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Which employer did Edward B. Foley work for in 12/09/1989?
|
December 09, 1989
|
{
"text": [
"Jenner & Block"
]
}
|
L2_Q98442672_P108_2
|
Edward B. Foley works for United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit from Jan, 1986 to Jan, 1987.
Edward B. Foley works for Supreme Court of the United States from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1989.
Edward B. Foley works for Jenner & Block from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1991.
Edward B. Foley works for Moritz College of Law from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
|
Edward B. FoleyEdward B. Foley is an American lawyer, law professor, election law scholar, and former Ohio Solicitor General. He is the theorist of the blue shift, a phenomenon in US politics in which in-person votes overstate overall percentage of votes for the Republican Party (whose color is red), while provisional votes, which are counted after election day, tend to overstate overall percentage of votes for the Democratic Party (whose color is blue). When the provisional votes are counted after the election, there is often a shift in totals toward the Democrat, or blue, candidate.Foley graduated from Yale in 1983 with a degree in History and from Columbia University School of Law in 1986. He clerked in 1986–1987 for Patricia M. Wald and 1988–1989 for Harry Blackmun.Foley is an associate professor of law at Ohio State University's Moritz College of Law, where he has taught since 1991. He served as Ohio's Solicitor General from 1999 to 2000.Foley coined the term "blue shift" after the 2012 election. An election law scholar, he had been studying closely contested state results to try to predict which might be challenged legally. He wondered whether votes counted after election day tended to affect the final count. He found that election-day vote counts tend to favor Republicans, while when provisionally cast or mail-in votes are counted, the provisional votes tended to favor Democrats; this results in a "blue shift" in final vote counts and the potential for results to change after election day. Foley did not find that mail-in or absentee votes favored either party. Studying results of presidential elections from 1960 through 2012, Foley found that a "clear and persistent" blue shift had occurred in each election since 2000. Foley theorizes that election reforms in 2000, which made provisional voting easier, favored some demographics that tend to lean Democrat such as lower-income voters, college students, and urban voters, who are likely to have moved since the last election and may not have updated their voter registration.He found that the size of the shift varied by state, but that it was consistent enough to potentially change the outcome of a presidential election. In 2013 he published a paper about the phenomenon, "A Big Blue Shift: Measuring an Asymmetrically Increasing Margin of Litigation." According to the "New York Times":In 2019 Foley published a paper, "Preparing for a Disputed Presidential Election: An Exercise in Election Risk Assessment and Management", in which he posited a scenario in which on election night, Pennsylvania is the crucial state and too close to call, though Donald Trump has a slim lead. As provisional ballots are counted, Trump's lead starts to evaporate and he becomes more and more agitated, tweeting demands that only the election night counts are valid and calling for his supporters to "STOP THIS THEFT RIGHT NOW!!!" "DON'T LET THEM STEAL THIS ELECTION FROM YOU!!!", calling it a plausible scenario. According to the "Philadelphia Inquirer" he believes "raising awareness of the blue shift can help inoculate people against unfounded claims."In March 2020 Foley and MIT political scientist Charles Stewart updated a paper, "Explaining the Blue Shift in Election Canvassing", which found that "the bluer the state, the greater the shift", which had first been published in 2015.Foley in August 2020 said expected increases in numbers of votes cast by mail because of the coronavirus pandemic could affect the size and direction of the shift in the November 2020 US presidential election. He told the "New York Times" "We're setting ourselves up for an election where neither side can concede defeat. That suggests that the desire to dispute the outcome is going to be higher than ever."Foley participated in a 2019 bipartisan task force, the National Task Force on Election Crises, to envision, assess, and develop plans for dealing with an election crisis. Among the scenarios considered but not included in the 200-page report was a pandemic that kept people from voting in-person. The task force published pandemic-related recommendations after the coronavirus pandemic struck.
|
[
"United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Moritz College of Law"
] |
|
Which employer did Edward B. Foley work for in 09-Dec-198909-December-1989?
|
December 09, 1989
|
{
"text": [
"Jenner & Block"
]
}
|
L2_Q98442672_P108_2
|
Edward B. Foley works for United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit from Jan, 1986 to Jan, 1987.
Edward B. Foley works for Supreme Court of the United States from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1989.
Edward B. Foley works for Jenner & Block from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 1991.
Edward B. Foley works for Moritz College of Law from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1991.
|
Edward B. FoleyEdward B. Foley is an American lawyer, law professor, election law scholar, and former Ohio Solicitor General. He is the theorist of the blue shift, a phenomenon in US politics in which in-person votes overstate overall percentage of votes for the Republican Party (whose color is red), while provisional votes, which are counted after election day, tend to overstate overall percentage of votes for the Democratic Party (whose color is blue). When the provisional votes are counted after the election, there is often a shift in totals toward the Democrat, or blue, candidate.Foley graduated from Yale in 1983 with a degree in History and from Columbia University School of Law in 1986. He clerked in 1986–1987 for Patricia M. Wald and 1988–1989 for Harry Blackmun.Foley is an associate professor of law at Ohio State University's Moritz College of Law, where he has taught since 1991. He served as Ohio's Solicitor General from 1999 to 2000.Foley coined the term "blue shift" after the 2012 election. An election law scholar, he had been studying closely contested state results to try to predict which might be challenged legally. He wondered whether votes counted after election day tended to affect the final count. He found that election-day vote counts tend to favor Republicans, while when provisionally cast or mail-in votes are counted, the provisional votes tended to favor Democrats; this results in a "blue shift" in final vote counts and the potential for results to change after election day. Foley did not find that mail-in or absentee votes favored either party. Studying results of presidential elections from 1960 through 2012, Foley found that a "clear and persistent" blue shift had occurred in each election since 2000. Foley theorizes that election reforms in 2000, which made provisional voting easier, favored some demographics that tend to lean Democrat such as lower-income voters, college students, and urban voters, who are likely to have moved since the last election and may not have updated their voter registration.He found that the size of the shift varied by state, but that it was consistent enough to potentially change the outcome of a presidential election. In 2013 he published a paper about the phenomenon, "A Big Blue Shift: Measuring an Asymmetrically Increasing Margin of Litigation." According to the "New York Times":In 2019 Foley published a paper, "Preparing for a Disputed Presidential Election: An Exercise in Election Risk Assessment and Management", in which he posited a scenario in which on election night, Pennsylvania is the crucial state and too close to call, though Donald Trump has a slim lead. As provisional ballots are counted, Trump's lead starts to evaporate and he becomes more and more agitated, tweeting demands that only the election night counts are valid and calling for his supporters to "STOP THIS THEFT RIGHT NOW!!!" "DON'T LET THEM STEAL THIS ELECTION FROM YOU!!!", calling it a plausible scenario. According to the "Philadelphia Inquirer" he believes "raising awareness of the blue shift can help inoculate people against unfounded claims."In March 2020 Foley and MIT political scientist Charles Stewart updated a paper, "Explaining the Blue Shift in Election Canvassing", which found that "the bluer the state, the greater the shift", which had first been published in 2015.Foley in August 2020 said expected increases in numbers of votes cast by mail because of the coronavirus pandemic could affect the size and direction of the shift in the November 2020 US presidential election. He told the "New York Times" "We're setting ourselves up for an election where neither side can concede defeat. That suggests that the desire to dispute the outcome is going to be higher than ever."Foley participated in a 2019 bipartisan task force, the National Task Force on Election Crises, to envision, assess, and develop plans for dealing with an election crisis. Among the scenarios considered but not included in the 200-page report was a pandemic that kept people from voting in-person. The task force published pandemic-related recommendations after the coronavirus pandemic struck.
|
[
"United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit",
"Supreme Court of the United States",
"Moritz College of Law"
] |
|
Who was the head of New Jersey in Jul, 1879?
|
July 02, 1879
|
{
"text": [
"George Brinton McClellan"
]
}
|
L2_Q1408_P6_23
|
Horace Griggs Prall is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Morgan Foster Larson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1932.
Philemon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1836 to Oct, 1837.
Walter Evans Edge is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1917 to May, 1919.
George Theodore Werts is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1896.
Phil Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
Peter Dumont Vroom is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1829 to Oct, 1832.
Charles Creighton Stratton is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1845 to Jan, 1848.
Brendan Byrne is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1982.
Harold Giles Hoffman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1938.
Joel Parker is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1863 to Jan, 1866.
George Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1851 to Jan, 1854.
Clarence Edwards Case is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1920.
Mahlon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1815 to Feb, 1817.
Donald DiFrancesco is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
John Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1911.
Charles Edison is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1944.
Isaac Halstead Williamson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1817 to Oct, 1829.
Robert Stockton Green is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1890.
William Nelson Runyon is the head of the government of New Jersey from May, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Chris Christie is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
John Lambert is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1802 to Oct, 1803.
George Brinton McClellan is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1878 to Jan, 1881.
Robert Baumle Meyner is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1962.
Joseph Bloomfield is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1801 to Oct, 1802.
Thomas Henderson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1793 to Jun, 1793.
Richard Joseph Hughes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1970.
Edward C. Stokes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1908.
Franklin Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1905.
Christine Todd Whitman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 2001.
Leon Rutherford Taylor is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1913 to Jan, 1914.
Woodrow Wilson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1911 to Mar, 1913.
Charles Smith Olden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1863.
Foster McGowan Voorhees is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1898 to Oct, 1898.
Edward Irving Edwards is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1923.
John Orus Bennett III is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
William Thomas Cahill is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1974.
William Livingston is the head of the government of New Jersey from Aug, 1776 to Jul, 1790.
Aaron Ogden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1812 to Oct, 1813.
Joseph D. Bedle is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1878.
Elias P. Seeley is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1833 to Oct, 1833.
Clifford Ross Powell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
William A. Newell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1860.
William Paterson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1790 to Mar, 1793.
Theodore Fitz Randolph is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.
William Sanford Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1813 to Jun, 1815.
Samuel L. Southard is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1832 to Feb, 1833.
Thomas Kean is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
John W. Griggs is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1898.
James Fairman Fielder is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1913 to Oct, 1913.
David Ogden Watkins is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1898 to Jan, 1899.
Alfred Eastlack Driscoll is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1954.
Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr. is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1869.
A. Harry Moore is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1929.
Rodman McCamley Price is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1854 to Jan, 1857.
William Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1837 to Oct, 1843.
Leon Abbett is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1884 to Jan, 1887.
Richard Codey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Jim McGreevey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2004.
George C. Ludlow is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1881 to Jan, 1884.
Jon Corzine is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
George Sebastian Silzer is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1926.
James Florio is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
|
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania; and on the southwest by Delaware Bay and the state of Delaware. New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous, with 9,288,994 residents as of 2020 and an area of , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. New Jersey's state capital is Trenton, while the state's most populous city is Newark. All but one county in New Jersey (Warren County) lie within the combined statistical areas of New York City or Philadelphia; consequently, the state's largest metropolitan area falls within Greater New York.New Jersey was first inhabited by Native Americans for at least 2,800 years, with the Lenape being the dominant group by the time Europeans arrived in the early 17th century. Dutch and the Swedish colonists founded the first European settlements in the state. The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey—after the largest of the Channel Islands, Jersey—and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in the "Big Six" cities of Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Elizabeth helped drive the nation's Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's central location in the Northeast megalopolis fueled its rapid growth and suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century. At the turn of the 21st century, the state's economy increasingly diversified, while its multicultural populace began reverting toward more urban settings within the state, outpacing the growth in suburbs since 2008.As of 2020, New Jersey was home to the highest number of millionaires per capita of all U.S. states, with 9.76% of households—more than 323,000 of 3.3 million statewide—meeting the criteria. Based on 2017 data, it was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income. New Jersey's public school system consistently ranks at or among the top among all fifty U.S. states.Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges.New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact. "" is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade.The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch West India Company policy required its colonists to purchase the land that they settled. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen. Peter Minuit's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. The entire region became a territory of England on June 24, 1664, after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is now New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam, annexing the entire province.During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in Saint Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey.Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775.Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill—settlers came primarily from New York and New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England, who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. (William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time.) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702, at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England.In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor, rather than a proprietary one. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land. In 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738.New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the State Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times, and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the American Revolution". The winter quarters of the Continental Army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which has been called "The Military Capital of the American Revolution.“On the night of December 25–26, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River. After the crossing, they surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, the Americans made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3, 1777. Emanuel Leutze's painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware" became an icon of the Revolution.American forces under Washington met the British forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778. The Americans attempted to take the British column by surprise. When the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. Their ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges.In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war.On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights.The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property separately from their husbands. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors", whether entitled to vote or not; on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal "white male" suffrage, excluding paupers; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution.On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population. By the close of the Civil War, about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage. New Jersey voters eventually ratified the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States' black population.Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey's growing industries in Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the state senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision "Baker v. Carr". While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself.New Jersey was one of the few Union states (the others being Delaware and Kentucky) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan, a native Philadelphian, had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time; he later became Governor of New Jersey (1878–81). (In New Jersey, the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860.) During the American Civil War, the state was led first by Republican governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. During the course of the war, between 65,000 and 80,000 soldiers from the state enlisted in the Union army; unlike many states, including some Northern ones, no battle was fought there.In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the United States. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey.Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century. Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry. Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine.New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927, and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS "Morro Castle" beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea.Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially naval construction. The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company yards in Kearny and Newark and the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yard in Camden produced aircraft carriers, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fifth among the 48 states. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Camp Merritt (1917) and Camp Kilmer (1941) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike missile stations were constructed for the defense of the New York City and Philadelphia areas. "PT-109", a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden.In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In 1959, Air Defense Command deployed the CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missile to McGuire Air Force Base. On June 7, 1960, an explosion in a CIM-10 Bomarc missile fuel tank caused the accident and subsequent plutonium contamination.In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably, the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976. Prior to this bill, the state had no income tax.In the early part of the 2000s, two light rail systems were opened: the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton. The intent of these projects was to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey, respectively. The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular. Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century. As of 2014, Jersey City's Census-estimated population was 262,146, with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010, representing an increase of 5.9% from the 2010 United States Census, when the city's population was enumerated at 247,597. Between 2000 and 2010, Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s.The state of New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York (parts of which are across the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, and the Arthur Kill); on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. This is New Jersey's only straight border.New Jersey is often broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South.Within those regions are five distinct areas, based upon natural geography and population concentration. Northeastern New Jersey lies closest to Manhattan in New York City, and up to a million residents commute daily into the city for work, many via public transportation. Northwestern New Jersey is more wooded, rural, and mountainous. The Jersey Shore, along the Atlantic Coast in Central and South Jersey, has its own unique natural, residential, and cultural characteristics owing to its location by the ocean. The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state, which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. The Pine Barrens region is in the southern interior of New Jersey; covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, this region has a lower population density than most of the rest of the state.The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, with 16 counties included in either the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area. New Jersey is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis.High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the state's highest elevation, at above sea level. The state's highest prominence is Kitty Ann Mountain in Morris County, rising . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the west side of the Hudson River, in Bergen and Hudson Counties. Major New Jersey rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Due to New Jersey's peninsular geography, both sunrise and sunset are visible over water from different points on the Jersey Shore.There are two climatic conditions in the state. The south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate (microthermal), with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation. New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Climate change is affecting New Jersey faster than much of the rest of the United States. As of 2019, New Jersey was one of the fastest-warming states in the nation. Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of and lows of ; however, temperatures exceed on average 25 days each summer, exceeding in some years. Winters are usually cold, with average high temperatures of and lows of for most of the state, but temperatures can, for brief periods, fall below and sometimes rise above . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub- being an almost annual occurrence. Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations, with lower humidity than summer. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from6 in the northwest of the state, to 7B near Cape May. All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10, 1936, in Runyon, Middlesex County and on January 5, 1904, in River Vale, Bergen County.Average annual precipitation ranges from , uniformly spread through the year. Average snowfall per winter season ranges from in the south and near the seacoast, in the northeast and central part of the state, to about in the northwestern highlands, but this often varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms, most of which occur during the summer.During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters", which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999), tornadoes, and earthquakes are rare, although New Jersey was impacted by a hurricane in 1903, and Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state with top winds of .For its overall population and nation-leading population density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. This paradox is most pronounced in Bergen County, New Jersey's most populous county, whose more than 930,000 residents in 2019 inhabited 70 municipalities, the most populous being Hackensack, with 44,522 residents estimated in 2018. Many urban areas extend far beyond the limits of a single large city, as New Jersey cities (and indeed municipalities in general) tend to be geographically small; three of the four largest cities in New Jersey by population have under of land area, and eight of the top ten, including all of the top five have land area under . , only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000, although Edison and Woodbridge came very close.The United States Census Bureau tabulated in the 2020 United States census that the population of New Jersey was 9,288,994 on April 1, 2020, a 5.7% increase since the 2010 United States census. Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or, less commonly, as "New Jerseyites". At the 2010 census, there were 8,791,894 people living in the state. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the state was: 68.6% White American, 13.7% African American, 8.3% Asian American, 0.3% Native American, 2.7% Multiracial American, and 6.4% other races. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9% of the population in 2011, down from 85% in 1970. In 2010, 17.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).In 2010, unauthorized immigrants constituted an estimated 6.2% of the population. This was the fourth-highest percentage of any state in the country. There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010. Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Camden, Jersey City and Newark.As of 2010, New Jersey was the eleventh-most populous state in the United States, and the most densely populated, at 1,185 residents per square mile (458 per km), with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City, Philadelphia, and along the eastern Jersey Shore, while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall. It was also the second wealthiest state by median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike.New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers "per square mile" than anywhere else in the world.On October 21, 2013, same-sex marriages commenced in New Jersey.New Jersey is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse states in the United States. As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. The state has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percentage (after Michigan); the largest population of Peruvians in the United States; the largest population of Cubans outside of Florida; the third highest Asian population by percentage; and the second highest Italian population, according to the 2000 Census. African Americans, Hispanics (Puerto Ricans and Dominicans), West Indians, Arabs, and Brazilian and Portuguese Americans are also high in number. New Jersey has the third highest Asian Indian population of any state by absolute numbers and the highest by percentage, with Bergen County home to America's largest Malayali community. Overall, New Jersey has the third largest Korean population, with Bergen County home to the highest Korean concentration per capita of any U.S. county (6.9% in 2011). New Jersey also has the fourth largest Filipino population, and fourth largest Chinese population, per the 2010 U.S. Census. The five largest ethnic groups in 2000 were: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%).India Square, in Bombay, Jersey City, Hudson County, is home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, Central New Jersey, particularly Edison and surrounding Middlesex County, is prominently known for its significant concentration of Asian Indians. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville in 2014, a BAPS temple. The growing Little India is a South Asian-focused commercial strip in Middlesex County, the U.S. county with the highest concentration of Asian Indians. The Oak Tree Road strip runs for about through Edison and neighboring Iselin in Woodbridge Township, near the area's sprawling Chinatown and Koreatown, running along New Jersey Route 27. It is the largest and most diverse South Asian cultural hub in the United States. Carteret's Punjabi Sikh community, variously estimated at upwards of 3,000, is the largest concentration of Sikhs in the state. Monroe Township in Middlesex County has experienced a particularly rapid growth rate in its Indian American population, with an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, which was 23 times the 256 (0.9%) counted as of the 2000 Census; and Diwali is celebrated by the township as a Hindu holiday. In Middlesex County, election ballots are printed in English, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi.Newark was the fourth poorest of U.S. cities with over 250,000 residents in 2008, but New Jersey as a whole had the second-highest median household income as of 2014. This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area.In 2010, 6.2% of its population was reported as under age 5, 23.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older; and females made up approximately 51.3% of the population.A study by the Pew Research Center found that in 2013, New Jersey was the only U.S. state in which immigrants born in India constituted the largest foreign-born nationality, representing roughly 10% of all foreign-born residents in the state.For further information on various ethnoracial groups and neighborhoods prominently featured within New Jersey, see the following articles:As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's population younger than age1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white)."Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number."As of 2010, 71.31% (5,830,812) of New Jersey residents age5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 14.59% (1,193,261) spoke Spanish, 1.23% (100,217) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.06% (86,849) Italian, 1.06% (86,486) Portuguese, 0.96% (78,627) Tagalog, and Korean was spoken as a main language by 0.89% (73,057) of the population over the age of five. In total, 28.69% (2,345,644) of New Jersey's population age5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.A diverse collection of languages has since evolved amongst the state's population, given that New Jersey has become cosmopolitan and is home to ethnic enclaves of non-English-speaking communities:By number of adherents, the largest denominations in New Jersey, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2010, were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,235,290; Islam with 160,666; and the United Methodist Church with 138,052. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville, Mercer County, in central New Jersey during 2014, a BAPS temple. In January 2018, Gurbir Grewal became the first Sikh American state attorney general in the United States. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's gross state product in the fourth quarter of 2018 was $639.8 billion. New Jersey's estimated taxpayer burden in 2015 was $59,400 per taxpayer. New Jersey is nearly $239 billion in debt.New Jersey's per capita gross state product in 2008 was $54,699, second in the U.S. and above the national per capita gross domestic product of $46,588. Its per capita income was the third highest in the nation with $51,358. In 2020, New Jersey had the highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, approximately 9.76% of households. The state is ranked second in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are among the 100 wealthiest U.S. counties.New Jersey has seven tax brackets that determine state income tax rates, which range from 1.4% (for income below $20,000) to 8.97% (for income above $500,000).The standard sales tax rate as of January 1, 2018, is 6.625%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. This rate, which is comparably lower than that of New York City, often attracts numerous shoppers from New York City, often to suburban Paramus, New Jersey, which has five malls, one of which (the Garden State Plaza) has over of retail space. Tax exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medications, most clothing, footwear and disposable paper products for use in the home. There are 27 Urban Enterprise Zone statewide, including sections of Paterson, Elizabeth, and Jersey City. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half the rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.New Jersey has the highest cumulative tax rate of all 50 states with residents paying a total of $68 billion in state and local taxes annually with a per capita burden of $7,816 at a rate of 12.9% of income. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax.New Jersey consistently ranks as having one of the highest proportional levels of disparity of any state in the United States, based upon what it receives from the federal government relative to what it gives. In 2015, WalletHub ranked New Jersey the state least dependent upon federal government aid overall and having the fourth lowest return on taxpayer investment from the federal government, at 48 cents per dollar.New Jersey has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas.New Jersey's economy is multifaceted, but is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, information technology, the financial industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing, publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. New Jersey ranks second among states in blueberry production, third in cranberries and spinach, and fourth in bell peppers, peaches, and head lettuce. The state harvests the fourth-largest number of acres planted with asparagus.Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the state's use of nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey's electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of state generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country.New Jersey has a strong scientific economy and is home to major pharmaceutical and telecommunications firms, drawing on the state's large and well-educated labor pool. There is also a strong service economy in retail sales, education, and real estate, serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Thomas Edison invented the first electric light bulb at his home in Menlo Park, Edison in 1879. New Jersey is also a key participant in the renewable wind industry.Shipping is a key industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic geographic location, the Port of New York and New Jersey being the busiest port on the East Coast. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and today is one of the world's largest.New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus in Bergen County has become the top retail ZIP code (07652) in the United States, with the municipality generating over US$6 billion in annual retail sales. Several New Jersey counties, including Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), and Monmouth (42), have been ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States.New Jersey's location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis and its extensive transportation system have put over one-third of all United States residents and many Canadian residents within overnight distance by land. This accessibility to consumer revenue has enabled seaside resorts such as Atlantic City and the remainder of the Jersey Shore, as well as the state's other natural and cultural attractions, to contribute significantly to the record 111 million tourist visits to New Jersey in 2018, providing US$44.7 billion in tourism revenue, directly supporting 333,860 jobs, sustaining more than 531,000 jobs overall including peripheral impacts, and generating US$5 billion in state and local tax revenue.In 1976, a referendum of New Jersey voters approved casino gambling in Atlantic City, where the first legalized casino opened in 1978. At that time, Las Vegas was the only other casino resort in the country. Today, several casinos lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the first and longest boardwalk in the world. Atlantic City experienced a dramatic contraction in its stature as a gambling destination after 2010, including the closure of multiple casinos since 2014, spurred by competition from the advent of legalized gambling in other northeastern U.S. states. On February 26, 2013, Governor Chris Christie signed online gambling into law. Sports betting has become a growing source of gambling revenue in New Jersey since being legalized across the nation by the U.S. Supreme Court on May 14, 2018.Forests cover 45%, or approximately 2.1 million acres, of New Jersey's land area. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. The Pine Barrens, consisting of pine forests, is in the southern part of the state.Some mining activity of zinc, iron, and manganese still takes place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace.New Jersey is second in the nation in solar power installations, enabled by one of the country's most favorable net metering policies, and the renewable energy certificates program. The state has more than 10,000 solar installations.As of 2010, there were 605 school districts in the state.Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase college admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg retracted this plan when criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative.In 2010, the state government paid all teachers' premiums for health insurance, but currently all NJ public teachers pay a portion of their own health insurance premiums.New Jersey is known for the quality of its education. In 2015, the state spent more per each public school student than any other U.S. state except New York, Alaska, and Connecticut, amounting to $18,235 spent per pupil; over 50% of the expenditure was allocated to student instruction.According to 2011 "Newsweek" statistics, students of High Technology High School in Lincroft, Monmouth County and Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, Bergen County registered average SAT scores of 2145 and 2100, respectively, representing the second- and third-highest scores, respectively, of all listed U.S. high schools.Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2020 list of "U.S. News & World Report". In 2013, Rutgers University, headquartered in New Brunswick, Middlesex County as the flagship institution of higher education in New Jersey, regained medical and dental schools, augmenting its profile as a national research university as well.In 2014, New Jersey's school systems were ranked at the top of all fifty U.S. states by financial website Wallethub.com. In 2018, New Jersey's overall educational system was ranked second among all states to Massachusetts by "U.S. News & World Report". In both 2019 and 2020, "Education Week" also ranked New Jersey public schools the best of all U.S. states.Nine New Jersey high schools were ranked among the top 25 in the U.S. on the "Newsweek" "America's Top High Schools 2016" list, more than from any other state. A 2017 UCLA Civil Rights project found that New Jersey has the sixth-most segregated classrooms in the United States.New Jersey has continued to play a prominent role as a U.S. cultural nexus. Like every state, New Jersey has its own cuisine, religious communities, museums, and .New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon, the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone.Diners are iconic to New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has over 600 diners, more than any other place in the world.New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey state song, but it was not even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature.New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), sloppy joe sandwiches, tomato pies, and Texas wieners.Several states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey.New Jersey has long been an important origin for both rock and rap music. Prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey include:New Jersey currently has six teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although one Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify themselves as being from the New York metropolitan area.The National Hockey League's New Jersey Devils, based in Newark at the Prudential Center, is the only major league sports franchise to bear the state's name. Founded in 1974 in Kansas City, Missouri, as the Kansas City Scouts, the team played in Denver, Colorado, as the Colorado Rockies from 1976 until the spring of 1982 when naval architect, businessman, and Jersey City native John J. McMullen purchased, renamed, and moved the franchise to Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. While the team had mostly losing records in Kansas City, Denver, and its first years in New Jersey, the Devils began to improve in the late 1980s and early 1990s under Hall of Fame president and general manager Lou Lamoriello. The team made the playoffs for the Stanley Cup in 2001 and 2012, and won it in 1995, 2000, and 2003. The organization is the youngest of the nine major league teams in the New York metropolitan area. The Devils have established a following throughout the northern and central portions of the state, carving a place in a media market once dominated by the New York Rangers and Islanders.In 2018, the Philadelphia Flyers renovated and expanded their training facility, the Virtua Center Flyers Skate Zone, in Voorhees Township in the southern portion of the state.The New York Metropolitan Area's two National Football League teams, the New York Giants and the New York Jets, play at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. Built for about $1.6 billion, the venue is the most expensive stadium ever built. On February 2, 2014, MetLife Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLVIII.The New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer play in Red Bull Arena, a soccer-specific stadium in Harrison across the Passaic River from downtown Newark. On July 27, 2011, Red Bull Arena hosted the 2011 MLS All-Star Game.From 1977 to 2012, New Jersey had a National Basketball Association team, the New Jersey Nets. WNBA's New York Liberty played in New Jersey from 2011 to 2013 while their primary home arena, Madison Square Garden was undergoing renovations. In 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA opened their new headquarters and training facility, the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex, in Camden.The Meadowlands Sports Complex is home to the Meadowlands Racetrack, one of three major harness racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack and Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport is a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation.New Jerseyans' collegiate allegiances are predominantly split among the three major NCAA Division I programs in the state: the Rutgers University (New Jersey's flagship state university) Scarlet Knights, members of the Big Ten Conference; the Seton Hall University (the state's largest Catholic university) Pirates, members of the Big East Conference; and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers.The intense rivalry between Rutgers and Princeton athletics began with the first intercollegiate football game in 1869. The schools have not met on the football field since 1980, but they continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities.Rutgers, which fields 24 teams in various sports, is nationally known for its football program, with a 6–4 all-time bowl record; and its women's basketball programs, which appeared in a National Final in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, Rutgers expanded their football home, Rutgers Stadium, now called SHI Stadium, on the Busch Campus. The basketball teams play at the Rutgers Athletic Center on Livingston Campus. Both venues and campuses are in Piscataway, across the Raritan River from New Brunswick. The university also fields men's basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fans live mostly in the western parts of the state and Middlesex County; its alumni base is the largest in the state.Rutgers' satellite campuses in Camden and Newark each field their own athletic programs—the Rutgers–Camden Scarlet Raptors and the Rutgers–Newark Scarlet Raiders—which both compete in NCAA Division III.Seton Hall fields no football team, but its men's basketball team is one of the Big East's storied programs. No New Jersey team has won more games in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, and it is the state's only men's basketball program to reach a modern National Final. The Pirates play their home games at Prudential Center in downtown Newark, about from the university's South Orange campus. Their fans hail largely from in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. The annual inter-conference rivalry game between Seton Hall and Rutgers, whose venue alternates between Newark and Piscataway, the Garden State Hardwood Classic, is planned through 2026.The state's other Division I schools include the Monmouth University Hawks (West Long Branch), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Highlanders (Newark), the Rider University Broncs (Lawrenceville), and the Saint Peter's University Peacocks and Peahens (Jersey City).Fairleigh Dickinson University competes in both Division I and Division III. It has two campuses, each with its own sports teams. The teams at the Metropolitan Campus are known as the FDU Knights, and compete in the Northeast Conference and NCAA Division I. The college at Florham (FDU-Florham) teams are known as the FDU-Florham Devils and compete in the Middle Atlantic Conferences' Freedom Conference and NCAA Division III.Among the various Division III schools in the state, the Stevens Institute of Technology Ducks have fielded the longest continuously running collegiate men's lacrosse program in the country. 2009 marked the 125th season.New Jersey high schools are divided into divisions under the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA).' Founded in 1918, the NJSIAA currently represents 22,000 schools, 330,000 coaches, and almost 4.5 million athletes.Motion picture technology was developed by Thomas Edison, with much of his early work done at his West Orange laboratory. Edison's Black Maria was the first motion picture studio. America's first motion picture industry started in 1907 in Fort Lee and the first studio was constructed there in 1909. DuMont Laboratories in Passaic developed early sets and made the first broadcast to the private home.A number of television shows and films have been filmed in New Jersey. Since 1978, the state has maintained a Motion Picture and Television Commission to encourage filming in-state. New Jersey has long offered tax credits to television producers. Governor Chris Christie suspended the credits in 2010, but the New Jersey State Legislature in 2011 approved the restoration and expansion of the tax credit program. Under bills passed by both the state Senate and Assembly, the program offers 20 percent tax credits (22% in urban enterprise zones) to television and film productions that shoot in the state and meet set standards for hiring and local spending. When Governor Phil Murphy took office, he instated the New Jersey Film & Digital Media Tax Credit Program in 2018 and expanded it in 2020. The benefits include a 30% tax credit on film projects and a 40% subsidy for studio developments.The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the most prominent and heavily trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road, which overlaps with Interstate 95 for much of its length, carries traffic between Delaware and New York, and up and down the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike", it is known for its numerous rest areas named after prominent New Jerseyans.The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway", carries relatively more in-state traffic than interstate traffic and runs from New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May. It is the main route that connects the New York metropolitan area to the Jersey Shore. With a total of fifteen travel and six shoulder lanes, the Driscoll Bridge on the Parkway, spanning the Raritan River in Middlesex County, is the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world by number of lanes as well as one of the busiest.New Jersey is connected to New York City via various key bridges and tunnels. The double-decked George Washington Bridge carries the heaviest load of motor vehicle traffic of any bridge in the world, at 102 million vehicles per year, across fourteen lanes. It connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and carries Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1/9 across the Hudson River. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan carrying New Jersey Route 495, and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan carrying Interstate 78. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges—from north to south, the Bayonne Bridge, the Goethals Bridge, and the Outerbridge Crossing.New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three of its neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes in and out of the state. Bridge tolls are collected only from traffic exiting the state, with the exception of the private Dingman's Ferry Bridge over the Delaware River, which charges a toll in both directions.It is unlawful for a customer to serve themselves gasoline in New Jersey. It became the last remaining U.S. state where all gas stations are required to sell full-service gasoline to customers at all times in 2016, after Oregon's introduction of restricted self-service gasoline availability took effect.Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it is one of the three main airports serving the New York metropolitan area. United Airlines is the airport's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal there, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo terminal at EWR as well. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to Amtrak and NJ Transit trains along the Northeast Corridor Line.Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and rapidly growing Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of the state. Teterboro Airport in Bergen County, and Millville Municipal Airport in Cumberland County, are general aviation airports popular with private and corporate aircraft due to their proximity to New York City and the Jersey Shore, respectively.NJ Transit operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. A state-run corporation, it began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey in 1979. In the early 1980s, it acquired Conrail's commuter train operations that connected suburban towns to New York City. Today, NJ Transit has eleven commuter rail lines that run through different parts of the state. Most of the lines end at either Penn Station in New York City or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. One line provides service between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.NJ Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, through Hoboken and Jersey City. The Newark Light Rail is partially underground, and connects downtown Newark with other parts of the city and its suburbs, Belleville and Bloomfield. The River Line connects Trenton and Camden.The PATH is a rapid transit system consisting of four lines operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit system that links Camden County to Philadelphia. Both the PATCO and the PATH are two of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to operate 24 hours a day.Amtrak operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey, both to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Transit Center, Metropark, and the historic Newark Penn Station.The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, or SEPTA, has two commuter rail lines that operate into New Jersey. The Trenton Line terminates at the Trenton Transit Center, and the West Trenton Line terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing.AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots.Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers, of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City.New York Waterway has ferry terminals at Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, and Edgewater, with service to different parts of Manhattan. Liberty Water Taxi in Jersey City has ferries from Paulus Hook and Liberty State Park to Battery Park City in Manhattan. Statue Cruises offers service from Liberty State Park to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, including Ellis Island. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket.The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May–Lewes Ferry on Delaware Bay, carrying both passengers and vehicles between New Jersey and Delaware. The agency also operates the Forts Ferry Crossing for passengers across the Delaware River. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia.The position of Governor of New Jersey has been considered one of the most powerful in the nation. Until 2010, the governor was the only statewide elected executive official in the state and appointed numerous government officials. Formerly, an acting governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, president of the state senate Richard Codey held the position of acting governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term acting governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming acting governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. Phil Murphy (D) is the governor. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton.Before 2010, New Jersey was one of the few states without a lieutenant governor. Republican Kim Guadagno was elected the first lieutenant governor of New Jersey and took office on January 19, 2010. She was elected on the Republican ticket with Governor-Elect Chris Christie in the November 2009 NJ gubernatorial election. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005, and effective as of January 17, 2006.The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one state senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; state senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms.New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every four years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a governor was 2017; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2021.The New Jersey Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. All are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70.Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Court, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard.More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level; the Law Division hears both criminal cases and civil lawsuits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is damages, while the Chancery Division hears family cases, civil suits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is equitable relief, and probate trials.The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice.There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships.New Jersey is divided into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders", governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members.Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other five counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions.New Jersey currently has 565 municipalities; the number was 566 before Princeton Township and Princeton Borough merged to form the municipality of Princeton on January 1, 2013. Unlike other states, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation.Starting in the 20th century, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a three- or five-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced a Council-manager government structure with an appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs.The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature.While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially of the village type, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The other three villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter) and South Orange (now operates under a Special Charter)—have all migrated to other non-village forms.Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the more liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate that 60% of the population are self-described as pro-choice, although a majority are opposed to late trimester and intact dilation and extraction and public funding of abortion. In a 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed, On October 18, 2013, the New Jersey Supreme Court rendered a provisional, unanimous (7–0) order authorizing same-sex marriage in the state, pending a legal appeal by Governor Chris Christie, who then withdrew this appeal hours after the inaugural same-sex marriages took place on October 21, 2013.New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black-powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws.In past elections, New Jersey was a Republican bastion, but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats have majority control of both houses of the New Jersey Legislature (Senate, 26–14, and Assembly, 54–26), a 10–2 split of the state's twelve seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, and both U.S. Senate seats. Although the Democratic Party is very successful statewide, the state has had Republican governors; from 1994 to 2002, Christine Todd Whitman won twice with 47% and 49% of the votes, respectively, and in the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie defeated incumbent Democrat Jon Corzine with 48% of the vote. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Christie won reelection with over 60% of the votes. Because each candidate for lieutenant governor runs on the same ticket as the party's candidate for governor, the current governor and lieutenant governor are members of the Democratic Party. The governor's appointments to cabinet and non-cabinet positions may be from either party; for instance, the attorney general is a Democrat.In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. For many years in the past, however, it was a Republican stronghold, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. Newark Mayor Cory Booker was elected in October 2013 to join Robert Menendez to make New Jersey the first state with concurrent serving black and Latino U.S. senators.The state's Democratic strongholds include Camden County, Essex County (typically the state's most Democratic county—it includes Newark, the state's largest city), Hudson County (the second-strongest Democratic county, including Jersey City, the state's second-largest city); Mercer County (especially around Trenton and Princeton), Middlesex County, and Union County (including Elizabeth, the state's fourth-largest city).The suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have support along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Morris County, Sussex County, and Warren County. Other suburban counties, especially Bergen County and Burlington County had the majority of votes go to the Democratic Party. In the 2008 election, President Barack Obama won New Jersey with approximately fifty-seven percent of the vote, compared to McCain's forty-one percent. Independent candidate Ralph Nader garnered less than one percent of the vote.About one-third of the state's counties are considered "swing" counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Salem County, the same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south (including Paterson, the state's third-largest city) and a rural, Republican north; with the "swing" township of Wayne in the middle. Other "swing" counties like Monmouth County, Somerset County, and Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas, although Somerset has recently trended Democratic.To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 21 days prior to election day.On December 17, 2007, Governor Jon Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Corzine also signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole".There is also a mineral museum Ogdensburg in Sussex County.Visitors and residents take advantage of and contribute to performances at the numerous music, theater, and dance companies and venues located throughout the state, including:New Jersey is the location of most of the boardwalks in the U.S., with nearly every town and city along the Jersey Shore area each having a boardwalk with various attractions, entertainment, shopping, dining, miniature golf, arcades, water parks with various water rides, including water slides, lazy rivers, wave pools, etc., and amusement parks hosting rides and attractions including roller coasters, carousels, Ferris wheels, bumper cars, teacups, etc.
|
[
"William Livingston",
"A. Harry Moore",
"Rodman McCamley Price",
"William Sanford Pennington",
"Charles Creighton Stratton",
"Leon Rutherford Taylor",
"Jon Corzine",
"George C. Ludlow",
"Donald DiFrancesco",
"Clarence Edwards Case",
"Charles Edison",
"Leon Abbett",
"Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr.",
"David Ogden Watkins",
"Brendan Byrne",
"Richard Joseph Hughes",
"Samuel L. Southard",
"Horace Griggs Prall",
"Chris Christie",
"Peter Dumont Vroom",
"Elias P. Seeley",
"Joseph Bloomfield",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"Thomas Henderson",
"Aaron Ogden",
"Morgan Foster Larson",
"Clifford Ross Powell",
"Jim McGreevey",
"Theodore Fitz Randolph",
"James Fairman Fielder",
"Joseph D. Bedle",
"Foster McGowan Voorhees",
"Robert Stockton Green",
"Mahlon Dickerson",
"Franklin Murphy",
"William Nelson Runyon",
"George Sebastian Silzer",
"Harold Giles Hoffman",
"Joel Parker",
"Edward Irving Edwards",
"Edward C. Stokes",
"William Thomas Cahill",
"Thomas Kean",
"John Orus Bennett III",
"Walter Evans Edge",
"Alfred Eastlack Driscoll",
"Charles Smith Olden",
"Christine Todd Whitman",
"James Florio",
"John W. Griggs",
"John Lambert",
"Isaac Halstead Williamson",
"Robert Baumle Meyner",
"William Pennington",
"George Franklin Fort",
"William A. Newell",
"Phil Murphy",
"George Theodore Werts",
"William Paterson",
"John Franklin Fort",
"Richard Codey",
"Philemon Dickerson"
] |
|
Who was the head of New Jersey in 1879-07-02?
|
July 02, 1879
|
{
"text": [
"George Brinton McClellan"
]
}
|
L2_Q1408_P6_23
|
Horace Griggs Prall is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Morgan Foster Larson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1932.
Philemon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1836 to Oct, 1837.
Walter Evans Edge is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1917 to May, 1919.
George Theodore Werts is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1896.
Phil Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
Peter Dumont Vroom is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1829 to Oct, 1832.
Charles Creighton Stratton is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1845 to Jan, 1848.
Brendan Byrne is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1982.
Harold Giles Hoffman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1938.
Joel Parker is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1863 to Jan, 1866.
George Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1851 to Jan, 1854.
Clarence Edwards Case is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1920.
Mahlon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1815 to Feb, 1817.
Donald DiFrancesco is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
John Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1911.
Charles Edison is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1944.
Isaac Halstead Williamson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1817 to Oct, 1829.
Robert Stockton Green is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1890.
William Nelson Runyon is the head of the government of New Jersey from May, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Chris Christie is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
John Lambert is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1802 to Oct, 1803.
George Brinton McClellan is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1878 to Jan, 1881.
Robert Baumle Meyner is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1962.
Joseph Bloomfield is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1801 to Oct, 1802.
Thomas Henderson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1793 to Jun, 1793.
Richard Joseph Hughes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1970.
Edward C. Stokes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1908.
Franklin Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1905.
Christine Todd Whitman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 2001.
Leon Rutherford Taylor is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1913 to Jan, 1914.
Woodrow Wilson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1911 to Mar, 1913.
Charles Smith Olden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1863.
Foster McGowan Voorhees is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1898 to Oct, 1898.
Edward Irving Edwards is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1923.
John Orus Bennett III is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
William Thomas Cahill is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1974.
William Livingston is the head of the government of New Jersey from Aug, 1776 to Jul, 1790.
Aaron Ogden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1812 to Oct, 1813.
Joseph D. Bedle is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1878.
Elias P. Seeley is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1833 to Oct, 1833.
Clifford Ross Powell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
William A. Newell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1860.
William Paterson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1790 to Mar, 1793.
Theodore Fitz Randolph is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.
William Sanford Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1813 to Jun, 1815.
Samuel L. Southard is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1832 to Feb, 1833.
Thomas Kean is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
John W. Griggs is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1898.
James Fairman Fielder is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1913 to Oct, 1913.
David Ogden Watkins is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1898 to Jan, 1899.
Alfred Eastlack Driscoll is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1954.
Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr. is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1869.
A. Harry Moore is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1929.
Rodman McCamley Price is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1854 to Jan, 1857.
William Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1837 to Oct, 1843.
Leon Abbett is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1884 to Jan, 1887.
Richard Codey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Jim McGreevey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2004.
George C. Ludlow is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1881 to Jan, 1884.
Jon Corzine is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
George Sebastian Silzer is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1926.
James Florio is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
|
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania; and on the southwest by Delaware Bay and the state of Delaware. New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous, with 9,288,994 residents as of 2020 and an area of , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. New Jersey's state capital is Trenton, while the state's most populous city is Newark. All but one county in New Jersey (Warren County) lie within the combined statistical areas of New York City or Philadelphia; consequently, the state's largest metropolitan area falls within Greater New York.New Jersey was first inhabited by Native Americans for at least 2,800 years, with the Lenape being the dominant group by the time Europeans arrived in the early 17th century. Dutch and the Swedish colonists founded the first European settlements in the state. The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey—after the largest of the Channel Islands, Jersey—and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in the "Big Six" cities of Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Elizabeth helped drive the nation's Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's central location in the Northeast megalopolis fueled its rapid growth and suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century. At the turn of the 21st century, the state's economy increasingly diversified, while its multicultural populace began reverting toward more urban settings within the state, outpacing the growth in suburbs since 2008.As of 2020, New Jersey was home to the highest number of millionaires per capita of all U.S. states, with 9.76% of households—more than 323,000 of 3.3 million statewide—meeting the criteria. Based on 2017 data, it was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income. New Jersey's public school system consistently ranks at or among the top among all fifty U.S. states.Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges.New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact. "" is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade.The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch West India Company policy required its colonists to purchase the land that they settled. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen. Peter Minuit's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. The entire region became a territory of England on June 24, 1664, after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is now New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam, annexing the entire province.During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in Saint Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey.Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775.Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill—settlers came primarily from New York and New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England, who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. (William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time.) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702, at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England.In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor, rather than a proprietary one. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land. In 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738.New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the State Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times, and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the American Revolution". The winter quarters of the Continental Army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which has been called "The Military Capital of the American Revolution.“On the night of December 25–26, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River. After the crossing, they surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, the Americans made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3, 1777. Emanuel Leutze's painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware" became an icon of the Revolution.American forces under Washington met the British forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778. The Americans attempted to take the British column by surprise. When the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. Their ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges.In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war.On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights.The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property separately from their husbands. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors", whether entitled to vote or not; on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal "white male" suffrage, excluding paupers; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution.On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population. By the close of the Civil War, about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage. New Jersey voters eventually ratified the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States' black population.Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey's growing industries in Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the state senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision "Baker v. Carr". While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself.New Jersey was one of the few Union states (the others being Delaware and Kentucky) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan, a native Philadelphian, had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time; he later became Governor of New Jersey (1878–81). (In New Jersey, the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860.) During the American Civil War, the state was led first by Republican governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. During the course of the war, between 65,000 and 80,000 soldiers from the state enlisted in the Union army; unlike many states, including some Northern ones, no battle was fought there.In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the United States. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey.Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century. Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry. Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine.New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927, and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS "Morro Castle" beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea.Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially naval construction. The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company yards in Kearny and Newark and the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yard in Camden produced aircraft carriers, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fifth among the 48 states. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Camp Merritt (1917) and Camp Kilmer (1941) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike missile stations were constructed for the defense of the New York City and Philadelphia areas. "PT-109", a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden.In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In 1959, Air Defense Command deployed the CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missile to McGuire Air Force Base. On June 7, 1960, an explosion in a CIM-10 Bomarc missile fuel tank caused the accident and subsequent plutonium contamination.In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably, the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976. Prior to this bill, the state had no income tax.In the early part of the 2000s, two light rail systems were opened: the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton. The intent of these projects was to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey, respectively. The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular. Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century. As of 2014, Jersey City's Census-estimated population was 262,146, with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010, representing an increase of 5.9% from the 2010 United States Census, when the city's population was enumerated at 247,597. Between 2000 and 2010, Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s.The state of New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York (parts of which are across the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, and the Arthur Kill); on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. This is New Jersey's only straight border.New Jersey is often broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South.Within those regions are five distinct areas, based upon natural geography and population concentration. Northeastern New Jersey lies closest to Manhattan in New York City, and up to a million residents commute daily into the city for work, many via public transportation. Northwestern New Jersey is more wooded, rural, and mountainous. The Jersey Shore, along the Atlantic Coast in Central and South Jersey, has its own unique natural, residential, and cultural characteristics owing to its location by the ocean. The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state, which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. The Pine Barrens region is in the southern interior of New Jersey; covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, this region has a lower population density than most of the rest of the state.The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, with 16 counties included in either the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area. New Jersey is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis.High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the state's highest elevation, at above sea level. The state's highest prominence is Kitty Ann Mountain in Morris County, rising . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the west side of the Hudson River, in Bergen and Hudson Counties. Major New Jersey rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Due to New Jersey's peninsular geography, both sunrise and sunset are visible over water from different points on the Jersey Shore.There are two climatic conditions in the state. The south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate (microthermal), with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation. New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Climate change is affecting New Jersey faster than much of the rest of the United States. As of 2019, New Jersey was one of the fastest-warming states in the nation. Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of and lows of ; however, temperatures exceed on average 25 days each summer, exceeding in some years. Winters are usually cold, with average high temperatures of and lows of for most of the state, but temperatures can, for brief periods, fall below and sometimes rise above . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub- being an almost annual occurrence. Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations, with lower humidity than summer. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from6 in the northwest of the state, to 7B near Cape May. All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10, 1936, in Runyon, Middlesex County and on January 5, 1904, in River Vale, Bergen County.Average annual precipitation ranges from , uniformly spread through the year. Average snowfall per winter season ranges from in the south and near the seacoast, in the northeast and central part of the state, to about in the northwestern highlands, but this often varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms, most of which occur during the summer.During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters", which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999), tornadoes, and earthquakes are rare, although New Jersey was impacted by a hurricane in 1903, and Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state with top winds of .For its overall population and nation-leading population density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. This paradox is most pronounced in Bergen County, New Jersey's most populous county, whose more than 930,000 residents in 2019 inhabited 70 municipalities, the most populous being Hackensack, with 44,522 residents estimated in 2018. Many urban areas extend far beyond the limits of a single large city, as New Jersey cities (and indeed municipalities in general) tend to be geographically small; three of the four largest cities in New Jersey by population have under of land area, and eight of the top ten, including all of the top five have land area under . , only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000, although Edison and Woodbridge came very close.The United States Census Bureau tabulated in the 2020 United States census that the population of New Jersey was 9,288,994 on April 1, 2020, a 5.7% increase since the 2010 United States census. Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or, less commonly, as "New Jerseyites". At the 2010 census, there were 8,791,894 people living in the state. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the state was: 68.6% White American, 13.7% African American, 8.3% Asian American, 0.3% Native American, 2.7% Multiracial American, and 6.4% other races. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9% of the population in 2011, down from 85% in 1970. In 2010, 17.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).In 2010, unauthorized immigrants constituted an estimated 6.2% of the population. This was the fourth-highest percentage of any state in the country. There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010. Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Camden, Jersey City and Newark.As of 2010, New Jersey was the eleventh-most populous state in the United States, and the most densely populated, at 1,185 residents per square mile (458 per km), with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City, Philadelphia, and along the eastern Jersey Shore, while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall. It was also the second wealthiest state by median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike.New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers "per square mile" than anywhere else in the world.On October 21, 2013, same-sex marriages commenced in New Jersey.New Jersey is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse states in the United States. As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. The state has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percentage (after Michigan); the largest population of Peruvians in the United States; the largest population of Cubans outside of Florida; the third highest Asian population by percentage; and the second highest Italian population, according to the 2000 Census. African Americans, Hispanics (Puerto Ricans and Dominicans), West Indians, Arabs, and Brazilian and Portuguese Americans are also high in number. New Jersey has the third highest Asian Indian population of any state by absolute numbers and the highest by percentage, with Bergen County home to America's largest Malayali community. Overall, New Jersey has the third largest Korean population, with Bergen County home to the highest Korean concentration per capita of any U.S. county (6.9% in 2011). New Jersey also has the fourth largest Filipino population, and fourth largest Chinese population, per the 2010 U.S. Census. The five largest ethnic groups in 2000 were: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%).India Square, in Bombay, Jersey City, Hudson County, is home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, Central New Jersey, particularly Edison and surrounding Middlesex County, is prominently known for its significant concentration of Asian Indians. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville in 2014, a BAPS temple. The growing Little India is a South Asian-focused commercial strip in Middlesex County, the U.S. county with the highest concentration of Asian Indians. The Oak Tree Road strip runs for about through Edison and neighboring Iselin in Woodbridge Township, near the area's sprawling Chinatown and Koreatown, running along New Jersey Route 27. It is the largest and most diverse South Asian cultural hub in the United States. Carteret's Punjabi Sikh community, variously estimated at upwards of 3,000, is the largest concentration of Sikhs in the state. Monroe Township in Middlesex County has experienced a particularly rapid growth rate in its Indian American population, with an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, which was 23 times the 256 (0.9%) counted as of the 2000 Census; and Diwali is celebrated by the township as a Hindu holiday. In Middlesex County, election ballots are printed in English, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi.Newark was the fourth poorest of U.S. cities with over 250,000 residents in 2008, but New Jersey as a whole had the second-highest median household income as of 2014. This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area.In 2010, 6.2% of its population was reported as under age 5, 23.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older; and females made up approximately 51.3% of the population.A study by the Pew Research Center found that in 2013, New Jersey was the only U.S. state in which immigrants born in India constituted the largest foreign-born nationality, representing roughly 10% of all foreign-born residents in the state.For further information on various ethnoracial groups and neighborhoods prominently featured within New Jersey, see the following articles:As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's population younger than age1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white)."Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number."As of 2010, 71.31% (5,830,812) of New Jersey residents age5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 14.59% (1,193,261) spoke Spanish, 1.23% (100,217) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.06% (86,849) Italian, 1.06% (86,486) Portuguese, 0.96% (78,627) Tagalog, and Korean was spoken as a main language by 0.89% (73,057) of the population over the age of five. In total, 28.69% (2,345,644) of New Jersey's population age5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.A diverse collection of languages has since evolved amongst the state's population, given that New Jersey has become cosmopolitan and is home to ethnic enclaves of non-English-speaking communities:By number of adherents, the largest denominations in New Jersey, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2010, were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,235,290; Islam with 160,666; and the United Methodist Church with 138,052. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville, Mercer County, in central New Jersey during 2014, a BAPS temple. In January 2018, Gurbir Grewal became the first Sikh American state attorney general in the United States. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's gross state product in the fourth quarter of 2018 was $639.8 billion. New Jersey's estimated taxpayer burden in 2015 was $59,400 per taxpayer. New Jersey is nearly $239 billion in debt.New Jersey's per capita gross state product in 2008 was $54,699, second in the U.S. and above the national per capita gross domestic product of $46,588. Its per capita income was the third highest in the nation with $51,358. In 2020, New Jersey had the highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, approximately 9.76% of households. The state is ranked second in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are among the 100 wealthiest U.S. counties.New Jersey has seven tax brackets that determine state income tax rates, which range from 1.4% (for income below $20,000) to 8.97% (for income above $500,000).The standard sales tax rate as of January 1, 2018, is 6.625%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. This rate, which is comparably lower than that of New York City, often attracts numerous shoppers from New York City, often to suburban Paramus, New Jersey, which has five malls, one of which (the Garden State Plaza) has over of retail space. Tax exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medications, most clothing, footwear and disposable paper products for use in the home. There are 27 Urban Enterprise Zone statewide, including sections of Paterson, Elizabeth, and Jersey City. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half the rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.New Jersey has the highest cumulative tax rate of all 50 states with residents paying a total of $68 billion in state and local taxes annually with a per capita burden of $7,816 at a rate of 12.9% of income. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax.New Jersey consistently ranks as having one of the highest proportional levels of disparity of any state in the United States, based upon what it receives from the federal government relative to what it gives. In 2015, WalletHub ranked New Jersey the state least dependent upon federal government aid overall and having the fourth lowest return on taxpayer investment from the federal government, at 48 cents per dollar.New Jersey has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas.New Jersey's economy is multifaceted, but is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, information technology, the financial industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing, publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. New Jersey ranks second among states in blueberry production, third in cranberries and spinach, and fourth in bell peppers, peaches, and head lettuce. The state harvests the fourth-largest number of acres planted with asparagus.Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the state's use of nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey's electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of state generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country.New Jersey has a strong scientific economy and is home to major pharmaceutical and telecommunications firms, drawing on the state's large and well-educated labor pool. There is also a strong service economy in retail sales, education, and real estate, serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Thomas Edison invented the first electric light bulb at his home in Menlo Park, Edison in 1879. New Jersey is also a key participant in the renewable wind industry.Shipping is a key industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic geographic location, the Port of New York and New Jersey being the busiest port on the East Coast. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and today is one of the world's largest.New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus in Bergen County has become the top retail ZIP code (07652) in the United States, with the municipality generating over US$6 billion in annual retail sales. Several New Jersey counties, including Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), and Monmouth (42), have been ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States.New Jersey's location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis and its extensive transportation system have put over one-third of all United States residents and many Canadian residents within overnight distance by land. This accessibility to consumer revenue has enabled seaside resorts such as Atlantic City and the remainder of the Jersey Shore, as well as the state's other natural and cultural attractions, to contribute significantly to the record 111 million tourist visits to New Jersey in 2018, providing US$44.7 billion in tourism revenue, directly supporting 333,860 jobs, sustaining more than 531,000 jobs overall including peripheral impacts, and generating US$5 billion in state and local tax revenue.In 1976, a referendum of New Jersey voters approved casino gambling in Atlantic City, where the first legalized casino opened in 1978. At that time, Las Vegas was the only other casino resort in the country. Today, several casinos lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the first and longest boardwalk in the world. Atlantic City experienced a dramatic contraction in its stature as a gambling destination after 2010, including the closure of multiple casinos since 2014, spurred by competition from the advent of legalized gambling in other northeastern U.S. states. On February 26, 2013, Governor Chris Christie signed online gambling into law. Sports betting has become a growing source of gambling revenue in New Jersey since being legalized across the nation by the U.S. Supreme Court on May 14, 2018.Forests cover 45%, or approximately 2.1 million acres, of New Jersey's land area. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. The Pine Barrens, consisting of pine forests, is in the southern part of the state.Some mining activity of zinc, iron, and manganese still takes place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace.New Jersey is second in the nation in solar power installations, enabled by one of the country's most favorable net metering policies, and the renewable energy certificates program. The state has more than 10,000 solar installations.As of 2010, there were 605 school districts in the state.Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase college admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg retracted this plan when criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative.In 2010, the state government paid all teachers' premiums for health insurance, but currently all NJ public teachers pay a portion of their own health insurance premiums.New Jersey is known for the quality of its education. In 2015, the state spent more per each public school student than any other U.S. state except New York, Alaska, and Connecticut, amounting to $18,235 spent per pupil; over 50% of the expenditure was allocated to student instruction.According to 2011 "Newsweek" statistics, students of High Technology High School in Lincroft, Monmouth County and Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, Bergen County registered average SAT scores of 2145 and 2100, respectively, representing the second- and third-highest scores, respectively, of all listed U.S. high schools.Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2020 list of "U.S. News & World Report". In 2013, Rutgers University, headquartered in New Brunswick, Middlesex County as the flagship institution of higher education in New Jersey, regained medical and dental schools, augmenting its profile as a national research university as well.In 2014, New Jersey's school systems were ranked at the top of all fifty U.S. states by financial website Wallethub.com. In 2018, New Jersey's overall educational system was ranked second among all states to Massachusetts by "U.S. News & World Report". In both 2019 and 2020, "Education Week" also ranked New Jersey public schools the best of all U.S. states.Nine New Jersey high schools were ranked among the top 25 in the U.S. on the "Newsweek" "America's Top High Schools 2016" list, more than from any other state. A 2017 UCLA Civil Rights project found that New Jersey has the sixth-most segregated classrooms in the United States.New Jersey has continued to play a prominent role as a U.S. cultural nexus. Like every state, New Jersey has its own cuisine, religious communities, museums, and .New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon, the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone.Diners are iconic to New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has over 600 diners, more than any other place in the world.New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey state song, but it was not even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature.New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), sloppy joe sandwiches, tomato pies, and Texas wieners.Several states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey.New Jersey has long been an important origin for both rock and rap music. Prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey include:New Jersey currently has six teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although one Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify themselves as being from the New York metropolitan area.The National Hockey League's New Jersey Devils, based in Newark at the Prudential Center, is the only major league sports franchise to bear the state's name. Founded in 1974 in Kansas City, Missouri, as the Kansas City Scouts, the team played in Denver, Colorado, as the Colorado Rockies from 1976 until the spring of 1982 when naval architect, businessman, and Jersey City native John J. McMullen purchased, renamed, and moved the franchise to Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. While the team had mostly losing records in Kansas City, Denver, and its first years in New Jersey, the Devils began to improve in the late 1980s and early 1990s under Hall of Fame president and general manager Lou Lamoriello. The team made the playoffs for the Stanley Cup in 2001 and 2012, and won it in 1995, 2000, and 2003. The organization is the youngest of the nine major league teams in the New York metropolitan area. The Devils have established a following throughout the northern and central portions of the state, carving a place in a media market once dominated by the New York Rangers and Islanders.In 2018, the Philadelphia Flyers renovated and expanded their training facility, the Virtua Center Flyers Skate Zone, in Voorhees Township in the southern portion of the state.The New York Metropolitan Area's two National Football League teams, the New York Giants and the New York Jets, play at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. Built for about $1.6 billion, the venue is the most expensive stadium ever built. On February 2, 2014, MetLife Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLVIII.The New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer play in Red Bull Arena, a soccer-specific stadium in Harrison across the Passaic River from downtown Newark. On July 27, 2011, Red Bull Arena hosted the 2011 MLS All-Star Game.From 1977 to 2012, New Jersey had a National Basketball Association team, the New Jersey Nets. WNBA's New York Liberty played in New Jersey from 2011 to 2013 while their primary home arena, Madison Square Garden was undergoing renovations. In 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA opened their new headquarters and training facility, the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex, in Camden.The Meadowlands Sports Complex is home to the Meadowlands Racetrack, one of three major harness racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack and Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport is a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation.New Jerseyans' collegiate allegiances are predominantly split among the three major NCAA Division I programs in the state: the Rutgers University (New Jersey's flagship state university) Scarlet Knights, members of the Big Ten Conference; the Seton Hall University (the state's largest Catholic university) Pirates, members of the Big East Conference; and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers.The intense rivalry between Rutgers and Princeton athletics began with the first intercollegiate football game in 1869. The schools have not met on the football field since 1980, but they continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities.Rutgers, which fields 24 teams in various sports, is nationally known for its football program, with a 6–4 all-time bowl record; and its women's basketball programs, which appeared in a National Final in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, Rutgers expanded their football home, Rutgers Stadium, now called SHI Stadium, on the Busch Campus. The basketball teams play at the Rutgers Athletic Center on Livingston Campus. Both venues and campuses are in Piscataway, across the Raritan River from New Brunswick. The university also fields men's basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fans live mostly in the western parts of the state and Middlesex County; its alumni base is the largest in the state.Rutgers' satellite campuses in Camden and Newark each field their own athletic programs—the Rutgers–Camden Scarlet Raptors and the Rutgers–Newark Scarlet Raiders—which both compete in NCAA Division III.Seton Hall fields no football team, but its men's basketball team is one of the Big East's storied programs. No New Jersey team has won more games in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, and it is the state's only men's basketball program to reach a modern National Final. The Pirates play their home games at Prudential Center in downtown Newark, about from the university's South Orange campus. Their fans hail largely from in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. The annual inter-conference rivalry game between Seton Hall and Rutgers, whose venue alternates between Newark and Piscataway, the Garden State Hardwood Classic, is planned through 2026.The state's other Division I schools include the Monmouth University Hawks (West Long Branch), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Highlanders (Newark), the Rider University Broncs (Lawrenceville), and the Saint Peter's University Peacocks and Peahens (Jersey City).Fairleigh Dickinson University competes in both Division I and Division III. It has two campuses, each with its own sports teams. The teams at the Metropolitan Campus are known as the FDU Knights, and compete in the Northeast Conference and NCAA Division I. The college at Florham (FDU-Florham) teams are known as the FDU-Florham Devils and compete in the Middle Atlantic Conferences' Freedom Conference and NCAA Division III.Among the various Division III schools in the state, the Stevens Institute of Technology Ducks have fielded the longest continuously running collegiate men's lacrosse program in the country. 2009 marked the 125th season.New Jersey high schools are divided into divisions under the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA).' Founded in 1918, the NJSIAA currently represents 22,000 schools, 330,000 coaches, and almost 4.5 million athletes.Motion picture technology was developed by Thomas Edison, with much of his early work done at his West Orange laboratory. Edison's Black Maria was the first motion picture studio. America's first motion picture industry started in 1907 in Fort Lee and the first studio was constructed there in 1909. DuMont Laboratories in Passaic developed early sets and made the first broadcast to the private home.A number of television shows and films have been filmed in New Jersey. Since 1978, the state has maintained a Motion Picture and Television Commission to encourage filming in-state. New Jersey has long offered tax credits to television producers. Governor Chris Christie suspended the credits in 2010, but the New Jersey State Legislature in 2011 approved the restoration and expansion of the tax credit program. Under bills passed by both the state Senate and Assembly, the program offers 20 percent tax credits (22% in urban enterprise zones) to television and film productions that shoot in the state and meet set standards for hiring and local spending. When Governor Phil Murphy took office, he instated the New Jersey Film & Digital Media Tax Credit Program in 2018 and expanded it in 2020. The benefits include a 30% tax credit on film projects and a 40% subsidy for studio developments.The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the most prominent and heavily trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road, which overlaps with Interstate 95 for much of its length, carries traffic between Delaware and New York, and up and down the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike", it is known for its numerous rest areas named after prominent New Jerseyans.The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway", carries relatively more in-state traffic than interstate traffic and runs from New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May. It is the main route that connects the New York metropolitan area to the Jersey Shore. With a total of fifteen travel and six shoulder lanes, the Driscoll Bridge on the Parkway, spanning the Raritan River in Middlesex County, is the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world by number of lanes as well as one of the busiest.New Jersey is connected to New York City via various key bridges and tunnels. The double-decked George Washington Bridge carries the heaviest load of motor vehicle traffic of any bridge in the world, at 102 million vehicles per year, across fourteen lanes. It connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and carries Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1/9 across the Hudson River. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan carrying New Jersey Route 495, and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan carrying Interstate 78. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges—from north to south, the Bayonne Bridge, the Goethals Bridge, and the Outerbridge Crossing.New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three of its neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes in and out of the state. Bridge tolls are collected only from traffic exiting the state, with the exception of the private Dingman's Ferry Bridge over the Delaware River, which charges a toll in both directions.It is unlawful for a customer to serve themselves gasoline in New Jersey. It became the last remaining U.S. state where all gas stations are required to sell full-service gasoline to customers at all times in 2016, after Oregon's introduction of restricted self-service gasoline availability took effect.Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it is one of the three main airports serving the New York metropolitan area. United Airlines is the airport's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal there, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo terminal at EWR as well. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to Amtrak and NJ Transit trains along the Northeast Corridor Line.Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and rapidly growing Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of the state. Teterboro Airport in Bergen County, and Millville Municipal Airport in Cumberland County, are general aviation airports popular with private and corporate aircraft due to their proximity to New York City and the Jersey Shore, respectively.NJ Transit operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. A state-run corporation, it began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey in 1979. In the early 1980s, it acquired Conrail's commuter train operations that connected suburban towns to New York City. Today, NJ Transit has eleven commuter rail lines that run through different parts of the state. Most of the lines end at either Penn Station in New York City or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. One line provides service between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.NJ Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, through Hoboken and Jersey City. The Newark Light Rail is partially underground, and connects downtown Newark with other parts of the city and its suburbs, Belleville and Bloomfield. The River Line connects Trenton and Camden.The PATH is a rapid transit system consisting of four lines operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit system that links Camden County to Philadelphia. Both the PATCO and the PATH are two of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to operate 24 hours a day.Amtrak operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey, both to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Transit Center, Metropark, and the historic Newark Penn Station.The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, or SEPTA, has two commuter rail lines that operate into New Jersey. The Trenton Line terminates at the Trenton Transit Center, and the West Trenton Line terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing.AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots.Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers, of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City.New York Waterway has ferry terminals at Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, and Edgewater, with service to different parts of Manhattan. Liberty Water Taxi in Jersey City has ferries from Paulus Hook and Liberty State Park to Battery Park City in Manhattan. Statue Cruises offers service from Liberty State Park to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, including Ellis Island. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket.The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May–Lewes Ferry on Delaware Bay, carrying both passengers and vehicles between New Jersey and Delaware. The agency also operates the Forts Ferry Crossing for passengers across the Delaware River. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia.The position of Governor of New Jersey has been considered one of the most powerful in the nation. Until 2010, the governor was the only statewide elected executive official in the state and appointed numerous government officials. Formerly, an acting governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, president of the state senate Richard Codey held the position of acting governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term acting governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming acting governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. Phil Murphy (D) is the governor. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton.Before 2010, New Jersey was one of the few states without a lieutenant governor. Republican Kim Guadagno was elected the first lieutenant governor of New Jersey and took office on January 19, 2010. She was elected on the Republican ticket with Governor-Elect Chris Christie in the November 2009 NJ gubernatorial election. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005, and effective as of January 17, 2006.The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one state senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; state senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms.New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every four years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a governor was 2017; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2021.The New Jersey Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. All are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70.Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Court, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard.More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level; the Law Division hears both criminal cases and civil lawsuits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is damages, while the Chancery Division hears family cases, civil suits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is equitable relief, and probate trials.The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice.There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships.New Jersey is divided into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders", governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members.Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other five counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions.New Jersey currently has 565 municipalities; the number was 566 before Princeton Township and Princeton Borough merged to form the municipality of Princeton on January 1, 2013. Unlike other states, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation.Starting in the 20th century, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a three- or five-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced a Council-manager government structure with an appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs.The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature.While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially of the village type, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The other three villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter) and South Orange (now operates under a Special Charter)—have all migrated to other non-village forms.Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the more liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate that 60% of the population are self-described as pro-choice, although a majority are opposed to late trimester and intact dilation and extraction and public funding of abortion. In a 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed, On October 18, 2013, the New Jersey Supreme Court rendered a provisional, unanimous (7–0) order authorizing same-sex marriage in the state, pending a legal appeal by Governor Chris Christie, who then withdrew this appeal hours after the inaugural same-sex marriages took place on October 21, 2013.New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black-powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws.In past elections, New Jersey was a Republican bastion, but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats have majority control of both houses of the New Jersey Legislature (Senate, 26–14, and Assembly, 54–26), a 10–2 split of the state's twelve seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, and both U.S. Senate seats. Although the Democratic Party is very successful statewide, the state has had Republican governors; from 1994 to 2002, Christine Todd Whitman won twice with 47% and 49% of the votes, respectively, and in the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie defeated incumbent Democrat Jon Corzine with 48% of the vote. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Christie won reelection with over 60% of the votes. Because each candidate for lieutenant governor runs on the same ticket as the party's candidate for governor, the current governor and lieutenant governor are members of the Democratic Party. The governor's appointments to cabinet and non-cabinet positions may be from either party; for instance, the attorney general is a Democrat.In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. For many years in the past, however, it was a Republican stronghold, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. Newark Mayor Cory Booker was elected in October 2013 to join Robert Menendez to make New Jersey the first state with concurrent serving black and Latino U.S. senators.The state's Democratic strongholds include Camden County, Essex County (typically the state's most Democratic county—it includes Newark, the state's largest city), Hudson County (the second-strongest Democratic county, including Jersey City, the state's second-largest city); Mercer County (especially around Trenton and Princeton), Middlesex County, and Union County (including Elizabeth, the state's fourth-largest city).The suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have support along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Morris County, Sussex County, and Warren County. Other suburban counties, especially Bergen County and Burlington County had the majority of votes go to the Democratic Party. In the 2008 election, President Barack Obama won New Jersey with approximately fifty-seven percent of the vote, compared to McCain's forty-one percent. Independent candidate Ralph Nader garnered less than one percent of the vote.About one-third of the state's counties are considered "swing" counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Salem County, the same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south (including Paterson, the state's third-largest city) and a rural, Republican north; with the "swing" township of Wayne in the middle. Other "swing" counties like Monmouth County, Somerset County, and Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas, although Somerset has recently trended Democratic.To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 21 days prior to election day.On December 17, 2007, Governor Jon Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Corzine also signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole".There is also a mineral museum Ogdensburg in Sussex County.Visitors and residents take advantage of and contribute to performances at the numerous music, theater, and dance companies and venues located throughout the state, including:New Jersey is the location of most of the boardwalks in the U.S., with nearly every town and city along the Jersey Shore area each having a boardwalk with various attractions, entertainment, shopping, dining, miniature golf, arcades, water parks with various water rides, including water slides, lazy rivers, wave pools, etc., and amusement parks hosting rides and attractions including roller coasters, carousels, Ferris wheels, bumper cars, teacups, etc.
|
[
"William Livingston",
"A. Harry Moore",
"Rodman McCamley Price",
"William Sanford Pennington",
"Charles Creighton Stratton",
"Leon Rutherford Taylor",
"Jon Corzine",
"George C. Ludlow",
"Donald DiFrancesco",
"Clarence Edwards Case",
"Charles Edison",
"Leon Abbett",
"Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr.",
"David Ogden Watkins",
"Brendan Byrne",
"Richard Joseph Hughes",
"Samuel L. Southard",
"Horace Griggs Prall",
"Chris Christie",
"Peter Dumont Vroom",
"Elias P. Seeley",
"Joseph Bloomfield",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"Thomas Henderson",
"Aaron Ogden",
"Morgan Foster Larson",
"Clifford Ross Powell",
"Jim McGreevey",
"Theodore Fitz Randolph",
"James Fairman Fielder",
"Joseph D. Bedle",
"Foster McGowan Voorhees",
"Robert Stockton Green",
"Mahlon Dickerson",
"Franklin Murphy",
"William Nelson Runyon",
"George Sebastian Silzer",
"Harold Giles Hoffman",
"Joel Parker",
"Edward Irving Edwards",
"Edward C. Stokes",
"William Thomas Cahill",
"Thomas Kean",
"John Orus Bennett III",
"Walter Evans Edge",
"Alfred Eastlack Driscoll",
"Charles Smith Olden",
"Christine Todd Whitman",
"James Florio",
"John W. Griggs",
"John Lambert",
"Isaac Halstead Williamson",
"Robert Baumle Meyner",
"William Pennington",
"George Franklin Fort",
"William A. Newell",
"Phil Murphy",
"George Theodore Werts",
"William Paterson",
"John Franklin Fort",
"Richard Codey",
"Philemon Dickerson"
] |
|
Who was the head of New Jersey in 02/07/1879?
|
July 02, 1879
|
{
"text": [
"George Brinton McClellan"
]
}
|
L2_Q1408_P6_23
|
Horace Griggs Prall is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Morgan Foster Larson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1932.
Philemon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1836 to Oct, 1837.
Walter Evans Edge is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1917 to May, 1919.
George Theodore Werts is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1896.
Phil Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
Peter Dumont Vroom is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1829 to Oct, 1832.
Charles Creighton Stratton is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1845 to Jan, 1848.
Brendan Byrne is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1982.
Harold Giles Hoffman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1938.
Joel Parker is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1863 to Jan, 1866.
George Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1851 to Jan, 1854.
Clarence Edwards Case is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1920.
Mahlon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1815 to Feb, 1817.
Donald DiFrancesco is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
John Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1911.
Charles Edison is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1944.
Isaac Halstead Williamson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1817 to Oct, 1829.
Robert Stockton Green is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1890.
William Nelson Runyon is the head of the government of New Jersey from May, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Chris Christie is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
John Lambert is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1802 to Oct, 1803.
George Brinton McClellan is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1878 to Jan, 1881.
Robert Baumle Meyner is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1962.
Joseph Bloomfield is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1801 to Oct, 1802.
Thomas Henderson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1793 to Jun, 1793.
Richard Joseph Hughes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1970.
Edward C. Stokes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1908.
Franklin Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1905.
Christine Todd Whitman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 2001.
Leon Rutherford Taylor is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1913 to Jan, 1914.
Woodrow Wilson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1911 to Mar, 1913.
Charles Smith Olden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1863.
Foster McGowan Voorhees is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1898 to Oct, 1898.
Edward Irving Edwards is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1923.
John Orus Bennett III is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
William Thomas Cahill is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1974.
William Livingston is the head of the government of New Jersey from Aug, 1776 to Jul, 1790.
Aaron Ogden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1812 to Oct, 1813.
Joseph D. Bedle is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1878.
Elias P. Seeley is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1833 to Oct, 1833.
Clifford Ross Powell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
William A. Newell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1860.
William Paterson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1790 to Mar, 1793.
Theodore Fitz Randolph is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.
William Sanford Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1813 to Jun, 1815.
Samuel L. Southard is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1832 to Feb, 1833.
Thomas Kean is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
John W. Griggs is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1898.
James Fairman Fielder is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1913 to Oct, 1913.
David Ogden Watkins is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1898 to Jan, 1899.
Alfred Eastlack Driscoll is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1954.
Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr. is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1869.
A. Harry Moore is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1929.
Rodman McCamley Price is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1854 to Jan, 1857.
William Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1837 to Oct, 1843.
Leon Abbett is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1884 to Jan, 1887.
Richard Codey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Jim McGreevey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2004.
George C. Ludlow is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1881 to Jan, 1884.
Jon Corzine is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
George Sebastian Silzer is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1926.
