and healthy adults (ages 18 to 49). As with other live virus vaccines, FluMist should not be given for any reason to pregnant women and people with immune suppression, including those with immune deficiency diseases, such as AIDS or cancer, and people who are being treated with medications that cause immunosuppression. FluMist also should not be given to the following groups of people: - children less than two years of age - any person with asthma - children less than five years of age with recurrent wheezing Following these precautions may also be helpful: - When possible, avoid or limit contact with infected persons. - Frequent handwashing may reduce, but not eliminate, the risk of infection. - A person who is coughing or sneezing should cover his/her nose and mouth with a handkerchief to limit spread of the virus. How effective is the flu vaccine? Vaccine effectiveness varies from year to year, depending upon the degree of similarity between the influenza virus strains included in the vaccine and the strain or strains that circulate during the influenza season. Vaccine strains must be chosen 9 to 10 months before the influenza season, and sometimes mutations occur in the circulating strains of viruses between the time vaccine strains are chosen and the next influenza season. These mutations sometimes reduce the ability of the vaccine-induced antibody to inhibit the newly mutated virus, thereby reducing vaccine effectiveness. Vaccine effectiveness also varies from one person to another, depending on factors such as age and overall health. What are the side effects of the flu vaccine? The most serious side effect that can occur after influenza vaccination is an allergic reaction in people who have a severe allergy to eggs. For this reason, people who have an allergy to eggs should not receive the influenza vaccine. The National Center for Infectious Diseases (a division of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC) says that influenza vaccine causes no side effects in most people who are not allergic to eggs. Less than one-third of people who receive the vaccine experience some soreness at the vaccination site, and about 5 to 10 percent experience mild side effects, such as headache or low-grade fever for about a day after receiving the vaccination. Because these mild side effects mimic some influenza symptoms, some people believe the influenza vaccine causes them to get influenza. However, according to the CDC, "influenza vaccine produced in the United States has never been capable of causing influenza because the only type of influenza vaccine that has been licensed in the United States to the present time is made from killed influenza viruses, which cannot cause infection." Who should immunize against the flu? The flu causes complications that may develop into a more serious disease or become dangerous to some groups, such as elderly people and those with chronic medical conditions. For these reasons, the CDC recommends that the following groups immunize themselves each year. Always consult your physician for more information regarding who should receive the flu vaccine: - persons 50 years old or older (Vaccine effectiveness may be lower for elderly persons, but it can significantly reduce their chances of serious illness or death from influenza.) - children and adolescents six months to 19 years of age - residents of nursing homes and any other chronic care facilities that house persons of any age who have chronic medical conditions - adults and children who have chronic disorders of the pulmonary or cardiovascular systems, including children with asthma - adults and children who have the following medical conditions: - chronic metabolic diseases (i.e., diabetes) - renal dysfunction - children and teenagers (aged 6 months to 19 years) receiving long-term aspirin therapy - women who will be pregnant during flu season In addition, the following groups should be vaccinated: - healthcare providers - employees of nursing homes and chronic care facilities who have contact with patients or residents - providers of home care to persons at high risk - household members (including children) of persons in high-risk groups - persons of any age who wish to decrease their chances of influenza infection, excluding persons who are allergic to eggs When should I get a flu shot? The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends getting the flu shot every year, between September and mid-November, before the flu season hits (usually December to April). The flu shot takes one to two weeks to become effective. Although there are many new medications designed to treat flu symptoms and even shorten the duration of the illness, the flu vaccine still offers the best protection against the flu. If I get the flu shot, can I still get the flu? Every year, the flu shot "cocktail" changes to combat the current strains of influenza affecting the population. The World Health Organization (WHO) monitors flu outbreaks worldwide and recommends appropriate vaccine compositions to be used for the next year. However, sometimes, a strain may appear that was not included in the flu vaccine. People who have had the flu shot tend to have milder symptoms if they contract the flu. Traveling and exposure to the flu: Because the flu is a highly contagious infection usually spread by droplets produced by an infected person who is coughing or sneezing, travelers are very susceptible to contracting the flu. The CDC recommends that travelers have the flu vaccine at least two weeks in advance of planned travel to allow time to develop protective immunity. There are other anti-viral drugs available to help prevent viral infections and complications. Consult your physician for more information. Click here to view the Online Resources of Infectious Diseases	3.877961
