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339	Ayn Rand	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ayn%20Rand	Ayn Rand 1936 "We the Living" - 1943 "The Fountainhead" - 1957 "Atlas Shrugged" Other fiction: - 1934 "Night of January 16th" - 1938 "Anthem" - 2015 "Ideal" Non-fiction: - 1961 "For the New Intellectual" - 1964 "The Virtue of Selfishness" - 1966 "" - 1969 "The Romantic Manifesto" - 1971 "" - 1979 "Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology" - 1982 "" # See also. - List of people influenced by Ayn Rand - "Letters of Ayn Rand" - "Journals of Ayn Rand" - Murder of Marion Parker # External links. - Frequently Asked Questions About Ayn Rand from the Ayn Rand Institute - Rand's papers at The Library of Congress - Ayn Rand Lexicon – searchable database - "Writings of Ayn Rand" – from C-SPAN's	900
339	Ayn Rand	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ayn%20Rand	Ayn Rand he Living" - 1943 "The Fountainhead" - 1957 "Atlas Shrugged" Other fiction: - 1934 "Night of January 16th" - 1938 "Anthem" - 2015 "Ideal" Non-fiction: - 1961 "For the New Intellectual" - 1964 "The Virtue of Selfishness" - 1966 "" - 1969 "The Romantic Manifesto" - 1971 "" - 1979 "Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology" - 1982 "" # See also. - List of people influenced by Ayn Rand - "Letters of Ayn Rand" - "Journals of Ayn Rand" - Murder of Marion Parker # External links. - Frequently Asked Questions About Ayn Rand from the Ayn Rand Institute - Rand's papers at The Library of Congress - Ayn Rand Lexicon – searchable database - "Writings of Ayn Rand" – from C-SPAN's ""	901
157667	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond%20IV,%20Count%20of%20Toulouse	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse Raymond IV ( 1041 – 28 February 1105), sometimes called Raymond of Saint-Gilles or Raymond I of Tripoli, was a powerful noble in southern France and one of the leaders of the First Crusade (1096–99). He was the Count of Toulouse, Duke of Narbonne and Margrave of Provence from 1094, and he spent the last five years of his life establishing the County of Tripoli in the Near East. # Early years. Raymond was a son of Pons of Toulouse and Almodis de La Marche. He received Saint-Gilles with the title of "count" from his father and displaced his niece Philippa, Duchess of Aquitaine, his brother William IV's daughter, in 1094 from inheriting Toulouse. In 1094, William	902
157667	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond%20IV,%20Count%20of%20Toulouse	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse Bertrand of Provence died and his margravial title to Provence passed to Raymond. A bull of Urban's dated 22 July 1096 names Raymond "comes Nimirum Tholosanorum ac Ruthenensium et marchio Provintie Raimundus" ("Raymond, count of Nîmes, Toulouse and Rouergue and margrave of Provence"). # The First Crusade. Raymond was deeply religious, and wished to die in the Holy Land, and so when the call was raised for the First Crusade, he was one of the first to take the cross. He is sometimes called "the one-eyed" ("monoculus" in Latin) after a rumour that he had lost an eye in a scuffle with the doorkeeper of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre during an earlier pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The oldest and	903
157667	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond%20IV,%20Count%20of%20Toulouse	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse the richest of the crusaders, Raymond left Toulouse at the end of October 1096, with a large company that included his wife Elvira, his infant son (who would die on the journey) and Adhemar, bishop of Le Puy, the papal legate. He ignored requests by his niece, Philippa (the rightful heiress to Toulouse) to grant the rule of Toulouse to her in his stead; instead, he left Bertrand, his eldest son, to govern. He marched to Dyrrhachium, and then east to Constantinople along the same route used by Bohemond of Taranto. At the end of April 1097, he was the only crusade leader not to swear an oath of fealty to Byzantine emperor Alexius I. Instead, Raymond swore an oath of friendship, and offered his	904
157667	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond%20IV,%20Count%20of%20Toulouse	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse support against Bohemond, mutual enemy of both Raymond and Alexius. He was present at the siege of Nicaea and the Battle of Dorylaeum in 1097, but his first major role came in October 1097 at the siege of Antioch. The crusaders heard a rumour that Antioch had been deserted by the Seljuk Turks, so Raymond sent his army ahead to occupy it, offending Bohemond of Taranto who wanted the city for himself. The city was, however, still occupied, and was taken by the crusaders only after a difficult siege in June 1098. Raymond took the "palatium Cassiani" (the palace of the emir, Yaghi-Siyan) and the tower over the Bridge Gate. He was ill during the second siege of Antioch by Kerbogha which culminated	905
157667	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond%20IV,%20Count%20of%20Toulouse	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse in a controversial rediscovery of the Holy Lance by a monk named Peter Bartholomew. The "miracle" raised the morale of the crusaders, and to their surprise they were able to rout Kerbogha outside Antioch. The Lance itself became a valuable relic among Raymond's followers, despite Adhemar of Le Puy's skepticism and Bohemond's disbelief and occasional mockery. Raymond also refused to relinquish his control of the city to Bohemond, reminding Bohemond that he was obligated to return Antioch to the court of Emperor Alexius, as he had sworn to do. A struggle then arose between Raymond's supporters and the supporters of Bohemond, partly over the genuineness of the Lance, but mostly over the possession	906
157667	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond%20IV,%20Count%20of%20Toulouse	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse of Antioch. # Extending his territorial reach. Many of the minor knights and foot soldiers preferred to continue their march to Jerusalem, and they convinced Raymond to lead them there in the autumn of 1098. Raymond led them out to besiege Ma'arrat al-Numan, although he left a small detachment of his troops in Antioch, where Bohemond also remained. As Adhemar had died in Antioch, Raymond, along with the prestige given to him by the Holy Lance, became the new leader of the crusade. Bohemond however, expelled Raymond's detachment from Antioch in January 1099. Raymond then began to search for a city of his own. He marched from Ma'arrat, which had been captured in December 1098, into the emirate	907
157667	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond%20IV,%20Count%20of%20Toulouse	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse of Tripoli, and began the siege of Arqa on 14 February 1099, apparently with the intent of founding an independent territory in Tripoli that could limit the power of Bohemond to expand the Principality of Antioch to the south. The siege of Arqa, a town outside Tripoli, lasted longer than Raymond had hoped. Although he successfully captured Hisn al-Akrad, a fortress that would later become the important Krak des Chevaliers, his insistence on taking Tripoli delayed the march to Jerusalem, and he lost much of the support he had gained after Antioch. Raymond finally agreed to continue the march to Jerusalem on 13 May, and after months of siege the city was captured on 15 July. Raymond was offered	908
157667	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond%20IV,%20Count%20of%20Toulouse	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse the crown of the new Kingdom of Jerusalem, but refused, as he was reluctant to rule in the city in which Jesus had suffered. He said that he shuddered to think of being called "King of Jerusalem". It is also likely that he wished to continue the siege of Tripoli rather than remain in Jerusalem. However, he was also reluctant to give up the Tower of David in Jerusalem, which he had taken after the fall of the city, and it was only with difficulty that Godfrey of Bouillon was able to take it from him. Raymond participated in the battle of Ascalon soon after the capture of Jerusalem, during which an invading army from Egypt was defeated. However, Raymond wanted to occupy Ascalon himself rather	909
157667	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond%20IV,%20Count%20of%20Toulouse	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse than give it to Godfrey, and in the resulting dispute Ascalon remained unoccupied. It was not taken by the crusaders until 1153. Godfrey also blamed him for the failure of his army to capture Arsuf. When Raymond went north, in the winter of 1099–1100, his first act was one of hostility against Bohemond, capturing Laodicea from (Bohemond had himself recently taken it from Alexius). From Laodicea he went to Constantinople, where he allied with Alexius I, Bohemond's most powerful enemy. Bohemond was at the time attempting to expand Antioch into Byzantine territory, and blatantly refused to fulfill his oath to the Byzantine Empire. # Crusade of 1101, siege of Tripoli, and death. Raymond was part	910