James Florio is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
|
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania; and on the southwest by Delaware Bay and the state of Delaware. New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous, with 9,288,994 residents as of 2020 and an area of , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. New Jersey's state capital is Trenton, while the state's most populous city is Newark. All but one county in New Jersey (Warren County) lie within the combined statistical areas of New York City or Philadelphia; consequently, the state's largest metropolitan area falls within Greater New York.New Jersey was first inhabited by Native Americans for at least 2,800 years, with the Lenape being the dominant group by the time Europeans arrived in the early 17th century. Dutch and the Swedish colonists founded the first European settlements in the state. The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey—after the largest of the Channel Islands, Jersey—and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in the "Big Six" cities of Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Elizabeth helped drive the nation's Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's central location in the Northeast megalopolis fueled its rapid growth and suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century. At the turn of the 21st century, the state's economy increasingly diversified, while its multicultural populace began reverting toward more urban settings within the state, outpacing the growth in suburbs since 2008.As of 2020, New Jersey was home to the highest number of millionaires per capita of all U.S. states, with 9.76% of households—more than 323,000 of 3.3 million statewide—meeting the criteria. Based on 2017 data, it was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income. New Jersey's public school system consistently ranks at or among the top among all fifty U.S. states.Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges.New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact. "" is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade.The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch West India Company policy required its colonists to purchase the land that they settled. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen. Peter Minuit's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. The entire region became a territory of England on June 24, 1664, after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is now New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam, annexing the entire province.During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in Saint Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey.Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775.Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill—settlers came primarily from New York and New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England, who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. (William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time.) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702, at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England.In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor, rather than a proprietary one. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land. In 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738.New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the State Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times, and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the American Revolution". The winter quarters of the Continental Army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which has been called "The Military Capital of the American Revolution.“On the night of December 25–26, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River. After the crossing, they surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, the Americans made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3, 1777. Emanuel Leutze's painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware" became an icon of the Revolution.American forces under Washington met the British forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778. The Americans attempted to take the British column by surprise. When the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. Their ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges.In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war.On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights.The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property separately from their husbands. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors", whether entitled to vote or not; on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal "white male" suffrage, excluding paupers; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution.On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population. By the close of the Civil War, about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage. New Jersey voters eventually ratified the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States' black population.Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey's growing industries in Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the state senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision "Baker v. Carr". While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself.New Jersey was one of the few Union states (the others being Delaware and Kentucky) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan, a native Philadelphian, had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time; he later became Governor of New Jersey (1878–81). (In New Jersey, the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860.) During the American Civil War, the state was led first by Republican governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. During the course of the war, between 65,000 and 80,000 soldiers from the state enlisted in the Union army; unlike many states, including some Northern ones, no battle was fought there.In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the United States. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey.Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century. Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry. Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine.New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927, and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS "Morro Castle" beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea.Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially naval construction. The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company yards in Kearny and Newark and the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yard in Camden produced aircraft carriers, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fifth among the 48 states. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Camp Merritt (1917) and Camp Kilmer (1941) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike missile stations were constructed for the defense of the New York City and Philadelphia areas. "PT-109", a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden.In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In 1959, Air Defense Command deployed the CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missile to McGuire Air Force Base. On June 7, 1960, an explosion in a CIM-10 Bomarc missile fuel tank caused the accident and subsequent plutonium contamination.In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably, the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976. Prior to this bill, the state had no income tax.In the early part of the 2000s, two light rail systems were opened: the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton. The intent of these projects was to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey, respectively. The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular. Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century. As of 2014, Jersey City's Census-estimated population was 262,146, with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010, representing an increase of 5.9% from the 2010 United States Census, when the city's population was enumerated at 247,597. Between 2000 and 2010, Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s.The state of New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York (parts of which are across the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, and the Arthur Kill); on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. This is New Jersey's only straight border.New Jersey is often broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South.Within those regions are five distinct areas, based upon natural geography and population concentration. Northeastern New Jersey lies closest to Manhattan in New York City, and up to a million residents commute daily into the city for work, many via public transportation. Northwestern New Jersey is more wooded, rural, and mountainous. The Jersey Shore, along the Atlantic Coast in Central and South Jersey, has its own unique natural, residential, and cultural characteristics owing to its location by the ocean. The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state, which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. The Pine Barrens region is in the southern interior of New Jersey; covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, this region has a lower population density than most of the rest of the state.The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, with 16 counties included in either the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area. New Jersey is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis.High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the state's highest elevation, at above sea level. The state's highest prominence is Kitty Ann Mountain in Morris County, rising . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the west side of the Hudson River, in Bergen and Hudson Counties. Major New Jersey rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Due to New Jersey's peninsular geography, both sunrise and sunset are visible over water from different points on the Jersey Shore.There are two climatic conditions in the state. The south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate (microthermal), with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation. New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Climate change is affecting New Jersey faster than much of the rest of the United States. As of 2019, New Jersey was one of the fastest-warming states in the nation. Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of and lows of ; however, temperatures exceed on average 25 days each summer, exceeding in some years. Winters are usually cold, with average high temperatures of and lows of for most of the state, but temperatures can, for brief periods, fall below and sometimes rise above . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub- being an almost annual occurrence. Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations, with lower humidity than summer. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from6 in the northwest of the state, to 7B near Cape May. All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10, 1936, in Runyon, Middlesex County and on January 5, 1904, in River Vale, Bergen County.Average annual precipitation ranges from , uniformly spread through the year. Average snowfall per winter season ranges from in the south and near the seacoast, in the northeast and central part of the state, to about in the northwestern highlands, but this often varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms, most of which occur during the summer.During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters", which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999), tornadoes, and earthquakes are rare, although New Jersey was impacted by a hurricane in 1903, and Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state with top winds of .For its overall population and nation-leading population density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. This paradox is most pronounced in Bergen County, New Jersey's most populous county, whose more than 930,000 residents in 2019 inhabited 70 municipalities, the most populous being Hackensack, with 44,522 residents estimated in 2018. Many urban areas extend far beyond the limits of a single large city, as New Jersey cities (and indeed municipalities in general) tend to be geographically small; three of the four largest cities in New Jersey by population have under of land area, and eight of the top ten, including all of the top five have land area under . , only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000, although Edison and Woodbridge came very close.The United States Census Bureau tabulated in the 2020 United States census that the population of New Jersey was 9,288,994 on April 1, 2020, a 5.7% increase since the 2010 United States census. Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or, less commonly, as "New Jerseyites". At the 2010 census, there were 8,791,894 people living in the state. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the state was: 68.6% White American, 13.7% African American, 8.3% Asian American, 0.3% Native American, 2.7% Multiracial American, and 6.4% other races. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9% of the population in 2011, down from 85% in 1970. In 2010, 17.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).In 2010, unauthorized immigrants constituted an estimated 6.2% of the population. This was the fourth-highest percentage of any state in the country. There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010. Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Camden, Jersey City and Newark.As of 2010, New Jersey was the eleventh-most populous state in the United States, and the most densely populated, at 1,185 residents per square mile (458 per km), with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City, Philadelphia, and along the eastern Jersey Shore, while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall. It was also the second wealthiest state by median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike.New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers "per square mile" than anywhere else in the world.On October 21, 2013, same-sex marriages commenced in New Jersey.New Jersey is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse states in the United States. As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. The state has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percentage (after Michigan); the largest population of Peruvians in the United States; the largest population of Cubans outside of Florida; the third highest Asian population by percentage; and the second highest Italian population, according to the 2000 Census. African Americans, Hispanics (Puerto Ricans and Dominicans), West Indians, Arabs, and Brazilian and Portuguese Americans are also high in number. New Jersey has the third highest Asian Indian population of any state by absolute numbers and the highest by percentage, with Bergen County home to America's largest Malayali community. Overall, New Jersey has the third largest Korean population, with Bergen County home to the highest Korean concentration per capita of any U.S. county (6.9% in 2011). New Jersey also has the fourth largest Filipino population, and fourth largest Chinese population, per the 2010 U.S. Census. The five largest ethnic groups in 2000 were: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%).India Square, in Bombay, Jersey City, Hudson County, is home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, Central New Jersey, particularly Edison and surrounding Middlesex County, is prominently known for its significant concentration of Asian Indians. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville in 2014, a BAPS temple. The growing Little India is a South Asian-focused commercial strip in Middlesex County, the U.S. county with the highest concentration of Asian Indians. The Oak Tree Road strip runs for about through Edison and neighboring Iselin in Woodbridge Township, near the area's sprawling Chinatown and Koreatown, running along New Jersey Route 27. It is the largest and most diverse South Asian cultural hub in the United States. Carteret's Punjabi Sikh community, variously estimated at upwards of 3,000, is the largest concentration of Sikhs in the state. Monroe Township in Middlesex County has experienced a particularly rapid growth rate in its Indian American population, with an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, which was 23 times the 256 (0.9%) counted as of the 2000 Census; and Diwali is celebrated by the township as a Hindu holiday. In Middlesex County, election ballots are printed in English, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi.Newark was the fourth poorest of U.S. cities with over 250,000 residents in 2008, but New Jersey as a whole had the second-highest median household income as of 2014. This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area.In 2010, 6.2% of its population was reported as under age 5, 23.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older; and females made up approximately 51.3% of the population.A study by the Pew Research Center found that in 2013, New Jersey was the only U.S. state in which immigrants born in India constituted the largest foreign-born nationality, representing roughly 10% of all foreign-born residents in the state.For further information on various ethnoracial groups and neighborhoods prominently featured within New Jersey, see the following articles:As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's population younger than age1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white)."Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number."As of 2010, 71.31% (5,830,812) of New Jersey residents age5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 14.59% (1,193,261) spoke Spanish, 1.23% (100,217) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.06% (86,849) Italian, 1.06% (86,486) Portuguese, 0.96% (78,627) Tagalog, and Korean was spoken as a main language by 0.89% (73,057) of the population over the age of five. In total, 28.69% (2,345,644) of New Jersey's population age5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.A diverse collection of languages has since evolved amongst the state's population, given that New Jersey has become cosmopolitan and is home to ethnic enclaves of non-English-speaking communities:By number of adherents, the largest denominations in New Jersey, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2010, were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,235,290; Islam with 160,666; and the United Methodist Church with 138,052. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville, Mercer County, in central New Jersey during 2014, a BAPS temple. In January 2018, Gurbir Grewal became the first Sikh American state attorney general in the United States. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's gross state product in the fourth quarter of 2018 was $639.8 billion. New Jersey's estimated taxpayer burden in 2015 was $59,400 per taxpayer. New Jersey is nearly $239 billion in debt.New Jersey's per capita gross state product in 2008 was $54,699, second in the U.S. and above the national per capita gross domestic product of $46,588. Its per capita income was the third highest in the nation with $51,358. In 2020, New Jersey had the highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, approximately 9.76% of households. The state is ranked second in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are among the 100 wealthiest U.S. counties.New Jersey has seven tax brackets that determine state income tax rates, which range from 1.4% (for income below $20,000) to 8.97% (for income above $500,000).The standard sales tax rate as of January 1, 2018, is 6.625%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. This rate, which is comparably lower than that of New York City, often attracts numerous shoppers from New York City, often to suburban Paramus, New Jersey, which has five malls, one of which (the Garden State Plaza) has over of retail space. Tax exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medications, most clothing, footwear and disposable paper products for use in the home. There are 27 Urban Enterprise Zone statewide, including sections of Paterson, Elizabeth, and Jersey City. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half the rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.New Jersey has the highest cumulative tax rate of all 50 states with residents paying a total of $68 billion in state and local taxes annually with a per capita burden of $7,816 at a rate of 12.9% of income. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax.New Jersey consistently ranks as having one of the highest proportional levels of disparity of any state in the United States, based upon what it receives from the federal government relative to what it gives. In 2015, WalletHub ranked New Jersey the state least dependent upon federal government aid overall and having the fourth lowest return on taxpayer investment from the federal government, at 48 cents per dollar.New Jersey has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas.New Jersey's economy is multifaceted, but is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, information technology, the financial industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing, publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. New Jersey ranks second among states in blueberry production, third in cranberries and spinach, and fourth in bell peppers, peaches, and head lettuce. The state harvests the fourth-largest number of acres planted with asparagus.Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the state's use of nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey's electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of state generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country.New Jersey has a strong scientific economy and is home to major pharmaceutical and telecommunications firms, drawing on the state's large and well-educated labor pool. There is also a strong service economy in retail sales, education, and real estate, serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Thomas Edison invented the first electric light bulb at his home in Menlo Park, Edison in 1879. New Jersey is also a key participant in the renewable wind industry.Shipping is a key industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic geographic location, the Port of New York and New Jersey being the busiest port on the East Coast. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and today is one of the world's largest.New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus in Bergen County has become the top retail ZIP code (07652) in the United States, with the municipality generating over US$6 billion in annual retail sales. Several New Jersey counties, including Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), and Monmouth (42), have been ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States.New Jersey's location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis and its extensive transportation system have put over one-third of all United States residents and many Canadian residents within overnight distance by land. This accessibility to consumer revenue has enabled seaside resorts such as Atlantic City and the remainder of the Jersey Shore, as well as the state's other natural and cultural attractions, to contribute significantly to the record 111 million tourist visits to New Jersey in 2018, providing US$44.7 billion in tourism revenue, directly supporting 333,860 jobs, sustaining more than 531,000 jobs overall including peripheral impacts, and generating US$5 billion in state and local tax revenue.In 1976, a referendum of New Jersey voters approved casino gambling in Atlantic City, where the first legalized casino opened in 1978. At that time, Las Vegas was the only other casino resort in the country. Today, several casinos lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the first and longest boardwalk in the world. Atlantic City experienced a dramatic contraction in its stature as a gambling destination after 2010, including the closure of multiple casinos since 2014, spurred by competition from the advent of legalized gambling in other northeastern U.S. states. On February 26, 2013, Governor Chris Christie signed online gambling into law. Sports betting has become a growing source of gambling revenue in New Jersey since being legalized across the nation by the U.S. Supreme Court on May 14, 2018.Forests cover 45%, or approximately 2.1 million acres, of New Jersey's land area. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. The Pine Barrens, consisting of pine forests, is in the southern part of the state.Some mining activity of zinc, iron, and manganese still takes place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace.New Jersey is second in the nation in solar power installations, enabled by one of the country's most favorable net metering policies, and the renewable energy certificates program. The state has more than 10,000 solar installations.As of 2010, there were 605 school districts in the state.Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase college admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg retracted this plan when criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative.In 2010, the state government paid all teachers' premiums for health insurance, but currently all NJ public teachers pay a portion of their own health insurance premiums.New Jersey is known for the quality of its education. In 2015, the state spent more per each public school student than any other U.S. state except New York, Alaska, and Connecticut, amounting to $18,235 spent per pupil; over 50% of the expenditure was allocated to student instruction.According to 2011 "Newsweek" statistics, students of High Technology High School in Lincroft, Monmouth County and Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, Bergen County registered average SAT scores of 2145 and 2100, respectively, representing the second- and third-highest scores, respectively, of all listed U.S. high schools.Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2020 list of "U.S. News & World Report". In 2013, Rutgers University, headquartered in New Brunswick, Middlesex County as the flagship institution of higher education in New Jersey, regained medical and dental schools, augmenting its profile as a national research university as well.In 2014, New Jersey's school systems were ranked at the top of all fifty U.S. states by financial website Wallethub.com. In 2018, New Jersey's overall educational system was ranked second among all states to Massachusetts by "U.S. News & World Report". In both 2019 and 2020, "Education Week" also ranked New Jersey public schools the best of all U.S. states.Nine New Jersey high schools were ranked among the top 25 in the U.S. on the "Newsweek" "America's Top High Schools 2016" list, more than from any other state. A 2017 UCLA Civil Rights project found that New Jersey has the sixth-most segregated classrooms in the United States.New Jersey has continued to play a prominent role as a U.S. cultural nexus. Like every state, New Jersey has its own cuisine, religious communities, museums, and .New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon, the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone.Diners are iconic to New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has over 600 diners, more than any other place in the world.New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey state song, but it was not even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature.New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), sloppy joe sandwiches, tomato pies, and Texas wieners.Several states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey.New Jersey has long been an important origin for both rock and rap music. Prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey include:New Jersey currently has six teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although one Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify themselves as being from the New York metropolitan area.The National Hockey League's New Jersey Devils, based in Newark at the Prudential Center, is the only major league sports franchise to bear the state's name. Founded in 1974 in Kansas City, Missouri, as the Kansas City Scouts, the team played in Denver, Colorado, as the Colorado Rockies from 1976 until the spring of 1982 when naval architect, businessman, and Jersey City native John J. McMullen purchased, renamed, and moved the franchise to Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. While the team had mostly losing records in Kansas City, Denver, and its first years in New Jersey, the Devils began to improve in the late 1980s and early 1990s under Hall of Fame president and general manager Lou Lamoriello. The team made the playoffs for the Stanley Cup in 2001 and 2012, and won it in 1995, 2000, and 2003. The organization is the youngest of the nine major league teams in the New York metropolitan area. The Devils have established a following throughout the northern and central portions of the state, carving a place in a media market once dominated by the New York Rangers and Islanders.In 2018, the Philadelphia Flyers renovated and expanded their training facility, the Virtua Center Flyers Skate Zone, in Voorhees Township in the southern portion of the state.The New York Metropolitan Area's two National Football League teams, the New York Giants and the New York Jets, play at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. Built for about $1.6 billion, the venue is the most expensive stadium ever built. On February 2, 2014, MetLife Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLVIII.The New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer play in Red Bull Arena, a soccer-specific stadium in Harrison across the Passaic River from downtown Newark. On July 27, 2011, Red Bull Arena hosted the 2011 MLS All-Star Game.From 1977 to 2012, New Jersey had a National Basketball Association team, the New Jersey Nets. WNBA's New York Liberty played in New Jersey from 2011 to 2013 while their primary home arena, Madison Square Garden was undergoing renovations. In 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA opened their new headquarters and training facility, the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex, in Camden.The Meadowlands Sports Complex is home to the Meadowlands Racetrack, one of three major harness racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack and Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport is a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation.New Jerseyans' collegiate allegiances are predominantly split among the three major NCAA Division I programs in the state: the Rutgers University (New Jersey's flagship state university) Scarlet Knights, members of the Big Ten Conference; the Seton Hall University (the state's largest Catholic university) Pirates, members of the Big East Conference; and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers.The intense rivalry between Rutgers and Princeton athletics began with the first intercollegiate football game in 1869. The schools have not met on the football field since 1980, but they continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities.Rutgers, which fields 24 teams in various sports, is nationally known for its football program, with a 6–4 all-time bowl record; and its women's basketball programs, which appeared in a National Final in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, Rutgers expanded their football home, Rutgers Stadium, now called SHI Stadium, on the Busch Campus. The basketball teams play at the Rutgers Athletic Center on Livingston Campus. Both venues and campuses are in Piscataway, across the Raritan River from New Brunswick. The university also fields men's basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fans live mostly in the western parts of the state and Middlesex County; its alumni base is the largest in the state.Rutgers' satellite campuses in Camden and Newark each field their own athletic programs—the Rutgers–Camden Scarlet Raptors and the Rutgers–Newark Scarlet Raiders—which both compete in NCAA Division III.Seton Hall fields no football team, but its men's basketball team is one of the Big East's storied programs. No New Jersey team has won more games in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, and it is the state's only men's basketball program to reach a modern National Final. The Pirates play their home games at Prudential Center in downtown Newark, about from the university's South Orange campus. Their fans hail largely from in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. The annual inter-conference rivalry game between Seton Hall and Rutgers, whose venue alternates between Newark and Piscataway, the Garden State Hardwood Classic, is planned through 2026.The state's other Division I schools include the Monmouth University Hawks (West Long Branch), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Highlanders (Newark), the Rider University Broncs (Lawrenceville), and the Saint Peter's University Peacocks and Peahens (Jersey City).Fairleigh Dickinson University competes in both Division I and Division III. It has two campuses, each with its own sports teams. The teams at the Metropolitan Campus are known as the FDU Knights, and compete in the Northeast Conference and NCAA Division I. The college at Florham (FDU-Florham) teams are known as the FDU-Florham Devils and compete in the Middle Atlantic Conferences' Freedom Conference and NCAA Division III.Among the various Division III schools in the state, the Stevens Institute of Technology Ducks have fielded the longest continuously running collegiate men's lacrosse program in the country. 2009 marked the 125th season.New Jersey high schools are divided into divisions under the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA).' Founded in 1918, the NJSIAA currently represents 22,000 schools, 330,000 coaches, and almost 4.5 million athletes.Motion picture technology was developed by Thomas Edison, with much of his early work done at his West Orange laboratory. Edison's Black Maria was the first motion picture studio. America's first motion picture industry started in 1907 in Fort Lee and the first studio was constructed there in 1909. DuMont Laboratories in Passaic developed early sets and made the first broadcast to the private home.A number of television shows and films have been filmed in New Jersey. Since 1978, the state has maintained a Motion Picture and Television Commission to encourage filming in-state. New Jersey has long offered tax credits to television producers. Governor Chris Christie suspended the credits in 2010, but the New Jersey State Legislature in 2011 approved the restoration and expansion of the tax credit program. Under bills passed by both the state Senate and Assembly, the program offers 20 percent tax credits (22% in urban enterprise zones) to television and film productions that shoot in the state and meet set standards for hiring and local spending. When Governor Phil Murphy took office, he instated the New Jersey Film & Digital Media Tax Credit Program in 2018 and expanded it in 2020. The benefits include a 30% tax credit on film projects and a 40% subsidy for studio developments.The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the most prominent and heavily trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road, which overlaps with Interstate 95 for much of its length, carries traffic between Delaware and New York, and up and down the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike", it is known for its numerous rest areas named after prominent New Jerseyans.The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway", carries relatively more in-state traffic than interstate traffic and runs from New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May. It is the main route that connects the New York metropolitan area to the Jersey Shore. With a total of fifteen travel and six shoulder lanes, the Driscoll Bridge on the Parkway, spanning the Raritan River in Middlesex County, is the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world by number of lanes as well as one of the busiest.New Jersey is connected to New York City via various key bridges and tunnels. The double-decked George Washington Bridge carries the heaviest load of motor vehicle traffic of any bridge in the world, at 102 million vehicles per year, across fourteen lanes. It connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and carries Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1/9 across the Hudson River. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan carrying New Jersey Route 495, and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan carrying Interstate 78. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges—from north to south, the Bayonne Bridge, the Goethals Bridge, and the Outerbridge Crossing.New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three of its neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes in and out of the state. Bridge tolls are collected only from traffic exiting the state, with the exception of the private Dingman's Ferry Bridge over the Delaware River, which charges a toll in both directions.It is unlawful for a customer to serve themselves gasoline in New Jersey. It became the last remaining U.S. state where all gas stations are required to sell full-service gasoline to customers at all times in 2016, after Oregon's introduction of restricted self-service gasoline availability took effect.Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it is one of the three main airports serving the New York metropolitan area. United Airlines is the airport's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal there, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo terminal at EWR as well. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to Amtrak and NJ Transit trains along the Northeast Corridor Line.Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and rapidly growing Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of the state. Teterboro Airport in Bergen County, and Millville Municipal Airport in Cumberland County, are general aviation airports popular with private and corporate aircraft due to their proximity to New York City and the Jersey Shore, respectively.NJ Transit operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. A state-run corporation, it began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey in 1979. In the early 1980s, it acquired Conrail's commuter train operations that connected suburban towns to New York City. Today, NJ Transit has eleven commuter rail lines that run through different parts of the state. Most of the lines end at either Penn Station in New York City or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. One line provides service between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.NJ Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, through Hoboken and Jersey City. The Newark Light Rail is partially underground, and connects downtown Newark with other parts of the city and its suburbs, Belleville and Bloomfield. The River Line connects Trenton and Camden.The PATH is a rapid transit system consisting of four lines operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit system that links Camden County to Philadelphia. Both the PATCO and the PATH are two of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to operate 24 hours a day.Amtrak operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey, both to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Transit Center, Metropark, and the historic Newark Penn Station.The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, or SEPTA, has two commuter rail lines that operate into New Jersey. The Trenton Line terminates at the Trenton Transit Center, and the West Trenton Line terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing.AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots.Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers, of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City.New York Waterway has ferry terminals at Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, and Edgewater, with service to different parts of Manhattan. Liberty Water Taxi in Jersey City has ferries from Paulus Hook and Liberty State Park to Battery Park City in Manhattan. Statue Cruises offers service from Liberty State Park to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, including Ellis Island. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket.The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May–Lewes Ferry on Delaware Bay, carrying both passengers and vehicles between New Jersey and Delaware. The agency also operates the Forts Ferry Crossing for passengers across the Delaware River. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia.The position of Governor of New Jersey has been considered one of the most powerful in the nation. Until 2010, the governor was the only statewide elected executive official in the state and appointed numerous government officials. Formerly, an acting governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, president of the state senate Richard Codey held the position of acting governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term acting governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming acting governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. Phil Murphy (D) is the governor. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton.Before 2010, New Jersey was one of the few states without a lieutenant governor. Republican Kim Guadagno was elected the first lieutenant governor of New Jersey and took office on January 19, 2010. She was elected on the Republican ticket with Governor-Elect Chris Christie in the November 2009 NJ gubernatorial election. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005, and effective as of January 17, 2006.The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one state senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; state senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms.New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every four years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a governor was 2017; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2021.The New Jersey Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. All are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70.Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Court, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard.More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level; the Law Division hears both criminal cases and civil lawsuits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is damages, while the Chancery Division hears family cases, civil suits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is equitable relief, and probate trials.The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice.There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships.New Jersey is divided into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders", governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members.Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other five counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions.New Jersey currently has 565 municipalities; the number was 566 before Princeton Township and Princeton Borough merged to form the municipality of Princeton on January 1, 2013. Unlike other states, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation.Starting in the 20th century, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a three- or five-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced a Council-manager government structure with an appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs.The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature.While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially of the village type, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The other three villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter) and South Orange (now operates under a Special Charter)—have all migrated to other non-village forms.Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the more liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate that 60% of the population are self-described as pro-choice, although a majority are opposed to late trimester and intact dilation and extraction and public funding of abortion. In a 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed, On October 18, 2013, the New Jersey Supreme Court rendered a provisional, unanimous (7–0) order authorizing same-sex marriage in the state, pending a legal appeal by Governor Chris Christie, who then withdrew this appeal hours after the inaugural same-sex marriages took place on October 21, 2013.New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black-powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws.In past elections, New Jersey was a Republican bastion, but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats have majority control of both houses of the New Jersey Legislature (Senate, 26–14, and Assembly, 54–26), a 10–2 split of the state's twelve seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, and both U.S. Senate seats. Although the Democratic Party is very successful statewide, the state has had Republican governors; from 1994 to 2002, Christine Todd Whitman won twice with 47% and 49% of the votes, respectively, and in the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie defeated incumbent Democrat Jon Corzine with 48% of the vote. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Christie won reelection with over 60% of the votes. Because each candidate for lieutenant governor runs on the same ticket as the party's candidate for governor, the current governor and lieutenant governor are members of the Democratic Party. The governor's appointments to cabinet and non-cabinet positions may be from either party; for instance, the attorney general is a Democrat.In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. For many years in the past, however, it was a Republican stronghold, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. Newark Mayor Cory Booker was elected in October 2013 to join Robert Menendez to make New Jersey the first state with concurrent serving black and Latino U.S. senators.The state's Democratic strongholds include Camden County, Essex County (typically the state's most Democratic county—it includes Newark, the state's largest city), Hudson County (the second-strongest Democratic county, including Jersey City, the state's second-largest city); Mercer County (especially around Trenton and Princeton), Middlesex County, and Union County (including Elizabeth, the state's fourth-largest city).The suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have support along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Morris County, Sussex County, and Warren County. Other suburban counties, especially Bergen County and Burlington County had the majority of votes go to the Democratic Party. In the 2008 election, President Barack Obama won New Jersey with approximately fifty-seven percent of the vote, compared to McCain's forty-one percent. Independent candidate Ralph Nader garnered less than one percent of the vote.About one-third of the state's counties are considered "swing" counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Salem County, the same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south (including Paterson, the state's third-largest city) and a rural, Republican north; with the "swing" township of Wayne in the middle. Other "swing" counties like Monmouth County, Somerset County, and Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas, although Somerset has recently trended Democratic.To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 21 days prior to election day.On December 17, 2007, Governor Jon Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Corzine also signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole".There is also a mineral museum Ogdensburg in Sussex County.Visitors and residents take advantage of and contribute to performances at the numerous music, theater, and dance companies and venues located throughout the state, including:New Jersey is the location of most of the boardwalks in the U.S., with nearly every town and city along the Jersey Shore area each having a boardwalk with various attractions, entertainment, shopping, dining, miniature golf, arcades, water parks with various water rides, including water slides, lazy rivers, wave pools, etc., and amusement parks hosting rides and attractions including roller coasters, carousels, Ferris wheels, bumper cars, teacups, etc.
|
[
"William Livingston",
"A. Harry Moore",
"Rodman McCamley Price",
"William Sanford Pennington",
"Charles Creighton Stratton",
"Leon Rutherford Taylor",
"Jon Corzine",
"George C. Ludlow",
"Donald DiFrancesco",
"Clarence Edwards Case",
"Charles Edison",
"Leon Abbett",
"Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr.",
"David Ogden Watkins",
"Brendan Byrne",
"Richard Joseph Hughes",
"Samuel L. Southard",
"Horace Griggs Prall",
"Chris Christie",
"Peter Dumont Vroom",
"Elias P. Seeley",
"Joseph Bloomfield",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"Thomas Henderson",
"Aaron Ogden",
"Morgan Foster Larson",
"Clifford Ross Powell",
"Jim McGreevey",
"Theodore Fitz Randolph",
"James Fairman Fielder",
"Joseph D. Bedle",
"Foster McGowan Voorhees",
"Robert Stockton Green",
"Mahlon Dickerson",
"Franklin Murphy",
"William Nelson Runyon",
"George Sebastian Silzer",
"Harold Giles Hoffman",
"Joel Parker",
"Edward Irving Edwards",
"Edward C. Stokes",
"William Thomas Cahill",
"Thomas Kean",
"John Orus Bennett III",
"Walter Evans Edge",
"Alfred Eastlack Driscoll",
"Charles Smith Olden",
"Christine Todd Whitman",
"James Florio",
"John W. Griggs",
"John Lambert",
"Isaac Halstead Williamson",
"Robert Baumle Meyner",
"William Pennington",
"George Franklin Fort",
"William A. Newell",
"Phil Murphy",
"George Theodore Werts",
"William Paterson",
"John Franklin Fort",
"Richard Codey",
"Philemon Dickerson"
] |
|
Who was the head of New Jersey in Jul 02, 1879?
|
July 02, 1879
|
{
"text": [
"George Brinton McClellan"
]
}
|
L2_Q1408_P6_23
|
Horace Griggs Prall is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Morgan Foster Larson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1932.
Philemon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1836 to Oct, 1837.
Walter Evans Edge is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1917 to May, 1919.
George Theodore Werts is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1896.
Phil Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
Peter Dumont Vroom is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1829 to Oct, 1832.
Charles Creighton Stratton is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1845 to Jan, 1848.
Brendan Byrne is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1982.
Harold Giles Hoffman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1938.
Joel Parker is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1863 to Jan, 1866.
George Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1851 to Jan, 1854.
Clarence Edwards Case is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1920.
Mahlon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1815 to Feb, 1817.
Donald DiFrancesco is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
John Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1911.
Charles Edison is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1944.
Isaac Halstead Williamson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1817 to Oct, 1829.
Robert Stockton Green is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1890.
William Nelson Runyon is the head of the government of New Jersey from May, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Chris Christie is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
John Lambert is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1802 to Oct, 1803.
George Brinton McClellan is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1878 to Jan, 1881.
Robert Baumle Meyner is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1962.
Joseph Bloomfield is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1801 to Oct, 1802.
Thomas Henderson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1793 to Jun, 1793.
Richard Joseph Hughes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1970.
Edward C. Stokes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1908.
Franklin Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1905.
Christine Todd Whitman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 2001.
Leon Rutherford Taylor is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1913 to Jan, 1914.
Woodrow Wilson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1911 to Mar, 1913.
Charles Smith Olden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1863.
Foster McGowan Voorhees is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1898 to Oct, 1898.
Edward Irving Edwards is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1923.
John Orus Bennett III is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
William Thomas Cahill is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1974.
William Livingston is the head of the government of New Jersey from Aug, 1776 to Jul, 1790.
Aaron Ogden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1812 to Oct, 1813.
Joseph D. Bedle is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1878.
Elias P. Seeley is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1833 to Oct, 1833.
Clifford Ross Powell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
William A. Newell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1860.
William Paterson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1790 to Mar, 1793.
Theodore Fitz Randolph is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.
William Sanford Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1813 to Jun, 1815.
Samuel L. Southard is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1832 to Feb, 1833.
Thomas Kean is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
John W. Griggs is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1898.
James Fairman Fielder is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1913 to Oct, 1913.
David Ogden Watkins is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1898 to Jan, 1899.
Alfred Eastlack Driscoll is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1954.
Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr. is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1869.
A. Harry Moore is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1929.
Rodman McCamley Price is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1854 to Jan, 1857.
William Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1837 to Oct, 1843.
Leon Abbett is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1884 to Jan, 1887.
Richard Codey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Jim McGreevey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2004.
George C. Ludlow is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1881 to Jan, 1884.
Jon Corzine is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
George Sebastian Silzer is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1926.
James Florio is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
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New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania; and on the southwest by Delaware Bay and the state of Delaware. New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous, with 9,288,994 residents as of 2020 and an area of , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. New Jersey's state capital is Trenton, while the state's most populous city is Newark. All but one county in New Jersey (Warren County) lie within the combined statistical areas of New York City or Philadelphia; consequently, the state's largest metropolitan area falls within Greater New York.New Jersey was first inhabited by Native Americans for at least 2,800 years, with the Lenape being the dominant group by the time Europeans arrived in the early 17th century. Dutch and the Swedish colonists founded the first European settlements in the state. The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey—after the largest of the Channel Islands, Jersey—and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in the "Big Six" cities of Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Elizabeth helped drive the nation's Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's central location in the Northeast megalopolis fueled its rapid growth and suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century. At the turn of the 21st century, the state's economy increasingly diversified, while its multicultural populace began reverting toward more urban settings within the state, outpacing the growth in suburbs since 2008.As of 2020, New Jersey was home to the highest number of millionaires per capita of all U.S. states, with 9.76% of households—more than 323,000 of 3.3 million statewide—meeting the criteria. Based on 2017 data, it was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income. New Jersey's public school system consistently ranks at or among the top among all fifty U.S. states.Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges.New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact. "" is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade.The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch West India Company policy required its colonists to purchase the land that they settled. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen. Peter Minuit's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. The entire region became a territory of England on June 24, 1664, after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is now New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam, annexing the entire province.During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in Saint Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey.Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775.Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill—settlers came primarily from New York and New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England, who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. (William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time.) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702, at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England.In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor, rather than a proprietary one. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land. In 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738.New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the State Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times, and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the American Revolution". The winter quarters of the Continental Army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which has been called "The Military Capital of the American Revolution.“On the night of December 25–26, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River. After the crossing, they surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, the Americans made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3, 1777. Emanuel Leutze's painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware" became an icon of the Revolution.American forces under Washington met the British forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778. The Americans attempted to take the British column by surprise. When the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. Their ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges.In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war.On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights.The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property separately from their husbands. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors", whether entitled to vote or not; on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal "white male" suffrage, excluding paupers; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution.On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population. By the close of the Civil War, about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage. New Jersey voters eventually ratified the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States' black population.Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey's growing industries in Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the state senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision "Baker v. Carr". While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself.New Jersey was one of the few Union states (the others being Delaware and Kentucky) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan, a native Philadelphian, had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time; he later became Governor of New Jersey (1878–81). (In New Jersey, the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860.) During the American Civil War, the state was led first by Republican governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. During the course of the war, between 65,000 and 80,000 soldiers from the state enlisted in the Union army; unlike many states, including some Northern ones, no battle was fought there.In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the United States. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey.Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century. Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry. Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine.New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927, and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS "Morro Castle" beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea.Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially naval construction. The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company yards in Kearny and Newark and the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yard in Camden produced aircraft carriers, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fifth among the 48 states. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Camp Merritt (1917) and Camp Kilmer (1941) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike missile stations were constructed for the defense of the New York City and Philadelphia areas. "PT-109", a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden.In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In 1959, Air Defense Command deployed the CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missile to McGuire Air Force Base. On June 7, 1960, an explosion in a CIM-10 Bomarc missile fuel tank caused the accident and subsequent plutonium contamination.In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably, the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976. Prior to this bill, the state had no income tax.In the early part of the 2000s, two light rail systems were opened: the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton. The intent of these projects was to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey, respectively. The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular. Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century. As of 2014, Jersey City's Census-estimated population was 262,146, with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010, representing an increase of 5.9% from the 2010 United States Census, when the city's population was enumerated at 247,597. Between 2000 and 2010, Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s.The state of New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York (parts of which are across the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, and the Arthur Kill); on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. This is New Jersey's only straight border.New Jersey is often broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South.Within those regions are five distinct areas, based upon natural geography and population concentration. Northeastern New Jersey lies closest to Manhattan in New York City, and up to a million residents commute daily into the city for work, many via public transportation. Northwestern New Jersey is more wooded, rural, and mountainous. The Jersey Shore, along the Atlantic Coast in Central and South Jersey, has its own unique natural, residential, and cultural characteristics owing to its location by the ocean. The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state, which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. The Pine Barrens region is in the southern interior of New Jersey; covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, this region has a lower population density than most of the rest of the state.The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, with 16 counties included in either the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area. New Jersey is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis.High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the state's highest elevation, at above sea level. The state's highest prominence is Kitty Ann Mountain in Morris County, rising . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the west side of the Hudson River, in Bergen and Hudson Counties. Major New Jersey rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Due to New Jersey's peninsular geography, both sunrise and sunset are visible over water from different points on the Jersey Shore.There are two climatic conditions in the state. The south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate (microthermal), with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation. New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Climate change is affecting New Jersey faster than much of the rest of the United States. As of 2019, New Jersey was one of the fastest-warming states in the nation. Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of and lows of ; however, temperatures exceed on average 25 days each summer, exceeding in some years. Winters are usually cold, with average high temperatures of and lows of for most of the state, but temperatures can, for brief periods, fall below and sometimes rise above . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub- being an almost annual occurrence. Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations, with lower humidity than summer. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from6 in the northwest of the state, to 7B near Cape May. All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10, 1936, in Runyon, Middlesex County and on January 5, 1904, in River Vale, Bergen County.Average annual precipitation ranges from , uniformly spread through the year. Average snowfall per winter season ranges from in the south and near the seacoast, in the northeast and central part of the state, to about in the northwestern highlands, but this often varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms, most of which occur during the summer.During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters", which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999), tornadoes, and earthquakes are rare, although New Jersey was impacted by a hurricane in 1903, and Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state with top winds of .For its overall population and nation-leading population density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. This paradox is most pronounced in Bergen County, New Jersey's most populous county, whose more than 930,000 residents in 2019 inhabited 70 municipalities, the most populous being Hackensack, with 44,522 residents estimated in 2018. Many urban areas extend far beyond the limits of a single large city, as New Jersey cities (and indeed municipalities in general) tend to be geographically small; three of the four largest cities in New Jersey by population have under of land area, and eight of the top ten, including all of the top five have land area under . , only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000, although Edison and Woodbridge came very close.The United States Census Bureau tabulated in the 2020 United States census that the population of New Jersey was 9,288,994 on April 1, 2020, a 5.7% increase since the 2010 United States census. Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or, less commonly, as "New Jerseyites". At the 2010 census, there were 8,791,894 people living in the state. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the state was: 68.6% White American, 13.7% African American, 8.3% Asian American, 0.3% Native American, 2.7% Multiracial American, and 6.4% other races. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9% of the population in 2011, down from 85% in 1970. In 2010, 17.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).In 2010, unauthorized immigrants constituted an estimated 6.2% of the population. This was the fourth-highest percentage of any state in the country. There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010. Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Camden, Jersey City and Newark.As of 2010, New Jersey was the eleventh-most populous state in the United States, and the most densely populated, at 1,185 residents per square mile (458 per km), with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City, Philadelphia, and along the eastern Jersey Shore, while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall. It was also the second wealthiest state by median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike.New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers "per square mile" than anywhere else in the world.On October 21, 2013, same-sex marriages commenced in New Jersey.New Jersey is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse states in the United States. As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. The state has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percentage (after Michigan); the largest population of Peruvians in the United States; the largest population of Cubans outside of Florida; the third highest Asian population by percentage; and the second highest Italian population, according to the 2000 Census. African Americans, Hispanics (Puerto Ricans and Dominicans), West Indians, Arabs, and Brazilian and Portuguese Americans are also high in number. New Jersey has the third highest Asian Indian population of any state by absolute numbers and the highest by percentage, with Bergen County home to America's largest Malayali community. Overall, New Jersey has the third largest Korean population, with Bergen County home to the highest Korean concentration per capita of any U.S. county (6.9% in 2011). New Jersey also has the fourth largest Filipino population, and fourth largest Chinese population, per the 2010 U.S. Census. The five largest ethnic groups in 2000 were: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%).India Square, in Bombay, Jersey City, Hudson County, is home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, Central New Jersey, particularly Edison and surrounding Middlesex County, is prominently known for its significant concentration of Asian Indians. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville in 2014, a BAPS temple. The growing Little India is a South Asian-focused commercial strip in Middlesex County, the U.S. county with the highest concentration of Asian Indians. The Oak Tree Road strip runs for about through Edison and neighboring Iselin in Woodbridge Township, near the area's sprawling Chinatown and Koreatown, running along New Jersey Route 27. It is the largest and most diverse South Asian cultural hub in the United States. Carteret's Punjabi Sikh community, variously estimated at upwards of 3,000, is the largest concentration of Sikhs in the state. Monroe Township in Middlesex County has experienced a particularly rapid growth rate in its Indian American population, with an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, which was 23 times the 256 (0.9%) counted as of the 2000 Census; and Diwali is celebrated by the township as a Hindu holiday. In Middlesex County, election ballots are printed in English, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi.Newark was the fourth poorest of U.S. cities with over 250,000 residents in 2008, but New Jersey as a whole had the second-highest median household income as of 2014. This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area.In 2010, 6.2% of its population was reported as under age 5, 23.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older; and females made up approximately 51.3% of the population.A study by the Pew Research Center found that in 2013, New Jersey was the only U.S. state in which immigrants born in India constituted the largest foreign-born nationality, representing roughly 10% of all foreign-born residents in the state.For further information on various ethnoracial groups and neighborhoods prominently featured within New Jersey, see the following articles:As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's population younger than age1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white)."Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number."As of 2010, 71.31% (5,830,812) of New Jersey residents age5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 14.59% (1,193,261) spoke Spanish, 1.23% (100,217) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.06% (86,849) Italian, 1.06% (86,486) Portuguese, 0.96% (78,627) Tagalog, and Korean was spoken as a main language by 0.89% (73,057) of the population over the age of five. In total, 28.69% (2,345,644) of New Jersey's population age5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.A diverse collection of languages has since evolved amongst the state's population, given that New Jersey has become cosmopolitan and is home to ethnic enclaves of non-English-speaking communities:By number of adherents, the largest denominations in New Jersey, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2010, were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,235,290; Islam with 160,666; and the United Methodist Church with 138,052. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville, Mercer County, in central New Jersey during 2014, a BAPS temple. In January 2018, Gurbir Grewal became the first Sikh American state attorney general in the United States. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's gross state product in the fourth quarter of 2018 was $639.8 billion. New Jersey's estimated taxpayer burden in 2015 was $59,400 per taxpayer. New Jersey is nearly $239 billion in debt.New Jersey's per capita gross state product in 2008 was $54,699, second in the U.S. and above the national per capita gross domestic product of $46,588. Its per capita income was the third highest in the nation with $51,358. In 2020, New Jersey had the highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, approximately 9.76% of households. The state is ranked second in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are among the 100 wealthiest U.S. counties.New Jersey has seven tax brackets that determine state income tax rates, which range from 1.4% (for income below $20,000) to 8.97% (for income above $500,000).The standard sales tax rate as of January 1, 2018, is 6.625%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. This rate, which is comparably lower than that of New York City, often attracts numerous shoppers from New York City, often to suburban Paramus, New Jersey, which has five malls, one of which (the Garden State Plaza) has over of retail space. Tax exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medications, most clothing, footwear and disposable paper products for use in the home. There are 27 Urban Enterprise Zone statewide, including sections of Paterson, Elizabeth, and Jersey City. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half the rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.New Jersey has the highest cumulative tax rate of all 50 states with residents paying a total of $68 billion in state and local taxes annually with a per capita burden of $7,816 at a rate of 12.9% of income. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax.New Jersey consistently ranks as having one of the highest proportional levels of disparity of any state in the United States, based upon what it receives from the federal government relative to what it gives. In 2015, WalletHub ranked New Jersey the state least dependent upon federal government aid overall and having the fourth lowest return on taxpayer investment from the federal government, at 48 cents per dollar.New Jersey has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas.New Jersey's economy is multifaceted, but is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, information technology, the financial industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing, publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. New Jersey ranks second among states in blueberry production, third in cranberries and spinach, and fourth in bell peppers, peaches, and head lettuce. The state harvests the fourth-largest number of acres planted with asparagus.Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the state's use of nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey's electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of state generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country.New Jersey has a strong scientific economy and is home to major pharmaceutical and telecommunications firms, drawing on the state's large and well-educated labor pool. There is also a strong service economy in retail sales, education, and real estate, serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Thomas Edison invented the first electric light bulb at his home in Menlo Park, Edison in 1879. New Jersey is also a key participant in the renewable wind industry.Shipping is a key industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic geographic location, the Port of New York and New Jersey being the busiest port on the East Coast. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and today is one of the world's largest.New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus in Bergen County has become the top retail ZIP code (07652) in the United States, with the municipality generating over US$6 billion in annual retail sales. Several New Jersey counties, including Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), and Monmouth (42), have been ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States.New Jersey's location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis and its extensive transportation system have put over one-third of all United States residents and many Canadian residents within overnight distance by land. This accessibility to consumer revenue has enabled seaside resorts such as Atlantic City and the remainder of the Jersey Shore, as well as the state's other natural and cultural attractions, to contribute significantly to the record 111 million tourist visits to New Jersey in 2018, providing US$44.7 billion in tourism revenue, directly supporting 333,860 jobs, sustaining more than 531,000 jobs overall including peripheral impacts, and generating US$5 billion in state and local tax revenue.In 1976, a referendum of New Jersey voters approved casino gambling in Atlantic City, where the first legalized casino opened in 1978. At that time, Las Vegas was the only other casino resort in the country. Today, several casinos lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the first and longest boardwalk in the world. Atlantic City experienced a dramatic contraction in its stature as a gambling destination after 2010, including the closure of multiple casinos since 2014, spurred by competition from the advent of legalized gambling in other northeastern U.S. states. On February 26, 2013, Governor Chris Christie signed online gambling into law. Sports betting has become a growing source of gambling revenue in New Jersey since being legalized across the nation by the U.S. Supreme Court on May 14, 2018.Forests cover 45%, or approximately 2.1 million acres, of New Jersey's land area. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. The Pine Barrens, consisting of pine forests, is in the southern part of the state.Some mining activity of zinc, iron, and manganese still takes place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace.New Jersey is second in the nation in solar power installations, enabled by one of the country's most favorable net metering policies, and the renewable energy certificates program. The state has more than 10,000 solar installations.As of 2010, there were 605 school districts in the state.Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase college admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg retracted this plan when criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative.In 2010, the state government paid all teachers' premiums for health insurance, but currently all NJ public teachers pay a portion of their own health insurance premiums.New Jersey is known for the quality of its education. In 2015, the state spent more per each public school student than any other U.S. state except New York, Alaska, and Connecticut, amounting to $18,235 spent per pupil; over 50% of the expenditure was allocated to student instruction.According to 2011 "Newsweek" statistics, students of High Technology High School in Lincroft, Monmouth County and Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, Bergen County registered average SAT scores of 2145 and 2100, respectively, representing the second- and third-highest scores, respectively, of all listed U.S. high schools.Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2020 list of "U.S. News & World Report". In 2013, Rutgers University, headquartered in New Brunswick, Middlesex County as the flagship institution of higher education in New Jersey, regained medical and dental schools, augmenting its profile as a national research university as well.In 2014, New Jersey's school systems were ranked at the top of all fifty U.S. states by financial website Wallethub.com. In 2018, New Jersey's overall educational system was ranked second among all states to Massachusetts by "U.S. News & World Report". In both 2019 and 2020, "Education Week" also ranked New Jersey public schools the best of all U.S. states.Nine New Jersey high schools were ranked among the top 25 in the U.S. on the "Newsweek" "America's Top High Schools 2016" list, more than from any other state. A 2017 UCLA Civil Rights project found that New Jersey has the sixth-most segregated classrooms in the United States.New Jersey has continued to play a prominent role as a U.S. cultural nexus. Like every state, New Jersey has its own cuisine, religious communities, museums, and .New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon, the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone.Diners are iconic to New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has over 600 diners, more than any other place in the world.New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey state song, but it was not even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature.New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), sloppy joe sandwiches, tomato pies, and Texas wieners.Several states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey.New Jersey has long been an important origin for both rock and rap music. Prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey include:New Jersey currently has six teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although one Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify themselves as being from the New York metropolitan area.The National Hockey League's New Jersey Devils, based in Newark at the Prudential Center, is the only major league sports franchise to bear the state's name. Founded in 1974 in Kansas City, Missouri, as the Kansas City Scouts, the team played in Denver, Colorado, as the Colorado Rockies from 1976 until the spring of 1982 when naval architect, businessman, and Jersey City native John J. McMullen purchased, renamed, and moved the franchise to Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. While the team had mostly losing records in Kansas City, Denver, and its first years in New Jersey, the Devils began to improve in the late 1980s and early 1990s under Hall of Fame president and general manager Lou Lamoriello. The team made the playoffs for the Stanley Cup in 2001 and 2012, and won it in 1995, 2000, and 2003. The organization is the youngest of the nine major league teams in the New York metropolitan area. The Devils have established a following throughout the northern and central portions of the state, carving a place in a media market once dominated by the New York Rangers and Islanders.In 2018, the Philadelphia Flyers renovated and expanded their training facility, the Virtua Center Flyers Skate Zone, in Voorhees Township in the southern portion of the state.The New York Metropolitan Area's two National Football League teams, the New York Giants and the New York Jets, play at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. Built for about $1.6 billion, the venue is the most expensive stadium ever built. On February 2, 2014, MetLife Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLVIII.The New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer play in Red Bull Arena, a soccer-specific stadium in Harrison across the Passaic River from downtown Newark. On July 27, 2011, Red Bull Arena hosted the 2011 MLS All-Star Game.From 1977 to 2012, New Jersey had a National Basketball Association team, the New Jersey Nets. WNBA's New York Liberty played in New Jersey from 2011 to 2013 while their primary home arena, Madison Square Garden was undergoing renovations. In 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA opened their new headquarters and training facility, the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex, in Camden.The Meadowlands Sports Complex is home to the Meadowlands Racetrack, one of three major harness racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack and Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport is a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation.New Jerseyans' collegiate allegiances are predominantly split among the three major NCAA Division I programs in the state: the Rutgers University (New Jersey's flagship state university) Scarlet Knights, members of the Big Ten Conference; the Seton Hall University (the state's largest Catholic university) Pirates, members of the Big East Conference; and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers.The intense rivalry between Rutgers and Princeton athletics began with the first intercollegiate football game in 1869. The schools have not met on the football field since 1980, but they continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities.Rutgers, which fields 24 teams in various sports, is nationally known for its football program, with a 6–4 all-time bowl record; and its women's basketball programs, which appeared in a National Final in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, Rutgers expanded their football home, Rutgers Stadium, now called SHI Stadium, on the Busch Campus. The basketball teams play at the Rutgers Athletic Center on Livingston Campus. Both venues and campuses are in Piscataway, across the Raritan River from New Brunswick. The university also fields men's basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fans live mostly in the western parts of the state and Middlesex County; its alumni base is the largest in the state.Rutgers' satellite campuses in Camden and Newark each field their own athletic programs—the Rutgers–Camden Scarlet Raptors and the Rutgers–Newark Scarlet Raiders—which both compete in NCAA Division III.Seton Hall fields no football team, but its men's basketball team is one of the Big East's storied programs. No New Jersey team has won more games in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, and it is the state's only men's basketball program to reach a modern National Final. The Pirates play their home games at Prudential Center in downtown Newark, about from the university's South Orange campus. Their fans hail largely from in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. The annual inter-conference rivalry game between Seton Hall and Rutgers, whose venue alternates between Newark and Piscataway, the Garden State Hardwood Classic, is planned through 2026.The state's other Division I schools include the Monmouth University Hawks (West Long Branch), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Highlanders (Newark), the Rider University Broncs (Lawrenceville), and the Saint Peter's University Peacocks and Peahens (Jersey City).Fairleigh Dickinson University competes in both Division I and Division III. It has two campuses, each with its own sports teams. The teams at the Metropolitan Campus are known as the FDU Knights, and compete in the Northeast Conference and NCAA Division I. The college at Florham (FDU-Florham) teams are known as the FDU-Florham Devils and compete in the Middle Atlantic Conferences' Freedom Conference and NCAA Division III.Among the various Division III schools in the state, the Stevens Institute of Technology Ducks have fielded the longest continuously running collegiate men's lacrosse program in the country. 2009 marked the 125th season.New Jersey high schools are divided into divisions under the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA).' Founded in 1918, the NJSIAA currently represents 22,000 schools, 330,000 coaches, and almost 4.5 million athletes.Motion picture technology was developed by Thomas Edison, with much of his early work done at his West Orange laboratory. Edison's Black Maria was the first motion picture studio. America's first motion picture industry started in 1907 in Fort Lee and the first studio was constructed there in 1909. DuMont Laboratories in Passaic developed early sets and made the first broadcast to the private home.A number of television shows and films have been filmed in New Jersey. Since 1978, the state has maintained a Motion Picture and Television Commission to encourage filming in-state. New Jersey has long offered tax credits to television producers. Governor Chris Christie suspended the credits in 2010, but the New Jersey State Legislature in 2011 approved the restoration and expansion of the tax credit program. Under bills passed by both the state Senate and Assembly, the program offers 20 percent tax credits (22% in urban enterprise zones) to television and film productions that shoot in the state and meet set standards for hiring and local spending. When Governor Phil Murphy took office, he instated the New Jersey Film & Digital Media Tax Credit Program in 2018 and expanded it in 2020. The benefits include a 30% tax credit on film projects and a 40% subsidy for studio developments.The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the most prominent and heavily trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road, which overlaps with Interstate 95 for much of its length, carries traffic between Delaware and New York, and up and down the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike", it is known for its numerous rest areas named after prominent New Jerseyans.The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway", carries relatively more in-state traffic than interstate traffic and runs from New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May. It is the main route that connects the New York metropolitan area to the Jersey Shore. With a total of fifteen travel and six shoulder lanes, the Driscoll Bridge on the Parkway, spanning the Raritan River in Middlesex County, is the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world by number of lanes as well as one of the busiest.New Jersey is connected to New York City via various key bridges and tunnels. The double-decked George Washington Bridge carries the heaviest load of motor vehicle traffic of any bridge in the world, at 102 million vehicles per year, across fourteen lanes. It connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and carries Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1/9 across the Hudson River. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan carrying New Jersey Route 495, and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan carrying Interstate 78. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges—from north to south, the Bayonne Bridge, the Goethals Bridge, and the Outerbridge Crossing.New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three of its neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes in and out of the state. Bridge tolls are collected only from traffic exiting the state, with the exception of the private Dingman's Ferry Bridge over the Delaware River, which charges a toll in both directions.It is unlawful for a customer to serve themselves gasoline in New Jersey. It became the last remaining U.S. state where all gas stations are required to sell full-service gasoline to customers at all times in 2016, after Oregon's introduction of restricted self-service gasoline availability took effect.Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it is one of the three main airports serving the New York metropolitan area. United Airlines is the airport's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal there, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo terminal at EWR as well. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to Amtrak and NJ Transit trains along the Northeast Corridor Line.Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and rapidly growing Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of the state. Teterboro Airport in Bergen County, and Millville Municipal Airport in Cumberland County, are general aviation airports popular with private and corporate aircraft due to their proximity to New York City and the Jersey Shore, respectively.NJ Transit operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. A state-run corporation, it began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey in 1979. In the early 1980s, it acquired Conrail's commuter train operations that connected suburban towns to New York City. Today, NJ Transit has eleven commuter rail lines that run through different parts of the state. Most of the lines end at either Penn Station in New York City or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. One line provides service between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.NJ Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, through Hoboken and Jersey City. The Newark Light Rail is partially underground, and connects downtown Newark with other parts of the city and its suburbs, Belleville and Bloomfield. The River Line connects Trenton and Camden.The PATH is a rapid transit system consisting of four lines operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit system that links Camden County to Philadelphia. Both the PATCO and the PATH are two of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to operate 24 hours a day.Amtrak operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey, both to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Transit Center, Metropark, and the historic Newark Penn Station.The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, or SEPTA, has two commuter rail lines that operate into New Jersey. The Trenton Line terminates at the Trenton Transit Center, and the West Trenton Line terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing.AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots.Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers, of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City.New York Waterway has ferry terminals at Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, and Edgewater, with service to different parts of Manhattan. Liberty Water Taxi in Jersey City has ferries from Paulus Hook and Liberty State Park to Battery Park City in Manhattan. Statue Cruises offers service from Liberty State Park to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, including Ellis Island. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket.The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May–Lewes Ferry on Delaware Bay, carrying both passengers and vehicles between New Jersey and Delaware. The agency also operates the Forts Ferry Crossing for passengers across the Delaware River. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia.The position of Governor of New Jersey has been considered one of the most powerful in the nation. Until 2010, the governor was the only statewide elected executive official in the state and appointed numerous government officials. Formerly, an acting governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, president of the state senate Richard Codey held the position of acting governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term acting governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming acting governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. Phil Murphy (D) is the governor. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton.Before 2010, New Jersey was one of the few states without a lieutenant governor. Republican Kim Guadagno was elected the first lieutenant governor of New Jersey and took office on January 19, 2010. She was elected on the Republican ticket with Governor-Elect Chris Christie in the November 2009 NJ gubernatorial election. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005, and effective as of January 17, 2006.The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one state senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; state senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms.New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every four years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a governor was 2017; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2021.The New Jersey Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. All are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70.Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Court, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard.More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level; the Law Division hears both criminal cases and civil lawsuits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is damages, while the Chancery Division hears family cases, civil suits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is equitable relief, and probate trials.The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice.There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships.New Jersey is divided into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders", governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members.Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other five counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions.New Jersey currently has 565 municipalities; the number was 566 before Princeton Township and Princeton Borough merged to form the municipality of Princeton on January 1, 2013. Unlike other states, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation.Starting in the 20th century, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a three- or five-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced a Council-manager government structure with an appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs.The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature.While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially of the village type, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The other three villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter) and South Orange (now operates under a Special Charter)—have all migrated to other non-village forms.Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the more liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate that 60% of the population are self-described as pro-choice, although a majority are opposed to late trimester and intact dilation and extraction and public funding of abortion. In a 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed, On October 18, 2013, the New Jersey Supreme Court rendered a provisional, unanimous (7–0) order authorizing same-sex marriage in the state, pending a legal appeal by Governor Chris Christie, who then withdrew this appeal hours after the inaugural same-sex marriages took place on October 21, 2013.New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black-powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws.In past elections, New Jersey was a Republican bastion, but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats have majority control of both houses of the New Jersey Legislature (Senate, 26–14, and Assembly, 54–26), a 10–2 split of the state's twelve seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, and both U.S. Senate seats. Although the Democratic Party is very successful statewide, the state has had Republican governors; from 1994 to 2002, Christine Todd Whitman won twice with 47% and 49% of the votes, respectively, and in the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie defeated incumbent Democrat Jon Corzine with 48% of the vote. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Christie won reelection with over 60% of the votes. Because each candidate for lieutenant governor runs on the same ticket as the party's candidate for governor, the current governor and lieutenant governor are members of the Democratic Party. The governor's appointments to cabinet and non-cabinet positions may be from either party; for instance, the attorney general is a Democrat.In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. For many years in the past, however, it was a Republican stronghold, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. Newark Mayor Cory Booker was elected in October 2013 to join Robert Menendez to make New Jersey the first state with concurrent serving black and Latino U.S. senators.The state's Democratic strongholds include Camden County, Essex County (typically the state's most Democratic county—it includes Newark, the state's largest city), Hudson County (the second-strongest Democratic county, including Jersey City, the state's second-largest city); Mercer County (especially around Trenton and Princeton), Middlesex County, and Union County (including Elizabeth, the state's fourth-largest city).The suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have support along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Morris County, Sussex County, and Warren County. Other suburban counties, especially Bergen County and Burlington County had the majority of votes go to the Democratic Party. In the 2008 election, President Barack Obama won New Jersey with approximately fifty-seven percent of the vote, compared to McCain's forty-one percent. Independent candidate Ralph Nader garnered less than one percent of the vote.About one-third of the state's counties are considered "swing" counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Salem County, the same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south (including Paterson, the state's third-largest city) and a rural, Republican north; with the "swing" township of Wayne in the middle. Other "swing" counties like Monmouth County, Somerset County, and Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas, although Somerset has recently trended Democratic.To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 21 days prior to election day.On December 17, 2007, Governor Jon Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Corzine also signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole".There is also a mineral museum Ogdensburg in Sussex County.Visitors and residents take advantage of and contribute to performances at the numerous music, theater, and dance companies and venues located throughout the state, including:New Jersey is the location of most of the boardwalks in the U.S., with nearly every town and city along the Jersey Shore area each having a boardwalk with various attractions, entertainment, shopping, dining, miniature golf, arcades, water parks with various water rides, including water slides, lazy rivers, wave pools, etc., and amusement parks hosting rides and attractions including roller coasters, carousels, Ferris wheels, bumper cars, teacups, etc.
|
[
"William Livingston",
"A. Harry Moore",
"Rodman McCamley Price",
"William Sanford Pennington",
"Charles Creighton Stratton",
"Leon Rutherford Taylor",
"Jon Corzine",
"George C. Ludlow",
"Donald DiFrancesco",
"Clarence Edwards Case",
"Charles Edison",
"Leon Abbett",
"Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr.",
"David Ogden Watkins",
"Brendan Byrne",
"Richard Joseph Hughes",
"Samuel L. Southard",
"Horace Griggs Prall",
"Chris Christie",
"Peter Dumont Vroom",
"Elias P. Seeley",
"Joseph Bloomfield",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"Thomas Henderson",
"Aaron Ogden",
"Morgan Foster Larson",
"Clifford Ross Powell",
"Jim McGreevey",
"Theodore Fitz Randolph",
"James Fairman Fielder",
"Joseph D. Bedle",
"Foster McGowan Voorhees",
"Robert Stockton Green",
"Mahlon Dickerson",
"Franklin Murphy",
"William Nelson Runyon",
"George Sebastian Silzer",
"Harold Giles Hoffman",
"Joel Parker",
"Edward Irving Edwards",
"Edward C. Stokes",
"William Thomas Cahill",
"Thomas Kean",
"John Orus Bennett III",
"Walter Evans Edge",
"Alfred Eastlack Driscoll",
"Charles Smith Olden",
"Christine Todd Whitman",
"James Florio",
"John W. Griggs",
"John Lambert",
"Isaac Halstead Williamson",
"Robert Baumle Meyner",
"William Pennington",
"George Franklin Fort",
"William A. Newell",
"Phil Murphy",
"George Theodore Werts",
"William Paterson",
"John Franklin Fort",
"Richard Codey",
"Philemon Dickerson"
] |
|
Who was the head of New Jersey in 07/02/1879?
|
July 02, 1879
|
{
"text": [
"George Brinton McClellan"
]
}
|
L2_Q1408_P6_23
|
Horace Griggs Prall is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Morgan Foster Larson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1932.
Philemon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1836 to Oct, 1837.
Walter Evans Edge is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1917 to May, 1919.
George Theodore Werts is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1896.
Phil Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
Peter Dumont Vroom is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1829 to Oct, 1832.
Charles Creighton Stratton is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1845 to Jan, 1848.
Brendan Byrne is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1982.
Harold Giles Hoffman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1938.
Joel Parker is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1863 to Jan, 1866.
George Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1851 to Jan, 1854.
Clarence Edwards Case is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1920.
Mahlon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1815 to Feb, 1817.
Donald DiFrancesco is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
John Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1911.
Charles Edison is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1944.
Isaac Halstead Williamson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1817 to Oct, 1829.
Robert Stockton Green is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1890.
William Nelson Runyon is the head of the government of New Jersey from May, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Chris Christie is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
John Lambert is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1802 to Oct, 1803.
George Brinton McClellan is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1878 to Jan, 1881.
Robert Baumle Meyner is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1962.
Joseph Bloomfield is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1801 to Oct, 1802.
Thomas Henderson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1793 to Jun, 1793.
Richard Joseph Hughes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1970.
Edward C. Stokes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1908.
Franklin Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1905.
Christine Todd Whitman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 2001.
Leon Rutherford Taylor is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1913 to Jan, 1914.
Woodrow Wilson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1911 to Mar, 1913.
Charles Smith Olden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1863.
Foster McGowan Voorhees is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1898 to Oct, 1898.
Edward Irving Edwards is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1923.
John Orus Bennett III is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
William Thomas Cahill is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1974.
William Livingston is the head of the government of New Jersey from Aug, 1776 to Jul, 1790.
Aaron Ogden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1812 to Oct, 1813.
Joseph D. Bedle is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1878.
Elias P. Seeley is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1833 to Oct, 1833.
Clifford Ross Powell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
William A. Newell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1860.
William Paterson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1790 to Mar, 1793.
Theodore Fitz Randolph is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.
William Sanford Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1813 to Jun, 1815.
Samuel L. Southard is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1832 to Feb, 1833.
Thomas Kean is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
John W. Griggs is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1898.
James Fairman Fielder is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1913 to Oct, 1913.
David Ogden Watkins is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1898 to Jan, 1899.
Alfred Eastlack Driscoll is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1954.
Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr. is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1869.
A. Harry Moore is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1929.
Rodman McCamley Price is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1854 to Jan, 1857.
William Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1837 to Oct, 1843.
Leon Abbett is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1884 to Jan, 1887.
Richard Codey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Jim McGreevey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2004.
George C. Ludlow is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1881 to Jan, 1884.
Jon Corzine is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
George Sebastian Silzer is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1926.
James Florio is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
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New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania; and on the southwest by Delaware Bay and the state of Delaware. New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous, with 9,288,994 residents as of 2020 and an area of , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. New Jersey's state capital is Trenton, while the state's most populous city is Newark. All but one county in New Jersey (Warren County) lie within the combined statistical areas of New York City or Philadelphia; consequently, the state's largest metropolitan area falls within Greater New York.New Jersey was first inhabited by Native Americans for at least 2,800 years, with the Lenape being the dominant group by the time Europeans arrived in the early 17th century. Dutch and the Swedish colonists founded the first European settlements in the state. The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey—after the largest of the Channel Islands, Jersey—and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in the "Big Six" cities of Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Elizabeth helped drive the nation's Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's central location in the Northeast megalopolis fueled its rapid growth and suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century. At the turn of the 21st century, the state's economy increasingly diversified, while its multicultural populace began reverting toward more urban settings within the state, outpacing the growth in suburbs since 2008.As of 2020, New Jersey was home to the highest number of millionaires per capita of all U.S. states, with 9.76% of households—more than 323,000 of 3.3 million statewide—meeting the criteria. Based on 2017 data, it was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income. New Jersey's public school system consistently ranks at or among the top among all fifty U.S. states.Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges.New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact. "" is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade.The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch West India Company policy required its colonists to purchase the land that they settled. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen. Peter Minuit's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. The entire region became a territory of England on June 24, 1664, after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is now New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam, annexing the entire province.During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in Saint Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey.Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775.Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill—settlers came primarily from New York and New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England, who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. (William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time.) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702, at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England.In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor, rather than a proprietary one. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land. In 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738.New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the State Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times, and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the American Revolution". The winter quarters of the Continental Army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which has been called "The Military Capital of the American Revolution.“On the night of December 25–26, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River. After the crossing, they surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, the Americans made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3, 1777. Emanuel Leutze's painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware" became an icon of the Revolution.American forces under Washington met the British forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778. The Americans attempted to take the British column by surprise. When the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. Their ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges.In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war.On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights.The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property separately from their husbands. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors", whether entitled to vote or not; on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal "white male" suffrage, excluding paupers; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution.On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population. By the close of the Civil War, about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage. New Jersey voters eventually ratified the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States' black population.Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey's growing industries in Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the state senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision "Baker v. Carr". While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself.New Jersey was one of the few Union states (the others being Delaware and Kentucky) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan, a native Philadelphian, had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time; he later became Governor of New Jersey (1878–81). (In New Jersey, the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860.) During the American Civil War, the state was led first by Republican governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. During the course of the war, between 65,000 and 80,000 soldiers from the state enlisted in the Union army; unlike many states, including some Northern ones, no battle was fought there.In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the United States. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey.Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century. Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry. Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine.New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927, and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS "Morro Castle" beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea.Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially naval construction. The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company yards in Kearny and Newark and the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yard in Camden produced aircraft carriers, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fifth among the 48 states. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Camp Merritt (1917) and Camp Kilmer (1941) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike missile stations were constructed for the defense of the New York City and Philadelphia areas. "PT-109", a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden.In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In 1959, Air Defense Command deployed the CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missile to McGuire Air Force Base. On June 7, 1960, an explosion in a CIM-10 Bomarc missile fuel tank caused the accident and subsequent plutonium contamination.In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably, the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976. Prior to this bill, the state had no income tax.In the early part of the 2000s, two light rail systems were opened: the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton. The intent of these projects was to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey, respectively. The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular. Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century. As of 2014, Jersey City's Census-estimated population was 262,146, with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010, representing an increase of 5.9% from the 2010 United States Census, when the city's population was enumerated at 247,597. Between 2000 and 2010, Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s.The state of New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York (parts of which are across the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, and the Arthur Kill); on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. This is New Jersey's only straight border.New Jersey is often broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South.Within those regions are five distinct areas, based upon natural geography and population concentration. Northeastern New Jersey lies closest to Manhattan in New York City, and up to a million residents commute daily into the city for work, many via public transportation. Northwestern New Jersey is more wooded, rural, and mountainous. The Jersey Shore, along the Atlantic Coast in Central and South Jersey, has its own unique natural, residential, and cultural characteristics owing to its location by the ocean. The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state, which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. The Pine Barrens region is in the southern interior of New Jersey; covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, this region has a lower population density than most of the rest of the state.The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, with 16 counties included in either the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area. New Jersey is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis.High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the state's highest elevation, at above sea level. The state's highest prominence is Kitty Ann Mountain in Morris County, rising . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the west side of the Hudson River, in Bergen and Hudson Counties. Major New Jersey rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Due to New Jersey's peninsular geography, both sunrise and sunset are visible over water from different points on the Jersey Shore.There are two climatic conditions in the state. The south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate (microthermal), with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation. New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Climate change is affecting New Jersey faster than much of the rest of the United States. As of 2019, New Jersey was one of the fastest-warming states in the nation. Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of and lows of ; however, temperatures exceed on average 25 days each summer, exceeding in some years. Winters are usually cold, with average high temperatures of and lows of for most of the state, but temperatures can, for brief periods, fall below and sometimes rise above . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub- being an almost annual occurrence. Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations, with lower humidity than summer. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from6 in the northwest of the state, to 7B near Cape May. All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10, 1936, in Runyon, Middlesex County and on January 5, 1904, in River Vale, Bergen County.Average annual precipitation ranges from , uniformly spread through the year. Average snowfall per winter season ranges from in the south and near the seacoast, in the northeast and central part of the state, to about in the northwestern highlands, but this often varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms, most of which occur during the summer.During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters", which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999), tornadoes, and earthquakes are rare, although New Jersey was impacted by a hurricane in 1903, and Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state with top winds of .For its overall population and nation-leading population density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. This paradox is most pronounced in Bergen County, New Jersey's most populous county, whose more than 930,000 residents in 2019 inhabited 70 municipalities, the most populous being Hackensack, with 44,522 residents estimated in 2018. Many urban areas extend far beyond the limits of a single large city, as New Jersey cities (and indeed municipalities in general) tend to be geographically small; three of the four largest cities in New Jersey by population have under of land area, and eight of the top ten, including all of the top five have land area under . , only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000, although Edison and Woodbridge came very close.The United States Census Bureau tabulated in the 2020 United States census that the population of New Jersey was 9,288,994 on April 1, 2020, a 5.7% increase since the 2010 United States census. Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or, less commonly, as "New Jerseyites". At the 2010 census, there were 8,791,894 people living in the state. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the state was: 68.6% White American, 13.7% African American, 8.3% Asian American, 0.3% Native American, 2.7% Multiracial American, and 6.4% other races. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9% of the population in 2011, down from 85% in 1970. In 2010, 17.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).In 2010, unauthorized immigrants constituted an estimated 6.2% of the population. This was the fourth-highest percentage of any state in the country. There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010. Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Camden, Jersey City and Newark.As of 2010, New Jersey was the eleventh-most populous state in the United States, and the most densely populated, at 1,185 residents per square mile (458 per km), with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City, Philadelphia, and along the eastern Jersey Shore, while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall. It was also the second wealthiest state by median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike.New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers "per square mile" than anywhere else in the world.On October 21, 2013, same-sex marriages commenced in New Jersey.New Jersey is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse states in the United States. As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. The state has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percentage (after Michigan); the largest population of Peruvians in the United States; the largest population of Cubans outside of Florida; the third highest Asian population by percentage; and the second highest Italian population, according to the 2000 Census. African Americans, Hispanics (Puerto Ricans and Dominicans), West Indians, Arabs, and Brazilian and Portuguese Americans are also high in number. New Jersey has the third highest Asian Indian population of any state by absolute numbers and the highest by percentage, with Bergen County home to America's largest Malayali community. Overall, New Jersey has the third largest Korean population, with Bergen County home to the highest Korean concentration per capita of any U.S. county (6.9% in 2011). New Jersey also has the fourth largest Filipino population, and fourth largest Chinese population, per the 2010 U.S. Census. The five largest ethnic groups in 2000 were: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%).India Square, in Bombay, Jersey City, Hudson County, is home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, Central New Jersey, particularly Edison and surrounding Middlesex County, is prominently known for its significant concentration of Asian Indians. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville in 2014, a BAPS temple. The growing Little India is a South Asian-focused commercial strip in Middlesex County, the U.S. county with the highest concentration of Asian Indians. The Oak Tree Road strip runs for about through Edison and neighboring Iselin in Woodbridge Township, near the area's sprawling Chinatown and Koreatown, running along New Jersey Route 27. It is the largest and most diverse South Asian cultural hub in the United States. Carteret's Punjabi Sikh community, variously estimated at upwards of 3,000, is the largest concentration of Sikhs in the state. Monroe Township in Middlesex County has experienced a particularly rapid growth rate in its Indian American population, with an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, which was 23 times the 256 (0.9%) counted as of the 2000 Census; and Diwali is celebrated by the township as a Hindu holiday. In Middlesex County, election ballots are printed in English, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi.Newark was the fourth poorest of U.S. cities with over 250,000 residents in 2008, but New Jersey as a whole had the second-highest median household income as of 2014. This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area.In 2010, 6.2% of its population was reported as under age 5, 23.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older; and females made up approximately 51.3% of the population.A study by the Pew Research Center found that in 2013, New Jersey was the only U.S. state in which immigrants born in India constituted the largest foreign-born nationality, representing roughly 10% of all foreign-born residents in the state.For further information on various ethnoracial groups and neighborhoods prominently featured within New Jersey, see the following articles:As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's population younger than age1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white)."Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number."As of 2010, 71.31% (5,830,812) of New Jersey residents age5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 14.59% (1,193,261) spoke Spanish, 1.23% (100,217) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.06% (86,849) Italian, 1.06% (86,486) Portuguese, 0.96% (78,627) Tagalog, and Korean was spoken as a main language by 0.89% (73,057) of the population over the age of five. In total, 28.69% (2,345,644) of New Jersey's population age5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.A diverse collection of languages has since evolved amongst the state's population, given that New Jersey has become cosmopolitan and is home to ethnic enclaves of non-English-speaking communities:By number of adherents, the largest denominations in New Jersey, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2010, were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,235,290; Islam with 160,666; and the United Methodist Church with 138,052. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville, Mercer County, in central New Jersey during 2014, a BAPS temple. In January 2018, Gurbir Grewal became the first Sikh American state attorney general in the United States. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's gross state product in the fourth quarter of 2018 was $639.8 billion. New Jersey's estimated taxpayer burden in 2015 was $59,400 per taxpayer. New Jersey is nearly $239 billion in debt.New Jersey's per capita gross state product in 2008 was $54,699, second in the U.S. and above the national per capita gross domestic product of $46,588. Its per capita income was the third highest in the nation with $51,358. In 2020, New Jersey had the highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, approximately 9.76% of households. The state is ranked second in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are among the 100 wealthiest U.S. counties.New Jersey has seven tax brackets that determine state income tax rates, which range from 1.4% (for income below $20,000) to 8.97% (for income above $500,000).The standard sales tax rate as of January 1, 2018, is 6.625%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. This rate, which is comparably lower than that of New York City, often attracts numerous shoppers from New York City, often to suburban Paramus, New Jersey, which has five malls, one of which (the Garden State Plaza) has over of retail space. Tax exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medications, most clothing, footwear and disposable paper products for use in the home. There are 27 Urban Enterprise Zone statewide, including sections of Paterson, Elizabeth, and Jersey City. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half the rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.New Jersey has the highest cumulative tax rate of all 50 states with residents paying a total of $68 billion in state and local taxes annually with a per capita burden of $7,816 at a rate of 12.9% of income. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax.New Jersey consistently ranks as having one of the highest proportional levels of disparity of any state in the United States, based upon what it receives from the federal government relative to what it gives. In 2015, WalletHub ranked New Jersey the state least dependent upon federal government aid overall and having the fourth lowest return on taxpayer investment from the federal government, at 48 cents per dollar.New Jersey has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas.New Jersey's economy is multifaceted, but is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, information technology, the financial industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing, publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. New Jersey ranks second among states in blueberry production, third in cranberries and spinach, and fourth in bell peppers, peaches, and head lettuce. The state harvests the fourth-largest number of acres planted with asparagus.Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the state's use of nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey's electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of state generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country.New Jersey has a strong scientific economy and is home to major pharmaceutical and telecommunications firms, drawing on the state's large and well-educated labor pool. There is also a strong service economy in retail sales, education, and real estate, serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Thomas Edison invented the first electric light bulb at his home in Menlo Park, Edison in 1879. New Jersey is also a key participant in the renewable wind industry.Shipping is a key industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic geographic location, the Port of New York and New Jersey being the busiest port on the East Coast. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and today is one of the world's largest.New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus in Bergen County has become the top retail ZIP code (07652) in the United States, with the municipality generating over US$6 billion in annual retail sales. Several New Jersey counties, including Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), and Monmouth (42), have been ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States.New Jersey's location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis and its extensive transportation system have put over one-third of all United States residents and many Canadian residents within overnight distance by land. This accessibility to consumer revenue has enabled seaside resorts such as Atlantic City and the remainder of the Jersey Shore, as well as the state's other natural and cultural attractions, to contribute significantly to the record 111 million tourist visits to New Jersey in 2018, providing US$44.7 billion in tourism revenue, directly supporting 333,860 jobs, sustaining more than 531,000 jobs overall including peripheral impacts, and generating US$5 billion in state and local tax revenue.In 1976, a referendum of New Jersey voters approved casino gambling in Atlantic City, where the first legalized casino opened in 1978. At that time, Las Vegas was the only other casino resort in the country. Today, several casinos lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the first and longest boardwalk in the world. Atlantic City experienced a dramatic contraction in its stature as a gambling destination after 2010, including the closure of multiple casinos since 2014, spurred by competition from the advent of legalized gambling in other northeastern U.S. states. On February 26, 2013, Governor Chris Christie signed online gambling into law. Sports betting has become a growing source of gambling revenue in New Jersey since being legalized across the nation by the U.S. Supreme Court on May 14, 2018.Forests cover 45%, or approximately 2.1 million acres, of New Jersey's land area. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. The Pine Barrens, consisting of pine forests, is in the southern part of the state.Some mining activity of zinc, iron, and manganese still takes place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace.New Jersey is second in the nation in solar power installations, enabled by one of the country's most favorable net metering policies, and the renewable energy certificates program. The state has more than 10,000 solar installations.As of 2010, there were 605 school districts in the state.Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase college admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg retracted this plan when criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative.In 2010, the state government paid all teachers' premiums for health insurance, but currently all NJ public teachers pay a portion of their own health insurance premiums.New Jersey is known for the quality of its education. In 2015, the state spent more per each public school student than any other U.S. state except New York, Alaska, and Connecticut, amounting to $18,235 spent per pupil; over 50% of the expenditure was allocated to student instruction.According to 2011 "Newsweek" statistics, students of High Technology High School in Lincroft, Monmouth County and Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, Bergen County registered average SAT scores of 2145 and 2100, respectively, representing the second- and third-highest scores, respectively, of all listed U.S. high schools.Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2020 list of "U.S. News & World Report". In 2013, Rutgers University, headquartered in New Brunswick, Middlesex County as the flagship institution of higher education in New Jersey, regained medical and dental schools, augmenting its profile as a national research university as well.In 2014, New Jersey's school systems were ranked at the top of all fifty U.S. states by financial website Wallethub.com. In 2018, New Jersey's overall educational system was ranked second among all states to Massachusetts by "U.S. News & World Report". In both 2019 and 2020, "Education Week" also ranked New Jersey public schools the best of all U.S. states.Nine New Jersey high schools were ranked among the top 25 in the U.S. on the "Newsweek" "America's Top High Schools 2016" list, more than from any other state. A 2017 UCLA Civil Rights project found that New Jersey has the sixth-most segregated classrooms in the United States.New Jersey has continued to play a prominent role as a U.S. cultural nexus. Like every state, New Jersey has its own cuisine, religious communities, museums, and .New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon, the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone.Diners are iconic to New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has over 600 diners, more than any other place in the world.New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey state song, but it was not even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature.New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), sloppy joe sandwiches, tomato pies, and Texas wieners.Several states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey.New Jersey has long been an important origin for both rock and rap music. Prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey include:New Jersey currently has six teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although one Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify themselves as being from the New York metropolitan area.The National Hockey League's New Jersey Devils, based in Newark at the Prudential Center, is the only major league sports franchise to bear the state's name. Founded in 1974 in Kansas City, Missouri, as the Kansas City Scouts, the team played in Denver, Colorado, as the Colorado Rockies from 1976 until the spring of 1982 when naval architect, businessman, and Jersey City native John J. McMullen purchased, renamed, and moved the franchise to Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. While the team had mostly losing records in Kansas City, Denver, and its first years in New Jersey, the Devils began to improve in the late 1980s and early 1990s under Hall of Fame president and general manager Lou Lamoriello. The team made the playoffs for the Stanley Cup in 2001 and 2012, and won it in 1995, 2000, and 2003. The organization is the youngest of the nine major league teams in the New York metropolitan area. The Devils have established a following throughout the northern and central portions of the state, carving a place in a media market once dominated by the New York Rangers and Islanders.In 2018, the Philadelphia Flyers renovated and expanded their training facility, the Virtua Center Flyers Skate Zone, in Voorhees Township in the southern portion of the state.The New York Metropolitan Area's two National Football League teams, the New York Giants and the New York Jets, play at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. Built for about $1.6 billion, the venue is the most expensive stadium ever built. On February 2, 2014, MetLife Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLVIII.The New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer play in Red Bull Arena, a soccer-specific stadium in Harrison across the Passaic River from downtown Newark. On July 27, 2011, Red Bull Arena hosted the 2011 MLS All-Star Game.From 1977 to 2012, New Jersey had a National Basketball Association team, the New Jersey Nets. WNBA's New York Liberty played in New Jersey from 2011 to 2013 while their primary home arena, Madison Square Garden was undergoing renovations. In 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA opened their new headquarters and training facility, the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex, in Camden.The Meadowlands Sports Complex is home to the Meadowlands Racetrack, one of three major harness racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack and Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport is a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation.New Jerseyans' collegiate allegiances are predominantly split among the three major NCAA Division I programs in the state: the Rutgers University (New Jersey's flagship state university) Scarlet Knights, members of the Big Ten Conference; the Seton Hall University (the state's largest Catholic university) Pirates, members of the Big East Conference; and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers.The intense rivalry between Rutgers and Princeton athletics began with the first intercollegiate football game in 1869. The schools have not met on the football field since 1980, but they continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities.Rutgers, which fields 24 teams in various sports, is nationally known for its football program, with a 6–4 all-time bowl record; and its women's basketball programs, which appeared in a National Final in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, Rutgers expanded their football home, Rutgers Stadium, now called SHI Stadium, on the Busch Campus. The basketball teams play at the Rutgers Athletic Center on Livingston Campus. Both venues and campuses are in Piscataway, across the Raritan River from New Brunswick. The university also fields men's basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fans live mostly in the western parts of the state and Middlesex County; its alumni base is the largest in the state.Rutgers' satellite campuses in Camden and Newark each field their own athletic programs—the Rutgers–Camden Scarlet Raptors and the Rutgers–Newark Scarlet Raiders—which both compete in NCAA Division III.Seton Hall fields no football team, but its men's basketball team is one of the Big East's storied programs. No New Jersey team has won more games in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, and it is the state's only men's basketball program to reach a modern National Final. The Pirates play their home games at Prudential Center in downtown Newark, about from the university's South Orange campus. Their fans hail largely from in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. The annual inter-conference rivalry game between Seton Hall and Rutgers, whose venue alternates between Newark and Piscataway, the Garden State Hardwood Classic, is planned through 2026.The state's other Division I schools include the Monmouth University Hawks (West Long Branch), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Highlanders (Newark), the Rider University Broncs (Lawrenceville), and the Saint Peter's University Peacocks and Peahens (Jersey City).Fairleigh Dickinson University competes in both Division I and Division III. It has two campuses, each with its own sports teams. The teams at the Metropolitan Campus are known as the FDU Knights, and compete in the Northeast Conference and NCAA Division I. The college at Florham (FDU-Florham) teams are known as the FDU-Florham Devils and compete in the Middle Atlantic Conferences' Freedom Conference and NCAA Division III.Among the various Division III schools in the state, the Stevens Institute of Technology Ducks have fielded the longest continuously running collegiate men's lacrosse program in the country. 2009 marked the 125th season.New Jersey high schools are divided into divisions under the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA).' Founded in 1918, the NJSIAA currently represents 22,000 schools, 330,000 coaches, and almost 4.5 million athletes.Motion picture technology was developed by Thomas Edison, with much of his early work done at his West Orange laboratory. Edison's Black Maria was the first motion picture studio. America's first motion picture industry started in 1907 in Fort Lee and the first studio was constructed there in 1909. DuMont Laboratories in Passaic developed early sets and made the first broadcast to the private home.A number of television shows and films have been filmed in New Jersey. Since 1978, the state has maintained a Motion Picture and Television Commission to encourage filming in-state. New Jersey has long offered tax credits to television producers. Governor Chris Christie suspended the credits in 2010, but the New Jersey State Legislature in 2011 approved the restoration and expansion of the tax credit program. Under bills passed by both the state Senate and Assembly, the program offers 20 percent tax credits (22% in urban enterprise zones) to television and film productions that shoot in the state and meet set standards for hiring and local spending. When Governor Phil Murphy took office, he instated the New Jersey Film & Digital Media Tax Credit Program in 2018 and expanded it in 2020. The benefits include a 30% tax credit on film projects and a 40% subsidy for studio developments.The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the most prominent and heavily trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road, which overlaps with Interstate 95 for much of its length, carries traffic between Delaware and New York, and up and down the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike", it is known for its numerous rest areas named after prominent New Jerseyans.The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway", carries relatively more in-state traffic than interstate traffic and runs from New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May. It is the main route that connects the New York metropolitan area to the Jersey Shore. With a total of fifteen travel and six shoulder lanes, the Driscoll Bridge on the Parkway, spanning the Raritan River in Middlesex County, is the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world by number of lanes as well as one of the busiest.New Jersey is connected to New York City via various key bridges and tunnels. The double-decked George Washington Bridge carries the heaviest load of motor vehicle traffic of any bridge in the world, at 102 million vehicles per year, across fourteen lanes. It connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and carries Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1/9 across the Hudson River. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan carrying New Jersey Route 495, and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan carrying Interstate 78. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges—from north to south, the Bayonne Bridge, the Goethals Bridge, and the Outerbridge Crossing.New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three of its neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes in and out of the state. Bridge tolls are collected only from traffic exiting the state, with the exception of the private Dingman's Ferry Bridge over the Delaware River, which charges a toll in both directions.It is unlawful for a customer to serve themselves gasoline in New Jersey. It became the last remaining U.S. state where all gas stations are required to sell full-service gasoline to customers at all times in 2016, after Oregon's introduction of restricted self-service gasoline availability took effect.Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it is one of the three main airports serving the New York metropolitan area. United Airlines is the airport's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal there, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo terminal at EWR as well. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to Amtrak and NJ Transit trains along the Northeast Corridor Line.Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and rapidly growing Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of the state. Teterboro Airport in Bergen County, and Millville Municipal Airport in Cumberland County, are general aviation airports popular with private and corporate aircraft due to their proximity to New York City and the Jersey Shore, respectively.NJ Transit operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. A state-run corporation, it began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey in 1979. In the early 1980s, it acquired Conrail's commuter train operations that connected suburban towns to New York City. Today, NJ Transit has eleven commuter rail lines that run through different parts of the state. Most of the lines end at either Penn Station in New York City or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. One line provides service between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.NJ Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, through Hoboken and Jersey City. The Newark Light Rail is partially underground, and connects downtown Newark with other parts of the city and its suburbs, Belleville and Bloomfield. The River Line connects Trenton and Camden.The PATH is a rapid transit system consisting of four lines operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit system that links Camden County to Philadelphia. Both the PATCO and the PATH are two of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to operate 24 hours a day.Amtrak operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey, both to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Transit Center, Metropark, and the historic Newark Penn Station.The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, or SEPTA, has two commuter rail lines that operate into New Jersey. The Trenton Line terminates at the Trenton Transit Center, and the West Trenton Line terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing.AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots.Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers, of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City.New York Waterway has ferry terminals at Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, and Edgewater, with service to different parts of Manhattan. Liberty Water Taxi in Jersey City has ferries from Paulus Hook and Liberty State Park to Battery Park City in Manhattan. Statue Cruises offers service from Liberty State Park to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, including Ellis Island. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket.The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May–Lewes Ferry on Delaware Bay, carrying both passengers and vehicles between New Jersey and Delaware. The agency also operates the Forts Ferry Crossing for passengers across the Delaware River. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia.The position of Governor of New Jersey has been considered one of the most powerful in the nation. Until 2010, the governor was the only statewide elected executive official in the state and appointed numerous government officials. Formerly, an acting governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, president of the state senate Richard Codey held the position of acting governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term acting governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming acting governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. Phil Murphy (D) is the governor. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton.Before 2010, New Jersey was one of the few states without a lieutenant governor. Republican Kim Guadagno was elected the first lieutenant governor of New Jersey and took office on January 19, 2010. She was elected on the Republican ticket with Governor-Elect Chris Christie in the November 2009 NJ gubernatorial election. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005, and effective as of January 17, 2006.The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one state senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; state senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms.New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every four years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a governor was 2017; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2021.The New Jersey Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. All are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70.Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Court, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard.More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level; the Law Division hears both criminal cases and civil lawsuits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is damages, while the Chancery Division hears family cases, civil suits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is equitable relief, and probate trials.The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice.There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships.New Jersey is divided into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders", governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members.Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other five counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions.New Jersey currently has 565 municipalities; the number was 566 before Princeton Township and Princeton Borough merged to form the municipality of Princeton on January 1, 2013. Unlike other states, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation.Starting in the 20th century, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a three- or five-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced a Council-manager government structure with an appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs.The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature.While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially of the village type, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The other three villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter) and South Orange (now operates under a Special Charter)—have all migrated to other non-village forms.Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the more liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate that 60% of the population are self-described as pro-choice, although a majority are opposed to late trimester and intact dilation and extraction and public funding of abortion. In a 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed, On October 18, 2013, the New Jersey Supreme Court rendered a provisional, unanimous (7–0) order authorizing same-sex marriage in the state, pending a legal appeal by Governor Chris Christie, who then withdrew this appeal hours after the inaugural same-sex marriages took place on October 21, 2013.New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black-powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws.In past elections, New Jersey was a Republican bastion, but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats have majority control of both houses of the New Jersey Legislature (Senate, 26–14, and Assembly, 54–26), a 10–2 split of the state's twelve seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, and both U.S. Senate seats. Although the Democratic Party is very successful statewide, the state has had Republican governors; from 1994 to 2002, Christine Todd Whitman won twice with 47% and 49% of the votes, respectively, and in the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie defeated incumbent Democrat Jon Corzine with 48% of the vote. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Christie won reelection with over 60% of the votes. Because each candidate for lieutenant governor runs on the same ticket as the party's candidate for governor, the current governor and lieutenant governor are members of the Democratic Party. The governor's appointments to cabinet and non-cabinet positions may be from either party; for instance, the attorney general is a Democrat.In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. For many years in the past, however, it was a Republican stronghold, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. Newark Mayor Cory Booker was elected in October 2013 to join Robert Menendez to make New Jersey the first state with concurrent serving black and Latino U.S. senators.The state's Democratic strongholds include Camden County, Essex County (typically the state's most Democratic county—it includes Newark, the state's largest city), Hudson County (the second-strongest Democratic county, including Jersey City, the state's second-largest city); Mercer County (especially around Trenton and Princeton), Middlesex County, and Union County (including Elizabeth, the state's fourth-largest city).The suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have support along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Morris County, Sussex County, and Warren County. Other suburban counties, especially Bergen County and Burlington County had the majority of votes go to the Democratic Party. In the 2008 election, President Barack Obama won New Jersey with approximately fifty-seven percent of the vote, compared to McCain's forty-one percent. Independent candidate Ralph Nader garnered less than one percent of the vote.About one-third of the state's counties are considered "swing" counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Salem County, the same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south (including Paterson, the state's third-largest city) and a rural, Republican north; with the "swing" township of Wayne in the middle. Other "swing" counties like Monmouth County, Somerset County, and Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas, although Somerset has recently trended Democratic.To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 21 days prior to election day.On December 17, 2007, Governor Jon Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Corzine also signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole".There is also a mineral museum Ogdensburg in Sussex County.Visitors and residents take advantage of and contribute to performances at the numerous music, theater, and dance companies and venues located throughout the state, including:New Jersey is the location of most of the boardwalks in the U.S., with nearly every town and city along the Jersey Shore area each having a boardwalk with various attractions, entertainment, shopping, dining, miniature golf, arcades, water parks with various water rides, including water slides, lazy rivers, wave pools, etc., and amusement parks hosting rides and attractions including roller coasters, carousels, Ferris wheels, bumper cars, teacups, etc.