Every year, tens of millions of sharks are killed for their fins alone. Shark fins are used to make shark fin soup, a popular and expensive dish that is a symbol of wealth and status primarily in Asian cultures. The demand for fins can lead to cruel and wasteful practices, such as cutting off a shark’s fins at sea and then throwing the rest of the shark, sometimes still alive, back into the water. And shark fin soup can be dangerous to humans. Since sharks are at the top of the food chain, they accumulate toxins like mercury, which is a dangerous neurotoxin. So are there any alternatives to shark fin soup? Shark fins themselves have no taste and are used only for texture. In traditional shark fin soup recipes, chicken or fish stock is added to give the soup flavor which means that there are a lot of ways to enjoy shark fin soup without using shark fins – like this recipe from the Monterey Bay Aquarium: Today, the Maryland state Senate Education, Health, and Environmental Affairs Committee is holding a hearing on numerous bills including a bill that would ban the possession, sale, trade and distribution of shark and ray fins. This bill will help protect global shark populations by reducing the demand for their fins. Each year, tens of million sharks are killed so that their fins can be used in shark fin soup. In the United States, the cruel and wasteful practice of shark finning is illegal. However, many fins are imported from all around the world, contributing to the demand for shark fins and the overfishing of sharks. Hawaii, Oregon, Washington, and California have already passed similar laws, and bills have also been introduced in New York, Illinois, Florida, and Virginia. Oceana supports Maryland’s initiative and asks that state residents do so as well. Please show your support by telling your legislator to vote for SB 465! In Singapore, we’re seeing more proof that dedicated activists can make a difference in the world. Singapore is one of the shark fin capitals of the world, but thanks to an outcry from local customers, its largest supermarket chain, Fairprice, will be pulling fins from its shelves. Shark fins are often cut from live sharks, which are then thrown overboard to die. The huge demand for fins, considered a delicacy, puts some shark species at risk of extinction. And while shark fin is a culturally important food in Singapore, the tide is turning. A campaign by divers against shark fins caused one of Fairprice’s suppliers to launch an online attack ad that said “Screw the divers!” Luckily for sharks, the ad backfired. Not all Singaporeans are shark fin fans. Local groups like Project Fin have been fighting to create change from the inside out, and they are finally having an impact. In response to the ad, Singaporeans sent hundreds of complaints to Fairprice and suggested a boycott. In response, Fairprice made the smart—and surprising—decision to stop selling shark fins. "It is encouraging to see FairPrice respond promptly to the public reaction. They can progress further by selling only sustainable food," said Jennifer Lee, founder of Project Fin. Kudos to the Singaporean shark protectors for such a powerful victory in the wake of cultural pressure. It’s not every day that you hear about the Marshall Islands. Scattered across a swath of the Pacific Ocean, these islands are home to only about 68,000 people. But as of this week, the waters around these islands may become home to a whole lot more sharks. That’s because the government has decided to make all of its waters—more than 750,000 square miles, or about the size of Mexico—a shark sanctuary. This move will almost double the area in which sharks are protected globally. Within the Marshall Islands, it will now be illegal to commercially fish sharks, sell any shark products, and use wire leaders (a type of fishing gear often responsible for shark deaths). In addition, all sharks caught accidentally must be released, and fishing boats will be required to bring all their catch directly to port for inspection—an important step in combating seafood fraud. Fines for having shark products will run the equivalent of $25,000 to $200,000. Great news this shark week! We just got word that Oregon Governor John Kitzhaber will sign a bill this afternoon banning the sale, trade, and possession of shark fins in the state. Oceana was instrumental in the passage of this bill, which passed the State House and Senate with bipartisan support. The bill’s passage moves the U.S. West Coast closer to a full ban on the trade of shark fins, thereby helping to protect global populations of at-risk shark species that are being targeted in unsustainable and unregulated fisheries worldwide. While shark finning is illegal in the U.S., current federal laws banning the practice do not address the shark fin trade. As a result, fins are being imported to the U.S. from countries with few or even no shark protections in place. Governor Chris Gregoire of Washington State signed similar legislation into law on May 12, 2011 and a bill in the California legislature passed the Assembly and is currently under consideration in committee in the Senate. We commend Governor Kitzhaber for his extraordinary leadership to protect the ocean’s top predators, and congratulate our Pacific colleagues for their work in achieving this victory! Fantastic news! Earlier this afternoon, the Chilean National Congress passed a nationwide ban on shark finning. This groundbreaking decision comes on the heels of a very similar ban passed by the United States Congress last December, and puts both countries at the forefront of shark conservation. Oceana drafted the Chilean bill in January, and we are elated to see it pass into law – without a single dissenter. Shark finning is an inhumane practice that often involves throwing the rest of the shark’s body back into the water once the desired fin is obtained. Despite its cruelty, shark finning is incredibly rampant, due to culinary demand from Asian countries such as China, where shark fin soup is popular. With the passage of this bill, Chile joins a growing list of countries leading the way in shark conservation. Because sharks do not respect national boundaries, this legislation will help protect shark populations and ocean health in Chile and beyond. Stellar news for sharks today: Washington Governor Christine Gregoire signed into law a ban on the trade of shark fins. “By signing this legislation the Governor took a very large west coast leadership role in initiating action to address a global problem,” said Whit Sheard, Senior Advisor and Pacific Counsel for Oceana. “This bill will do two things, help us move closer to ending the wasteful and unnecessary depletion of our ocean’s top predators and serve as a model for Oregon and California as they have similar pending legislation.” While shark finning is illegal in the U.S., current federal laws banning shark finning do not address the issue of the shark fin trade. As a result, fins are being imported to the U.S. from countries with limited to zero shark protections in place. Similar legislation passed recently in Hawaii and Guam