157667	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond%20IV,%20Count%20of%20Toulouse	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse of the doomed Crusade of 1101, where he was defeated at Mersivan in Anatolia. He escaped and returned to Constantinople. In 1102 he traveled by sea from Constantinople to Antioch, where he was imprisoned by Tancred, regent of Antioch during the captivity of Bohemond, and was only dismissed after promising not to attempt any conquests in the country between Antioch and Acre. He immediately broke his promise, attacking and capturing Tartus, and began to build a castle on the Mons Peregrinus ("Pilgrim's Mountain") which would help in his siege of Tripoli. He was aided by Alexius I, who preferred a friendly state in Tripoli to balance the hostile state in Antioch. Raymond died on February 28, 1105,	911
157667	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond%20IV,%20Count%20of%20Toulouse	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse before Tripoli was captured. # Spouses and progeny. Raymond IV of Toulouse was married three times, and twice excommunicated for marrying within forbidden degrees of consanguinity. - His first wife was his cousin, daughter of Geoffrey I of Provence and the mother of his son Bertrand. - His second wife was Matilda (Mafalda), the daughter of Count Roger I of Sicily. - Raymond's third wife was Elvira, the illegitimate daughter of King Alfonso VI of León, the Spanish king who also campaigned furiously against the Moors. Their son was Alfonso Jordan. Following Raymond's death, his nephew William-Jordan in 1109, with the aid of King Baldwin I of Jerusalem, finally captured Tripoli and established	912
157667	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raymond%20IV,%20Count%20of%20Toulouse	Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse ymond's death, his nephew William-Jordan in 1109, with the aid of King Baldwin I of Jerusalem, finally captured Tripoli and established the County of Tripoli. William was deposed in the same year by Raymond's eldest son Bertrand, and the county remained in the possession of the counts of Toulouse throughout the 12th century. Raymond of Toulouse seems to have been driven both by religious and material motives. On the one hand he accepted the discovery of the Holy Lance and rejected the kingship of Jerusalem, but on the other hand he could not resist the temptation of a new territory. Raymond of Aguilers, a clerk in Raymond's army, wrote an account of the crusade from Raymond's point of view.	913
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation Animation Animation is a method in which pictures are manipulated to appear as moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Today, most animations are made with computer-generated imagery (CGI). Computer animation can be very detailed 3D animation, while 2D computer animation can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth or faster real-time renderings. Other common animation methods apply a stop motion technique to two and three-dimensional objects like paper cutouts, puppets or clay figures. Commonly the effect of animation is achieved by a rapid succession of sequential images that	914
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation minimally differ from each other. The illusion—as in motion pictures in general—is thought to rely on the phi phenomenon and beta movement, but the exact causes are still uncertain. Analog mechanical animation media that rely on the rapid display of sequential images include the phénakisticope, zoetrope, flip book, praxinoscope and film. Television and video are popular electronic animation media that originally were analog and now operate digitally. For display on the computer, techniques like animated GIF and Flash animation were developed. Animation is more pervasive than many people realise. Apart from short films, feature films, animated gifs and other media dedicated to the display of	915
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation moving images, animation is also heavily used for video games, motion graphics and special effects. Animation is also prevalent in information technology interfaces. The physical movement of image parts through simple mechanics – in for instance the moving images in magic lantern shows – can also be considered animation. The mechanical manipulation of puppets and objects to emulate living beings has a very long history in automata. Automata were popularised by Disney as animatronics. Animators are artists who specialize in creating animation. # Etymology. The word "animation" stems from the Latin "animationem" (nominative "animatio"), noun of action from past participle stem of "animare",	916
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation meaning "the action of imparting life". The primary meaning of the English word is "liveliness" and has been in use much longer than the meaning of "moving image medium". # History. The history of animation started long before the development of cinematography. Humans have probably attempted to depict motion as far back as the Paleolithic period. Shadow play and the magic lantern offered popular shows with moving images as the result of manipulation by hand and/or some minor mechanics. A 5,200-year old pottery bowl discovered in Shahr-e Sukhteh, Iran, has five sequential images painted around it that seem to show phases of a goat leaping up to nip at a tree. In 1833, the phenakistiscope introduced	917
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation the stroboscopic principle of modern animation, which would also provide the basis for the zoetrope (1866), the flip book (1868), the praxinoscope (1877) and cinematography. Charles-Émile Reynaud further developed his projection praxinoscope into the Théâtre Optique with transparent hand-painted colorful pictures in a long perforated strip wound between two spools, patented in December 1888. From 28 October 1892 to March 1900 Reynaud gave over 12,800 shows to a total of over 500.000 visitors at the Musée Grévin in Paris. His "Pantomimes Lumineuses" series of animated films each contained 300 to 700 frames that were manipulated back and forth to last 10 to 15 minutes per film. Piano music, song,	918
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation and some dialogue were performed live, while some sound effects were synchronized with an electromagnet. After cinematography became a popular medium, some manufacturers of optical toys adapted small magic lanterns into toy film projectors for short loops of film. By 1902, they were producing many chromolithography film loops, usually by tracing live-action film footage (much like the later rotoscoping technique). Some early filmmakers, including J. Stuart Blackton, Arthur Melbourne-Cooper, Segundo de Chomón and Edwin S. Porter experimented with stop-motion animation, possibly since around 1899. Blackton's "The Haunted Hotel" (1907) was the first huge success that baffled audiences with objects	919
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation apparently moving by themselves and inspired other filmmakers to try the technique. J. Stuart Blackton also experimented with animation drawn on blackboards and some cutout animation in "Humorous Phases of Funny Faces" (1906). In 1908, Émile Cohl's "Fantasmagorie" was released with a white-on-black chalkline look created with negative prints from black ink drawings on white paper. The film largely consists of a stick figure moving about and encountering all kinds of morphing objects, including a wine bottle that transforms into a flower. Inspired by Émile Cohl's stop-motion film "Les allumettes animées [Animated Matches]" (1908), Ladislas Starevich started making his influential puppet animations	920
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation in 1910. Winsor McCay's "Little Nemo" (1911) showcased very detailed drawings. His "Gertie the Dinosaur" (1914) was also an early example of character development in drawn animation. During the 1910s, the production of animated short films, known as "cartoons", became an industry and cartoon shorts were produced for showing in cinemas. The most successful producer at the time was John Randolph Bray, who, along with animator Earl Hurd, patented the cel animation process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the decade. "El Apóstol" (Spanish: "The Apostle") was a 1917 Argentine animated film utilizing cutout animation, and the world's first animated feature film. A fire that	921