|
[
"William Livingston",
"A. Harry Moore",
"Rodman McCamley Price",
"William Sanford Pennington",
"Charles Creighton Stratton",
"Leon Rutherford Taylor",
"Jon Corzine",
"George C. Ludlow",
"Donald DiFrancesco",
"Clarence Edwards Case",
"Charles Edison",
"Leon Abbett",
"Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr.",
"David Ogden Watkins",
"Brendan Byrne",
"Richard Joseph Hughes",
"Samuel L. Southard",
"Horace Griggs Prall",
"Chris Christie",
"Peter Dumont Vroom",
"Elias P. Seeley",
"Joseph Bloomfield",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"Thomas Henderson",
"Aaron Ogden",
"Morgan Foster Larson",
"Clifford Ross Powell",
"Jim McGreevey",
"Theodore Fitz Randolph",
"James Fairman Fielder",
"Joseph D. Bedle",
"Foster McGowan Voorhees",
"Robert Stockton Green",
"Mahlon Dickerson",
"Franklin Murphy",
"William Nelson Runyon",
"George Sebastian Silzer",
"Harold Giles Hoffman",
"Joel Parker",
"Edward Irving Edwards",
"Edward C. Stokes",
"William Thomas Cahill",
"Thomas Kean",
"John Orus Bennett III",
"Walter Evans Edge",
"Alfred Eastlack Driscoll",
"Charles Smith Olden",
"Christine Todd Whitman",
"James Florio",
"John W. Griggs",
"John Lambert",
"Isaac Halstead Williamson",
"Robert Baumle Meyner",
"William Pennington",
"George Franklin Fort",
"William A. Newell",
"Phil Murphy",
"George Theodore Werts",
"William Paterson",
"John Franklin Fort",
"Richard Codey",
"Philemon Dickerson"
] |
|
Who was the head of New Jersey in 02-Jul-187902-July-1879?
|
July 02, 1879
|
{
"text": [
"George Brinton McClellan"
]
}
|
L2_Q1408_P6_23
|
Horace Griggs Prall is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Morgan Foster Larson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1932.
Philemon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1836 to Oct, 1837.
Walter Evans Edge is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1917 to May, 1919.
George Theodore Werts is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1896.
Phil Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
Peter Dumont Vroom is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1829 to Oct, 1832.
Charles Creighton Stratton is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1845 to Jan, 1848.
Brendan Byrne is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1982.
Harold Giles Hoffman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1938.
Joel Parker is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1863 to Jan, 1866.
George Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1851 to Jan, 1854.
Clarence Edwards Case is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1920.
Mahlon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1815 to Feb, 1817.
Donald DiFrancesco is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
John Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1911.
Charles Edison is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1944.
Isaac Halstead Williamson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1817 to Oct, 1829.
Robert Stockton Green is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1890.
William Nelson Runyon is the head of the government of New Jersey from May, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Chris Christie is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
John Lambert is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1802 to Oct, 1803.
George Brinton McClellan is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1878 to Jan, 1881.
Robert Baumle Meyner is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1962.
Joseph Bloomfield is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1801 to Oct, 1802.
Thomas Henderson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1793 to Jun, 1793.
Richard Joseph Hughes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1970.
Edward C. Stokes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1908.
Franklin Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1905.
Christine Todd Whitman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 2001.
Leon Rutherford Taylor is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1913 to Jan, 1914.
Woodrow Wilson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1911 to Mar, 1913.
Charles Smith Olden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1863.
Foster McGowan Voorhees is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1898 to Oct, 1898.
Edward Irving Edwards is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1923.
John Orus Bennett III is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
William Thomas Cahill is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1974.
William Livingston is the head of the government of New Jersey from Aug, 1776 to Jul, 1790.
Aaron Ogden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1812 to Oct, 1813.
Joseph D. Bedle is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1878.
Elias P. Seeley is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1833 to Oct, 1833.
Clifford Ross Powell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
William A. Newell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1860.
William Paterson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1790 to Mar, 1793.
Theodore Fitz Randolph is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.
William Sanford Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1813 to Jun, 1815.
Samuel L. Southard is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1832 to Feb, 1833.
Thomas Kean is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
John W. Griggs is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1898.
James Fairman Fielder is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1913 to Oct, 1913.
David Ogden Watkins is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1898 to Jan, 1899.
Alfred Eastlack Driscoll is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1954.
Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr. is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1869.
A. Harry Moore is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1929.
Rodman McCamley Price is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1854 to Jan, 1857.
William Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1837 to Oct, 1843.
Leon Abbett is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1884 to Jan, 1887.
Richard Codey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Jim McGreevey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2004.
George C. Ludlow is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1881 to Jan, 1884.
Jon Corzine is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
George Sebastian Silzer is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1926.
James Florio is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
|
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania; and on the southwest by Delaware Bay and the state of Delaware. New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous, with 9,288,994 residents as of 2020 and an area of , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. New Jersey's state capital is Trenton, while the state's most populous city is Newark. All but one county in New Jersey (Warren County) lie within the combined statistical areas of New York City or Philadelphia; consequently, the state's largest metropolitan area falls within Greater New York.New Jersey was first inhabited by Native Americans for at least 2,800 years, with the Lenape being the dominant group by the time Europeans arrived in the early 17th century. Dutch and the Swedish colonists founded the first European settlements in the state. The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey—after the largest of the Channel Islands, Jersey—and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in the "Big Six" cities of Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Elizabeth helped drive the nation's Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's central location in the Northeast megalopolis fueled its rapid growth and suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century. At the turn of the 21st century, the state's economy increasingly diversified, while its multicultural populace began reverting toward more urban settings within the state, outpacing the growth in suburbs since 2008.As of 2020, New Jersey was home to the highest number of millionaires per capita of all U.S. states, with 9.76% of households—more than 323,000 of 3.3 million statewide—meeting the criteria. Based on 2017 data, it was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income. New Jersey's public school system consistently ranks at or among the top among all fifty U.S. states.Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges.New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact. "" is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade.The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch West India Company policy required its colonists to purchase the land that they settled. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen. Peter Minuit's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. The entire region became a territory of England on June 24, 1664, after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is now New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam, annexing the entire province.During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in Saint Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey.Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775.Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill—settlers came primarily from New York and New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England, who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. (William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time.) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702, at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England.In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor, rather than a proprietary one. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land. In 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738.New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the State Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times, and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the American Revolution". The winter quarters of the Continental Army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which has been called "The Military Capital of the American Revolution.“On the night of December 25–26, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River. After the crossing, they surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, the Americans made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3, 1777. Emanuel Leutze's painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware" became an icon of the Revolution.American forces under Washington met the British forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778. The Americans attempted to take the British column by surprise. When the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. Their ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges.In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war.On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights.The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property separately from their husbands. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors", whether entitled to vote or not; on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal "white male" suffrage, excluding paupers; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution.On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population. By the close of the Civil War, about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage. New Jersey voters eventually ratified the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States' black population.Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey's growing industries in Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the state senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision "Baker v. Carr". While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself.New Jersey was one of the few Union states (the others being Delaware and Kentucky) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan, a native Philadelphian, had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time; he later became Governor of New Jersey (1878–81). (In New Jersey, the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860.) During the American Civil War, the state was led first by Republican governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. During the course of the war, between 65,000 and 80,000 soldiers from the state enlisted in the Union army; unlike many states, including some Northern ones, no battle was fought there.In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the United States. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey.Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century. Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry. Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine.New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927, and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS "Morro Castle" beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea.Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially naval construction. The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company yards in Kearny and Newark and the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yard in Camden produced aircraft carriers, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fifth among the 48 states. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Camp Merritt (1917) and Camp Kilmer (1941) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike missile stations were constructed for the defense of the New York City and Philadelphia areas. "PT-109", a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden.In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In 1959, Air Defense Command deployed the CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missile to McGuire Air Force Base. On June 7, 1960, an explosion in a CIM-10 Bomarc missile fuel tank caused the accident and subsequent plutonium contamination.In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably, the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976. Prior to this bill, the state had no income tax.In the early part of the 2000s, two light rail systems were opened: the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton. The intent of these projects was to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey, respectively. The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular. Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century. As of 2014, Jersey City's Census-estimated population was 262,146, with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010, representing an increase of 5.9% from the 2010 United States Census, when the city's population was enumerated at 247,597. Between 2000 and 2010, Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s.The state of New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York (parts of which are across the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, and the Arthur Kill); on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. This is New Jersey's only straight border.New Jersey is often broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South.Within those regions are five distinct areas, based upon natural geography and population concentration. Northeastern New Jersey lies closest to Manhattan in New York City, and up to a million residents commute daily into the city for work, many via public transportation. Northwestern New Jersey is more wooded, rural, and mountainous. The Jersey Shore, along the Atlantic Coast in Central and South Jersey, has its own unique natural, residential, and cultural characteristics owing to its location by the ocean. The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state, which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. The Pine Barrens region is in the southern interior of New Jersey; covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, this region has a lower population density than most of the rest of the state.The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, with 16 counties included in either the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area. New Jersey is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis.High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the state's highest elevation, at above sea level. The state's highest prominence is Kitty Ann Mountain in Morris County, rising . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the west side of the Hudson River, in Bergen and Hudson Counties. Major New Jersey rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Due to New Jersey's peninsular geography, both sunrise and sunset are visible over water from different points on the Jersey Shore.There are two climatic conditions in the state. The south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate (microthermal), with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation. New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Climate change is affecting New Jersey faster than much of the rest of the United States. As of 2019, New Jersey was one of the fastest-warming states in the nation. Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of and lows of ; however, temperatures exceed on average 25 days each summer, exceeding in some years. Winters are usually cold, with average high temperatures of and lows of for most of the state, but temperatures can, for brief periods, fall below and sometimes rise above . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub- being an almost annual occurrence. Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations, with lower humidity than summer. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from6 in the northwest of the state, to 7B near Cape May. All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10, 1936, in Runyon, Middlesex County and on January 5, 1904, in River Vale, Bergen County.Average annual precipitation ranges from , uniformly spread through the year. Average snowfall per winter season ranges from in the south and near the seacoast, in the northeast and central part of the state, to about in the northwestern highlands, but this often varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms, most of which occur during the summer.During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters", which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999), tornadoes, and earthquakes are rare, although New Jersey was impacted by a hurricane in 1903, and Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state with top winds of .For its overall population and nation-leading population density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. This paradox is most pronounced in Bergen County, New Jersey's most populous county, whose more than 930,000 residents in 2019 inhabited 70 municipalities, the most populous being Hackensack, with 44,522 residents estimated in 2018. Many urban areas extend far beyond the limits of a single large city, as New Jersey cities (and indeed municipalities in general) tend to be geographically small; three of the four largest cities in New Jersey by population have under of land area, and eight of the top ten, including all of the top five have land area under . , only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000, although Edison and Woodbridge came very close.The United States Census Bureau tabulated in the 2020 United States census that the population of New Jersey was 9,288,994 on April 1, 2020, a 5.7% increase since the 2010 United States census. Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or, less commonly, as "New Jerseyites". At the 2010 census, there were 8,791,894 people living in the state. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the state was: 68.6% White American, 13.7% African American, 8.3% Asian American, 0.3% Native American, 2.7% Multiracial American, and 6.4% other races. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9% of the population in 2011, down from 85% in 1970. In 2010, 17.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).In 2010, unauthorized immigrants constituted an estimated 6.2% of the population. This was the fourth-highest percentage of any state in the country. There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010. Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Camden, Jersey City and Newark.As of 2010, New Jersey was the eleventh-most populous state in the United States, and the most densely populated, at 1,185 residents per square mile (458 per km), with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City, Philadelphia, and along the eastern Jersey Shore, while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall. It was also the second wealthiest state by median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike.New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers "per square mile" than anywhere else in the world.On October 21, 2013, same-sex marriages commenced in New Jersey.New Jersey is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse states in the United States. As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. The state has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percentage (after Michigan); the largest population of Peruvians in the United States; the largest population of Cubans outside of Florida; the third highest Asian population by percentage; and the second highest Italian population, according to the 2000 Census. African Americans, Hispanics (Puerto Ricans and Dominicans), West Indians, Arabs, and Brazilian and Portuguese Americans are also high in number. New Jersey has the third highest Asian Indian population of any state by absolute numbers and the highest by percentage, with Bergen County home to America's largest Malayali community. Overall, New Jersey has the third largest Korean population, with Bergen County home to the highest Korean concentration per capita of any U.S. county (6.9% in 2011). New Jersey also has the fourth largest Filipino population, and fourth largest Chinese population, per the 2010 U.S. Census. The five largest ethnic groups in 2000 were: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%).India Square, in Bombay, Jersey City, Hudson County, is home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, Central New Jersey, particularly Edison and surrounding Middlesex County, is prominently known for its significant concentration of Asian Indians. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville in 2014, a BAPS temple. The growing Little India is a South Asian-focused commercial strip in Middlesex County, the U.S. county with the highest concentration of Asian Indians. The Oak Tree Road strip runs for about through Edison and neighboring Iselin in Woodbridge Township, near the area's sprawling Chinatown and Koreatown, running along New Jersey Route 27. It is the largest and most diverse South Asian cultural hub in the United States. Carteret's Punjabi Sikh community, variously estimated at upwards of 3,000, is the largest concentration of Sikhs in the state. Monroe Township in Middlesex County has experienced a particularly rapid growth rate in its Indian American population, with an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, which was 23 times the 256 (0.9%) counted as of the 2000 Census; and Diwali is celebrated by the township as a Hindu holiday. In Middlesex County, election ballots are printed in English, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi.Newark was the fourth poorest of U.S. cities with over 250,000 residents in 2008, but New Jersey as a whole had the second-highest median household income as of 2014. This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area.In 2010, 6.2% of its population was reported as under age 5, 23.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older; and females made up approximately 51.3% of the population.A study by the Pew Research Center found that in 2013, New Jersey was the only U.S. state in which immigrants born in India constituted the largest foreign-born nationality, representing roughly 10% of all foreign-born residents in the state.For further information on various ethnoracial groups and neighborhoods prominently featured within New Jersey, see the following articles:As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's population younger than age1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white)."Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number."As of 2010, 71.31% (5,830,812) of New Jersey residents age5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 14.59% (1,193,261) spoke Spanish, 1.23% (100,217) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.06% (86,849) Italian, 1.06% (86,486) Portuguese, 0.96% (78,627) Tagalog, and Korean was spoken as a main language by 0.89% (73,057) of the population over the age of five. In total, 28.69% (2,345,644) of New Jersey's population age5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.A diverse collection of languages has since evolved amongst the state's population, given that New Jersey has become cosmopolitan and is home to ethnic enclaves of non-English-speaking communities:By number of adherents, the largest denominations in New Jersey, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2010, were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,235,290; Islam with 160,666; and the United Methodist Church with 138,052. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville, Mercer County, in central New Jersey during 2014, a BAPS temple. In January 2018, Gurbir Grewal became the first Sikh American state attorney general in the United States. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's gross state product in the fourth quarter of 2018 was $639.8 billion. New Jersey's estimated taxpayer burden in 2015 was $59,400 per taxpayer. New Jersey is nearly $239 billion in debt.New Jersey's per capita gross state product in 2008 was $54,699, second in the U.S. and above the national per capita gross domestic product of $46,588. Its per capita income was the third highest in the nation with $51,358. In 2020, New Jersey had the highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, approximately 9.76% of households. The state is ranked second in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are among the 100 wealthiest U.S. counties.New Jersey has seven tax brackets that determine state income tax rates, which range from 1.4% (for income below $20,000) to 8.97% (for income above $500,000).The standard sales tax rate as of January 1, 2018, is 6.625%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. This rate, which is comparably lower than that of New York City, often attracts numerous shoppers from New York City, often to suburban Paramus, New Jersey, which has five malls, one of which (the Garden State Plaza) has over of retail space. Tax exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medications, most clothing, footwear and disposable paper products for use in the home. There are 27 Urban Enterprise Zone statewide, including sections of Paterson, Elizabeth, and Jersey City. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half the rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.New Jersey has the highest cumulative tax rate of all 50 states with residents paying a total of $68 billion in state and local taxes annually with a per capita burden of $7,816 at a rate of 12.9% of income. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax.New Jersey consistently ranks as having one of the highest proportional levels of disparity of any state in the United States, based upon what it receives from the federal government relative to what it gives. In 2015, WalletHub ranked New Jersey the state least dependent upon federal government aid overall and having the fourth lowest return on taxpayer investment from the federal government, at 48 cents per dollar.New Jersey has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas.New Jersey's economy is multifaceted, but is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, information technology, the financial industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing, publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. New Jersey ranks second among states in blueberry production, third in cranberries and spinach, and fourth in bell peppers, peaches, and head lettuce. The state harvests the fourth-largest number of acres planted with asparagus.Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the state's use of nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey's electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of state generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country.New Jersey has a strong scientific economy and is home to major pharmaceutical and telecommunications firms, drawing on the state's large and well-educated labor pool. There is also a strong service economy in retail sales, education, and real estate, serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Thomas Edison invented the first electric light bulb at his home in Menlo Park, Edison in 1879. New Jersey is also a key participant in the renewable wind industry.Shipping is a key industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic geographic location, the Port of New York and New Jersey being the busiest port on the East Coast. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and today is one of the world's largest.New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus in Bergen County has become the top retail ZIP code (07652) in the United States, with the municipality generating over US$6 billion in annual retail sales. Several New Jersey counties, including Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), and Monmouth (42), have been ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States.New Jersey's location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis and its extensive transportation system have put over one-third of all United States residents and many Canadian residents within overnight distance by land. This accessibility to consumer revenue has enabled seaside resorts such as Atlantic City and the remainder of the Jersey Shore, as well as the state's other natural and cultural attractions, to contribute significantly to the record 111 million tourist visits to New Jersey in 2018, providing US$44.7 billion in tourism revenue, directly supporting 333,860 jobs, sustaining more than 531,000 jobs overall including peripheral impacts, and generating US$5 billion in state and local tax revenue.In 1976, a referendum of New Jersey voters approved casino gambling in Atlantic City, where the first legalized casino opened in 1978. At that time, Las Vegas was the only other casino resort in the country. Today, several casinos lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the first and longest boardwalk in the world. Atlantic City experienced a dramatic contraction in its stature as a gambling destination after 2010, including the closure of multiple casinos since 2014, spurred by competition from the advent of legalized gambling in other northeastern U.S. states. On February 26, 2013, Governor Chris Christie signed online gambling into law. Sports betting has become a growing source of gambling revenue in New Jersey since being legalized across the nation by the U.S. Supreme Court on May 14, 2018.Forests cover 45%, or approximately 2.1 million acres, of New Jersey's land area. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. The Pine Barrens, consisting of pine forests, is in the southern part of the state.Some mining activity of zinc, iron, and manganese still takes place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace.New Jersey is second in the nation in solar power installations, enabled by one of the country's most favorable net metering policies, and the renewable energy certificates program. The state has more than 10,000 solar installations.As of 2010, there were 605 school districts in the state.Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase college admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg retracted this plan when criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative.In 2010, the state government paid all teachers' premiums for health insurance, but currently all NJ public teachers pay a portion of their own health insurance premiums.New Jersey is known for the quality of its education. In 2015, the state spent more per each public school student than any other U.S. state except New York, Alaska, and Connecticut, amounting to $18,235 spent per pupil; over 50% of the expenditure was allocated to student instruction.According to 2011 "Newsweek" statistics, students of High Technology High School in Lincroft, Monmouth County and Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, Bergen County registered average SAT scores of 2145 and 2100, respectively, representing the second- and third-highest scores, respectively, of all listed U.S. high schools.Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2020 list of "U.S. News & World Report". In 2013, Rutgers University, headquartered in New Brunswick, Middlesex County as the flagship institution of higher education in New Jersey, regained medical and dental schools, augmenting its profile as a national research university as well.In 2014, New Jersey's school systems were ranked at the top of all fifty U.S. states by financial website Wallethub.com. In 2018, New Jersey's overall educational system was ranked second among all states to Massachusetts by "U.S. News & World Report". In both 2019 and 2020, "Education Week" also ranked New Jersey public schools the best of all U.S. states.Nine New Jersey high schools were ranked among the top 25 in the U.S. on the "Newsweek" "America's Top High Schools 2016" list, more than from any other state. A 2017 UCLA Civil Rights project found that New Jersey has the sixth-most segregated classrooms in the United States.New Jersey has continued to play a prominent role as a U.S. cultural nexus. Like every state, New Jersey has its own cuisine, religious communities, museums, and .New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon, the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone.Diners are iconic to New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has over 600 diners, more than any other place in the world.New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey state song, but it was not even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature.New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), sloppy joe sandwiches, tomato pies, and Texas wieners.Several states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey.New Jersey has long been an important origin for both rock and rap music. Prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey include:New Jersey currently has six teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although one Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify themselves as being from the New York metropolitan area.The National Hockey League's New Jersey Devils, based in Newark at the Prudential Center, is the only major league sports franchise to bear the state's name. Founded in 1974 in Kansas City, Missouri, as the Kansas City Scouts, the team played in Denver, Colorado, as the Colorado Rockies from 1976 until the spring of 1982 when naval architect, businessman, and Jersey City native John J. McMullen purchased, renamed, and moved the franchise to Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. While the team had mostly losing records in Kansas City, Denver, and its first years in New Jersey, the Devils began to improve in the late 1980s and early 1990s under Hall of Fame president and general manager Lou Lamoriello. The team made the playoffs for the Stanley Cup in 2001 and 2012, and won it in 1995, 2000, and 2003. The organization is the youngest of the nine major league teams in the New York metropolitan area. The Devils have established a following throughout the northern and central portions of the state, carving a place in a media market once dominated by the New York Rangers and Islanders.In 2018, the Philadelphia Flyers renovated and expanded their training facility, the Virtua Center Flyers Skate Zone, in Voorhees Township in the southern portion of the state.The New York Metropolitan Area's two National Football League teams, the New York Giants and the New York Jets, play at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. Built for about $1.6 billion, the venue is the most expensive stadium ever built. On February 2, 2014, MetLife Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLVIII.The New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer play in Red Bull Arena, a soccer-specific stadium in Harrison across the Passaic River from downtown Newark. On July 27, 2011, Red Bull Arena hosted the 2011 MLS All-Star Game.From 1977 to 2012, New Jersey had a National Basketball Association team, the New Jersey Nets. WNBA's New York Liberty played in New Jersey from 2011 to 2013 while their primary home arena, Madison Square Garden was undergoing renovations. In 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA opened their new headquarters and training facility, the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex, in Camden.The Meadowlands Sports Complex is home to the Meadowlands Racetrack, one of three major harness racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack and Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport is a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation.New Jerseyans' collegiate allegiances are predominantly split among the three major NCAA Division I programs in the state: the Rutgers University (New Jersey's flagship state university) Scarlet Knights, members of the Big Ten Conference; the Seton Hall University (the state's largest Catholic university) Pirates, members of the Big East Conference; and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers.The intense rivalry between Rutgers and Princeton athletics began with the first intercollegiate football game in 1869. The schools have not met on the football field since 1980, but they continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities.Rutgers, which fields 24 teams in various sports, is nationally known for its football program, with a 6–4 all-time bowl record; and its women's basketball programs, which appeared in a National Final in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, Rutgers expanded their football home, Rutgers Stadium, now called SHI Stadium, on the Busch Campus. The basketball teams play at the Rutgers Athletic Center on Livingston Campus. Both venues and campuses are in Piscataway, across the Raritan River from New Brunswick. The university also fields men's basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fans live mostly in the western parts of the state and Middlesex County; its alumni base is the largest in the state.Rutgers' satellite campuses in Camden and Newark each field their own athletic programs—the Rutgers–Camden Scarlet Raptors and the Rutgers–Newark Scarlet Raiders—which both compete in NCAA Division III.Seton Hall fields no football team, but its men's basketball team is one of the Big East's storied programs. No New Jersey team has won more games in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, and it is the state's only men's basketball program to reach a modern National Final. The Pirates play their home games at Prudential Center in downtown Newark, about from the university's South Orange campus. Their fans hail largely from in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. The annual inter-conference rivalry game between Seton Hall and Rutgers, whose venue alternates between Newark and Piscataway, the Garden State Hardwood Classic, is planned through 2026.The state's other Division I schools include the Monmouth University Hawks (West Long Branch), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Highlanders (Newark), the Rider University Broncs (Lawrenceville), and the Saint Peter's University Peacocks and Peahens (Jersey City).Fairleigh Dickinson University competes in both Division I and Division III. It has two campuses, each with its own sports teams. The teams at the Metropolitan Campus are known as the FDU Knights, and compete in the Northeast Conference and NCAA Division I. The college at Florham (FDU-Florham) teams are known as the FDU-Florham Devils and compete in the Middle Atlantic Conferences' Freedom Conference and NCAA Division III.Among the various Division III schools in the state, the Stevens Institute of Technology Ducks have fielded the longest continuously running collegiate men's lacrosse program in the country. 2009 marked the 125th season.New Jersey high schools are divided into divisions under the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA).' Founded in 1918, the NJSIAA currently represents 22,000 schools, 330,000 coaches, and almost 4.5 million athletes.Motion picture technology was developed by Thomas Edison, with much of his early work done at his West Orange laboratory. Edison's Black Maria was the first motion picture studio. America's first motion picture industry started in 1907 in Fort Lee and the first studio was constructed there in 1909. DuMont Laboratories in Passaic developed early sets and made the first broadcast to the private home.A number of television shows and films have been filmed in New Jersey. Since 1978, the state has maintained a Motion Picture and Television Commission to encourage filming in-state. New Jersey has long offered tax credits to television producers. Governor Chris Christie suspended the credits in 2010, but the New Jersey State Legislature in 2011 approved the restoration and expansion of the tax credit program. Under bills passed by both the state Senate and Assembly, the program offers 20 percent tax credits (22% in urban enterprise zones) to television and film productions that shoot in the state and meet set standards for hiring and local spending. When Governor Phil Murphy took office, he instated the New Jersey Film & Digital Media Tax Credit Program in 2018 and expanded it in 2020. The benefits include a 30% tax credit on film projects and a 40% subsidy for studio developments.The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the most prominent and heavily trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road, which overlaps with Interstate 95 for much of its length, carries traffic between Delaware and New York, and up and down the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike", it is known for its numerous rest areas named after prominent New Jerseyans.The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway", carries relatively more in-state traffic than interstate traffic and runs from New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May. It is the main route that connects the New York metropolitan area to the Jersey Shore. With a total of fifteen travel and six shoulder lanes, the Driscoll Bridge on the Parkway, spanning the Raritan River in Middlesex County, is the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world by number of lanes as well as one of the busiest.New Jersey is connected to New York City via various key bridges and tunnels. The double-decked George Washington Bridge carries the heaviest load of motor vehicle traffic of any bridge in the world, at 102 million vehicles per year, across fourteen lanes. It connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and carries Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1/9 across the Hudson River. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan carrying New Jersey Route 495, and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan carrying Interstate 78. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges—from north to south, the Bayonne Bridge, the Goethals Bridge, and the Outerbridge Crossing.New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three of its neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes in and out of the state. Bridge tolls are collected only from traffic exiting the state, with the exception of the private Dingman's Ferry Bridge over the Delaware River, which charges a toll in both directions.It is unlawful for a customer to serve themselves gasoline in New Jersey. It became the last remaining U.S. state where all gas stations are required to sell full-service gasoline to customers at all times in 2016, after Oregon's introduction of restricted self-service gasoline availability took effect.Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it is one of the three main airports serving the New York metropolitan area. United Airlines is the airport's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal there, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo terminal at EWR as well. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to Amtrak and NJ Transit trains along the Northeast Corridor Line.Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and rapidly growing Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of the state. Teterboro Airport in Bergen County, and Millville Municipal Airport in Cumberland County, are general aviation airports popular with private and corporate aircraft due to their proximity to New York City and the Jersey Shore, respectively.NJ Transit operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. A state-run corporation, it began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey in 1979. In the early 1980s, it acquired Conrail's commuter train operations that connected suburban towns to New York City. Today, NJ Transit has eleven commuter rail lines that run through different parts of the state. Most of the lines end at either Penn Station in New York City or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. One line provides service between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.NJ Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, through Hoboken and Jersey City. The Newark Light Rail is partially underground, and connects downtown Newark with other parts of the city and its suburbs, Belleville and Bloomfield. The River Line connects Trenton and Camden.The PATH is a rapid transit system consisting of four lines operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit system that links Camden County to Philadelphia. Both the PATCO and the PATH are two of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to operate 24 hours a day.Amtrak operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey, both to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Transit Center, Metropark, and the historic Newark Penn Station.The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, or SEPTA, has two commuter rail lines that operate into New Jersey. The Trenton Line terminates at the Trenton Transit Center, and the West Trenton Line terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing.AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots.Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers, of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City.New York Waterway has ferry terminals at Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, and Edgewater, with service to different parts of Manhattan. Liberty Water Taxi in Jersey City has ferries from Paulus Hook and Liberty State Park to Battery Park City in Manhattan. Statue Cruises offers service from Liberty State Park to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, including Ellis Island. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket.The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May–Lewes Ferry on Delaware Bay, carrying both passengers and vehicles between New Jersey and Delaware. The agency also operates the Forts Ferry Crossing for passengers across the Delaware River. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia.The position of Governor of New Jersey has been considered one of the most powerful in the nation. Until 2010, the governor was the only statewide elected executive official in the state and appointed numerous government officials. Formerly, an acting governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, president of the state senate Richard Codey held the position of acting governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term acting governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming acting governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. Phil Murphy (D) is the governor. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton.Before 2010, New Jersey was one of the few states without a lieutenant governor. Republican Kim Guadagno was elected the first lieutenant governor of New Jersey and took office on January 19, 2010. She was elected on the Republican ticket with Governor-Elect Chris Christie in the November 2009 NJ gubernatorial election. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005, and effective as of January 17, 2006.The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one state senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; state senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms.New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every four years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a governor was 2017; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2021.The New Jersey Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. All are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70.Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Court, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard.More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level; the Law Division hears both criminal cases and civil lawsuits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is damages, while the Chancery Division hears family cases, civil suits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is equitable relief, and probate trials.The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice.There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships.New Jersey is divided into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders", governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members.Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other five counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions.New Jersey currently has 565 municipalities; the number was 566 before Princeton Township and Princeton Borough merged to form the municipality of Princeton on January 1, 2013. Unlike other states, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation.Starting in the 20th century, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a three- or five-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced a Council-manager government structure with an appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs.The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature.While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially of the village type, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The other three villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter) and South Orange (now operates under a Special Charter)—have all migrated to other non-village forms.Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the more liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate that 60% of the population are self-described as pro-choice, although a majority are opposed to late trimester and intact dilation and extraction and public funding of abortion. In a 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed, On October 18, 2013, the New Jersey Supreme Court rendered a provisional, unanimous (7–0) order authorizing same-sex marriage in the state, pending a legal appeal by Governor Chris Christie, who then withdrew this appeal hours after the inaugural same-sex marriages took place on October 21, 2013.New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black-powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws.In past elections, New Jersey was a Republican bastion, but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats have majority control of both houses of the New Jersey Legislature (Senate, 26–14, and Assembly, 54–26), a 10–2 split of the state's twelve seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, and both U.S. Senate seats. Although the Democratic Party is very successful statewide, the state has had Republican governors; from 1994 to 2002, Christine Todd Whitman won twice with 47% and 49% of the votes, respectively, and in the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie defeated incumbent Democrat Jon Corzine with 48% of the vote. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Christie won reelection with over 60% of the votes. Because each candidate for lieutenant governor runs on the same ticket as the party's candidate for governor, the current governor and lieutenant governor are members of the Democratic Party. The governor's appointments to cabinet and non-cabinet positions may be from either party; for instance, the attorney general is a Democrat.In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. For many years in the past, however, it was a Republican stronghold, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. Newark Mayor Cory Booker was elected in October 2013 to join Robert Menendez to make New Jersey the first state with concurrent serving black and Latino U.S. senators.The state's Democratic strongholds include Camden County, Essex County (typically the state's most Democratic county—it includes Newark, the state's largest city), Hudson County (the second-strongest Democratic county, including Jersey City, the state's second-largest city); Mercer County (especially around Trenton and Princeton), Middlesex County, and Union County (including Elizabeth, the state's fourth-largest city).The suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have support along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Morris County, Sussex County, and Warren County. Other suburban counties, especially Bergen County and Burlington County had the majority of votes go to the Democratic Party. In the 2008 election, President Barack Obama won New Jersey with approximately fifty-seven percent of the vote, compared to McCain's forty-one percent. Independent candidate Ralph Nader garnered less than one percent of the vote.About one-third of the state's counties are considered "swing" counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Salem County, the same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south (including Paterson, the state's third-largest city) and a rural, Republican north; with the "swing" township of Wayne in the middle. Other "swing" counties like Monmouth County, Somerset County, and Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas, although Somerset has recently trended Democratic.To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 21 days prior to election day.On December 17, 2007, Governor Jon Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Corzine also signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole".There is also a mineral museum Ogdensburg in Sussex County.Visitors and residents take advantage of and contribute to performances at the numerous music, theater, and dance companies and venues located throughout the state, including:New Jersey is the location of most of the boardwalks in the U.S., with nearly every town and city along the Jersey Shore area each having a boardwalk with various attractions, entertainment, shopping, dining, miniature golf, arcades, water parks with various water rides, including water slides, lazy rivers, wave pools, etc., and amusement parks hosting rides and attractions including roller coasters, carousels, Ferris wheels, bumper cars, teacups, etc.
|
[
"William Livingston",
"A. Harry Moore",
"Rodman McCamley Price",
"William Sanford Pennington",
"Charles Creighton Stratton",
"Leon Rutherford Taylor",
"Jon Corzine",
"George C. Ludlow",
"Donald DiFrancesco",
"Clarence Edwards Case",
"Charles Edison",
"Leon Abbett",
"Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr.",
"David Ogden Watkins",
"Brendan Byrne",
"Richard Joseph Hughes",
"Samuel L. Southard",
"Horace Griggs Prall",
"Chris Christie",
"Peter Dumont Vroom",
"Elias P. Seeley",
"Joseph Bloomfield",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"Thomas Henderson",
"Aaron Ogden",
"Morgan Foster Larson",
"Clifford Ross Powell",
"Jim McGreevey",
"Theodore Fitz Randolph",
"James Fairman Fielder",
"Joseph D. Bedle",
"Foster McGowan Voorhees",
"Robert Stockton Green",
"Mahlon Dickerson",
"Franklin Murphy",
"William Nelson Runyon",
"George Sebastian Silzer",
"Harold Giles Hoffman",
"Joel Parker",
"Edward Irving Edwards",
"Edward C. Stokes",
"William Thomas Cahill",
"Thomas Kean",
"John Orus Bennett III",
"Walter Evans Edge",
"Alfred Eastlack Driscoll",
"Charles Smith Olden",
"Christine Todd Whitman",
"James Florio",
"John W. Griggs",
"John Lambert",
"Isaac Halstead Williamson",
"Robert Baumle Meyner",
"William Pennington",
"George Franklin Fort",
"William A. Newell",
"Phil Murphy",
"George Theodore Werts",
"William Paterson",
"John Franklin Fort",
"Richard Codey",
"Philemon Dickerson"
] |
|
Who was the head coach of the team FC Dila Gori in Oct, 2018?
|
October 10, 2018
|
{
"text": [
"Giorgi Shashiashvili"
]
}
|
L2_Q643042_P286_1
|
Andriy Demchenko is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.
Giorgi Shashiashvili is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Aug, 2018 to Dec, 2018.
Georgi Nemsadze is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Jul, 2019 to Jan, 2020.
Valdas Ivanauskas is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Feb, 2013 to Jun, 2013.
|
FC Dila GoriFC Dila Gori is a Georgian football club based in Gori. The club takes part in Erovnuli Liga and plays their home games at Tengiz Burjanadze Stadium. Dila won the Georgian Cup in 2012 and Georgian Championship in 2015.Founded in 1949, the club is named after a poem titled "Dila" and written by Joseph Stalin, who was born in the city and spent his youth there. Until 1961 they played under the name "Dinamo Gori" in Group A of Georgian republican championship. Following the second place in 1965, the next year Dila took part in the Soviet third league and despite an unbeaten run at home finished 11th among 20 clubs in zone 4, Group B. In 1969 Dila won the competition among the Caucasian teams. The club played several seasons in zone 4 of the Soviet Second League and after 1979 moved to zone 9 where Transcaucasia was represented. In 1967, 1974 and 1986 Dila reached the 3rd place which was their best result in the Soviet third division.In 1990 Georgia formed an independent league, which included all clubs from first three Soviet football divisions. Before 2000 Dila were an average team sitting in mid-table, but in the second decade their performance deteriorated. Although most of the seasons Dila participated in the top league, twice they were relegated to Liga 2 and once to Liga 3.In 2010 the rise started with Dila gaining two consecutive promotions within two years. In 2012 the club clinched their first title after winning the Georgian Cup and during the next five seasons four times represented Georgia in qualifying rounds of UEFA club competitions, including the Champions League. Also, twice in a row Dila participated in Europa League play-offs. During this period they were reinforced by national team members Nukri Revishvili, Giorgi Navalovski, Otar Martsvaladze and Mate Vatsadze. The club achieved their biggest success in the 2014/15 season under 25-year-old head coach Ucha Sosiashvili. Dila, whose squad included experienced players Aleksandre Kvakhadze, Irakli Modebadze and Nika Kvekveskiri, entered the title race on early stage and concluded the season with six points clear from their two immediate rivals. Facing some financial difficulties, FC Dila as a municipal property was sold at a public auction in 2016. Since then an Israeli business group has been an owner of the club.In 2020 Dila prevailed over Locomotive Tbilisi in a tight contest to claim bronze medals and obtained the right to take part in UEFA Conference League qualifying round for 2021/22. Dila Gori debuted in UEFA competitions in 2004. Although the club did not obtain an Intertoto Cup slot based on their league position, they replaced a higher placed team, which abstained from the participation. After being held to a goalless draw at home, Marek Dupnitsa beat Dila in the return leg. Later the next decade there were three more cases when the Georgian side achieved relatively better results in away games than back home. As the Cup winners, the team reached Europe League play-offs in 2012. During this campaign Dila eliminated two opponents, including Anorthosis Famagusta, which was further subjected to UEFA sanctions for crowd disturbances occurred during their home game.The next year Dila similarly prevailed in two rounds of the competition before their road to the group stage was blocked by Rapid Vienna. The team's performance against Igor Tudor's Hajduk Split was widely hailed this season.In the two subsequent seasons the club wrapped up their European seasons after the first round. The club play their home matches at the Tengiz Burjanadze Stadium, a 5,000 seater football stadium situated in Gori.The club's colors are Red and light blue.Erovnuli LigaGeorgian Cup
|
[
"Valdas Ivanauskas",
"Andriy Demchenko",
"Georgi Nemsadze"
] |
|
Who was the head coach of the team FC Dila Gori in 2018-10-10?
|
October 10, 2018
|
{
"text": [
"Giorgi Shashiashvili"
]
}
|
L2_Q643042_P286_1
|
Andriy Demchenko is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.
Giorgi Shashiashvili is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Aug, 2018 to Dec, 2018.
Georgi Nemsadze is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Jul, 2019 to Jan, 2020.
Valdas Ivanauskas is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Feb, 2013 to Jun, 2013.
|
FC Dila GoriFC Dila Gori is a Georgian football club based in Gori. The club takes part in Erovnuli Liga and plays their home games at Tengiz Burjanadze Stadium. Dila won the Georgian Cup in 2012 and Georgian Championship in 2015.Founded in 1949, the club is named after a poem titled "Dila" and written by Joseph Stalin, who was born in the city and spent his youth there. Until 1961 they played under the name "Dinamo Gori" in Group A of Georgian republican championship. Following the second place in 1965, the next year Dila took part in the Soviet third league and despite an unbeaten run at home finished 11th among 20 clubs in zone 4, Group B. In 1969 Dila won the competition among the Caucasian teams. The club played several seasons in zone 4 of the Soviet Second League and after 1979 moved to zone 9 where Transcaucasia was represented. In 1967, 1974 and 1986 Dila reached the 3rd place which was their best result in the Soviet third division.In 1990 Georgia formed an independent league, which included all clubs from first three Soviet football divisions. Before 2000 Dila were an average team sitting in mid-table, but in the second decade their performance deteriorated. Although most of the seasons Dila participated in the top league, twice they were relegated to Liga 2 and once to Liga 3.In 2010 the rise started with Dila gaining two consecutive promotions within two years. In 2012 the club clinched their first title after winning the Georgian Cup and during the next five seasons four times represented Georgia in qualifying rounds of UEFA club competitions, including the Champions League. Also, twice in a row Dila participated in Europa League play-offs. During this period they were reinforced by national team members Nukri Revishvili, Giorgi Navalovski, Otar Martsvaladze and Mate Vatsadze. The club achieved their biggest success in the 2014/15 season under 25-year-old head coach Ucha Sosiashvili. Dila, whose squad included experienced players Aleksandre Kvakhadze, Irakli Modebadze and Nika Kvekveskiri, entered the title race on early stage and concluded the season with six points clear from their two immediate rivals. Facing some financial difficulties, FC Dila as a municipal property was sold at a public auction in 2016. Since then an Israeli business group has been an owner of the club.In 2020 Dila prevailed over Locomotive Tbilisi in a tight contest to claim bronze medals and obtained the right to take part in UEFA Conference League qualifying round for 2021/22. Dila Gori debuted in UEFA competitions in 2004. Although the club did not obtain an Intertoto Cup slot based on their league position, they replaced a higher placed team, which abstained from the participation. After being held to a goalless draw at home, Marek Dupnitsa beat Dila in the return leg. Later the next decade there were three more cases when the Georgian side achieved relatively better results in away games than back home. As the Cup winners, the team reached Europe League play-offs in 2012. During this campaign Dila eliminated two opponents, including Anorthosis Famagusta, which was further subjected to UEFA sanctions for crowd disturbances occurred during their home game.The next year Dila similarly prevailed in two rounds of the competition before their road to the group stage was blocked by Rapid Vienna. The team's performance against Igor Tudor's Hajduk Split was widely hailed this season.In the two subsequent seasons the club wrapped up their European seasons after the first round. The club play their home matches at the Tengiz Burjanadze Stadium, a 5,000 seater football stadium situated in Gori.The club's colors are Red and light blue.Erovnuli LigaGeorgian Cup
|
[
"Valdas Ivanauskas",
"Andriy Demchenko",
"Georgi Nemsadze"
] |
|
Who was the head coach of the team FC Dila Gori in 10/10/2018?
|
October 10, 2018
|
{
"text": [
"Giorgi Shashiashvili"
]
}
|
L2_Q643042_P286_1
|
Andriy Demchenko is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.
Giorgi Shashiashvili is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Aug, 2018 to Dec, 2018.
Georgi Nemsadze is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Jul, 2019 to Jan, 2020.
Valdas Ivanauskas is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Feb, 2013 to Jun, 2013.
|
FC Dila GoriFC Dila Gori is a Georgian football club based in Gori. The club takes part in Erovnuli Liga and plays their home games at Tengiz Burjanadze Stadium. Dila won the Georgian Cup in 2012 and Georgian Championship in 2015.Founded in 1949, the club is named after a poem titled "Dila" and written by Joseph Stalin, who was born in the city and spent his youth there. Until 1961 they played under the name "Dinamo Gori" in Group A of Georgian republican championship. Following the second place in 1965, the next year Dila took part in the Soviet third league and despite an unbeaten run at home finished 11th among 20 clubs in zone 4, Group B. In 1969 Dila won the competition among the Caucasian teams. The club played several seasons in zone 4 of the Soviet Second League and after 1979 moved to zone 9 where Transcaucasia was represented. In 1967, 1974 and 1986 Dila reached the 3rd place which was their best result in the Soviet third division.In 1990 Georgia formed an independent league, which included all clubs from first three Soviet football divisions. Before 2000 Dila were an average team sitting in mid-table, but in the second decade their performance deteriorated. Although most of the seasons Dila participated in the top league, twice they were relegated to Liga 2 and once to Liga 3.In 2010 the rise started with Dila gaining two consecutive promotions within two years. In 2012 the club clinched their first title after winning the Georgian Cup and during the next five seasons four times represented Georgia in qualifying rounds of UEFA club competitions, including the Champions League. Also, twice in a row Dila participated in Europa League play-offs. During this period they were reinforced by national team members Nukri Revishvili, Giorgi Navalovski, Otar Martsvaladze and Mate Vatsadze. The club achieved their biggest success in the 2014/15 season under 25-year-old head coach Ucha Sosiashvili. Dila, whose squad included experienced players Aleksandre Kvakhadze, Irakli Modebadze and Nika Kvekveskiri, entered the title race on early stage and concluded the season with six points clear from their two immediate rivals. Facing some financial difficulties, FC Dila as a municipal property was sold at a public auction in 2016. Since then an Israeli business group has been an owner of the club.In 2020 Dila prevailed over Locomotive Tbilisi in a tight contest to claim bronze medals and obtained the right to take part in UEFA Conference League qualifying round for 2021/22. Dila Gori debuted in UEFA competitions in 2004. Although the club did not obtain an Intertoto Cup slot based on their league position, they replaced a higher placed team, which abstained from the participation. After being held to a goalless draw at home, Marek Dupnitsa beat Dila in the return leg. Later the next decade there were three more cases when the Georgian side achieved relatively better results in away games than back home. As the Cup winners, the team reached Europe League play-offs in 2012. During this campaign Dila eliminated two opponents, including Anorthosis Famagusta, which was further subjected to UEFA sanctions for crowd disturbances occurred during their home game.The next year Dila similarly prevailed in two rounds of the competition before their road to the group stage was blocked by Rapid Vienna. The team's performance against Igor Tudor's Hajduk Split was widely hailed this season.In the two subsequent seasons the club wrapped up their European seasons after the first round. The club play their home matches at the Tengiz Burjanadze Stadium, a 5,000 seater football stadium situated in Gori.The club's colors are Red and light blue.Erovnuli LigaGeorgian Cup
|
[
"Valdas Ivanauskas",
"Andriy Demchenko",
"Georgi Nemsadze"
] |
|
Who was the head coach of the team FC Dila Gori in Oct 10, 2018?
|
October 10, 2018
|
{
"text": [
"Giorgi Shashiashvili"
]
}
|
L2_Q643042_P286_1
|
Andriy Demchenko is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.
Giorgi Shashiashvili is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Aug, 2018 to Dec, 2018.
Georgi Nemsadze is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Jul, 2019 to Jan, 2020.
Valdas Ivanauskas is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Feb, 2013 to Jun, 2013.
|
FC Dila GoriFC Dila Gori is a Georgian football club based in Gori. The club takes part in Erovnuli Liga and plays their home games at Tengiz Burjanadze Stadium. Dila won the Georgian Cup in 2012 and Georgian Championship in 2015.Founded in 1949, the club is named after a poem titled "Dila" and written by Joseph Stalin, who was born in the city and spent his youth there. Until 1961 they played under the name "Dinamo Gori" in Group A of Georgian republican championship. Following the second place in 1965, the next year Dila took part in the Soviet third league and despite an unbeaten run at home finished 11th among 20 clubs in zone 4, Group B. In 1969 Dila won the competition among the Caucasian teams. The club played several seasons in zone 4 of the Soviet Second League and after 1979 moved to zone 9 where Transcaucasia was represented. In 1967, 1974 and 1986 Dila reached the 3rd place which was their best result in the Soviet third division.In 1990 Georgia formed an independent league, which included all clubs from first three Soviet football divisions. Before 2000 Dila were an average team sitting in mid-table, but in the second decade their performance deteriorated. Although most of the seasons Dila participated in the top league, twice they were relegated to Liga 2 and once to Liga 3.In 2010 the rise started with Dila gaining two consecutive promotions within two years. In 2012 the club clinched their first title after winning the Georgian Cup and during the next five seasons four times represented Georgia in qualifying rounds of UEFA club competitions, including the Champions League. Also, twice in a row Dila participated in Europa League play-offs. During this period they were reinforced by national team members Nukri Revishvili, Giorgi Navalovski, Otar Martsvaladze and Mate Vatsadze. The club achieved their biggest success in the 2014/15 season under 25-year-old head coach Ucha Sosiashvili. Dila, whose squad included experienced players Aleksandre Kvakhadze, Irakli Modebadze and Nika Kvekveskiri, entered the title race on early stage and concluded the season with six points clear from their two immediate rivals. Facing some financial difficulties, FC Dila as a municipal property was sold at a public auction in 2016. Since then an Israeli business group has been an owner of the club.In 2020 Dila prevailed over Locomotive Tbilisi in a tight contest to claim bronze medals and obtained the right to take part in UEFA Conference League qualifying round for 2021/22. Dila Gori debuted in UEFA competitions in 2004. Although the club did not obtain an Intertoto Cup slot based on their league position, they replaced a higher placed team, which abstained from the participation. After being held to a goalless draw at home, Marek Dupnitsa beat Dila in the return leg. Later the next decade there were three more cases when the Georgian side achieved relatively better results in away games than back home. As the Cup winners, the team reached Europe League play-offs in 2012. During this campaign Dila eliminated two opponents, including Anorthosis Famagusta, which was further subjected to UEFA sanctions for crowd disturbances occurred during their home game.The next year Dila similarly prevailed in two rounds of the competition before their road to the group stage was blocked by Rapid Vienna. The team's performance against Igor Tudor's Hajduk Split was widely hailed this season.In the two subsequent seasons the club wrapped up their European seasons after the first round. The club play their home matches at the Tengiz Burjanadze Stadium, a 5,000 seater football stadium situated in Gori.The club's colors are Red and light blue.Erovnuli LigaGeorgian Cup
|
[
"Valdas Ivanauskas",
"Andriy Demchenko",
"Georgi Nemsadze"
] |
|
Who was the head coach of the team FC Dila Gori in 10/10/2018?
|
October 10, 2018
|
{
"text": [
"Giorgi Shashiashvili"
]
}
|
L2_Q643042_P286_1
|
Andriy Demchenko is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.
Giorgi Shashiashvili is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Aug, 2018 to Dec, 2018.
Georgi Nemsadze is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Jul, 2019 to Jan, 2020.
Valdas Ivanauskas is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Feb, 2013 to Jun, 2013.
|
FC Dila GoriFC Dila Gori is a Georgian football club based in Gori. The club takes part in Erovnuli Liga and plays their home games at Tengiz Burjanadze Stadium. Dila won the Georgian Cup in 2012 and Georgian Championship in 2015.Founded in 1949, the club is named after a poem titled "Dila" and written by Joseph Stalin, who was born in the city and spent his youth there. Until 1961 they played under the name "Dinamo Gori" in Group A of Georgian republican championship. Following the second place in 1965, the next year Dila took part in the Soviet third league and despite an unbeaten run at home finished 11th among 20 clubs in zone 4, Group B. In 1969 Dila won the competition among the Caucasian teams. The club played several seasons in zone 4 of the Soviet Second League and after 1979 moved to zone 9 where Transcaucasia was represented. In 1967, 1974 and 1986 Dila reached the 3rd place which was their best result in the Soviet third division.In 1990 Georgia formed an independent league, which included all clubs from first three Soviet football divisions. Before 2000 Dila were an average team sitting in mid-table, but in the second decade their performance deteriorated. Although most of the seasons Dila participated in the top league, twice they were relegated to Liga 2 and once to Liga 3.In 2010 the rise started with Dila gaining two consecutive promotions within two years. In 2012 the club clinched their first title after winning the Georgian Cup and during the next five seasons four times represented Georgia in qualifying rounds of UEFA club competitions, including the Champions League. Also, twice in a row Dila participated in Europa League play-offs. During this period they were reinforced by national team members Nukri Revishvili, Giorgi Navalovski, Otar Martsvaladze and Mate Vatsadze. The club achieved their biggest success in the 2014/15 season under 25-year-old head coach Ucha Sosiashvili. Dila, whose squad included experienced players Aleksandre Kvakhadze, Irakli Modebadze and Nika Kvekveskiri, entered the title race on early stage and concluded the season with six points clear from their two immediate rivals. Facing some financial difficulties, FC Dila as a municipal property was sold at a public auction in 2016. Since then an Israeli business group has been an owner of the club.In 2020 Dila prevailed over Locomotive Tbilisi in a tight contest to claim bronze medals and obtained the right to take part in UEFA Conference League qualifying round for 2021/22. Dila Gori debuted in UEFA competitions in 2004. Although the club did not obtain an Intertoto Cup slot based on their league position, they replaced a higher placed team, which abstained from the participation. After being held to a goalless draw at home, Marek Dupnitsa beat Dila in the return leg. Later the next decade there were three more cases when the Georgian side achieved relatively better results in away games than back home. As the Cup winners, the team reached Europe League play-offs in 2012. During this campaign Dila eliminated two opponents, including Anorthosis Famagusta, which was further subjected to UEFA sanctions for crowd disturbances occurred during their home game.The next year Dila similarly prevailed in two rounds of the competition before their road to the group stage was blocked by Rapid Vienna. The team's performance against Igor Tudor's Hajduk Split was widely hailed this season.In the two subsequent seasons the club wrapped up their European seasons after the first round. The club play their home matches at the Tengiz Burjanadze Stadium, a 5,000 seater football stadium situated in Gori.The club's colors are Red and light blue.Erovnuli LigaGeorgian Cup
|
[
"Valdas Ivanauskas",
"Andriy Demchenko",
"Georgi Nemsadze"
] |
|
Who was the head coach of the team FC Dila Gori in 10-Oct-201810-October-2018?
|
October 10, 2018
|
{
"text": [
"Giorgi Shashiashvili"
]
}
|
L2_Q643042_P286_1
|
Andriy Demchenko is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.
Giorgi Shashiashvili is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Aug, 2018 to Dec, 2018.
Georgi Nemsadze is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Jul, 2019 to Jan, 2020.
Valdas Ivanauskas is the head coach of FC Dila Gori from Feb, 2013 to Jun, 2013.
|
FC Dila GoriFC Dila Gori is a Georgian football club based in Gori. The club takes part in Erovnuli Liga and plays their home games at Tengiz Burjanadze Stadium. Dila won the Georgian Cup in 2012 and Georgian Championship in 2015.Founded in 1949, the club is named after a poem titled "Dila" and written by Joseph Stalin, who was born in the city and spent his youth there. Until 1961 they played under the name "Dinamo Gori" in Group A of Georgian republican championship. Following the second place in 1965, the next year Dila took part in the Soviet third league and despite an unbeaten run at home finished 11th among 20 clubs in zone 4, Group B. In 1969 Dila won the competition among the Caucasian teams. The club played several seasons in zone 4 of the Soviet Second League and after 1979 moved to zone 9 where Transcaucasia was represented. In 1967, 1974 and 1986 Dila reached the 3rd place which was their best result in the Soviet third division.In 1990 Georgia formed an independent league, which included all clubs from first three Soviet football divisions. Before 2000 Dila were an average team sitting in mid-table, but in the second decade their performance deteriorated. Although most of the seasons Dila participated in the top league, twice they were relegated to Liga 2 and once to Liga 3.In 2010 the rise started with Dila gaining two consecutive promotions within two years. In 2012 the club clinched their first title after winning the Georgian Cup and during the next five seasons four times represented Georgia in qualifying rounds of UEFA club competitions, including the Champions League. Also, twice in a row Dila participated in Europa League play-offs. During this period they were reinforced by national team members Nukri Revishvili, Giorgi Navalovski, Otar Martsvaladze and Mate Vatsadze. The club achieved their biggest success in the 2014/15 season under 25-year-old head coach Ucha Sosiashvili. Dila, whose squad included experienced players Aleksandre Kvakhadze, Irakli Modebadze and Nika Kvekveskiri, entered the title race on early stage and concluded the season with six points clear from their two immediate rivals. Facing some financial difficulties, FC Dila as a municipal property was sold at a public auction in 2016. Since then an Israeli business group has been an owner of the club.In 2020 Dila prevailed over Locomotive Tbilisi in a tight contest to claim bronze medals and obtained the right to take part in UEFA Conference League qualifying round for 2021/22. Dila Gori debuted in UEFA competitions in 2004. Although the club did not obtain an Intertoto Cup slot based on their league position, they replaced a higher placed team, which abstained from the participation. After being held to a goalless draw at home, Marek Dupnitsa beat Dila in the return leg. Later the next decade there were three more cases when the Georgian side achieved relatively better results in away games than back home. As the Cup winners, the team reached Europe League play-offs in 2012. During this campaign Dila eliminated two opponents, including Anorthosis Famagusta, which was further subjected to UEFA sanctions for crowd disturbances occurred during their home game.The next year Dila similarly prevailed in two rounds of the competition before their road to the group stage was blocked by Rapid Vienna. The team's performance against Igor Tudor's Hajduk Split was widely hailed this season.In the two subsequent seasons the club wrapped up their European seasons after the first round. The club play their home matches at the Tengiz Burjanadze Stadium, a 5,000 seater football stadium situated in Gori.The club's colors are Red and light blue.Erovnuli LigaGeorgian Cup
|
[
"Valdas Ivanauskas",
"Andriy Demchenko",
"Georgi Nemsadze"
] |
|
Which position did Arthur Forwood hold in Jun, 1886?
|
June 22, 1886
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q4798717_P39_1
|
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1898.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Lord Mayor of Liverpool from Jan, 1877 to Jan, 1878.
|
Arthur ForwoodSir Arthur Bower Forwood, 1st Baronet, (23 June 1836 – 27 September 1898) was an English merchant, shipowner, and politician. He was a Conservative Member of Parliament from 1885 until his death, and in 1895 he was created a baronet.Forwood was born in Edge Hill, Liverpool, the eldest son of Thomas Brittain Forwood, a merchant, and Charlotte née Bower, the daughter of a cotton broker. He was educated at Liverpool College and then joined the family business. When his father retired from the business in 1862, he ran it with his younger brother, William. This was at a time when the cotton trade was being disrupted by the American Civil War. The brothers made a fortune "first from wartime speculation and blockade running, and then from exploiting telegraph and cotton futures". They set up offices in New York City, New Orleans and Bombay and ran a small fleet of ships that traded in the West Indies, Costa Rica and New York.Forwood's political life started in 1871 when he was elected as a city councillor. He served as Lord Mayor of Liverpool in 1878–79, and became effectively the leader of Liverpool's Conservatives. He stood for the Liverpool constituency in an 1882 by-election, but lost the Conservative held seat to the Liberal candidate. In the general election of 1885 Forwood was returned for Ormskirk, a seat he held until his death. In 1886 Lord Salisbury appointed him as Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty, a post he retained until 1892. He was the first shipowner to become an Admiralty minister. In 1892 he was appointed as a privy councillor, and was the first serving town councillor to be appointed to this position. He was created a baronet in 1895.Forwood was "orthodox, a resolute champion of the union and Empire, monarchy and church, Lords and Commons", he was concerned that the Conservative leaders were "too faint-hearted or stuck up", and was worried about the "timidity" of the Liverpool merchants. He supported the establishment of an episcopal see and a University College in Liverpool and, more generally, advocated universal suffrage, the redistribution of parliamentary seats, temperance reform, comprehensive employers' liability, old age pensions, council housing, public utilities and public transport. When he was a minister, he was described as being "a hustler" and as having drive as an administrator and reformer, but he did not have "the knack of making himself popular". His manner was described as being "unvarnished" and he was "short of the instincts of a Gentleman". Nevertheless, he was praised for his effectiveness and for his determination.In 1858 Forwood married Lucy, daughter of Simon Crosfield (brother of the businessman Joseph Crosfield), of Liverpool; they had three daughters. Lucy died in 1873, and the following year Forwood married Mary Anne Eliza, daughter of the journalist and historian Thomas Baines, FRS, of Liverpool and of London. They had four sons (the eldest, Dudley, being heir to the baronetcy), and a daughter. Forwood died in September 1898 at his home, The Priory, Gateacre, Liverpool and was buried nearby in the graveyard of All Saints Church, Childwall. He had been suffering from colitis, and this led to heart failure. Forwood's estate amounted to a little over £87,320 (£ as of 2021). His statue stands in St John's Gardens, Liverpool.
|
[
"Lord Mayor of Liverpool",
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Arthur Forwood hold in 1886-06-22?
|
June 22, 1886
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q4798717_P39_1
|
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1898.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Lord Mayor of Liverpool from Jan, 1877 to Jan, 1878.
|
Arthur ForwoodSir Arthur Bower Forwood, 1st Baronet, (23 June 1836 – 27 September 1898) was an English merchant, shipowner, and politician. He was a Conservative Member of Parliament from 1885 until his death, and in 1895 he was created a baronet.Forwood was born in Edge Hill, Liverpool, the eldest son of Thomas Brittain Forwood, a merchant, and Charlotte née Bower, the daughter of a cotton broker. He was educated at Liverpool College and then joined the family business. When his father retired from the business in 1862, he ran it with his younger brother, William. This was at a time when the cotton trade was being disrupted by the American Civil War. The brothers made a fortune "first from wartime speculation and blockade running, and then from exploiting telegraph and cotton futures". They set up offices in New York City, New Orleans and Bombay and ran a small fleet of ships that traded in the West Indies, Costa Rica and New York.Forwood's political life started in 1871 when he was elected as a city councillor. He served as Lord Mayor of Liverpool in 1878–79, and became effectively the leader of Liverpool's Conservatives. He stood for the Liverpool constituency in an 1882 by-election, but lost the Conservative held seat to the Liberal candidate. In the general election of 1885 Forwood was returned for Ormskirk, a seat he held until his death. In 1886 Lord Salisbury appointed him as Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty, a post he retained until 1892. He was the first shipowner to become an Admiralty minister. In 1892 he was appointed as a privy councillor, and was the first serving town councillor to be appointed to this position. He was created a baronet in 1895.Forwood was "orthodox, a resolute champion of the union and Empire, monarchy and church, Lords and Commons", he was concerned that the Conservative leaders were "too faint-hearted or stuck up", and was worried about the "timidity" of the Liverpool merchants. He supported the establishment of an episcopal see and a University College in Liverpool and, more generally, advocated universal suffrage, the redistribution of parliamentary seats, temperance reform, comprehensive employers' liability, old age pensions, council housing, public utilities and public transport. When he was a minister, he was described as being "a hustler" and as having drive as an administrator and reformer, but he did not have "the knack of making himself popular". His manner was described as being "unvarnished" and he was "short of the instincts of a Gentleman". Nevertheless, he was praised for his effectiveness and for his determination.In 1858 Forwood married Lucy, daughter of Simon Crosfield (brother of the businessman Joseph Crosfield), of Liverpool; they had three daughters. Lucy died in 1873, and the following year Forwood married Mary Anne Eliza, daughter of the journalist and historian Thomas Baines, FRS, of Liverpool and of London. They had four sons (the eldest, Dudley, being heir to the baronetcy), and a daughter. Forwood died in September 1898 at his home, The Priory, Gateacre, Liverpool and was buried nearby in the graveyard of All Saints Church, Childwall. He had been suffering from colitis, and this led to heart failure. Forwood's estate amounted to a little over £87,320 (£ as of 2021). His statue stands in St John's Gardens, Liverpool.
|
[
"Lord Mayor of Liverpool",
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Arthur Forwood hold in 22/06/1886?
|
June 22, 1886
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q4798717_P39_1
|
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1898.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Lord Mayor of Liverpool from Jan, 1877 to Jan, 1878.
|
Arthur ForwoodSir Arthur Bower Forwood, 1st Baronet, (23 June 1836 – 27 September 1898) was an English merchant, shipowner, and politician. He was a Conservative Member of Parliament from 1885 until his death, and in 1895 he was created a baronet.Forwood was born in Edge Hill, Liverpool, the eldest son of Thomas Brittain Forwood, a merchant, and Charlotte née Bower, the daughter of a cotton broker. He was educated at Liverpool College and then joined the family business. When his father retired from the business in 1862, he ran it with his younger brother, William. This was at a time when the cotton trade was being disrupted by the American Civil War. The brothers made a fortune "first from wartime speculation and blockade running, and then from exploiting telegraph and cotton futures". They set up offices in New York City, New Orleans and Bombay and ran a small fleet of ships that traded in the West Indies, Costa Rica and New York.Forwood's political life started in 1871 when he was elected as a city councillor. He served as Lord Mayor of Liverpool in 1878–79, and became effectively the leader of Liverpool's Conservatives. He stood for the Liverpool constituency in an 1882 by-election, but lost the Conservative held seat to the Liberal candidate. In the general election of 1885 Forwood was returned for Ormskirk, a seat he held until his death. In 1886 Lord Salisbury appointed him as Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty, a post he retained until 1892. He was the first shipowner to become an Admiralty minister. In 1892 he was appointed as a privy councillor, and was the first serving town councillor to be appointed to this position. He was created a baronet in 1895.Forwood was "orthodox, a resolute champion of the union and Empire, monarchy and church, Lords and Commons", he was concerned that the Conservative leaders were "too faint-hearted or stuck up", and was worried about the "timidity" of the Liverpool merchants. He supported the establishment of an episcopal see and a University College in Liverpool and, more generally, advocated universal suffrage, the redistribution of parliamentary seats, temperance reform, comprehensive employers' liability, old age pensions, council housing, public utilities and public transport. When he was a minister, he was described as being "a hustler" and as having drive as an administrator and reformer, but he did not have "the knack of making himself popular". His manner was described as being "unvarnished" and he was "short of the instincts of a Gentleman". Nevertheless, he was praised for his effectiveness and for his determination.In 1858 Forwood married Lucy, daughter of Simon Crosfield (brother of the businessman Joseph Crosfield), of Liverpool; they had three daughters. Lucy died in 1873, and the following year Forwood married Mary Anne Eliza, daughter of the journalist and historian Thomas Baines, FRS, of Liverpool and of London. They had four sons (the eldest, Dudley, being heir to the baronetcy), and a daughter. Forwood died in September 1898 at his home, The Priory, Gateacre, Liverpool and was buried nearby in the graveyard of All Saints Church, Childwall. He had been suffering from colitis, and this led to heart failure. Forwood's estate amounted to a little over £87,320 (£ as of 2021). His statue stands in St John's Gardens, Liverpool.
|
[
"Lord Mayor of Liverpool",
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Arthur Forwood hold in Jun 22, 1886?
|
June 22, 1886
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q4798717_P39_1
|
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1898.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Lord Mayor of Liverpool from Jan, 1877 to Jan, 1878.
|
Arthur ForwoodSir Arthur Bower Forwood, 1st Baronet, (23 June 1836 – 27 September 1898) was an English merchant, shipowner, and politician. He was a Conservative Member of Parliament from 1885 until his death, and in 1895 he was created a baronet.Forwood was born in Edge Hill, Liverpool, the eldest son of Thomas Brittain Forwood, a merchant, and Charlotte née Bower, the daughter of a cotton broker. He was educated at Liverpool College and then joined the family business. When his father retired from the business in 1862, he ran it with his younger brother, William. This was at a time when the cotton trade was being disrupted by the American Civil War. The brothers made a fortune "first from wartime speculation and blockade running, and then from exploiting telegraph and cotton futures". They set up offices in New York City, New Orleans and Bombay and ran a small fleet of ships that traded in the West Indies, Costa Rica and New York.Forwood's political life started in 1871 when he was elected as a city councillor. He served as Lord Mayor of Liverpool in 1878–79, and became effectively the leader of Liverpool's Conservatives. He stood for the Liverpool constituency in an 1882 by-election, but lost the Conservative held seat to the Liberal candidate. In the general election of 1885 Forwood was returned for Ormskirk, a seat he held until his death. In 1886 Lord Salisbury appointed him as Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty, a post he retained until 1892. He was the first shipowner to become an Admiralty minister. In 1892 he was appointed as a privy councillor, and was the first serving town councillor to be appointed to this position. He was created a baronet in 1895.Forwood was "orthodox, a resolute champion of the union and Empire, monarchy and church, Lords and Commons", he was concerned that the Conservative leaders were "too faint-hearted or stuck up", and was worried about the "timidity" of the Liverpool merchants. He supported the establishment of an episcopal see and a University College in Liverpool and, more generally, advocated universal suffrage, the redistribution of parliamentary seats, temperance reform, comprehensive employers' liability, old age pensions, council housing, public utilities and public transport. When he was a minister, he was described as being "a hustler" and as having drive as an administrator and reformer, but he did not have "the knack of making himself popular". His manner was described as being "unvarnished" and he was "short of the instincts of a Gentleman". Nevertheless, he was praised for his effectiveness and for his determination.In 1858 Forwood married Lucy, daughter of Simon Crosfield (brother of the businessman Joseph Crosfield), of Liverpool; they had three daughters. Lucy died in 1873, and the following year Forwood married Mary Anne Eliza, daughter of the journalist and historian Thomas Baines, FRS, of Liverpool and of London. They had four sons (the eldest, Dudley, being heir to the baronetcy), and a daughter. Forwood died in September 1898 at his home, The Priory, Gateacre, Liverpool and was buried nearby in the graveyard of All Saints Church, Childwall. He had been suffering from colitis, and this led to heart failure. Forwood's estate amounted to a little over £87,320 (£ as of 2021). His statue stands in St John's Gardens, Liverpool.
|
[
"Lord Mayor of Liverpool",
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Arthur Forwood hold in 06/22/1886?
|
June 22, 1886
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q4798717_P39_1
|
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1898.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Lord Mayor of Liverpool from Jan, 1877 to Jan, 1878.
|
Arthur ForwoodSir Arthur Bower Forwood, 1st Baronet, (23 June 1836 – 27 September 1898) was an English merchant, shipowner, and politician. He was a Conservative Member of Parliament from 1885 until his death, and in 1895 he was created a baronet.Forwood was born in Edge Hill, Liverpool, the eldest son of Thomas Brittain Forwood, a merchant, and Charlotte née Bower, the daughter of a cotton broker. He was educated at Liverpool College and then joined the family business. When his father retired from the business in 1862, he ran it with his younger brother, William. This was at a time when the cotton trade was being disrupted by the American Civil War. The brothers made a fortune "first from wartime speculation and blockade running, and then from exploiting telegraph and cotton futures". They set up offices in New York City, New Orleans and Bombay and ran a small fleet of ships that traded in the West Indies, Costa Rica and New York.Forwood's political life started in 1871 when he was elected as a city councillor. He served as Lord Mayor of Liverpool in 1878–79, and became effectively the leader of Liverpool's Conservatives. He stood for the Liverpool constituency in an 1882 by-election, but lost the Conservative held seat to the Liberal candidate. In the general election of 1885 Forwood was returned for Ormskirk, a seat he held until his death. In 1886 Lord Salisbury appointed him as Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty, a post he retained until 1892. He was the first shipowner to become an Admiralty minister. In 1892 he was appointed as a privy councillor, and was the first serving town councillor to be appointed to this position. He was created a baronet in 1895.Forwood was "orthodox, a resolute champion of the union and Empire, monarchy and church, Lords and Commons", he was concerned that the Conservative leaders were "too faint-hearted or stuck up", and was worried about the "timidity" of the Liverpool merchants. He supported the establishment of an episcopal see and a University College in Liverpool and, more generally, advocated universal suffrage, the redistribution of parliamentary seats, temperance reform, comprehensive employers' liability, old age pensions, council housing, public utilities and public transport. When he was a minister, he was described as being "a hustler" and as having drive as an administrator and reformer, but he did not have "the knack of making himself popular". His manner was described as being "unvarnished" and he was "short of the instincts of a Gentleman". Nevertheless, he was praised for his effectiveness and for his determination.In 1858 Forwood married Lucy, daughter of Simon Crosfield (brother of the businessman Joseph Crosfield), of Liverpool; they had three daughters. Lucy died in 1873, and the following year Forwood married Mary Anne Eliza, daughter of the journalist and historian Thomas Baines, FRS, of Liverpool and of London. They had four sons (the eldest, Dudley, being heir to the baronetcy), and a daughter. Forwood died in September 1898 at his home, The Priory, Gateacre, Liverpool and was buried nearby in the graveyard of All Saints Church, Childwall. He had been suffering from colitis, and this led to heart failure. Forwood's estate amounted to a little over £87,320 (£ as of 2021). His statue stands in St John's Gardens, Liverpool.
|
[
"Lord Mayor of Liverpool",
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Arthur Forwood hold in 22-Jun-188622-June-1886?
|
June 22, 1886
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q4798717_P39_1
|
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 23rd Parliament of the United Kingdom from Nov, 1885 to Jun, 1886.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1886 to Jun, 1892.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1895 to Sep, 1898.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jul, 1892 to Jul, 1895.