and is pending in Oregon and California. Each year, tens of millions of sharks are killed for their fins, mostly to make shark fin soup. In this wasteful and cruel practice, a shark’s fins are sliced off while at sea and the remainder of the animal is thrown back into the water to die. Congrats to Oceana’s Pacific campaigners for helping win this great victory for sharks! Chinese NBA basketball star Yao Ming hopes so. As center for the Houston Rockets, Ming is spreading the word to “Say no to shark fin soup” with his new ads sponsored by Oceana and WildAid. Ming’s message is traveling through San Francisco by bus, including those on Chinatown routes to support legislation (AB 376) to ban the possession, sale, trade, and distribution of shark fins in California. Great news from the Evergreen State: Washington State’s legislature has passed a bill banning the illegal trade of shark fins, an extraordinary step toward shark conservation on the U.S. Pacific coast. The legislation now goes to the governor’s desk to be signed into law. While shark finning is illegal in the U.S., current federal laws banning shark finning do not address the issue of the shark fin trade. As a result, fins are being imported to the U.S. from countries with limited to zero shark protections in place. Similar legislation passed recently in Hawaii and is pending in Oregon and California. “This legislation is an excellent example of a state taking action to address a global problem,” said Whit Sheard, Senior Advisor and Pacific Counsel for Oceana. “This bill will help us move closer to ending the wasteful and unnecessary depletion of our ocean’s top predators.” As shark week comes to a close, we thought we’d hit you with the good stuff: numbers. Here are some of the most revealing statistics about sharks that we could find: 400 million: Approximate number of years that sharks have been on planet Earth. 50: Number of shark species that are listed as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered on the IUCN Red List of threatened species 138,894: Number of people in the U.S. who suffered ladder-related injuries in 1996. 13: Number who suffered shark-related injuries in the U.S. in 1996. 22 million: Amount, in pounds, of shark fins that were imported into Hong Kong in 2008, making it the world’s largest single market for the product.	3.29819
In the southeast U.S., deep-sea corals create oases of special habitat along the coast and are extremely vulnerable to certain kinds of fishing such as bottom trawling and dredging. Both corals and fisheries are managed by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council. In 2004, the Council responded to the convincing data provided by scientists and identified areas of coral that would be closed to bottom trawling and any other activity that disturbs the seafloor. The boundaries were updated in spring of 2006 to reflect recent research. However, the Council has yet to formalize these designations and the threat to corals remains. Learn more about the Corals of the Southeast U.S.	3.347594
Front Page Titles (by Subject) Origin and Causes of the Sterility of first Crosses and of Hybrids. - The Origin of Species by means of natural selection or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life, vol. 2 Return to Title Page for The Origin of Species by means of natural selection or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life, vol. 2 The Online Library of Liberty A project of Liberty Fund, Inc. Search this Title: Also in the Library: Origin and Causes of the Sterility of first Crosses and of Hybrids. - Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species by means of natural selection or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life, vol. 2 The Origin of Species by means of natural selection or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life, with additions and corrections from the sixth and last English edition, in two volumes (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1896). Volume 2. Part of: The Origin of Species by means of natural selection or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life, 2 vols. About Liberty Fund: The text is in the public domain. Fair use statement: Origin and Causes of the Sterility of first Crosses and of Hybrids. At one time it appeared to me probable, as it has to others, that the sterility of first crosses and of hybrids might have been slowly acquired through the natural selection of slightly lessened degrees of fertility, which, like any other variation, spontaneously appeared in certain individuals of one variety when crossed with those of another variety. For it would clearly be advantageous to two varieties or incipient species, if they could be kept from blending, on the same principle that, when man is selecting at the same time two varieties, it is necessary that he should keep them separate. In the first place, it may be remarked that species inhabiting distinct regions are often sterile when crossed; now it could clearly have been of no advantage to such separated species to have been rendered mutually sterile, and consequently this could not have been effected through natural selection; but it may perhaps be argued, that, if a species was rendered sterile with some one compatriot, sterility with other species would follow as a necessary contingency. In the second place, it is almost as much opposed to the theory of natural selection as to that of special creation, that in reciprocal crosses the male element of one form should have been rendered utterly impotent on a second form, whilst at the same time the male element of this second form is enabled freely to fertilise the first form; for this peculiar state of the reproductive system could hardly have been advantageous to either species. In considering the probability of natural selection having come into action, in rendering species mutually sterile, the greatest difficulty will be found to lie in the existence of many graduated steps from slightly lessened fertility to absolute sterility. It may be admitted that it would profit an incipient species, if it were rendered in some slight degree sterile when crossed with its parent form or with some other variety; for thus fewer bastardised and deteriorated offspring would be produced to commingle their blood with the new species in process of formation. But he who will take the trouble to reflect on the steps by which this first degree of sterility could