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation destroyed producer Federico Valle's film studio incinerated the only known copy of "El Apóstol", and it is now considered a lost film. In 1919, the silent animated short "Feline Follies" marked the debut of Felix the Cat, becoming the first animated character in the silent film era to gain significant popularity. The earliest extant feature-length animated film is The Adventures of Prince Achmed (1926) made by director Lotte Reiniger and her collaborators Carl Koch and Berthold Bartosch. The first animation with full sound synchronization (both music and dialogue) was a short by Walt Disney’s animation studio called "Steamboat Willie", featuring Mickey Mouse in 1928. In 1932, the first short	922
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation animated film created entirely with Technicolor (using red/green/blue photographic filters and three strips of film in the camera) was Disney's "Flowers and Trees", directed by Burt Gillett. The first full-color animated feature film was "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", also by Walt Disney. Through the 1930s and 1950s, the golden age of American animation saw new animated characters emerge, including Goofy, Donald Duck, Daisy Duck, Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, Porky Pig, Betty Boop, Popeye, Sylvester the Cat, Woody Woodpecker, Tweety, Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner, Elmer Fudd, Foghorn Leghorn, Yosemite Sam, Tasmanian Devil, Hunky and Spunky, Droopy, Little Audrey, Tom and Jerry, Barney Bear,	923
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation Mr. Magoo, Mighty Mouse, Gandy Goose, Heckle and Jeckle, George and Junior, the Fox and the Crow and the animated adoption of Superman, Baby Huey, Casper the Friendly Ghost, Little Lulu, among others. In 1958, Hanna-Barbera released "The Huckleberry Hound Show", the first half hour television program to feature only in animation. Terrytoons released "Tom Terrific" that same year. Television significantly decreased public attention to the animated shorts being shown in theaters. Computer animation has become popular since "Toy Story" (1995), the first feature-length animated film completely made using this technique. In 2008, the animation market was worth US$68.4 billion. Animation as an	924
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation art and industry continues to thrive as of the mid-2010s because well-made animated projects can find audiences across borders and in all four quadrants. Animated feature-length films returned the highest gross margins (around 52%) of all film genres in 2004–2013. # Techniques. ## Traditional animation. Traditional animation (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) was the process used for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent	925
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation acetate sheets called cels, which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings. The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a rostrum camera onto motion picture film. The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. Today, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system. Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects. The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional 35 mm film and newer media with digital video.	926
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation The "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the character animators' work has remained essentially the same over the past 70 years. Some animation producers have used the term "tradigital" (a play on the words "traditional" and "digital") to describe cel animation that uses significant computer technology. Examples of traditionally animated feature films include "Pinocchio" (United States, 1940), "Animal Farm" (United Kingdom, 1954), "Lucky and Zorba" (Italy, 1998), and "The Illusionist" (British-French, 2010). Traditionally animated films produced with the aid of computer technology include "The Lion King" (US, 1994), "The Prince of Egypt" (US, 1998), "Akira" (Japan, 1988),	927
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation "Spirited Away" (Japan, 2001), "The Triplets of Belleville" (France, 2003), and "The Secret of Kells" (Irish-French-Belgian, 2009). ### Full animation. Full animation refers to the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement, having a smooth animation. Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those produced by the Walt Disney studio ("The Little Mermaid", "Beauty and the Beast", "Aladdin", "The Lion King") to the more 'cartoon' styles of the Warner Bros. animation studio. Many of the Disney animated features are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney	928
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation works, "The Secret of NIMH" (US, 1982), "The Iron Giant" (US, 1999), and "Nocturna" (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are animated at 24 frames per second, with a combination of animation on ones and twos, meaning that drawings can be held for one frame out of 24 or two frames out of 24. ### Limited animation. Limited animation involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or "skippy" movement animation. Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity of the animation. This is a more economic technique. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio United Productions of America, limited animation can	929
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in "Gerald McBoing-Boing" (US, 1951), "Yellow Submarine" (UK, 1968), and certain anime produced in Japan. Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of Hanna-Barbera, Filmation, and other TV animation studios) and later the Internet (web cartoons). ### Rotoscoping. Rotoscoping is a technique patented by Max Fleischer in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement, frame by frame. The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings, as in "The Lord of the Rings" (US, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive manner, as in "Waking	930
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation Life" (US, 2001) and "A Scanner Darkly" (US, 2006). Some other examples are "Fire and Ice" (US, 1983), "Heavy Metal" (1981), and "Aku no Hana" (2013). ### Live-action/animation. Live-action/animation is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live action actors into animated shots. One of the earlier uses was in Koko the Clown when Koko was drawn over live action footage. Other examples include "Allegro Non Troppo" (Italy, 1976), "Who Framed Roger Rabbit" (US, 1988), "Space Jam" (US, 1996) and "Osmosis Jones" (US, 2001). ## Stop motion animation. Stop-motion animation is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing	931
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement. There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the medium used to create the animation. Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; traditional stop motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to produce than current computer animation. - Puppet animation typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation. The puppets generally have an armature inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints. Examples include	932
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation "The Tale of the Fox" (France, 1937), "The Nightmare Before Christmas" (US, 1993), "Corpse Bride" (US, 2005), "Coraline" (US, 2009), the films of Jiří Trnka and the adult animated sketch-comedy television series "Robot Chicken" (US, 2005–present). - Puppetoon, created using techniques developed by George Pal, are puppet-animated films that typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than simply manipulating one existing puppet. - Clay animation, or Plasticine animation (often called "claymation", which, however, is a trademarked name), uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation. The figures may have an armature or	933
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation wire frame inside, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures. Alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, in the films of Bruce Bickford, where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include "The Gumby Show" (US, 1957–1967), "Mio Mao" (Italy, 1974–2005), "Morph" shorts (UK, 1977–2000), "Wallace and Gromit" shorts (UK, as of 1989), Jan Švankmajer's "Dimensions of Dialogue" (Czechoslovakia, 1982), "The Trap Door" (UK, 1984). Films include "", "Chicken Run" and "The Adventures of Mark Twain". - Strata-cut animation, Strata-cut animation is most commonly a form of clay animation in	934