Arthur Forwood holds the position of Lord Mayor of Liverpool from Jan, 1877 to Jan, 1878.
|
Arthur ForwoodSir Arthur Bower Forwood, 1st Baronet, (23 June 1836 – 27 September 1898) was an English merchant, shipowner, and politician. He was a Conservative Member of Parliament from 1885 until his death, and in 1895 he was created a baronet.Forwood was born in Edge Hill, Liverpool, the eldest son of Thomas Brittain Forwood, a merchant, and Charlotte née Bower, the daughter of a cotton broker. He was educated at Liverpool College and then joined the family business. When his father retired from the business in 1862, he ran it with his younger brother, William. This was at a time when the cotton trade was being disrupted by the American Civil War. The brothers made a fortune "first from wartime speculation and blockade running, and then from exploiting telegraph and cotton futures". They set up offices in New York City, New Orleans and Bombay and ran a small fleet of ships that traded in the West Indies, Costa Rica and New York.Forwood's political life started in 1871 when he was elected as a city councillor. He served as Lord Mayor of Liverpool in 1878–79, and became effectively the leader of Liverpool's Conservatives. He stood for the Liverpool constituency in an 1882 by-election, but lost the Conservative held seat to the Liberal candidate. In the general election of 1885 Forwood was returned for Ormskirk, a seat he held until his death. In 1886 Lord Salisbury appointed him as Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty, a post he retained until 1892. He was the first shipowner to become an Admiralty minister. In 1892 he was appointed as a privy councillor, and was the first serving town councillor to be appointed to this position. He was created a baronet in 1895.Forwood was "orthodox, a resolute champion of the union and Empire, monarchy and church, Lords and Commons", he was concerned that the Conservative leaders were "too faint-hearted or stuck up", and was worried about the "timidity" of the Liverpool merchants. He supported the establishment of an episcopal see and a University College in Liverpool and, more generally, advocated universal suffrage, the redistribution of parliamentary seats, temperance reform, comprehensive employers' liability, old age pensions, council housing, public utilities and public transport. When he was a minister, he was described as being "a hustler" and as having drive as an administrator and reformer, but he did not have "the knack of making himself popular". His manner was described as being "unvarnished" and he was "short of the instincts of a Gentleman". Nevertheless, he was praised for his effectiveness and for his determination.In 1858 Forwood married Lucy, daughter of Simon Crosfield (brother of the businessman Joseph Crosfield), of Liverpool; they had three daughters. Lucy died in 1873, and the following year Forwood married Mary Anne Eliza, daughter of the journalist and historian Thomas Baines, FRS, of Liverpool and of London. They had four sons (the eldest, Dudley, being heir to the baronetcy), and a daughter. Forwood died in September 1898 at his home, The Priory, Gateacre, Liverpool and was buried nearby in the graveyard of All Saints Church, Childwall. He had been suffering from colitis, and this led to heart failure. Forwood's estate amounted to a little over £87,320 (£ as of 2021). His statue stands in St John's Gardens, Liverpool.
|
[
"Lord Mayor of Liverpool",
"Member of the 25th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 26th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 24th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which team did Cedrick Hordges play for in Jun, 1984?
|
June 05, 1984
|
{
"text": [
"Libertas Livorno"
]
}
|
L2_Q3664162_P54_3
|
Cedrick Hordges plays for Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1993.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Fortitudo Pallacanestro Bologna from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1991.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Auburn Tigers men's basketball from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1975.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Denver Nuggets from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1982.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Pallacanestro Pavia from Jan, 1985 to Jan, 1988.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Pallacanestro Varese from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1984.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Libertas Livorno from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 1985.
|
Cedrick HordgesCedrick Tyrone Hordges (born January 8, 1957) is a retired American basketball player. He played in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the Denver Nuggets from 1980 to 1982. He was drafted by the Chicago Bulls during the third round of the 1979 NBA Draft from the University of South Carolina after transferring from Auburn University. He was then traded to the Nuggets, for whom he played in 145 games over 2 seasons. He then continued his professional career in Europe, playing for 9 teams over 13 seasons.
|
[
"Denver Nuggets",
"Pallacanestro Varese",
"Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca",
"Pallacanestro Pavia",
"Auburn Tigers men's basketball",
"Fortitudo Pallacanestro Bologna"
] |
|
Which team did Cedrick Hordges play for in 1984-06-05?
|
June 05, 1984
|
{
"text": [
"Libertas Livorno"
]
}
|
L2_Q3664162_P54_3
|
Cedrick Hordges plays for Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1993.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Fortitudo Pallacanestro Bologna from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1991.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Auburn Tigers men's basketball from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1975.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Denver Nuggets from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1982.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Pallacanestro Pavia from Jan, 1985 to Jan, 1988.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Pallacanestro Varese from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1984.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Libertas Livorno from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 1985.
|
Cedrick HordgesCedrick Tyrone Hordges (born January 8, 1957) is a retired American basketball player. He played in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the Denver Nuggets from 1980 to 1982. He was drafted by the Chicago Bulls during the third round of the 1979 NBA Draft from the University of South Carolina after transferring from Auburn University. He was then traded to the Nuggets, for whom he played in 145 games over 2 seasons. He then continued his professional career in Europe, playing for 9 teams over 13 seasons.
|
[
"Denver Nuggets",
"Pallacanestro Varese",
"Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca",
"Pallacanestro Pavia",
"Auburn Tigers men's basketball",
"Fortitudo Pallacanestro Bologna"
] |
|
Which team did Cedrick Hordges play for in 05/06/1984?
|
June 05, 1984
|
{
"text": [
"Libertas Livorno"
]
}
|
L2_Q3664162_P54_3
|
Cedrick Hordges plays for Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1993.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Fortitudo Pallacanestro Bologna from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1991.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Auburn Tigers men's basketball from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1975.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Denver Nuggets from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1982.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Pallacanestro Pavia from Jan, 1985 to Jan, 1988.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Pallacanestro Varese from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1984.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Libertas Livorno from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 1985.
|
Cedrick HordgesCedrick Tyrone Hordges (born January 8, 1957) is a retired American basketball player. He played in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the Denver Nuggets from 1980 to 1982. He was drafted by the Chicago Bulls during the third round of the 1979 NBA Draft from the University of South Carolina after transferring from Auburn University. He was then traded to the Nuggets, for whom he played in 145 games over 2 seasons. He then continued his professional career in Europe, playing for 9 teams over 13 seasons.
|
[
"Denver Nuggets",
"Pallacanestro Varese",
"Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca",
"Pallacanestro Pavia",
"Auburn Tigers men's basketball",
"Fortitudo Pallacanestro Bologna"
] |
|
Which team did Cedrick Hordges play for in Jun 05, 1984?
|
June 05, 1984
|
{
"text": [
"Libertas Livorno"
]
}
|
L2_Q3664162_P54_3
|
Cedrick Hordges plays for Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1993.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Fortitudo Pallacanestro Bologna from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1991.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Auburn Tigers men's basketball from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1975.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Denver Nuggets from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1982.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Pallacanestro Pavia from Jan, 1985 to Jan, 1988.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Pallacanestro Varese from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1984.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Libertas Livorno from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 1985.
|
Cedrick HordgesCedrick Tyrone Hordges (born January 8, 1957) is a retired American basketball player. He played in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the Denver Nuggets from 1980 to 1982. He was drafted by the Chicago Bulls during the third round of the 1979 NBA Draft from the University of South Carolina after transferring from Auburn University. He was then traded to the Nuggets, for whom he played in 145 games over 2 seasons. He then continued his professional career in Europe, playing for 9 teams over 13 seasons.
|
[
"Denver Nuggets",
"Pallacanestro Varese",
"Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca",
"Pallacanestro Pavia",
"Auburn Tigers men's basketball",
"Fortitudo Pallacanestro Bologna"
] |
|
Which team did Cedrick Hordges play for in 06/05/1984?
|
June 05, 1984
|
{
"text": [
"Libertas Livorno"
]
}
|
L2_Q3664162_P54_3
|
Cedrick Hordges plays for Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1993.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Fortitudo Pallacanestro Bologna from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1991.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Auburn Tigers men's basketball from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1975.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Denver Nuggets from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1982.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Pallacanestro Pavia from Jan, 1985 to Jan, 1988.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Pallacanestro Varese from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1984.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Libertas Livorno from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 1985.
|
Cedrick HordgesCedrick Tyrone Hordges (born January 8, 1957) is a retired American basketball player. He played in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the Denver Nuggets from 1980 to 1982. He was drafted by the Chicago Bulls during the third round of the 1979 NBA Draft from the University of South Carolina after transferring from Auburn University. He was then traded to the Nuggets, for whom he played in 145 games over 2 seasons. He then continued his professional career in Europe, playing for 9 teams over 13 seasons.
|
[
"Denver Nuggets",
"Pallacanestro Varese",
"Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca",
"Pallacanestro Pavia",
"Auburn Tigers men's basketball",
"Fortitudo Pallacanestro Bologna"
] |
|
Which team did Cedrick Hordges play for in 05-Jun-198405-June-1984?
|
June 05, 1984
|
{
"text": [
"Libertas Livorno"
]
}
|
L2_Q3664162_P54_3
|
Cedrick Hordges plays for Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1993.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Fortitudo Pallacanestro Bologna from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1991.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Auburn Tigers men's basketball from Jan, 1975 to Jan, 1975.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Denver Nuggets from Jan, 1980 to Jan, 1982.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Pallacanestro Pavia from Jan, 1985 to Jan, 1988.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Pallacanestro Varese from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1984.
Cedrick Hordges plays for Libertas Livorno from Jan, 1984 to Jan, 1985.
|
Cedrick HordgesCedrick Tyrone Hordges (born January 8, 1957) is a retired American basketball player. He played in the National Basketball Association (NBA) as a member of the Denver Nuggets from 1980 to 1982. He was drafted by the Chicago Bulls during the third round of the 1979 NBA Draft from the University of South Carolina after transferring from Auburn University. He was then traded to the Nuggets, for whom he played in 145 games over 2 seasons. He then continued his professional career in Europe, playing for 9 teams over 13 seasons.
|
[
"Denver Nuggets",
"Pallacanestro Varese",
"Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca",
"Pallacanestro Pavia",
"Auburn Tigers men's basketball",
"Fortitudo Pallacanestro Bologna"
] |
|
Which team did Malemngamba Meetei play for in Dec, 2012?
|
December 10, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"Salgaocar F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q6743074_P54_2
|
Malemngamba Meetei plays for North Imphal Sporting Association from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2009.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Mumbai F.C. from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Salgaocar F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Bengaluru FC from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2012.
|
Malemngamba MeiteiKshetrimayum Malemnganba Meitei (born 5 January 1992) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Gokulam Kerala in the I-League .Born in Yairipok, Manipur, Meetei started playing football from the age of seven years after watching the Brazil national team during the 1998 FIFA World Cup. After having participated in many camps and development programs, Meetei began playing for NEROCA FC in 2007. While with NEROCA Meetei played in the Manipur State League, which was the top tier league for football in Manipur. He then signed for the North Imphal Sporting Association (NISA) in 2009 who were the reigning Manipur league winners and participants in the I-League 2nd Division.After playing the final rounds of the 2nd Division in Bangalore, Meetei was signed by newly promoted HAL SC for the new I-League season. Two seasons later, after the club were relegated, Meetei signed for former I-League champions, Salgaocar, for the 2012–13 season.After spending one season at Salgaocar, he played for [Bengaluru FC] for two years from 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 season. During his two year tenure at the club, Bangaluru Fc won I-League in the debut season and Federation cup in the 2nd season. He made his debut for the side in the club's first ever I-League match against Mohun Bagan A.C. in which he started and played 80 minutes before being replaced by Robin Singh as Bengaluru drew the match 1–1. After the 2014–15 season, Meetei was released by the club. After his release, Meitei was listed as being eligible to be picked in the 2015 ISL Domestic Draft.After playing for two years at Bangaluru FC, Meetei signed for Mumbai and played for them in the Mumbai Football League and subsequently 2015–16 I-League.He recently played for NEROCA FC of Manipur (2016-2017) which became the first club from Manipur to be crowned winner of 2nd Division I-League after defeating Lonestar Kashmir FC (4-1) with a game in hand against Southern Samity FC.He is currently playing for NorthEast United in the Indian Super League for season 2017-18. He was picked by NorthEast United in the ISL Domestic Draft at a price cap of ₹16 lakhs.
|
[
"Bengaluru FC",
"Mumbai F.C.",
"North Imphal Sporting Association",
"Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C."
] |
|
Which team did Malemngamba Meetei play for in 2012-12-10?
|
December 10, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"Salgaocar F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q6743074_P54_2
|
Malemngamba Meetei plays for North Imphal Sporting Association from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2009.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Mumbai F.C. from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Salgaocar F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Bengaluru FC from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2012.
|
Malemngamba MeiteiKshetrimayum Malemnganba Meitei (born 5 January 1992) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Gokulam Kerala in the I-League .Born in Yairipok, Manipur, Meetei started playing football from the age of seven years after watching the Brazil national team during the 1998 FIFA World Cup. After having participated in many camps and development programs, Meetei began playing for NEROCA FC in 2007. While with NEROCA Meetei played in the Manipur State League, which was the top tier league for football in Manipur. He then signed for the North Imphal Sporting Association (NISA) in 2009 who were the reigning Manipur league winners and participants in the I-League 2nd Division.After playing the final rounds of the 2nd Division in Bangalore, Meetei was signed by newly promoted HAL SC for the new I-League season. Two seasons later, after the club were relegated, Meetei signed for former I-League champions, Salgaocar, for the 2012–13 season.After spending one season at Salgaocar, he played for [Bengaluru FC] for two years from 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 season. During his two year tenure at the club, Bangaluru Fc won I-League in the debut season and Federation cup in the 2nd season. He made his debut for the side in the club's first ever I-League match against Mohun Bagan A.C. in which he started and played 80 minutes before being replaced by Robin Singh as Bengaluru drew the match 1–1. After the 2014–15 season, Meetei was released by the club. After his release, Meitei was listed as being eligible to be picked in the 2015 ISL Domestic Draft.After playing for two years at Bangaluru FC, Meetei signed for Mumbai and played for them in the Mumbai Football League and subsequently 2015–16 I-League.He recently played for NEROCA FC of Manipur (2016-2017) which became the first club from Manipur to be crowned winner of 2nd Division I-League after defeating Lonestar Kashmir FC (4-1) with a game in hand against Southern Samity FC.He is currently playing for NorthEast United in the Indian Super League for season 2017-18. He was picked by NorthEast United in the ISL Domestic Draft at a price cap of ₹16 lakhs.
|
[
"Bengaluru FC",
"Mumbai F.C.",
"North Imphal Sporting Association",
"Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C."
] |
|
Which team did Malemngamba Meetei play for in 10/12/2012?
|
December 10, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"Salgaocar F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q6743074_P54_2
|
Malemngamba Meetei plays for North Imphal Sporting Association from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2009.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Mumbai F.C. from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Salgaocar F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Bengaluru FC from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2012.
|
Malemngamba MeiteiKshetrimayum Malemnganba Meitei (born 5 January 1992) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Gokulam Kerala in the I-League .Born in Yairipok, Manipur, Meetei started playing football from the age of seven years after watching the Brazil national team during the 1998 FIFA World Cup. After having participated in many camps and development programs, Meetei began playing for NEROCA FC in 2007. While with NEROCA Meetei played in the Manipur State League, which was the top tier league for football in Manipur. He then signed for the North Imphal Sporting Association (NISA) in 2009 who were the reigning Manipur league winners and participants in the I-League 2nd Division.After playing the final rounds of the 2nd Division in Bangalore, Meetei was signed by newly promoted HAL SC for the new I-League season. Two seasons later, after the club were relegated, Meetei signed for former I-League champions, Salgaocar, for the 2012–13 season.After spending one season at Salgaocar, he played for [Bengaluru FC] for two years from 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 season. During his two year tenure at the club, Bangaluru Fc won I-League in the debut season and Federation cup in the 2nd season. He made his debut for the side in the club's first ever I-League match against Mohun Bagan A.C. in which he started and played 80 minutes before being replaced by Robin Singh as Bengaluru drew the match 1–1. After the 2014–15 season, Meetei was released by the club. After his release, Meitei was listed as being eligible to be picked in the 2015 ISL Domestic Draft.After playing for two years at Bangaluru FC, Meetei signed for Mumbai and played for them in the Mumbai Football League and subsequently 2015–16 I-League.He recently played for NEROCA FC of Manipur (2016-2017) which became the first club from Manipur to be crowned winner of 2nd Division I-League after defeating Lonestar Kashmir FC (4-1) with a game in hand against Southern Samity FC.He is currently playing for NorthEast United in the Indian Super League for season 2017-18. He was picked by NorthEast United in the ISL Domestic Draft at a price cap of ₹16 lakhs.
|
[
"Bengaluru FC",
"Mumbai F.C.",
"North Imphal Sporting Association",
"Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C."
] |
|
Which team did Malemngamba Meetei play for in Dec 10, 2012?
|
December 10, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"Salgaocar F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q6743074_P54_2
|
Malemngamba Meetei plays for North Imphal Sporting Association from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2009.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Mumbai F.C. from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Salgaocar F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Bengaluru FC from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2012.
|
Malemngamba MeiteiKshetrimayum Malemnganba Meitei (born 5 January 1992) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Gokulam Kerala in the I-League .Born in Yairipok, Manipur, Meetei started playing football from the age of seven years after watching the Brazil national team during the 1998 FIFA World Cup. After having participated in many camps and development programs, Meetei began playing for NEROCA FC in 2007. While with NEROCA Meetei played in the Manipur State League, which was the top tier league for football in Manipur. He then signed for the North Imphal Sporting Association (NISA) in 2009 who were the reigning Manipur league winners and participants in the I-League 2nd Division.After playing the final rounds of the 2nd Division in Bangalore, Meetei was signed by newly promoted HAL SC for the new I-League season. Two seasons later, after the club were relegated, Meetei signed for former I-League champions, Salgaocar, for the 2012–13 season.After spending one season at Salgaocar, he played for [Bengaluru FC] for two years from 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 season. During his two year tenure at the club, Bangaluru Fc won I-League in the debut season and Federation cup in the 2nd season. He made his debut for the side in the club's first ever I-League match against Mohun Bagan A.C. in which he started and played 80 minutes before being replaced by Robin Singh as Bengaluru drew the match 1–1. After the 2014–15 season, Meetei was released by the club. After his release, Meitei was listed as being eligible to be picked in the 2015 ISL Domestic Draft.After playing for two years at Bangaluru FC, Meetei signed for Mumbai and played for them in the Mumbai Football League and subsequently 2015–16 I-League.He recently played for NEROCA FC of Manipur (2016-2017) which became the first club from Manipur to be crowned winner of 2nd Division I-League after defeating Lonestar Kashmir FC (4-1) with a game in hand against Southern Samity FC.He is currently playing for NorthEast United in the Indian Super League for season 2017-18. He was picked by NorthEast United in the ISL Domestic Draft at a price cap of ₹16 lakhs.
|
[
"Bengaluru FC",
"Mumbai F.C.",
"North Imphal Sporting Association",
"Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C."
] |
|
Which team did Malemngamba Meetei play for in 12/10/2012?
|
December 10, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"Salgaocar F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q6743074_P54_2
|
Malemngamba Meetei plays for North Imphal Sporting Association from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2009.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Mumbai F.C. from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Salgaocar F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Bengaluru FC from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2012.
|
Malemngamba MeiteiKshetrimayum Malemnganba Meitei (born 5 January 1992) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Gokulam Kerala in the I-League .Born in Yairipok, Manipur, Meetei started playing football from the age of seven years after watching the Brazil national team during the 1998 FIFA World Cup. After having participated in many camps and development programs, Meetei began playing for NEROCA FC in 2007. While with NEROCA Meetei played in the Manipur State League, which was the top tier league for football in Manipur. He then signed for the North Imphal Sporting Association (NISA) in 2009 who were the reigning Manipur league winners and participants in the I-League 2nd Division.After playing the final rounds of the 2nd Division in Bangalore, Meetei was signed by newly promoted HAL SC for the new I-League season. Two seasons later, after the club were relegated, Meetei signed for former I-League champions, Salgaocar, for the 2012–13 season.After spending one season at Salgaocar, he played for [Bengaluru FC] for two years from 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 season. During his two year tenure at the club, Bangaluru Fc won I-League in the debut season and Federation cup in the 2nd season. He made his debut for the side in the club's first ever I-League match against Mohun Bagan A.C. in which he started and played 80 minutes before being replaced by Robin Singh as Bengaluru drew the match 1–1. After the 2014–15 season, Meetei was released by the club. After his release, Meitei was listed as being eligible to be picked in the 2015 ISL Domestic Draft.After playing for two years at Bangaluru FC, Meetei signed for Mumbai and played for them in the Mumbai Football League and subsequently 2015–16 I-League.He recently played for NEROCA FC of Manipur (2016-2017) which became the first club from Manipur to be crowned winner of 2nd Division I-League after defeating Lonestar Kashmir FC (4-1) with a game in hand against Southern Samity FC.He is currently playing for NorthEast United in the Indian Super League for season 2017-18. He was picked by NorthEast United in the ISL Domestic Draft at a price cap of ₹16 lakhs.
|
[
"Bengaluru FC",
"Mumbai F.C.",
"North Imphal Sporting Association",
"Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C."
] |
|
Which team did Malemngamba Meetei play for in 10-Dec-201210-December-2012?
|
December 10, 2012
|
{
"text": [
"Salgaocar F.C."
]
}
|
L2_Q6743074_P54_2
|
Malemngamba Meetei plays for North Imphal Sporting Association from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2009.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Mumbai F.C. from Jan, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Salgaocar F.C. from Jan, 2012 to Jan, 2013.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Bengaluru FC from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2015.
Malemngamba Meetei plays for Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C. from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2012.
|
Malemngamba MeiteiKshetrimayum Malemnganba Meitei (born 5 January 1992) is an Indian professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Gokulam Kerala in the I-League .Born in Yairipok, Manipur, Meetei started playing football from the age of seven years after watching the Brazil national team during the 1998 FIFA World Cup. After having participated in many camps and development programs, Meetei began playing for NEROCA FC in 2007. While with NEROCA Meetei played in the Manipur State League, which was the top tier league for football in Manipur. He then signed for the North Imphal Sporting Association (NISA) in 2009 who were the reigning Manipur league winners and participants in the I-League 2nd Division.After playing the final rounds of the 2nd Division in Bangalore, Meetei was signed by newly promoted HAL SC for the new I-League season. Two seasons later, after the club were relegated, Meetei signed for former I-League champions, Salgaocar, for the 2012–13 season.After spending one season at Salgaocar, he played for [Bengaluru FC] for two years from 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 season. During his two year tenure at the club, Bangaluru Fc won I-League in the debut season and Federation cup in the 2nd season. He made his debut for the side in the club's first ever I-League match against Mohun Bagan A.C. in which he started and played 80 minutes before being replaced by Robin Singh as Bengaluru drew the match 1–1. After the 2014–15 season, Meetei was released by the club. After his release, Meitei was listed as being eligible to be picked in the 2015 ISL Domestic Draft.After playing for two years at Bangaluru FC, Meetei signed for Mumbai and played for them in the Mumbai Football League and subsequently 2015–16 I-League.He recently played for NEROCA FC of Manipur (2016-2017) which became the first club from Manipur to be crowned winner of 2nd Division I-League after defeating Lonestar Kashmir FC (4-1) with a game in hand against Southern Samity FC.He is currently playing for NorthEast United in the Indian Super League for season 2017-18. He was picked by NorthEast United in the ISL Domestic Draft at a price cap of ₹16 lakhs.
|
[
"Bengaluru FC",
"Mumbai F.C.",
"North Imphal Sporting Association",
"Hindustan Aeronautics Limited S.C."
] |
|
Who was the head of New Jersey in Mar, 1815?
|
March 08, 1815
|
{
"text": [
"William Sanford Pennington"
]
}
|
L2_Q1408_P6_6
|
Charles Smith Olden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1863.
William Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1837 to Oct, 1843.
Brendan Byrne is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1982.
George Theodore Werts is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1896.
Richard Codey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Foster McGowan Voorhees is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1898 to Oct, 1898.
Joseph D. Bedle is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1878.
Donald DiFrancesco is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
Alfred Eastlack Driscoll is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1954.
Phil Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
David Ogden Watkins is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1898 to Jan, 1899.
Peter Dumont Vroom is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1829 to Oct, 1832.
George Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1851 to Jan, 1854.
Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr. is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1869.
William Paterson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1790 to Mar, 1793.
Theodore Fitz Randolph is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.
Horace Griggs Prall is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Aaron Ogden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1812 to Oct, 1813.
Isaac Halstead Williamson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1817 to Oct, 1829.
Philemon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1836 to Oct, 1837.
George Brinton McClellan is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1878 to Jan, 1881.
John Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1911.
John W. Griggs is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1898.
Morgan Foster Larson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1932.
Chris Christie is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
William A. Newell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1860.
Charles Creighton Stratton is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1845 to Jan, 1848.
George C. Ludlow is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1881 to Jan, 1884.
Clarence Edwards Case is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1920.
William Sanford Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1813 to Jun, 1815.
William Nelson Runyon is the head of the government of New Jersey from May, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Robert Stockton Green is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1890.
Franklin Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1905.
John Lambert is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1802 to Oct, 1803.
Mahlon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1815 to Feb, 1817.
Clifford Ross Powell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Leon Rutherford Taylor is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1913 to Jan, 1914.
William Thomas Cahill is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1974.
Edward C. Stokes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1908.
Thomas Kean is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
Rodman McCamley Price is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1854 to Jan, 1857.
Joel Parker is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1863 to Jan, 1866.
Charles Edison is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1944.
Leon Abbett is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1884 to Jan, 1887.
James Fairman Fielder is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1913 to Oct, 1913.
Richard Joseph Hughes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1970.
Robert Baumle Meyner is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1962.
Thomas Henderson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1793 to Jun, 1793.
Edward Irving Edwards is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1923.
Joseph Bloomfield is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1801 to Oct, 1802.
Walter Evans Edge is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1917 to May, 1919.
William Livingston is the head of the government of New Jersey from Aug, 1776 to Jul, 1790.
John Orus Bennett III is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
George Sebastian Silzer is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1926.
Elias P. Seeley is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1833 to Oct, 1833.
Jon Corzine is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
Woodrow Wilson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1911 to Mar, 1913.
A. Harry Moore is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1929.
James Florio is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
Harold Giles Hoffman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1938.
Christine Todd Whitman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 2001.
Samuel L. Southard is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1832 to Feb, 1833.
Jim McGreevey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2004.
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New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania; and on the southwest by Delaware Bay and the state of Delaware. New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous, with 9,288,994 residents as of 2020 and an area of , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. New Jersey's state capital is Trenton, while the state's most populous city is Newark. All but one county in New Jersey (Warren County) lie within the combined statistical areas of New York City or Philadelphia; consequently, the state's largest metropolitan area falls within Greater New York.New Jersey was first inhabited by Native Americans for at least 2,800 years, with the Lenape being the dominant group by the time Europeans arrived in the early 17th century. Dutch and the Swedish colonists founded the first European settlements in the state. The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey—after the largest of the Channel Islands, Jersey—and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in the "Big Six" cities of Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Elizabeth helped drive the nation's Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's central location in the Northeast megalopolis fueled its rapid growth and suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century. At the turn of the 21st century, the state's economy increasingly diversified, while its multicultural populace began reverting toward more urban settings within the state, outpacing the growth in suburbs since 2008.As of 2020, New Jersey was home to the highest number of millionaires per capita of all U.S. states, with 9.76% of households—more than 323,000 of 3.3 million statewide—meeting the criteria. Based on 2017 data, it was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income. New Jersey's public school system consistently ranks at or among the top among all fifty U.S. states.Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges.New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact. "" is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade.The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch West India Company policy required its colonists to purchase the land that they settled. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen. Peter Minuit's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. The entire region became a territory of England on June 24, 1664, after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is now New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam, annexing the entire province.During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in Saint Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey.Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775.Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill—settlers came primarily from New York and New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England, who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. (William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time.) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702, at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England.In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor, rather than a proprietary one. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land. In 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738.New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the State Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times, and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the American Revolution". The winter quarters of the Continental Army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which has been called "The Military Capital of the American Revolution.“On the night of December 25–26, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River. After the crossing, they surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, the Americans made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3, 1777. Emanuel Leutze's painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware" became an icon of the Revolution.American forces under Washington met the British forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778. The Americans attempted to take the British column by surprise. When the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. Their ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges.In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war.On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights.The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property separately from their husbands. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors", whether entitled to vote or not; on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal "white male" suffrage, excluding paupers; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution.On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population. By the close of the Civil War, about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage. New Jersey voters eventually ratified the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States' black population.Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey's growing industries in Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the state senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision "Baker v. Carr". While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself.New Jersey was one of the few Union states (the others being Delaware and Kentucky) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan, a native Philadelphian, had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time; he later became Governor of New Jersey (1878–81). (In New Jersey, the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860.) During the American Civil War, the state was led first by Republican governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. During the course of the war, between 65,000 and 80,000 soldiers from the state enlisted in the Union army; unlike many states, including some Northern ones, no battle was fought there.In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the United States. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey.Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century. Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry. Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine.New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927, and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS "Morro Castle" beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea.Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially naval construction. The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company yards in Kearny and Newark and the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yard in Camden produced aircraft carriers, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fifth among the 48 states. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Camp Merritt (1917) and Camp Kilmer (1941) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike missile stations were constructed for the defense of the New York City and Philadelphia areas. "PT-109", a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden.In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In 1959, Air Defense Command deployed the CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missile to McGuire Air Force Base. On June 7, 1960, an explosion in a CIM-10 Bomarc missile fuel tank caused the accident and subsequent plutonium contamination.In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably, the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976. Prior to this bill, the state had no income tax.In the early part of the 2000s, two light rail systems were opened: the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton. The intent of these projects was to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey, respectively. The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular. Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century. As of 2014, Jersey City's Census-estimated population was 262,146, with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010, representing an increase of 5.9% from the 2010 United States Census, when the city's population was enumerated at 247,597. Between 2000 and 2010, Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s.The state of New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York (parts of which are across the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, and the Arthur Kill); on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. This is New Jersey's only straight border.New Jersey is often broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South.Within those regions are five distinct areas, based upon natural geography and population concentration. Northeastern New Jersey lies closest to Manhattan in New York City, and up to a million residents commute daily into the city for work, many via public transportation. Northwestern New Jersey is more wooded, rural, and mountainous. The Jersey Shore, along the Atlantic Coast in Central and South Jersey, has its own unique natural, residential, and cultural characteristics owing to its location by the ocean. The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state, which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. The Pine Barrens region is in the southern interior of New Jersey; covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, this region has a lower population density than most of the rest of the state.The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, with 16 counties included in either the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area. New Jersey is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis.High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the state's highest elevation, at above sea level. The state's highest prominence is Kitty Ann Mountain in Morris County, rising . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the west side of the Hudson River, in Bergen and Hudson Counties. Major New Jersey rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Due to New Jersey's peninsular geography, both sunrise and sunset are visible over water from different points on the Jersey Shore.There are two climatic conditions in the state. The south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate (microthermal), with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation. New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Climate change is affecting New Jersey faster than much of the rest of the United States. As of 2019, New Jersey was one of the fastest-warming states in the nation. Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of and lows of ; however, temperatures exceed on average 25 days each summer, exceeding in some years. Winters are usually cold, with average high temperatures of and lows of for most of the state, but temperatures can, for brief periods, fall below and sometimes rise above . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub- being an almost annual occurrence. Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations, with lower humidity than summer. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from6 in the northwest of the state, to 7B near Cape May. All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10, 1936, in Runyon, Middlesex County and on January 5, 1904, in River Vale, Bergen County.Average annual precipitation ranges from , uniformly spread through the year. Average snowfall per winter season ranges from in the south and near the seacoast, in the northeast and central part of the state, to about in the northwestern highlands, but this often varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms, most of which occur during the summer.During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters", which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999), tornadoes, and earthquakes are rare, although New Jersey was impacted by a hurricane in 1903, and Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state with top winds of .For its overall population and nation-leading population density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. This paradox is most pronounced in Bergen County, New Jersey's most populous county, whose more than 930,000 residents in 2019 inhabited 70 municipalities, the most populous being Hackensack, with 44,522 residents estimated in 2018. Many urban areas extend far beyond the limits of a single large city, as New Jersey cities (and indeed municipalities in general) tend to be geographically small; three of the four largest cities in New Jersey by population have under of land area, and eight of the top ten, including all of the top five have land area under . , only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000, although Edison and Woodbridge came very close.The United States Census Bureau tabulated in the 2020 United States census that the population of New Jersey was 9,288,994 on April 1, 2020, a 5.7% increase since the 2010 United States census. Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or, less commonly, as "New Jerseyites". At the 2010 census, there were 8,791,894 people living in the state. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the state was: 68.6% White American, 13.7% African American, 8.3% Asian American, 0.3% Native American, 2.7% Multiracial American, and 6.4% other races. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9% of the population in 2011, down from 85% in 1970. In 2010, 17.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).In 2010, unauthorized immigrants constituted an estimated 6.2% of the population. This was the fourth-highest percentage of any state in the country. There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010. Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Camden, Jersey City and Newark.As of 2010, New Jersey was the eleventh-most populous state in the United States, and the most densely populated, at 1,185 residents per square mile (458 per km), with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City, Philadelphia, and along the eastern Jersey Shore, while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall. It was also the second wealthiest state by median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike.New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers "per square mile" than anywhere else in the world.On October 21, 2013, same-sex marriages commenced in New Jersey.New Jersey is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse states in the United States. As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. The state has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percentage (after Michigan); the largest population of Peruvians in the United States; the largest population of Cubans outside of Florida; the third highest Asian population by percentage; and the second highest Italian population, according to the 2000 Census. African Americans, Hispanics (Puerto Ricans and Dominicans), West Indians, Arabs, and Brazilian and Portuguese Americans are also high in number. New Jersey has the third highest Asian Indian population of any state by absolute numbers and the highest by percentage, with Bergen County home to America's largest Malayali community. Overall, New Jersey has the third largest Korean population, with Bergen County home to the highest Korean concentration per capita of any U.S. county (6.9% in 2011). New Jersey also has the fourth largest Filipino population, and fourth largest Chinese population, per the 2010 U.S. Census. The five largest ethnic groups in 2000 were: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%).India Square, in Bombay, Jersey City, Hudson County, is home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, Central New Jersey, particularly Edison and surrounding Middlesex County, is prominently known for its significant concentration of Asian Indians. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville in 2014, a BAPS temple. The growing Little India is a South Asian-focused commercial strip in Middlesex County, the U.S. county with the highest concentration of Asian Indians. The Oak Tree Road strip runs for about through Edison and neighboring Iselin in Woodbridge Township, near the area's sprawling Chinatown and Koreatown, running along New Jersey Route 27. It is the largest and most diverse South Asian cultural hub in the United States. Carteret's Punjabi Sikh community, variously estimated at upwards of 3,000, is the largest concentration of Sikhs in the state. Monroe Township in Middlesex County has experienced a particularly rapid growth rate in its Indian American population, with an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, which was 23 times the 256 (0.9%) counted as of the 2000 Census; and Diwali is celebrated by the township as a Hindu holiday. In Middlesex County, election ballots are printed in English, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi.Newark was the fourth poorest of U.S. cities with over 250,000 residents in 2008, but New Jersey as a whole had the second-highest median household income as of 2014. This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area.In 2010, 6.2% of its population was reported as under age 5, 23.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older; and females made up approximately 51.3% of the population.A study by the Pew Research Center found that in 2013, New Jersey was the only U.S. state in which immigrants born in India constituted the largest foreign-born nationality, representing roughly 10% of all foreign-born residents in the state.For further information on various ethnoracial groups and neighborhoods prominently featured within New Jersey, see the following articles:As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's population younger than age1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white)."Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number."As of 2010, 71.31% (5,830,812) of New Jersey residents age5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 14.59% (1,193,261) spoke Spanish, 1.23% (100,217) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.06% (86,849) Italian, 1.06% (86,486) Portuguese, 0.96% (78,627) Tagalog, and Korean was spoken as a main language by 0.89% (73,057) of the population over the age of five. In total, 28.69% (2,345,644) of New Jersey's population age5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.A diverse collection of languages has since evolved amongst the state's population, given that New Jersey has become cosmopolitan and is home to ethnic enclaves of non-English-speaking communities:By number of adherents, the largest denominations in New Jersey, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2010, were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,235,290; Islam with 160,666; and the United Methodist Church with 138,052. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville, Mercer County, in central New Jersey during 2014, a BAPS temple. In January 2018, Gurbir Grewal became the first Sikh American state attorney general in the United States. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's gross state product in the fourth quarter of 2018 was $639.8 billion. New Jersey's estimated taxpayer burden in 2015 was $59,400 per taxpayer. New Jersey is nearly $239 billion in debt.New Jersey's per capita gross state product in 2008 was $54,699, second in the U.S. and above the national per capita gross domestic product of $46,588. Its per capita income was the third highest in the nation with $51,358. In 2020, New Jersey had the highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, approximately 9.76% of households. The state is ranked second in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are among the 100 wealthiest U.S. counties.New Jersey has seven tax brackets that determine state income tax rates, which range from 1.4% (for income below $20,000) to 8.97% (for income above $500,000).The standard sales tax rate as of January 1, 2018, is 6.625%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. This rate, which is comparably lower than that of New York City, often attracts numerous shoppers from New York City, often to suburban Paramus, New Jersey, which has five malls, one of which (the Garden State Plaza) has over of retail space. Tax exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medications, most clothing, footwear and disposable paper products for use in the home. There are 27 Urban Enterprise Zone statewide, including sections of Paterson, Elizabeth, and Jersey City. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half the rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.New Jersey has the highest cumulative tax rate of all 50 states with residents paying a total of $68 billion in state and local taxes annually with a per capita burden of $7,816 at a rate of 12.9% of income. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax.New Jersey consistently ranks as having one of the highest proportional levels of disparity of any state in the United States, based upon what it receives from the federal government relative to what it gives. In 2015, WalletHub ranked New Jersey the state least dependent upon federal government aid overall and having the fourth lowest return on taxpayer investment from the federal government, at 48 cents per dollar.New Jersey has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas.New Jersey's economy is multifaceted, but is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, information technology, the financial industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing, publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. New Jersey ranks second among states in blueberry production, third in cranberries and spinach, and fourth in bell peppers, peaches, and head lettuce. The state harvests the fourth-largest number of acres planted with asparagus.Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the state's use of nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey's electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of state generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country.New Jersey has a strong scientific economy and is home to major pharmaceutical and telecommunications firms, drawing on the state's large and well-educated labor pool. There is also a strong service economy in retail sales, education, and real estate, serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Thomas Edison invented the first electric light bulb at his home in Menlo Park, Edison in 1879. New Jersey is also a key participant in the renewable wind industry.Shipping is a key industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic geographic location, the Port of New York and New Jersey being the busiest port on the East Coast. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and today is one of the world's largest.New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus in Bergen County has become the top retail ZIP code (07652) in the United States, with the municipality generating over US$6 billion in annual retail sales. Several New Jersey counties, including Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), and Monmouth (42), have been ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States.New Jersey's location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis and its extensive transportation system have put over one-third of all United States residents and many Canadian residents within overnight distance by land. This accessibility to consumer revenue has enabled seaside resorts such as Atlantic City and the remainder of the Jersey Shore, as well as the state's other natural and cultural attractions, to contribute significantly to the record 111 million tourist visits to New Jersey in 2018, providing US$44.7 billion in tourism revenue, directly supporting 333,860 jobs, sustaining more than 531,000 jobs overall including peripheral impacts, and generating US$5 billion in state and local tax revenue.In 1976, a referendum of New Jersey voters approved casino gambling in Atlantic City, where the first legalized casino opened in 1978. At that time, Las Vegas was the only other casino resort in the country. Today, several casinos lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the first and longest boardwalk in the world. Atlantic City experienced a dramatic contraction in its stature as a gambling destination after 2010, including the closure of multiple casinos since 2014, spurred by competition from the advent of legalized gambling in other northeastern U.S. states. On February 26, 2013, Governor Chris Christie signed online gambling into law. Sports betting has become a growing source of gambling revenue in New Jersey since being legalized across the nation by the U.S. Supreme Court on May 14, 2018.Forests cover 45%, or approximately 2.1 million acres, of New Jersey's land area. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. The Pine Barrens, consisting of pine forests, is in the southern part of the state.Some mining activity of zinc, iron, and manganese still takes place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace.New Jersey is second in the nation in solar power installations, enabled by one of the country's most favorable net metering policies, and the renewable energy certificates program. The state has more than 10,000 solar installations.As of 2010, there were 605 school districts in the state.Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase college admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg retracted this plan when criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative.In 2010, the state government paid all teachers' premiums for health insurance, but currently all NJ public teachers pay a portion of their own health insurance premiums.New Jersey is known for the quality of its education. In 2015, the state spent more per each public school student than any other U.S. state except New York, Alaska, and Connecticut, amounting to $18,235 spent per pupil; over 50% of the expenditure was allocated to student instruction.According to 2011 "Newsweek" statistics, students of High Technology High School in Lincroft, Monmouth County and Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, Bergen County registered average SAT scores of 2145 and 2100, respectively, representing the second- and third-highest scores, respectively, of all listed U.S. high schools.Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2020 list of "U.S. News & World Report". In 2013, Rutgers University, headquartered in New Brunswick, Middlesex County as the flagship institution of higher education in New Jersey, regained medical and dental schools, augmenting its profile as a national research university as well.In 2014, New Jersey's school systems were ranked at the top of all fifty U.S. states by financial website Wallethub.com. In 2018, New Jersey's overall educational system was ranked second among all states to Massachusetts by "U.S. News & World Report". In both 2019 and 2020, "Education Week" also ranked New Jersey public schools the best of all U.S. states.Nine New Jersey high schools were ranked among the top 25 in the U.S. on the "Newsweek" "America's Top High Schools 2016" list, more than from any other state. A 2017 UCLA Civil Rights project found that New Jersey has the sixth-most segregated classrooms in the United States.New Jersey has continued to play a prominent role as a U.S. cultural nexus. Like every state, New Jersey has its own cuisine, religious communities, museums, and .New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon, the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone.Diners are iconic to New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has over 600 diners, more than any other place in the world.New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey state song, but it was not even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature.New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), sloppy joe sandwiches, tomato pies, and Texas wieners.Several states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey.New Jersey has long been an important origin for both rock and rap music. Prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey include:New Jersey currently has six teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although one Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify themselves as being from the New York metropolitan area.The National Hockey League's New Jersey Devils, based in Newark at the Prudential Center, is the only major league sports franchise to bear the state's name. Founded in 1974 in Kansas City, Missouri, as the Kansas City Scouts, the team played in Denver, Colorado, as the Colorado Rockies from 1976 until the spring of 1982 when naval architect, businessman, and Jersey City native John J. McMullen purchased, renamed, and moved the franchise to Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. While the team had mostly losing records in Kansas City, Denver, and its first years in New Jersey, the Devils began to improve in the late 1980s and early 1990s under Hall of Fame president and general manager Lou Lamoriello. The team made the playoffs for the Stanley Cup in 2001 and 2012, and won it in 1995, 2000, and 2003. The organization is the youngest of the nine major league teams in the New York metropolitan area. The Devils have established a following throughout the northern and central portions of the state, carving a place in a media market once dominated by the New York Rangers and Islanders.In 2018, the Philadelphia Flyers renovated and expanded their training facility, the Virtua Center Flyers Skate Zone, in Voorhees Township in the southern portion of the state.The New York Metropolitan Area's two National Football League teams, the New York Giants and the New York Jets, play at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. Built for about $1.6 billion, the venue is the most expensive stadium ever built. On February 2, 2014, MetLife Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLVIII.The New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer play in Red Bull Arena, a soccer-specific stadium in Harrison across the Passaic River from downtown Newark. On July 27, 2011, Red Bull Arena hosted the 2011 MLS All-Star Game.From 1977 to 2012, New Jersey had a National Basketball Association team, the New Jersey Nets. WNBA's New York Liberty played in New Jersey from 2011 to 2013 while their primary home arena, Madison Square Garden was undergoing renovations. In 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA opened their new headquarters and training facility, the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex, in Camden.The Meadowlands Sports Complex is home to the Meadowlands Racetrack, one of three major harness racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack and Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport is a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation.New Jerseyans' collegiate allegiances are predominantly split among the three major NCAA Division I programs in the state: the Rutgers University (New Jersey's flagship state university) Scarlet Knights, members of the Big Ten Conference; the Seton Hall University (the state's largest Catholic university) Pirates, members of the Big East Conference; and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers.The intense rivalry between Rutgers and Princeton athletics began with the first intercollegiate football game in 1869. The schools have not met on the football field since 1980, but they continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities.Rutgers, which fields 24 teams in various sports, is nationally known for its football program, with a 6–4 all-time bowl record; and its women's basketball programs, which appeared in a National Final in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, Rutgers expanded their football home, Rutgers Stadium, now called SHI Stadium, on the Busch Campus. The basketball teams play at the Rutgers Athletic Center on Livingston Campus. Both venues and campuses are in Piscataway, across the Raritan River from New Brunswick. The university also fields men's basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fans live mostly in the western parts of the state and Middlesex County; its alumni base is the largest in the state.Rutgers' satellite campuses in Camden and Newark each field their own athletic programs—the Rutgers–Camden Scarlet Raptors and the Rutgers–Newark Scarlet Raiders—which both compete in NCAA Division III.Seton Hall fields no football team, but its men's basketball team is one of the Big East's storied programs. No New Jersey team has won more games in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, and it is the state's only men's basketball program to reach a modern National Final. The Pirates play their home games at Prudential Center in downtown Newark, about from the university's South Orange campus. Their fans hail largely from in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. The annual inter-conference rivalry game between Seton Hall and Rutgers, whose venue alternates between Newark and Piscataway, the Garden State Hardwood Classic, is planned through 2026.The state's other Division I schools include the Monmouth University Hawks (West Long Branch), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Highlanders (Newark), the Rider University Broncs (Lawrenceville), and the Saint Peter's University Peacocks and Peahens (Jersey City).Fairleigh Dickinson University competes in both Division I and Division III. It has two campuses, each with its own sports teams. The teams at the Metropolitan Campus are known as the FDU Knights, and compete in the Northeast Conference and NCAA Division I. The college at Florham (FDU-Florham) teams are known as the FDU-Florham Devils and compete in the Middle Atlantic Conferences' Freedom Conference and NCAA Division III.Among the various Division III schools in the state, the Stevens Institute of Technology Ducks have fielded the longest continuously running collegiate men's lacrosse program in the country. 2009 marked the 125th season.New Jersey high schools are divided into divisions under the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA).' Founded in 1918, the NJSIAA currently represents 22,000 schools, 330,000 coaches, and almost 4.5 million athletes.Motion picture technology was developed by Thomas Edison, with much of his early work done at his West Orange laboratory. Edison's Black Maria was the first motion picture studio. America's first motion picture industry started in 1907 in Fort Lee and the first studio was constructed there in 1909. DuMont Laboratories in Passaic developed early sets and made the first broadcast to the private home.A number of television shows and films have been filmed in New Jersey. Since 1978, the state has maintained a Motion Picture and Television Commission to encourage filming in-state. New Jersey has long offered tax credits to television producers. Governor Chris Christie suspended the credits in 2010, but the New Jersey State Legislature in 2011 approved the restoration and expansion of the tax credit program. Under bills passed by both the state Senate and Assembly, the program offers 20 percent tax credits (22% in urban enterprise zones) to television and film productions that shoot in the state and meet set standards for hiring and local spending. When Governor Phil Murphy took office, he instated the New Jersey Film & Digital Media Tax Credit Program in 2018 and expanded it in 2020. The benefits include a 30% tax credit on film projects and a 40% subsidy for studio developments.The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the most prominent and heavily trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road, which overlaps with Interstate 95 for much of its length, carries traffic between Delaware and New York, and up and down the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike", it is known for its numerous rest areas named after prominent New Jerseyans.The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway", carries relatively more in-state traffic than interstate traffic and runs from New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May. It is the main route that connects the New York metropolitan area to the Jersey Shore. With a total of fifteen travel and six shoulder lanes, the Driscoll Bridge on the Parkway, spanning the Raritan River in Middlesex County, is the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world by number of lanes as well as one of the busiest.New Jersey is connected to New York City via various key bridges and tunnels. The double-decked George Washington Bridge carries the heaviest load of motor vehicle traffic of any bridge in the world, at 102 million vehicles per year, across fourteen lanes. It connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and carries Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1/9 across the Hudson River. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan carrying New Jersey Route 495, and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan carrying Interstate 78. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges—from north to south, the Bayonne Bridge, the Goethals Bridge, and the Outerbridge Crossing.New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three of its neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes in and out of the state. Bridge tolls are collected only from traffic exiting the state, with the exception of the private Dingman's Ferry Bridge over the Delaware River, which charges a toll in both directions.It is unlawful for a customer to serve themselves gasoline in New Jersey. It became the last remaining U.S. state where all gas stations are required to sell full-service gasoline to customers at all times in 2016, after Oregon's introduction of restricted self-service gasoline availability took effect.Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it is one of the three main airports serving the New York metropolitan area. United Airlines is the airport's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal there, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo terminal at EWR as well. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to Amtrak and NJ Transit trains along the Northeast Corridor Line.Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and rapidly growing Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of the state. Teterboro Airport in Bergen County, and Millville Municipal Airport in Cumberland County, are general aviation airports popular with private and corporate aircraft due to their proximity to New York City and the Jersey Shore, respectively.NJ Transit operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. A state-run corporation, it began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey in 1979. In the early 1980s, it acquired Conrail's commuter train operations that connected suburban towns to New York City. Today, NJ Transit has eleven commuter rail lines that run through different parts of the state. Most of the lines end at either Penn Station in New York City or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. One line provides service between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.NJ Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, through Hoboken and Jersey City. The Newark Light Rail is partially underground, and connects downtown Newark with other parts of the city and its suburbs, Belleville and Bloomfield. The River Line connects Trenton and Camden.The PATH is a rapid transit system consisting of four lines operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit system that links Camden County to Philadelphia. Both the PATCO and the PATH are two of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to operate 24 hours a day.Amtrak operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey, both to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Transit Center, Metropark, and the historic Newark Penn Station.The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, or SEPTA, has two commuter rail lines that operate into New Jersey. The Trenton Line terminates at the Trenton Transit Center, and the West Trenton Line terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing.AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots.Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers, of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City.New York Waterway has ferry terminals at Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, and Edgewater, with service to different parts of Manhattan. Liberty Water Taxi in Jersey City has ferries from Paulus Hook and Liberty State Park to Battery Park City in Manhattan. Statue Cruises offers service from Liberty State Park to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, including Ellis Island. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket.The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May–Lewes Ferry on Delaware Bay, carrying both passengers and vehicles between New Jersey and Delaware. The agency also operates the Forts Ferry Crossing for passengers across the Delaware River. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia.The position of Governor of New Jersey has been considered one of the most powerful in the nation. Until 2010, the governor was the only statewide elected executive official in the state and appointed numerous government officials. Formerly, an acting governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, president of the state senate Richard Codey held the position of acting governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term acting governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming acting governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. Phil Murphy (D) is the governor. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton.Before 2010, New Jersey was one of the few states without a lieutenant governor. Republican Kim Guadagno was elected the first lieutenant governor of New Jersey and took office on January 19, 2010. She was elected on the Republican ticket with Governor-Elect Chris Christie in the November 2009 NJ gubernatorial election. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005, and effective as of January 17, 2006.The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one state senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; state senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms.New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every four years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a governor was 2017; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2021.The New Jersey Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. All are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70.Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Court, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard.More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level; the Law Division hears both criminal cases and civil lawsuits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is damages, while the Chancery Division hears family cases, civil suits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is equitable relief, and probate trials.The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice.There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships.New Jersey is divided into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders", governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members.Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other five counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions.New Jersey currently has 565 municipalities; the number was 566 before Princeton Township and Princeton Borough merged to form the municipality of Princeton on January 1, 2013. Unlike other states, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation.Starting in the 20th century, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a three- or five-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced a Council-manager government structure with an appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs.The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature.While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially of the village type, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The other three villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter) and South Orange (now operates under a Special Charter)—have all migrated to other non-village forms.Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the more liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate that 60% of the population are self-described as pro-choice, although a majority are opposed to late trimester and intact dilation and extraction and public funding of abortion. In a 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed, On October 18, 2013, the New Jersey Supreme Court rendered a provisional, unanimous (7–0) order authorizing same-sex marriage in the state, pending a legal appeal by Governor Chris Christie, who then withdrew this appeal hours after the inaugural same-sex marriages took place on October 21, 2013.New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black-powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws.In past elections, New Jersey was a Republican bastion, but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats have majority control of both houses of the New Jersey Legislature (Senate, 26–14, and Assembly, 54–26), a 10–2 split of the state's twelve seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, and both U.S. Senate seats. Although the Democratic Party is very successful statewide, the state has had Republican governors; from 1994 to 2002, Christine Todd Whitman won twice with 47% and 49% of the votes, respectively, and in the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie defeated incumbent Democrat Jon Corzine with 48% of the vote. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Christie won reelection with over 60% of the votes. Because each candidate for lieutenant governor runs on the same ticket as the party's candidate for governor, the current governor and lieutenant governor are members of the Democratic Party. The governor's appointments to cabinet and non-cabinet positions may be from either party; for instance, the attorney general is a Democrat.In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. For many years in the past, however, it was a Republican stronghold, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. Newark Mayor Cory Booker was elected in October 2013 to join Robert Menendez to make New Jersey the first state with concurrent serving black and Latino U.S. senators.The state's Democratic strongholds include Camden County, Essex County (typically the state's most Democratic county—it includes Newark, the state's largest city), Hudson County (the second-strongest Democratic county, including Jersey City, the state's second-largest city); Mercer County (especially around Trenton and Princeton), Middlesex County, and Union County (including Elizabeth, the state's fourth-largest city).The suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have support along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Morris County, Sussex County, and Warren County. Other suburban counties, especially Bergen County and Burlington County had the majority of votes go to the Democratic Party. In the 2008 election, President Barack Obama won New Jersey with approximately fifty-seven percent of the vote, compared to McCain's forty-one percent. Independent candidate Ralph Nader garnered less than one percent of the vote.About one-third of the state's counties are considered "swing" counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Salem County, the same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south (including Paterson, the state's third-largest city) and a rural, Republican north; with the "swing" township of Wayne in the middle. Other "swing" counties like Monmouth County, Somerset County, and Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas, although Somerset has recently trended Democratic.To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 21 days prior to election day.On December 17, 2007, Governor Jon Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Corzine also signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole".There is also a mineral museum Ogdensburg in Sussex County.Visitors and residents take advantage of and contribute to performances at the numerous music, theater, and dance companies and venues located throughout the state, including:New Jersey is the location of most of the boardwalks in the U.S., with nearly every town and city along the Jersey Shore area each having a boardwalk with various attractions, entertainment, shopping, dining, miniature golf, arcades, water parks with various water rides, including water slides, lazy rivers, wave pools, etc., and amusement parks hosting rides and attractions including roller coasters, carousels, Ferris wheels, bumper cars, teacups, etc.
|
[
"William Livingston",
"A. Harry Moore",
"Rodman McCamley Price",
"Charles Creighton Stratton",
"Leon Rutherford Taylor",
"Jon Corzine",
"George C. Ludlow",
"Donald DiFrancesco",
"Clarence Edwards Case",
"Charles Edison",
"Leon Abbett",
"Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr.",
"David Ogden Watkins",
"Brendan Byrne",
"Richard Joseph Hughes",
"Samuel L. Southard",
"Horace Griggs Prall",
"Chris Christie",
"Peter Dumont Vroom",
"Elias P. Seeley",
"Joseph Bloomfield",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"Thomas Henderson",
"Aaron Ogden",
"Morgan Foster Larson",
"Clifford Ross Powell",
"Jim McGreevey",
"Theodore Fitz Randolph",
"James Fairman Fielder",
"Joseph D. Bedle",
"Foster McGowan Voorhees",
"Robert Stockton Green",
"George Brinton McClellan",
"Mahlon Dickerson",
"Franklin Murphy",
"William Nelson Runyon",
"George Sebastian Silzer",
"Harold Giles Hoffman",
"Joel Parker",
"Edward Irving Edwards",
"Edward C. Stokes",
"William Thomas Cahill",
"Thomas Kean",
"John Orus Bennett III",
"Walter Evans Edge",
"Alfred Eastlack Driscoll",
"Charles Smith Olden",
"Christine Todd Whitman",
"James Florio",
"John W. Griggs",
"John Lambert",
"Isaac Halstead Williamson",
"Robert Baumle Meyner",
"William Pennington",
"George Franklin Fort",
"William A. Newell",
"Phil Murphy",
"George Theodore Werts",
"William Paterson",
"John Franklin Fort",
"Richard Codey",
"Philemon Dickerson"
] |
|
Who was the head of New Jersey in 1815-03-08?
|
March 08, 1815
|
{
"text": [
"William Sanford Pennington"
]
}
|
L2_Q1408_P6_6
|
Charles Smith Olden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1863.
William Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1837 to Oct, 1843.
Brendan Byrne is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1982.
George Theodore Werts is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1896.
Richard Codey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Foster McGowan Voorhees is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1898 to Oct, 1898.
Joseph D. Bedle is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1878.
Donald DiFrancesco is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
Alfred Eastlack Driscoll is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1954.
Phil Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
David Ogden Watkins is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1898 to Jan, 1899.
Peter Dumont Vroom is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1829 to Oct, 1832.
George Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1851 to Jan, 1854.
Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr. is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1869.
William Paterson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1790 to Mar, 1793.
Theodore Fitz Randolph is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.
Horace Griggs Prall is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Aaron Ogden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1812 to Oct, 1813.
Isaac Halstead Williamson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1817 to Oct, 1829.
Philemon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1836 to Oct, 1837.
George Brinton McClellan is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1878 to Jan, 1881.
John Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1911.
John W. Griggs is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1898.
Morgan Foster Larson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1932.
Chris Christie is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
William A. Newell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1860.
Charles Creighton Stratton is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1845 to Jan, 1848.
George C. Ludlow is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1881 to Jan, 1884.
Clarence Edwards Case is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1920.
William Sanford Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1813 to Jun, 1815.
William Nelson Runyon is the head of the government of New Jersey from May, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Robert Stockton Green is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1890.
Franklin Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1905.
John Lambert is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1802 to Oct, 1803.
Mahlon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1815 to Feb, 1817.
Clifford Ross Powell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Leon Rutherford Taylor is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1913 to Jan, 1914.
William Thomas Cahill is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1974.
Edward C. Stokes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1908.
Thomas Kean is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
Rodman McCamley Price is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1854 to Jan, 1857.
Joel Parker is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1863 to Jan, 1866.
Charles Edison is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1944.
Leon Abbett is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1884 to Jan, 1887.
James Fairman Fielder is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1913 to Oct, 1913.
Richard Joseph Hughes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1970.
Robert Baumle Meyner is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1962.
Thomas Henderson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1793 to Jun, 1793.
Edward Irving Edwards is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1923.
Joseph Bloomfield is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1801 to Oct, 1802.
Walter Evans Edge is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1917 to May, 1919.
William Livingston is the head of the government of New Jersey from Aug, 1776 to Jul, 1790.
John Orus Bennett III is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
George Sebastian Silzer is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1926.
Elias P. Seeley is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1833 to Oct, 1833.
Jon Corzine is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
Woodrow Wilson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1911 to Mar, 1913.
A. Harry Moore is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1929.
James Florio is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
Harold Giles Hoffman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1938.
Christine Todd Whitman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 2001.
Samuel L. Southard is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1832 to Feb, 1833.
Jim McGreevey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2004.
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New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania; and on the southwest by Delaware Bay and the state of Delaware. New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous, with 9,288,994 residents as of 2020 and an area of , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. New Jersey's state capital is Trenton, while the state's most populous city is Newark. All but one county in New Jersey (Warren County) lie within the combined statistical areas of New York City or Philadelphia; consequently, the state's largest metropolitan area falls within Greater New York.New Jersey was first inhabited by Native Americans for at least 2,800 years, with the Lenape being the dominant group by the time Europeans arrived in the early 17th century. Dutch and the Swedish colonists founded the first European settlements in the state. The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey—after the largest of the Channel Islands, Jersey—and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in the "Big Six" cities of Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Elizabeth helped drive the nation's Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's central location in the Northeast megalopolis fueled its rapid growth and suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century. At the turn of the 21st century, the state's economy increasingly diversified, while its multicultural populace began reverting toward more urban settings within the state, outpacing the growth in suburbs since 2008.As of 2020, New Jersey was home to the highest number of millionaires per capita of all U.S. states, with 9.76% of households—more than 323,000 of 3.3 million statewide—meeting the criteria. Based on 2017 data, it was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income. New Jersey's public school system consistently ranks at or among the top among all fifty U.S. states.Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges.New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact. "" is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade.The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch West India Company policy required its colonists to purchase the land that they settled. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen. Peter Minuit's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. The entire region became a territory of England on June 24, 1664, after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is now New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam, annexing the entire province.During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in Saint Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey.Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775.Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill—settlers came primarily from New York and New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England, who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. (William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time.) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702, at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England.In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor, rather than a proprietary one. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land. In 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738.New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the State Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times, and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the American Revolution". The winter quarters of the Continental Army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which has been called "The Military Capital of the American Revolution.“On the night of December 25–26, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River. After the crossing, they surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, the Americans made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3, 1777. Emanuel Leutze's painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware" became an icon of the Revolution.American forces under Washington met the British forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778. The Americans attempted to take the British column by surprise. When the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. Their ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges.In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war.On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights.The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property separately from their husbands. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors", whether entitled to vote or not; on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal "white male" suffrage, excluding paupers; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution.On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population. By the close of the Civil War, about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage. New Jersey voters eventually ratified the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States' black population.Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey's growing industries in Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the state senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision "Baker v. Carr". While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself.New Jersey was one of the few Union states (the others being Delaware and Kentucky) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan, a native Philadelphian, had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time; he later became Governor of New Jersey (1878–81). (In New Jersey, the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860.) During the American Civil War, the state was led first by Republican governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. During the course of the war, between 65,000 and 80,000 soldiers from the state enlisted in the Union army; unlike many states, including some Northern ones, no battle was fought there.In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the United States. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey.Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century. Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry. Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine.New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927, and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS "Morro Castle" beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea.Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially naval construction. The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company yards in Kearny and Newark and the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yard in Camden produced aircraft carriers, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fifth among the 48 states. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Camp Merritt (1917) and Camp Kilmer (1941) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike missile stations were constructed for the defense of the New York City and Philadelphia areas. "PT-109", a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden.In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In 1959, Air Defense Command deployed the CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missile to McGuire Air Force Base. On June 7, 1960, an explosion in a CIM-10 Bomarc missile fuel tank caused the accident and subsequent plutonium contamination.In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably, the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976. Prior to this bill, the state had no income tax.In the early part of the 2000s, two light rail systems were opened: the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton. The intent of these projects was to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey, respectively. The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular. Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century. As of 2014, Jersey City's Census-estimated population was 262,146, with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010, representing an increase of 5.9% from the 2010 United States Census, when the city's population was enumerated at 247,597. Between 2000 and 2010, Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s.The state of New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York (parts of which are across the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, and the Arthur Kill); on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. This is New Jersey's only straight border.New Jersey is often broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South.Within those regions are five distinct areas, based upon natural geography and population concentration. Northeastern New Jersey lies closest to Manhattan in New York City, and up to a million residents commute daily into the city for work, many via public transportation. Northwestern New Jersey is more wooded, rural, and mountainous. The Jersey Shore, along the Atlantic Coast in Central and South Jersey, has its own unique natural, residential, and cultural characteristics owing to its location by the ocean. The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state, which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. The Pine Barrens region is in the southern interior of New Jersey; covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, this region has a lower population density than most of the rest of the state.The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, with 16 counties included in either the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area. New Jersey is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis.High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the state's highest elevation, at above sea level. The state's highest prominence is Kitty Ann Mountain in Morris County, rising . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the west side of the Hudson River, in Bergen and Hudson Counties. Major New Jersey rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Due to New Jersey's peninsular geography, both sunrise and sunset are visible over water from different points on the Jersey Shore.There are two climatic conditions in the state. The south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate (microthermal), with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation. New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Climate change is affecting New Jersey faster than much of the rest of the United States. As of 2019, New Jersey was one of the fastest-warming states in the nation. Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of and lows of ; however, temperatures exceed on average 25 days each summer, exceeding in some years. Winters are usually cold, with average high temperatures of and lows of for most of the state, but temperatures can, for brief periods, fall below and sometimes rise above . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub- being an almost annual occurrence. Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations, with lower humidity than summer. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from6 in the northwest of the state, to 7B near Cape May. All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10, 1936, in Runyon, Middlesex County and on January 5, 1904, in River Vale, Bergen County.Average annual precipitation ranges from , uniformly spread through the year. Average snowfall per winter season ranges from in the south and near the seacoast, in the northeast and central part of the state, to about in the northwestern highlands, but this often varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms, most of which occur during the summer.During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters", which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999), tornadoes, and earthquakes are rare, although New Jersey was impacted by a hurricane in 1903, and Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state with top winds of .For its overall population and nation-leading population density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. This paradox is most pronounced in Bergen County, New Jersey's most populous county, whose more than 930,000 residents in 2019 inhabited 70 municipalities, the most populous being Hackensack, with 44,522 residents estimated in 2018. Many urban areas extend far beyond the limits of a single large city, as New Jersey cities (and indeed municipalities in general) tend to be geographically small; three of the four largest cities in New Jersey by population have under of land area, and eight of the top ten, including all of the top five have land area under . , only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000, although Edison and Woodbridge came very close.The United States Census Bureau tabulated in the 2020 United States census that the population of New Jersey was 9,288,994 on April 1, 2020, a 5.7% increase since the 2010 United States census. Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or, less commonly, as "New Jerseyites". At the 2010 census, there were 8,791,894 people living in the state. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the state was: 68.6% White American, 13.7% African American, 8.3% Asian American, 0.3% Native American, 2.7% Multiracial American, and 6.4% other races. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9% of the population in 2011, down from 85% in 1970. In 2010, 17.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).In 2010, unauthorized immigrants constituted an estimated 6.2% of the population. This was the fourth-highest percentage of any state in the country. There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010. Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Camden, Jersey City and Newark.As of 2010, New Jersey was the eleventh-most populous state in the United States, and the most densely populated, at 1,185 residents per square mile (458 per km), with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City, Philadelphia, and along the eastern Jersey Shore, while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall. It was also the second wealthiest state by median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike.New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers "per square mile" than anywhere else in the world.On October 21, 2013, same-sex marriages commenced in New Jersey.New Jersey is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse states in the United States. As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. The state has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percentage (after Michigan); the largest population of Peruvians in the United States; the largest population of Cubans outside of Florida; the third highest Asian population by percentage; and the second highest Italian population, according to the 2000 Census. African Americans, Hispanics (Puerto Ricans and Dominicans), West Indians, Arabs, and Brazilian and Portuguese Americans are also high in number. New Jersey has the third highest Asian Indian population of any state by absolute numbers and the highest by percentage, with Bergen County home to America's largest Malayali community. Overall, New Jersey has the third largest Korean population, with Bergen County home to the highest Korean concentration per capita of any U.S. county (6.9% in 2011). New Jersey also has the fourth largest Filipino population, and fourth largest Chinese population, per the 2010 U.S. Census. The five largest ethnic groups in 2000 were: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%).India Square, in Bombay, Jersey City, Hudson County, is home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, Central New Jersey, particularly Edison and surrounding Middlesex County, is prominently known for its significant concentration of Asian Indians. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville in 2014, a BAPS temple. The growing Little India is a South Asian-focused commercial strip in Middlesex County, the U.S. county with the highest concentration of Asian Indians. The Oak Tree Road strip runs for about through Edison and neighboring Iselin in Woodbridge Township, near the area's sprawling Chinatown and Koreatown, running along New Jersey Route 27. It is the largest and most diverse South Asian cultural hub in the United States. Carteret's Punjabi Sikh community, variously estimated at upwards of 3,000, is the largest concentration of Sikhs in the state. Monroe Township in Middlesex County has experienced a particularly rapid growth rate in its Indian American population, with an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, which was 23 times the 256 (0.9%) counted as of the 2000 Census; and Diwali is celebrated by the township as a Hindu holiday. In Middlesex County, election ballots are printed in English, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi.Newark was the fourth poorest of U.S. cities with over 250,000 residents in 2008, but New Jersey as a whole had the second-highest median household income as of 2014. This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area.In 2010, 6.2% of its population was reported as under age 5, 23.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older; and females made up approximately 51.3% of the population.A study by the Pew Research Center found that in 2013, New Jersey was the only U.S. state in which immigrants born in India constituted the largest foreign-born nationality, representing roughly 10% of all foreign-born residents in the state.For further information on various ethnoracial groups and neighborhoods prominently featured within New Jersey, see the following articles:As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's population younger than age1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white)."Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number."As of 2010, 71.31% (5,830,812) of New Jersey residents age5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 14.59% (1,193,261) spoke Spanish, 1.23% (100,217) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.06% (86,849) Italian, 1.06% (86,486) Portuguese, 0.96% (78,627) Tagalog, and Korean was spoken as a main language by 0.89% (73,057) of the population over the age of five. In total, 28.69% (2,345,644) of New Jersey's population age5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.A diverse collection of languages has since evolved amongst the state's population, given that New Jersey has become cosmopolitan and is home to ethnic enclaves of non-English-speaking communities:By number of adherents, the largest denominations in New Jersey, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2010, were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,235,290; Islam with 160,666; and the United Methodist Church with 138,052. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville, Mercer County, in central New Jersey during 2014, a BAPS temple. In January 2018, Gurbir Grewal became the first Sikh American state attorney general in the United States. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's gross state product in the fourth quarter of 2018 was $639.8 billion. New Jersey's estimated taxpayer burden in 2015 was $59,400 per taxpayer. New Jersey is nearly $239 billion in debt.New Jersey's per capita gross state product in 2008 was $54,699, second in the U.S. and above the national per capita gross domestic product of $46,588. Its per capita income was the third highest in the nation with $51,358. In 2020, New Jersey had the highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, approximately 9.76% of households. The state is ranked second in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are among the 100 wealthiest U.S. counties.New Jersey has seven tax brackets that determine state income tax rates, which range from 1.4% (for income below $20,000) to 8.97% (for income above $500,000).The standard sales tax rate as of January 1, 2018, is 6.625%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. This rate, which is comparably lower than that of New York City, often attracts numerous shoppers from New York City, often to suburban Paramus, New Jersey, which has five malls, one of which (the Garden State Plaza) has over of retail space. Tax exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medications, most clothing, footwear and disposable paper products for use in the home. There are 27 Urban Enterprise Zone statewide, including sections of Paterson, Elizabeth, and Jersey City. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half the rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.New Jersey has the highest cumulative tax rate of all 50 states with residents paying a total of $68 billion in state and local taxes annually with a per capita burden of $7,816 at a rate of 12.9% of income. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax.New Jersey consistently ranks as having one of the highest proportional levels of disparity of any state in the United States, based upon what it receives from the federal government relative to what it gives. In 2015, WalletHub ranked New Jersey the state least dependent upon federal government aid overall and having the fourth lowest return on taxpayer investment from the federal government, at 48 cents per dollar.New Jersey has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas.New Jersey's economy is multifaceted, but is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, information technology, the financial industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing, publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. New Jersey ranks second among states in blueberry production, third in cranberries and spinach, and fourth in bell peppers, peaches, and head lettuce. The state harvests the fourth-largest number of acres planted with asparagus.Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the state's use of nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey's electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of state generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country.New Jersey has a strong scientific economy and is home to major pharmaceutical and telecommunications firms, drawing on the state's large and well-educated labor pool. There is also a strong service economy in retail sales, education, and real estate, serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Thomas Edison invented the first electric light bulb at his home in Menlo Park, Edison in 1879. New Jersey is also a key participant in the renewable wind industry.Shipping is a key industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic geographic location, the Port of New York and New Jersey being the busiest port on the East Coast. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and today is one of the world's largest.New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus in Bergen County has become the top retail ZIP code (07652) in the United States, with the municipality generating over US$6 billion in annual retail sales. Several New Jersey counties, including Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), and Monmouth (42), have been ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States.New Jersey's location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis and its extensive transportation system have put over one-third of all United States residents and many Canadian residents within overnight distance by land. This accessibility to consumer revenue has enabled seaside resorts such as Atlantic City and the remainder of the Jersey Shore, as well as the state's other natural and cultural attractions, to contribute significantly to the record 111 million tourist visits to New Jersey in 2018, providing US$44.7 billion in tourism revenue, directly supporting 333,860 jobs, sustaining more than 531,000 jobs overall including peripheral impacts, and generating US$5 billion in state and local tax revenue.In 1976, a referendum of New Jersey voters approved casino gambling in Atlantic City, where the first legalized casino opened in 1978. At that time, Las Vegas was the only other casino resort in the country. Today, several casinos lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the first and longest boardwalk in the world. Atlantic City experienced a dramatic contraction in its stature as a gambling destination after 2010, including the closure of multiple casinos since 2014, spurred by competition from the advent of legalized gambling in other northeastern U.S. states. On February 26, 2013, Governor Chris Christie signed online gambling into law. Sports betting has become a growing source of gambling revenue in New Jersey since being legalized across the nation by the U.S. Supreme Court on May 14, 2018.Forests cover 45%, or approximately 2.1 million acres, of New Jersey's land area. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. The Pine Barrens, consisting of pine forests, is in the southern part of the state.Some mining activity of zinc, iron, and manganese still takes place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace.New Jersey is second in the nation in solar power installations, enabled by one of the country's most favorable net metering policies, and the renewable energy certificates program. The state has more than 10,000 solar installations.As of 2010, there were 605 school districts in the state.Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase college admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg retracted this plan when criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative.In 2010, the state government paid all teachers' premiums for health insurance, but currently all NJ public teachers pay a portion of their own health insurance premiums.New Jersey is known for the quality of its education. In 2015, the state spent more per each public school student than any other U.S. state except New York, Alaska, and Connecticut, amounting to $18,235 spent per pupil; over 50% of the expenditure was allocated to student instruction.According to 2011 "Newsweek" statistics, students of High Technology High School in Lincroft, Monmouth County and Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, Bergen County registered average SAT scores of 2145 and 2100, respectively, representing the second- and third-highest scores, respectively, of all listed U.S. high schools.Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2020 list of "U.S. News & World Report". In 2013, Rutgers University, headquartered in New Brunswick, Middlesex County as the flagship institution of higher education in New Jersey, regained medical and dental schools, augmenting its profile as a national research university as well.In 2014, New Jersey's school systems were ranked at the top of all fifty U.S. states by financial website Wallethub.com. In 2018, New Jersey's overall educational system was ranked second among all states to Massachusetts by "U.S. News & World Report". In both 2019 and 2020, "Education Week" also ranked New Jersey public schools the best of all U.S. states.Nine New Jersey high schools were ranked among the top 25 in the U.S. on the "Newsweek" "America's Top High Schools 2016" list, more than from any other state. A 2017 UCLA Civil Rights project found that New Jersey has the sixth-most segregated classrooms in the United States.New Jersey has continued to play a prominent role as a U.S. cultural nexus. Like every state, New Jersey has its own cuisine, religious communities, museums, and .New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon, the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone.Diners are iconic to New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has over 600 diners, more than any other place in the world.New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey state song, but it was not even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature.New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), sloppy joe sandwiches, tomato pies, and Texas wieners.Several states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey.New Jersey has long been an important origin for both rock and rap music. Prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey include:New Jersey currently has six teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although one Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify themselves as being from the New York metropolitan area.The National Hockey League's New Jersey Devils, based in Newark at the Prudential Center, is the only major league sports franchise to bear the state's name. Founded in 1974 in Kansas City, Missouri, as the Kansas City Scouts, the team played in Denver, Colorado, as the Colorado Rockies from 1976 until the spring of 1982 when naval architect, businessman, and Jersey City native John J. McMullen purchased, renamed, and moved the franchise to Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. While the team had mostly losing records in Kansas City, Denver, and its first years in New Jersey, the Devils began to improve in the late 1980s and early 1990s under Hall of Fame president and general manager Lou Lamoriello. The team made the playoffs for the Stanley Cup in 2001 and 2012, and won it in 1995, 2000, and 2003. The organization is the youngest of the nine major league teams in the New York metropolitan area. The Devils have established a following throughout the northern and central portions of the state, carving a place in a media market once dominated by the New York Rangers and Islanders.In 2018, the Philadelphia Flyers renovated and expanded their training facility, the Virtua Center Flyers Skate Zone, in Voorhees Township in the southern portion of the state.The New York Metropolitan Area's two National Football League teams, the New York Giants and the New York Jets, play at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. Built for about $1.6 billion, the venue is the most expensive stadium ever built. On February 2, 2014, MetLife Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLVIII.The New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer play in Red Bull Arena, a soccer-specific stadium in Harrison across the Passaic River from downtown Newark. On July 27, 2011, Red Bull Arena hosted the 2011 MLS All-Star Game.From 1977 to 2012, New Jersey had a National Basketball Association team, the New Jersey Nets. WNBA's New York Liberty played in New Jersey from 2011 to 2013 while their primary home arena, Madison Square Garden was undergoing renovations. In 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA opened their new headquarters and training facility, the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex, in Camden.The Meadowlands Sports Complex is home to the Meadowlands Racetrack, one of three major harness racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack and Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport is a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation.New Jerseyans' collegiate allegiances are predominantly split among the three major NCAA Division I programs in the state: the Rutgers University (New Jersey's flagship state university) Scarlet Knights, members of the Big Ten Conference; the Seton Hall University (the state's largest Catholic university) Pirates, members of the Big East Conference; and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers.The intense rivalry between Rutgers and Princeton athletics began with the first intercollegiate football game in 1869. The schools have not met on the football field since 1980, but they continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities.Rutgers, which fields 24 teams in various sports, is nationally known for its football program, with a 6–4 all-time bowl record; and its women's basketball programs, which appeared in a National Final in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, Rutgers expanded their football home, Rutgers Stadium, now called SHI Stadium, on the Busch Campus. The basketball teams play at the Rutgers Athletic Center on Livingston Campus. Both venues and campuses are in Piscataway, across the Raritan River from New Brunswick. The university also fields men's basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fans live mostly in the western parts of the state and Middlesex County; its alumni base is the largest in the state.Rutgers' satellite campuses in Camden and Newark each field their own athletic programs—the Rutgers–Camden Scarlet Raptors and the Rutgers–Newark Scarlet Raiders—which both compete in NCAA Division III.Seton Hall fields no football team, but its men's basketball team is one of the Big East's storied programs. No New Jersey team has won more games in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, and it is the state's only men's basketball program to reach a modern National Final. The Pirates play their home games at Prudential Center in downtown Newark, about from the university's South Orange campus. Their fans hail largely from in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. The annual inter-conference rivalry game between Seton Hall and Rutgers, whose venue alternates between Newark and Piscataway, the Garden State Hardwood Classic, is planned through 2026.The state's other Division I schools include the Monmouth University Hawks (West Long Branch), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Highlanders (Newark), the Rider University Broncs (Lawrenceville), and the Saint Peter's University Peacocks and Peahens (Jersey City).Fairleigh Dickinson University competes in both Division I and Division III. It has two campuses, each with its own sports teams. The teams at the Metropolitan Campus are known as the FDU Knights, and compete in the Northeast Conference and NCAA Division I. The college at Florham (FDU-Florham) teams are known as the FDU-Florham Devils and compete in the Middle Atlantic Conferences' Freedom Conference and NCAA Division III.Among the various Division III schools in the state, the Stevens Institute of Technology Ducks have fielded the longest continuously running collegiate men's lacrosse program in the country. 2009 marked the 125th season.New Jersey high schools are divided into divisions under the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA).' Founded in 1918, the NJSIAA currently represents 22,000 schools, 330,000 coaches, and almost 4.5 million athletes.Motion picture technology was developed by Thomas Edison, with much of his early work done at his West Orange laboratory. Edison's Black Maria was the first motion picture studio. America's first motion picture industry started in 1907 in Fort Lee and the first studio was constructed there in 1909. DuMont Laboratories in Passaic developed early sets and made the first broadcast to the private home.A number of television shows and films have been filmed in New Jersey. Since 1978, the state has maintained a Motion Picture and Television Commission to encourage filming in-state. New Jersey has long offered tax credits to television producers. Governor Chris Christie suspended the credits in 2010, but the New Jersey State Legislature in 2011 approved the restoration and expansion of the tax credit program. Under bills passed by both the state Senate and Assembly, the program offers 20 percent tax credits (22% in urban enterprise zones) to television and film productions that shoot in the state and meet set standards for hiring and local spending. When Governor Phil Murphy took office, he instated the New Jersey Film & Digital Media Tax Credit Program in 2018 and expanded it in 2020. The benefits include a 30% tax credit on film projects and a 40% subsidy for studio developments.The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the most prominent and heavily trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road, which overlaps with Interstate 95 for much of its length, carries traffic between Delaware and New York, and up and down the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike", it is known for its numerous rest areas named after prominent New Jerseyans.The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway", carries relatively more in-state traffic than interstate traffic and runs from New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May. It is the main route that connects the New York metropolitan area to the Jersey Shore. With a total of fifteen travel and six shoulder lanes, the Driscoll Bridge on the Parkway, spanning the Raritan River in Middlesex County, is the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world by number of lanes as well as one of the busiest.New Jersey is connected to New York City via various key bridges and tunnels. The double-decked George Washington Bridge carries the heaviest load of motor vehicle traffic of any bridge in the world, at 102 million vehicles per year, across fourteen lanes. It connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and carries Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1/9 across the Hudson River. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan carrying New Jersey Route 495, and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan carrying Interstate 78. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges—from north to south, the Bayonne Bridge, the Goethals Bridge, and the Outerbridge Crossing.New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three of its neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes in and out of the state. Bridge tolls are collected only from traffic exiting the state, with the exception of the private Dingman's Ferry Bridge over the Delaware River, which charges a toll in both directions.It is unlawful for a customer to serve themselves gasoline in New Jersey. It became the last remaining U.S. state where all gas stations are required to sell full-service gasoline to customers at all times in 2016, after Oregon's introduction of restricted self-service gasoline availability took effect.Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it is one of the three main airports serving the New York metropolitan area. United Airlines is the airport's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal there, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo terminal at EWR as well. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to Amtrak and NJ Transit trains along the Northeast Corridor Line.Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and rapidly growing Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of the state. Teterboro Airport in Bergen County, and Millville Municipal Airport in Cumberland County, are general aviation airports popular with private and corporate aircraft due to their proximity to New York City and the Jersey Shore, respectively.NJ Transit operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. A state-run corporation, it began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey in 1979. In the early 1980s, it acquired Conrail's commuter train operations that connected suburban towns to New York City. Today, NJ Transit has eleven commuter rail lines that run through different parts of the state. Most of the lines end at either Penn Station in New York City or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. One line provides service between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.NJ Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, through Hoboken and Jersey City. The Newark Light Rail is partially underground, and connects downtown Newark with other parts of the city and its suburbs, Belleville and Bloomfield. The River Line connects Trenton and Camden.The PATH is a rapid transit system consisting of four lines operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit system that links Camden County to Philadelphia. Both the PATCO and the PATH are two of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to operate 24 hours a day.Amtrak operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey, both to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Transit Center, Metropark, and the historic Newark Penn Station.The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, or SEPTA, has two commuter rail lines that operate into New Jersey. The Trenton Line terminates at the Trenton Transit Center, and the West Trenton Line terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing.AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots.Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers, of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City.New York Waterway has ferry terminals at Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, and Edgewater, with service to different parts of Manhattan. Liberty Water Taxi in Jersey City has ferries from Paulus Hook and Liberty State Park to Battery Park City in Manhattan. Statue Cruises offers service from Liberty State Park to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, including Ellis Island. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket.The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May–Lewes Ferry on Delaware Bay, carrying both passengers and vehicles between New Jersey and Delaware. The agency also operates the Forts Ferry Crossing for passengers across the Delaware River. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia.The position of Governor of New Jersey has been considered one of the most powerful in the nation. Until 2010, the governor was the only statewide elected executive official in the state and appointed numerous government officials. Formerly, an acting governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, president of the state senate Richard Codey held the position of acting governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term acting governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming acting governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. Phil Murphy (D) is the governor. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton.Before 2010, New Jersey was one of the few states without a lieutenant governor. Republican Kim Guadagno was elected the first lieutenant governor of New Jersey and took office on January 19, 2010. She was elected on the Republican ticket with Governor-Elect Chris Christie in the November 2009 NJ gubernatorial election. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005, and effective as of January 17, 2006.The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one state senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; state senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms.New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every four years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a governor was 2017; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2021.The New Jersey Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. All are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70.Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Court, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard.More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level; the Law Division hears both criminal cases and civil lawsuits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is damages, while the Chancery Division hears family cases, civil suits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is equitable relief, and probate trials.The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice.There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships.New Jersey is divided into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders", governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members.Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other five counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions.New Jersey currently has 565 municipalities; the number was 566 before Princeton Township and Princeton Borough merged to form the municipality of Princeton on January 1, 2013. Unlike other states, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation.Starting in the 20th century, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a three- or five-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced a Council-manager government structure with an appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs.The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature.While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially of the village type, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The other three villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter) and South Orange (now operates under a Special Charter)—have all migrated to other non-village forms.Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the more liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate that 60% of the population are self-described as pro-choice, although a majority are opposed to late trimester and intact dilation and extraction and public funding of abortion. In a 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed, On October 18, 2013, the New Jersey Supreme Court rendered a provisional, unanimous (7–0) order authorizing same-sex marriage in the state, pending a legal appeal by Governor Chris Christie, who then withdrew this appeal hours after the inaugural same-sex marriages took place on October 21, 2013.New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black-powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws.In past elections, New Jersey was a Republican bastion, but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats have majority control of both houses of the New Jersey Legislature (Senate, 26–14, and Assembly, 54–26), a 10–2 split of the state's twelve seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, and both U.S. Senate seats. Although the Democratic Party is very successful statewide, the state has had Republican governors; from 1994 to 2002, Christine Todd Whitman won twice with 47% and 49% of the votes, respectively, and in the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie defeated incumbent Democrat Jon Corzine with 48% of the vote. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Christie won reelection with over 60% of the votes. Because each candidate for lieutenant governor runs on the same ticket as the party's candidate for governor, the current governor and lieutenant governor are members of the Democratic Party. The governor's appointments to cabinet and non-cabinet positions may be from either party; for instance, the attorney general is a Democrat.In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. For many years in the past, however, it was a Republican stronghold, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. Newark Mayor Cory Booker was elected in October 2013 to join Robert Menendez to make New Jersey the first state with concurrent serving black and Latino U.S. senators.The state's Democratic strongholds include Camden County, Essex County (typically the state's most Democratic county—it includes Newark, the state's largest city), Hudson County (the second-strongest Democratic county, including Jersey City, the state's second-largest city); Mercer County (especially around Trenton and Princeton), Middlesex County, and Union County (including Elizabeth, the state's fourth-largest city).The suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have support along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Morris County, Sussex County, and Warren County. Other suburban counties, especially Bergen County and Burlington County had the majority of votes go to the Democratic Party. In the 2008 election, President Barack Obama won New Jersey with approximately fifty-seven percent of the vote, compared to McCain's forty-one percent. Independent candidate Ralph Nader garnered less than one percent of the vote.About one-third of the state's counties are considered "swing" counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Salem County, the same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south (including Paterson, the state's third-largest city) and a rural, Republican north; with the "swing" township of Wayne in the middle. Other "swing" counties like Monmouth County, Somerset County, and Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas, although Somerset has recently trended Democratic.To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 21 days prior to election day.On December 17, 2007, Governor Jon Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Corzine also signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole".There is also a mineral museum Ogdensburg in Sussex County.Visitors and residents take advantage of and contribute to performances at the numerous music, theater, and dance companies and venues located throughout the state, including:New Jersey is the location of most of the boardwalks in the U.S., with nearly every town and city along the Jersey Shore area each having a boardwalk with various attractions, entertainment, shopping, dining, miniature golf, arcades, water parks with various water rides, including water slides, lazy rivers, wave pools, etc., and amusement parks hosting rides and attractions including roller coasters, carousels, Ferris wheels, bumper cars, teacups, etc.