be increased through natural selection to that high degree which is common with so many species, and which is universal with species which have been differentiated to a generic or family rank, will find the subject extraordinarily complex. After mature reflection it seems to me that this could not have been effected through natural selection. Take the case of any two species which, when crossed, produced few and sterile offspring; now, what is there which could favour the survival of those individuals which happened to be endowed in a slightly higher degree with mutual infertility, and which thus approached by one small step towards absolute sterility? Yet an advance of this kind, if the theory of natural selection be brought to bear, must have incessantly occurred with many species, for a multitude are mutually quite barren. With sterile neuter insects we have reason to believe that modifications in their structure and fertility have been slowly accumulated by natural selection, from an advantage having been thus indirectly given to the community to which they belonged over other communities of the same species; but an individual animal not belonging to a social community, if rendered slightly sterile when crossed with some other variety, would not thus itself gain any advantage or indirectly give any advantage to the other individuals of the same variety, thus leading to their preservation. But it would be superfluous to discuss this question in detail; for with plants we have conclusive evidence that the sterility of crossed species must be due to some principle, quite independent of natural selection. Both Gärtner and Kölreuter have proved that in genera including numerous species, a series can be formed from species which when crossed yield fewer and fewer seeds, to species which never produce a single seed, but yet are affected by the pollen of certain other species, for the germen swells. It is here manifestly impossible to select the more sterile individuals, which have already ceased to yield seeds; so that this acme of sterility, when the germen alone is affected, cannot have been gained through selection; and from the laws governing the various grades of sterility being so uniform throughout the animal and vegetable kingdoms, we may infer that the cause, whatever it may be, is the same or nearly the same in all cases. We will now look a little closer at the probable nature of the differences between species which induce sterility in first crosses and in hybrids. In the case of first crosses, the greater or less difficulty in effecting an union and in obtaining offspring apparently depends on several distinct causes. There must sometimes be a physical impossibility in the male element reaching the ovule, as would be the case with a plant having a pistil too long for the pollen-tubes to reach the ovarium. It has also been observed that when the pollen of one species is placed on the stigma of a distantly allied species, though the pollen-tubes protrude, they do not penetrate the stigmatic surface. Again, the male element may reach the female element but be incapable of causing an embryo to be developed, as seems to have been the case with some of Thuret’s experiments on Fuci. No explanation can be given of these facts, any more than why certain trees cannot be grafted on others. Lastly, an embryo may be developed, and then perish at an early period. This latter alternative has not been sufficiently attended to; but I believe, from observations communicated to me by Mr. Hewitt, who has had great experience in hybridising pheasants and fowls, that the early death of the embryo is a very frequent cause of sterility in first crosses. Mr. Salter has recently given the results of an examination of about 500 eggs produced from various crosses between three species of Gallus and their hybrids; the majority of these eggs had been fertilised; and in the majority of the fertilised eggs, the embryos had either been partially developed and had then perished, or had become nearly mature, but the young chickens had been unable to break through the shell. Of the chickens which were born, more than four-fifths died within the first few days, or at latest weeks, “without any obvious cause, apparently from mere inability to live;” so that from the 500 eggs only twelve chickens were reared. With plants, hybridised embryos probably often perish in a like manner; at least it is known that hybrids raised from very distinct species are sometimes weak and dwarfed, and perish at an early age; of which fact Max Wichura has recently given some striking cases with hybrid willows. It may be here worth noticing that in some cases of parthenogenesis, the embryos within the eggs of silk moths which had not been fertilised, pass through their early stages of development and then perish like the embryos produced by a cross between distinct species. Until becoming acquainted with these facts, I was unwilling to believe in the frequent early death of hybrid embryos; for hybrids, when once born, are generally healthy and long-lived, as we see in the case of the common mule. Hybrids, however, are differently circumstanced before and after birth: when born and living in a country where their two parents live, they are generally placed under suitable conditions of life. But a hybrid partakes of only half of the nature and constitution of its mother; it may therefore before birth, as long as it is nourished within its mother’s womb, or within the egg or seed produced by the mother, be exposed to conditions in some degree unsuitable, and consequently be liable to perish at an early period; more especially as all very young beings are eminently sensitive to injurious or unnatural conditions of life. But after all, the cause more probably lies in some imperfection in the original act of impregnation, causing the embryo to be imperfectly developed, rather than in the conditions to which it is subsequently exposed. In regard to the sterility of hybrids, in which the sexual elements are imperfectly developed, the case is somewhat different. I have more than once alluded to a large body of facts showing that, when animals and plants are removed from their natural conditions, they are extremely liable to have their reproductive systems seriously affected. This, in fact, is the great bar to the domestication of animals. Between the sterility thus superinduced and that of hybrids, there are many points of similarity. In both