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation which a long bread-like "loaf" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within. - Cutout animation is a type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth. Examples include Terry Gilliam's animated sequences from "Monty Python's Flying Circus" (UK, 1969–1974); "Fantastic Planet" (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973) ; "Tale of Tales" (Russia, 1979), The pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of "South Park" (US, 1997) and the	935
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation music video Live for the moment, from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014). - Silhouette animation is a variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes. Examples include "The Adventures of Prince Achmed" (Weimar Republic, 1926) and "Princes et princesses" (France, 2000). - Model animation refers to stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world. Intercutting, matte effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings. Examples include the work of Ray Harryhausen, as seen in films, "Jason and the Argonauts"	936
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation (1963), and the work of Willis H. O'Brien on films, "King Kong" (1933). - Go motion is a variant of model animation that uses various techniques to create motion blur between frames of film, which is not present in traditional stop-motion. The technique was invented by Industrial Light & Magic and Phil Tippett to create special effect scenes for the film "The Empire Strikes Back" (1980). Another example is the dragon named "Vermithrax" from "Dragonslayer" (1981 film). - Object animation refers to the use of regular inanimate objects in stop-motion animation, as opposed to specially created items. - Graphic animation uses non-drawn flat visual graphic material (photographs, newspaper clippings,	937
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation magazines, etc.), which are sometimes manipulated frame-by-frame to create movement. At other times, the graphics remain stationary, while the stop-motion camera is moved to create on-screen action. - Brickfilm are a subgenre of object animation involving using Lego or other similar brick toys to make an animation. These have had a recent boost in popularity with the advent of video sharing sites, YouTube and the availability of cheap cameras and animation software. - Pixilation involves the use of live humans as stop motion characters. This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other effects.	938
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation Examples of pixilation include "The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb" and "Angry Kid" shorts, and the academy award-winning "Neighbours" by Norman McLaren. ## Computer animation. Computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer. 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact. 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer. ### 2D animation. 2D animation figures are created or edited on the computer using 2D bitmap graphics and 2D vector graphics. This includes automated computerized	939
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation versions of traditional animation techniques, interpolated morphing, onion skinning and interpolated rotoscoping. 2D animation has many applications, including analog computer animation, Flash animation, and PowerPoint animation. Cinemagraphs are still photographs in the form of an animated GIF file of which part is animated. Final line advection animation is a technique used in 2D animation, to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department. Speaking about using this approach in "Paperman", John Kahrs said that "Our animators can change things, actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want, and change the	940
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation profile of the arm." ### 3D animation. 3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The animator usually starts by creating a 3D polygon mesh to manipulate. A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment. Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an armature that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices. This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with keyframes to create movement. Other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair,	941
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation and effects, fire and water simulations. These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics. #### 3D terms. - Cel-shaded animation is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software. Shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. Examples include "Skyland" (2007, France), "The Iron Giant" (1999, United States), "Futurama" (Fox, 1999) "Appleseed Ex Machina" (2007, Japan), "" (2002, Japan), "" (2017, Japan) - Machinima – Films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds. The term originated from the software introduction in the 1980s demoscene, as well as the 1990s recordings of the first-person shooter video game "Quake". - Motion capture is used when	942
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation live-action actors wear special suits that allow computers to copy their movements into CG characters. Examples include "Polar Express" (2004, US), "Beowulf" (2007, US), "A Christmas Carol" (2009, US), "The Adventures of Tintin" (2011, US) "kochadiiyan" (2014, India) - Photo-realistic animation is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life, using advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin, plants, water, fire, clouds, etc. Examples include "Up" (2009, US), "How to Train Your Dragon" (2010, US) - Physically based animation is animation using computer simulations. ## Mechanical animation. - Animatronics is the use of mechatronics to create machines that seem animate	943
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation rather than robotic. - Audio-Animatronics and Autonomatronics is a form of robotics animation, combined with 3-D animation, created by Walt Disney Imagineering for shows and attractions at Disney theme parks move and make noise (generally a recorded speech or song). They are fixed to whatever supports them. They can sit and stand, and they cannot walk. An Audio-Animatron is different from an android-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and sounds, rather than responding to external stimuli. In 2009, Disney created an interactive version of the technology called Autonomatronics. - Linear Animation Generator is a form of animation by using static picture frames installed in a tunnel	944
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation or a shaft. The animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion, parallel to the installed picture frames. The concept and the technical solution were invented in 2007 by Mihai Girlovan in Romania. - Chuckimation is a type of animation created by the makers of the television series "Action League Now!" in which characters/props are thrown, or chucked from off camera or wiggled around to simulate talking by unseen hands. - The magic lantern used mechanical slides to project moving images, probably since Christiaan Huygens invented this early image projector in 1659. ## Other animation styles, techniques, and approaches. - Hydrotechnics: a technique that includes lights,	945
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation water, fire, fog, and lasers, with high-definition projections on mist screens. - Drawn on film animation: a technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on film stock, for example by Norman McLaren, Len Lye and Stan Brakhage. - Paint-on-glass animation: a technique for making animated films by manipulating slow drying oil paints on sheets of glass, for example by Aleksandr Petrov. - Erasure animation: a technique using traditional 2D media, photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image. For example, William Kentridge is famous for his charcoal erasure films, and Piotr Dumała for his auteur technique of animating scratches on plaster. - Pinscreen animation:	946
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen. The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation. - Sand animation: sand is moved around on a back- or front-lighted piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film. This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the light contrast. - Flip book: a flip book (sometimes, especially in British English, called a flick book) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that	947