|
[
"William Livingston",
"A. Harry Moore",
"Rodman McCamley Price",
"Charles Creighton Stratton",
"Leon Rutherford Taylor",
"Jon Corzine",
"George C. Ludlow",
"Donald DiFrancesco",
"Clarence Edwards Case",
"Charles Edison",
"Leon Abbett",
"Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr.",
"David Ogden Watkins",
"Brendan Byrne",
"Richard Joseph Hughes",
"Samuel L. Southard",
"Horace Griggs Prall",
"Chris Christie",
"Peter Dumont Vroom",
"Elias P. Seeley",
"Joseph Bloomfield",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"Thomas Henderson",
"Aaron Ogden",
"Morgan Foster Larson",
"Clifford Ross Powell",
"Jim McGreevey",
"Theodore Fitz Randolph",
"James Fairman Fielder",
"Joseph D. Bedle",
"Foster McGowan Voorhees",
"Robert Stockton Green",
"George Brinton McClellan",
"Mahlon Dickerson",
"Franklin Murphy",
"William Nelson Runyon",
"George Sebastian Silzer",
"Harold Giles Hoffman",
"Joel Parker",
"Edward Irving Edwards",
"Edward C. Stokes",
"William Thomas Cahill",
"Thomas Kean",
"John Orus Bennett III",
"Walter Evans Edge",
"Alfred Eastlack Driscoll",
"Charles Smith Olden",
"Christine Todd Whitman",
"James Florio",
"John W. Griggs",
"John Lambert",
"Isaac Halstead Williamson",
"Robert Baumle Meyner",
"William Pennington",
"George Franklin Fort",
"William A. Newell",
"Phil Murphy",
"George Theodore Werts",
"William Paterson",
"John Franklin Fort",
"Richard Codey",
"Philemon Dickerson"
] |
|
Who was the head of New Jersey in 08/03/1815?
|
March 08, 1815
|
{
"text": [
"William Sanford Pennington"
]
}
|
L2_Q1408_P6_6
|
Charles Smith Olden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1863.
William Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1837 to Oct, 1843.
Brendan Byrne is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1982.
George Theodore Werts is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1896.
Richard Codey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Foster McGowan Voorhees is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1898 to Oct, 1898.
Joseph D. Bedle is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1878.
Donald DiFrancesco is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
Alfred Eastlack Driscoll is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1954.
Phil Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
David Ogden Watkins is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1898 to Jan, 1899.
Peter Dumont Vroom is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1829 to Oct, 1832.
George Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1851 to Jan, 1854.
Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr. is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1869.
William Paterson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1790 to Mar, 1793.
Theodore Fitz Randolph is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.
Horace Griggs Prall is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Aaron Ogden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1812 to Oct, 1813.
Isaac Halstead Williamson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1817 to Oct, 1829.
Philemon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1836 to Oct, 1837.
George Brinton McClellan is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1878 to Jan, 1881.
John Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1911.
John W. Griggs is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1898.
Morgan Foster Larson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1932.
Chris Christie is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
William A. Newell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1860.
Charles Creighton Stratton is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1845 to Jan, 1848.
George C. Ludlow is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1881 to Jan, 1884.
Clarence Edwards Case is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1920.
William Sanford Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1813 to Jun, 1815.
William Nelson Runyon is the head of the government of New Jersey from May, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Robert Stockton Green is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1890.
Franklin Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1905.
John Lambert is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1802 to Oct, 1803.
Mahlon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1815 to Feb, 1817.
Clifford Ross Powell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Leon Rutherford Taylor is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1913 to Jan, 1914.
William Thomas Cahill is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1974.
Edward C. Stokes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1908.
Thomas Kean is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
Rodman McCamley Price is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1854 to Jan, 1857.
Joel Parker is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1863 to Jan, 1866.
Charles Edison is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1944.
Leon Abbett is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1884 to Jan, 1887.
James Fairman Fielder is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1913 to Oct, 1913.
Richard Joseph Hughes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1970.
Robert Baumle Meyner is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1962.
Thomas Henderson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1793 to Jun, 1793.
Edward Irving Edwards is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1923.
Joseph Bloomfield is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1801 to Oct, 1802.
Walter Evans Edge is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1917 to May, 1919.
William Livingston is the head of the government of New Jersey from Aug, 1776 to Jul, 1790.
John Orus Bennett III is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
George Sebastian Silzer is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1926.
Elias P. Seeley is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1833 to Oct, 1833.
Jon Corzine is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
Woodrow Wilson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1911 to Mar, 1913.
A. Harry Moore is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1929.
James Florio is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
Harold Giles Hoffman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1938.
Christine Todd Whitman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 2001.
Samuel L. Southard is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1832 to Feb, 1833.
Jim McGreevey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2004.
|
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania; and on the southwest by Delaware Bay and the state of Delaware. New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous, with 9,288,994 residents as of 2020 and an area of , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. New Jersey's state capital is Trenton, while the state's most populous city is Newark. All but one county in New Jersey (Warren County) lie within the combined statistical areas of New York City or Philadelphia; consequently, the state's largest metropolitan area falls within Greater New York.New Jersey was first inhabited by Native Americans for at least 2,800 years, with the Lenape being the dominant group by the time Europeans arrived in the early 17th century. Dutch and the Swedish colonists founded the first European settlements in the state. The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey—after the largest of the Channel Islands, Jersey—and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in the "Big Six" cities of Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Elizabeth helped drive the nation's Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's central location in the Northeast megalopolis fueled its rapid growth and suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century. At the turn of the 21st century, the state's economy increasingly diversified, while its multicultural populace began reverting toward more urban settings within the state, outpacing the growth in suburbs since 2008.As of 2020, New Jersey was home to the highest number of millionaires per capita of all U.S. states, with 9.76% of households—more than 323,000 of 3.3 million statewide—meeting the criteria. Based on 2017 data, it was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income. New Jersey's public school system consistently ranks at or among the top among all fifty U.S. states.Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges.New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact. "" is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade.The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch West India Company policy required its colonists to purchase the land that they settled. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen. Peter Minuit's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. The entire region became a territory of England on June 24, 1664, after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is now New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam, annexing the entire province.During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in Saint Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey.Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775.Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill—settlers came primarily from New York and New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England, who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. (William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time.) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702, at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England.In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor, rather than a proprietary one. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land. In 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738.New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the State Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times, and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the American Revolution". The winter quarters of the Continental Army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which has been called "The Military Capital of the American Revolution.“On the night of December 25–26, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River. After the crossing, they surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, the Americans made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3, 1777. Emanuel Leutze's painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware" became an icon of the Revolution.American forces under Washington met the British forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778. The Americans attempted to take the British column by surprise. When the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. Their ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges.In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war.On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights.The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property separately from their husbands. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors", whether entitled to vote or not; on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal "white male" suffrage, excluding paupers; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution.On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population. By the close of the Civil War, about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage. New Jersey voters eventually ratified the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States' black population.Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey's growing industries in Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the state senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision "Baker v. Carr". While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself.New Jersey was one of the few Union states (the others being Delaware and Kentucky) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan, a native Philadelphian, had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time; he later became Governor of New Jersey (1878–81). (In New Jersey, the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860.) During the American Civil War, the state was led first by Republican governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. During the course of the war, between 65,000 and 80,000 soldiers from the state enlisted in the Union army; unlike many states, including some Northern ones, no battle was fought there.In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the United States. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey.Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century. Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry. Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine.New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927, and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS "Morro Castle" beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea.Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially naval construction. The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company yards in Kearny and Newark and the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yard in Camden produced aircraft carriers, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fifth among the 48 states. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Camp Merritt (1917) and Camp Kilmer (1941) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike missile stations were constructed for the defense of the New York City and Philadelphia areas. "PT-109", a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden.In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In 1959, Air Defense Command deployed the CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missile to McGuire Air Force Base. On June 7, 1960, an explosion in a CIM-10 Bomarc missile fuel tank caused the accident and subsequent plutonium contamination.In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably, the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976. Prior to this bill, the state had no income tax.In the early part of the 2000s, two light rail systems were opened: the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton. The intent of these projects was to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey, respectively. The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular. Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century. As of 2014, Jersey City's Census-estimated population was 262,146, with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010, representing an increase of 5.9% from the 2010 United States Census, when the city's population was enumerated at 247,597. Between 2000 and 2010, Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s.The state of New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York (parts of which are across the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, and the Arthur Kill); on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. This is New Jersey's only straight border.New Jersey is often broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South.Within those regions are five distinct areas, based upon natural geography and population concentration. Northeastern New Jersey lies closest to Manhattan in New York City, and up to a million residents commute daily into the city for work, many via public transportation. Northwestern New Jersey is more wooded, rural, and mountainous. The Jersey Shore, along the Atlantic Coast in Central and South Jersey, has its own unique natural, residential, and cultural characteristics owing to its location by the ocean. The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state, which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. The Pine Barrens region is in the southern interior of New Jersey; covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, this region has a lower population density than most of the rest of the state.The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, with 16 counties included in either the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area. New Jersey is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis.High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the state's highest elevation, at above sea level. The state's highest prominence is Kitty Ann Mountain in Morris County, rising . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the west side of the Hudson River, in Bergen and Hudson Counties. Major New Jersey rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Due to New Jersey's peninsular geography, both sunrise and sunset are visible over water from different points on the Jersey Shore.There are two climatic conditions in the state. The south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate (microthermal), with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation. New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Climate change is affecting New Jersey faster than much of the rest of the United States. As of 2019, New Jersey was one of the fastest-warming states in the nation. Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of and lows of ; however, temperatures exceed on average 25 days each summer, exceeding in some years. Winters are usually cold, with average high temperatures of and lows of for most of the state, but temperatures can, for brief periods, fall below and sometimes rise above . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub- being an almost annual occurrence. Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations, with lower humidity than summer. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from6 in the northwest of the state, to 7B near Cape May. All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10, 1936, in Runyon, Middlesex County and on January 5, 1904, in River Vale, Bergen County.Average annual precipitation ranges from , uniformly spread through the year. Average snowfall per winter season ranges from in the south and near the seacoast, in the northeast and central part of the state, to about in the northwestern highlands, but this often varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms, most of which occur during the summer.During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters", which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999), tornadoes, and earthquakes are rare, although New Jersey was impacted by a hurricane in 1903, and Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state with top winds of .For its overall population and nation-leading population density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. This paradox is most pronounced in Bergen County, New Jersey's most populous county, whose more than 930,000 residents in 2019 inhabited 70 municipalities, the most populous being Hackensack, with 44,522 residents estimated in 2018. Many urban areas extend far beyond the limits of a single large city, as New Jersey cities (and indeed municipalities in general) tend to be geographically small; three of the four largest cities in New Jersey by population have under of land area, and eight of the top ten, including all of the top five have land area under . , only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000, although Edison and Woodbridge came very close.The United States Census Bureau tabulated in the 2020 United States census that the population of New Jersey was 9,288,994 on April 1, 2020, a 5.7% increase since the 2010 United States census. Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or, less commonly, as "New Jerseyites". At the 2010 census, there were 8,791,894 people living in the state. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the state was: 68.6% White American, 13.7% African American, 8.3% Asian American, 0.3% Native American, 2.7% Multiracial American, and 6.4% other races. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9% of the population in 2011, down from 85% in 1970. In 2010, 17.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).In 2010, unauthorized immigrants constituted an estimated 6.2% of the population. This was the fourth-highest percentage of any state in the country. There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010. Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Camden, Jersey City and Newark.As of 2010, New Jersey was the eleventh-most populous state in the United States, and the most densely populated, at 1,185 residents per square mile (458 per km), with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City, Philadelphia, and along the eastern Jersey Shore, while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall. It was also the second wealthiest state by median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike.New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers "per square mile" than anywhere else in the world.On October 21, 2013, same-sex marriages commenced in New Jersey.New Jersey is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse states in the United States. As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. The state has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percentage (after Michigan); the largest population of Peruvians in the United States; the largest population of Cubans outside of Florida; the third highest Asian population by percentage; and the second highest Italian population, according to the 2000 Census. African Americans, Hispanics (Puerto Ricans and Dominicans), West Indians, Arabs, and Brazilian and Portuguese Americans are also high in number. New Jersey has the third highest Asian Indian population of any state by absolute numbers and the highest by percentage, with Bergen County home to America's largest Malayali community. Overall, New Jersey has the third largest Korean population, with Bergen County home to the highest Korean concentration per capita of any U.S. county (6.9% in 2011). New Jersey also has the fourth largest Filipino population, and fourth largest Chinese population, per the 2010 U.S. Census. The five largest ethnic groups in 2000 were: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%).India Square, in Bombay, Jersey City, Hudson County, is home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, Central New Jersey, particularly Edison and surrounding Middlesex County, is prominently known for its significant concentration of Asian Indians. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville in 2014, a BAPS temple. The growing Little India is a South Asian-focused commercial strip in Middlesex County, the U.S. county with the highest concentration of Asian Indians. The Oak Tree Road strip runs for about through Edison and neighboring Iselin in Woodbridge Township, near the area's sprawling Chinatown and Koreatown, running along New Jersey Route 27. It is the largest and most diverse South Asian cultural hub in the United States. Carteret's Punjabi Sikh community, variously estimated at upwards of 3,000, is the largest concentration of Sikhs in the state. Monroe Township in Middlesex County has experienced a particularly rapid growth rate in its Indian American population, with an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, which was 23 times the 256 (0.9%) counted as of the 2000 Census; and Diwali is celebrated by the township as a Hindu holiday. In Middlesex County, election ballots are printed in English, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi.Newark was the fourth poorest of U.S. cities with over 250,000 residents in 2008, but New Jersey as a whole had the second-highest median household income as of 2014. This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area.In 2010, 6.2% of its population was reported as under age 5, 23.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older; and females made up approximately 51.3% of the population.A study by the Pew Research Center found that in 2013, New Jersey was the only U.S. state in which immigrants born in India constituted the largest foreign-born nationality, representing roughly 10% of all foreign-born residents in the state.For further information on various ethnoracial groups and neighborhoods prominently featured within New Jersey, see the following articles:As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's population younger than age1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white)."Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number."As of 2010, 71.31% (5,830,812) of New Jersey residents age5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 14.59% (1,193,261) spoke Spanish, 1.23% (100,217) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.06% (86,849) Italian, 1.06% (86,486) Portuguese, 0.96% (78,627) Tagalog, and Korean was spoken as a main language by 0.89% (73,057) of the population over the age of five. In total, 28.69% (2,345,644) of New Jersey's population age5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.A diverse collection of languages has since evolved amongst the state's population, given that New Jersey has become cosmopolitan and is home to ethnic enclaves of non-English-speaking communities:By number of adherents, the largest denominations in New Jersey, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2010, were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,235,290; Islam with 160,666; and the United Methodist Church with 138,052. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville, Mercer County, in central New Jersey during 2014, a BAPS temple. In January 2018, Gurbir Grewal became the first Sikh American state attorney general in the United States. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's gross state product in the fourth quarter of 2018 was $639.8 billion. New Jersey's estimated taxpayer burden in 2015 was $59,400 per taxpayer. New Jersey is nearly $239 billion in debt.New Jersey's per capita gross state product in 2008 was $54,699, second in the U.S. and above the national per capita gross domestic product of $46,588. Its per capita income was the third highest in the nation with $51,358. In 2020, New Jersey had the highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, approximately 9.76% of households. The state is ranked second in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are among the 100 wealthiest U.S. counties.New Jersey has seven tax brackets that determine state income tax rates, which range from 1.4% (for income below $20,000) to 8.97% (for income above $500,000).The standard sales tax rate as of January 1, 2018, is 6.625%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. This rate, which is comparably lower than that of New York City, often attracts numerous shoppers from New York City, often to suburban Paramus, New Jersey, which has five malls, one of which (the Garden State Plaza) has over of retail space. Tax exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medications, most clothing, footwear and disposable paper products for use in the home. There are 27 Urban Enterprise Zone statewide, including sections of Paterson, Elizabeth, and Jersey City. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half the rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.New Jersey has the highest cumulative tax rate of all 50 states with residents paying a total of $68 billion in state and local taxes annually with a per capita burden of $7,816 at a rate of 12.9% of income. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax.New Jersey consistently ranks as having one of the highest proportional levels of disparity of any state in the United States, based upon what it receives from the federal government relative to what it gives. In 2015, WalletHub ranked New Jersey the state least dependent upon federal government aid overall and having the fourth lowest return on taxpayer investment from the federal government, at 48 cents per dollar.New Jersey has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas.New Jersey's economy is multifaceted, but is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, information technology, the financial industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing, publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. New Jersey ranks second among states in blueberry production, third in cranberries and spinach, and fourth in bell peppers, peaches, and head lettuce. The state harvests the fourth-largest number of acres planted with asparagus.Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the state's use of nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey's electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of state generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country.New Jersey has a strong scientific economy and is home to major pharmaceutical and telecommunications firms, drawing on the state's large and well-educated labor pool. There is also a strong service economy in retail sales, education, and real estate, serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Thomas Edison invented the first electric light bulb at his home in Menlo Park, Edison in 1879. New Jersey is also a key participant in the renewable wind industry.Shipping is a key industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic geographic location, the Port of New York and New Jersey being the busiest port on the East Coast. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and today is one of the world's largest.New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus in Bergen County has become the top retail ZIP code (07652) in the United States, with the municipality generating over US$6 billion in annual retail sales. Several New Jersey counties, including Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), and Monmouth (42), have been ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States.New Jersey's location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis and its extensive transportation system have put over one-third of all United States residents and many Canadian residents within overnight distance by land. This accessibility to consumer revenue has enabled seaside resorts such as Atlantic City and the remainder of the Jersey Shore, as well as the state's other natural and cultural attractions, to contribute significantly to the record 111 million tourist visits to New Jersey in 2018, providing US$44.7 billion in tourism revenue, directly supporting 333,860 jobs, sustaining more than 531,000 jobs overall including peripheral impacts, and generating US$5 billion in state and local tax revenue.In 1976, a referendum of New Jersey voters approved casino gambling in Atlantic City, where the first legalized casino opened in 1978. At that time, Las Vegas was the only other casino resort in the country. Today, several casinos lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the first and longest boardwalk in the world. Atlantic City experienced a dramatic contraction in its stature as a gambling destination after 2010, including the closure of multiple casinos since 2014, spurred by competition from the advent of legalized gambling in other northeastern U.S. states. On February 26, 2013, Governor Chris Christie signed online gambling into law. Sports betting has become a growing source of gambling revenue in New Jersey since being legalized across the nation by the U.S. Supreme Court on May 14, 2018.Forests cover 45%, or approximately 2.1 million acres, of New Jersey's land area. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. The Pine Barrens, consisting of pine forests, is in the southern part of the state.Some mining activity of zinc, iron, and manganese still takes place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace.New Jersey is second in the nation in solar power installations, enabled by one of the country's most favorable net metering policies, and the renewable energy certificates program. The state has more than 10,000 solar installations.As of 2010, there were 605 school districts in the state.Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase college admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg retracted this plan when criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative.In 2010, the state government paid all teachers' premiums for health insurance, but currently all NJ public teachers pay a portion of their own health insurance premiums.New Jersey is known for the quality of its education. In 2015, the state spent more per each public school student than any other U.S. state except New York, Alaska, and Connecticut, amounting to $18,235 spent per pupil; over 50% of the expenditure was allocated to student instruction.According to 2011 "Newsweek" statistics, students of High Technology High School in Lincroft, Monmouth County and Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, Bergen County registered average SAT scores of 2145 and 2100, respectively, representing the second- and third-highest scores, respectively, of all listed U.S. high schools.Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2020 list of "U.S. News & World Report". In 2013, Rutgers University, headquartered in New Brunswick, Middlesex County as the flagship institution of higher education in New Jersey, regained medical and dental schools, augmenting its profile as a national research university as well.In 2014, New Jersey's school systems were ranked at the top of all fifty U.S. states by financial website Wallethub.com. In 2018, New Jersey's overall educational system was ranked second among all states to Massachusetts by "U.S. News & World Report". In both 2019 and 2020, "Education Week" also ranked New Jersey public schools the best of all U.S. states.Nine New Jersey high schools were ranked among the top 25 in the U.S. on the "Newsweek" "America's Top High Schools 2016" list, more than from any other state. A 2017 UCLA Civil Rights project found that New Jersey has the sixth-most segregated classrooms in the United States.New Jersey has continued to play a prominent role as a U.S. cultural nexus. Like every state, New Jersey has its own cuisine, religious communities, museums, and .New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon, the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone.Diners are iconic to New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has over 600 diners, more than any other place in the world.New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey state song, but it was not even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature.New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), sloppy joe sandwiches, tomato pies, and Texas wieners.Several states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey.New Jersey has long been an important origin for both rock and rap music. Prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey include:New Jersey currently has six teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although one Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify themselves as being from the New York metropolitan area.The National Hockey League's New Jersey Devils, based in Newark at the Prudential Center, is the only major league sports franchise to bear the state's name. Founded in 1974 in Kansas City, Missouri, as the Kansas City Scouts, the team played in Denver, Colorado, as the Colorado Rockies from 1976 until the spring of 1982 when naval architect, businessman, and Jersey City native John J. McMullen purchased, renamed, and moved the franchise to Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. While the team had mostly losing records in Kansas City, Denver, and its first years in New Jersey, the Devils began to improve in the late 1980s and early 1990s under Hall of Fame president and general manager Lou Lamoriello. The team made the playoffs for the Stanley Cup in 2001 and 2012, and won it in 1995, 2000, and 2003. The organization is the youngest of the nine major league teams in the New York metropolitan area. The Devils have established a following throughout the northern and central portions of the state, carving a place in a media market once dominated by the New York Rangers and Islanders.In 2018, the Philadelphia Flyers renovated and expanded their training facility, the Virtua Center Flyers Skate Zone, in Voorhees Township in the southern portion of the state.The New York Metropolitan Area's two National Football League teams, the New York Giants and the New York Jets, play at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. Built for about $1.6 billion, the venue is the most expensive stadium ever built. On February 2, 2014, MetLife Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLVIII.The New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer play in Red Bull Arena, a soccer-specific stadium in Harrison across the Passaic River from downtown Newark. On July 27, 2011, Red Bull Arena hosted the 2011 MLS All-Star Game.From 1977 to 2012, New Jersey had a National Basketball Association team, the New Jersey Nets. WNBA's New York Liberty played in New Jersey from 2011 to 2013 while their primary home arena, Madison Square Garden was undergoing renovations. In 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA opened their new headquarters and training facility, the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex, in Camden.The Meadowlands Sports Complex is home to the Meadowlands Racetrack, one of three major harness racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack and Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport is a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation.New Jerseyans' collegiate allegiances are predominantly split among the three major NCAA Division I programs in the state: the Rutgers University (New Jersey's flagship state university) Scarlet Knights, members of the Big Ten Conference; the Seton Hall University (the state's largest Catholic university) Pirates, members of the Big East Conference; and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers.The intense rivalry between Rutgers and Princeton athletics began with the first intercollegiate football game in 1869. The schools have not met on the football field since 1980, but they continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities.Rutgers, which fields 24 teams in various sports, is nationally known for its football program, with a 6–4 all-time bowl record; and its women's basketball programs, which appeared in a National Final in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, Rutgers expanded their football home, Rutgers Stadium, now called SHI Stadium, on the Busch Campus. The basketball teams play at the Rutgers Athletic Center on Livingston Campus. Both venues and campuses are in Piscataway, across the Raritan River from New Brunswick. The university also fields men's basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fans live mostly in the western parts of the state and Middlesex County; its alumni base is the largest in the state.Rutgers' satellite campuses in Camden and Newark each field their own athletic programs—the Rutgers–Camden Scarlet Raptors and the Rutgers–Newark Scarlet Raiders—which both compete in NCAA Division III.Seton Hall fields no football team, but its men's basketball team is one of the Big East's storied programs. No New Jersey team has won more games in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, and it is the state's only men's basketball program to reach a modern National Final. The Pirates play their home games at Prudential Center in downtown Newark, about from the university's South Orange campus. Their fans hail largely from in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. The annual inter-conference rivalry game between Seton Hall and Rutgers, whose venue alternates between Newark and Piscataway, the Garden State Hardwood Classic, is planned through 2026.The state's other Division I schools include the Monmouth University Hawks (West Long Branch), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Highlanders (Newark), the Rider University Broncs (Lawrenceville), and the Saint Peter's University Peacocks and Peahens (Jersey City).Fairleigh Dickinson University competes in both Division I and Division III. It has two campuses, each with its own sports teams. The teams at the Metropolitan Campus are known as the FDU Knights, and compete in the Northeast Conference and NCAA Division I. The college at Florham (FDU-Florham) teams are known as the FDU-Florham Devils and compete in the Middle Atlantic Conferences' Freedom Conference and NCAA Division III.Among the various Division III schools in the state, the Stevens Institute of Technology Ducks have fielded the longest continuously running collegiate men's lacrosse program in the country. 2009 marked the 125th season.New Jersey high schools are divided into divisions under the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA).' Founded in 1918, the NJSIAA currently represents 22,000 schools, 330,000 coaches, and almost 4.5 million athletes.Motion picture technology was developed by Thomas Edison, with much of his early work done at his West Orange laboratory. Edison's Black Maria was the first motion picture studio. America's first motion picture industry started in 1907 in Fort Lee and the first studio was constructed there in 1909. DuMont Laboratories in Passaic developed early sets and made the first broadcast to the private home.A number of television shows and films have been filmed in New Jersey. Since 1978, the state has maintained a Motion Picture and Television Commission to encourage filming in-state. New Jersey has long offered tax credits to television producers. Governor Chris Christie suspended the credits in 2010, but the New Jersey State Legislature in 2011 approved the restoration and expansion of the tax credit program. Under bills passed by both the state Senate and Assembly, the program offers 20 percent tax credits (22% in urban enterprise zones) to television and film productions that shoot in the state and meet set standards for hiring and local spending. When Governor Phil Murphy took office, he instated the New Jersey Film & Digital Media Tax Credit Program in 2018 and expanded it in 2020. The benefits include a 30% tax credit on film projects and a 40% subsidy for studio developments.The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the most prominent and heavily trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road, which overlaps with Interstate 95 for much of its length, carries traffic between Delaware and New York, and up and down the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike", it is known for its numerous rest areas named after prominent New Jerseyans.The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway", carries relatively more in-state traffic than interstate traffic and runs from New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May. It is the main route that connects the New York metropolitan area to the Jersey Shore. With a total of fifteen travel and six shoulder lanes, the Driscoll Bridge on the Parkway, spanning the Raritan River in Middlesex County, is the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world by number of lanes as well as one of the busiest.New Jersey is connected to New York City via various key bridges and tunnels. The double-decked George Washington Bridge carries the heaviest load of motor vehicle traffic of any bridge in the world, at 102 million vehicles per year, across fourteen lanes. It connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and carries Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1/9 across the Hudson River. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan carrying New Jersey Route 495, and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan carrying Interstate 78. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges—from north to south, the Bayonne Bridge, the Goethals Bridge, and the Outerbridge Crossing.New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three of its neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes in and out of the state. Bridge tolls are collected only from traffic exiting the state, with the exception of the private Dingman's Ferry Bridge over the Delaware River, which charges a toll in both directions.It is unlawful for a customer to serve themselves gasoline in New Jersey. It became the last remaining U.S. state where all gas stations are required to sell full-service gasoline to customers at all times in 2016, after Oregon's introduction of restricted self-service gasoline availability took effect.Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it is one of the three main airports serving the New York metropolitan area. United Airlines is the airport's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal there, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo terminal at EWR as well. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to Amtrak and NJ Transit trains along the Northeast Corridor Line.Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and rapidly growing Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of the state. Teterboro Airport in Bergen County, and Millville Municipal Airport in Cumberland County, are general aviation airports popular with private and corporate aircraft due to their proximity to New York City and the Jersey Shore, respectively.NJ Transit operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. A state-run corporation, it began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey in 1979. In the early 1980s, it acquired Conrail's commuter train operations that connected suburban towns to New York City. Today, NJ Transit has eleven commuter rail lines that run through different parts of the state. Most of the lines end at either Penn Station in New York City or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. One line provides service between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.NJ Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, through Hoboken and Jersey City. The Newark Light Rail is partially underground, and connects downtown Newark with other parts of the city and its suburbs, Belleville and Bloomfield. The River Line connects Trenton and Camden.The PATH is a rapid transit system consisting of four lines operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit system that links Camden County to Philadelphia. Both the PATCO and the PATH are two of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to operate 24 hours a day.Amtrak operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey, both to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Transit Center, Metropark, and the historic Newark Penn Station.The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, or SEPTA, has two commuter rail lines that operate into New Jersey. The Trenton Line terminates at the Trenton Transit Center, and the West Trenton Line terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing.AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots.Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers, of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City.New York Waterway has ferry terminals at Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, and Edgewater, with service to different parts of Manhattan. Liberty Water Taxi in Jersey City has ferries from Paulus Hook and Liberty State Park to Battery Park City in Manhattan. Statue Cruises offers service from Liberty State Park to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, including Ellis Island. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket.The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May–Lewes Ferry on Delaware Bay, carrying both passengers and vehicles between New Jersey and Delaware. The agency also operates the Forts Ferry Crossing for passengers across the Delaware River. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia.The position of Governor of New Jersey has been considered one of the most powerful in the nation. Until 2010, the governor was the only statewide elected executive official in the state and appointed numerous government officials. Formerly, an acting governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, president of the state senate Richard Codey held the position of acting governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term acting governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming acting governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. Phil Murphy (D) is the governor. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton.Before 2010, New Jersey was one of the few states without a lieutenant governor. Republican Kim Guadagno was elected the first lieutenant governor of New Jersey and took office on January 19, 2010. She was elected on the Republican ticket with Governor-Elect Chris Christie in the November 2009 NJ gubernatorial election. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005, and effective as of January 17, 2006.The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one state senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; state senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms.New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every four years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a governor was 2017; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2021.The New Jersey Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. All are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70.Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Court, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard.More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level; the Law Division hears both criminal cases and civil lawsuits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is damages, while the Chancery Division hears family cases, civil suits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is equitable relief, and probate trials.The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice.There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships.New Jersey is divided into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders", governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members.Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other five counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions.New Jersey currently has 565 municipalities; the number was 566 before Princeton Township and Princeton Borough merged to form the municipality of Princeton on January 1, 2013. Unlike other states, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation.Starting in the 20th century, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a three- or five-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced a Council-manager government structure with an appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs.The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature.While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially of the village type, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The other three villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter) and South Orange (now operates under a Special Charter)—have all migrated to other non-village forms.Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the more liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate that 60% of the population are self-described as pro-choice, although a majority are opposed to late trimester and intact dilation and extraction and public funding of abortion. In a 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed, On October 18, 2013, the New Jersey Supreme Court rendered a provisional, unanimous (7–0) order authorizing same-sex marriage in the state, pending a legal appeal by Governor Chris Christie, who then withdrew this appeal hours after the inaugural same-sex marriages took place on October 21, 2013.New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black-powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws.In past elections, New Jersey was a Republican bastion, but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats have majority control of both houses of the New Jersey Legislature (Senate, 26–14, and Assembly, 54–26), a 10–2 split of the state's twelve seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, and both U.S. Senate seats. Although the Democratic Party is very successful statewide, the state has had Republican governors; from 1994 to 2002, Christine Todd Whitman won twice with 47% and 49% of the votes, respectively, and in the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie defeated incumbent Democrat Jon Corzine with 48% of the vote. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Christie won reelection with over 60% of the votes. Because each candidate for lieutenant governor runs on the same ticket as the party's candidate for governor, the current governor and lieutenant governor are members of the Democratic Party. The governor's appointments to cabinet and non-cabinet positions may be from either party; for instance, the attorney general is a Democrat.In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. For many years in the past, however, it was a Republican stronghold, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. Newark Mayor Cory Booker was elected in October 2013 to join Robert Menendez to make New Jersey the first state with concurrent serving black and Latino U.S. senators.The state's Democratic strongholds include Camden County, Essex County (typically the state's most Democratic county—it includes Newark, the state's largest city), Hudson County (the second-strongest Democratic county, including Jersey City, the state's second-largest city); Mercer County (especially around Trenton and Princeton), Middlesex County, and Union County (including Elizabeth, the state's fourth-largest city).The suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have support along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Morris County, Sussex County, and Warren County. Other suburban counties, especially Bergen County and Burlington County had the majority of votes go to the Democratic Party. In the 2008 election, President Barack Obama won New Jersey with approximately fifty-seven percent of the vote, compared to McCain's forty-one percent. Independent candidate Ralph Nader garnered less than one percent of the vote.About one-third of the state's counties are considered "swing" counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Salem County, the same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south (including Paterson, the state's third-largest city) and a rural, Republican north; with the "swing" township of Wayne in the middle. Other "swing" counties like Monmouth County, Somerset County, and Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas, although Somerset has recently trended Democratic.To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 21 days prior to election day.On December 17, 2007, Governor Jon Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Corzine also signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole".There is also a mineral museum Ogdensburg in Sussex County.Visitors and residents take advantage of and contribute to performances at the numerous music, theater, and dance companies and venues located throughout the state, including:New Jersey is the location of most of the boardwalks in the U.S., with nearly every town and city along the Jersey Shore area each having a boardwalk with various attractions, entertainment, shopping, dining, miniature golf, arcades, water parks with various water rides, including water slides, lazy rivers, wave pools, etc., and amusement parks hosting rides and attractions including roller coasters, carousels, Ferris wheels, bumper cars, teacups, etc.
|
[
"William Livingston",
"A. Harry Moore",
"Rodman McCamley Price",
"Charles Creighton Stratton",
"Leon Rutherford Taylor",
"Jon Corzine",
"George C. Ludlow",
"Donald DiFrancesco",
"Clarence Edwards Case",
"Charles Edison",
"Leon Abbett",
"Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr.",
"David Ogden Watkins",
"Brendan Byrne",
"Richard Joseph Hughes",
"Samuel L. Southard",
"Horace Griggs Prall",
"Chris Christie",
"Peter Dumont Vroom",
"Elias P. Seeley",
"Joseph Bloomfield",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"Thomas Henderson",
"Aaron Ogden",
"Morgan Foster Larson",
"Clifford Ross Powell",
"Jim McGreevey",
"Theodore Fitz Randolph",
"James Fairman Fielder",
"Joseph D. Bedle",
"Foster McGowan Voorhees",
"Robert Stockton Green",
"George Brinton McClellan",
"Mahlon Dickerson",
"Franklin Murphy",
"William Nelson Runyon",
"George Sebastian Silzer",
"Harold Giles Hoffman",
"Joel Parker",
"Edward Irving Edwards",
"Edward C. Stokes",
"William Thomas Cahill",
"Thomas Kean",
"John Orus Bennett III",
"Walter Evans Edge",
"Alfred Eastlack Driscoll",
"Charles Smith Olden",
"Christine Todd Whitman",
"James Florio",
"John W. Griggs",
"John Lambert",
"Isaac Halstead Williamson",
"Robert Baumle Meyner",
"William Pennington",
"George Franklin Fort",
"William A. Newell",
"Phil Murphy",
"George Theodore Werts",
"William Paterson",
"John Franklin Fort",
"Richard Codey",
"Philemon Dickerson"
] |
|
Who was the head of New Jersey in Mar 08, 1815?
|
March 08, 1815
|
{
"text": [
"William Sanford Pennington"
]
}
|
L2_Q1408_P6_6
|
Charles Smith Olden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1863.
William Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1837 to Oct, 1843.
Brendan Byrne is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1982.
George Theodore Werts is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1896.
Richard Codey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Foster McGowan Voorhees is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1898 to Oct, 1898.
Joseph D. Bedle is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1878.
Donald DiFrancesco is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
Alfred Eastlack Driscoll is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1954.
Phil Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
David Ogden Watkins is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1898 to Jan, 1899.
Peter Dumont Vroom is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1829 to Oct, 1832.
George Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1851 to Jan, 1854.
Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr. is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1869.
William Paterson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1790 to Mar, 1793.
Theodore Fitz Randolph is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.
Horace Griggs Prall is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Aaron Ogden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1812 to Oct, 1813.
Isaac Halstead Williamson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1817 to Oct, 1829.
Philemon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1836 to Oct, 1837.
George Brinton McClellan is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1878 to Jan, 1881.
John Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1911.
John W. Griggs is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1898.
Morgan Foster Larson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1932.
Chris Christie is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
William A. Newell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1860.
Charles Creighton Stratton is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1845 to Jan, 1848.
George C. Ludlow is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1881 to Jan, 1884.
Clarence Edwards Case is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1920.
William Sanford Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1813 to Jun, 1815.
William Nelson Runyon is the head of the government of New Jersey from May, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Robert Stockton Green is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1890.
Franklin Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1905.
John Lambert is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1802 to Oct, 1803.
Mahlon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1815 to Feb, 1817.
Clifford Ross Powell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Leon Rutherford Taylor is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1913 to Jan, 1914.
William Thomas Cahill is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1974.
Edward C. Stokes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1908.
Thomas Kean is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
Rodman McCamley Price is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1854 to Jan, 1857.
Joel Parker is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1863 to Jan, 1866.
Charles Edison is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1944.
Leon Abbett is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1884 to Jan, 1887.
James Fairman Fielder is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1913 to Oct, 1913.
Richard Joseph Hughes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1970.
Robert Baumle Meyner is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1962.
Thomas Henderson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1793 to Jun, 1793.
Edward Irving Edwards is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1923.
Joseph Bloomfield is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1801 to Oct, 1802.
Walter Evans Edge is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1917 to May, 1919.
William Livingston is the head of the government of New Jersey from Aug, 1776 to Jul, 1790.
John Orus Bennett III is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
George Sebastian Silzer is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1926.
Elias P. Seeley is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1833 to Oct, 1833.
Jon Corzine is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
Woodrow Wilson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1911 to Mar, 1913.
A. Harry Moore is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1929.
James Florio is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
Harold Giles Hoffman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1938.
Christine Todd Whitman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 2001.
Samuel L. Southard is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1832 to Feb, 1833.
Jim McGreevey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2004.
|
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania; and on the southwest by Delaware Bay and the state of Delaware. New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous, with 9,288,994 residents as of 2020 and an area of , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. New Jersey's state capital is Trenton, while the state's most populous city is Newark. All but one county in New Jersey (Warren County) lie within the combined statistical areas of New York City or Philadelphia; consequently, the state's largest metropolitan area falls within Greater New York.New Jersey was first inhabited by Native Americans for at least 2,800 years, with the Lenape being the dominant group by the time Europeans arrived in the early 17th century. Dutch and the Swedish colonists founded the first European settlements in the state. The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey—after the largest of the Channel Islands, Jersey—and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in the "Big Six" cities of Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Elizabeth helped drive the nation's Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's central location in the Northeast megalopolis fueled its rapid growth and suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century. At the turn of the 21st century, the state's economy increasingly diversified, while its multicultural populace began reverting toward more urban settings within the state, outpacing the growth in suburbs since 2008.As of 2020, New Jersey was home to the highest number of millionaires per capita of all U.S. states, with 9.76% of households—more than 323,000 of 3.3 million statewide—meeting the criteria. Based on 2017 data, it was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income. New Jersey's public school system consistently ranks at or among the top among all fifty U.S. states.Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges.New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact. "" is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade.The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch West India Company policy required its colonists to purchase the land that they settled. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen. Peter Minuit's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. The entire region became a territory of England on June 24, 1664, after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is now New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam, annexing the entire province.During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in Saint Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey.Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775.Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill—settlers came primarily from New York and New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England, who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. (William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time.) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702, at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England.In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor, rather than a proprietary one. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land. In 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738.New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the State Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times, and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the American Revolution". The winter quarters of the Continental Army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which has been called "The Military Capital of the American Revolution.“On the night of December 25–26, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River. After the crossing, they surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, the Americans made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3, 1777. Emanuel Leutze's painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware" became an icon of the Revolution.American forces under Washington met the British forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778. The Americans attempted to take the British column by surprise. When the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. Their ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges.In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war.On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights.The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property separately from their husbands. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors", whether entitled to vote or not; on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal "white male" suffrage, excluding paupers; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution.On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population. By the close of the Civil War, about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage. New Jersey voters eventually ratified the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States' black population.Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey's growing industries in Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the state senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision "Baker v. Carr". While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself.New Jersey was one of the few Union states (the others being Delaware and Kentucky) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan, a native Philadelphian, had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time; he later became Governor of New Jersey (1878–81). (In New Jersey, the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860.) During the American Civil War, the state was led first by Republican governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. During the course of the war, between 65,000 and 80,000 soldiers from the state enlisted in the Union army; unlike many states, including some Northern ones, no battle was fought there.In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the United States. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey.Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century. Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry. Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine.New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927, and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS "Morro Castle" beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea.Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially naval construction. The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company yards in Kearny and Newark and the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yard in Camden produced aircraft carriers, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fifth among the 48 states. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Camp Merritt (1917) and Camp Kilmer (1941) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike missile stations were constructed for the defense of the New York City and Philadelphia areas. "PT-109", a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden.In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In 1959, Air Defense Command deployed the CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missile to McGuire Air Force Base. On June 7, 1960, an explosion in a CIM-10 Bomarc missile fuel tank caused the accident and subsequent plutonium contamination.In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably, the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976. Prior to this bill, the state had no income tax.In the early part of the 2000s, two light rail systems were opened: the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton. The intent of these projects was to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey, respectively. The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular. Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century. As of 2014, Jersey City's Census-estimated population was 262,146, with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010, representing an increase of 5.9% from the 2010 United States Census, when the city's population was enumerated at 247,597. Between 2000 and 2010, Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s.The state of New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York (parts of which are across the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, and the Arthur Kill); on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. This is New Jersey's only straight border.New Jersey is often broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South.Within those regions are five distinct areas, based upon natural geography and population concentration. Northeastern New Jersey lies closest to Manhattan in New York City, and up to a million residents commute daily into the city for work, many via public transportation. Northwestern New Jersey is more wooded, rural, and mountainous. The Jersey Shore, along the Atlantic Coast in Central and South Jersey, has its own unique natural, residential, and cultural characteristics owing to its location by the ocean. The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state, which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. The Pine Barrens region is in the southern interior of New Jersey; covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, this region has a lower population density than most of the rest of the state.The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, with 16 counties included in either the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area. New Jersey is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis.High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the state's highest elevation, at above sea level. The state's highest prominence is Kitty Ann Mountain in Morris County, rising . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the west side of the Hudson River, in Bergen and Hudson Counties. Major New Jersey rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Due to New Jersey's peninsular geography, both sunrise and sunset are visible over water from different points on the Jersey Shore.There are two climatic conditions in the state. The south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate (microthermal), with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation. New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Climate change is affecting New Jersey faster than much of the rest of the United States. As of 2019, New Jersey was one of the fastest-warming states in the nation. Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of and lows of ; however, temperatures exceed on average 25 days each summer, exceeding in some years. Winters are usually cold, with average high temperatures of and lows of for most of the state, but temperatures can, for brief periods, fall below and sometimes rise above . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub- being an almost annual occurrence. Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations, with lower humidity than summer. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from6 in the northwest of the state, to 7B near Cape May. All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10, 1936, in Runyon, Middlesex County and on January 5, 1904, in River Vale, Bergen County.Average annual precipitation ranges from , uniformly spread through the year. Average snowfall per winter season ranges from in the south and near the seacoast, in the northeast and central part of the state, to about in the northwestern highlands, but this often varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms, most of which occur during the summer.During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters", which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999), tornadoes, and earthquakes are rare, although New Jersey was impacted by a hurricane in 1903, and Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state with top winds of .For its overall population and nation-leading population density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. This paradox is most pronounced in Bergen County, New Jersey's most populous county, whose more than 930,000 residents in 2019 inhabited 70 municipalities, the most populous being Hackensack, with 44,522 residents estimated in 2018. Many urban areas extend far beyond the limits of a single large city, as New Jersey cities (and indeed municipalities in general) tend to be geographically small; three of the four largest cities in New Jersey by population have under of land area, and eight of the top ten, including all of the top five have land area under . , only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000, although Edison and Woodbridge came very close.The United States Census Bureau tabulated in the 2020 United States census that the population of New Jersey was 9,288,994 on April 1, 2020, a 5.7% increase since the 2010 United States census. Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or, less commonly, as "New Jerseyites". At the 2010 census, there were 8,791,894 people living in the state. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the state was: 68.6% White American, 13.7% African American, 8.3% Asian American, 0.3% Native American, 2.7% Multiracial American, and 6.4% other races. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9% of the population in 2011, down from 85% in 1970. In 2010, 17.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).In 2010, unauthorized immigrants constituted an estimated 6.2% of the population. This was the fourth-highest percentage of any state in the country. There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010. Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Camden, Jersey City and Newark.As of 2010, New Jersey was the eleventh-most populous state in the United States, and the most densely populated, at 1,185 residents per square mile (458 per km), with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City, Philadelphia, and along the eastern Jersey Shore, while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall. It was also the second wealthiest state by median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike.New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers "per square mile" than anywhere else in the world.On October 21, 2013, same-sex marriages commenced in New Jersey.New Jersey is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse states in the United States. As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. The state has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percentage (after Michigan); the largest population of Peruvians in the United States; the largest population of Cubans outside of Florida; the third highest Asian population by percentage; and the second highest Italian population, according to the 2000 Census. African Americans, Hispanics (Puerto Ricans and Dominicans), West Indians, Arabs, and Brazilian and Portuguese Americans are also high in number. New Jersey has the third highest Asian Indian population of any state by absolute numbers and the highest by percentage, with Bergen County home to America's largest Malayali community. Overall, New Jersey has the third largest Korean population, with Bergen County home to the highest Korean concentration per capita of any U.S. county (6.9% in 2011). New Jersey also has the fourth largest Filipino population, and fourth largest Chinese population, per the 2010 U.S. Census. The five largest ethnic groups in 2000 were: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%).India Square, in Bombay, Jersey City, Hudson County, is home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, Central New Jersey, particularly Edison and surrounding Middlesex County, is prominently known for its significant concentration of Asian Indians. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville in 2014, a BAPS temple. The growing Little India is a South Asian-focused commercial strip in Middlesex County, the U.S. county with the highest concentration of Asian Indians. The Oak Tree Road strip runs for about through Edison and neighboring Iselin in Woodbridge Township, near the area's sprawling Chinatown and Koreatown, running along New Jersey Route 27. It is the largest and most diverse South Asian cultural hub in the United States. Carteret's Punjabi Sikh community, variously estimated at upwards of 3,000, is the largest concentration of Sikhs in the state. Monroe Township in Middlesex County has experienced a particularly rapid growth rate in its Indian American population, with an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, which was 23 times the 256 (0.9%) counted as of the 2000 Census; and Diwali is celebrated by the township as a Hindu holiday. In Middlesex County, election ballots are printed in English, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi.Newark was the fourth poorest of U.S. cities with over 250,000 residents in 2008, but New Jersey as a whole had the second-highest median household income as of 2014. This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area.In 2010, 6.2% of its population was reported as under age 5, 23.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older; and females made up approximately 51.3% of the population.A study by the Pew Research Center found that in 2013, New Jersey was the only U.S. state in which immigrants born in India constituted the largest foreign-born nationality, representing roughly 10% of all foreign-born residents in the state.For further information on various ethnoracial groups and neighborhoods prominently featured within New Jersey, see the following articles:As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's population younger than age1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white)."Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number."As of 2010, 71.31% (5,830,812) of New Jersey residents age5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 14.59% (1,193,261) spoke Spanish, 1.23% (100,217) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.06% (86,849) Italian, 1.06% (86,486) Portuguese, 0.96% (78,627) Tagalog, and Korean was spoken as a main language by 0.89% (73,057) of the population over the age of five. In total, 28.69% (2,345,644) of New Jersey's population age5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.A diverse collection of languages has since evolved amongst the state's population, given that New Jersey has become cosmopolitan and is home to ethnic enclaves of non-English-speaking communities:By number of adherents, the largest denominations in New Jersey, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2010, were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,235,290; Islam with 160,666; and the United Methodist Church with 138,052. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville, Mercer County, in central New Jersey during 2014, a BAPS temple. In January 2018, Gurbir Grewal became the first Sikh American state attorney general in the United States. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's gross state product in the fourth quarter of 2018 was $639.8 billion. New Jersey's estimated taxpayer burden in 2015 was $59,400 per taxpayer. New Jersey is nearly $239 billion in debt.New Jersey's per capita gross state product in 2008 was $54,699, second in the U.S. and above the national per capita gross domestic product of $46,588. Its per capita income was the third highest in the nation with $51,358. In 2020, New Jersey had the highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, approximately 9.76% of households. The state is ranked second in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are among the 100 wealthiest U.S. counties.New Jersey has seven tax brackets that determine state income tax rates, which range from 1.4% (for income below $20,000) to 8.97% (for income above $500,000).The standard sales tax rate as of January 1, 2018, is 6.625%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. This rate, which is comparably lower than that of New York City, often attracts numerous shoppers from New York City, often to suburban Paramus, New Jersey, which has five malls, one of which (the Garden State Plaza) has over of retail space. Tax exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medications, most clothing, footwear and disposable paper products for use in the home. There are 27 Urban Enterprise Zone statewide, including sections of Paterson, Elizabeth, and Jersey City. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half the rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.New Jersey has the highest cumulative tax rate of all 50 states with residents paying a total of $68 billion in state and local taxes annually with a per capita burden of $7,816 at a rate of 12.9% of income. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax.New Jersey consistently ranks as having one of the highest proportional levels of disparity of any state in the United States, based upon what it receives from the federal government relative to what it gives. In 2015, WalletHub ranked New Jersey the state least dependent upon federal government aid overall and having the fourth lowest return on taxpayer investment from the federal government, at 48 cents per dollar.New Jersey has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas.New Jersey's economy is multifaceted, but is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, information technology, the financial industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing, publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. New Jersey ranks second among states in blueberry production, third in cranberries and spinach, and fourth in bell peppers, peaches, and head lettuce. The state harvests the fourth-largest number of acres planted with asparagus.Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the state's use of nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey's electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of state generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country.New Jersey has a strong scientific economy and is home to major pharmaceutical and telecommunications firms, drawing on the state's large and well-educated labor pool. There is also a strong service economy in retail sales, education, and real estate, serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Thomas Edison invented the first electric light bulb at his home in Menlo Park, Edison in 1879. New Jersey is also a key participant in the renewable wind industry.Shipping is a key industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic geographic location, the Port of New York and New Jersey being the busiest port on the East Coast. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and today is one of the world's largest.New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus in Bergen County has become the top retail ZIP code (07652) in the United States, with the municipality generating over US$6 billion in annual retail sales. Several New Jersey counties, including Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), and Monmouth (42), have been ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States.New Jersey's location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis and its extensive transportation system have put over one-third of all United States residents and many Canadian residents within overnight distance by land. This accessibility to consumer revenue has enabled seaside resorts such as Atlantic City and the remainder of the Jersey Shore, as well as the state's other natural and cultural attractions, to contribute significantly to the record 111 million tourist visits to New Jersey in 2018, providing US$44.7 billion in tourism revenue, directly supporting 333,860 jobs, sustaining more than 531,000 jobs overall including peripheral impacts, and generating US$5 billion in state and local tax revenue.In 1976, a referendum of New Jersey voters approved casino gambling in Atlantic City, where the first legalized casino opened in 1978. At that time, Las Vegas was the only other casino resort in the country. Today, several casinos lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the first and longest boardwalk in the world. Atlantic City experienced a dramatic contraction in its stature as a gambling destination after 2010, including the closure of multiple casinos since 2014, spurred by competition from the advent of legalized gambling in other northeastern U.S. states. On February 26, 2013, Governor Chris Christie signed online gambling into law. Sports betting has become a growing source of gambling revenue in New Jersey since being legalized across the nation by the U.S. Supreme Court on May 14, 2018.Forests cover 45%, or approximately 2.1 million acres, of New Jersey's land area. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. The Pine Barrens, consisting of pine forests, is in the southern part of the state.Some mining activity of zinc, iron, and manganese still takes place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace.New Jersey is second in the nation in solar power installations, enabled by one of the country's most favorable net metering policies, and the renewable energy certificates program. The state has more than 10,000 solar installations.As of 2010, there were 605 school districts in the state.Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase college admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg retracted this plan when criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative.In 2010, the state government paid all teachers' premiums for health insurance, but currently all NJ public teachers pay a portion of their own health insurance premiums.New Jersey is known for the quality of its education. In 2015, the state spent more per each public school student than any other U.S. state except New York, Alaska, and Connecticut, amounting to $18,235 spent per pupil; over 50% of the expenditure was allocated to student instruction.According to 2011 "Newsweek" statistics, students of High Technology High School in Lincroft, Monmouth County and Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, Bergen County registered average SAT scores of 2145 and 2100, respectively, representing the second- and third-highest scores, respectively, of all listed U.S. high schools.Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2020 list of "U.S. News & World Report". In 2013, Rutgers University, headquartered in New Brunswick, Middlesex County as the flagship institution of higher education in New Jersey, regained medical and dental schools, augmenting its profile as a national research university as well.In 2014, New Jersey's school systems were ranked at the top of all fifty U.S. states by financial website Wallethub.com. In 2018, New Jersey's overall educational system was ranked second among all states to Massachusetts by "U.S. News & World Report". In both 2019 and 2020, "Education Week" also ranked New Jersey public schools the best of all U.S. states.Nine New Jersey high schools were ranked among the top 25 in the U.S. on the "Newsweek" "America's Top High Schools 2016" list, more than from any other state. A 2017 UCLA Civil Rights project found that New Jersey has the sixth-most segregated classrooms in the United States.New Jersey has continued to play a prominent role as a U.S. cultural nexus. Like every state, New Jersey has its own cuisine, religious communities, museums, and .New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon, the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone.Diners are iconic to New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has over 600 diners, more than any other place in the world.New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey state song, but it was not even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature.New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), sloppy joe sandwiches, tomato pies, and Texas wieners.Several states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey.New Jersey has long been an important origin for both rock and rap music. Prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey include:New Jersey currently has six teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although one Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify themselves as being from the New York metropolitan area.The National Hockey League's New Jersey Devils, based in Newark at the Prudential Center, is the only major league sports franchise to bear the state's name. Founded in 1974 in Kansas City, Missouri, as the Kansas City Scouts, the team played in Denver, Colorado, as the Colorado Rockies from 1976 until the spring of 1982 when naval architect, businessman, and Jersey City native John J. McMullen purchased, renamed, and moved the franchise to Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. While the team had mostly losing records in Kansas City, Denver, and its first years in New Jersey, the Devils began to improve in the late 1980s and early 1990s under Hall of Fame president and general manager Lou Lamoriello. The team made the playoffs for the Stanley Cup in 2001 and 2012, and won it in 1995, 2000, and 2003. The organization is the youngest of the nine major league teams in the New York metropolitan area. The Devils have established a following throughout the northern and central portions of the state, carving a place in a media market once dominated by the New York Rangers and Islanders.In 2018, the Philadelphia Flyers renovated and expanded their training facility, the Virtua Center Flyers Skate Zone, in Voorhees Township in the southern portion of the state.The New York Metropolitan Area's two National Football League teams, the New York Giants and the New York Jets, play at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. Built for about $1.6 billion, the venue is the most expensive stadium ever built. On February 2, 2014, MetLife Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLVIII.The New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer play in Red Bull Arena, a soccer-specific stadium in Harrison across the Passaic River from downtown Newark. On July 27, 2011, Red Bull Arena hosted the 2011 MLS All-Star Game.From 1977 to 2012, New Jersey had a National Basketball Association team, the New Jersey Nets. WNBA's New York Liberty played in New Jersey from 2011 to 2013 while their primary home arena, Madison Square Garden was undergoing renovations. In 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA opened their new headquarters and training facility, the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex, in Camden.The Meadowlands Sports Complex is home to the Meadowlands Racetrack, one of three major harness racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack and Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport is a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation.New Jerseyans' collegiate allegiances are predominantly split among the three major NCAA Division I programs in the state: the Rutgers University (New Jersey's flagship state university) Scarlet Knights, members of the Big Ten Conference; the Seton Hall University (the state's largest Catholic university) Pirates, members of the Big East Conference; and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers.The intense rivalry between Rutgers and Princeton athletics began with the first intercollegiate football game in 1869. The schools have not met on the football field since 1980, but they continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities.Rutgers, which fields 24 teams in various sports, is nationally known for its football program, with a 6–4 all-time bowl record; and its women's basketball programs, which appeared in a National Final in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, Rutgers expanded their football home, Rutgers Stadium, now called SHI Stadium, on the Busch Campus. The basketball teams play at the Rutgers Athletic Center on Livingston Campus. Both venues and campuses are in Piscataway, across the Raritan River from New Brunswick. The university also fields men's basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fans live mostly in the western parts of the state and Middlesex County; its alumni base is the largest in the state.Rutgers' satellite campuses in Camden and Newark each field their own athletic programs—the Rutgers–Camden Scarlet Raptors and the Rutgers–Newark Scarlet Raiders—which both compete in NCAA Division III.Seton Hall fields no football team, but its men's basketball team is one of the Big East's storied programs. No New Jersey team has won more games in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, and it is the state's only men's basketball program to reach a modern National Final. The Pirates play their home games at Prudential Center in downtown Newark, about from the university's South Orange campus. Their fans hail largely from in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. The annual inter-conference rivalry game between Seton Hall and Rutgers, whose venue alternates between Newark and Piscataway, the Garden State Hardwood Classic, is planned through 2026.The state's other Division I schools include the Monmouth University Hawks (West Long Branch), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Highlanders (Newark), the Rider University Broncs (Lawrenceville), and the Saint Peter's University Peacocks and Peahens (Jersey City).Fairleigh Dickinson University competes in both Division I and Division III. It has two campuses, each with its own sports teams. The teams at the Metropolitan Campus are known as the FDU Knights, and compete in the Northeast Conference and NCAA Division I. The college at Florham (FDU-Florham) teams are known as the FDU-Florham Devils and compete in the Middle Atlantic Conferences' Freedom Conference and NCAA Division III.Among the various Division III schools in the state, the Stevens Institute of Technology Ducks have fielded the longest continuously running collegiate men's lacrosse program in the country. 2009 marked the 125th season.New Jersey high schools are divided into divisions under the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA).' Founded in 1918, the NJSIAA currently represents 22,000 schools, 330,000 coaches, and almost 4.5 million athletes.Motion picture technology was developed by Thomas Edison, with much of his early work done at his West Orange laboratory. Edison's Black Maria was the first motion picture studio. America's first motion picture industry started in 1907 in Fort Lee and the first studio was constructed there in 1909. DuMont Laboratories in Passaic developed early sets and made the first broadcast to the private home.A number of television shows and films have been filmed in New Jersey. Since 1978, the state has maintained a Motion Picture and Television Commission to encourage filming in-state. New Jersey has long offered tax credits to television producers. Governor Chris Christie suspended the credits in 2010, but the New Jersey State Legislature in 2011 approved the restoration and expansion of the tax credit program. Under bills passed by both the state Senate and Assembly, the program offers 20 percent tax credits (22% in urban enterprise zones) to television and film productions that shoot in the state and meet set standards for hiring and local spending. When Governor Phil Murphy took office, he instated the New Jersey Film & Digital Media Tax Credit Program in 2018 and expanded it in 2020. The benefits include a 30% tax credit on film projects and a 40% subsidy for studio developments.The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the most prominent and heavily trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road, which overlaps with Interstate 95 for much of its length, carries traffic between Delaware and New York, and up and down the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike", it is known for its numerous rest areas named after prominent New Jerseyans.The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway", carries relatively more in-state traffic than interstate traffic and runs from New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May. It is the main route that connects the New York metropolitan area to the Jersey Shore. With a total of fifteen travel and six shoulder lanes, the Driscoll Bridge on the Parkway, spanning the Raritan River in Middlesex County, is the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world by number of lanes as well as one of the busiest.New Jersey is connected to New York City via various key bridges and tunnels. The double-decked George Washington Bridge carries the heaviest load of motor vehicle traffic of any bridge in the world, at 102 million vehicles per year, across fourteen lanes. It connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and carries Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1/9 across the Hudson River. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan carrying New Jersey Route 495, and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan carrying Interstate 78. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges—from north to south, the Bayonne Bridge, the Goethals Bridge, and the Outerbridge Crossing.New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three of its neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes in and out of the state. Bridge tolls are collected only from traffic exiting the state, with the exception of the private Dingman's Ferry Bridge over the Delaware River, which charges a toll in both directions.It is unlawful for a customer to serve themselves gasoline in New Jersey. It became the last remaining U.S. state where all gas stations are required to sell full-service gasoline to customers at all times in 2016, after Oregon's introduction of restricted self-service gasoline availability took effect.Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it is one of the three main airports serving the New York metropolitan area. United Airlines is the airport's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal there, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo terminal at EWR as well. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to Amtrak and NJ Transit trains along the Northeast Corridor Line.Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and rapidly growing Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of the state. Teterboro Airport in Bergen County, and Millville Municipal Airport in Cumberland County, are general aviation airports popular with private and corporate aircraft due to their proximity to New York City and the Jersey Shore, respectively.NJ Transit operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. A state-run corporation, it began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey in 1979. In the early 1980s, it acquired Conrail's commuter train operations that connected suburban towns to New York City. Today, NJ Transit has eleven commuter rail lines that run through different parts of the state. Most of the lines end at either Penn Station in New York City or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. One line provides service between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.NJ Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, through Hoboken and Jersey City. The Newark Light Rail is partially underground, and connects downtown Newark with other parts of the city and its suburbs, Belleville and Bloomfield. The River Line connects Trenton and Camden.The PATH is a rapid transit system consisting of four lines operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit system that links Camden County to Philadelphia. Both the PATCO and the PATH are two of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to operate 24 hours a day.Amtrak operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey, both to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Transit Center, Metropark, and the historic Newark Penn Station.The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, or SEPTA, has two commuter rail lines that operate into New Jersey. The Trenton Line terminates at the Trenton Transit Center, and the West Trenton Line terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing.AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots.Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers, of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City.New York Waterway has ferry terminals at Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, and Edgewater, with service to different parts of Manhattan. Liberty Water Taxi in Jersey City has ferries from Paulus Hook and Liberty State Park to Battery Park City in Manhattan. Statue Cruises offers service from Liberty State Park to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, including Ellis Island. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket.The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May–Lewes Ferry on Delaware Bay, carrying both passengers and vehicles between New Jersey and Delaware. The agency also operates the Forts Ferry Crossing for passengers across the Delaware River. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia.The position of Governor of New Jersey has been considered one of the most powerful in the nation. Until 2010, the governor was the only statewide elected executive official in the state and appointed numerous government officials. Formerly, an acting governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, president of the state senate Richard Codey held the position of acting governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term acting governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming acting governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. Phil Murphy (D) is the governor. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton.Before 2010, New Jersey was one of the few states without a lieutenant governor. Republican Kim Guadagno was elected the first lieutenant governor of New Jersey and took office on January 19, 2010. She was elected on the Republican ticket with Governor-Elect Chris Christie in the November 2009 NJ gubernatorial election. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005, and effective as of January 17, 2006.The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one state senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; state senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms.New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every four years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a governor was 2017; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2021.The New Jersey Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. All are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70.Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Court, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard.More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level; the Law Division hears both criminal cases and civil lawsuits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is damages, while the Chancery Division hears family cases, civil suits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is equitable relief, and probate trials.The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice.There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships.New Jersey is divided into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders", governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members.Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other five counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions.New Jersey currently has 565 municipalities; the number was 566 before Princeton Township and Princeton Borough merged to form the municipality of Princeton on January 1, 2013. Unlike other states, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation.Starting in the 20th century, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a three- or five-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced a Council-manager government structure with an appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs.The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature.While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially of the village type, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The other three villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter) and South Orange (now operates under a Special Charter)—have all migrated to other non-village forms.Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the more liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate that 60% of the population are self-described as pro-choice, although a majority are opposed to late trimester and intact dilation and extraction and public funding of abortion. In a 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed, On October 18, 2013, the New Jersey Supreme Court rendered a provisional, unanimous (7–0) order authorizing same-sex marriage in the state, pending a legal appeal by Governor Chris Christie, who then withdrew this appeal hours after the inaugural same-sex marriages took place on October 21, 2013.New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black-powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws.In past elections, New Jersey was a Republican bastion, but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats have majority control of both houses of the New Jersey Legislature (Senate, 26–14, and Assembly, 54–26), a 10–2 split of the state's twelve seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, and both U.S. Senate seats. Although the Democratic Party is very successful statewide, the state has had Republican governors; from 1994 to 2002, Christine Todd Whitman won twice with 47% and 49% of the votes, respectively, and in the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie defeated incumbent Democrat Jon Corzine with 48% of the vote. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Christie won reelection with over 60% of the votes. Because each candidate for lieutenant governor runs on the same ticket as the party's candidate for governor, the current governor and lieutenant governor are members of the Democratic Party. The governor's appointments to cabinet and non-cabinet positions may be from either party; for instance, the attorney general is a Democrat.In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. For many years in the past, however, it was a Republican stronghold, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. Newark Mayor Cory Booker was elected in October 2013 to join Robert Menendez to make New Jersey the first state with concurrent serving black and Latino U.S. senators.The state's Democratic strongholds include Camden County, Essex County (typically the state's most Democratic county—it includes Newark, the state's largest city), Hudson County (the second-strongest Democratic county, including Jersey City, the state's second-largest city); Mercer County (especially around Trenton and Princeton), Middlesex County, and Union County (including Elizabeth, the state's fourth-largest city).The suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have support along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Morris County, Sussex County, and Warren County. Other suburban counties, especially Bergen County and Burlington County had the majority of votes go to the Democratic Party. In the 2008 election, President Barack Obama won New Jersey with approximately fifty-seven percent of the vote, compared to McCain's forty-one percent. Independent candidate Ralph Nader garnered less than one percent of the vote.About one-third of the state's counties are considered "swing" counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Salem County, the same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south (including Paterson, the state's third-largest city) and a rural, Republican north; with the "swing" township of Wayne in the middle. Other "swing" counties like Monmouth County, Somerset County, and Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas, although Somerset has recently trended Democratic.To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 21 days prior to election day.On December 17, 2007, Governor Jon Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Corzine also signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole".There is also a mineral museum Ogdensburg in Sussex County.Visitors and residents take advantage of and contribute to performances at the numerous music, theater, and dance companies and venues located throughout the state, including:New Jersey is the location of most of the boardwalks in the U.S., with nearly every town and city along the Jersey Shore area each having a boardwalk with various attractions, entertainment, shopping, dining, miniature golf, arcades, water parks with various water rides, including water slides, lazy rivers, wave pools, etc., and amusement parks hosting rides and attractions including roller coasters, carousels, Ferris wheels, bumper cars, teacups, etc.
|
[
"William Livingston",
"A. Harry Moore",
"Rodman McCamley Price",
"Charles Creighton Stratton",
"Leon Rutherford Taylor",
"Jon Corzine",
"George C. Ludlow",
"Donald DiFrancesco",
"Clarence Edwards Case",
"Charles Edison",
"Leon Abbett",
"Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr.",
"David Ogden Watkins",
"Brendan Byrne",
"Richard Joseph Hughes",
"Samuel L. Southard",
"Horace Griggs Prall",
"Chris Christie",
"Peter Dumont Vroom",
"Elias P. Seeley",
"Joseph Bloomfield",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"Thomas Henderson",
"Aaron Ogden",
"Morgan Foster Larson",
"Clifford Ross Powell",
"Jim McGreevey",
"Theodore Fitz Randolph",
"James Fairman Fielder",
"Joseph D. Bedle",
"Foster McGowan Voorhees",
"Robert Stockton Green",
"George Brinton McClellan",
"Mahlon Dickerson",
"Franklin Murphy",
"William Nelson Runyon",
"George Sebastian Silzer",
"Harold Giles Hoffman",
"Joel Parker",
"Edward Irving Edwards",
"Edward C. Stokes",
"William Thomas Cahill",
"Thomas Kean",
"John Orus Bennett III",
"Walter Evans Edge",
"Alfred Eastlack Driscoll",
"Charles Smith Olden",
"Christine Todd Whitman",
"James Florio",
"John W. Griggs",
"John Lambert",
"Isaac Halstead Williamson",
"Robert Baumle Meyner",
"William Pennington",
"George Franklin Fort",
"William A. Newell",
"Phil Murphy",
"George Theodore Werts",
"William Paterson",
"John Franklin Fort",
"Richard Codey",
"Philemon Dickerson"
] |
|
Who was the head of New Jersey in 03/08/1815?
|
March 08, 1815
|
{
"text": [
"William Sanford Pennington"
]
}
|
L2_Q1408_P6_6
|
Charles Smith Olden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1863.
William Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1837 to Oct, 1843.
Brendan Byrne is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1982.
George Theodore Werts is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1896.
Richard Codey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Foster McGowan Voorhees is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1898 to Oct, 1898.
Joseph D. Bedle is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1878.
Donald DiFrancesco is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
Alfred Eastlack Driscoll is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1954.
Phil Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
David Ogden Watkins is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1898 to Jan, 1899.
Peter Dumont Vroom is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1829 to Oct, 1832.
George Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1851 to Jan, 1854.
Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr. is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1869.
William Paterson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1790 to Mar, 1793.
Theodore Fitz Randolph is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.
Horace Griggs Prall is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Aaron Ogden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1812 to Oct, 1813.
Isaac Halstead Williamson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1817 to Oct, 1829.
Philemon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1836 to Oct, 1837.
George Brinton McClellan is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1878 to Jan, 1881.
John Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1911.
John W. Griggs is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1898.
Morgan Foster Larson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1932.
Chris Christie is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
William A. Newell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1860.
Charles Creighton Stratton is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1845 to Jan, 1848.
George C. Ludlow is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1881 to Jan, 1884.
Clarence Edwards Case is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1920.
William Sanford Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1813 to Jun, 1815.
William Nelson Runyon is the head of the government of New Jersey from May, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Robert Stockton Green is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1890.
Franklin Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1905.
John Lambert is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1802 to Oct, 1803.
Mahlon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1815 to Feb, 1817.
Clifford Ross Powell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Leon Rutherford Taylor is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1913 to Jan, 1914.
William Thomas Cahill is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1974.
Edward C. Stokes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1908.
Thomas Kean is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
Rodman McCamley Price is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1854 to Jan, 1857.
Joel Parker is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1863 to Jan, 1866.
Charles Edison is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1944.
Leon Abbett is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1884 to Jan, 1887.
James Fairman Fielder is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1913 to Oct, 1913.
Richard Joseph Hughes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1970.
Robert Baumle Meyner is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1962.
Thomas Henderson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1793 to Jun, 1793.
Edward Irving Edwards is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1923.
Joseph Bloomfield is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1801 to Oct, 1802.
Walter Evans Edge is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1917 to May, 1919.
William Livingston is the head of the government of New Jersey from Aug, 1776 to Jul, 1790.
John Orus Bennett III is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
George Sebastian Silzer is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1926.
Elias P. Seeley is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1833 to Oct, 1833.
Jon Corzine is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
Woodrow Wilson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1911 to Mar, 1913.
A. Harry Moore is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1929.
James Florio is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
Harold Giles Hoffman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1938.
Christine Todd Whitman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 2001.
Samuel L. Southard is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1832 to Feb, 1833.
Jim McGreevey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2004.
|
New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania; and on the southwest by Delaware Bay and the state of Delaware. New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous, with 9,288,994 residents as of 2020 and an area of , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. New Jersey's state capital is Trenton, while the state's most populous city is Newark. All but one county in New Jersey (Warren County) lie within the combined statistical areas of New York City or Philadelphia; consequently, the state's largest metropolitan area falls within Greater New York.New Jersey was first inhabited by Native Americans for at least 2,800 years, with the Lenape being the dominant group by the time Europeans arrived in the early 17th century. Dutch and the Swedish colonists founded the first European settlements in the state. The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey—after the largest of the Channel Islands, Jersey—and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in the "Big Six" cities of Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Elizabeth helped drive the nation's Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's central location in the Northeast megalopolis fueled its rapid growth and suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century. At the turn of the 21st century, the state's economy increasingly diversified, while its multicultural populace began reverting toward more urban settings within the state, outpacing the growth in suburbs since 2008.As of 2020, New Jersey was home to the highest number of millionaires per capita of all U.S. states, with 9.76% of households—more than 323,000 of 3.3 million statewide—meeting the criteria. Based on 2017 data, it was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income. New Jersey's public school system consistently ranks at or among the top among all fifty U.S. states.Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges.New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact. "" is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade.The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch West India Company policy required its colonists to purchase the land that they settled. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen. Peter Minuit's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. The entire region became a territory of England on June 24, 1664, after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is now New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam, annexing the entire province.During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in Saint Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey.Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775.Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill—settlers came primarily from New York and New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England, who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. (William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time.) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702, at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England.In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor, rather than a proprietary one. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land. In 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738.New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the State Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times, and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the American Revolution". The winter quarters of the Continental Army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which has been called "The Military Capital of the American Revolution.“On the night of December 25–26, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River. After the crossing, they surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, the Americans made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3, 1777. Emanuel Leutze's painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware" became an icon of the Revolution.American forces under Washington met the British forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778. The Americans attempted to take the British column by surprise. When the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. Their ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges.In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war.On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights.The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property separately from their husbands. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors", whether entitled to vote or not; on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal "white male" suffrage, excluding paupers; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution.On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population. By the close of the Civil War, about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage. New Jersey voters eventually ratified the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States' black population.Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey's growing industries in Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the state senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision "Baker v. Carr". While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself.New Jersey was one of the few Union states (the others being Delaware and Kentucky) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan, a native Philadelphian, had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time; he later became Governor of New Jersey (1878–81). (In New Jersey, the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860.) During the American Civil War, the state was led first by Republican governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. During the course of the war, between 65,000 and 80,000 soldiers from the state enlisted in the Union army; unlike many states, including some Northern ones, no battle was fought there.In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the United States. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey.Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century. Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry. Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine.New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927, and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS "Morro Castle" beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea.Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially naval construction. The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company yards in Kearny and Newark and the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yard in Camden produced aircraft carriers, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fifth among the 48 states. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Camp Merritt (1917) and Camp Kilmer (1941) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike missile stations were constructed for the defense of the New York City and Philadelphia areas. "PT-109", a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden.In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In 1959, Air Defense Command deployed the CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missile to McGuire Air Force Base. On June 7, 1960, an explosion in a CIM-10 Bomarc missile fuel tank caused the accident and subsequent plutonium contamination.In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably, the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976. Prior to this bill, the state had no income tax.In the early part of the 2000s, two light rail systems were opened: the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton. The intent of these projects was to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey, respectively. The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular. Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century. As of 2014, Jersey City's Census-estimated population was 262,146, with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010, representing an increase of 5.9% from the 2010 United States Census, when the city's population was enumerated at 247,597. Between 2000 and 2010, Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s.The state of New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York (parts of which are across the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, and the Arthur Kill); on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. This is New Jersey's only straight border.New Jersey is often broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South.Within those regions are five distinct areas, based upon natural geography and population concentration. Northeastern New Jersey lies closest to Manhattan in New York City, and up to a million residents commute daily into the city for work, many via public transportation. Northwestern New Jersey is more wooded, rural, and mountainous. The Jersey Shore, along the Atlantic Coast in Central and South Jersey, has its own unique natural, residential, and cultural characteristics owing to its location by the ocean. The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state, which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. The Pine Barrens region is in the southern interior of New Jersey; covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, this region has a lower population density than most of the rest of the state.The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, with 16 counties included in either the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area. New Jersey is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis.High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the state's highest elevation, at above sea level. The state's highest prominence is Kitty Ann Mountain in Morris County, rising . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the west side of the Hudson River, in Bergen and Hudson Counties. Major New Jersey rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Due to New Jersey's peninsular geography, both sunrise and sunset are visible over water from different points on the Jersey Shore.There are two climatic conditions in the state. The south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate (microthermal), with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation. New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Climate change is affecting New Jersey faster than much of the rest of the United States. As of 2019, New Jersey was one of the fastest-warming states in the nation. Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of and lows of ; however, temperatures exceed on average 25 days each summer, exceeding in some years. Winters are usually cold, with average high temperatures of and lows of for most of the state, but temperatures can, for brief periods, fall below and sometimes rise above . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub- being an almost annual occurrence. Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations, with lower humidity than summer. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from6 in the northwest of the state, to 7B near Cape May. All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10, 1936, in Runyon, Middlesex County and on January 5, 1904, in River Vale, Bergen County.Average annual precipitation ranges from , uniformly spread through the year. Average snowfall per winter season ranges from in the south and near the seacoast, in the northeast and central part of the state, to about in the northwestern highlands, but this often varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms, most of which occur during the summer.During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters", which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999), tornadoes, and earthquakes are rare, although New Jersey was impacted by a hurricane in 1903, and Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state with top winds of .For its overall population and nation-leading population density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. This paradox is most pronounced in Bergen County, New Jersey's most populous county, whose more than 930,000 residents in 2019 inhabited 70 municipalities, the most populous being Hackensack, with 44,522 residents estimated in 2018. Many urban areas extend far beyond the limits of a single large city, as New Jersey cities (and indeed municipalities in general) tend to be geographically small; three of the four largest cities in New Jersey by population have under of land area, and eight of the top ten, including all of the top five have land area under . , only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000, although Edison and Woodbridge came very close.The United States Census Bureau tabulated in the 2020 United States census that the population of New Jersey was 9,288,994 on April 1, 2020, a 5.7% increase since the 2010 United States census. Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or, less commonly, as "New Jerseyites". At the 2010 census, there were 8,791,894 people living in the state. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the state was: 68.6% White American, 13.7% African American, 8.3% Asian American, 0.3% Native American, 2.7% Multiracial American, and 6.4% other races. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9% of the population in 2011, down from 85% in 1970. In 2010, 17.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).In 2010, unauthorized immigrants constituted an estimated 6.2% of the population. This was the fourth-highest percentage of any state in the country. There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010. Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Camden, Jersey City and Newark.As of 2010, New Jersey was the eleventh-most populous state in the United States, and the most densely populated, at 1,185 residents per square mile (458 per km), with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City, Philadelphia, and along the eastern Jersey Shore, while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall. It was also the second wealthiest state by median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike.New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers "per square mile" than anywhere else in the world.On October 21, 2013, same-sex marriages commenced in New Jersey.New Jersey is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse states in the United States. As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. The state has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percentage (after Michigan); the largest population of Peruvians in the United States; the largest population of Cubans outside of Florida; the third highest Asian population by percentage; and the second highest Italian population, according to the 2000 Census. African Americans, Hispanics (Puerto Ricans and Dominicans), West Indians, Arabs, and Brazilian and Portuguese Americans are also high in number. New Jersey has the third highest Asian Indian population of any state by absolute numbers and the highest by percentage, with Bergen County home to America's largest Malayali community. Overall, New Jersey has the third largest Korean population, with Bergen County home to the highest Korean concentration per capita of any U.S. county (6.9% in 2011). New Jersey also has the fourth largest Filipino population, and fourth largest Chinese population, per the 2010 U.S. Census. The five largest ethnic groups in 2000 were: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%).India Square, in Bombay, Jersey City, Hudson County, is home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, Central New Jersey, particularly Edison and surrounding Middlesex County, is prominently known for its significant concentration of Asian Indians. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville in 2014, a BAPS temple. The growing Little India is a South Asian-focused commercial strip in Middlesex County, the U.S. county with the highest concentration of Asian Indians. The Oak Tree Road strip runs for about through Edison and neighboring Iselin in Woodbridge Township, near the area's sprawling Chinatown and Koreatown, running along New Jersey Route 27. It is the largest and most diverse South Asian cultural hub in the United States. Carteret's Punjabi Sikh community, variously estimated at upwards of 3,000, is the largest concentration of Sikhs in the state. Monroe Township in Middlesex County has experienced a particularly rapid growth rate in its Indian American population, with an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, which was 23 times the 256 (0.9%) counted as of the 2000 Census; and Diwali is celebrated by the township as a Hindu holiday. In Middlesex County, election ballots are printed in English, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi.Newark was the fourth poorest of U.S. cities with over 250,000 residents in 2008, but New Jersey as a whole had the second-highest median household income as of 2014. This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area.In 2010, 6.2% of its population was reported as under age 5, 23.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older; and females made up approximately 51.3% of the population.A study by the Pew Research Center found that in 2013, New Jersey was the only U.S. state in which immigrants born in India constituted the largest foreign-born nationality, representing roughly 10% of all foreign-born residents in the state.For further information on various ethnoracial groups and neighborhoods prominently featured within New Jersey, see the following articles:As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's population younger than age1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white)."Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number."As of 2010, 71.31% (5,830,812) of New Jersey residents age5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 14.59% (1,193,261) spoke Spanish, 1.23% (100,217) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.06% (86,849) Italian, 1.06% (86,486) Portuguese, 0.96% (78,627) Tagalog, and Korean was spoken as a main language by 0.89% (73,057) of the population over the age of five. In total, 28.69% (2,345,644) of New Jersey's population age5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.A diverse collection of languages has since evolved amongst the state's population, given that New Jersey has become cosmopolitan and is home to ethnic enclaves of non-English-speaking communities:By number of adherents, the largest denominations in New Jersey, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2010, were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,235,290; Islam with 160,666; and the United Methodist Church with 138,052. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville, Mercer County, in central New Jersey during 2014, a BAPS temple. In January 2018, Gurbir Grewal became the first Sikh American state attorney general in the United States. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's gross state product in the fourth quarter of 2018 was $639.8 billion. New Jersey's estimated taxpayer burden in 2015 was $59,400 per taxpayer. New Jersey is nearly $239 billion in debt.New Jersey's per capita gross state product in 2008 was $54,699, second in the U.S. and above the national per capita gross domestic product of $46,588. Its per capita income was the third highest in the nation with $51,358. In 2020, New Jersey had the highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, approximately 9.76% of households. The state is ranked second in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are among the 100 wealthiest U.S. counties.New Jersey has seven tax brackets that determine state income tax rates, which range from 1.4% (for income below $20,000) to 8.97% (for income above $500,000).The standard sales tax rate as of January 1, 2018, is 6.625%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. This rate, which is comparably lower than that of New York City, often attracts numerous shoppers from New York City, often to suburban Paramus, New Jersey, which has five malls, one of which (the Garden State Plaza) has over of retail space. Tax exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medications, most clothing, footwear and disposable paper products for use in the home. There are 27 Urban Enterprise Zone statewide, including sections of Paterson, Elizabeth, and Jersey City. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half the rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.New Jersey has the highest cumulative tax rate of all 50 states with residents paying a total of $68 billion in state and local taxes annually with a per capita burden of $7,816 at a rate of 12.9% of income. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax.New Jersey consistently ranks as having one of the highest proportional levels of disparity of any state in the United States, based upon what it receives from the federal government relative to what it gives. In 2015, WalletHub ranked New Jersey the state least dependent upon federal government aid overall and having the fourth lowest return on taxpayer investment from the federal government, at 48 cents per dollar.New Jersey has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas.New Jersey's economy is multifaceted, but is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, information technology, the financial industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing, publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. New Jersey ranks second among states in blueberry production, third in cranberries and spinach, and fourth in bell peppers, peaches, and head lettuce. The state harvests the fourth-largest number of acres planted with asparagus.Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the state's use of nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey's electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of state generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country.New Jersey has a strong scientific economy and is home to major pharmaceutical and telecommunications firms, drawing on the state's large and well-educated labor pool. There is also a strong service economy in retail sales, education, and real estate, serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Thomas Edison invented the first electric light bulb at his home in Menlo Park, Edison in 1879. New Jersey is also a key participant in the renewable wind industry.Shipping is a key industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic geographic location, the Port of New York and New Jersey being the busiest port on the East Coast. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and today is one of the world's largest.New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus in Bergen County has become the top retail ZIP code (07652) in the United States, with the municipality generating over US$6 billion in annual retail sales. Several New Jersey counties, including Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), and Monmouth (42), have been ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States.New Jersey's location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis and its extensive transportation system have put over one-third of all United States residents and many Canadian residents within overnight distance by land. This accessibility to consumer revenue has enabled seaside resorts such as Atlantic City and the remainder of the Jersey Shore, as well as the state's other natural and cultural attractions, to contribute significantly to the record 111 million tourist visits to New Jersey in 2018, providing US$44.7 billion in tourism revenue, directly supporting 333,860 jobs, sustaining more than 531,000 jobs overall including peripheral impacts, and generating US$5 billion in state and local tax revenue.In 1976, a referendum of New Jersey voters approved casino gambling in Atlantic City, where the first legalized casino opened in 1978. At that time, Las Vegas was the only other casino resort in the country. Today, several casinos lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the first and longest boardwalk in the world. Atlantic City experienced a dramatic contraction in its stature as a gambling destination after 2010, including the closure of multiple casinos since 2014, spurred by competition from the advent of legalized gambling in other northeastern U.S. states. On February 26, 2013, Governor Chris Christie signed online gambling into law. Sports betting has become a growing source of gambling revenue in New Jersey since being legalized across the nation by the U.S. Supreme Court on May 14, 2018.Forests cover 45%, or approximately 2.1 million acres, of New Jersey's land area. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. The Pine Barrens, consisting of pine forests, is in the southern part of the state.Some mining activity of zinc, iron, and manganese still takes place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace.New Jersey is second in the nation in solar power installations, enabled by one of the country's most favorable net metering policies, and the renewable energy certificates program. The state has more than 10,000 solar installations.As of 2010, there were 605 school districts in the state.Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase college admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg retracted this plan when criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative.In 2010, the state government paid all teachers' premiums for health insurance, but currently all NJ public teachers pay a portion of their own health insurance premiums.New Jersey is known for the quality of its education. In 2015, the state spent more per each public school student than any other U.S. state except New York, Alaska, and Connecticut, amounting to $18,235 spent per pupil; over 50% of the expenditure was allocated to student instruction.According to 2011 "Newsweek" statistics, students of High Technology High School in Lincroft, Monmouth County and Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, Bergen County registered average SAT scores of 2145 and 2100, respectively, representing the second- and third-highest scores, respectively, of all listed U.S. high schools.Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2020 list of "U.S. News & World Report". In 2013, Rutgers University, headquartered in New Brunswick, Middlesex County as the flagship institution of higher education in New Jersey, regained medical and dental schools, augmenting its profile as a national research university as well.In 2014, New Jersey's school systems were ranked at the top of all fifty U.S. states by financial website Wallethub.com. In 2018, New Jersey's overall educational system was ranked second among all states to Massachusetts by "U.S. News & World Report". In both 2019 and 2020, "Education Week" also ranked New Jersey public schools the best of all U.S. states.Nine New Jersey high schools were ranked among the top 25 in the U.S. on the "Newsweek" "America's Top High Schools 2016" list, more than from any other state. A 2017 UCLA Civil Rights project found that New Jersey has the sixth-most segregated classrooms in the United States.New Jersey has continued to play a prominent role as a U.S. cultural nexus. Like every state, New Jersey has its own cuisine, religious communities, museums, and .New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon, the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone.Diners are iconic to New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has over 600 diners, more than any other place in the world.New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey state song, but it was not even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature.New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), sloppy joe sandwiches, tomato pies, and Texas wieners.Several states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey.New Jersey has long been an important origin for both rock and rap music. Prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey include:New Jersey currently has six teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although one Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify themselves as being from the New York metropolitan area.The National Hockey League's New Jersey Devils, based in Newark at the Prudential Center, is the only major league sports franchise to bear the state's name. Founded in 1974 in Kansas City, Missouri, as the Kansas City Scouts, the team played in Denver, Colorado, as the Colorado Rockies from 1976 until the spring of 1982 when naval architect, businessman, and Jersey City native John J. McMullen purchased, renamed, and moved the franchise to Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. While the team had mostly losing records in Kansas City, Denver, and its first years in New Jersey, the Devils began to improve in the late 1980s and early 1990s under Hall of Fame president and general manager Lou Lamoriello. The team made the playoffs for the Stanley Cup in 2001 and 2012, and won it in 1995, 2000, and 2003. The organization is the youngest of the nine major league teams in the New York metropolitan area. The Devils have established a following throughout the northern and central portions of the state, carving a place in a media market once dominated by the New York Rangers and Islanders.In 2018, the Philadelphia Flyers renovated and expanded their training facility, the Virtua Center Flyers Skate Zone, in Voorhees Township in the southern portion of the state.The New York Metropolitan Area's two National Football League teams, the New York Giants and the New York Jets, play at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. Built for about $1.6 billion, the venue is the most expensive stadium ever built. On February 2, 2014, MetLife Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLVIII.The New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer play in Red Bull Arena, a soccer-specific stadium in Harrison across the Passaic River from downtown Newark. On July 27, 2011, Red Bull Arena hosted the 2011 MLS All-Star Game.From 1977 to 2012, New Jersey had a National Basketball Association team, the New Jersey Nets. WNBA's New York Liberty played in New Jersey from 2011 to 2013 while their primary home arena, Madison Square Garden was undergoing renovations. In 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA opened their new headquarters and training facility, the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex, in Camden.The Meadowlands Sports Complex is home to the Meadowlands Racetrack, one of three major harness racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack and Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport is a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation.New Jerseyans' collegiate allegiances are predominantly split among the three major NCAA Division I programs in the state: the Rutgers University (New Jersey's flagship state university) Scarlet Knights, members of the Big Ten Conference; the Seton Hall University (the state's largest Catholic university) Pirates, members of the Big East Conference; and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers.The intense rivalry between Rutgers and Princeton athletics began with the first intercollegiate football game in 1869. The schools have not met on the football field since 1980, but they continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities.Rutgers, which fields 24 teams in various sports, is nationally known for its football program, with a 6–4 all-time bowl record; and its women's basketball programs, which appeared in a National Final in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, Rutgers expanded their football home, Rutgers Stadium, now called SHI Stadium, on the Busch Campus. The basketball teams play at the Rutgers Athletic Center on Livingston Campus. Both venues and campuses are in Piscataway, across the Raritan River from New Brunswick. The university also fields men's basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fans live mostly in the western parts of the state and Middlesex County; its alumni base is the largest in the state.Rutgers' satellite campuses in Camden and Newark each field their own athletic programs—the Rutgers–Camden Scarlet Raptors and the Rutgers–Newark Scarlet Raiders—which both compete in NCAA Division III.Seton Hall fields no football team, but its men's basketball team is one of the Big East's storied programs. No New Jersey team has won more games in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, and it is the state's only men's basketball program to reach a modern National Final. The Pirates play their home games at Prudential Center in downtown Newark, about from the university's South Orange campus. Their fans hail largely from in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. The annual inter-conference rivalry game between Seton Hall and Rutgers, whose venue alternates between Newark and Piscataway, the Garden State Hardwood Classic, is planned through 2026.The state's other Division I schools include the Monmouth University Hawks (West Long Branch), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Highlanders (Newark), the Rider University Broncs (Lawrenceville), and the Saint Peter's University Peacocks and Peahens (Jersey City).Fairleigh Dickinson University competes in both Division I and Division III. It has two campuses, each with its own sports teams. The teams at the Metropolitan Campus are known as the FDU Knights, and compete in the Northeast Conference and NCAA Division I. The college at Florham (FDU-Florham) teams are known as the FDU-Florham Devils and compete in the Middle Atlantic Conferences' Freedom Conference and NCAA Division III.Among the various Division III schools in the state, the Stevens Institute of Technology Ducks have fielded the longest continuously running collegiate men's lacrosse program in the country. 2009 marked the 125th season.New Jersey high schools are divided into divisions under the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA).' Founded in 1918, the NJSIAA currently represents 22,000 schools, 330,000 coaches, and almost 4.5 million athletes.Motion picture technology was developed by Thomas Edison, with much of his early work done at his West Orange laboratory. Edison's Black Maria was the first motion picture studio. America's first motion picture industry started in 1907 in Fort Lee and the first studio was constructed there in 1909. DuMont Laboratories in Passaic developed early sets and made the first broadcast to the private home.A number of television shows and films have been filmed in New Jersey. Since 1978, the state has maintained a Motion Picture and Television Commission to encourage filming in-state. New Jersey has long offered tax credits to television producers. Governor Chris Christie suspended the credits in 2010, but the New Jersey State Legislature in 2011 approved the restoration and expansion of the tax credit program. Under bills passed by both the state Senate and Assembly, the program offers 20 percent tax credits (22% in urban enterprise zones) to television and film productions that shoot in the state and meet set standards for hiring and local spending. When Governor Phil Murphy took office, he instated the New Jersey Film & Digital Media Tax Credit Program in 2018 and expanded it in 2020. The benefits include a 30% tax credit on film projects and a 40% subsidy for studio developments.The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the most prominent and heavily trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road, which overlaps with Interstate 95 for much of its length, carries traffic between Delaware and New York, and up and down the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike", it is known for its numerous rest areas named after prominent New Jerseyans.The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway", carries relatively more in-state traffic than interstate traffic and runs from New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May. It is the main route that connects the New York metropolitan area to the Jersey Shore. With a total of fifteen travel and six shoulder lanes, the Driscoll Bridge on the Parkway, spanning the Raritan River in Middlesex County, is the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world by number of lanes as well as one of the busiest.New Jersey is connected to New York City via various key bridges and tunnels. The double-decked George Washington Bridge carries the heaviest load of motor vehicle traffic of any bridge in the world, at 102 million vehicles per year, across fourteen lanes. It connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and carries Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1/9 across the Hudson River. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan carrying New Jersey Route 495, and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan carrying Interstate 78. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges—from north to south, the Bayonne Bridge, the Goethals Bridge, and the Outerbridge Crossing.New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three of its neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes in and out of the state. Bridge tolls are collected only from traffic exiting the state, with the exception of the private Dingman's Ferry Bridge over the Delaware River, which charges a toll in both directions.It is unlawful for a customer to serve themselves gasoline in New Jersey. It became the last remaining U.S. state where all gas stations are required to sell full-service gasoline to customers at all times in 2016, after Oregon's introduction of restricted self-service gasoline availability took effect.Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it is one of the three main airports serving the New York metropolitan area. United Airlines is the airport's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal there, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo terminal at EWR as well. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to Amtrak and NJ Transit trains along the Northeast Corridor Line.Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and rapidly growing Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of the state. Teterboro Airport in Bergen County, and Millville Municipal Airport in Cumberland County, are general aviation airports popular with private and corporate aircraft due to their proximity to New York City and the Jersey Shore, respectively.NJ Transit operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. A state-run corporation, it began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey in 1979. In the early 1980s, it acquired Conrail's commuter train operations that connected suburban towns to New York City. Today, NJ Transit has eleven commuter rail lines that run through different parts of the state. Most of the lines end at either Penn Station in New York City or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. One line provides service between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.NJ Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, through Hoboken and Jersey City. The Newark Light Rail is partially underground, and connects downtown Newark with other parts of the city and its suburbs, Belleville and Bloomfield. The River Line connects Trenton and Camden.The PATH is a rapid transit system consisting of four lines operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit system that links Camden County to Philadelphia. Both the PATCO and the PATH are two of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to operate 24 hours a day.Amtrak operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey, both to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Transit Center, Metropark, and the historic Newark Penn Station.The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, or SEPTA, has two commuter rail lines that operate into New Jersey. The Trenton Line terminates at the Trenton Transit Center, and the West Trenton Line terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing.AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots.Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers, of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City.New York Waterway has ferry terminals at Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, and Edgewater, with service to different parts of Manhattan. Liberty Water Taxi in Jersey City has ferries from Paulus Hook and Liberty State Park to Battery Park City in Manhattan. Statue Cruises offers service from Liberty State Park to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, including Ellis Island. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket.The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May–Lewes Ferry on Delaware Bay, carrying both passengers and vehicles between New Jersey and Delaware. The agency also operates the Forts Ferry Crossing for passengers across the Delaware River. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia.The position of Governor of New Jersey has been considered one of the most powerful in the nation. Until 2010, the governor was the only statewide elected executive official in the state and appointed numerous government officials. Formerly, an acting governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, president of the state senate Richard Codey held the position of acting governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term acting governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming acting governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. Phil Murphy (D) is the governor. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton.Before 2010, New Jersey was one of the few states without a lieutenant governor. Republican Kim Guadagno was elected the first lieutenant governor of New Jersey and took office on January 19, 2010. She was elected on the Republican ticket with Governor-Elect Chris Christie in the November 2009 NJ gubernatorial election. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005, and effective as of January 17, 2006.The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one state senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; state senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms.New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every four years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a governor was 2017; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2021.The New Jersey Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. All are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70.Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Court, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard.More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level; the Law Division hears both criminal cases and civil lawsuits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is damages, while the Chancery Division hears family cases, civil suits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is equitable relief, and probate trials.The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice.There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships.New Jersey is divided into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders", governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members.Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other five counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions.New Jersey currently has 565 municipalities; the number was 566 before Princeton Township and Princeton Borough merged to form the municipality of Princeton on January 1, 2013. Unlike other states, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation.Starting in the 20th century, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a three- or five-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced a Council-manager government structure with an appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs.The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature.While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially of the village type, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The other three villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter) and South Orange (now operates under a Special Charter)—have all migrated to other non-village forms.Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the more liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate that 60% of the population are self-described as pro-choice, although a majority are opposed to late trimester and intact dilation and extraction and public funding of abortion. In a 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed, On October 18, 2013, the New Jersey Supreme Court rendered a provisional, unanimous (7–0) order authorizing same-sex marriage in the state, pending a legal appeal by Governor Chris Christie, who then withdrew this appeal hours after the inaugural same-sex marriages took place on October 21, 2013.New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black-powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws.In past elections, New Jersey was a Republican bastion, but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats have majority control of both houses of the New Jersey Legislature (Senate, 26–14, and Assembly, 54–26), a 10–2 split of the state's twelve seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, and both U.S. Senate seats. Although the Democratic Party is very successful statewide, the state has had Republican governors; from 1994 to 2002, Christine Todd Whitman won twice with 47% and 49% of the votes, respectively, and in the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie defeated incumbent Democrat Jon Corzine with 48% of the vote. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Christie won reelection with over 60% of the votes. Because each candidate for lieutenant governor runs on the same ticket as the party's candidate for governor, the current governor and lieutenant governor are members of the Democratic Party. The governor's appointments to cabinet and non-cabinet positions may be from either party; for instance, the attorney general is a Democrat.In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. For many years in the past, however, it was a Republican stronghold, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. Newark Mayor Cory Booker was elected in October 2013 to join Robert Menendez to make New Jersey the first state with concurrent serving black and Latino U.S. senators.The state's Democratic strongholds include Camden County, Essex County (typically the state's most Democratic county—it includes Newark, the state's largest city), Hudson County (the second-strongest Democratic county, including Jersey City, the state's second-largest city); Mercer County (especially around Trenton and Princeton), Middlesex County, and Union County (including Elizabeth, the state's fourth-largest city).The suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have support along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Morris County, Sussex County, and Warren County. Other suburban counties, especially Bergen County and Burlington County had the majority of votes go to the Democratic Party. In the 2008 election, President Barack Obama won New Jersey with approximately fifty-seven percent of the vote, compared to McCain's forty-one percent. Independent candidate Ralph Nader garnered less than one percent of the vote.About one-third of the state's counties are considered "swing" counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Salem County, the same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south (including Paterson, the state's third-largest city) and a rural, Republican north; with the "swing" township of Wayne in the middle. Other "swing" counties like Monmouth County, Somerset County, and Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas, although Somerset has recently trended Democratic.To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 21 days prior to election day.On December 17, 2007, Governor Jon Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Corzine also signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole".There is also a mineral museum Ogdensburg in Sussex County.Visitors and residents take advantage of and contribute to performances at the numerous music, theater, and dance companies and venues located throughout the state, including:New Jersey is the location of most of the boardwalks in the U.S., with nearly every town and city along the Jersey Shore area each having a boardwalk with various attractions, entertainment, shopping, dining, miniature golf, arcades, water parks with various water rides, including water slides, lazy rivers, wave pools, etc., and amusement parks hosting rides and attractions including roller coasters, carousels, Ferris wheels, bumper cars, teacups, etc.
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[
"William Livingston",
"A. Harry Moore",
"Rodman McCamley Price",
"Charles Creighton Stratton",
"Leon Rutherford Taylor",
"Jon Corzine",
"George C. Ludlow",
"Donald DiFrancesco",
"Clarence Edwards Case",
"Charles Edison",
"Leon Abbett",
"Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr.",
"David Ogden Watkins",
"Brendan Byrne",
"Richard Joseph Hughes",
"Samuel L. Southard",
"Horace Griggs Prall",
"Chris Christie",
"Peter Dumont Vroom",
"Elias P. Seeley",
"Joseph Bloomfield",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"Thomas Henderson",
"Aaron Ogden",
"Morgan Foster Larson",
"Clifford Ross Powell",
"Jim McGreevey",
"Theodore Fitz Randolph",
"James Fairman Fielder",
"Joseph D. Bedle",
"Foster McGowan Voorhees",
"Robert Stockton Green",
"George Brinton McClellan",
"Mahlon Dickerson",
"Franklin Murphy",
"William Nelson Runyon",
"George Sebastian Silzer",
"Harold Giles Hoffman",
"Joel Parker",
"Edward Irving Edwards",
"Edward C. Stokes",
"William Thomas Cahill",
"Thomas Kean",
"John Orus Bennett III",
"Walter Evans Edge",
"Alfred Eastlack Driscoll",
"Charles Smith Olden",
"Christine Todd Whitman",
"James Florio",
"John W. Griggs",
"John Lambert",
"Isaac Halstead Williamson",
"Robert Baumle Meyner",
"William Pennington",
"George Franklin Fort",
"William A. Newell",
"Phil Murphy",
"George Theodore Werts",
"William Paterson",
"John Franklin Fort",
"Richard Codey",
"Philemon Dickerson"
] |
|
Who was the head of New Jersey in 08-Mar-181508-March-1815?
|
March 08, 1815
|
{
"text": [
"William Sanford Pennington"
]
}
|
L2_Q1408_P6_6
|
Charles Smith Olden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1860 to Jan, 1863.
William Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1837 to Oct, 1843.
Brendan Byrne is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1974 to Jan, 1982.
George Theodore Werts is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1893 to Jan, 1896.
Richard Codey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Foster McGowan Voorhees is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1898 to Oct, 1898.
Joseph D. Bedle is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1875 to Jan, 1878.
Donald DiFrancesco is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2002.
Alfred Eastlack Driscoll is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1947 to Jan, 1954.
Phil Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2018 to Dec, 2022.
David Ogden Watkins is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1898 to Jan, 1899.
Peter Dumont Vroom is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1829 to Oct, 1832.
George Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1851 to Jan, 1854.
Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr. is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1866 to Jan, 1869.
William Paterson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1790 to Mar, 1793.
Theodore Fitz Randolph is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1869 to Jan, 1872.
Horace Griggs Prall is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Aaron Ogden is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1812 to Oct, 1813.
Isaac Halstead Williamson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1817 to Oct, 1829.
Philemon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Nov, 1836 to Oct, 1837.
George Brinton McClellan is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1878 to Jan, 1881.
John Franklin Fort is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1908 to Jan, 1911.
John W. Griggs is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1896 to Jan, 1898.
Morgan Foster Larson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1929 to Jan, 1932.
Chris Christie is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2010 to Jan, 2018.
William A. Newell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1857 to Jan, 1860.
Charles Creighton Stratton is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1845 to Jan, 1848.
George C. Ludlow is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1881 to Jan, 1884.
Clarence Edwards Case is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1920.
William Sanford Pennington is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1813 to Jun, 1815.
William Nelson Runyon is the head of the government of New Jersey from May, 1919 to Jan, 1920.
Robert Stockton Green is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1887 to Jan, 1890.
Franklin Murphy is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1902 to Jan, 1905.
John Lambert is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1802 to Oct, 1803.
Mahlon Dickerson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1815 to Feb, 1817.
Clifford Ross Powell is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1935.
Leon Rutherford Taylor is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1913 to Jan, 1914.
William Thomas Cahill is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1970 to Jan, 1974.
Edward C. Stokes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1905 to Jan, 1908.
Thomas Kean is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1982 to Jan, 1990.
Rodman McCamley Price is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1854 to Jan, 1857.
Joel Parker is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1863 to Jan, 1866.
Charles Edison is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1944.
Leon Abbett is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1884 to Jan, 1887.
James Fairman Fielder is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1913 to Oct, 1913.
Richard Joseph Hughes is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1962 to Jan, 1970.
Robert Baumle Meyner is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1954 to Jan, 1962.
Thomas Henderson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Mar, 1793 to Jun, 1793.
Edward Irving Edwards is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1920 to Jan, 1923.
Joseph Bloomfield is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1801 to Oct, 1802.
Walter Evans Edge is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1917 to May, 1919.
William Livingston is the head of the government of New Jersey from Aug, 1776 to Jul, 1790.
John Orus Bennett III is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
George Sebastian Silzer is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1923 to Jan, 1926.
Elias P. Seeley is the head of the government of New Jersey from Feb, 1833 to Oct, 1833.
Jon Corzine is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2010.
Woodrow Wilson is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1911 to Mar, 1913.
A. Harry Moore is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1926 to Jan, 1929.
James Florio is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1990 to Jan, 1994.
Harold Giles Hoffman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1935 to Jan, 1938.
Christine Todd Whitman is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 2001.
Samuel L. Southard is the head of the government of New Jersey from Oct, 1832 to Feb, 1833.
Jim McGreevey is the head of the government of New Jersey from Jan, 2002 to Nov, 2004.
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New JerseyNew Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware River and Pennsylvania; and on the southwest by Delaware Bay and the state of Delaware. New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state by area but the 11th-most populous, with 9,288,994 residents as of 2020 and an area of , making it the most densely populated of the 50 U.S. states. New Jersey's state capital is Trenton, while the state's most populous city is Newark. All but one county in New Jersey (Warren County) lie within the combined statistical areas of New York City or Philadelphia; consequently, the state's largest metropolitan area falls within Greater New York.New Jersey was first inhabited by Native Americans for at least 2,800 years, with the Lenape being the dominant group by the time Europeans arrived in the early 17th century. Dutch and the Swedish colonists founded the first European settlements in the state. The English later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey—after the largest of the Channel Islands, Jersey—and granting it as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. New Jersey was the site of several important battles during the American Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, factories in the "Big Six" cities of Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, Jersey City, and Elizabeth helped drive the nation's Industrial Revolution. New Jersey's central location in the Northeast megalopolis fueled its rapid growth and suburbanization in the second half of the 20th century. At the turn of the 21st century, the state's economy increasingly diversified, while its multicultural populace began reverting toward more urban settings within the state, outpacing the growth in suburbs since 2008.As of 2020, New Jersey was home to the highest number of millionaires per capita of all U.S. states, with 9.76% of households—more than 323,000 of 3.3 million statewide—meeting the criteria. Based on 2017 data, it was the second-wealthiest U.S. state by median household income. New Jersey's public school system consistently ranks at or among the top among all fifty U.S. states.Around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. Around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as many rivers, swamps, and gorges.New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact. "" is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape were several autonomous groups that practiced maize agriculture in order to supplement their hunting and gathering in the region surrounding the Delaware River, the lower Hudson River, and western Long Island Sound. The Lenape society was divided into matrilinear clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign: Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf. They first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade.The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey. The Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of land ownership was not recognized by the Lenape, Dutch West India Company policy required its colonists to purchase the land that they settled. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen. Peter Minuit's purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. The entire region became a territory of England on June 24, 1664, after an English fleet under the command of Colonel Richard Nicolls sailed into what is now New York Harbor and took control of Fort Amsterdam, annexing the entire province.During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and gave sanctuary to the King. It was from the Royal Square in Saint Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York (later King James II), the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony (as opposed to a royal colony). James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River (the land that would become New Jersey) to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War: Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton. The area was named the Province of New Jersey.Since the state's inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic and religious diversity. New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants. While the majority of residents lived in towns with individual landholdings of , a few rich proprietors owned vast estates. English Quakers and Anglicans owned large landholdings. Unlike Plymouth Colony, Jamestown and other colonies, New Jersey was populated by a secondary wave of immigrants who came from other colonies instead of those who migrated directly from Europe. New Jersey remained agrarian and rural throughout the colonial era, and commercial farming developed sporadically. Some townships, such as Burlington on the Delaware River and Perth Amboy, emerged as important ports for shipping to New York City and Philadelphia. The colony's fertile lands and tolerant religious policy drew more settlers, and New Jersey's population had increased to 120,000 by 1775.Settlement for the first 10 years of English rule took place along Hackensack River and Arthur Kill—settlers came primarily from New York and New England. On March 18, 1673, Berkeley sold his half of the colony to Quakers in England, who settled the Delaware Valley region as a Quaker colony. (William Penn acted as trustee for the lands for a time.) New Jersey was governed very briefly as two distinct provinces, East and West Jersey, for 28 years between 1674 and 1702, at times part of the Province of New York or Dominion of New England.In 1702, the two provinces were reunited under a royal governor, rather than a proprietary one. Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, became the first governor of the colony as a royal colony. Britain believed that he was an ineffective and corrupt ruler, taking bribes and speculating on land. In 1708 he was recalled to England. New Jersey was then ruled by the governors of New York, but this infuriated the settlers of New Jersey, who accused those governors of favoritism to New York. Judge Lewis Morris led the case for a separate governor, and was appointed governor by King George II in 1738.New Jersey was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. The was passed July 2, 1776, just two days before the Second Continental Congress declared American Independence from Great Britain. It was an act of the Provincial Congress, which made itself into the State Legislature. To reassure neutrals, it provided that it would become void if New Jersey reached reconciliation with Great Britain. New Jersey representatives Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, and Abraham Clark were among those who signed the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.During the American Revolutionary War, British and American armies crossed New Jersey numerous times, and several pivotal battles took place in the state. Because of this, New Jersey today is often referred to as "The Crossroads of the American Revolution". The winter quarters of the Continental Army were established there twice by General George Washington in Morristown, which has been called "The Military Capital of the American Revolution.“On the night of December 25–26, 1776, the Continental Army under George Washington crossed the Delaware River. After the crossing, they surprised and defeated the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton. Slightly more than a week after victory at Trenton, American forces gained an important victory by stopping General Cornwallis's charges at the Second Battle of Trenton. By evading Cornwallis's army, the Americans made a surprise attack on Princeton and successfully defeated the British forces there on January 3, 1777. Emanuel Leutze's painting of "Washington Crossing the Delaware" became an icon of the Revolution.American forces under Washington met the British forces under General Henry Clinton at the Battle of Monmouth in an indecisive engagement in June 1778. The Americans attempted to take the British column by surprise. When the British army attempted to flank the Americans, the Americans retreated in disorder. Their ranks were later reorganized and withstood the British charges.In the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall at Princeton University, making Princeton the nation's capital for four months. It was there that the Continental Congress learned of the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended the war.On December 18, 1787, New Jersey became the third state to ratify the United States Constitution, which was overwhelmingly popular in New Jersey, as it prevented New York and Pennsylvania from charging tariffs on goods imported from Europe. On November 20, 1789, the state became the first in the newly formed Union to ratify the Bill of Rights.The 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants" who had a certain level of wealth. This included women and blacks, but not married women, because they could not own property separately from their husbands. Both sides, in several elections, claimed that the other side had had unqualified women vote and mocked them for use of "petticoat electors", whether entitled to vote or not; on the other hand, both parties passed Voting Rights Acts. In 1807, the legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal "white male" suffrage, excluding paupers; the constitution was itself an act of the legislature and not enshrined as the modern constitution.On February 15, 1804, New Jersey became the last northern state to abolish new slavery and enacted legislation that slowly phased out existing slavery. This led to a gradual decrease of the slave population. By the close of the Civil War, about a dozen African Americans in New Jersey were still held in bondage. New Jersey voters eventually ratified the constitutional amendments banning slavery and granting rights to the United States' black population.Industrialization accelerated in the northern part of the state following completion of the Morris Canal in 1831. The canal allowed for coal to be brought from eastern Pennsylvania's Lehigh Valley to northern New Jersey's growing industries in Paterson, Newark, and Jersey City.In 1844, the second state constitution was ratified and brought into effect. Counties thereby became districts for the state senate, and some realignment of boundaries (including the creation of Mercer County) immediately followed. This provision was retained in the 1947 Constitution, but was overturned by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1962 by the decision "Baker v. Carr". While the Governorship was stronger than under the 1776 constitution, the constitution of 1844 created many offices that were not responsible to him, or to the people, and it gave him a three-year term, but he could not succeed himself.New Jersey was one of the few Union states (the others being Delaware and Kentucky) to select a candidate other than Abraham Lincoln twice in national elections, and sided with Stephen Douglas (1860) and George B. McClellan (1864) during their campaigns. McClellan, a native Philadelphian, had New Jersey ties and formally resided in New Jersey at the time; he later became Governor of New Jersey (1878–81). (In New Jersey, the factions of the Democratic party managed an effective coalition in 1860.) During the American Civil War, the state was led first by Republican governor Charles Smith Olden, then by Democrat Joel Parker. During the course of the war, between 65,000 and 80,000 soldiers from the state enlisted in the Union army; unlike many states, including some Northern ones, no battle was fought there.In the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paterson grew and prospered. Previously, the economy had been largely agrarian, which was problematically subject to crop failures and poor soil. This caused a shift to a more industrialized economy, one based on manufactured commodities such as textiles and silk. Inventor Thomas Edison also became an important figure of the Industrial Revolution, having been granted 1,093 patents, many of which for inventions he developed while working in New Jersey. Edison's facilities, first at Menlo Park and then in West Orange, are considered perhaps the first research centers in the United States. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first thoroughfare in the world to have electric lighting. Transportation was greatly improved as locomotion and steamboats were introduced to New Jersey.Iron mining was also a leading industry during the middle to late 19th century. Bog iron pits in the southern New Jersey Pinelands were among the first sources of iron for the new nation. Mines such as Mt. Hope, Mine Hill and the Rockaway Valley Mines created a thriving industry. Mining generated the impetus for new towns and was one of the driving forces behind the need for the Morris Canal. Zinc mines were also a major industry, especially the Sterling Hill Mine.New Jersey prospered through the Roaring Twenties. The first Miss America Pageant was held in 1921 in Atlantic City, the Holland Tunnel connecting Jersey City to Manhattan opened in 1927, and the first drive-in movie was shown in 1933 in Camden. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the state offered begging licenses to unemployed residents, the zeppelin airship Hindenburg crashed in flames over Lakehurst, and the SS "Morro Castle" beached itself near Asbury Park after going up in flames while at sea.Through both World Wars, New Jersey was a center for war production, especially naval construction. The Federal Shipbuilding and Drydock Company yards in Kearny and Newark and the New York Shipbuilding Corporation yard in Camden produced aircraft carriers, battleships, cruisers, and destroyers. New Jersey manufactured 6.8 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking fifth among the 48 states. In addition, Fort Dix (1917) (originally called "Camp Dix"), Camp Merritt (1917) and Camp Kilmer (1941) were all constructed to house and train American soldiers through both World Wars. New Jersey also became a principal location for defense in the Cold War. Fourteen Nike missile stations were constructed for the defense of the New York City and Philadelphia areas. "PT-109", a motor torpedo boat commanded by Lt. (j.g.) John F. Kennedy in World War II, was built at the Elco Boatworks in Bayonne. The aircraft carrier USS "Enterprise" (CV-6) was briefly docked at the Military Ocean Terminal in Bayonne in the 1950s before she was sent to Kearney to be scrapped. In 1962, the world's first nuclear-powered cargo ship, the NS Savannah, was launched at Camden.In 1951, the New Jersey Turnpike opened, permitting fast travel by car and truck between North Jersey (and metropolitan New York) and South Jersey (and metropolitan Philadelphia). In 1959, Air Defense Command deployed the CIM-10 Bomarc surface-to-air missile to McGuire Air Force Base. On June 7, 1960, an explosion in a CIM-10 Bomarc missile fuel tank caused the accident and subsequent plutonium contamination.In the 1960s, race riots erupted in many of the industrial cities of North Jersey. The first race riots in New Jersey occurred in Jersey City on August 2, 1964. Several others ensued in 1967, in Newark and Plainfield. Other riots followed the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in April 1968, just as in the rest of the country. A riot occurred in Camden in 1971. As a result of an order from the New Jersey Supreme Court to fund schools equitably, the New Jersey legislature passed an income tax bill in 1976. Prior to this bill, the state had no income tax.In the early part of the 2000s, two light rail systems were opened: the Hudson–Bergen Light Rail in Hudson County and the River Line between Camden and Trenton. The intent of these projects was to encourage transit-oriented development in North Jersey and South Jersey, respectively. The HBLR in particular was credited with a revitalization of Hudson County and Jersey City in particular. Urban revitalization has continued in North Jersey in the 21st century. As of 2014, Jersey City's Census-estimated population was 262,146, with the largest population increase of any municipality in New Jersey since 2010, representing an increase of 5.9% from the 2010 United States Census, when the city's population was enumerated at 247,597. Between 2000 and 2010, Newark experienced its first population increase since the 1950s.The state of New Jersey is bordered on the north and northeast by New York (parts of which are across the Hudson River, Upper New York Bay, the Kill Van Kull, Newark Bay, and the Arthur Kill); on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on the southwest by Delaware across Delaware Bay; and on the west by Pennsylvania across the Delaware River. This is New Jersey's only straight border.New Jersey is often broadly divided into three geographic regions: North Jersey, Central Jersey, and South Jersey. Some New Jersey residents do not consider Central Jersey a region in its own right, but others believe it is a separate geographic and cultural area from the North and South.Within those regions are five distinct areas, based upon natural geography and population concentration. Northeastern New Jersey lies closest to Manhattan in New York City, and up to a million residents commute daily into the city for work, many via public transportation. Northwestern New Jersey is more wooded, rural, and mountainous. The Jersey Shore, along the Atlantic Coast in Central and South Jersey, has its own unique natural, residential, and cultural characteristics owing to its location by the ocean. The Delaware Valley includes the southwestern counties of the state, which reside within the Philadelphia Metropolitan Area. The Pine Barrens region is in the southern interior of New Jersey; covered rather extensively by mixed pine and oak forest, this region has a lower population density than most of the rest of the state.The federal Office of Management and Budget divides New Jersey's counties into seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas, with 16 counties included in either the New York City or Philadelphia metro areas. Four counties have independent metro areas, and Warren County is part of the Pennsylvania-based Lehigh Valley metro area. New Jersey is also at the center of the Northeast megalopolis.High Point, in Montague Township, Sussex County, is the state's highest elevation, at above sea level. The state's highest prominence is Kitty Ann Mountain in Morris County, rising . The Palisades are a line of steep cliffs on the west side of the Hudson River, in Bergen and Hudson Counties. Major New Jersey rivers include the Hudson, Delaware, Raritan, Passaic, Hackensack, Rahway, Musconetcong, Mullica, Rancocas, Manasquan, Maurice, and Toms rivers. Due to New Jersey's peninsular geography, both sunrise and sunset are visible over water from different points on the Jersey Shore.There are two climatic conditions in the state. The south, central, and northeast parts of the state have a humid subtropical climate, while the northwest has a humid continental climate (microthermal), with much cooler temperatures due to higher elevation. New Jersey receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.Climate change is affecting New Jersey faster than much of the rest of the United States. As of 2019, New Jersey was one of the fastest-warming states in the nation. Since 1895, average temperatures have climbed by almost 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, double the average for the other Lower 48 states.Summers are typically hot and humid, with statewide average high temperatures of and lows of ; however, temperatures exceed on average 25 days each summer, exceeding in some years. Winters are usually cold, with average high temperatures of and lows of for most of the state, but temperatures can, for brief periods, fall below and sometimes rise above . Northwestern parts of the state have significantly colder winters with sub- being an almost annual occurrence. Spring and autumn may feature wide temperature variations, with lower humidity than summer. The USDA Plant Hardiness Zone classification ranges from6 in the northwest of the state, to 7B near Cape May. All-time temperature extremes recorded in New Jersey include on July 10, 1936, in Runyon, Middlesex County and on January 5, 1904, in River Vale, Bergen County.Average annual precipitation ranges from , uniformly spread through the year. Average snowfall per winter season ranges from in the south and near the seacoast, in the northeast and central part of the state, to about in the northwestern highlands, but this often varies considerably from year to year. Precipitation falls on an average of 120 days a year, with 25 to 30 thunderstorms, most of which occur during the summer.During winter and early spring, New Jersey can experience "nor'easters", which are capable of causing blizzards or flooding throughout the northeastern United States. Hurricanes and tropical storms (such as Tropical Storm Floyd in 1999), tornadoes, and earthquakes are rare, although New Jersey was impacted by a hurricane in 1903, and Hurricane Sandy on October 29, 2012 with the storm making landfall in the state with top winds of .For its overall population and nation-leading population density, New Jersey has a relative paucity of classic large cities. This paradox is most pronounced in Bergen County, New Jersey's most populous county, whose more than 930,000 residents in 2019 inhabited 70 municipalities, the most populous being Hackensack, with 44,522 residents estimated in 2018. Many urban areas extend far beyond the limits of a single large city, as New Jersey cities (and indeed municipalities in general) tend to be geographically small; three of the four largest cities in New Jersey by population have under of land area, and eight of the top ten, including all of the top five have land area under . , only four municipalities had populations in excess of 100,000, although Edison and Woodbridge came very close.The United States Census Bureau tabulated in the 2020 United States census that the population of New Jersey was 9,288,994 on April 1, 2020, a 5.7% increase since the 2010 United States census. Residents of New Jersey are most commonly referred to as "New Jerseyans" or, less commonly, as "New Jerseyites". At the 2010 census, there were 8,791,894 people living in the state. At the 2010 U.S. census, the racial and ethnic makeup of the state was: 68.6% White American, 13.7% African American, 8.3% Asian American, 0.3% Native American, 2.7% Multiracial American, and 6.4% other races. Non-Hispanic Whites were 58.9% of the population in 2011, down from 85% in 1970. In 2010, 17.7% of the population were Hispanic or Latino (of any race).In 2010, unauthorized immigrants constituted an estimated 6.2% of the population. This was the fourth-highest percentage of any state in the country. There were an estimated 550,000 illegal immigrants in the state in 2010. Among the municipalities which are considered sanctuary cities are Camden, Jersey City and Newark.As of 2010, New Jersey was the eleventh-most populous state in the United States, and the most densely populated, at 1,185 residents per square mile (458 per km), with most of the population residing in the counties surrounding New York City, Philadelphia, and along the eastern Jersey Shore, while the extreme southern and northwestern counties are relatively less dense overall. It was also the second wealthiest state by median household income, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.The center of population for New Jersey is located in Middlesex County, in the town of Milltown, just east of the New Jersey Turnpike.New Jersey is home to more scientists and engineers "per square mile" than anywhere else in the world.On October 21, 2013, same-sex marriages commenced in New Jersey.New Jersey is one of the most ethnically and religiously diverse states in the United States. As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's children under the age of one belonged to racial or ethnic minority groups, meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white. The state has the second largest Jewish population by percentage (after New York); the second largest Muslim population by percentage (after Michigan); the largest population of Peruvians in the United States; the largest population of Cubans outside of Florida; the third highest Asian population by percentage; and the second highest Italian population, according to the 2000 Census. African Americans, Hispanics (Puerto Ricans and Dominicans), West Indians, Arabs, and Brazilian and Portuguese Americans are also high in number. New Jersey has the third highest Asian Indian population of any state by absolute numbers and the highest by percentage, with Bergen County home to America's largest Malayali community. Overall, New Jersey has the third largest Korean population, with Bergen County home to the highest Korean concentration per capita of any U.S. county (6.9% in 2011). New Jersey also has the fourth largest Filipino population, and fourth largest Chinese population, per the 2010 U.S. Census. The five largest ethnic groups in 2000 were: Italian (17.9%), Irish (15.9%), African (13.6%), German (12.6%), Polish (6.9%).India Square, in Bombay, Jersey City, Hudson County, is home to the highest concentration of Asian Indians in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, Central New Jersey, particularly Edison and surrounding Middlesex County, is prominently known for its significant concentration of Asian Indians. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville in 2014, a BAPS temple. The growing Little India is a South Asian-focused commercial strip in Middlesex County, the U.S. county with the highest concentration of Asian Indians. The Oak Tree Road strip runs for about through Edison and neighboring Iselin in Woodbridge Township, near the area's sprawling Chinatown and Koreatown, running along New Jersey Route 27. It is the largest and most diverse South Asian cultural hub in the United States. Carteret's Punjabi Sikh community, variously estimated at upwards of 3,000, is the largest concentration of Sikhs in the state. Monroe Township in Middlesex County has experienced a particularly rapid growth rate in its Indian American population, with an estimated 5,943 (13.6%) as of 2017, which was 23 times the 256 (0.9%) counted as of the 2000 Census; and Diwali is celebrated by the township as a Hindu holiday. In Middlesex County, election ballots are printed in English, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi.Newark was the fourth poorest of U.S. cities with over 250,000 residents in 2008, but New Jersey as a whole had the second-highest median household income as of 2014. This is largely because so much of New Jersey consists of suburbs, most of them affluent, of New York City and Philadelphia. New Jersey is also the most densely populated state, and the only state that has had every one of its counties deemed "urban" as defined by the Census Bureau's Combined Statistical Area.In 2010, 6.2% of its population was reported as under age 5, 23.5% under 18, and 13.5% were 65 or older; and females made up approximately 51.3% of the population.A study by the Pew Research Center found that in 2013, New Jersey was the only U.S. state in which immigrants born in India constituted the largest foreign-born nationality, representing roughly 10% of all foreign-born residents in the state.For further information on various ethnoracial groups and neighborhoods prominently featured within New Jersey, see the following articles:As of 2011, 56.4% of New Jersey's population younger than age1 were minorities (meaning that they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white)."Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number."As of 2010, 71.31% (5,830,812) of New Jersey residents age5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 14.59% (1,193,261) spoke Spanish, 1.23% (100,217) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 1.06% (86,849) Italian, 1.06% (86,486) Portuguese, 0.96% (78,627) Tagalog, and Korean was spoken as a main language by 0.89% (73,057) of the population over the age of five. In total, 28.69% (2,345,644) of New Jersey's population age5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.A diverse collection of languages has since evolved amongst the state's population, given that New Jersey has become cosmopolitan and is home to ethnic enclaves of non-English-speaking communities:By number of adherents, the largest denominations in New Jersey, according to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2010, were the Roman Catholic Church with 3,235,290; Islam with 160,666; and the United Methodist Church with 138,052. The world's largest Hindu temple was inaugurated in Robbinsville, Mercer County, in central New Jersey during 2014, a BAPS temple. In January 2018, Gurbir Grewal became the first Sikh American state attorney general in the United States. In January 2019, Sadaf Jaffer became the first female Muslim American mayor, first female South Asian mayor, and first female Pakistani-American mayor in the United States, of Montgomery in Somerset County.The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that New Jersey's gross state product in the fourth quarter of 2018 was $639.8 billion. New Jersey's estimated taxpayer burden in 2015 was $59,400 per taxpayer. New Jersey is nearly $239 billion in debt.New Jersey's per capita gross state product in 2008 was $54,699, second in the U.S. and above the national per capita gross domestic product of $46,588. Its per capita income was the third highest in the nation with $51,358. In 2020, New Jersey had the highest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, approximately 9.76% of households. The state is ranked second in the nation by the number of places with per capita incomes above national average with 76.4%. Nine of New Jersey's counties are among the 100 wealthiest U.S. counties.New Jersey has seven tax brackets that determine state income tax rates, which range from 1.4% (for income below $20,000) to 8.97% (for income above $500,000).The standard sales tax rate as of January 1, 2018, is 6.625%, applicable to all retail sales unless specifically exempt by law. This rate, which is comparably lower than that of New York City, often attracts numerous shoppers from New York City, often to suburban Paramus, New Jersey, which has five malls, one of which (the Garden State Plaza) has over of retail space. Tax exemptions include most food items for at-home preparation, medications, most clothing, footwear and disposable paper products for use in the home. There are 27 Urban Enterprise Zone statewide, including sections of Paterson, Elizabeth, and Jersey City. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment within the zone, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half the rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants.New Jersey has the highest cumulative tax rate of all 50 states with residents paying a total of $68 billion in state and local taxes annually with a per capita burden of $7,816 at a rate of 12.9% of income. All real property located in the state is subject to property tax unless specifically exempted by statute. New Jersey does not assess an intangible personal property tax, but it does impose an inheritance tax.New Jersey consistently ranks as having one of the highest proportional levels of disparity of any state in the United States, based upon what it receives from the federal government relative to what it gives. In 2015, WalletHub ranked New Jersey the state least dependent upon federal government aid overall and having the fourth lowest return on taxpayer investment from the federal government, at 48 cents per dollar.New Jersey has one of the highest tax burdens in the nation. Factors for this include the large federal tax liability which is not adjusted for New Jersey's higher cost of living and Medicaid funding formulas.New Jersey's economy is multifaceted, but is centered on the pharmaceutical industry, biotechnology, information technology, the financial industry, chemical development, telecommunications, food processing, electric equipment, printing, publishing, and tourism. New Jersey's agricultural outputs are nursery stock, horses, vegetables, fruits and nuts, seafood, and dairy products. New Jersey ranks second among states in blueberry production, third in cranberries and spinach, and fourth in bell peppers, peaches, and head lettuce. The state harvests the fourth-largest number of acres planted with asparagus.Although New Jersey is home to many energy-intensive industries, its energy consumption is only 2.7% of the U.S. total, and its carbon dioxide emissions are 0.8% of the U.S. total. Its comparatively low greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the state's use of nuclear power. According to the Energy Information Administration, nuclear power dominates New Jersey's electricity market, typically supplying more than one-half of state generation. New Jersey has three nuclear power plants, including the Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, which came online in 1969 and is the oldest operating nuclear plant in the country.New Jersey has a strong scientific economy and is home to major pharmaceutical and telecommunications firms, drawing on the state's large and well-educated labor pool. There is also a strong service economy in retail sales, education, and real estate, serving residents who work in New York City or Philadelphia. Thomas Edison invented the first electric light bulb at his home in Menlo Park, Edison in 1879. New Jersey is also a key participant in the renewable wind industry.Shipping is a key industry in New Jersey because of the state's strategic geographic location, the Port of New York and New Jersey being the busiest port on the East Coast. The Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal was the world's first container port and today is one of the world's largest.New Jersey hosts several business headquarters, including twenty-four Fortune 500 companies. Paramus in Bergen County has become the top retail ZIP code (07652) in the United States, with the municipality generating over US$6 billion in annual retail sales. Several New Jersey counties, including Somerset (7), Morris (10), Hunterdon (13), Bergen (21), and Monmouth (42), have been ranked among the highest-income counties in the United States.New Jersey's location at the center of the Northeast megalopolis and its extensive transportation system have put over one-third of all United States residents and many Canadian residents within overnight distance by land. This accessibility to consumer revenue has enabled seaside resorts such as Atlantic City and the remainder of the Jersey Shore, as well as the state's other natural and cultural attractions, to contribute significantly to the record 111 million tourist visits to New Jersey in 2018, providing US$44.7 billion in tourism revenue, directly supporting 333,860 jobs, sustaining more than 531,000 jobs overall including peripheral impacts, and generating US$5 billion in state and local tax revenue.In 1976, a referendum of New Jersey voters approved casino gambling in Atlantic City, where the first legalized casino opened in 1978. At that time, Las Vegas was the only other casino resort in the country. Today, several casinos lie along the Atlantic City Boardwalk, the first and longest boardwalk in the world. Atlantic City experienced a dramatic contraction in its stature as a gambling destination after 2010, including the closure of multiple casinos since 2014, spurred by competition from the advent of legalized gambling in other northeastern U.S. states. On February 26, 2013, Governor Chris Christie signed online gambling into law. Sports betting has become a growing source of gambling revenue in New Jersey since being legalized across the nation by the U.S. Supreme Court on May 14, 2018.Forests cover 45%, or approximately 2.1 million acres, of New Jersey's land area. The chief tree of the northern forests is the oak. The Pine Barrens, consisting of pine forests, is in the southern part of the state.Some mining activity of zinc, iron, and manganese still takes place in the area in and around the Franklin Furnace.New Jersey is second in the nation in solar power installations, enabled by one of the country's most favorable net metering policies, and the renewable energy certificates program. The state has more than 10,000 solar installations.As of 2010, there were 605 school districts in the state.Secretary of Education Rick Rosenberg, appointed by Governor Jon Corzine, created the Education Advancement Initiative (EAI) to increase college admission rates by 10% for New Jersey's high school students, decrease dropout rates by 15%, and increase the amount of money devoted to schools by 10%. Rosenberg retracted this plan when criticized for taking the money out of healthcare to fund this initiative.In 2010, the state government paid all teachers' premiums for health insurance, but currently all NJ public teachers pay a portion of their own health insurance premiums.New Jersey is known for the quality of its education. In 2015, the state spent more per each public school student than any other U.S. state except New York, Alaska, and Connecticut, amounting to $18,235 spent per pupil; over 50% of the expenditure was allocated to student instruction.According to 2011 "Newsweek" statistics, students of High Technology High School in Lincroft, Monmouth County and Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, Bergen County registered average SAT scores of 2145 and 2100, respectively, representing the second- and third-highest scores, respectively, of all listed U.S. high schools.Princeton University in Princeton, Mercer County, one of the world's most prominent research universities, is often featured at or near the top of various national and global university rankings, topping the 2020 list of "U.S. News & World Report". In 2013, Rutgers University, headquartered in New Brunswick, Middlesex County as the flagship institution of higher education in New Jersey, regained medical and dental schools, augmenting its profile as a national research university as well.In 2014, New Jersey's school systems were ranked at the top of all fifty U.S. states by financial website Wallethub.com. In 2018, New Jersey's overall educational system was ranked second among all states to Massachusetts by "U.S. News & World Report". In both 2019 and 2020, "Education Week" also ranked New Jersey public schools the best of all U.S. states.Nine New Jersey high schools were ranked among the top 25 in the U.S. on the "Newsweek" "America's Top High Schools 2016" list, more than from any other state. A 2017 UCLA Civil Rights project found that New Jersey has the sixth-most segregated classrooms in the United States.New Jersey has continued to play a prominent role as a U.S. cultural nexus. Like every state, New Jersey has its own cuisine, religious communities, museums, and .New Jersey is the birthplace of modern inventions such as: FM radio, the motion picture camera, the lithium battery, the light bulb, transistors, and the electric train. Other New Jersey creations include: the drive-in movie, the cultivated blueberry, cranberry sauce, the postcard, the boardwalk, the zipper, the phonograph, saltwater taffy, the dirigible, the seedless watermelon, the first use of a submarine in warfare, and the ice cream cone.Diners are iconic to New Jersey. The state is home to many diner manufacturers and has over 600 diners, more than any other place in the world.New Jersey is the only state without a state song. "I'm From New Jersey" is incorrectly listed on many websites as being the New Jersey state song, but it was not even a contender when in 1996 the New Jersey Arts Council submitted their suggestions to the New Jersey Legislature.New Jersey is frequently the target of jokes in American culture, especially from New York City-based television shows, such as "Saturday Night Live". Academic Michael Aaron Rockland attributes this to New Yorkers' view that New Jersey is the beginning of Middle America. The New Jersey Turnpike, which runs between two major East Coast cities, New York City and Philadelphia, is also cited as a reason, as people who traverse through the state may only see its industrial zones. Reality television shows like "Jersey Shore" and "The Real Housewives of New Jersey" have reinforced stereotypical views of New Jersey culture, but Rockland cited "The Sopranos" and the music of Bruce Springsteen as exporting a more positive image.New Jersey is known for several foods developed within the region, including Taylor Ham (also known as pork roll), sloppy joe sandwiches, tomato pies, and Texas wieners.Several states with substantial Italian American populations take credit for the development of submarine sandwiches, including New Jersey.New Jersey has long been an important origin for both rock and rap music. Prominent musicians from or with significant connections to New Jersey include:New Jersey currently has six teams from major professional sports leagues playing in the state, although one Major League Soccer team and two National Football League teams identify themselves as being from the New York metropolitan area.The National Hockey League's New Jersey Devils, based in Newark at the Prudential Center, is the only major league sports franchise to bear the state's name. Founded in 1974 in Kansas City, Missouri, as the Kansas City Scouts, the team played in Denver, Colorado, as the Colorado Rockies from 1976 until the spring of 1982 when naval architect, businessman, and Jersey City native John J. McMullen purchased, renamed, and moved the franchise to Brendan Byrne Arena in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. While the team had mostly losing records in Kansas City, Denver, and its first years in New Jersey, the Devils began to improve in the late 1980s and early 1990s under Hall of Fame president and general manager Lou Lamoriello. The team made the playoffs for the Stanley Cup in 2001 and 2012, and won it in 1995, 2000, and 2003. The organization is the youngest of the nine major league teams in the New York metropolitan area. The Devils have established a following throughout the northern and central portions of the state, carving a place in a media market once dominated by the New York Rangers and Islanders.In 2018, the Philadelphia Flyers renovated and expanded their training facility, the Virtua Center Flyers Skate Zone, in Voorhees Township in the southern portion of the state.The New York Metropolitan Area's two National Football League teams, the New York Giants and the New York Jets, play at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford's Meadowlands Sports Complex. Built for about $1.6 billion, the venue is the most expensive stadium ever built. On February 2, 2014, MetLife Stadium hosted Super Bowl XLVIII.The New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer play in Red Bull Arena, a soccer-specific stadium in Harrison across the Passaic River from downtown Newark. On July 27, 2011, Red Bull Arena hosted the 2011 MLS All-Star Game.From 1977 to 2012, New Jersey had a National Basketball Association team, the New Jersey Nets. WNBA's New York Liberty played in New Jersey from 2011 to 2013 while their primary home arena, Madison Square Garden was undergoing renovations. In 2016, the Philadelphia 76ers of the NBA opened their new headquarters and training facility, the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex, in Camden.The Meadowlands Sports Complex is home to the Meadowlands Racetrack, one of three major harness racing tracks in the state. The Meadowlands Racetrack and Freehold Raceway in Freehold are two of the major harness racing tracks in North America. Monmouth Park Racetrack in Oceanport is a popular spot for thoroughbred racing in New Jersey and the northeast. It hosted the Breeders' Cup in 2007, and its turf course was renovated in preparation.New Jerseyans' collegiate allegiances are predominantly split among the three major NCAA Division I programs in the state: the Rutgers University (New Jersey's flagship state university) Scarlet Knights, members of the Big Ten Conference; the Seton Hall University (the state's largest Catholic university) Pirates, members of the Big East Conference; and the Princeton University (the state's Ivy League university) Tigers.The intense rivalry between Rutgers and Princeton athletics began with the first intercollegiate football game in 1869. The schools have not met on the football field since 1980, but they continue to play each other annually in all other sports offered by the two universities.Rutgers, which fields 24 teams in various sports, is nationally known for its football program, with a 6–4 all-time bowl record; and its women's basketball programs, which appeared in a National Final in 2007. In 2008 and 2009, Rutgers expanded their football home, Rutgers Stadium, now called SHI Stadium, on the Busch Campus. The basketball teams play at the Rutgers Athletic Center on Livingston Campus. Both venues and campuses are in Piscataway, across the Raritan River from New Brunswick. The university also fields men's basketball and baseball programs. Rutgers' fans live mostly in the western parts of the state and Middlesex County; its alumni base is the largest in the state.Rutgers' satellite campuses in Camden and Newark each field their own athletic programs—the Rutgers–Camden Scarlet Raptors and the Rutgers–Newark Scarlet Raiders—which both compete in NCAA Division III.Seton Hall fields no football team, but its men's basketball team is one of the Big East's storied programs. No New Jersey team has won more games in the NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournament, and it is the state's only men's basketball program to reach a modern National Final. The Pirates play their home games at Prudential Center in downtown Newark, about from the university's South Orange campus. Their fans hail largely from in the predominantly Roman Catholic areas of the northern part of the state and the Jersey Shore. The annual inter-conference rivalry game between Seton Hall and Rutgers, whose venue alternates between Newark and Piscataway, the Garden State Hardwood Classic, is planned through 2026.The state's other Division I schools include the Monmouth University Hawks (West Long Branch), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) Highlanders (Newark), the Rider University Broncs (Lawrenceville), and the Saint Peter's University Peacocks and Peahens (Jersey City).Fairleigh Dickinson University competes in both Division I and Division III. It has two campuses, each with its own sports teams. The teams at the Metropolitan Campus are known as the FDU Knights, and compete in the Northeast Conference and NCAA Division I. The college at Florham (FDU-Florham) teams are known as the FDU-Florham Devils and compete in the Middle Atlantic Conferences' Freedom Conference and NCAA Division III.Among the various Division III schools in the state, the Stevens Institute of Technology Ducks have fielded the longest continuously running collegiate men's lacrosse program in the country. 2009 marked the 125th season.New Jersey high schools are divided into divisions under the New Jersey State Interscholastic Athletic Association (NJSIAA).' Founded in 1918, the NJSIAA currently represents 22,000 schools, 330,000 coaches, and almost 4.5 million athletes.Motion picture technology was developed by Thomas Edison, with much of his early work done at his West Orange laboratory. Edison's Black Maria was the first motion picture studio. America's first motion picture industry started in 1907 in Fort Lee and the first studio was constructed there in 1909. DuMont Laboratories in Passaic developed early sets and made the first broadcast to the private home.A number of television shows and films have been filmed in New Jersey. Since 1978, the state has maintained a Motion Picture and Television Commission to encourage filming in-state. New Jersey has long offered tax credits to television producers. Governor Chris Christie suspended the credits in 2010, but the New Jersey State Legislature in 2011 approved the restoration and expansion of the tax credit program. Under bills passed by both the state Senate and Assembly, the program offers 20 percent tax credits (22% in urban enterprise zones) to television and film productions that shoot in the state and meet set standards for hiring and local spending. When Governor Phil Murphy took office, he instated the New Jersey Film & Digital Media Tax Credit Program in 2018 and expanded it in 2020. The benefits include a 30% tax credit on film projects and a 40% subsidy for studio developments.The New Jersey Turnpike is one of the most prominent and heavily trafficked roadways in the United States. This toll road, which overlaps with Interstate 95 for much of its length, carries traffic between Delaware and New York, and up and down the East Coast in general. Commonly referred to as simply "the Turnpike", it is known for its numerous rest areas named after prominent New Jerseyans.The Garden State Parkway, or simply "the Parkway", carries relatively more in-state traffic than interstate traffic and runs from New Jersey's northern border to its southernmost tip at Cape May. It is the main route that connects the New York metropolitan area to the Jersey Shore. With a total of fifteen travel and six shoulder lanes, the Driscoll Bridge on the Parkway, spanning the Raritan River in Middlesex County, is the widest motor vehicle bridge in the world by number of lanes as well as one of the busiest.New Jersey is connected to New York City via various key bridges and tunnels. The double-decked George Washington Bridge carries the heaviest load of motor vehicle traffic of any bridge in the world, at 102 million vehicles per year, across fourteen lanes. It connects Fort Lee, New Jersey to the Washington Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan, and carries Interstate 95 and U.S. Route 1/9 across the Hudson River. The Lincoln Tunnel connects to Midtown Manhattan carrying New Jersey Route 495, and the Holland Tunnel connects to Lower Manhattan carrying Interstate 78. New Jersey is also connected to Staten Island by three bridges—from north to south, the Bayonne Bridge, the Goethals Bridge, and the Outerbridge Crossing.New Jersey has interstate compacts with all three of its neighboring states. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, the Delaware River Port Authority (with Pennsylvania), the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission (with Pennsylvania), and the Delaware River and Bay Authority (with Delaware) operate most of the major transportation routes in and out of the state. Bridge tolls are collected only from traffic exiting the state, with the exception of the private Dingman's Ferry Bridge over the Delaware River, which charges a toll in both directions.It is unlawful for a customer to serve themselves gasoline in New Jersey. It became the last remaining U.S. state where all gas stations are required to sell full-service gasoline to customers at all times in 2016, after Oregon's introduction of restricted self-service gasoline availability took effect.Newark Liberty International Airport (EWR) is one of the busiest airports in the United States. Operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, it is one of the three main airports serving the New York metropolitan area. United Airlines is the airport's largest tenant, operating an entire terminal there, which it uses as one of its primary hubs. FedEx Express operates a large cargo terminal at EWR as well. The adjacent Newark Airport railroad station provides access to Amtrak and NJ Transit trains along the Northeast Corridor Line.Two smaller commercial airports, Atlantic City International Airport and rapidly growing Trenton-Mercer Airport, also operate in other parts of the state. Teterboro Airport in Bergen County, and Millville Municipal Airport in Cumberland County, are general aviation airports popular with private and corporate aircraft due to their proximity to New York City and the Jersey Shore, respectively.NJ Transit operates extensive rail and bus service throughout the state. A state-run corporation, it began with the consolidation of several private bus companies in North Jersey in 1979. In the early 1980s, it acquired Conrail's commuter train operations that connected suburban towns to New York City. Today, NJ Transit has eleven commuter rail lines that run through different parts of the state. Most of the lines end at either Penn Station in New York City or Hoboken Terminal in Hoboken. One line provides service between Atlantic City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.NJ Transit also operates three light rail systems in the state. The Hudson-Bergen Light Rail connects Bayonne to North Bergen, through Hoboken and Jersey City. The Newark Light Rail is partially underground, and connects downtown Newark with other parts of the city and its suburbs, Belleville and Bloomfield. The River Line connects Trenton and Camden.The PATH is a rapid transit system consisting of four lines operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It links Hoboken, Jersey City, Harrison and Newark with New York City. The PATCO Speedline is a rapid transit system that links Camden County to Philadelphia. Both the PATCO and the PATH are two of only five rapid transit systems in the United States to operate 24 hours a day.Amtrak operates numerous long-distance passenger trains in New Jersey, both to and from neighboring states and around the country. In addition to the Newark Airport connection, other major Amtrak railway stations include Trenton Transit Center, Metropark, and the historic Newark Penn Station.The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority, or SEPTA, has two commuter rail lines that operate into New Jersey. The Trenton Line terminates at the Trenton Transit Center, and the West Trenton Line terminates at the West Trenton Rail Station in Ewing.AirTrain Newark is a monorail connecting the Amtrak/NJ Transit station on the Northeast Corridor to the airport's terminals and parking lots.Some private bus carriers still remain in New Jersey. Most of these carriers operate with state funding to offset losses and state owned buses are provided to these carriers, of which Coach USA companies make up the bulk. Other carriers include private charter and tour bus operators that take gamblers from other parts of New Jersey, New York City, Philadelphia, and Delaware to the casino resorts of Atlantic City.New York Waterway has ferry terminals at Belford, Jersey City, Hoboken, Weehawken, and Edgewater, with service to different parts of Manhattan. Liberty Water Taxi in Jersey City has ferries from Paulus Hook and Liberty State Park to Battery Park City in Manhattan. Statue Cruises offers service from Liberty State Park to the Statue of Liberty National Monument, including Ellis Island. SeaStreak offers services from the Raritan Bayshore to Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket.The Delaware River and Bay Authority operates the Cape May–Lewes Ferry on Delaware Bay, carrying both passengers and vehicles between New Jersey and Delaware. The agency also operates the Forts Ferry Crossing for passengers across the Delaware River. The Delaware River Port Authority operates the RiverLink Ferry between the Camden waterfront and Penn's Landing in Philadelphia.The position of Governor of New Jersey has been considered one of the most powerful in the nation. Until 2010, the governor was the only statewide elected executive official in the state and appointed numerous government officials. Formerly, an acting governor was even more powerful as he simultaneously served as president of the New Jersey State Senate, thus directing half of the legislative and all of the executive process. In 2002 and 2007, president of the state senate Richard Codey held the position of acting governor for a short time, and from 2004 to 2006 Codey became a long-term acting governor due to Jim McGreevey's resignation. A 2005 amendment to the state Constitution prevents the Senate President from becoming acting governor in the event of a permanent gubernatorial vacancy without giving up her or his seat in the state Senate. Phil Murphy (D) is the governor. The governor's mansion is Drumthwacket, located in Princeton.Before 2010, New Jersey was one of the few states without a lieutenant governor. Republican Kim Guadagno was elected the first lieutenant governor of New Jersey and took office on January 19, 2010. She was elected on the Republican ticket with Governor-Elect Chris Christie in the November 2009 NJ gubernatorial election. The position was created as the result of a Constitutional amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution passed by the voters on November 8, 2005, and effective as of January 17, 2006.The current version of the New Jersey State Constitution was adopted in 1947. It provides for a bicameral New Jersey Legislature, consisting of an upper house Senate of 40 members and a lower house General Assembly of 80 members. Each of the 40 legislative districts elects one state senator and two Assembly members. Assembly members are elected for a two-year term in all odd-numbered years; state senators are elected in the years ending in 1, 3, and7 and thus serve either four- or two-year terms.New Jersey is one of only five states that elects its state officials in odd-numbered years. (The others are Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Virginia.) New Jersey holds elections for these offices every four years, in the year following each federal Presidential election year. Thus, the last year when New Jersey elected a governor was 2017; the next gubernatorial election will occur in 2021.The New Jersey Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and six associate justices. All are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Justices serve an initial seven-year term, after which they can be reappointed to serve until age 70.Most of the day-to-day work in the New Jersey courts is carried out in the Municipal Court, where simple traffic tickets, minor criminal offenses, and small civil matters are heard.More serious criminal and civil cases are handled by the Superior Court for each county. All Superior Court judges are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of a majority of the membership of the state senate. Each judge serves an initial seven-year term, after which he or she can be reappointed to serve until age 70. New Jersey's judiciary is unusual in that it still has separate courts of law and equity, like its neighbor Delaware but unlike most other U.S. states. The New Jersey Superior Court is divided into Law and Chancery Divisions at the trial level; the Law Division hears both criminal cases and civil lawsuits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is damages, while the Chancery Division hears family cases, civil suits where the plaintiff's primary remedy is equitable relief, and probate trials.The Superior Court also has an Appellate Division, which functions as the state's intermediate appellate court. Superior Court judges are assigned to the Appellate Division by the Chief Justice.There is also a Tax Court, which is a court of limited jurisdiction. Tax Court judges hear appeals of tax decisions made by County Boards of Taxation. They also hear appeals on decisions made by the director of the Division of Taxation on such matters as state income, sales and business taxes, and homestead rebates. Appeals from Tax Court decisions are heard in the Appellate Division of Superior Court. Tax Court judges are appointed by the governor for initial terms of seven years, and upon reappointment are granted tenure until they reach the mandatory retirement age of 70. There are 12 Tax Court judgeships.New Jersey is divided into 21 counties; 13 date from the colonial era. New Jersey was completely divided into counties by 1692; the present counties were created by dividing the existing ones; most recently Union County in 1857. New Jersey is the only state in the nation where elected county officials are called "Freeholders", governing each county as part of its own Board of Chosen Freeholders. The number of freeholders in each county is determined by referendum, and must consist of three, five, seven or nine members.Depending on the county, the executive and legislative functions may be performed by the Board of Chosen Freeholders or split into separate branches of government. In 16 counties, members of the Board of Chosen Freeholders perform both legislative and executive functions on a commission basis, with each freeholder assigned responsibility for a department or group of departments. In the other five counties (Atlantic, Bergen, Essex, Hudson and Mercer), there is a directly elected County Executive who performs the executive functions while the Board of Chosen Freeholders retains a legislative and oversight role. In counties without an Executive, a County Administrator (or County Manager) may be hired to perform day-to-day administration of county functions.New Jersey currently has 565 municipalities; the number was 566 before Princeton Township and Princeton Borough merged to form the municipality of Princeton on January 1, 2013. Unlike other states, all New Jersey land is part of a municipality. In 2008, Governor Jon Corzine proposed cutting state aid to all towns under 10,000 people, to encourage mergers to reduce administrative costs. In May 2009, the Local Unit Alignment Reorganization and Consolidation Commission began a study of about 40 small communities in South Jersey to decide which ones might be good candidates for consolidation.Starting in the 20th century, largely driven by reform-minded goals, a series of six modern forms of government was implemented. This began with the Walsh Act, enacted in 1911 by the New Jersey Legislature, which provided for a three- or five-member commission elected on a non-partisan basis. This was followed by the 1923 Municipal Manager Law, which offered a non-partisan council, provided for a weak mayor elected by and from the members of the council, and introduced a Council-manager government structure with an appointed manager responsible for day-to-day administration of municipal affairs.The Faulkner Act, originally enacted in 1950 and substantially amended in 1981, offers four basic plans: Mayor-Council, Council-Manager, Small Municipality, and Mayor-Council-Administrator. The act provides many choices for communities with a preference for a strong executive and professional management of municipal affairs and offers great flexibility in allowing municipalities to select the characteristics of its government: the number of seats on the council; seats selected at-large, by wards, or through a combination of both; staggered or concurrent terms of office; and a mayor chosen by the council or elected directly by voters. Most large municipalities and a majority of New Jersey's residents are governed by municipalities with Faulkner Act charters. Municipalities can also formulate their own unique form of government and operate under a Special Charter with the approval of the New Jersey Legislature.While municipalities retain their names derived from types of government, they may have changed to one of the modern forms of government, or further in the past to one of the other traditional forms, leading to municipalities with formal names quite baffling to the general public. For example, though there are four municipalities that are officially of the village type, Loch Arbour is the only one remaining with the village form of government. The other three villages—Ridgefield Park (now with a Walsh Act form), Ridgewood (now with a Faulkner Act Council-Manager charter) and South Orange (now operates under a Special Charter)—have all migrated to other non-village forms.Socially, New Jersey is considered one of the more liberal states in the nation. Polls indicate that 60% of the population are self-described as pro-choice, although a majority are opposed to late trimester and intact dilation and extraction and public funding of abortion. In a 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll, a plurality supported same-sex marriage 49% to 43% opposed, On October 18, 2013, the New Jersey Supreme Court rendered a provisional, unanimous (7–0) order authorizing same-sex marriage in the state, pending a legal appeal by Governor Chris Christie, who then withdrew this appeal hours after the inaugural same-sex marriages took place on October 21, 2013.New Jersey also has some of the most stringent gun control laws in the U.S. These include bans on assault firearms, hollow-nose bullets and slingshots. No gun offense in New Jersey is graded less than a felony. BB guns and black-powder guns are all treated as modern firearms. New Jersey does not recognize out-of-state gun licenses and aggressively enforces its own gun laws.In past elections, New Jersey was a Republican bastion, but recently has become a Democratic stronghold. Currently, New Jersey Democrats have majority control of both houses of the New Jersey Legislature (Senate, 26–14, and Assembly, 54–26), a 10–2 split of the state's twelve seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, and both U.S. Senate seats. Although the Democratic Party is very successful statewide, the state has had Republican governors; from 1994 to 2002, Christine Todd Whitman won twice with 47% and 49% of the votes, respectively, and in the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie defeated incumbent Democrat Jon Corzine with 48% of the vote. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Christie won reelection with over 60% of the votes. Because each candidate for lieutenant governor runs on the same ticket as the party's candidate for governor, the current governor and lieutenant governor are members of the Democratic Party. The governor's appointments to cabinet and non-cabinet positions may be from either party; for instance, the attorney general is a Democrat.In federal elections, the state leans heavily towards the Democratic Party. For many years in the past, however, it was a Republican stronghold, having given comfortable margins of victory to the Republican candidate in the close elections of 1948, 1968, and 1976. New Jersey was a crucial swing state in the elections of 1960, 1968, and 1992. The last elected Republican to hold a Senate seat from New Jersey was Clifford P. Case in 1979. Newark Mayor Cory Booker was elected in October 2013 to join Robert Menendez to make New Jersey the first state with concurrent serving black and Latino U.S. senators.The state's Democratic strongholds include Camden County, Essex County (typically the state's most Democratic county—it includes Newark, the state's largest city), Hudson County (the second-strongest Democratic county, including Jersey City, the state's second-largest city); Mercer County (especially around Trenton and Princeton), Middlesex County, and Union County (including Elizabeth, the state's fourth-largest city).The suburban northwestern and southeastern counties of the state are reliably Republican: Republicans have support along the coast in Ocean County and in the mountainous northwestern part of the state, especially Morris County, Sussex County, and Warren County. Other suburban counties, especially Bergen County and Burlington County had the majority of votes go to the Democratic Party. In the 2008 election, President Barack Obama won New Jersey with approximately fifty-seven percent of the vote, compared to McCain's forty-one percent. Independent candidate Ralph Nader garnered less than one percent of the vote.About one-third of the state's counties are considered "swing" counties, but some go more one way than others. For example, Salem County, the same is true with Passaic County, with a highly populated Hispanic Democratic south (including Paterson, the state's third-largest city) and a rural, Republican north; with the "swing" township of Wayne in the middle. Other "swing" counties like Monmouth County, Somerset County, and Cape May County tend to go Republican, as they also have population in conservative areas, although Somerset has recently trended Democratic.To be eligible to vote in a U.S. election, all New Jerseyans are required to start their residency in the state 30 days prior to an election and register 21 days prior to election day.On December 17, 2007, Governor Jon Corzine signed into law a bill that would eliminate the death penalty in New Jersey. New Jersey is the first state to pass such legislation since Iowa and West Virginia eliminated executions in 1965. Corzine also signed a bill that would downgrade the Death Row prisoners' sentences from "Death" to "Life in Prison with No Parole".There is also a mineral museum Ogdensburg in Sussex County.Visitors and residents take advantage of and contribute to performances at the numerous music, theater, and dance companies and venues located throughout the state, including:New Jersey is the location of most of the boardwalks in the U.S., with nearly every town and city along the Jersey Shore area each having a boardwalk with various attractions, entertainment, shopping, dining, miniature golf, arcades, water parks with various water rides, including water slides, lazy rivers, wave pools, etc., and amusement parks hosting rides and attractions including roller coasters, carousels, Ferris wheels, bumper cars, teacups, etc.