cases the sterility is independent of general health, and is often accompanied by excess of size or great luxuriance. In both cases the sterility occurs in various degrees; in both, the male element is the most liable to be affected; but sometimes the female more than the male. In both, the tendency goes to a certain extent with systematic affinity, for whole groups of animals and plants are rendered impotent by the same unnatural conditions; and whole groups of species tend to produce sterile hybrids. On the other hand, one species in a group will sometimes resist great changes of conditions with unimpaired fertility; and certain species in a group will produce unusually fertile hybrids. No one can tell, till he tries, whether any particular animal will breed under confinement, or any exotic plant seed freely under culture; nor can he tell till he tries, whether any two species of a genus will produce more or less sterile hybrids. Lastly, when organic beings are placed during several generations under conditions not natural to them, they are extremely liable to vary, which seems to be partly due to their reproductive systems having been specially affected, though in a lesser degree than when sterility ensues. So it is with hybrids, for their offspring in successive generations are eminently liable to vary, as every experimentalist has observed. Thus we see that when organic beings are placed under new and unnatural conditions, and when hybrids are produced by the unnatural crossing of two species, the reproductive system, independently of the general state of health, is affected in a very similar manner. In the one case, the conditions of life have been disturbed, though often in so slight a degree as to be inappreciable by us; in the other case, or that of hybrids, the external conditions have remained the same, but the organisation has been disturbed by two distinct structures and constitutions, including of course the reproductive systems, having been blended into one. For it is scarcely possible that two organisations should be compounded into one, without some disturbance occurring in the development, or periodical action, or mutual relations of the different parts and organs one to another or to the conditions of life. When hybrids are able to breed inter se, they transmit to their offspring from generation to generation the same compounded organisation, and hence we need not be surprised that their sterility, though in some degree variable, does not diminish; it is even apt to increase, this being generally the result, as before explained, of too close interbreeding. The above view of the sterility of hybrids being caused by two constitutions being compounded into one has been strongly maintained by Max Wichura. It must, however, be owned that we cannot understand, on the above or any other view, several facts with respect to the sterility of hybrids; for instance, the unequal fertility of hybrids produced from reciprocal crosses; or the increased sterility in those hybrids which occasionally and exceptionally resemble closely either pure parent. Nor do I pretend that the foregoing remarks go to the root of the matter; no explanation is offered why an organism, when placed under unnatural conditions, is rendered sterile. All that I have attempted to show is, that in two cases, in some respects allied, sterility is the common result,—in the one case from the conditions of life having been disturbed, in the other case from the organisation having been disturbed by two organisations being compounded into one. A similar parallelism holds good with an allied yet very different class of facts. It is an old and almost universal belief founded on a considerable body of evidence, which I have elsewhere given, that slight changes in the conditions of life are beneficial to all living things. We see this acted on by farmers and gardeners in their frequent exchanges of seed, tubers, &c., from one soil or climate to another, and back again. During the convalescence of animals, great benefit is derived from almost any change in their habits of life. Again, both with plants and animals, there is the clearest evidence that a cross between individuals of the same species, which differ to a certain extent, gives vigour and fertility to the offspring; and that close interbreeding continued during several generations between the nearest relations, if these be kept under the same conditions of life, almost always leads to decreased size, weakness, or sterility. Hence it seems that, on the one hand, slight changes in the conditions of life benefit all organic beings, and on the other hand, that slight crosses, that is crosses between the males and females of the same species, which have been subjected to slightly different conditions, or which have slightly varied, give vigour and fertility to the offspring. But, as we have seen, organic beings long habituated to certain uniform conditions under a state of nature, when subjected, as under confinement, to a considerable change in their conditions, very frequently are rendered more or less sterile; and we know that a cross between two forms, that have become widely or specifically different, produce hybrids which are almost always in some degree sterile. I am fully persuaded that this double parallelism is by no means an accident or an illusion. He who is able to explain why the elephant and a multitude of other animals are incapable of breeding when kept under only partial confinement in their native country, will be able to explain the primary cause of hybrids being so generally sterile. He will at the same time be able to explain how it is that the races of some of our domesticated animals, which have often been subjected to new and not uniform conditions, are quite fertile together, although they are descended from distinct species, which would probably have been sterile if aboriginally crossed. The above two parallel series of facts seem to be connected together by some common but unknown bond, which is essentially related to the principle of life; this principle, according to Mr. Herbert Spencer, being that life depends on, or consists in, the incessant action and reaction of various forces, which, as throughout nature, are always tending towards an equilibrium; and when this tendency is slightly disturbed by any change, the vital forces gain in power.	3.02867