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change. Flip books are often illustrated books for children, they also be geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books, they appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners. Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books. - Character animation - Multi-sketching - Special effects animation # Animator. An animator is an artist who creates a visual sequence (or audio-visual if added sound) of multiple sequential images	948
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation that generate the illusion of movement, that is, an animation. Animations are currently in many areas of technology and video, such as cinema, television, video games or the internet. Generally, these works require the collaboration of several animators. The methods to create these images depend on the animator and style that one wants to achieve (with images generated by computer, manually ...). Animators can be divided into animators of characters (artists who are specialized in the movements, dialogue and acting of the characters) and animators of special effects (for example vehicles, machinery or natural phenomena such as water, snow, rain). # Production. The creation of non-trivial	949
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form of filmmaking, with certain unique aspects. Traits common to both live-action and animated feature-length films are labor-intensity and high production costs. The most important difference is that once a film is in the production phase, the marginal cost of one more shot is higher for animated films than live-action films. It is relatively easy for a director to ask for one more take during principal photography of a live-action film, but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators (although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by modern computer animation).	950
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film. Thus, animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments where storyboard artists develop every single scene through storyboards, then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes make sense as a whole. While live-action films are now also storyboarded, they enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards (i.e., real-time improvisation). Another problem unique to animation is the requirement	951
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film. Since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated films. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens of artists is more difficult. This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each	952
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation film before animation begins. Character designers on the visual development team draw model sheets to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles. On traditionally animated projects, maquettes were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles. Unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film. In the early 1960s, animation studios began hiring professional screenwriters to write screenplays (while also	953
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation continuing to use story departments) and screenplays had become commonplace for animated films by the late 1980s. # Criticism. Criticism of animation has been common in media and cinema since its inception. With its popularity, a large amount of criticism has arisen, especially animated feature-length films. Many concerns of cultural representation, psychological effects on children have been brought up around the animation industry, which has remained rather politically unchanged and stagnant since its inception into mainstream culture. # Awards. As with any other form of media, animation too has instituted awards for excellence in the field. The original awards for animation were presented	954
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for animated shorts from the year 1932, during the 5th Academy Awards function. The first winner of the Academy Award was the short "Flowers and Trees", a production by Walt Disney Productions. The Academy Award for a feature-length animated motion picture was only instituted for the year 2001, and awarded during the 74th Academy Awards in 2002. It was won by the film "Shrek", produced by DreamWorks and Pacific Data Images. Disney/Pixar have produced the most films either to win or be nominated for the award. The list of both awards can be obtained here: - Academy Award for Best Animated Feature - Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film Several	955
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation other countries have instituted an award for best-animated feature film as part of their national film awards: Africa Movie Academy Award for Best Animation (since 2008), BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film (since 2006), César Award for Best Animated Film (since 2011), Golden Rooster Award for Best Animation (since 1981), Goya Award for Best Animated Film (since 1989), Japan Academy Prize for Animation of the Year (since 2007), National Film Award for Best Animated Film (since 2006). Also since 2007, the Asia Pacific Screen Award for Best Animated Feature Film has been awarded at the Asia Pacific Screen Awards. Since 2009, the European Film Awards have awarded the European Film Award for Best	956
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation Animated Film. The Annie Award is another award presented for excellence in the field of animation. Unlike the Academy Awards, the Annie Awards are only received for achievements in the field of animation and not for any other field of technical and artistic endeavor. They were re-organized in 1992 to create a new field for Best Animated Feature. The 1990s winners were dominated by Walt Disney, however, newer studios, led by Pixar & DreamWorks, have now begun to consistently vie for this award. The list of awardees is as follows: - Annie Award for Best Animated Feature - Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject - Annie Award for Best Animated Television Production # See also. - 12 basic	957
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation principles of animation - Animated war film - Animation department - Animation software - Anime - Architectural animation - Avar (animation variable) - Computer-generated imagery - Independent animation - International Animated Film Association - International Tournée of Animation - List of motion picture topics - Model sheet - Motion graphic design - Society for Animation Studies - Tradigital art - Wire-frame model # External links. - The making of an 8-minute cartoon short - "Animando", a 12-minute film demonstrating 10 different animation techniques (and teaching how to use them). - 19 types of animation techniques and styles - Bibliography on animation – Websiite "Histoire	958
593	Animation	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animation	Animation - Animated war film - Animation department - Animation software - Anime - Architectural animation - Avar (animation variable) - Computer-generated imagery - Independent animation - International Animated Film Association - International Tournée of Animation - List of motion picture topics - Model sheet - Motion graphic design - Society for Animation Studies - Tradigital art - Wire-frame model # External links. - The making of an 8-minute cartoon short - "Animando", a 12-minute film demonstrating 10 different animation techniques (and teaching how to use them). - 19 types of animation techniques and styles - Bibliography on animation – Websiite "Histoire de la télévision"	959
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American statesman and lawyer who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the American Civil War, its bloodiest war and its greatest moral, constitutional, and political crisis. He preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the U.S. economy. Born in Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in a poor family. Self-educated, he became a lawyer, Whig Party leader, Illinois state legislator and Congressman. In 1849, he left government to resume his law practice, but angered by the success	960
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln of Democrats in opening the prairie lands to slavery, reentered politics in 1854. He became a leader in the new Republican Party and gained national attention in 1858 for debating national Democratic leader Stephen A. Douglas in the 1858 Illinois Senate campaign. He then ran for President in 1860, sweeping the North and winning. Southern pro-slavery elements took his win as proof that the North was rejecting the constitutional rights of Southern states to practice slavery. They began the process of seceding from the union. To secure its independence, the new Confederate States of America fired on Fort Sumter, one of the few U.S. forts in the South. Lincoln called up volunteers and militia to	961