|
[
"William Livingston",
"A. Harry Moore",
"Rodman McCamley Price",
"Charles Creighton Stratton",
"Leon Rutherford Taylor",
"Jon Corzine",
"George C. Ludlow",
"Donald DiFrancesco",
"Clarence Edwards Case",
"Charles Edison",
"Leon Abbett",
"Marcus Lawrence Ward Sr.",
"David Ogden Watkins",
"Brendan Byrne",
"Richard Joseph Hughes",
"Samuel L. Southard",
"Horace Griggs Prall",
"Chris Christie",
"Peter Dumont Vroom",
"Elias P. Seeley",
"Joseph Bloomfield",
"Woodrow Wilson",
"Thomas Henderson",
"Aaron Ogden",
"Morgan Foster Larson",
"Clifford Ross Powell",
"Jim McGreevey",
"Theodore Fitz Randolph",
"James Fairman Fielder",
"Joseph D. Bedle",
"Foster McGowan Voorhees",
"Robert Stockton Green",
"George Brinton McClellan",
"Mahlon Dickerson",
"Franklin Murphy",
"William Nelson Runyon",
"George Sebastian Silzer",
"Harold Giles Hoffman",
"Joel Parker",
"Edward Irving Edwards",
"Edward C. Stokes",
"William Thomas Cahill",
"Thomas Kean",
"John Orus Bennett III",
"Walter Evans Edge",
"Alfred Eastlack Driscoll",
"Charles Smith Olden",
"Christine Todd Whitman",
"James Florio",
"John W. Griggs",
"John Lambert",
"Isaac Halstead Williamson",
"Robert Baumle Meyner",
"William Pennington",
"George Franklin Fort",
"William A. Newell",
"Phil Murphy",
"George Theodore Werts",
"William Paterson",
"John Franklin Fort",
"Richard Codey",
"Philemon Dickerson"
] |
|
Which political party did Santi Vila i Vicente belong to in Aug, 2016?
|
August 31, 2016
|
{
"text": [
"Catalan European Democratic Party"
]
}
|
L2_Q15731273_P102_2
|
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Republican Left of Catalonia from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1995.
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Democratic Convergence of Catalonia from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2016.
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Catalan European Democratic Party from Jan, 2016 to Jun, 2018.
|
Santi VilaSantiago "Santi" Vila i Vicente (born 15 March 1973) is a Catalan historian and politician from Granollers, Spain. He was a member of the Catalan European Democratic Party, and was a councillor at Figueres from 1999 before becoming mayor from 2007 to 2012.On 2 November 2017 members of the Generalitat de Catalunya were arrested for sedition, unlike the others Vila was offered bail of €50,000 as he had resigned before the Catalan unilateral declaration of independence. He was pre-trial jailed just a night. The trial began on 12 February 2019 and was remitted to decision on 12 June 2019.On 14 October 2019, Vila was sentenced to a year and 8 months of disqualification and a fine of €60.000 for disobedience.
|
[
"Republican Left of Catalonia",
"Democratic Convergence of Catalonia"
] |
|
Which political party did Santi Vila i Vicente belong to in 2016-08-31?
|
August 31, 2016
|
{
"text": [
"Catalan European Democratic Party"
]
}
|
L2_Q15731273_P102_2
|
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Republican Left of Catalonia from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1995.
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Democratic Convergence of Catalonia from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2016.
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Catalan European Democratic Party from Jan, 2016 to Jun, 2018.
|
Santi VilaSantiago "Santi" Vila i Vicente (born 15 March 1973) is a Catalan historian and politician from Granollers, Spain. He was a member of the Catalan European Democratic Party, and was a councillor at Figueres from 1999 before becoming mayor from 2007 to 2012.On 2 November 2017 members of the Generalitat de Catalunya were arrested for sedition, unlike the others Vila was offered bail of €50,000 as he had resigned before the Catalan unilateral declaration of independence. He was pre-trial jailed just a night. The trial began on 12 February 2019 and was remitted to decision on 12 June 2019.On 14 October 2019, Vila was sentenced to a year and 8 months of disqualification and a fine of €60.000 for disobedience.
|
[
"Republican Left of Catalonia",
"Democratic Convergence of Catalonia"
] |
|
Which political party did Santi Vila i Vicente belong to in 31/08/2016?
|
August 31, 2016
|
{
"text": [
"Catalan European Democratic Party"
]
}
|
L2_Q15731273_P102_2
|
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Republican Left of Catalonia from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1995.
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Democratic Convergence of Catalonia from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2016.
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Catalan European Democratic Party from Jan, 2016 to Jun, 2018.
|
Santi VilaSantiago "Santi" Vila i Vicente (born 15 March 1973) is a Catalan historian and politician from Granollers, Spain. He was a member of the Catalan European Democratic Party, and was a councillor at Figueres from 1999 before becoming mayor from 2007 to 2012.On 2 November 2017 members of the Generalitat de Catalunya were arrested for sedition, unlike the others Vila was offered bail of €50,000 as he had resigned before the Catalan unilateral declaration of independence. He was pre-trial jailed just a night. The trial began on 12 February 2019 and was remitted to decision on 12 June 2019.On 14 October 2019, Vila was sentenced to a year and 8 months of disqualification and a fine of €60.000 for disobedience.
|
[
"Republican Left of Catalonia",
"Democratic Convergence of Catalonia"
] |
|
Which political party did Santi Vila i Vicente belong to in Aug 31, 2016?
|
August 31, 2016
|
{
"text": [
"Catalan European Democratic Party"
]
}
|
L2_Q15731273_P102_2
|
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Republican Left of Catalonia from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1995.
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Democratic Convergence of Catalonia from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2016.
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Catalan European Democratic Party from Jan, 2016 to Jun, 2018.
|
Santi VilaSantiago "Santi" Vila i Vicente (born 15 March 1973) is a Catalan historian and politician from Granollers, Spain. He was a member of the Catalan European Democratic Party, and was a councillor at Figueres from 1999 before becoming mayor from 2007 to 2012.On 2 November 2017 members of the Generalitat de Catalunya were arrested for sedition, unlike the others Vila was offered bail of €50,000 as he had resigned before the Catalan unilateral declaration of independence. He was pre-trial jailed just a night. The trial began on 12 February 2019 and was remitted to decision on 12 June 2019.On 14 October 2019, Vila was sentenced to a year and 8 months of disqualification and a fine of €60.000 for disobedience.
|
[
"Republican Left of Catalonia",
"Democratic Convergence of Catalonia"
] |
|
Which political party did Santi Vila i Vicente belong to in 08/31/2016?
|
August 31, 2016
|
{
"text": [
"Catalan European Democratic Party"
]
}
|
L2_Q15731273_P102_2
|
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Republican Left of Catalonia from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1995.
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Democratic Convergence of Catalonia from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2016.
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Catalan European Democratic Party from Jan, 2016 to Jun, 2018.
|
Santi VilaSantiago "Santi" Vila i Vicente (born 15 March 1973) is a Catalan historian and politician from Granollers, Spain. He was a member of the Catalan European Democratic Party, and was a councillor at Figueres from 1999 before becoming mayor from 2007 to 2012.On 2 November 2017 members of the Generalitat de Catalunya were arrested for sedition, unlike the others Vila was offered bail of €50,000 as he had resigned before the Catalan unilateral declaration of independence. He was pre-trial jailed just a night. The trial began on 12 February 2019 and was remitted to decision on 12 June 2019.On 14 October 2019, Vila was sentenced to a year and 8 months of disqualification and a fine of €60.000 for disobedience.
|
[
"Republican Left of Catalonia",
"Democratic Convergence of Catalonia"
] |
|
Which political party did Santi Vila i Vicente belong to in 31-Aug-201631-August-2016?
|
August 31, 2016
|
{
"text": [
"Catalan European Democratic Party"
]
}
|
L2_Q15731273_P102_2
|
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Republican Left of Catalonia from Jan, 1991 to Jan, 1995.
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Democratic Convergence of Catalonia from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2016.
Santi Vila i Vicente is a member of the Catalan European Democratic Party from Jan, 2016 to Jun, 2018.
|
Santi VilaSantiago "Santi" Vila i Vicente (born 15 March 1973) is a Catalan historian and politician from Granollers, Spain. He was a member of the Catalan European Democratic Party, and was a councillor at Figueres from 1999 before becoming mayor from 2007 to 2012.On 2 November 2017 members of the Generalitat de Catalunya were arrested for sedition, unlike the others Vila was offered bail of €50,000 as he had resigned before the Catalan unilateral declaration of independence. He was pre-trial jailed just a night. The trial began on 12 February 2019 and was remitted to decision on 12 June 2019.On 14 October 2019, Vila was sentenced to a year and 8 months of disqualification and a fine of €60.000 for disobedience.
|
[
"Republican Left of Catalonia",
"Democratic Convergence of Catalonia"
] |
|
Which position did Joseph Melville Broughton hold in Mar, 1927?
|
March 20, 1927
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the North Carolina Senate"
]
}
|
L2_Q882553_P39_0
|
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of United States senator from Jan, 1949 to Mar, 1949.
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of Member of the North Carolina Senate from Jan, 1927 to Jan, 1929.
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of Governor of North Carolina from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1945.
|
J. Melville BroughtonJoseph Melville Broughton Jr. (November 17, 1888March 6, 1949) was the 60th Governor of North Carolina from 1941 to 1945. He later briefly served as a United States Senator from January 3, 1949 until his death in office approximately two months later.Broughton was born on November 17, 1888 in Raleigh, North Carolina. He graduated from Wake Forest College, where he also played football, in 1910. Broughton attended Harvard Law School then worked as a school principal and journalist before actively entering the legal profession.He served in the North Carolina Senate from 1927 to 1929. He later served one term as governor from 1941 to 1945. One of his major legacies was the extension of the public school term from six to nine months.Broughton was among twelve nominated at the 1944 Democratic National Convention to serve as Franklin D. Roosevelt's running mate in the presidential election that year. In 1948, Broughton was elected to the United States Senate, after defeating William B. Umstead, an appointed incumbent, in the Democratic primary. In November, Broughton won both a special election to complete the Senate term and an election for a full term. He took office on December 31, 1948, but his service in the Senate was brief.Appearing healthy, Broughton suddenly collapsed from a heart attack and died in Washington D.C. on March 6, 1949. Governor W. Kerr Scott appointed Frank Porter Graham to fill his vacant office until the next election.Joseph Melville Broughton, Jr. was the son of Joseph Melville Broughton and Sallie Harris. He married Alice Willson in 1916, they had four children. He was the nephew of Needham B. Broughton and a first cousin of Carrie Lougee Broughton. Broughton and his wife lived in the Jolly-Broughton House, a Georgian Revival mansion located in Raleigh's Hayes Barton Historic District, before and after living in the North Carolina Executive Mansion. He was interred at Montlawn Memorial Park in Raleigh.In 1959, the State Hospital at Morganton for psychiatric patients was renamed Broughton Hospital in his memory. In addition, Broughton Hall at North Carolina State University was named in his honor.He was a member of Civitan International. at Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
|
[
"United States senator",
"Governor of North Carolina"
] |
|
Which position did Joseph Melville Broughton hold in 1927-03-20?
|
March 20, 1927
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the North Carolina Senate"
]
}
|
L2_Q882553_P39_0
|
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of United States senator from Jan, 1949 to Mar, 1949.
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of Member of the North Carolina Senate from Jan, 1927 to Jan, 1929.
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of Governor of North Carolina from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1945.
|
J. Melville BroughtonJoseph Melville Broughton Jr. (November 17, 1888March 6, 1949) was the 60th Governor of North Carolina from 1941 to 1945. He later briefly served as a United States Senator from January 3, 1949 until his death in office approximately two months later.Broughton was born on November 17, 1888 in Raleigh, North Carolina. He graduated from Wake Forest College, where he also played football, in 1910. Broughton attended Harvard Law School then worked as a school principal and journalist before actively entering the legal profession.He served in the North Carolina Senate from 1927 to 1929. He later served one term as governor from 1941 to 1945. One of his major legacies was the extension of the public school term from six to nine months.Broughton was among twelve nominated at the 1944 Democratic National Convention to serve as Franklin D. Roosevelt's running mate in the presidential election that year. In 1948, Broughton was elected to the United States Senate, after defeating William B. Umstead, an appointed incumbent, in the Democratic primary. In November, Broughton won both a special election to complete the Senate term and an election for a full term. He took office on December 31, 1948, but his service in the Senate was brief.Appearing healthy, Broughton suddenly collapsed from a heart attack and died in Washington D.C. on March 6, 1949. Governor W. Kerr Scott appointed Frank Porter Graham to fill his vacant office until the next election.Joseph Melville Broughton, Jr. was the son of Joseph Melville Broughton and Sallie Harris. He married Alice Willson in 1916, they had four children. He was the nephew of Needham B. Broughton and a first cousin of Carrie Lougee Broughton. Broughton and his wife lived in the Jolly-Broughton House, a Georgian Revival mansion located in Raleigh's Hayes Barton Historic District, before and after living in the North Carolina Executive Mansion. He was interred at Montlawn Memorial Park in Raleigh.In 1959, the State Hospital at Morganton for psychiatric patients was renamed Broughton Hospital in his memory. In addition, Broughton Hall at North Carolina State University was named in his honor.He was a member of Civitan International. at Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
|
[
"United States senator",
"Governor of North Carolina"
] |
|
Which position did Joseph Melville Broughton hold in 20/03/1927?
|
March 20, 1927
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the North Carolina Senate"
]
}
|
L2_Q882553_P39_0
|
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of United States senator from Jan, 1949 to Mar, 1949.
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of Member of the North Carolina Senate from Jan, 1927 to Jan, 1929.
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of Governor of North Carolina from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1945.
|
J. Melville BroughtonJoseph Melville Broughton Jr. (November 17, 1888March 6, 1949) was the 60th Governor of North Carolina from 1941 to 1945. He later briefly served as a United States Senator from January 3, 1949 until his death in office approximately two months later.Broughton was born on November 17, 1888 in Raleigh, North Carolina. He graduated from Wake Forest College, where he also played football, in 1910. Broughton attended Harvard Law School then worked as a school principal and journalist before actively entering the legal profession.He served in the North Carolina Senate from 1927 to 1929. He later served one term as governor from 1941 to 1945. One of his major legacies was the extension of the public school term from six to nine months.Broughton was among twelve nominated at the 1944 Democratic National Convention to serve as Franklin D. Roosevelt's running mate in the presidential election that year. In 1948, Broughton was elected to the United States Senate, after defeating William B. Umstead, an appointed incumbent, in the Democratic primary. In November, Broughton won both a special election to complete the Senate term and an election for a full term. He took office on December 31, 1948, but his service in the Senate was brief.Appearing healthy, Broughton suddenly collapsed from a heart attack and died in Washington D.C. on March 6, 1949. Governor W. Kerr Scott appointed Frank Porter Graham to fill his vacant office until the next election.Joseph Melville Broughton, Jr. was the son of Joseph Melville Broughton and Sallie Harris. He married Alice Willson in 1916, they had four children. He was the nephew of Needham B. Broughton and a first cousin of Carrie Lougee Broughton. Broughton and his wife lived in the Jolly-Broughton House, a Georgian Revival mansion located in Raleigh's Hayes Barton Historic District, before and after living in the North Carolina Executive Mansion. He was interred at Montlawn Memorial Park in Raleigh.In 1959, the State Hospital at Morganton for psychiatric patients was renamed Broughton Hospital in his memory. In addition, Broughton Hall at North Carolina State University was named in his honor.He was a member of Civitan International. at Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
|
[
"United States senator",
"Governor of North Carolina"
] |
|
Which position did Joseph Melville Broughton hold in Mar 20, 1927?
|
March 20, 1927
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the North Carolina Senate"
]
}
|
L2_Q882553_P39_0
|
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of United States senator from Jan, 1949 to Mar, 1949.
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of Member of the North Carolina Senate from Jan, 1927 to Jan, 1929.
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of Governor of North Carolina from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1945.
|
J. Melville BroughtonJoseph Melville Broughton Jr. (November 17, 1888March 6, 1949) was the 60th Governor of North Carolina from 1941 to 1945. He later briefly served as a United States Senator from January 3, 1949 until his death in office approximately two months later.Broughton was born on November 17, 1888 in Raleigh, North Carolina. He graduated from Wake Forest College, where he also played football, in 1910. Broughton attended Harvard Law School then worked as a school principal and journalist before actively entering the legal profession.He served in the North Carolina Senate from 1927 to 1929. He later served one term as governor from 1941 to 1945. One of his major legacies was the extension of the public school term from six to nine months.Broughton was among twelve nominated at the 1944 Democratic National Convention to serve as Franklin D. Roosevelt's running mate in the presidential election that year. In 1948, Broughton was elected to the United States Senate, after defeating William B. Umstead, an appointed incumbent, in the Democratic primary. In November, Broughton won both a special election to complete the Senate term and an election for a full term. He took office on December 31, 1948, but his service in the Senate was brief.Appearing healthy, Broughton suddenly collapsed from a heart attack and died in Washington D.C. on March 6, 1949. Governor W. Kerr Scott appointed Frank Porter Graham to fill his vacant office until the next election.Joseph Melville Broughton, Jr. was the son of Joseph Melville Broughton and Sallie Harris. He married Alice Willson in 1916, they had four children. He was the nephew of Needham B. Broughton and a first cousin of Carrie Lougee Broughton. Broughton and his wife lived in the Jolly-Broughton House, a Georgian Revival mansion located in Raleigh's Hayes Barton Historic District, before and after living in the North Carolina Executive Mansion. He was interred at Montlawn Memorial Park in Raleigh.In 1959, the State Hospital at Morganton for psychiatric patients was renamed Broughton Hospital in his memory. In addition, Broughton Hall at North Carolina State University was named in his honor.He was a member of Civitan International. at Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
|
[
"United States senator",
"Governor of North Carolina"
] |
|
Which position did Joseph Melville Broughton hold in 03/20/1927?
|
March 20, 1927
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the North Carolina Senate"
]
}
|
L2_Q882553_P39_0
|
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of United States senator from Jan, 1949 to Mar, 1949.
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of Member of the North Carolina Senate from Jan, 1927 to Jan, 1929.
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of Governor of North Carolina from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1945.
|
J. Melville BroughtonJoseph Melville Broughton Jr. (November 17, 1888March 6, 1949) was the 60th Governor of North Carolina from 1941 to 1945. He later briefly served as a United States Senator from January 3, 1949 until his death in office approximately two months later.Broughton was born on November 17, 1888 in Raleigh, North Carolina. He graduated from Wake Forest College, where he also played football, in 1910. Broughton attended Harvard Law School then worked as a school principal and journalist before actively entering the legal profession.He served in the North Carolina Senate from 1927 to 1929. He later served one term as governor from 1941 to 1945. One of his major legacies was the extension of the public school term from six to nine months.Broughton was among twelve nominated at the 1944 Democratic National Convention to serve as Franklin D. Roosevelt's running mate in the presidential election that year. In 1948, Broughton was elected to the United States Senate, after defeating William B. Umstead, an appointed incumbent, in the Democratic primary. In November, Broughton won both a special election to complete the Senate term and an election for a full term. He took office on December 31, 1948, but his service in the Senate was brief.Appearing healthy, Broughton suddenly collapsed from a heart attack and died in Washington D.C. on March 6, 1949. Governor W. Kerr Scott appointed Frank Porter Graham to fill his vacant office until the next election.Joseph Melville Broughton, Jr. was the son of Joseph Melville Broughton and Sallie Harris. He married Alice Willson in 1916, they had four children. He was the nephew of Needham B. Broughton and a first cousin of Carrie Lougee Broughton. Broughton and his wife lived in the Jolly-Broughton House, a Georgian Revival mansion located in Raleigh's Hayes Barton Historic District, before and after living in the North Carolina Executive Mansion. He was interred at Montlawn Memorial Park in Raleigh.In 1959, the State Hospital at Morganton for psychiatric patients was renamed Broughton Hospital in his memory. In addition, Broughton Hall at North Carolina State University was named in his honor.He was a member of Civitan International. at Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
|
[
"United States senator",
"Governor of North Carolina"
] |
|
Which position did Joseph Melville Broughton hold in 20-Mar-192720-March-1927?
|
March 20, 1927
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the North Carolina Senate"
]
}
|
L2_Q882553_P39_0
|
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of United States senator from Jan, 1949 to Mar, 1949.
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of Member of the North Carolina Senate from Jan, 1927 to Jan, 1929.
Joseph Melville Broughton holds the position of Governor of North Carolina from Jan, 1941 to Jan, 1945.
|
J. Melville BroughtonJoseph Melville Broughton Jr. (November 17, 1888March 6, 1949) was the 60th Governor of North Carolina from 1941 to 1945. He later briefly served as a United States Senator from January 3, 1949 until his death in office approximately two months later.Broughton was born on November 17, 1888 in Raleigh, North Carolina. He graduated from Wake Forest College, where he also played football, in 1910. Broughton attended Harvard Law School then worked as a school principal and journalist before actively entering the legal profession.He served in the North Carolina Senate from 1927 to 1929. He later served one term as governor from 1941 to 1945. One of his major legacies was the extension of the public school term from six to nine months.Broughton was among twelve nominated at the 1944 Democratic National Convention to serve as Franklin D. Roosevelt's running mate in the presidential election that year. In 1948, Broughton was elected to the United States Senate, after defeating William B. Umstead, an appointed incumbent, in the Democratic primary. In November, Broughton won both a special election to complete the Senate term and an election for a full term. He took office on December 31, 1948, but his service in the Senate was brief.Appearing healthy, Broughton suddenly collapsed from a heart attack and died in Washington D.C. on March 6, 1949. Governor W. Kerr Scott appointed Frank Porter Graham to fill his vacant office until the next election.Joseph Melville Broughton, Jr. was the son of Joseph Melville Broughton and Sallie Harris. He married Alice Willson in 1916, they had four children. He was the nephew of Needham B. Broughton and a first cousin of Carrie Lougee Broughton. Broughton and his wife lived in the Jolly-Broughton House, a Georgian Revival mansion located in Raleigh's Hayes Barton Historic District, before and after living in the North Carolina Executive Mansion. He was interred at Montlawn Memorial Park in Raleigh.In 1959, the State Hospital at Morganton for psychiatric patients was renamed Broughton Hospital in his memory. In addition, Broughton Hall at North Carolina State University was named in his honor.He was a member of Civitan International. at Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
|
[
"United States senator",
"Governor of North Carolina"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Catalan Unity in Nov, 2009?
|
November 14, 2009
|
{
"text": [
"Jaume Roure"
]
}
|
L2_Q922179_P488_3
|
Jaume Roure is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2013.
Andreu Barrere is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 1986 to Jan, 1989.
Llorenç Planes is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 2001.
Brice Lafontaine is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2016.
Jaume Pol is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2003.
|
Catalan UnityCatalan Unity (, ) is a regionalist party based in southern France. It represents the Catalan minority in Northern Catalonia.The party supports Northern Catalonia getting its own autonomous region in France.
|
[
"Llorenç Planes",
"Jaume Pol",
"Andreu Barrere",
"Brice Lafontaine"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Catalan Unity in 2009-11-14?
|
November 14, 2009
|
{
"text": [
"Jaume Roure"
]
}
|
L2_Q922179_P488_3
|
Jaume Roure is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2013.
Andreu Barrere is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 1986 to Jan, 1989.
Llorenç Planes is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 2001.
Brice Lafontaine is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2016.
Jaume Pol is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2003.
|
Catalan UnityCatalan Unity (, ) is a regionalist party based in southern France. It represents the Catalan minority in Northern Catalonia.The party supports Northern Catalonia getting its own autonomous region in France.
|
[
"Llorenç Planes",
"Jaume Pol",
"Andreu Barrere",
"Brice Lafontaine"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Catalan Unity in 14/11/2009?
|
November 14, 2009
|
{
"text": [
"Jaume Roure"
]
}
|
L2_Q922179_P488_3
|
Jaume Roure is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2013.
Andreu Barrere is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 1986 to Jan, 1989.
Llorenç Planes is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 2001.
Brice Lafontaine is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2016.
Jaume Pol is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2003.
|
Catalan UnityCatalan Unity (, ) is a regionalist party based in southern France. It represents the Catalan minority in Northern Catalonia.The party supports Northern Catalonia getting its own autonomous region in France.
|
[
"Llorenç Planes",
"Jaume Pol",
"Andreu Barrere",
"Brice Lafontaine"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Catalan Unity in Nov 14, 2009?
|
November 14, 2009
|
{
"text": [
"Jaume Roure"
]
}
|
L2_Q922179_P488_3
|
Jaume Roure is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2013.
Andreu Barrere is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 1986 to Jan, 1989.
Llorenç Planes is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 2001.
Brice Lafontaine is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2016.
Jaume Pol is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2003.
|
Catalan UnityCatalan Unity (, ) is a regionalist party based in southern France. It represents the Catalan minority in Northern Catalonia.The party supports Northern Catalonia getting its own autonomous region in France.
|
[
"Llorenç Planes",
"Jaume Pol",
"Andreu Barrere",
"Brice Lafontaine"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Catalan Unity in 11/14/2009?
|
November 14, 2009
|
{
"text": [
"Jaume Roure"
]
}
|
L2_Q922179_P488_3
|
Jaume Roure is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2013.
Andreu Barrere is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 1986 to Jan, 1989.
Llorenç Planes is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 2001.
Brice Lafontaine is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2016.
Jaume Pol is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2003.
|
Catalan UnityCatalan Unity (, ) is a regionalist party based in southern France. It represents the Catalan minority in Northern Catalonia.The party supports Northern Catalonia getting its own autonomous region in France.
|
[
"Llorenç Planes",
"Jaume Pol",
"Andreu Barrere",
"Brice Lafontaine"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Catalan Unity in 14-Nov-200914-November-2009?
|
November 14, 2009
|
{
"text": [
"Jaume Roure"
]
}
|
L2_Q922179_P488_3
|
Jaume Roure is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2013.
Andreu Barrere is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 1986 to Jan, 1989.
Llorenç Planes is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 1989 to Jan, 2001.
Brice Lafontaine is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2016.
Jaume Pol is the chair of Catalan Unity from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2003.
|
Catalan UnityCatalan Unity (, ) is a regionalist party based in southern France. It represents the Catalan minority in Northern Catalonia.The party supports Northern Catalonia getting its own autonomous region in France.
|
[
"Llorenç Planes",
"Jaume Pol",
"Andreu Barrere",
"Brice Lafontaine"
] |
|
Which team did Malcom Edjouma play for in Nov, 2022?
|
November 29, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"FC Steaua București"
]
}
|
L2_Q56255430_P54_9
|
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Viitorul Constanța from Jan, 2020 to Aug, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Botoșani from Feb, 2021 to Feb, 2022.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Steaua București from Feb, 2022 to Dec, 2022.
Malcom Edjouma plays for ASM Belfort from Jul, 2016 to Jun, 2017.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Chambly from Jul, 2019 to Jan, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for Red Star F.C. from Jan, 2019 to Jun, 2019.
Malcom Edjouma plays for F.C. Lorient from Jan, 2018 to Jan, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for LB Châteauroux from Jul, 2014 to Jul, 2016.
Malcom Edjouma plays for Balma SC from Jan, 2013 to Jun, 2014.
Malcom Edjouma plays for US Concarneau from Jan, 2018 to Jun, 2018.
|
Malcom EdjoumaMalcom Sylas Edjouma Laouari (born 8 October 1996) is a French professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for FC Botoșani.Edjouma began his youth career with the youth academies of PSG and Toulouse.On 29 July 2018, Edjouma transferred to FC Lorient, and was loaned back to US Concarneau for the remainder of the season. Edjouma made his professional debut with Lorient in a 0–0 Ligue 2 tie with Le Havre AC on 28 July 2018.On 10 January 2019, Edjouma was loaned out to fellow second tier club Red Star F.C. for the remainder of the season.On 16 July 2019, Edjouma was loaned out to Ligue 2 side Chambly.On 23 January 2020, Edjouma signed a two-and-a-half-year contract with Romanian club Viitorul Constanța.Edjouma was born in France to a Cameroonian father, and a Moroccan mother.[[Category:Liga I players]][[Category:Ligue 2 players]][[Category:Championnat National players]][[Category:Championnat National 3 players]][[Category:Expatriate footballers in Romania]][[Category:French expatriate sportspeople in Romania]]
|
[
"Balma SC",
"FC Botoșani",
"Red Star F.C.",
"ASM Belfort",
"US Concarneau",
"F.C. Lorient",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Chambly",
"LB Châteauroux"
] |
|
Which team did Malcom Edjouma play for in 2022-11-29?
|
November 29, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"FC Steaua București"
]
}
|
L2_Q56255430_P54_9
|
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Viitorul Constanța from Jan, 2020 to Aug, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Botoșani from Feb, 2021 to Feb, 2022.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Steaua București from Feb, 2022 to Dec, 2022.
Malcom Edjouma plays for ASM Belfort from Jul, 2016 to Jun, 2017.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Chambly from Jul, 2019 to Jan, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for Red Star F.C. from Jan, 2019 to Jun, 2019.
Malcom Edjouma plays for F.C. Lorient from Jan, 2018 to Jan, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for LB Châteauroux from Jul, 2014 to Jul, 2016.
Malcom Edjouma plays for Balma SC from Jan, 2013 to Jun, 2014.
Malcom Edjouma plays for US Concarneau from Jan, 2018 to Jun, 2018.
|
Malcom EdjoumaMalcom Sylas Edjouma Laouari (born 8 October 1996) is a French professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for FC Botoșani.Edjouma began his youth career with the youth academies of PSG and Toulouse.On 29 July 2018, Edjouma transferred to FC Lorient, and was loaned back to US Concarneau for the remainder of the season. Edjouma made his professional debut with Lorient in a 0–0 Ligue 2 tie with Le Havre AC on 28 July 2018.On 10 January 2019, Edjouma was loaned out to fellow second tier club Red Star F.C. for the remainder of the season.On 16 July 2019, Edjouma was loaned out to Ligue 2 side Chambly.On 23 January 2020, Edjouma signed a two-and-a-half-year contract with Romanian club Viitorul Constanța.Edjouma was born in France to a Cameroonian father, and a Moroccan mother.[[Category:Liga I players]][[Category:Ligue 2 players]][[Category:Championnat National players]][[Category:Championnat National 3 players]][[Category:Expatriate footballers in Romania]][[Category:French expatriate sportspeople in Romania]]
|
[
"Balma SC",
"FC Botoșani",
"Red Star F.C.",
"ASM Belfort",
"US Concarneau",
"F.C. Lorient",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Chambly",
"LB Châteauroux"
] |
|
Which team did Malcom Edjouma play for in 29/11/2022?
|
November 29, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"FC Steaua București"
]
}
|
L2_Q56255430_P54_9
|
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Viitorul Constanța from Jan, 2020 to Aug, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Botoșani from Feb, 2021 to Feb, 2022.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Steaua București from Feb, 2022 to Dec, 2022.
Malcom Edjouma plays for ASM Belfort from Jul, 2016 to Jun, 2017.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Chambly from Jul, 2019 to Jan, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for Red Star F.C. from Jan, 2019 to Jun, 2019.
Malcom Edjouma plays for F.C. Lorient from Jan, 2018 to Jan, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for LB Châteauroux from Jul, 2014 to Jul, 2016.
Malcom Edjouma plays for Balma SC from Jan, 2013 to Jun, 2014.
Malcom Edjouma plays for US Concarneau from Jan, 2018 to Jun, 2018.
|
Malcom EdjoumaMalcom Sylas Edjouma Laouari (born 8 October 1996) is a French professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for FC Botoșani.Edjouma began his youth career with the youth academies of PSG and Toulouse.On 29 July 2018, Edjouma transferred to FC Lorient, and was loaned back to US Concarneau for the remainder of the season. Edjouma made his professional debut with Lorient in a 0–0 Ligue 2 tie with Le Havre AC on 28 July 2018.On 10 January 2019, Edjouma was loaned out to fellow second tier club Red Star F.C. for the remainder of the season.On 16 July 2019, Edjouma was loaned out to Ligue 2 side Chambly.On 23 January 2020, Edjouma signed a two-and-a-half-year contract with Romanian club Viitorul Constanța.Edjouma was born in France to a Cameroonian father, and a Moroccan mother.[[Category:Liga I players]][[Category:Ligue 2 players]][[Category:Championnat National players]][[Category:Championnat National 3 players]][[Category:Expatriate footballers in Romania]][[Category:French expatriate sportspeople in Romania]]
|
[
"Balma SC",
"FC Botoșani",
"Red Star F.C.",
"ASM Belfort",
"US Concarneau",
"F.C. Lorient",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Chambly",
"LB Châteauroux"
] |
|
Which team did Malcom Edjouma play for in Nov 29, 2022?
|
November 29, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"FC Steaua București"
]
}
|
L2_Q56255430_P54_9
|
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Viitorul Constanța from Jan, 2020 to Aug, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Botoșani from Feb, 2021 to Feb, 2022.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Steaua București from Feb, 2022 to Dec, 2022.
Malcom Edjouma plays for ASM Belfort from Jul, 2016 to Jun, 2017.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Chambly from Jul, 2019 to Jan, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for Red Star F.C. from Jan, 2019 to Jun, 2019.
Malcom Edjouma plays for F.C. Lorient from Jan, 2018 to Jan, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for LB Châteauroux from Jul, 2014 to Jul, 2016.
Malcom Edjouma plays for Balma SC from Jan, 2013 to Jun, 2014.
Malcom Edjouma plays for US Concarneau from Jan, 2018 to Jun, 2018.
|
Malcom EdjoumaMalcom Sylas Edjouma Laouari (born 8 October 1996) is a French professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for FC Botoșani.Edjouma began his youth career with the youth academies of PSG and Toulouse.On 29 July 2018, Edjouma transferred to FC Lorient, and was loaned back to US Concarneau for the remainder of the season. Edjouma made his professional debut with Lorient in a 0–0 Ligue 2 tie with Le Havre AC on 28 July 2018.On 10 January 2019, Edjouma was loaned out to fellow second tier club Red Star F.C. for the remainder of the season.On 16 July 2019, Edjouma was loaned out to Ligue 2 side Chambly.On 23 January 2020, Edjouma signed a two-and-a-half-year contract with Romanian club Viitorul Constanța.Edjouma was born in France to a Cameroonian father, and a Moroccan mother.[[Category:Liga I players]][[Category:Ligue 2 players]][[Category:Championnat National players]][[Category:Championnat National 3 players]][[Category:Expatriate footballers in Romania]][[Category:French expatriate sportspeople in Romania]]
|
[
"Balma SC",
"FC Botoșani",
"Red Star F.C.",
"ASM Belfort",
"US Concarneau",
"F.C. Lorient",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Chambly",
"LB Châteauroux"
] |
|
Which team did Malcom Edjouma play for in 11/29/2022?
|
November 29, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"FC Steaua București"
]
}
|
L2_Q56255430_P54_9
|
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Viitorul Constanța from Jan, 2020 to Aug, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Botoșani from Feb, 2021 to Feb, 2022.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Steaua București from Feb, 2022 to Dec, 2022.
Malcom Edjouma plays for ASM Belfort from Jul, 2016 to Jun, 2017.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Chambly from Jul, 2019 to Jan, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for Red Star F.C. from Jan, 2019 to Jun, 2019.
Malcom Edjouma plays for F.C. Lorient from Jan, 2018 to Jan, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for LB Châteauroux from Jul, 2014 to Jul, 2016.
Malcom Edjouma plays for Balma SC from Jan, 2013 to Jun, 2014.
Malcom Edjouma plays for US Concarneau from Jan, 2018 to Jun, 2018.
|
Malcom EdjoumaMalcom Sylas Edjouma Laouari (born 8 October 1996) is a French professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for FC Botoșani.Edjouma began his youth career with the youth academies of PSG and Toulouse.On 29 July 2018, Edjouma transferred to FC Lorient, and was loaned back to US Concarneau for the remainder of the season. Edjouma made his professional debut with Lorient in a 0–0 Ligue 2 tie with Le Havre AC on 28 July 2018.On 10 January 2019, Edjouma was loaned out to fellow second tier club Red Star F.C. for the remainder of the season.On 16 July 2019, Edjouma was loaned out to Ligue 2 side Chambly.On 23 January 2020, Edjouma signed a two-and-a-half-year contract with Romanian club Viitorul Constanța.Edjouma was born in France to a Cameroonian father, and a Moroccan mother.[[Category:Liga I players]][[Category:Ligue 2 players]][[Category:Championnat National players]][[Category:Championnat National 3 players]][[Category:Expatriate footballers in Romania]][[Category:French expatriate sportspeople in Romania]]
|
[
"Balma SC",
"FC Botoșani",
"Red Star F.C.",
"ASM Belfort",
"US Concarneau",
"F.C. Lorient",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Chambly",
"LB Châteauroux"
] |
|
Which team did Malcom Edjouma play for in 29-Nov-202229-November-2022?
|
November 29, 2022
|
{
"text": [
"FC Steaua București"
]
}
|
L2_Q56255430_P54_9
|
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Viitorul Constanța from Jan, 2020 to Aug, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Botoșani from Feb, 2021 to Feb, 2022.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Steaua București from Feb, 2022 to Dec, 2022.
Malcom Edjouma plays for ASM Belfort from Jul, 2016 to Jun, 2017.
Malcom Edjouma plays for FC Chambly from Jul, 2019 to Jan, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for Red Star F.C. from Jan, 2019 to Jun, 2019.
Malcom Edjouma plays for F.C. Lorient from Jan, 2018 to Jan, 2020.
Malcom Edjouma plays for LB Châteauroux from Jul, 2014 to Jul, 2016.
Malcom Edjouma plays for Balma SC from Jan, 2013 to Jun, 2014.
Malcom Edjouma plays for US Concarneau from Jan, 2018 to Jun, 2018.
|
Malcom EdjoumaMalcom Sylas Edjouma Laouari (born 8 October 1996) is a French professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for FC Botoșani.Edjouma began his youth career with the youth academies of PSG and Toulouse.On 29 July 2018, Edjouma transferred to FC Lorient, and was loaned back to US Concarneau for the remainder of the season. Edjouma made his professional debut with Lorient in a 0–0 Ligue 2 tie with Le Havre AC on 28 July 2018.On 10 January 2019, Edjouma was loaned out to fellow second tier club Red Star F.C. for the remainder of the season.On 16 July 2019, Edjouma was loaned out to Ligue 2 side Chambly.On 23 January 2020, Edjouma signed a two-and-a-half-year contract with Romanian club Viitorul Constanța.Edjouma was born in France to a Cameroonian father, and a Moroccan mother.[[Category:Liga I players]][[Category:Ligue 2 players]][[Category:Championnat National players]][[Category:Championnat National 3 players]][[Category:Expatriate footballers in Romania]][[Category:French expatriate sportspeople in Romania]]
|
[
"Balma SC",
"FC Botoșani",
"Red Star F.C.",
"ASM Belfort",
"US Concarneau",
"F.C. Lorient",
"FC Viitorul Constanța",
"FC Chambly",
"LB Châteauroux"
] |
|
Who was the head of Mende in Feb, 1972?
|
February 26, 1972
|
{
"text": [
"Henri Trémolet de Villers"
]
}
|
L2_Q191772_P6_1
|
Paulin Daudé-Gleize is the head of the government of Mende from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1928.
Henri Trémolet de Villers is the head of the government of Mende from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1977.
Jean-Jacques Delmas is the head of the government of Mende from Mar, 1983 to Jan, 2008.
Alain Bertrand is the head of the government of Mende from Mar, 2012 to Dec, 2022.
|
Mende, LozèreMende (, ) is a commune and prefecture of the department of Lozère and of the region of Occitanie in southern France. Its inhabitants are called the "Mendois". The city, including the first traces of dwellings date back to 200 BC, was originally named "Mimata", probably in reference to the mountains that surround it.Mende is located between Clermont-Ferrand and Montpellier, but also on the axis of Lyon–Saint-Étienne–Albi–Toulouse. The other important nearby towns are Aurillac and Saint-Flour (Cantal), Le Puy-en-Velay (Haute-Loire), Rodez, Millau (Aveyron) and Alès and Nîmes (Gard).Even though Mende remains a relatively sparsely populated city (approximately 12,000 inhabitants), it remains the most important of the Lozère Department. In addition, it is the city-centre of the unique urban area of this department.It is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mende.Mende is situated in the high valley of the Lot, in a mountainous area, in the "Pays du Gévaudan", the Rieucros stream joins to it on its right bank. The city is overlooked (on the left bank of the Lot) by and its . Access is by the . On the right bank, residential areas extend over different causses, including the "Causse d'Auge". Located on the axis of Lyon-Toulouse, the city has long been a commercial crossroads between the Auvergne, Rhone and the Languedoc.The commune is bordered by Chastel-Nouvel to the north, Badaroux to the east, Lanuéjols to the southeast, Brenoux and Saint-Bauzile to the south, Balsièges to the southwest, and Barjac and Servières to the west.Mende is one of the "gateway cities" (along with Millau, Lodève, Alès and Ganges) for the site of the Causses and Cévennes, of world heritage by UNESCO under the inscription "Les Causses and Cevennes, Mediterranean agro-pastoral cultural landscape".According to the INSEE, Mende is an urban commune without suburbs ("ville isolée" [isolated town]). It lies at the centre of an urban area composed of 15 communes, the only one in the department of Lozère.The town of Mende is built in the Lot Valley, within the area of the . The region of the Causses in Lozère is one of the four of Lozère, with the Margeride, the Aubrac and the Cévennes. The city is nestled in the middle of different Causses which form as natural barriers. However, over the 20th century, urbanisation began to extend beyond these limits.Of the Causses, is the most significant. The causse is overhung by the Cross of . A first wooden cross was planted in 1900 or 1907. It was replaced a few years later, on 8 July 1933, a Jubilee year, by a -high iron cross. Until 1945, this cross was the place of large gatherings in honour of Mendois soldiers. This cross has been illuminated since the summer of 1965. The mount also houses the chapel where Privat, the martyr of the Gévaudan, withdrew to. At its foot lies the area of Vabre where can be found the first remains of houses in the city. Opposite this is the Causse d'Auge (northeast) and the Causse du Crouzet (northwest), and the Margeride mountains beyond. To the west is Causse de Changefège, located between Mende and Barjac, which complements the borders of the city.The geology of the city of Mende is very dependent on the surrounding causses and streams that pass through them. The Mont Mimat and the Causse de Changefège are composed of limestone of the "Grands Causses", thus presenting abrupt edges. The other causses (as well as the butte de Fontanille) are composed of limestone of the "Petits Causses" (without these edges). The Lot Valley is composed of marl. The Valley, in the south of Mende, is full of blue marl, leaving one to presuppose that the marl of the town of Mende would be, in part, of the same origin. Finally, the various streams (the Rieucros) of the causses of the north of the city are lined by mica-schist.The city of Mende was built on the banks of the Lot. But the Lot is not the only presence of water in the city: Indeed, it has several sources, including those of . The most significant of them is located in the Vabre district, close to the first houses. These sources have also often been channeled and feed the underground water system of the city, visible on the surface through numerous fountains and the old wash house. The streets, such as the "Rue du Torrent", attest to the passage of water from Mont Mimat.To the north, on the other side of the Lot, the sources are much more distant, but water is present in the stream known as Rieucros.Mende is subject to an oceanic stream that comes from the Aubrac and Mediterranean and flows from the Cévennes. The department of Lozère, Mende in particular, benefit from insolation (or sunlight) similar to that of Toulouse with approximately 2,069 hours of sunshine per year. The city, away from the mountains that surround it, has a more protected climate than the highlands of Gévaudan: So, average temperatures oscillate between and . With respect to annual precipitation, data for the Lozère is between , depending on the exposure of the regions, with up to 50 days of snow per year.Between 1971 and 2000, monthly rainfall ranged from (March) and (September).In more detail, here are some statements in Mende records since 1985:Mende is located in the centre of the Lozère department and therefore centralises the roads. The city has rail and air access, but the Lot is not navigable (too shallow) as with all the rivers of the department (except for recreational canoeing, or in rare exceptions for the transport of people such as the crossing of the Tarn towards La Malène).Mende is located on the , linking Lyon and Toulouse. The road comes from Balsièges to the west and Badaroux to the east. This axis can be reached easily. Haute-Loire and Ardèche are to the east, via Langogne and Aveyron is to the west via La Canourgue-Banassac, as well as the A75 autoroute. A road doubling project is underway in the department, bypassing Mende from the north. This doubling is however a long project (1993), having had several outlines and some opposition. The project was finally abandoned in October 2012 making Lozère a department without draft dual carriageways on RN 88. Indeed, its neighbours Aveyron and Tarn continue their projects of dual carriageways between Rodez and Toulouse with all expected to be commissioned in December 2015. The work of the Rodez - Séverac section should be completed by the end of 2019. The same will be the case for Haute-Loire, which continues its road access. However, the workarounds of Mende and Langogne are budgeted. These projects in adjacent departments will reach major cities nearby to Mende (Rodez, Albi, Toulouse, Le Puy and even Lyon). Finally, the economic impact or the absence of dual carriageways in Lozere must be assessed in the medium and long term.Furthermore, a viaduct (the Rieucros Viaduct) commissioned in December 2009 will be used to ensure a first bypass of Mende. It connects the industrial area of the Causse d'Auge to the technological centre of Valcroze (and the RD 42) and also helps to relieve the traffic connecting the districts north and northwest of the city.The RN 88 deviation from Mende should be the first from Pelouse to reach up to the Causse d'Auge with an "expressway" configuration. Then it would continue on the D 806 (ex north) to the Rieucros Viaduct, and then a new section of the viaduct to the Mende exit in the hamlet of La Thébaïde (west bypass). These two sections will only be of two lanes. Subsequently, the expressway from the Causse d'Auge will be directly linked to the A 75.Another national road, the RN 106, formerly ran through the city. This name is no longer valid for the section coming from the Gard and joining Mende via Florac (it is then of the RN 88 on the stretch between Balsièges and Mende). The northern part of the road was decommissioned in 2007 and now bears the name of D 806. This stretch goes from Mende to Saint-Chély-d'Apcher (and the A75 autoroute) via Chastel-Nouvel.Secondary access is provided by the RD 42 from the northwest, which joins the RN 88 at Barjac, and by the RD 25 which, passing through the , crosses before arriving at the Valdonnez.Mende features an SNCF railway station, located on the railway line of the , between Le Monastier (the ) and La Bastide - Saint-Laurent-les-Bains (). This line, built at the very beginning of the 20th century, bears the nickname of ""ligne du toit de la France"" [the roof of France line], and Mende is the main railway station. Ten weekly links are provided by rail.The station is also the starting point of the TER connection to Clermont-Ferrand by bus, which is daily.Referred to as TUM (for "Transports Urbains Mendois") the urban transport network is exclusively equipped with buses, which run through the city and some nearby villages (Les Boulaines, Chabrits, Chabannes). Since its establishment in 2000, it has replaced the school bus service. The urban transport network is also responsible for the management of the pay car parks in the city. A part of the city centre is also exclusively pedestrian.The prefecture of the Lozère department shares with the neighbouring village of Brenoux. This airfield, located on , is thus from Clermont-Ferrand, from Montpellier and away from Lyon and Toulouse. Highlights include it being the site of the final scene of the film "La Grande Vadrouille", and also of five stages of the Tour de France (1995, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2018).Furthermore, a Mende-Paris air link was implemented in October 2007. However, the flight was departing from the aerodrome of Le Puy-en-Velay, located from Mende and reached by a shuttle. This connection was born of a desire to open up Mende to air travel, which is indeed late at this level for a prefecture, and has no direct flight to Paris unlike its neighbours Clermont-Ferrand, Rodez, Aurillac or Le Puy-en-Velay.Since the beginning of 2008, a study has been conducted by the CCI of the Lozère department, in order to discuss the possibility of the establishment of a link between the Lozerian prefecture and the regional capital, Montpellier but four years after the launch of this study, no concrete project to date has been presented.Finally, two more major airports with international influence and close to Mende are Clermont-Ferrand Aulnat and Rodez-Aveyron.In the 13th century, the city was concentrated in what is now the city centre, bounded by the boulevards, and formerly the ramparts. It was then split into five sections (or neighbourhoods) known as "pans": Auriac, Aygues-Passe, Champnau, Chastel and Claustres.When it was initially named as such, the Pan d'Auriac was mainly a place of settlement, before becoming the "quartier des pénitents blancs" [district of the white penitents] who settled there. The Pan d'Aygues-Passe (or Aigues-Passe), meaning "water that passes", owes its name to the inclination of its streets, where the water flowed during cleaning. The Pan de Champnau derives its name from "new field", and includes what was a new residential area, at north of the city. The Pan de Chastel is the old commercial district of the city. It is located towards the Chastel Gate, which led then to Chastel-Nouvel, where a castle stood which was property of the bishops. Finally the Pan des Claustres, whose name comes from cloisters, was the largest of the city and is now between the and , i.e. between the two tombs of (the chapel Saint-Ilpide on the hill of the executioner, and the crypt of Sainte-Thècle under the cathedral square).The historic city centre is bordered by boulevards which took the place of the ancient walls. In addition to housing, the centre is mostly occupied by convenience stores and artisans. Beyond the boulevards, there are other houses as well as government buildings. The General Council and the prefecture indeed share the former , but services are scattered throughout the city. "Allée Piencourt" connects downtown roads to Badaroux and Chastel-Nouvel, near the ancient diocese (pré claux and pré vival) having been built.North of the "Allée Piencourt", past the Berlière Bridge, dwellings are present at the foot of the Causse d'Auge. These were established in several instalments over the 19th and 20th centuries, the first of these being Chaldecoste. It is in this part of the city that the large and the small seminary as well as the Convent of Carmel are found. The city extends to the north in the direction of Alteyrac (commune of Chastel-Nouvel). Between these areas and Alteyrac is located the zone of economic activities (ZAE) of the Causse d'Auge. The northern districts often bear names of flowers, this part of the city that historically sheltered gardens and vineyards, along the draille linking the "Plateau du Palais du Roi" [King's Palace Plateau].The causse is bounded by two streams, the Rieucros in the east and the to the west.Above the Badaroux road, on a hill, lies the Fontanilles district. It was originally social housing. At the foot of the hill is the Lycée Notre-Dame, while beyond the district of Saint-Laurent (where one finds traces of history with the presence of a chapel and a windmill) and, later, the Gardès ZAE. In this part, to the west of Gardès, is also the village of Sirvens where traces of a Gallo-Roman villa were discovered.Stuck between Fontanille, Mont Mimat and the city centre, are districts located roadside above pré claux. In this area are located the centre of firefighters, the Château of Bellesagne and the former gendarmerie. The market is also in this area, but more to the east than the precedents cited (beyond the boulevards, however). Above it lies the Vabre district and Hill of the Executioner where the first traces of dwellings of the city were found. Also nearby is the city's prison.In the westerly direction, found the District of Le Chapitre with the sports complex and the holiday village. This area is at the foot of a portion of the Causse de Changefège, where homes are installed along the Chabrits road ("Avenue du 11-Novembre", north-west of the city). It is in this part of the city which the district of Valcroze is found (new in the 19th century), the Chabrits ZAE and technology park.The other side of the Lot, along the , is found the avenue of the Gorges du Tarn and the area of Ramille. It is in this part where retail establishments are found. The Ramille zone saw the introduction, despite some criticism about the instability of the ground, of the hypermarket of the department, as well as a commercial area.On the map are the main roads of the city. To the west, the RN 88 is joined to Balsièges, passing through the Rocher de Moïse (classified site) located at the left end. To the northwest, it is the hamlet of Chabannes, and further to Chabrits. To the south, is found, where the new cross stands which symbolically marks the top of the hill (although it continues a little higher). This road leads to the Hermitage of , at the cross of the same name and the route of Valdonnez (Lanuéjols, Brenoux, Saint-Bauzile).To the east, Fontanille district is on a hillock, circumvented by the Lot. Behind lies the district of Saint-Laurent, then the ZAE de Gardès (and the village of the same name) and the village of Sirvens. Following the RN 88, one reaches Badaroux. Finally to the north, is the area of the Chaldecoste (broken down into several districts: Bergerie, Chanteperdrix, Vignette, etc.) where one can reach the ZAE du causse d'Auge. Further to the north, one finds Chastel-Nouvel before returning to the ground of and the "Plateau du Palais du Roi". The drinking water of the city of Mende comes from this direction, because of the Lac de Charpal reservoir, which is the main source.In 2017, Mende had 6,851 residences for an official population of 12,134 people. 87% of them are primary residences and 6.1% of secondary residences, which contrasts sharply with the figure of the Lozère department amounting to a 32.3% share of secondary housing.The population has been growing for several years, and the city has acquired new quarters over the years: Chaldecoste and Chanteperdrix in the 1970s, La Bergerie in the 1990s, and Valcroze in the 2000s. The city has 17.9% of HLM-type accommodations.59% of dwellings have four rooms or more and 19% have three rooms. The city is composed of many individual homes, small and large dwellings remaining in the minority. However, one can see that between 1990 and 1999 there was an increase of 85.3% of dwellings of one or two rooms. This can partly be explained by the development of higher education, with the branch of the University of Perpignan.The region is an ancient site of settlement dating back to the Bronze Age, although the capital of the Gévaudan, the Gallic period then Gallo-Roman, was Anderitum. Found in the ancient texts are the names of "Mimate", "Mimata" (mountain), which refer to this town at the foot of "Mons Mimatensis" (). In the same spirit, another name circulating is that of "Viculus Mimatensis" (or "Vicus Mimatensis"). It is the city which gave its name to Mont Mimat ("mount of the Mendois", literally) and not vice versa.Traces of dwellings dating from 200 BC were found, ancient Roman "villae", as well as around the city. However, residents could have been be domiciled here well before. Indeed, on Mont Mimat to Chapieu, a dolmen was found around 1913 including a trepanned skull. The other surrounding plateaux also attest this presence with other dolmens (on the Causse de Changefege for example). These remains may date from the Chalcolithic period.The city, strictly speaking, dates from the Middle Ages, and it is not found cited at the end of the 6th century by Gregory of Tours in his "Histoire des Francs". This text speaks of the martyrdom of , the first bishop of the Gabali, who was the origin of a pilgrimage to the hermitage and the caves where he had retired. Mende in the 3rd century was then only a village. The history of Privat is thus situated around the 3rd century, while he was sent by Austromoine to evangelize the Gévaudan. It was during this period that the Alemanni invaded the country, guided by their leader, Chrocus.The Gabali took refuge in the fortress of Grèzes where they were under siege for two years. Their bishop, Privat, was meanwhile in one of the caves of Mont Mimat which he had converted into a hermitage. When Chrocus learned that the bishop was not among his people, he went looking for him to use as a hostage in order to get the Gabali to leave Grèzes. Privat was martyred at his cave on near the village of Mimate. Presented to the Gabali, he refused to deliver his people despite all the barbaric tortures to which he was subjected (according to Gregory of Tours:""The good shepherd refused to deliver his sheep to wolves, and they tried to force his to sacrifice to demons""). Exhausted, the Alemanni would leave the Gabali free, by promising them peace. Privat succumbed to his injuries in the following days. His act of resistance, refusing to deliver his compatriots, thus earned him great popular fervour, and it was around his tomb and his hermitage that pilgrimage began, allowing the village to grow.In the 12th century Gévaudan was part of the County of Barcelona. In Mende, the counties have a castle, the castel frag. Three other lords had their castle around the Romanesque church: That of Canilhac (who owned the archtreasurer rights of the church), that of Cabrières (who was granted rights of archdeacon) and Dolan (who administered and ruled the episcopal home during the interregnum of bishops). In 1161, Mende, who was under the suzerainty of the King of France, saw his Bishop get the royal rights. It was the golden bull, an act signed by the king and marked with a royal seal in gold, which contained the terms of this agreement. It thus gave Aldebert and his successors, in perpetuity, the Royal power and the full powers of justice on the inhabitants of the bishopric. This fact is quite rare because only four golden bulls in six centuries were granted by the Kings of France.It was from this time that the city walls were built. Aldebert wished to protect the city and secure channels that lead there. he recovered and also built the fortress of Chapieu on , and was done so that it could accommodate a garrison. This allowed the monitoring of the direct route between Mont Lozère and Villefort, in other words towards the Regordane Way, trade route.At that time, however, Mende was not provided the civil and religious capital of Gévaudan. In fact the power was always dependent of two entities: The county and Viscount of Grèzes. The Viscount, property of the King of Aragon, was recovered by the King of France in 1258. The bishop had great power as a vassal, but he didn't have the total legitimacy of some Royal officials. This situation ended from 1307 with the Act of paréage between Bishop Guillaume VI Durand and King Philip IV. Indeed, it definitively fixed the possessions of the king and those of the bishop, even if some disputes persisted.During the Hundred Years' War security increased with the strengthening of the fortifications and the construction of ditches to 1361-1362. At that time, the chapter of Mende had a castle on the heights of the city, Chastel-Nouvel. In 1370 many locals felt safe from the ramparts of the city, despite threats from the routiers. Also, few of them took refuge in Chastel-Nouvel. But the walls were insufficient, and could not prevent the pillages. This period isolated Mende from its neighbours, including Le Puy-en-Velay, and waited the arrival of the Constable of France, Bertrand du Guesclin, then the intervention of Charles VI and the liberation of the region so that the roads reopened around 1452.In 1390, was in Mende, where John III of Armagnac sought, on behalf of the King of France, to put an end to the private war that Raymond de Turenne led against the Pope from Avignon. The Gascon signed as a witness to an agreement between the legate of Clement VII, Antoine de Lisa, , and a representative of the Viscount of Turenne. This interview of Mende helped the Florentines to send ambassadors to solicit the Count of Armagnac. He was proposed to cross the Alps and attack the Count of Vertus in Lombardy.It was also at this time that blessed Pope Urban V began the work of the cathedral (1368), for a completion in 1467. By its letters patent, King Louis XI confirmed the privileges for this cathedral, granted by his predecessors, in September 1464.At the beginning of the 1470s, conflict erupted between Bishop and King Louis XI, because of the support that the bishop had given to the County of Armagnac when it had revolted. To counter it, the king subtracted La Panouse authority over the city which then became autonomous. It wasn't until 1478 that the bishops found authority over the city, sharing revenues with the consul.At the end of the Hundred Years' War, Mende developed its production of drapery, and thus increased its role as a commercial crossroads between the Languedoc and Auvergne, exporting its fame. It is estimated that in the 16th century Mende was one of the richest dioceses of Languedoc before Montpellier and Toulouse. This wealth of the diocese reinforced the ecclesiastical power. Thus among the list of the bishops of the time one can count a number from the family of the Pope. Giuliano della Rovere was ordained bishop of Mende, although he never visited in the capital of Gévaudan (practice known as commendation). His nephews, Clement and , succeeded him in this position. During his tenure, François adorned the cathedral with its bell towers, which one hosted the "Non Pareille", the largest bell in the world.In October 1485, when Clement de La Rovere came to the episcopal seat, old quarrels between the consul and the bishopric re-emerged, first mentioned with fear of losing this privilege. Thus they barricaded the gates of Mende, so that the bishop could not access. At this time the bishops primarily used their Balsièges Castle as a residence (that of Chanac being the summer residence). In vain as the Della Rovere family covered the full authority by notice of the king in 1492. The title of consul was held in place of the traditional title of trustee.In the 16th century, the main events were the Reformation and the Wars of Religion which resulted. On 21 July 1562, 4,000 Protestants got within the walls of the city. They destroyed the unprotected monuments and besieged the city by depriving it of water. They withdrew four days later, largely due to being given 2,000 ecus. This ransom ensured the city a few years of peace.During the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, Astorg de Peyre was murdered in the king's room: his widow then hired a young man, Matthieu Merle to avenge the death of her husband. From 1569 to 1576 he held with his troops the fortress of Grèzes where he gradually seized the north of Gévaudan. From 1577 he moved with his troops to Marvejols intending to seize Mende, although not ceasing his conquests to the north, he failed however in August 1578 at Saint-flour. The night of Christmas 1579, to enter the city, Merle's soldiers expected that the people of Mendes were at midnight mass.During his stay in Mende, Merle made further fortification to the city, not hesitating razing 120 homes to restore the ramparts. In February 1581, while he ruled all the Gévaudan, he enforced the threat he had made to the people. He had in fact asked them to deliver 4,000 ecus, a sum that the Mendois could not collect. He partially destroyed Mende Cathedral built by Pope Urban V. He saved a bell tower to avoid damaging the episcopal palace where his home was established. It was at this time that the "Non Pareille" was melted, the biggest bell in the world, to manufacture culverins and other cannonballs. The city was liberated on bail that year thanks to the intervention of the King of Navarre.The city liberated, a seneschal was created to ensure the peace. Response to the attack of Merle was organised in 1586 against the town of Marvejols, led by baron de Saint-Vidal. It was during this response that the Peyre fortress disappeared from the rock of Peyre. The seneschal took its place. The Tower of Auriac, today known as the Tower of Penitents, was built to accommodate one hundred soldiers. The seneschal gradually took precedence over the diocese, which called for the help of the Duke of Languedoc in 1597. It was after this episode that the Seneschal of Mende disappeared.The beginning of the 17th century was coloured by the work of reconstruction of the cathedral for an inauguration in 1605, although work had lasted until 1629. Far from the splendour of the original, while taking up the same plane, this new cathedral was characterised by a bell tower which was smaller than the other.Between 1645 and 1660, the city was the scene of strife between two rival factions: The Marmaux and the Catharinaux, all members of the consuls or the bourgeoisie, but not having the same opinion on the importance of episcopal power, the latter being opposed. The bishop was also the target of an attack while he officiated in Mende Cathedral in 1645 (he was actually not touched). After several trials, it was not without difficulty that the kingdom gave back his ancestral power, the consul remaining under his control.At the end of the century, landscaped a lane which joined to the Lot (since known as ""Allée Piencourt"") and especially acquired the Aubusson tapestries for the episcopal palace. These tapestries, classified, since adorn the cathedral. It was also behind the early educational development in the city and contributed to the building of the hospital. It also made the hospital its heir, allowing it to develop.In 1702, the war of the Camisards was triggered in the Cévennes. Mende somewhat landscaped its walls in order to prevent any attack. However, this war which began with the murder of Father du Chayla at Le Pont-de-Montvert never reached Mende.In 1721, the Great Plague arrived in Gévaudan affecting the town of Mende with an amount of 1,078 victims in one year. Two generations later, the walls were removed (in 1768), "so the air circulates better".Once all these troubles passed, the city redeveloped its economy around wool and sheep farming. The city extended a little bit under the development of the appearance of the mills, and its first factory. In 1754, Mende saw Louis Mandrin the famous brigand, who lodged in a house there and, according to legend, hid treasure.Between 1764 and 1767, Mende was the witness the comings and goings of the wolf-hunters of the king, who came to seek rest in the city before returning to hunt the beast which was terrorising the north of the country. It was seen close to Mende, once at Pailhou and between Rieutort-de-Randon and Chastel-Nouvel but remained primarily in Margeride. At this time the quarrel between the consul and the bishop was brought up to date by the edict on municipal organizations. The burghers and nobles opposed, but the bishop finally retained power in 1771.During the French Revolution, Mende had to share with Marvejols the function of department capital of Gévaudan. This was renamed in the Lozère department in 1790, and the guardianship of the church disappeared in 1791, thus putting an end to the paréage of 1307. Mende was the scene of small counter-revolutionary clashes, but without great effects. It became the sole capital shortly after.In 1800, the prefect settled in the city, and the prefecture occupies the episcopal palace after the sale of the property of the church. In the middle of the 19th century, the causses around Mende are planted with Austrian black pine, this national forest has continued since then. The choice of black pine was due to its ease of acclimation, and its robustness. The presence of this forest often protected Mende from floods.Then the railway appeared in the prefecture, then linking to Sévérac-le-Château (3 May 1884). The railway line follows the Lot to cross the city, and also continues to follow, like the newly created road. In 1887 the old episcopal palace disappeared in flames, the prefecture had to be rebuilt.On 8 April 1888 Mende became one of the first cities in France, and the first chef-lieu to have electric lighting. The plant was installed in the old .The twentieth century was marked by a beginning of economic decline. The gradual end of the wool industry, the First and the Second World War depopulated the city. Between 1931 and 1934 baths are built, since becoming the Home, and located on the market square. The building was destroyed in summer 2013, to be replaced by a multi-cultural hall.In 1939, shortly before World War II, an internment camp was built in the woods of the Rieucros. The population was opposed to this transit camp for anti-fascists and communists. It then became an internment camp exclusively for women. The mayor at the time, , condemned the Vichy regime and the camp in his hometown, where he made sure that children interned with their mother followed a normal education. His hostile words and acts to the regime in place led him to be removed from his post in 1941. He then joined Resistance where he became one of the leaders for the Lozère. Arrested and sent to German camps in 1944, he died during a transfer in 1945.Ideally placed between the Maquis of the Cévennes and the Aubrac, the town was located as well as a centre for the coordination of the Lozère Interior Resistance. As for the population, it protected itself where shelters against aerial bombardments were implemented.From the 1970s, the city had a sizable population growth. The city then extended to the Causse d'Auge. In the 1980s and 1990s, one can also see that the department was depopulating overall, while its prefecture was expanding. Culture and sport took more importance in the life of the city.During the 1990s, the city developed administrative reconciliations with nearby cities. Therefore, it formed the Estelle city network with Aurillac and Rodez. The principle of the network was to share experiences and pool resources to develop such medium-sized cities. Shortly after, it was with other networks that Mende became closer to other cities of the Massif Central. This is the case, for example, with the Cyber Massif network dedicated to the digital opening up of the region.Moreover, since the beginning of the 21st century, Mende had tried to actively participate in the policies of opening up of the Massif Central. The city lies in the Lot Valley and reached an area of in the 2000s. It also seeks to enroll in a sustainable development project, in the image of the department with, among other projects, the construction of a cogeneration plant and the establishment of a network of heat. The timber industry, so important in the economy of the city, could therefore be put to further use. The establishment of bio-energy in the city has also been carried out by the appearance of a wind farm north of the city.Mende is the chef-lieu of the Lozère department: It welcomes in this regard the prefecture and the headquarters of the General Council. The buildings of these two institutions are scattered within the city. A project of the Department Hall to consolidate all services of the General Council is under consideration. The mayor's office is housed in the town hall which dates from the 18th century, however, a large part of the services have been moved to the annex of the mayor's office.This is the old consular house which was used as a city hall of the Revolution until 1852. On that date, Mayor Becamel bought the Pages family mansion located in the "Place d'Angiran". Since then the city hall has been based in this city mansion (listed historical monument) in the square which has become "Place Charles-de-Gaulle", although a part of the services is now located in the annex which faces it. As the cathedral, the city hall also houses the tapestries of Aubusson, classified since 1909.Since 1945, the following were elected mayors of the city of Mende:The city of Mende belongs to the . It was created in December 2001 under the name of "Communauté de communes de la Haute Vallée d'Olt" before changing its name in 2009. The commune being the largest in terms of population, it was its mayor, Jean-Jacques Delmas, who became the first president of the community.The implementation of this community of communes has allowed a transfer of powers. So, all areas of economic activity and sports facilities now fall under the responsibility of the community, rather than the commune itself.However, the actions are much wider since waste treatment also enters the competence of the community. The waste disposal site of the commune lies in the ZAE du Causse d'Auge, north of the city. In this context, unsorted collection is also the responsibility of the community of communes.This community of communes is not the only grouping of communities for the town of Mende. A comprehensive plan was implemented around the label "Pays d'Art et d'Histoire de Mende et Lot en Gévaudan" [Lands of art and history of Mende and Lot in Gevaudan]. These are twenty-two communes which now belong to the Pays d'Art [Lands of Art] which comes in the continuity of the city of art and history label which Mende has had since 1981. The lands comprises four communities: Cœur de Lozère, , and , which is assistant to the Chastel-Nouvel commune.The city is the chef-lieu of two cantons: Mende-1 and Mende-2 since 2015. Mende-1 comprises the northern part of the city, Mende-2 the southern part.Before the Act of paréage of 1307, Mendoise and Gevaudanaise justice was fully devolved to the bishops. This power was shared with the king after the signing of the Act. Power was shared between the various for the communal land, with Mende being in the land of the bishops and Marvejols in lands of the king, and like this until 1789.The courthouse was built between 1833 and 1835. On 18 February 1994, it was the target of a bombing by the FLNC.The tribunal groups together a children's tribunal, a tribunal of commerce, a court and a high court. It depends on the .The city has long held prisons. Current prison was commissioned in 1891. One of the first high-security areas of France was then moved there in 1949. It was at this date that the prison ownership changed, from the State Department. Several personalities have stayed here, the most famous being Jacques Mesrine. André Génovès' film, "Mesrine" released in 1983, also tells of the criminal plan to destroy the QHS. had sought to bring Jacques Mesrine out of prison when he was imprisoned in Mende. This area had also been the target of critics, such as those of the Committee of action of prisoners and Serge Livrozet, in 1975. In 1989, the Mende detention centre was again publicised with the escape of , who managed to escape by threatening guards with a dummy gun. The last prison 'personality' of Mende, , activist of the alongside José Bové, was imprisoned after the case of the McDonald's franchise destruction in Millau.Mende is twinned with:Since 2007, the cities of Wunsiedel and Volterra are also paired together. The twinning with Vila Real (much more populous than the city of Mende) is explained by the fact that a large part of the Portuguese population of Mende, and Lozère in general, is from this region.In contrast to the department of Lozère, the prefecture saw its demographic curve draw increasingly since the French Revolution. If the department was strongly affected by the and the great wars of the 20th century, the city had the presence of its own authorities. This may explain why Mende has not experienced the same trend as Lozère. This table shows the demographic for the town of Mende, but it can be considered that the "bassin Mendois" [Mende area] follows the same trend.In 2017, the commune had 12,134 inhabitants.The Mende population is fairly young taking into account the ageing population of Lozère. Compared with the 1990 census, it is the age group of 15–29 years which has had the greatest increase at the expense of those aged 0–14 and 30–44 years. The number of near-centenarians was also greater in 1999 than in 1990.In Mende, the share of the immigrant population represents about 8% of the total population. They originate mostly from Portugal (mainly from Vila Real), Morocco, Algeria, and Turkey. This being the image of immigration in the region. The Spanish immigration, which was very present in the middle of the twentieth century, has been disappearing since the 1970s.Mende has three nursery schools: "Solelhons" (the small Suns in Occitan), the Chênes school and Fontanilles school. They are in close relations with the primary schools of the Groupe solaire, Annex Michel del Castillo School and Fontanilles School, Jeanne d'Arc School dealing with private education.The public college of Henri-Bourillon is located in the former small seminary, and share places with the Lycée Chaptal. It hosts students from the city as well as a number from other neighbouring municipalities (Badaroux, Barjac, Chanac, Saint-Bauzile, Saint-Étienne-du-Valdonnez, etc.). The private college is the college of . The continuity of private education is at the Lycée Notre-Dame. Another high school, the Lycée Emile Peytavin allows, in addition to general education, technical and vocational education. Finally, now attached to the Lycée Notre-Dame, we find the Private Professional Lycée Plaisance.Institutions of the city are also have one of the best success rates for the Baccalauréat diploma, compared with the other schools in the area, which puts them in the first half best institutions of France.At the level of higher education, Mende welcomes a BTS in its different high schools. An , branch of the University of Perpignan, offers four courses: Multimedia, gerontology, City Council Secretary, and tourism. It is located in the buildings of the former Lamolle barracks, which had housed the . Finally the city also houses a teacher training Institute, an (IFSIL), a and a .The festivities of the town of Mende are held annually in the month of August. They were related to the feast of , on 21 August. They are decorated with a flower parade and the election of "Miss Mende". Then, in September, every other year, Mende hosts its beer festival, with its twin town of Wunsiedel. The city has also several sports events. At the cultural level, the "meetings of writers" were organized at the beginning of the 1990s, in August. They have welcomed regional authors but also renowned authors such as Calixthe Beyala and Michel Folco.The department has a hospital, which opened in 1970. Five of the six services are located in Mende: Guy de Chauliac Hospital, the retirement home, the convalescence centre, the Training Institute in Nursing and boarding school. The sixth branch, another retirement home, is based at Rieutort-de-Randon.The hospital has approximately 70 physicians and 750 health professionals. Moreover, since 2011, it welcomes in its structure the home of the Paul Éluard psychological and psychiatric unit, a branch of the of Saint-Alban-sur-Limagnole.To this one can add 20 physicians, general practitioners and specialists as well as a centre of firefighters. Though, if the implementation of the current hospital is fairly recent, the city has a fairly old hospital story.In the 12th century was the "alms house" for the population. This hospital, located on "Rue Angiran", derived its income from the operation of a mill in the district of La Vernède, as well as donations of the lords of the lands. It was partially destroyed in 1593 during the construction of a nearby citadel. Though the citadel disappeared in 1597, the hospital was not repaired immediately. From 1635 a budget was allocated for the rebuilding of the institution. It would not be built in the same place, and would take the name of "Hospital of Aygues-Passes". In 1677 became and thus Count of Gévaudan. In his first year as bishop, he rebuilt a new hospital which became the "general hospital". In 1702 it enlarged, and at his death he bequeathed it all of his possessions. This hospital, today the Piencourt residence, remained in use until the inauguration of the hospital. Added to this hospital, two establishments existed following periods of epidemics, both which were outside the city. A plague centre, referred to as 'House of God', was established in the district of Janicot. At the Saint-Jean Bridge (now Pont-Roupt), a "maladrerie" was rebuilt in 1242, intended for the accommodation of lepers.Mende is, by its number of licensees and all events, a sports town. Therefore, she was elected twice the by the daily newspaper "L'Équipe" (1988 and 1998) and a finalist in 2011. It is one of only a few cities of France to have achieved this distinction twice.Mende features a sports zone known as the "Complexe sportif de Jean Jacques Delmas" [Sports complex of Jean Jacques Delmas], in honour of his death, having been originally of this project he was the mayor of Mende for 25 years. There are 3 football/rugby pitches (the Stade du Chapitre and 2 training grounds), the semi-Olympic pool, tennis courts, a fitness room, a skate-park, a street-ball court, table-tennis hall and archery/shooting. It is in this complex which the '"Festival of sport" takes place every two years. Chapitre Stadium, enlarged at the Mediterranean Games has 500 seats, but this figure may be largely surpassed during some matches.Installed on the causse d'Auge are three soccer/rugby fields and an athletics track, which came to replace the old track of Mirandol. The Stade de Mirandol had the municipal stadium office until the 1980s. Since 2006, an equestrian centre is also located on the causse, it comes in addition to the aging Sirvens centre located at the exit of the city. Finally, the causse d'Auge was the chosen site, in 2008, for the construction of a new gymnasium, opposite the football fields.Near the Chaptal Lycée and the Henri Bourrillon College is the La Vernède complex. In this area are two gymnasiums, a dojo, a gymnastics Hall, one dance, one climbing (over an area outdoors), a covered petanque pitch and one outdoors. Before the construction of the gymnasium of La Vernède, this place was that of the municipal swimming pool and two tennis courts.Close to other educational institutions, other gyms are installed. There are six in all in the city: La Vernède, Lycée Notre-Dame, Piencourt, Lycée Chaptal, Lycée Théophile Roussel and college Saint-Privat.Many clubs share the facilities of the city. Football club Éveil Mendois evolved in CFA2 during two seasons (2000–01 and 2001–02), its successor, AF Lozère, plays in the (6th division). The Éveil Mendois football club came from the of the same name, founded in 1920. One of the highlights of its history remains a finish in the last 32 of Coupe de France final played opposite Angoulême on 24 January 1999. More recently, Mende moved up to the last 16 of the finals at the 2013 Coupe de France, winning on this occasion the "ranking of the Petits Poucets".The key club is the (formerly Mende Volley Ball) which plays in the Elite division, for the season 2014-2014 (3rd national division). At the top level, the MVL has a title of obtained at the end of the 2008-2009 season and a participation in the third round of the 2010-2011 Coupe de France.Of Rugby union ("Rugby Club Mende Lozère"), it found its place in Fédérale 3 in 2006, but returned to the regional level in the 2010s. The club however already evolved to a higher level a few years previously.The handball team ("Mende Gévaudan Club") is evolving in 2014-2015 in the National 3 France Championship. Finally, the basketball team ("basketball Causses Mendois") was found in 2014-2015 at the regional level. For women there are also handball, volleyball and basketball clubs which are Mendois clubs of highest level.Mende can be granted a special status to orienteering, an individual sport with team competitions. The fact remains that Mende is playing in the elite league of France, and "M. G. C. Pétanque" and its three veteran champions of France in 2007.Sports diversity does not stop there. Mende clubs also include roller hockey ("Les Comets"). Mende is also home to individual sports: Athletics, badminton, cycling, motorcycling, as well as many combat sports clubs.Since the beginning of the 2000s, a sports centre was set up to accompany young high school athletes to prepare for the best level. From the membership of the COL (centre omnisports Lozère), there is (France MTB 2010 downhill champion) and Fanny Lombard (Junior Champion of Europe 2009 and 2010 in the same discipline).Among professional sportspeople born in Mende, is the cyclist Christophe Laurent who shone by winning the jersey for the best climber of the Tour de l'Avenir and the Tour of California.The motorcyclist , winner of the prologue of the Paris-Dakar Rally (1991), also hails from Mende. He was one of the best enduro riders with the palmares of France, and was also vice World champion.Kayaker Brigitte Guibal, Olympic silver medallist in 2000 in Sydney, was also born in Mende.It is in 1988 that Marion Buisson was born in Mende. After making her athletics debut at the "Éveil mendois", she continued her career at Clermont athletics. She became champion of France in the pole vault in , thereby achieving the minimum to participate in the Beijing Summer Olympics.Each year, the , an enduro competition, centres its course on the city of Mende. This race is part of the most renowned of the enduro season and allows, in addition, mixing professional and amateur riders.One month later (July), the city centre is dedicated to foot racing and the arrival of . This race starts from Marvejols, joining Mende by the Col de Goudard and the Côte de Chabrits. It is sometimes used as a preparation marathon for major events (the World Championships, Olympic Games), but is also open to amateurs as the majority of the marathons. Since 2006, the month of July is also marked by the organisation of a national of pétanque.Cycling is also in honour of the city. The hosted the best professionals in the 1970s. Since then, the has seen five stage finishes in the Tour de France (1995, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2018), and stages in the Tour de l'Avenir, the Grand Prix du Midi Libre, the and Paris-Nice. Since 2006 and the rebirth of the Tour du Gévaudan, Mende is judged the final arrival of this amateur race of great importance. In 2008, the event was organised as the "Finale de la Coupe des France des clubs" [final of the Cup of France for clubs]. During the winter, a grand prix of regional cyclo-cross is also organized. The grand departure of the Tour de France VTT 1996, as well as the first two stages, happened at Mende.Mende was also host city of the Mediterranean Games in 1993 by hosting cycling, football and swimming events.In October 2005, the city hosted the 37th national congress of the French hiking federation, Lozère being a popular department for hikers, and is crossed by two of the most important roads of the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Then, in 2007, Mende was the host of a round of the French enduro championships, as well as the final of the Coupe de France rally.In 2008, France welcomed the enduro European grand prix, the final of the World Championship (WEC). It was the town of Alès which was chosen to host the competition. However the organization was forced to give up, and it was finally hosted by Mende on 11 and 12 October 2008. In 2011, the city hosted the Grand Prix of France, final of the World Championship.Mende is the seat of most of the media of Lozére. Thus we find the writings of the Lozère edition of "Midi Libre" and [New Lozère], with regard to the written press.The radio station France Bleu and have their editorial offices in Lozère. While Radio Eaux-Vives Lozère is installed at the former Grand Seminary.The town of Mende is the episcopal seat of Gévaudan and Lozère, religious life has always been linked with its bishops. Also chapter headquarters, Mende has welcomed a large number of canons. A religious brotherhood, the "Brotherhood of the White Penitents" has long existed and has a procession every Holy Thursday since the 17th century. The Tower of the Penitents (called so because it is adjacent to the chapel of the penitents) is one of the last vestiges of the ramparts of the city.The large and small seminaries are traces of the presence of the formation of Catholic priests.The main place of worship is the Cathedral of Notre-Dame and Saint-Privat, built at the request of Pope Urban V, in place of the old church built over the tomb of but the city has many small chapels. One of the oldest is the chapel of Saint-Ilpide, on the hill of the executioner, which however was destroyed and replaced by a small chapel. Two other chapels are no longer used: That of the Penitents (future Museum of Religious Art) and the Chapel of Saint-Dominique (exhibition hall). The Chapel of the Hermitage (on ) and the cave which was drilled alongside, can still be used for offices.The Carmelite convent has existed since 1880 and has hosted a community of Carmelite nuns, which ensures production of altar bread (or wafers) for the diocese (and those nearby). Another Convent is installed in Mende, which is the Adoration of Picpus Convent. At the "Rue de la Chicanette" is installed the Jeanne Delanoue community of the Providence; little used for celebration services, the place is used for meetings between people in the religious world. The community is at the origin of the creation of the institution Notre-Dame-de-la-Providence, a social children's home adjacent to its premises and which hosts minors under administrative and judicial protection. There are of other religious communities, mainly related to private schools and retirement or rest homes.Worship in Mende, due to its history, is very oriented towards Catholicism, but there are other places of worship for other religions. Thus Mende, near of the Cévennes, has a Protestant temple installed in the "Allée Paul Doumer".The city also had a synagogue in the former Jewish quarter, but it has long since been abandoned. This synagogue, also called Ferrier House from the name of one of its former owners, is the last vestige of the Mende ghetto. The Jews were expelled from the Gévaudan in the 14th century, and this synagogue became the (Catholic) college of All Saints until the French Revolution.Whilst counting the presence of a Muslim community, the city has no mosque, but simply an apartment that serves as place of worship.Industrial (wood industry, jewelry), service centre (shops, restaurants, bars), administrative (generates a lot of jobs) and tourism (medieval town, excursions to Gorges du Tarn), Mende is the starting point for the establishment of new businesses in the department, and turned more towards new technologies, with the advent of the technological hub.The city has more than 1300 companies, including about 900 in the commercial sector, and has an unemployment rate of 10.7% (2017).The city has five zones of economic activities (ZAE), each having a rather clearly defined role. The largest is the ZAE of the Causse d'Auge (north of the city), with a mainly industrial orientation in automation or in the management of the wood. The ZI of Gardès, on the road to Badaroux is an industrial area covering public works and mainly the building companies. The ZAE Lou Chaousse and Chabrits (both in the northwest) also have a vocation craft, but more oriented towards the trade for individuals. And finally, the "Pôle lozérien d'économie numérique" (POLeN) is turned to the new technologies.In addition, since the mid-2000s, the de Ramille was created. This area, wedged between the Lot and the RN 88 on the road to Balsièges hosts a commercial zone which has tended to develop. It is without doubt, with the area of the Causse d'Auge, the area of activity that has extended most recently.In the near future a new area of activity should emerge north of Mende, in the commune of Badaroux. This area whose size is expected to reach approximately initially, would be served by the landscaped expressway.If the commune no longer has many farms, the city remains at the centre of a very rural area and is very oriented towards agriculture. Indeed, 54% of the Lozère territory is classified as a "utilised agricultural area". Livestock in the commune is mainly dedicated to the sheep sector, although cattle farms are found located between Mende and neighbouring communes.This attraction to sheep is ancestral to Mende, since the city has long lived wool exploitation, since the 16th century. In 1333 the city already had a brotherhood of the weavers. In 1849, the town was still equipped with five large mills. However, while having a rich textile past, the city now retains no activity.Like the Lozère department, industry in Mende is mainly oriented towards the timber sector: Its operation, its treatment, its derivatives, etc. Another industry that holds an important place in the city is that of construction and public works.Mende is also the seat of the that handles .The city is strongly turned towards the tertiary sector. As said above, a majority of the enterprises of the city are shops. Mende is the centre of an area's population of approximately 20,000 inhabitants around the Lot Valley, the city therefore centralises much of the services. Its quality of prefecture adds to the presence of public service.Tourism has also developed since the end of the 20th century. This openness on tourism translated between 1983 and 2008 by the creation of the office of tourism (municipal and intermunicipal), an increase of 400 beds offered to tourists, the opening of a holiday village and of a youth hostel, but also the creation of activity centre (canoe base, Freestyle Park, etc.). The city has eleven hotels, four with three stars and four having two. To this one can add the holiday village of Chapitre that offers 42 gîtes for rent, as well as two campsites near the Lot.Other businesses are those that can be found in other modern cities (banks, insurance, bakeries, the press houses, clothes, etc.). The city has a supermarket and a hypermarket, as well as several superettes and other discounters. The hypermarket, which is of recent construction, belongs to the Système U group and is located in the new area of activity of Ramilles. The supermarket (Intermarché) is, meanwhile, close to the city centre. Markets, vestiges of the traditional markets of the city are many, taking place on Wednesday (textile, utility, etc.) at "Place Chaptal", and on Saturday mornings (food market) at "Place Chaptal" and "Place Urbain V". In addition, night markets are held during the summer.The main companies in terms of turnover, as well as major private employers are:Since 1981 Mende has been classified as a city of art, and, since 2000, the grouping of "Mende and Lot in the Gévaudan" has the label of "city and land of art and history".Indeed, the city has a rich architectural heritage, witness of the prosperous time related to the papacy.The Cathedral of Saint-Privat (classed as a historical monument in 1906) whose construction began in 1368 at the initiative of Pope Urban V. Its bell towers date back, however, to the 16th century, following the destruction of one of them during the passage of the Huguenots by Matthieu Merle. The large belfry included housing ""Non Pareille"", the largest bell in the world melted between 1517 and 1521 in Villefort and destroyed during the Wars of Religion. There remains only the clapper. The cathedral consists of twelve rectangular chapels, two pentagonal chapels and a sacristy. Originally it was built above the Sainte-Thècle crypt where the body of Saint Privat had been buried. It is located next to the old episcopal palace.The city has many public fountains. Water from the causses thus enters a piping system located beneath the city before joining the Lot. Two of them (Aigues-Passe and Soubeyrand) are classified as historic monuments. Piped water also enters the old wash house of the Calquières, still visible on "Rue d'Angiran".This tower is one of the few remains of the ancient walls of the 12th century. Protecting the Gate of Angiran which was next to it, this tower served as guard for the short-lived Seneschal of Mende. It includes three floors and an attic. This is the installation of the chapel which is adjacent, and especially its bell tower at the top which saved the tower during the destruction of the walls in 1768.Dating back to the 13th century, this bridge is one of the symbols of the city. It has never been carried away by frequent floods in Mende. It formerly went by the name of Peyrenc Bridge, then took the name of Notre Dame due to the presence on its mouth of a Virgin, which disappeared during the Wars of Religion. Its span has a opening and is high.Saint Privat withdrew, in the 3rd century, into caves that he had built over Mende, on . Since his Hermitage was built, it also to allow the pilgrims to go there. It can be accessed either by Way of the Cross (from the market) or by road from the causse (RD 25). At the hermitage, we find a hotel for the reception of the pilgrims, a chapel, grotto and a breakthrough designed to the original cave.The House where the consul sat, since 1578, also served as city hall after the Revolution. On its pediment is found the arms of the city: ""Azure in the Gothic M of or, a shining Sun similarly topped."" Facing it is a trompe-l'œil wall symbolizing the twinning of Mende and Volterra.Located in the northwest of the city, the Bahours locality had two castles, one of which was destroyed in 1960. The remaining one is a strong house (manse) built in the 17th century, possibly on the foundations of a more ancient building. The main interest of this strong house is its kitchen listed as a historical monument, like the whole building.Mende features a municipal theatre and several rooms that can be used to this kind of show. The ancient theatre of the city turned into cinema. A development project involves the construction of a new multicultural hall. In addition, Mende has a departmental library, the Lamartine Library.The ancient theatre of the city, established between 1890 and 1895, was replaced by a cinema. The main room used for the theatre is now the festival hall located at the market. This room, and its natural scenery of arches, is multi-cultural and is the largest in the city in terms of capacity. On the market lies the "antirouille", a municipal building for young people and allowing everyone to have access to the internet, this building has a room to organize concerts.Near the market, along the "Chemin Saint-Ilpide", the Urban V municipal room hosts plays, live shows, and also meetings and projections (world knowledge, for example).Finally as part of the redevelopment of the market (started by the installation of the intercommunal tourism office and the renovation of the Lamartine Library), an auditorium should be created behind the festival hall (the Emile-Joly Square being moved).The Ignon-Fabre Museum (or the Museum of Mende) was located on "Rue de l'Epine" [street of the Holy thorn], at the , where there was installed the first electrification plant of the city. It was however closed due to lack of budget. Before it, a museum was located in a house next to the prison.The Chapel of Saint-Dominique and the current Department Hall can serve as an exhibition space, as can the Chapel of the Penitents and the former consular house.In addition a project of the Museum of , currently under study, should be installed in the Chapel of the Penitents.The poem, written by an author whose story did not retain the name, was confirmed in the 19th century:However, not everyone had a positive vision of the city. It had long had problems with sewage into the modern era, and was denigrated despite its charm:This quote comes perhaps from the conditions in which the geographer of the king came in the city. Like those who would declare to Serge Livrozet that Mende was "capital of Lozère and torture".Those born in Mende, or having a very strong tie with the city include:When King Louis XI granted autonomy to the city, he granted new arms in 1469. An 'L' surmounted by a crown, in gratitude to the king, was added to these in 1475.The current coat of arms dates from the sixteenth century. These weapons were registered in the Armorial General of France in 1697.