Sugar might not be the infant pain reliever clinicians have long thought it to be, according to a study in the Lancet. At a hospital in London, researchers randomly assigned 44 newborns to receive a squirt of either sugared or plain water before pricking their heels. (The heel prick is a common method for drawing infants' blood.) Meanwhile, electroencephalography (EEG) electrodes measured the infants' pain-specific brain activity. Previous studies have found that newborns exhibit fewer grimaces and other facial expressions of pain when given sugared water before a procedure. Despite that, in this study the EEGs showed no difference in pain between children given sugared or plain water. Caveat: Activity in the targeted brain regions might not capture the entirety of infant pain, an accompanying editorial said. The small number of infants in the study meant that the researchers would only have been able to detect a large difference between the two groups. - Oral Sucrose as an Analgesic Drug for Procedural Pain in Newborn Infants: A Randomised Controlled Trial Internal Clocks: Tissue from hair follicles can reveal where people are in the circadian rhythm that governs their sleeping and waking periods, according to a study in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The genes regulating this so-called circadian clock leave traces of their activity throughout the body. Previously, the researchers tried sampling blood and mouth-tissue cells for DNA to track circadian phases. They decided that collecting follicle cells, attached to the bottom of plucked chin or head hairs, would be an easier and less-invasive method. In one experiment, they found that follicle cells from an average of 10 hairs contained enough information to differentiate among workers with morning, afternoon or night shifts. Caveat: The study doesn't include the costs of processing hair follicles. The technique, which could help diagnose erratic or slow-to-adapt circadian clocks, needs to be improved before it's ready for clinical use, the researchers said. Lung Cancer: The world's most prescribed anti-diabetes drug halved the eventual size of lung tumors in mice, according to a study in Cancer Prevention Research. Metformin, typically the first choice for treating Type 2 diabetes, may slow tumor growth by regulating enzymes that become overactive during cancer. The researchers injected cancer-prone mice with a carcinogen specific to cigarette smoke, and then gave them either a placebo or moderate doses of metformin. After 13 weeks, the lung tumors in metformin-fed mice were 38% to 53% smaller than those in the placebo-fed mice on average. More-potent, injected doses of metformin led to a 72% tumor reduction. Caveat: As with all animal studies, the findings might not apply to human subjects. The National Cancer Institute is planning a clinical trial to test metformin in people at highest risk of developing lung cancer. Brain Exercises: Reading and other cognitive exercises compress late-life dementia into a shorter but more-rapid decline, according to a study in Neurology. At the beginning of the study, 1,157 dementia-free seniors reported how often they read newspapers, magazines and books; listened to the radio; watched television; played games like cards or crosswords and visited museums. Every three years, the researchers tested a subset of the participants for cognitive impairment, and followed those patients for another 5.7 years on average. Cognitive exercise appeared to delay dementia. Every one-point increase on a five-point mental-activity scale corresponded to an average 52% slower cognitive impairment at first. But the exercises appeared to have the opposite effect on subjects who had developed Alzheimer's: for every one-point increase on the scale, cognitive skills declined 42% more quickly. Caveat: The researchers tested each participant fewer than four times on average, and the participants reported their cognitive exercises just once. Migraine: Researchers discovered the first common gene linked to migraine risk, according to their report in Nature Genetics. The researchers compared DNA samples from 2,731 migraine sufferers to 10,747 otherwise similar subjects, examining more than 400,000 DNA sequences per participant. A variation in only one sequence, on the long arm of chromosome 8, appeared to have any effect on the debilitating condition. The researchers confirmed their initial findings by examining this sequence in another 3,202 people with migraine and 40,062 controls. Overall, 24.3% of migraine sufferers and 20.6% of non-sufferers carried the variant—an 18% higher rate for sufferers. The sequence's location, between two genes that help regulate the neurotransmitter glutamate, provides fresh clues for understanding and treating migraine. Caveat: All subjects were European, and all migraine sufferers were recruited from specialized headache clinics. It's unclear whether the variant is as common, or as closely associated with migraine, in other populations. Low-Carbohydrate Diets: Low-carbohydrate diets based on animal protein appear to shorten dieters' lives, while those based on vegetable proteins appear to increase longevity, according to a study in Annals of Internal Medicine. Researchers tracked 85,168 female nurses between 1980 and 2006. They also tracked 44,548 male health-care professionals (such as optometrists and veterinarians) between 1986 and 2006. During that time, about 16% of the participants died. The participants who consumed few carbohydrates and the greatest proportion of animal protein and fat were 23% more likely to die than those who consumed the least. On the other hand, the mortality rate was 20% lower for participants on low-carb diets who consumed the most vegetable protein and fat, compared to those who consumed the least. Caveat: Smaller differences in diet—for example, between diets in the 40th and 60th percentiles for carbohydrates, instead of the top and bottom 10%—were mostly insignificant. The researchers adjusted their analyses for age, physical activity and smoking, but not race, income or education. Esophageal Cancer: The most popular anti-osteoporosis medications may boost the risk of esophageal cancer, according to a study in the British Medical Journal. The Food and Drug Administration raised the possibility last year of a link between oral bisphosphonates and esophageal cancer, based on case reports it collected. Yet a recent analysis of a large British patient database suggested that the medications weren't to blame for the cancer. The BMJ study used the same database, but tracked patients for nearly twice as long: 7.7 years versus 4.5 years on average. Over the longer period, a greater proportion of the 2,954 patients with esophageal cancer had used oral bisphosphonates, compared to a control group. (There was no association between the medication and gastric or colorectal cancer.) The risk was concentrated among patients who had received at least 10 prescriptions for oral bisphosphonates. They were 93% more likely to get esophageal cancer than subjects who received no prescriptions. The overall risk for esophageal cancer in Europe and North America is about 1 in 1,000. Caveat: The data didn't show whether patients who were prescribed oral bisphosphonates actually used them, or whether they followed the instructions meant to reduce esophageal irritation. - Oral Bisphosphonates and Risk of Cancer of Oesophagus, Stomach, and Colorectum: Case-Control Analysis Within a U.K. Primary Care Cohort Heart Health: Margarine fortified with omega-3 fatty acids appears not to prevent second heart attacks, according to a study in the New England Journal of Medicine. Dutch researchers gave 4,837 elderly heart-attack survivors, all taking "state-of-the-art" medications, each a 40-month supply of margarine. One-quarter of patients received standard margarine, while the others were given margarine laced with omega-3s derived from fish, plants or a mix of the two. By the end of the 40 months, 14% of the patients had another heart attack, a stroke or other major cardiovascular trauma. The type or amount of margarine the patients consumed had no significant influence on this rate. The findings contrast with earlier studies, which found that omega-3s helped to protect the heart. One possible explanation, according to the researchers: the increasing use of highly effective cardiovascular drugs, particularly cholesterol-reducing statins, could have outweighed any benefits of omega-3s. Caveat: If the study had enrolled more patients, particularly women, it would have had more power to detect possible omega-3 effects. Nearly 80% of the participants were male, yet the fortified margarines seemed more effective in women.	3.525704
Archosaurs ([Greek for 'ruling lizards') are a group of diapsid reptiles that first evolved from Archosauriform ancestors during the Olenekian (Lower Triassic Period). They are represented today by birds and crocodiles. Archosaurs are set apart by having socketed teeth (a feature that inspired the traditional name, 'thecodonts', for the Triassic forms) and four-chambered hearts, among other characteristics. Most early forms were carnivores, with narrow serrated meat-tearing teeth. Their "reptilian" metabolism seem to have given them a clear advantage over the mammal-like therapsids that were their contemporaries in the arid interiors and strong monsoon climates that were the natural result of the single world-continent, Pangaea. Thus, whereas the Permian was dominated by synapsids, the Triassic came to be dominated by sauropsids. There are two primary groups of archosaurs — the Ornithodira which were insignificant during the Middle Triassic but in the Late Triassic radiated as the dinosaurs and pterosaurs; and the Crurotarsi, which were the predominant group at this time, and included a number of purely Triassic groups like the rauisuchians, the phytosaurs, and the herbivorous aetosaurs, as well as the ancestors of the crocodilians. A number of these archosaur groups - chiefly those large Crurotarsi that are in pre-cladistic books called the Thecodonts - became extinct 195 million years ago, during the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event. The survivors - the Dinosaurs and the Pterosaurs among the Ornithodira, and first the Sphenosuchia and Protosuchia then their descendants the Crocodilia among the Crurotarsi - flourished during the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods. The dinosaurs dominated the land, the pterosaurs and later another archosaurian group, the birds, dominated the air,and the crocodiles dominated the rivers and swamps and even invaded the seas (the Teleosaurs and Metriorhynchidae). Most of these taxa perished 65 million years ago, during the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event. The only groups of archosaurs to continue through to the Tertiary and, ultimately, to the present day, are the birds (which are descended from the dinosaurs) and the crocodylia (which include all modern crocodiles, alligators, and gharials). Birds are traditionally treated as a separate class, Aves, while the rest of the archosaurs are treated as a subclass or infraclass, Archosauria, within the class Reptilia. More recently, with the cladistic method dominating Biology, only monophyletic groups are considered valid and birds are included within the division Archosauria. Avesuchia `--Archosauria \|--Crurotarsi \| \|-?Ctenosauriscidae \| `--Crocodylotarsi \| \|--Ornithosuchidae \| `--+--Phytosauria \| `--Suchia \| \|--Prestosuchidae \| `--Rauisuchiformes \| \|--Aetosauria \| `--Rauisuchia \| \|--Rauisuchidae \| `--+--Paracrocodylomorpha \| `--Crocodylomorpha (crocodiles and relatives) `--Ornithodira \|--Pterosauromorpha \| \|--Scleromochlus \| `--Pterosauria `--Dinosauromorpha `--Dinosauriformes `--Dinosauria \|--Ornithischia `--Saurischia `--Aves (birds) - Benton, M. J. (2004), Vertebrate Paleontology, 3rd ed. Blackwell Science Ltd - Carroll, R. L. (1988), Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution, W. H. Freeman and Co. New York \|This page uses content from Wikipedia. The original article was at Archosauria. The list of authors can be seen in the page history. As with Paleontology Wiki, the text of Wikipedia is available under the GNU Free Documentation License.\|	3.928052