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln suppress the rebellion and restore the Union. As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican Party, Lincoln confronted Radical Republicans, who demanded harsher treatment of the South; War Democrats, who rallied a large faction of former opponents into his camp; anti-war Democrats (called Copperheads), who despised him; and irreconcilable secessionists, who plotted his assassination. Lincoln fought the factions by pitting them against each other, by carefully distributing political patronage, and by appealing to the American people. His Gettysburg Address became an iconic call for nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. He suspended "habeas corpus", and he	962
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln averted British intervention by defusing the "Trent" Affair. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, including the selection of generals and the naval blockade that shut down the South's trade. As the war progressed, he maneuvered to end slavery, issuing the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863; ordering the Army to protect escaped slaves, encouraging border states to outlaw slavery, and pushing through Congress the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which outlawed slavery across the country. Lincoln managed his own re-election campaign. He sought to reconcile his damaged nation by avoiding retribution against the secessionists. A few days after the Battle of Appomattox	963
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln Court House, he was shot by John Wilkes Booth, an actor and Confederate sympathizer, on April 14, 1865, and died the following day. Abraham Lincoln is remembered as the United States' martyr hero. He is consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U.S. presidents. # Family and childhood. ## Early life. Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, as the second child of Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville, Kentucky. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk, to its namesake Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1638. Samuel's grandson and great-grandson began	964
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln the family's westward migration, passing through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincoln's paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Kentucky, in the 1780s. Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, Abraham's father, witnessed the attack. Thomas then worked at odd jobs in Kentucky and in Tennessee, before settling with members of his family in Hardin County, Kentucky, in the early 1800s. Lincoln's mother, Nancy, is widely assumed to have been the daughter of Lucy Hanks, although no record documents this. Thomas and Nancy married on June 12, 1806, in Washington	965
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln County, and moved to Elizabethtown, Kentucky. They produced three children: Sarah, born on February 10, 1807; Abraham, on February 12, 1809; and Thomas, who died in infancy. Thomas Lincoln bought or leased farms in Kentucky. Thomas became embroiled in legal disputes, and lost all but of his land in court disputes over property titles. In 1816, the family moved to Indiana, where the survey process was more reliable and land titles were more secure. Indiana was a "free" (non-slaveholding) territory, and they settled in an "unbroken forest" in Hurricane Township, Perry County. (Their land became part of Spencer County, Indiana, when the county was established in 1818.) In 1860, Lincoln noted that	966
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln the family's move to Indiana was "partly on account of slavery", but mainly due to land title difficulties. In Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter. He owned farms, town lots and livestock, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, served on country slave patrols, and guarded prisoners. Thomas and Nancy were members of a Separate Baptists church, which forbade alcohol, dancing, and slavery. Overcoming financial challenges, Thomas eventually obtained clear title to of land in what became known as the Little Pigeon Creek Community. ## Mother's death. On October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln died of milk sickness, leaving 11-year-old Sarah in charge of a	967
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln household that included her father, 9-year-old Abraham, and Dennis Hanks, Nancy's 19-year-old orphaned cousin. Those who knew Lincoln later recalled that he was distraught over his sister's death; she died on January 20, 1828, while giving birth to a stillborn son. On December 2, 1819, Thomas married Sarah "Sally" Bush Johnston, a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own. Abraham became close to his stepmother, whom he referred to as "Mother". Lincoln disliked the hard labor associated with farm life. He was called lazy for all his "reading, scribbling, writing, ciphering, writing Poetry, etc.". His stepmother acknowledged he did not enjoy "physical labor", but loved	968
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln to read. ## Education. Lincoln was largely self-educated. His formal schooling (from travelling teachers) was intermittent, totaling less than 12 months; however, he was an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning. Family, neighbors, and schoolmates recalled that he read and reread the King James Bible, Aesop's Fables, John Bunyan's "The Pilgrim's Progress", Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe", Mason Locke Weems's "The Life of Washington", and "The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin", among others. Teenaged Lincoln took responsibility for chores. He accepted the customary practice that a son give his father all earnings from work outside the home until age 21. Lincoln became	969
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln adept at using an axe. Tall for his age, Lincoln was strong and athletic. He became known for his strength and audacity after winning a wrestling match with the renowned leader of a group of ruffians known as "the Clary's Grove boys". ## Illinois. In early March 1830, partly out of fear of a milk sickness outbreak, several members of the extended Lincoln family moved west to Illinois, a free state, and settled in Macon County, west of Decatur. Historians disagree on who initiated the move; Thomas Lincoln had no obvious reason to do so. One possibility is that other members of the family, including Dennis Hanks, might not have matched Thomas's stability and steady income. After the family	970
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln relocated to Illinois, Abraham became increasingly distant from Thomas, in part because of his father's lack of education, although occasionally lending him money. In 1831, as Thomas and other family prepared to move to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois, Abraham left home. He lived in New Salem for six years. Lincoln and some friends took goods by flatboat to New Orleans, where he witnessed slavery firsthand. ## Marriage and children. According to some sources, Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge, whom he met when he first moved to New Salem; these sources indicate that by 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. She died on August 25, 1835, most likely	971
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln of typhoid fever. In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky. Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem. Mary arrived in November 1836, and Lincoln courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts. On August 16, 1837, Lincoln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship. She never replied. In 1840, Lincoln became engaged to Mary Todd, a daughter of Robert Smith Todd, a wealthy slave-owner in Lexington, Kentucky. They met in Springfield, Illinois in December 1839 and were engaged a year later. A wedding set for January 1, 1841, was canceled at Lincoln's initiative. They reconciled and married	972
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's married sister. While anxiously preparing for the nuptials, Lincoln was asked where he was going and replied, "To hell, I suppose." In 1844, the couple bought a house in Springfield near Lincoln's law office. Mary kept house, often with the help of a relative or hired servant. He was an affectionate, though often absent, husband and father of four children. Robert Todd Lincoln was born in 1843 and Edward Baker Lincoln (Eddie) in 1846. Edward died on February 1, 1850, in Springfield, probably of tuberculosis. "Willie" Lincoln was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever on February 20, 1862. The Lincolns' fourth son, Thomas "Tad"	973
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln Lincoln, was born on April 4, 1853, and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16, 1871. Robert reached adulthood and produced children. The Lincolns' last descendant, great-grandson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, died in 1985. Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children", and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own. In fact, Lincoln's law partner William H. Herndon would grow irritated when Lincoln would bring his children to the law office. Their father, it seemed, was often too absorbed in his own work to notice his children's behaviour. Herndon recounted, "I have felt many and many a time that I wanted to wring their little necks, and yet out of respect for Lincoln	974
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln I kept my mouth shut. Lincoln did not note what his children were doing or had done." The deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents. Abraham suffered from "melancholy", a condition later referred to as clinical depression. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875. Lincoln's father-in-law and others of the Todd family were either slave owners or slave traders. Lincoln was close to the Todds, and he and his family occasionally visited them. Mary cooked for Lincoln often during his presidency. Raised by a wealthy family, her cooking was simple, but satisfied Lincoln's	975
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln tastes, which included imported oysters. # Early career and militia service. In 1832, Lincoln and partner Denton Offutt bought a general store on credit in New Salem, Illinois. Although the economy was booming, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he entered politics, running for the Illinois General Assembly, advocating navigational improvements on the Sangamon River. He could draw crowds as a raconteur, but he lacked an education, powerful friends, and money and lost the election. Lincoln interrupted his campaign to briefly serve as a captain in the Illinois Militia (during the Black Hawk War). He then returned to his campaign. At his first speech, he	976
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln observed a supporter in the crowd under attack, grabbed the assailant by his "neck and the seat of his trousers" and tossed him. Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct. Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, all the while reading voraciously. He decided to become a lawyer and began teaching himself law by reading Blackstone's "Commentaries on the Laws of England" and other law books. Of his learning method, Lincoln stated: "I studied with nobody". # Illinois state legislature. His second state legislature campaign in 1834 was successful. Although he ran	977
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln as a Whig, many Democrats favored him over a more powerful Whig opponent. Lincoln served four successive terms in the Illinois House of Representatives as a Whig from Sangamon County. He supported the construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, later serving as a Canal Commissioner. In the 1835–36 legislative session, he voted to expand suffrage beyond white landowners to all white males. He was known for his "free soil" stance of opposing both slavery and abolitionism. He first articulated this in 1837, saying, "[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils." He followed	978
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln Henry Clay in supporting the American Colonization Society program of advocating abolition and helping freed slaves to settle in Liberia. Admitted to the Illinois bar in 1836, he moved to Springfield, Illinois, and began to practice law under John T. Stuart, Mary Todd's cousin. Lincoln developed a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered with Stephen T. Logan from 1841 until 1844. Then Lincoln began his practice with William Herndon, whom Lincoln thought "a studious young man". # U.S. House of Representatives, 1847–1849. From the early 1830s, Lincoln was a steadfast Whig and professed to friends in 1861 to be "an old line Whig, a disciple	979
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln of Henry Clay". The party, including Lincoln, favored economic modernization in banking, tariffs to fund internal improvements including railroads, and urbanization. Lincoln ran for the Whig nomination for Illinois's 7th district of the U.S. House of Representatives in 1843, but was defeated by John J. Hardin. However, Lincoln won support for the principle of rotation, whereby Hardin would retire after only one term. Lincoln hoped that this arrangement would lead to his nomination in 1846. Lincoln was indeed elected to the House of Representatives in 1846, where he served one two-year term. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, showing party loyalty by participating in almost all	980
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln votes and making speeches that echoed the party line. Lincoln, in collaboration with abolitionist Congressman Joshua R. Giddings, wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He abandoned the bill when it failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters. ## Committee assignments. - Committee on Post Office and Post Roads - Committee on Expenditures in the War Department ## Political views. On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke out against the Mexican–American War, which he attributed to President James K. Polk's desire for "military glory—that attractive rainbow,	981
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln that rises in showers of blood". Lincoln supported the Wilmot Proviso, which if passed would have banned slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico. Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico, and Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soil". Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil. Congress neither debated nor enacted the resolution, the national papers ignored it, and it cost Lincoln	982
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln political support in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln". Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on presidential war-making powers. Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, Lincoln, who had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House, supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election. Taylor won and Lincoln hoped to be appointed Commissioner of the General Land Office, but lost out. The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post	983
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln would have effectively ended his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice. # Prairie lawyer. Lincoln practiced law in Springfield, handling "every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer". Twice a year for 16 years, 10 weeks at a time, he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the county courts were in session. Lincoln handled transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly river barge conflicts under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him. He later represented a bridge company against	984
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln a riverboat company in a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge. In 1849, he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent. In 1851, he represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad in a dispute with shareholder James A. Barret, who had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to buy shares on the grounds that the company had changed its original train route. Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad company was not bound by its original charter; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer, superior, and less expensive	985
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln route, and the corporation retained the right to demand Barret's payment. The decision by the Illinois Supreme Court was cited by many other courts. Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases, in 51 as sole counsel, of which 31 were decided in his favor. From 1853 to 1860, another of Lincoln's largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad. Lincoln's legal reputation gave rise to his nickname "Honest Abe". Lincoln's most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defended William "Duff" Armstrong, who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by judicial notice in order to challenge the credibility	986