May 04 2010 Today we talked about hydrogen and how it can be used to power vehicles. Of the forty-four free response questions on previous A.P. exams, none have addressed hydrogen power, so Mr. Willard said this would be “good knowledge to have in our pockets.” First we reviewed what we already knew about hydrogen. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. Despite this fact, there is almost none in the troposphere, and this is because hydrogen has a very low density and so it rises. Additionally, hydrogen is very unstable, so it likes to bond with things (i.e. with oxygen, thus water). In a hydrogen-powered car, the traditional internal combustion engine is replaced with a fuel cell. Here is a link to a video we watched in class about how a fuel cell works: How A Fuel Cell Works: Inside A Hydrogen-Powered Car (http://auto.howstuffworks.com/fuel-efficiency/alternative-fuels/dangerous-hydrogen-fuel1.htm) As with every energy source, there are pros and cons. The pros to a hydrogen-powered car is that water is its only emission, it is a strategy for reducing fossil fuel use, and hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. On the flip side, the cons to a hydrogen-powered car are that we have to harvest the hydrogen or “make it” (which requires energy input), since this source of energy is new, the infrastructure for hydrogen power is not there, and that we can’t simply convert petro-gas stations to hydrogen gas stations. Perhaps we can add on to our petro-gas stations, and if we harvest the hydrogen or “make” the hydrogen by generating energy from renewable resources such as wind or solar power, technically the energy is still clean. But if we generate the energy for hydrogen from a coal-based power plant, then we’re just moving the source, but the impact is still the same. Hydrogen can be “harvested” or “made” from electrolysis (splitting water), from biomass, and from fuel. The U.S. Government is currently funding research on hydrogen power in the state of California. Hydrogen power is still very much in the research and development stage. Hope this helped! Below is a picture of a typical hydrogen fuel cell:	4.042972
“A remote Indian village is responding to global warming-induced water shortages by creating large masses of ice, or “artificial glaciers,” to get through the dry spring months. (See a map of the region.) Located on the western edge of the Tibetan plateau, the village of Skara in the Ladakh region of India is not a common tourist destination. “It’s beautiful, but really remote and difficult to get to,” said Amy Higgins, a graduate student at the Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies who worked on the artificial glacier project. “A lot of people, when I met them in Delhi and I said I was going to Ladakh, they looked at me like I was going to the moon,” said Higgins, who is also a National Geographic grantee. People in Skara and surrounding villages survive by growing crops such as barley for their own consumption and for sale in neighboring towns. In the past, water for the crops came from meltwater originating in glaciers high in the Himalaya.” Read more: National Geographic	3.795902
Elephants We’ll Never Forget In 1919 a Major Pretorius was given the task to shoot all the remaining elephants in the Addo area of the Eastern Cape in South Africa. By 1920 only 16 elephants remained and these were given sanctuary on the land of a farmer named J.T. Harvey. The elephants were viewed both as a nuisance and potential profit. Citrus farmers in this region battled them for water resources. Opportunists saw cash in their tusks. Initial efforts to fence elephants were unsuccessful and farmers were aggravated when elephants trampled through in search of food. But by 1954, thanks in part to improvements in elephant-proof fencing, the Addo Elephant National Park was thriving. Elephant population was improving and farmers had their irrigation and crops intact. Now this national park is roughly 50,000 acres (the 3rd largest national park in SA) and is home to 450 elephants and a host of other wildlife. From our limited experience of the place it seems like a beneficial situation for the wildlife, the environment, the local community, and farming. For us it was a thrilling two days driving around the park in search of animal and plant life. Here's some of what we saw.	3.194036
Traditionally if scientists wanted to look at something small they would put a sample under a microscope but now researchers have managed to shrink the microscope itself to the size of a single human cell. An interdisciplinary research team, funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Science Research Council (BBSRC) and the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) have developed optical biochips no larger than a single cell that could lead to faster development of new drugs and quicker medical tests. The research team moved away from the idea that a microscope is something you have to look through to create optical biochips onto which scientists can place biological samples. Special fluorescent chemicals are then used together with tiny light emitting lasers to allow the scientists to analyse the cells or targets within the cells. Researchers can use this capability to examine cellular conditions for certain diseases or to develop new treatments by studying the way cells react to a drug. The biochips also raise the possibility of a micro-laboratory, the size of a credit card, which would be able to perform medical diagnostics, improving patient treatment by reducing the number of hospital visits needed for tests. The initial research has led to the creation of a spin-out company, BioStatus Ltd, supported by a BBSRC Small Business Research Initiative grant. BioStatus has developed the research to refine the fluorescent probe technology and also to make the analysis of biological samples more sophisticated. Professor Paul Smith, the research group leader, said, "Our research and the outcomes from the spin-out company could help to revolutionise how we examine biological samples. Our next step will be to develop simple, small diagnostic devices. Future generations may be able to use these as the basis for hand-held systems that will be able to perform diagnostic functions in the field that currently require a laboratory test." Professor Julia Goodfellow, Chief Executive of BBSRC, said, "The success of the research into biochips and the development of the science through the spin-out company shows how cutting edge research in the biosciences can meet real world challenges. Bochips have the potential to make a real difference in medical diagnostics and drug development." The research is being carried out at the Wales College of Medicine and involves researchers at Cardiff University, University of Bangor, the Gray Cancer Institute in London and collaboration with the University of Warwick and laboratories in the United States. Source: Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council Explore further: Allosaurus fed more like a falcon than a crocodile, new study finds	3.43935

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