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified to seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a "Farmers' Almanac" showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Armstrong was acquitted. Lincoln rarely raised objections; but in an 1859 case, where he defended a cousin, Peachy Harrison, who was accused of killing a man, Lincoln angrily protested the judge's decision to exclude evidence favorable to his client. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling, allowing the evidence and acquitting Harrison. # Republican politics 1854–1860. ## Emergence as Republican leader. The debate over the status	987
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln of slavery in the territories exacerbated sectional tensions between the slave-holding South and the free North. The Compromise of 1850 failed to defuse the issue. In the early 1850s, Lincoln supported sectional mediation, and his 1852 eulogy for Clay focused on the latter's support for gradual emancipation and opposition to "both extremes" on the slavery issue. As the 1850s progressed, the debate over slavery in the Nebraska Territory and Kansas Territory became particularly acrimonious, and Senator Douglas proposed popular sovereignty as a compromise measure; the proposal would allow the electorate of each territory to decide the status of slavery. The proposal alarmed many Northerners, who	988
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln hoped to prevent the spread of slavery into the territories. Despite this Northern opposition, Douglas's Kansas–Nebraska Act narrowly passed Congress in May 1854. For months after its passage, Lincoln did not publicly comment, but he came to strongly oppose it. On October 16, 1854, in his "Peoria Speech", Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency. Speaking in his Kentucky accent, with a powerful voice, he said the Kansas Act had a ""declared" indifference, but as I must think, a covert "real" zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican	989
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln example of its just influence in the world ..." Lincoln's attacks on the Kansas–Nebraska Act marked his return to political life. Nationally, the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue. Reflecting the demise of his party, Lincoln wrote in 1855, "I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist [...] I do no more than oppose the "extension" of slavery." Drawing on the antislavery portion of the Whig Party, and combining Free Soil, Liberty, and antislavery Democratic Party members, the new Republican Party formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery. Lincoln resisted early recruiting	990
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln attempts, fearing that it would serve as a platform for extreme abolitionists. Lincoln hoped to rejuvenate the Whigs, though he lamented his party's growing closeness with the nativist Know Nothing movement. In the 1854 elections, Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature but declined to take his seat. In the elections' aftermath, which showed the power and popularity of the movement opposed to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, Lincoln instead sought election to the United States Senate. At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature. After leading in the first six rounds of voting, he was unable to obtain a majority. Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull. Trumbull	991
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln was an antislavery Democrat, and had received few votes in the earlier ballots; his supporters, also antislavery Democrats, had vowed not to support any Whig. Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate, Joel Aldrich Matteson. ### 1856 campaign. In part due to the ongoing violent political confrontations in Kansas, opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act remained strong throughout the North. As the 1856 elections approached, Lincoln joined the Republicans. He attended the May 1856 Bloomington Convention, which formally established the Illinois Republican Party. The convention platform	992
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln asserted that Congress had the right to regulate slavery in the territories and called for the immediate admission of Kansas as a free state. Lincoln gave the final speech of the convention, in which he endorsed the party platform and called for the preservation of the Union. At the June 1856 Republican National Convention, Lincoln received significant support to run for vice president, though the party nominated William Dayton to run with John C. Frémont. Lincoln supported the Republican ticket, campaigning throughout Illinois. The Democrats nominated former Ambassador James Buchanan, who had been out of the country since 1853 and thus had avoided the slavery debate, while the Know Nothings	993
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln nominated former Whig President Millard Fillmore. Buchanan defeated both his challengers. Republican William Henry Bissell won election as Governor of Illinois. Lincoln's vigorous campaigning had made him the leading Republican in Illinois. ### Principles. Eric Foner (2010) contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast, who saw slavery as a sin, with the conservative Republicans, who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress. Foner argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle, opposing slavery primarily because it violated the republicanism principles of the Founding Fathers, especially the equality of all men and democratic	994
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln self-government as expressed in the Declaration of Independence. ### "Dred Scott". In March 1857, in "Dred Scott v. Sandford," Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney wrote that blacks were not citizens and derived no rights from the Constitution. While many Democrats hoped that "Dred Scott" would end the dispute over slavery in the territories, the decision sparked further outrage in the North. Lincoln denounced it, alleging it was the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the Slave Power. Lincoln argued, "The authors of the Declaration of Independence never intended 'to say all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral developments, or social capacity', but they 'did consider	995
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln all men created equal—equal in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness'." ## Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech. Douglas was up for re-election in 1858, and Lincoln hoped to defeat him. With the former Democrat Trumbull now serving as a Republican senator, many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858, and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and willingness to support Trumbull in 1854 had earned him favor. Some eastern Republicans favored Douglas's re-election in 1858, since he had led the opposition to the Lecompton Constitution, which would have admitted Kansas as a slave state. Many Illinois Republicans resented	996
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln this eastern interference. For the first time, Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate, and Lincoln won the nomination with little opposition. Accepting the nomination, Lincoln delivered his House Divided Speech, drawing on , "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion. The stage was then set for the campaign for statewide election of the Illinois legislature	997
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas. When informed of Lincoln's nomination, Douglas stated, "[Lincoln] is the strong man of the party ... and if I beat him, my victory will be hardly won." The Senate campaign featured seven debates, the most famous political debates in American history. The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that "The Slave Power" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the values of the Founding Fathers that all men are created equal, while Douglas emphasized his Freeport Doctrine, that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery, and accused Lincoln of having	998
307	Abraham Lincoln	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham%20Lincoln	Abraham Lincoln joined the abolitionists. The debates had an atmosphere of a prize fight and drew crowds in the thousands. Lincoln's argument was rooted in morality. He claimed that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states. Douglas's argument was legal, claiming that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court and the "Dred Scott" decision. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas. Lincoln's articulation of the issues gave him a national political presence. In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the "Illinois Staats-Anzeiger", a German-language newspaper that was consistently supportive;	999

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