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[
"Jean-Jacques Delmas",
"Alain Bertrand",
"Paulin Daudé-Gleize"
] |
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Who was the head of Mende in 1972-02-26?
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February 26, 1972
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{
"text": [
"Henri Trémolet de Villers"
]
}
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L2_Q191772_P6_1
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Paulin Daudé-Gleize is the head of the government of Mende from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1928.
Henri Trémolet de Villers is the head of the government of Mende from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1977.
Jean-Jacques Delmas is the head of the government of Mende from Mar, 1983 to Jan, 2008.
Alain Bertrand is the head of the government of Mende from Mar, 2012 to Dec, 2022.
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Mende, LozèreMende (, ) is a commune and prefecture of the department of Lozère and of the region of Occitanie in southern France. Its inhabitants are called the "Mendois". The city, including the first traces of dwellings date back to 200 BC, was originally named "Mimata", probably in reference to the mountains that surround it.Mende is located between Clermont-Ferrand and Montpellier, but also on the axis of Lyon–Saint-Étienne–Albi–Toulouse. The other important nearby towns are Aurillac and Saint-Flour (Cantal), Le Puy-en-Velay (Haute-Loire), Rodez, Millau (Aveyron) and Alès and Nîmes (Gard).Even though Mende remains a relatively sparsely populated city (approximately 12,000 inhabitants), it remains the most important of the Lozère Department. In addition, it is the city-centre of the unique urban area of this department.It is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mende.Mende is situated in the high valley of the Lot, in a mountainous area, in the "Pays du Gévaudan", the Rieucros stream joins to it on its right bank. The city is overlooked (on the left bank of the Lot) by and its . Access is by the . On the right bank, residential areas extend over different causses, including the "Causse d'Auge". Located on the axis of Lyon-Toulouse, the city has long been a commercial crossroads between the Auvergne, Rhone and the Languedoc.The commune is bordered by Chastel-Nouvel to the north, Badaroux to the east, Lanuéjols to the southeast, Brenoux and Saint-Bauzile to the south, Balsièges to the southwest, and Barjac and Servières to the west.Mende is one of the "gateway cities" (along with Millau, Lodève, Alès and Ganges) for the site of the Causses and Cévennes, of world heritage by UNESCO under the inscription "Les Causses and Cevennes, Mediterranean agro-pastoral cultural landscape".According to the INSEE, Mende is an urban commune without suburbs ("ville isolée" [isolated town]). It lies at the centre of an urban area composed of 15 communes, the only one in the department of Lozère.The town of Mende is built in the Lot Valley, within the area of the . The region of the Causses in Lozère is one of the four of Lozère, with the Margeride, the Aubrac and the Cévennes. The city is nestled in the middle of different Causses which form as natural barriers. However, over the 20th century, urbanisation began to extend beyond these limits.Of the Causses, is the most significant. The causse is overhung by the Cross of . A first wooden cross was planted in 1900 or 1907. It was replaced a few years later, on 8 July 1933, a Jubilee year, by a -high iron cross. Until 1945, this cross was the place of large gatherings in honour of Mendois soldiers. This cross has been illuminated since the summer of 1965. The mount also houses the chapel where Privat, the martyr of the Gévaudan, withdrew to. At its foot lies the area of Vabre where can be found the first remains of houses in the city. Opposite this is the Causse d'Auge (northeast) and the Causse du Crouzet (northwest), and the Margeride mountains beyond. To the west is Causse de Changefège, located between Mende and Barjac, which complements the borders of the city.The geology of the city of Mende is very dependent on the surrounding causses and streams that pass through them. The Mont Mimat and the Causse de Changefège are composed of limestone of the "Grands Causses", thus presenting abrupt edges. The other causses (as well as the butte de Fontanille) are composed of limestone of the "Petits Causses" (without these edges). The Lot Valley is composed of marl. The Valley, in the south of Mende, is full of blue marl, leaving one to presuppose that the marl of the town of Mende would be, in part, of the same origin. Finally, the various streams (the Rieucros) of the causses of the north of the city are lined by mica-schist.The city of Mende was built on the banks of the Lot. But the Lot is not the only presence of water in the city: Indeed, it has several sources, including those of . The most significant of them is located in the Vabre district, close to the first houses. These sources have also often been channeled and feed the underground water system of the city, visible on the surface through numerous fountains and the old wash house. The streets, such as the "Rue du Torrent", attest to the passage of water from Mont Mimat.To the north, on the other side of the Lot, the sources are much more distant, but water is present in the stream known as Rieucros.Mende is subject to an oceanic stream that comes from the Aubrac and Mediterranean and flows from the Cévennes. The department of Lozère, Mende in particular, benefit from insolation (or sunlight) similar to that of Toulouse with approximately 2,069 hours of sunshine per year. The city, away from the mountains that surround it, has a more protected climate than the highlands of Gévaudan: So, average temperatures oscillate between and . With respect to annual precipitation, data for the Lozère is between , depending on the exposure of the regions, with up to 50 days of snow per year.Between 1971 and 2000, monthly rainfall ranged from (March) and (September).In more detail, here are some statements in Mende records since 1985:Mende is located in the centre of the Lozère department and therefore centralises the roads. The city has rail and air access, but the Lot is not navigable (too shallow) as with all the rivers of the department (except for recreational canoeing, or in rare exceptions for the transport of people such as the crossing of the Tarn towards La Malène).Mende is located on the , linking Lyon and Toulouse. The road comes from Balsièges to the west and Badaroux to the east. This axis can be reached easily. Haute-Loire and Ardèche are to the east, via Langogne and Aveyron is to the west via La Canourgue-Banassac, as well as the A75 autoroute. A road doubling project is underway in the department, bypassing Mende from the north. This doubling is however a long project (1993), having had several outlines and some opposition. The project was finally abandoned in October 2012 making Lozère a department without draft dual carriageways on RN 88. Indeed, its neighbours Aveyron and Tarn continue their projects of dual carriageways between Rodez and Toulouse with all expected to be commissioned in December 2015. The work of the Rodez - Séverac section should be completed by the end of 2019. The same will be the case for Haute-Loire, which continues its road access. However, the workarounds of Mende and Langogne are budgeted. These projects in adjacent departments will reach major cities nearby to Mende (Rodez, Albi, Toulouse, Le Puy and even Lyon). Finally, the economic impact or the absence of dual carriageways in Lozere must be assessed in the medium and long term.Furthermore, a viaduct (the Rieucros Viaduct) commissioned in December 2009 will be used to ensure a first bypass of Mende. It connects the industrial area of the Causse d'Auge to the technological centre of Valcroze (and the RD 42) and also helps to relieve the traffic connecting the districts north and northwest of the city.The RN 88 deviation from Mende should be the first from Pelouse to reach up to the Causse d'Auge with an "expressway" configuration. Then it would continue on the D 806 (ex north) to the Rieucros Viaduct, and then a new section of the viaduct to the Mende exit in the hamlet of La Thébaïde (west bypass). These two sections will only be of two lanes. Subsequently, the expressway from the Causse d'Auge will be directly linked to the A 75.Another national road, the RN 106, formerly ran through the city. This name is no longer valid for the section coming from the Gard and joining Mende via Florac (it is then of the RN 88 on the stretch between Balsièges and Mende). The northern part of the road was decommissioned in 2007 and now bears the name of D 806. This stretch goes from Mende to Saint-Chély-d'Apcher (and the A75 autoroute) via Chastel-Nouvel.Secondary access is provided by the RD 42 from the northwest, which joins the RN 88 at Barjac, and by the RD 25 which, passing through the , crosses before arriving at the Valdonnez.Mende features an SNCF railway station, located on the railway line of the , between Le Monastier (the ) and La Bastide - Saint-Laurent-les-Bains (). This line, built at the very beginning of the 20th century, bears the nickname of ""ligne du toit de la France"" [the roof of France line], and Mende is the main railway station. Ten weekly links are provided by rail.The station is also the starting point of the TER connection to Clermont-Ferrand by bus, which is daily.Referred to as TUM (for "Transports Urbains Mendois") the urban transport network is exclusively equipped with buses, which run through the city and some nearby villages (Les Boulaines, Chabrits, Chabannes). Since its establishment in 2000, it has replaced the school bus service. The urban transport network is also responsible for the management of the pay car parks in the city. A part of the city centre is also exclusively pedestrian.The prefecture of the Lozère department shares with the neighbouring village of Brenoux. This airfield, located on , is thus from Clermont-Ferrand, from Montpellier and away from Lyon and Toulouse. Highlights include it being the site of the final scene of the film "La Grande Vadrouille", and also of five stages of the Tour de France (1995, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2018).Furthermore, a Mende-Paris air link was implemented in October 2007. However, the flight was departing from the aerodrome of Le Puy-en-Velay, located from Mende and reached by a shuttle. This connection was born of a desire to open up Mende to air travel, which is indeed late at this level for a prefecture, and has no direct flight to Paris unlike its neighbours Clermont-Ferrand, Rodez, Aurillac or Le Puy-en-Velay.Since the beginning of 2008, a study has been conducted by the CCI of the Lozère department, in order to discuss the possibility of the establishment of a link between the Lozerian prefecture and the regional capital, Montpellier but four years after the launch of this study, no concrete project to date has been presented.Finally, two more major airports with international influence and close to Mende are Clermont-Ferrand Aulnat and Rodez-Aveyron.In the 13th century, the city was concentrated in what is now the city centre, bounded by the boulevards, and formerly the ramparts. It was then split into five sections (or neighbourhoods) known as "pans": Auriac, Aygues-Passe, Champnau, Chastel and Claustres.When it was initially named as such, the Pan d'Auriac was mainly a place of settlement, before becoming the "quartier des pénitents blancs" [district of the white penitents] who settled there. The Pan d'Aygues-Passe (or Aigues-Passe), meaning "water that passes", owes its name to the inclination of its streets, where the water flowed during cleaning. The Pan de Champnau derives its name from "new field", and includes what was a new residential area, at north of the city. The Pan de Chastel is the old commercial district of the city. It is located towards the Chastel Gate, which led then to Chastel-Nouvel, where a castle stood which was property of the bishops. Finally the Pan des Claustres, whose name comes from cloisters, was the largest of the city and is now between the and , i.e. between the two tombs of (the chapel Saint-Ilpide on the hill of the executioner, and the crypt of Sainte-Thècle under the cathedral square).The historic city centre is bordered by boulevards which took the place of the ancient walls. In addition to housing, the centre is mostly occupied by convenience stores and artisans. Beyond the boulevards, there are other houses as well as government buildings. The General Council and the prefecture indeed share the former , but services are scattered throughout the city. "Allée Piencourt" connects downtown roads to Badaroux and Chastel-Nouvel, near the ancient diocese (pré claux and pré vival) having been built.North of the "Allée Piencourt", past the Berlière Bridge, dwellings are present at the foot of the Causse d'Auge. These were established in several instalments over the 19th and 20th centuries, the first of these being Chaldecoste. It is in this part of the city that the large and the small seminary as well as the Convent of Carmel are found. The city extends to the north in the direction of Alteyrac (commune of Chastel-Nouvel). Between these areas and Alteyrac is located the zone of economic activities (ZAE) of the Causse d'Auge. The northern districts often bear names of flowers, this part of the city that historically sheltered gardens and vineyards, along the draille linking the "Plateau du Palais du Roi" [King's Palace Plateau].The causse is bounded by two streams, the Rieucros in the east and the to the west.Above the Badaroux road, on a hill, lies the Fontanilles district. It was originally social housing. At the foot of the hill is the Lycée Notre-Dame, while beyond the district of Saint-Laurent (where one finds traces of history with the presence of a chapel and a windmill) and, later, the Gardès ZAE. In this part, to the west of Gardès, is also the village of Sirvens where traces of a Gallo-Roman villa were discovered.Stuck between Fontanille, Mont Mimat and the city centre, are districts located roadside above pré claux. In this area are located the centre of firefighters, the Château of Bellesagne and the former gendarmerie. The market is also in this area, but more to the east than the precedents cited (beyond the boulevards, however). Above it lies the Vabre district and Hill of the Executioner where the first traces of dwellings of the city were found. Also nearby is the city's prison.In the westerly direction, found the District of Le Chapitre with the sports complex and the holiday village. This area is at the foot of a portion of the Causse de Changefège, where homes are installed along the Chabrits road ("Avenue du 11-Novembre", north-west of the city). It is in this part of the city which the district of Valcroze is found (new in the 19th century), the Chabrits ZAE and technology park.The other side of the Lot, along the , is found the avenue of the Gorges du Tarn and the area of Ramille. It is in this part where retail establishments are found. The Ramille zone saw the introduction, despite some criticism about the instability of the ground, of the hypermarket of the department, as well as a commercial area.On the map are the main roads of the city. To the west, the RN 88 is joined to Balsièges, passing through the Rocher de Moïse (classified site) located at the left end. To the northwest, it is the hamlet of Chabannes, and further to Chabrits. To the south, is found, where the new cross stands which symbolically marks the top of the hill (although it continues a little higher). This road leads to the Hermitage of , at the cross of the same name and the route of Valdonnez (Lanuéjols, Brenoux, Saint-Bauzile).To the east, Fontanille district is on a hillock, circumvented by the Lot. Behind lies the district of Saint-Laurent, then the ZAE de Gardès (and the village of the same name) and the village of Sirvens. Following the RN 88, one reaches Badaroux. Finally to the north, is the area of the Chaldecoste (broken down into several districts: Bergerie, Chanteperdrix, Vignette, etc.) where one can reach the ZAE du causse d'Auge. Further to the north, one finds Chastel-Nouvel before returning to the ground of and the "Plateau du Palais du Roi". The drinking water of the city of Mende comes from this direction, because of the Lac de Charpal reservoir, which is the main source.In 2017, Mende had 6,851 residences for an official population of 12,134 people. 87% of them are primary residences and 6.1% of secondary residences, which contrasts sharply with the figure of the Lozère department amounting to a 32.3% share of secondary housing.The population has been growing for several years, and the city has acquired new quarters over the years: Chaldecoste and Chanteperdrix in the 1970s, La Bergerie in the 1990s, and Valcroze in the 2000s. The city has 17.9% of HLM-type accommodations.59% of dwellings have four rooms or more and 19% have three rooms. The city is composed of many individual homes, small and large dwellings remaining in the minority. However, one can see that between 1990 and 1999 there was an increase of 85.3% of dwellings of one or two rooms. This can partly be explained by the development of higher education, with the branch of the University of Perpignan.The region is an ancient site of settlement dating back to the Bronze Age, although the capital of the Gévaudan, the Gallic period then Gallo-Roman, was Anderitum. Found in the ancient texts are the names of "Mimate", "Mimata" (mountain), which refer to this town at the foot of "Mons Mimatensis" (). In the same spirit, another name circulating is that of "Viculus Mimatensis" (or "Vicus Mimatensis"). It is the city which gave its name to Mont Mimat ("mount of the Mendois", literally) and not vice versa.Traces of dwellings dating from 200 BC were found, ancient Roman "villae", as well as around the city. However, residents could have been be domiciled here well before. Indeed, on Mont Mimat to Chapieu, a dolmen was found around 1913 including a trepanned skull. The other surrounding plateaux also attest this presence with other dolmens (on the Causse de Changefege for example). These remains may date from the Chalcolithic period.The city, strictly speaking, dates from the Middle Ages, and it is not found cited at the end of the 6th century by Gregory of Tours in his "Histoire des Francs". This text speaks of the martyrdom of , the first bishop of the Gabali, who was the origin of a pilgrimage to the hermitage and the caves where he had retired. Mende in the 3rd century was then only a village. The history of Privat is thus situated around the 3rd century, while he was sent by Austromoine to evangelize the Gévaudan. It was during this period that the Alemanni invaded the country, guided by their leader, Chrocus.The Gabali took refuge in the fortress of Grèzes where they were under siege for two years. Their bishop, Privat, was meanwhile in one of the caves of Mont Mimat which he had converted into a hermitage. When Chrocus learned that the bishop was not among his people, he went looking for him to use as a hostage in order to get the Gabali to leave Grèzes. Privat was martyred at his cave on near the village of Mimate. Presented to the Gabali, he refused to deliver his people despite all the barbaric tortures to which he was subjected (according to Gregory of Tours:""The good shepherd refused to deliver his sheep to wolves, and they tried to force his to sacrifice to demons""). Exhausted, the Alemanni would leave the Gabali free, by promising them peace. Privat succumbed to his injuries in the following days. His act of resistance, refusing to deliver his compatriots, thus earned him great popular fervour, and it was around his tomb and his hermitage that pilgrimage began, allowing the village to grow.In the 12th century Gévaudan was part of the County of Barcelona. In Mende, the counties have a castle, the castel frag. Three other lords had their castle around the Romanesque church: That of Canilhac (who owned the archtreasurer rights of the church), that of Cabrières (who was granted rights of archdeacon) and Dolan (who administered and ruled the episcopal home during the interregnum of bishops). In 1161, Mende, who was under the suzerainty of the King of France, saw his Bishop get the royal rights. It was the golden bull, an act signed by the king and marked with a royal seal in gold, which contained the terms of this agreement. It thus gave Aldebert and his successors, in perpetuity, the Royal power and the full powers of justice on the inhabitants of the bishopric. This fact is quite rare because only four golden bulls in six centuries were granted by the Kings of France.It was from this time that the city walls were built. Aldebert wished to protect the city and secure channels that lead there. he recovered and also built the fortress of Chapieu on , and was done so that it could accommodate a garrison. This allowed the monitoring of the direct route between Mont Lozère and Villefort, in other words towards the Regordane Way, trade route.At that time, however, Mende was not provided the civil and religious capital of Gévaudan. In fact the power was always dependent of two entities: The county and Viscount of Grèzes. The Viscount, property of the King of Aragon, was recovered by the King of France in 1258. The bishop had great power as a vassal, but he didn't have the total legitimacy of some Royal officials. This situation ended from 1307 with the Act of paréage between Bishop Guillaume VI Durand and King Philip IV. Indeed, it definitively fixed the possessions of the king and those of the bishop, even if some disputes persisted.During the Hundred Years' War security increased with the strengthening of the fortifications and the construction of ditches to 1361-1362. At that time, the chapter of Mende had a castle on the heights of the city, Chastel-Nouvel. In 1370 many locals felt safe from the ramparts of the city, despite threats from the routiers. Also, few of them took refuge in Chastel-Nouvel. But the walls were insufficient, and could not prevent the pillages. This period isolated Mende from its neighbours, including Le Puy-en-Velay, and waited the arrival of the Constable of France, Bertrand du Guesclin, then the intervention of Charles VI and the liberation of the region so that the roads reopened around 1452.In 1390, was in Mende, where John III of Armagnac sought, on behalf of the King of France, to put an end to the private war that Raymond de Turenne led against the Pope from Avignon. The Gascon signed as a witness to an agreement between the legate of Clement VII, Antoine de Lisa, , and a representative of the Viscount of Turenne. This interview of Mende helped the Florentines to send ambassadors to solicit the Count of Armagnac. He was proposed to cross the Alps and attack the Count of Vertus in Lombardy.It was also at this time that blessed Pope Urban V began the work of the cathedral (1368), for a completion in 1467. By its letters patent, King Louis XI confirmed the privileges for this cathedral, granted by his predecessors, in September 1464.At the beginning of the 1470s, conflict erupted between Bishop and King Louis XI, because of the support that the bishop had given to the County of Armagnac when it had revolted. To counter it, the king subtracted La Panouse authority over the city which then became autonomous. It wasn't until 1478 that the bishops found authority over the city, sharing revenues with the consul.At the end of the Hundred Years' War, Mende developed its production of drapery, and thus increased its role as a commercial crossroads between the Languedoc and Auvergne, exporting its fame. It is estimated that in the 16th century Mende was one of the richest dioceses of Languedoc before Montpellier and Toulouse. This wealth of the diocese reinforced the ecclesiastical power. Thus among the list of the bishops of the time one can count a number from the family of the Pope. Giuliano della Rovere was ordained bishop of Mende, although he never visited in the capital of Gévaudan (practice known as commendation). His nephews, Clement and , succeeded him in this position. During his tenure, François adorned the cathedral with its bell towers, which one hosted the "Non Pareille", the largest bell in the world.In October 1485, when Clement de La Rovere came to the episcopal seat, old quarrels between the consul and the bishopric re-emerged, first mentioned with fear of losing this privilege. Thus they barricaded the gates of Mende, so that the bishop could not access. At this time the bishops primarily used their Balsièges Castle as a residence (that of Chanac being the summer residence). In vain as the Della Rovere family covered the full authority by notice of the king in 1492. The title of consul was held in place of the traditional title of trustee.In the 16th century, the main events were the Reformation and the Wars of Religion which resulted. On 21 July 1562, 4,000 Protestants got within the walls of the city. They destroyed the unprotected monuments and besieged the city by depriving it of water. They withdrew four days later, largely due to being given 2,000 ecus. This ransom ensured the city a few years of peace.During the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, Astorg de Peyre was murdered in the king's room: his widow then hired a young man, Matthieu Merle to avenge the death of her husband. From 1569 to 1576 he held with his troops the fortress of Grèzes where he gradually seized the north of Gévaudan. From 1577 he moved with his troops to Marvejols intending to seize Mende, although not ceasing his conquests to the north, he failed however in August 1578 at Saint-flour. The night of Christmas 1579, to enter the city, Merle's soldiers expected that the people of Mendes were at midnight mass.During his stay in Mende, Merle made further fortification to the city, not hesitating razing 120 homes to restore the ramparts. In February 1581, while he ruled all the Gévaudan, he enforced the threat he had made to the people. He had in fact asked them to deliver 4,000 ecus, a sum that the Mendois could not collect. He partially destroyed Mende Cathedral built by Pope Urban V. He saved a bell tower to avoid damaging the episcopal palace where his home was established. It was at this time that the "Non Pareille" was melted, the biggest bell in the world, to manufacture culverins and other cannonballs. The city was liberated on bail that year thanks to the intervention of the King of Navarre.The city liberated, a seneschal was created to ensure the peace. Response to the attack of Merle was organised in 1586 against the town of Marvejols, led by baron de Saint-Vidal. It was during this response that the Peyre fortress disappeared from the rock of Peyre. The seneschal took its place. The Tower of Auriac, today known as the Tower of Penitents, was built to accommodate one hundred soldiers. The seneschal gradually took precedence over the diocese, which called for the help of the Duke of Languedoc in 1597. It was after this episode that the Seneschal of Mende disappeared.The beginning of the 17th century was coloured by the work of reconstruction of the cathedral for an inauguration in 1605, although work had lasted until 1629. Far from the splendour of the original, while taking up the same plane, this new cathedral was characterised by a bell tower which was smaller than the other.Between 1645 and 1660, the city was the scene of strife between two rival factions: The Marmaux and the Catharinaux, all members of the consuls or the bourgeoisie, but not having the same opinion on the importance of episcopal power, the latter being opposed. The bishop was also the target of an attack while he officiated in Mende Cathedral in 1645 (he was actually not touched). After several trials, it was not without difficulty that the kingdom gave back his ancestral power, the consul remaining under his control.At the end of the century, landscaped a lane which joined to the Lot (since known as ""Allée Piencourt"") and especially acquired the Aubusson tapestries for the episcopal palace. These tapestries, classified, since adorn the cathedral. It was also behind the early educational development in the city and contributed to the building of the hospital. It also made the hospital its heir, allowing it to develop.In 1702, the war of the Camisards was triggered in the Cévennes. Mende somewhat landscaped its walls in order to prevent any attack. However, this war which began with the murder of Father du Chayla at Le Pont-de-Montvert never reached Mende.In 1721, the Great Plague arrived in Gévaudan affecting the town of Mende with an amount of 1,078 victims in one year. Two generations later, the walls were removed (in 1768), "so the air circulates better".Once all these troubles passed, the city redeveloped its economy around wool and sheep farming. The city extended a little bit under the development of the appearance of the mills, and its first factory. In 1754, Mende saw Louis Mandrin the famous brigand, who lodged in a house there and, according to legend, hid treasure.Between 1764 and 1767, Mende was the witness the comings and goings of the wolf-hunters of the king, who came to seek rest in the city before returning to hunt the beast which was terrorising the north of the country. It was seen close to Mende, once at Pailhou and between Rieutort-de-Randon and Chastel-Nouvel but remained primarily in Margeride. At this time the quarrel between the consul and the bishop was brought up to date by the edict on municipal organizations. The burghers and nobles opposed, but the bishop finally retained power in 1771.During the French Revolution, Mende had to share with Marvejols the function of department capital of Gévaudan. This was renamed in the Lozère department in 1790, and the guardianship of the church disappeared in 1791, thus putting an end to the paréage of 1307. Mende was the scene of small counter-revolutionary clashes, but without great effects. It became the sole capital shortly after.In 1800, the prefect settled in the city, and the prefecture occupies the episcopal palace after the sale of the property of the church. In the middle of the 19th century, the causses around Mende are planted with Austrian black pine, this national forest has continued since then. The choice of black pine was due to its ease of acclimation, and its robustness. The presence of this forest often protected Mende from floods.Then the railway appeared in the prefecture, then linking to Sévérac-le-Château (3 May 1884). The railway line follows the Lot to cross the city, and also continues to follow, like the newly created road. In 1887 the old episcopal palace disappeared in flames, the prefecture had to be rebuilt.On 8 April 1888 Mende became one of the first cities in France, and the first chef-lieu to have electric lighting. The plant was installed in the old .The twentieth century was marked by a beginning of economic decline. The gradual end of the wool industry, the First and the Second World War depopulated the city. Between 1931 and 1934 baths are built, since becoming the Home, and located on the market square. The building was destroyed in summer 2013, to be replaced by a multi-cultural hall.In 1939, shortly before World War II, an internment camp was built in the woods of the Rieucros. The population was opposed to this transit camp for anti-fascists and communists. It then became an internment camp exclusively for women. The mayor at the time, , condemned the Vichy regime and the camp in his hometown, where he made sure that children interned with their mother followed a normal education. His hostile words and acts to the regime in place led him to be removed from his post in 1941. He then joined Resistance where he became one of the leaders for the Lozère. Arrested and sent to German camps in 1944, he died during a transfer in 1945.Ideally placed between the Maquis of the Cévennes and the Aubrac, the town was located as well as a centre for the coordination of the Lozère Interior Resistance. As for the population, it protected itself where shelters against aerial bombardments were implemented.From the 1970s, the city had a sizable population growth. The city then extended to the Causse d'Auge. In the 1980s and 1990s, one can also see that the department was depopulating overall, while its prefecture was expanding. Culture and sport took more importance in the life of the city.During the 1990s, the city developed administrative reconciliations with nearby cities. Therefore, it formed the Estelle city network with Aurillac and Rodez. The principle of the network was to share experiences and pool resources to develop such medium-sized cities. Shortly after, it was with other networks that Mende became closer to other cities of the Massif Central. This is the case, for example, with the Cyber Massif network dedicated to the digital opening up of the region.Moreover, since the beginning of the 21st century, Mende had tried to actively participate in the policies of opening up of the Massif Central. The city lies in the Lot Valley and reached an area of in the 2000s. It also seeks to enroll in a sustainable development project, in the image of the department with, among other projects, the construction of a cogeneration plant and the establishment of a network of heat. The timber industry, so important in the economy of the city, could therefore be put to further use. The establishment of bio-energy in the city has also been carried out by the appearance of a wind farm north of the city.Mende is the chef-lieu of the Lozère department: It welcomes in this regard the prefecture and the headquarters of the General Council. The buildings of these two institutions are scattered within the city. A project of the Department Hall to consolidate all services of the General Council is under consideration. The mayor's office is housed in the town hall which dates from the 18th century, however, a large part of the services have been moved to the annex of the mayor's office.This is the old consular house which was used as a city hall of the Revolution until 1852. On that date, Mayor Becamel bought the Pages family mansion located in the "Place d'Angiran". Since then the city hall has been based in this city mansion (listed historical monument) in the square which has become "Place Charles-de-Gaulle", although a part of the services is now located in the annex which faces it. As the cathedral, the city hall also houses the tapestries of Aubusson, classified since 1909.Since 1945, the following were elected mayors of the city of Mende:The city of Mende belongs to the . It was created in December 2001 under the name of "Communauté de communes de la Haute Vallée d'Olt" before changing its name in 2009. The commune being the largest in terms of population, it was its mayor, Jean-Jacques Delmas, who became the first president of the community.The implementation of this community of communes has allowed a transfer of powers. So, all areas of economic activity and sports facilities now fall under the responsibility of the community, rather than the commune itself.However, the actions are much wider since waste treatment also enters the competence of the community. The waste disposal site of the commune lies in the ZAE du Causse d'Auge, north of the city. In this context, unsorted collection is also the responsibility of the community of communes.This community of communes is not the only grouping of communities for the town of Mende. A comprehensive plan was implemented around the label "Pays d'Art et d'Histoire de Mende et Lot en Gévaudan" [Lands of art and history of Mende and Lot in Gevaudan]. These are twenty-two communes which now belong to the Pays d'Art [Lands of Art] which comes in the continuity of the city of art and history label which Mende has had since 1981. The lands comprises four communities: Cœur de Lozère, , and , which is assistant to the Chastel-Nouvel commune.The city is the chef-lieu of two cantons: Mende-1 and Mende-2 since 2015. Mende-1 comprises the northern part of the city, Mende-2 the southern part.Before the Act of paréage of 1307, Mendoise and Gevaudanaise justice was fully devolved to the bishops. This power was shared with the king after the signing of the Act. Power was shared between the various for the communal land, with Mende being in the land of the bishops and Marvejols in lands of the king, and like this until 1789.The courthouse was built between 1833 and 1835. On 18 February 1994, it was the target of a bombing by the FLNC.The tribunal groups together a children's tribunal, a tribunal of commerce, a court and a high court. It depends on the .The city has long held prisons. Current prison was commissioned in 1891. One of the first high-security areas of France was then moved there in 1949. It was at this date that the prison ownership changed, from the State Department. Several personalities have stayed here, the most famous being Jacques Mesrine. André Génovès' film, "Mesrine" released in 1983, also tells of the criminal plan to destroy the QHS. had sought to bring Jacques Mesrine out of prison when he was imprisoned in Mende. This area had also been the target of critics, such as those of the Committee of action of prisoners and Serge Livrozet, in 1975. In 1989, the Mende detention centre was again publicised with the escape of , who managed to escape by threatening guards with a dummy gun. The last prison 'personality' of Mende, , activist of the alongside José Bové, was imprisoned after the case of the McDonald's franchise destruction in Millau.Mende is twinned with:Since 2007, the cities of Wunsiedel and Volterra are also paired together. The twinning with Vila Real (much more populous than the city of Mende) is explained by the fact that a large part of the Portuguese population of Mende, and Lozère in general, is from this region.In contrast to the department of Lozère, the prefecture saw its demographic curve draw increasingly since the French Revolution. If the department was strongly affected by the and the great wars of the 20th century, the city had the presence of its own authorities. This may explain why Mende has not experienced the same trend as Lozère. This table shows the demographic for the town of Mende, but it can be considered that the "bassin Mendois" [Mende area] follows the same trend.In 2017, the commune had 12,134 inhabitants.The Mende population is fairly young taking into account the ageing population of Lozère. Compared with the 1990 census, it is the age group of 15–29 years which has had the greatest increase at the expense of those aged 0–14 and 30–44 years. The number of near-centenarians was also greater in 1999 than in 1990.In Mende, the share of the immigrant population represents about 8% of the total population. They originate mostly from Portugal (mainly from Vila Real), Morocco, Algeria, and Turkey. This being the image of immigration in the region. The Spanish immigration, which was very present in the middle of the twentieth century, has been disappearing since the 1970s.Mende has three nursery schools: "Solelhons" (the small Suns in Occitan), the Chênes school and Fontanilles school. They are in close relations with the primary schools of the Groupe solaire, Annex Michel del Castillo School and Fontanilles School, Jeanne d'Arc School dealing with private education.The public college of Henri-Bourillon is located in the former small seminary, and share places with the Lycée Chaptal. It hosts students from the city as well as a number from other neighbouring municipalities (Badaroux, Barjac, Chanac, Saint-Bauzile, Saint-Étienne-du-Valdonnez, etc.). The private college is the college of . The continuity of private education is at the Lycée Notre-Dame. Another high school, the Lycée Emile Peytavin allows, in addition to general education, technical and vocational education. Finally, now attached to the Lycée Notre-Dame, we find the Private Professional Lycée Plaisance.Institutions of the city are also have one of the best success rates for the Baccalauréat diploma, compared with the other schools in the area, which puts them in the first half best institutions of France.At the level of higher education, Mende welcomes a BTS in its different high schools. An , branch of the University of Perpignan, offers four courses: Multimedia, gerontology, City Council Secretary, and tourism. It is located in the buildings of the former Lamolle barracks, which had housed the . Finally the city also houses a teacher training Institute, an (IFSIL), a and a .The festivities of the town of Mende are held annually in the month of August. They were related to the feast of , on 21 August. They are decorated with a flower parade and the election of "Miss Mende". Then, in September, every other year, Mende hosts its beer festival, with its twin town of Wunsiedel. The city has also several sports events. At the cultural level, the "meetings of writers" were organized at the beginning of the 1990s, in August. They have welcomed regional authors but also renowned authors such as Calixthe Beyala and Michel Folco.The department has a hospital, which opened in 1970. Five of the six services are located in Mende: Guy de Chauliac Hospital, the retirement home, the convalescence centre, the Training Institute in Nursing and boarding school. The sixth branch, another retirement home, is based at Rieutort-de-Randon.The hospital has approximately 70 physicians and 750 health professionals. Moreover, since 2011, it welcomes in its structure the home of the Paul Éluard psychological and psychiatric unit, a branch of the of Saint-Alban-sur-Limagnole.To this one can add 20 physicians, general practitioners and specialists as well as a centre of firefighters. Though, if the implementation of the current hospital is fairly recent, the city has a fairly old hospital story.In the 12th century was the "alms house" for the population. This hospital, located on "Rue Angiran", derived its income from the operation of a mill in the district of La Vernède, as well as donations of the lords of the lands. It was partially destroyed in 1593 during the construction of a nearby citadel. Though the citadel disappeared in 1597, the hospital was not repaired immediately. From 1635 a budget was allocated for the rebuilding of the institution. It would not be built in the same place, and would take the name of "Hospital of Aygues-Passes". In 1677 became and thus Count of Gévaudan. In his first year as bishop, he rebuilt a new hospital which became the "general hospital". In 1702 it enlarged, and at his death he bequeathed it all of his possessions. This hospital, today the Piencourt residence, remained in use until the inauguration of the hospital. Added to this hospital, two establishments existed following periods of epidemics, both which were outside the city. A plague centre, referred to as 'House of God', was established in the district of Janicot. At the Saint-Jean Bridge (now Pont-Roupt), a "maladrerie" was rebuilt in 1242, intended for the accommodation of lepers.Mende is, by its number of licensees and all events, a sports town. Therefore, she was elected twice the by the daily newspaper "L'Équipe" (1988 and 1998) and a finalist in 2011. It is one of only a few cities of France to have achieved this distinction twice.Mende features a sports zone known as the "Complexe sportif de Jean Jacques Delmas" [Sports complex of Jean Jacques Delmas], in honour of his death, having been originally of this project he was the mayor of Mende for 25 years. There are 3 football/rugby pitches (the Stade du Chapitre and 2 training grounds), the semi-Olympic pool, tennis courts, a fitness room, a skate-park, a street-ball court, table-tennis hall and archery/shooting. It is in this complex which the '"Festival of sport" takes place every two years. Chapitre Stadium, enlarged at the Mediterranean Games has 500 seats, but this figure may be largely surpassed during some matches.Installed on the causse d'Auge are three soccer/rugby fields and an athletics track, which came to replace the old track of Mirandol. The Stade de Mirandol had the municipal stadium office until the 1980s. Since 2006, an equestrian centre is also located on the causse, it comes in addition to the aging Sirvens centre located at the exit of the city. Finally, the causse d'Auge was the chosen site, in 2008, for the construction of a new gymnasium, opposite the football fields.Near the Chaptal Lycée and the Henri Bourrillon College is the La Vernède complex. In this area are two gymnasiums, a dojo, a gymnastics Hall, one dance, one climbing (over an area outdoors), a covered petanque pitch and one outdoors. Before the construction of the gymnasium of La Vernède, this place was that of the municipal swimming pool and two tennis courts.Close to other educational institutions, other gyms are installed. There are six in all in the city: La Vernède, Lycée Notre-Dame, Piencourt, Lycée Chaptal, Lycée Théophile Roussel and college Saint-Privat.Many clubs share the facilities of the city. Football club Éveil Mendois evolved in CFA2 during two seasons (2000–01 and 2001–02), its successor, AF Lozère, plays in the (6th division). The Éveil Mendois football club came from the of the same name, founded in 1920. One of the highlights of its history remains a finish in the last 32 of Coupe de France final played opposite Angoulême on 24 January 1999. More recently, Mende moved up to the last 16 of the finals at the 2013 Coupe de France, winning on this occasion the "ranking of the Petits Poucets".The key club is the (formerly Mende Volley Ball) which plays in the Elite division, for the season 2014-2014 (3rd national division). At the top level, the MVL has a title of obtained at the end of the 2008-2009 season and a participation in the third round of the 2010-2011 Coupe de France.Of Rugby union ("Rugby Club Mende Lozère"), it found its place in Fédérale 3 in 2006, but returned to the regional level in the 2010s. The club however already evolved to a higher level a few years previously.The handball team ("Mende Gévaudan Club") is evolving in 2014-2015 in the National 3 France Championship. Finally, the basketball team ("basketball Causses Mendois") was found in 2014-2015 at the regional level. For women there are also handball, volleyball and basketball clubs which are Mendois clubs of highest level.Mende can be granted a special status to orienteering, an individual sport with team competitions. The fact remains that Mende is playing in the elite league of France, and "M. G. C. Pétanque" and its three veteran champions of France in 2007.Sports diversity does not stop there. Mende clubs also include roller hockey ("Les Comets"). Mende is also home to individual sports: Athletics, badminton, cycling, motorcycling, as well as many combat sports clubs.Since the beginning of the 2000s, a sports centre was set up to accompany young high school athletes to prepare for the best level. From the membership of the COL (centre omnisports Lozère), there is (France MTB 2010 downhill champion) and Fanny Lombard (Junior Champion of Europe 2009 and 2010 in the same discipline).Among professional sportspeople born in Mende, is the cyclist Christophe Laurent who shone by winning the jersey for the best climber of the Tour de l'Avenir and the Tour of California.The motorcyclist , winner of the prologue of the Paris-Dakar Rally (1991), also hails from Mende. He was one of the best enduro riders with the palmares of France, and was also vice World champion.Kayaker Brigitte Guibal, Olympic silver medallist in 2000 in Sydney, was also born in Mende.It is in 1988 that Marion Buisson was born in Mende. After making her athletics debut at the "Éveil mendois", she continued her career at Clermont athletics. She became champion of France in the pole vault in , thereby achieving the minimum to participate in the Beijing Summer Olympics.Each year, the , an enduro competition, centres its course on the city of Mende. This race is part of the most renowned of the enduro season and allows, in addition, mixing professional and amateur riders.One month later (July), the city centre is dedicated to foot racing and the arrival of . This race starts from Marvejols, joining Mende by the Col de Goudard and the Côte de Chabrits. It is sometimes used as a preparation marathon for major events (the World Championships, Olympic Games), but is also open to amateurs as the majority of the marathons. Since 2006, the month of July is also marked by the organisation of a national of pétanque.Cycling is also in honour of the city. The hosted the best professionals in the 1970s. Since then, the has seen five stage finishes in the Tour de France (1995, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2018), and stages in the Tour de l'Avenir, the Grand Prix du Midi Libre, the and Paris-Nice. Since 2006 and the rebirth of the Tour du Gévaudan, Mende is judged the final arrival of this amateur race of great importance. In 2008, the event was organised as the "Finale de la Coupe des France des clubs" [final of the Cup of France for clubs]. During the winter, a grand prix of regional cyclo-cross is also organized. The grand departure of the Tour de France VTT 1996, as well as the first two stages, happened at Mende.Mende was also host city of the Mediterranean Games in 1993 by hosting cycling, football and swimming events.In October 2005, the city hosted the 37th national congress of the French hiking federation, Lozère being a popular department for hikers, and is crossed by two of the most important roads of the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Then, in 2007, Mende was the host of a round of the French enduro championships, as well as the final of the Coupe de France rally.In 2008, France welcomed the enduro European grand prix, the final of the World Championship (WEC). It was the town of Alès which was chosen to host the competition. However the organization was forced to give up, and it was finally hosted by Mende on 11 and 12 October 2008. In 2011, the city hosted the Grand Prix of France, final of the World Championship.Mende is the seat of most of the media of Lozére. Thus we find the writings of the Lozère edition of "Midi Libre" and [New Lozère], with regard to the written press.The radio station France Bleu and have their editorial offices in Lozère. While Radio Eaux-Vives Lozère is installed at the former Grand Seminary.The town of Mende is the episcopal seat of Gévaudan and Lozère, religious life has always been linked with its bishops. Also chapter headquarters, Mende has welcomed a large number of canons. A religious brotherhood, the "Brotherhood of the White Penitents" has long existed and has a procession every Holy Thursday since the 17th century. The Tower of the Penitents (called so because it is adjacent to the chapel of the penitents) is one of the last vestiges of the ramparts of the city.The large and small seminaries are traces of the presence of the formation of Catholic priests.The main place of worship is the Cathedral of Notre-Dame and Saint-Privat, built at the request of Pope Urban V, in place of the old church built over the tomb of but the city has many small chapels. One of the oldest is the chapel of Saint-Ilpide, on the hill of the executioner, which however was destroyed and replaced by a small chapel. Two other chapels are no longer used: That of the Penitents (future Museum of Religious Art) and the Chapel of Saint-Dominique (exhibition hall). The Chapel of the Hermitage (on ) and the cave which was drilled alongside, can still be used for offices.The Carmelite convent has existed since 1880 and has hosted a community of Carmelite nuns, which ensures production of altar bread (or wafers) for the diocese (and those nearby). Another Convent is installed in Mende, which is the Adoration of Picpus Convent. At the "Rue de la Chicanette" is installed the Jeanne Delanoue community of the Providence; little used for celebration services, the place is used for meetings between people in the religious world. The community is at the origin of the creation of the institution Notre-Dame-de-la-Providence, a social children's home adjacent to its premises and which hosts minors under administrative and judicial protection. There are of other religious communities, mainly related to private schools and retirement or rest homes.Worship in Mende, due to its history, is very oriented towards Catholicism, but there are other places of worship for other religions. Thus Mende, near of the Cévennes, has a Protestant temple installed in the "Allée Paul Doumer".The city also had a synagogue in the former Jewish quarter, but it has long since been abandoned. This synagogue, also called Ferrier House from the name of one of its former owners, is the last vestige of the Mende ghetto. The Jews were expelled from the Gévaudan in the 14th century, and this synagogue became the (Catholic) college of All Saints until the French Revolution.Whilst counting the presence of a Muslim community, the city has no mosque, but simply an apartment that serves as place of worship.Industrial (wood industry, jewelry), service centre (shops, restaurants, bars), administrative (generates a lot of jobs) and tourism (medieval town, excursions to Gorges du Tarn), Mende is the starting point for the establishment of new businesses in the department, and turned more towards new technologies, with the advent of the technological hub.The city has more than 1300 companies, including about 900 in the commercial sector, and has an unemployment rate of 10.7% (2017).The city has five zones of economic activities (ZAE), each having a rather clearly defined role. The largest is the ZAE of the Causse d'Auge (north of the city), with a mainly industrial orientation in automation or in the management of the wood. The ZI of Gardès, on the road to Badaroux is an industrial area covering public works and mainly the building companies. The ZAE Lou Chaousse and Chabrits (both in the northwest) also have a vocation craft, but more oriented towards the trade for individuals. And finally, the "Pôle lozérien d'économie numérique" (POLeN) is turned to the new technologies.In addition, since the mid-2000s, the de Ramille was created. This area, wedged between the Lot and the RN 88 on the road to Balsièges hosts a commercial zone which has tended to develop. It is without doubt, with the area of the Causse d'Auge, the area of activity that has extended most recently.In the near future a new area of activity should emerge north of Mende, in the commune of Badaroux. This area whose size is expected to reach approximately initially, would be served by the landscaped expressway.If the commune no longer has many farms, the city remains at the centre of a very rural area and is very oriented towards agriculture. Indeed, 54% of the Lozère territory is classified as a "utilised agricultural area". Livestock in the commune is mainly dedicated to the sheep sector, although cattle farms are found located between Mende and neighbouring communes.This attraction to sheep is ancestral to Mende, since the city has long lived wool exploitation, since the 16th century. In 1333 the city already had a brotherhood of the weavers. In 1849, the town was still equipped with five large mills. However, while having a rich textile past, the city now retains no activity.Like the Lozère department, industry in Mende is mainly oriented towards the timber sector: Its operation, its treatment, its derivatives, etc. Another industry that holds an important place in the city is that of construction and public works.Mende is also the seat of the that handles .The city is strongly turned towards the tertiary sector. As said above, a majority of the enterprises of the city are shops. Mende is the centre of an area's population of approximately 20,000 inhabitants around the Lot Valley, the city therefore centralises much of the services. Its quality of prefecture adds to the presence of public service.Tourism has also developed since the end of the 20th century. This openness on tourism translated between 1983 and 2008 by the creation of the office of tourism (municipal and intermunicipal), an increase of 400 beds offered to tourists, the opening of a holiday village and of a youth hostel, but also the creation of activity centre (canoe base, Freestyle Park, etc.). The city has eleven hotels, four with three stars and four having two. To this one can add the holiday village of Chapitre that offers 42 gîtes for rent, as well as two campsites near the Lot.Other businesses are those that can be found in other modern cities (banks, insurance, bakeries, the press houses, clothes, etc.). The city has a supermarket and a hypermarket, as well as several superettes and other discounters. The hypermarket, which is of recent construction, belongs to the Système U group and is located in the new area of activity of Ramilles. The supermarket (Intermarché) is, meanwhile, close to the city centre. Markets, vestiges of the traditional markets of the city are many, taking place on Wednesday (textile, utility, etc.) at "Place Chaptal", and on Saturday mornings (food market) at "Place Chaptal" and "Place Urbain V". In addition, night markets are held during the summer.The main companies in terms of turnover, as well as major private employers are:Since 1981 Mende has been classified as a city of art, and, since 2000, the grouping of "Mende and Lot in the Gévaudan" has the label of "city and land of art and history".Indeed, the city has a rich architectural heritage, witness of the prosperous time related to the papacy.The Cathedral of Saint-Privat (classed as a historical monument in 1906) whose construction began in 1368 at the initiative of Pope Urban V. Its bell towers date back, however, to the 16th century, following the destruction of one of them during the passage of the Huguenots by Matthieu Merle. The large belfry included housing ""Non Pareille"", the largest bell in the world melted between 1517 and 1521 in Villefort and destroyed during the Wars of Religion. There remains only the clapper. The cathedral consists of twelve rectangular chapels, two pentagonal chapels and a sacristy. Originally it was built above the Sainte-Thècle crypt where the body of Saint Privat had been buried. It is located next to the old episcopal palace.The city has many public fountains. Water from the causses thus enters a piping system located beneath the city before joining the Lot. Two of them (Aigues-Passe and Soubeyrand) are classified as historic monuments. Piped water also enters the old wash house of the Calquières, still visible on "Rue d'Angiran".This tower is one of the few remains of the ancient walls of the 12th century. Protecting the Gate of Angiran which was next to it, this tower served as guard for the short-lived Seneschal of Mende. It includes three floors and an attic. This is the installation of the chapel which is adjacent, and especially its bell tower at the top which saved the tower during the destruction of the walls in 1768.Dating back to the 13th century, this bridge is one of the symbols of the city. It has never been carried away by frequent floods in Mende. It formerly went by the name of Peyrenc Bridge, then took the name of Notre Dame due to the presence on its mouth of a Virgin, which disappeared during the Wars of Religion. Its span has a opening and is high.Saint Privat withdrew, in the 3rd century, into caves that he had built over Mende, on . Since his Hermitage was built, it also to allow the pilgrims to go there. It can be accessed either by Way of the Cross (from the market) or by road from the causse (RD 25). At the hermitage, we find a hotel for the reception of the pilgrims, a chapel, grotto and a breakthrough designed to the original cave.The House where the consul sat, since 1578, also served as city hall after the Revolution. On its pediment is found the arms of the city: ""Azure in the Gothic M of or, a shining Sun similarly topped."" Facing it is a trompe-l'œil wall symbolizing the twinning of Mende and Volterra.Located in the northwest of the city, the Bahours locality had two castles, one of which was destroyed in 1960. The remaining one is a strong house (manse) built in the 17th century, possibly on the foundations of a more ancient building. The main interest of this strong house is its kitchen listed as a historical monument, like the whole building.Mende features a municipal theatre and several rooms that can be used to this kind of show. The ancient theatre of the city turned into cinema. A development project involves the construction of a new multicultural hall. In addition, Mende has a departmental library, the Lamartine Library.The ancient theatre of the city, established between 1890 and 1895, was replaced by a cinema. The main room used for the theatre is now the festival hall located at the market. This room, and its natural scenery of arches, is multi-cultural and is the largest in the city in terms of capacity. On the market lies the "antirouille", a municipal building for young people and allowing everyone to have access to the internet, this building has a room to organize concerts.Near the market, along the "Chemin Saint-Ilpide", the Urban V municipal room hosts plays, live shows, and also meetings and projections (world knowledge, for example).Finally as part of the redevelopment of the market (started by the installation of the intercommunal tourism office and the renovation of the Lamartine Library), an auditorium should be created behind the festival hall (the Emile-Joly Square being moved).The Ignon-Fabre Museum (or the Museum of Mende) was located on "Rue de l'Epine" [street of the Holy thorn], at the , where there was installed the first electrification plant of the city. It was however closed due to lack of budget. Before it, a museum was located in a house next to the prison.The Chapel of Saint-Dominique and the current Department Hall can serve as an exhibition space, as can the Chapel of the Penitents and the former consular house.In addition a project of the Museum of , currently under study, should be installed in the Chapel of the Penitents.The poem, written by an author whose story did not retain the name, was confirmed in the 19th century:However, not everyone had a positive vision of the city. It had long had problems with sewage into the modern era, and was denigrated despite its charm:This quote comes perhaps from the conditions in which the geographer of the king came in the city. Like those who would declare to Serge Livrozet that Mende was "capital of Lozère and torture".Those born in Mende, or having a very strong tie with the city include:When King Louis XI granted autonomy to the city, he granted new arms in 1469. An 'L' surmounted by a crown, in gratitude to the king, was added to these in 1475.The current coat of arms dates from the sixteenth century. These weapons were registered in the Armorial General of France in 1697.
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[
"Jean-Jacques Delmas",
"Alain Bertrand",
"Paulin Daudé-Gleize"
] |
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Who was the head of Mende in 26/02/1972?
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February 26, 1972
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{
"text": [
"Henri Trémolet de Villers"
]
}
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L2_Q191772_P6_1
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Paulin Daudé-Gleize is the head of the government of Mende from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1928.
Henri Trémolet de Villers is the head of the government of Mende from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1977.
Jean-Jacques Delmas is the head of the government of Mende from Mar, 1983 to Jan, 2008.
Alain Bertrand is the head of the government of Mende from Mar, 2012 to Dec, 2022.
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Mende, LozèreMende (, ) is a commune and prefecture of the department of Lozère and of the region of Occitanie in southern France. Its inhabitants are called the "Mendois". The city, including the first traces of dwellings date back to 200 BC, was originally named "Mimata", probably in reference to the mountains that surround it.Mende is located between Clermont-Ferrand and Montpellier, but also on the axis of Lyon–Saint-Étienne–Albi–Toulouse. The other important nearby towns are Aurillac and Saint-Flour (Cantal), Le Puy-en-Velay (Haute-Loire), Rodez, Millau (Aveyron) and Alès and Nîmes (Gard).Even though Mende remains a relatively sparsely populated city (approximately 12,000 inhabitants), it remains the most important of the Lozère Department. In addition, it is the city-centre of the unique urban area of this department.It is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mende.Mende is situated in the high valley of the Lot, in a mountainous area, in the "Pays du Gévaudan", the Rieucros stream joins to it on its right bank. The city is overlooked (on the left bank of the Lot) by and its . Access is by the . On the right bank, residential areas extend over different causses, including the "Causse d'Auge". Located on the axis of Lyon-Toulouse, the city has long been a commercial crossroads between the Auvergne, Rhone and the Languedoc.The commune is bordered by Chastel-Nouvel to the north, Badaroux to the east, Lanuéjols to the southeast, Brenoux and Saint-Bauzile to the south, Balsièges to the southwest, and Barjac and Servières to the west.Mende is one of the "gateway cities" (along with Millau, Lodève, Alès and Ganges) for the site of the Causses and Cévennes, of world heritage by UNESCO under the inscription "Les Causses and Cevennes, Mediterranean agro-pastoral cultural landscape".According to the INSEE, Mende is an urban commune without suburbs ("ville isolée" [isolated town]). It lies at the centre of an urban area composed of 15 communes, the only one in the department of Lozère.The town of Mende is built in the Lot Valley, within the area of the . The region of the Causses in Lozère is one of the four of Lozère, with the Margeride, the Aubrac and the Cévennes. The city is nestled in the middle of different Causses which form as natural barriers. However, over the 20th century, urbanisation began to extend beyond these limits.Of the Causses, is the most significant. The causse is overhung by the Cross of . A first wooden cross was planted in 1900 or 1907. It was replaced a few years later, on 8 July 1933, a Jubilee year, by a -high iron cross. Until 1945, this cross was the place of large gatherings in honour of Mendois soldiers. This cross has been illuminated since the summer of 1965. The mount also houses the chapel where Privat, the martyr of the Gévaudan, withdrew to. At its foot lies the area of Vabre where can be found the first remains of houses in the city. Opposite this is the Causse d'Auge (northeast) and the Causse du Crouzet (northwest), and the Margeride mountains beyond. To the west is Causse de Changefège, located between Mende and Barjac, which complements the borders of the city.The geology of the city of Mende is very dependent on the surrounding causses and streams that pass through them. The Mont Mimat and the Causse de Changefège are composed of limestone of the "Grands Causses", thus presenting abrupt edges. The other causses (as well as the butte de Fontanille) are composed of limestone of the "Petits Causses" (without these edges). The Lot Valley is composed of marl. The Valley, in the south of Mende, is full of blue marl, leaving one to presuppose that the marl of the town of Mende would be, in part, of the same origin. Finally, the various streams (the Rieucros) of the causses of the north of the city are lined by mica-schist.The city of Mende was built on the banks of the Lot. But the Lot is not the only presence of water in the city: Indeed, it has several sources, including those of . The most significant of them is located in the Vabre district, close to the first houses. These sources have also often been channeled and feed the underground water system of the city, visible on the surface through numerous fountains and the old wash house. The streets, such as the "Rue du Torrent", attest to the passage of water from Mont Mimat.To the north, on the other side of the Lot, the sources are much more distant, but water is present in the stream known as Rieucros.Mende is subject to an oceanic stream that comes from the Aubrac and Mediterranean and flows from the Cévennes. The department of Lozère, Mende in particular, benefit from insolation (or sunlight) similar to that of Toulouse with approximately 2,069 hours of sunshine per year. The city, away from the mountains that surround it, has a more protected climate than the highlands of Gévaudan: So, average temperatures oscillate between and . With respect to annual precipitation, data for the Lozère is between , depending on the exposure of the regions, with up to 50 days of snow per year.Between 1971 and 2000, monthly rainfall ranged from (March) and (September).In more detail, here are some statements in Mende records since 1985:Mende is located in the centre of the Lozère department and therefore centralises the roads. The city has rail and air access, but the Lot is not navigable (too shallow) as with all the rivers of the department (except for recreational canoeing, or in rare exceptions for the transport of people such as the crossing of the Tarn towards La Malène).Mende is located on the , linking Lyon and Toulouse. The road comes from Balsièges to the west and Badaroux to the east. This axis can be reached easily. Haute-Loire and Ardèche are to the east, via Langogne and Aveyron is to the west via La Canourgue-Banassac, as well as the A75 autoroute. A road doubling project is underway in the department, bypassing Mende from the north. This doubling is however a long project (1993), having had several outlines and some opposition. The project was finally abandoned in October 2012 making Lozère a department without draft dual carriageways on RN 88. Indeed, its neighbours Aveyron and Tarn continue their projects of dual carriageways between Rodez and Toulouse with all expected to be commissioned in December 2015. The work of the Rodez - Séverac section should be completed by the end of 2019. The same will be the case for Haute-Loire, which continues its road access. However, the workarounds of Mende and Langogne are budgeted. These projects in adjacent departments will reach major cities nearby to Mende (Rodez, Albi, Toulouse, Le Puy and even Lyon). Finally, the economic impact or the absence of dual carriageways in Lozere must be assessed in the medium and long term.Furthermore, a viaduct (the Rieucros Viaduct) commissioned in December 2009 will be used to ensure a first bypass of Mende. It connects the industrial area of the Causse d'Auge to the technological centre of Valcroze (and the RD 42) and also helps to relieve the traffic connecting the districts north and northwest of the city.The RN 88 deviation from Mende should be the first from Pelouse to reach up to the Causse d'Auge with an "expressway" configuration. Then it would continue on the D 806 (ex north) to the Rieucros Viaduct, and then a new section of the viaduct to the Mende exit in the hamlet of La Thébaïde (west bypass). These two sections will only be of two lanes. Subsequently, the expressway from the Causse d'Auge will be directly linked to the A 75.Another national road, the RN 106, formerly ran through the city. This name is no longer valid for the section coming from the Gard and joining Mende via Florac (it is then of the RN 88 on the stretch between Balsièges and Mende). The northern part of the road was decommissioned in 2007 and now bears the name of D 806. This stretch goes from Mende to Saint-Chély-d'Apcher (and the A75 autoroute) via Chastel-Nouvel.Secondary access is provided by the RD 42 from the northwest, which joins the RN 88 at Barjac, and by the RD 25 which, passing through the , crosses before arriving at the Valdonnez.Mende features an SNCF railway station, located on the railway line of the , between Le Monastier (the ) and La Bastide - Saint-Laurent-les-Bains (). This line, built at the very beginning of the 20th century, bears the nickname of ""ligne du toit de la France"" [the roof of France line], and Mende is the main railway station. Ten weekly links are provided by rail.The station is also the starting point of the TER connection to Clermont-Ferrand by bus, which is daily.Referred to as TUM (for "Transports Urbains Mendois") the urban transport network is exclusively equipped with buses, which run through the city and some nearby villages (Les Boulaines, Chabrits, Chabannes). Since its establishment in 2000, it has replaced the school bus service. The urban transport network is also responsible for the management of the pay car parks in the city. A part of the city centre is also exclusively pedestrian.The prefecture of the Lozère department shares with the neighbouring village of Brenoux. This airfield, located on , is thus from Clermont-Ferrand, from Montpellier and away from Lyon and Toulouse. Highlights include it being the site of the final scene of the film "La Grande Vadrouille", and also of five stages of the Tour de France (1995, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2018).Furthermore, a Mende-Paris air link was implemented in October 2007. However, the flight was departing from the aerodrome of Le Puy-en-Velay, located from Mende and reached by a shuttle. This connection was born of a desire to open up Mende to air travel, which is indeed late at this level for a prefecture, and has no direct flight to Paris unlike its neighbours Clermont-Ferrand, Rodez, Aurillac or Le Puy-en-Velay.Since the beginning of 2008, a study has been conducted by the CCI of the Lozère department, in order to discuss the possibility of the establishment of a link between the Lozerian prefecture and the regional capital, Montpellier but four years after the launch of this study, no concrete project to date has been presented.Finally, two more major airports with international influence and close to Mende are Clermont-Ferrand Aulnat and Rodez-Aveyron.In the 13th century, the city was concentrated in what is now the city centre, bounded by the boulevards, and formerly the ramparts. It was then split into five sections (or neighbourhoods) known as "pans": Auriac, Aygues-Passe, Champnau, Chastel and Claustres.When it was initially named as such, the Pan d'Auriac was mainly a place of settlement, before becoming the "quartier des pénitents blancs" [district of the white penitents] who settled there. The Pan d'Aygues-Passe (or Aigues-Passe), meaning "water that passes", owes its name to the inclination of its streets, where the water flowed during cleaning. The Pan de Champnau derives its name from "new field", and includes what was a new residential area, at north of the city. The Pan de Chastel is the old commercial district of the city. It is located towards the Chastel Gate, which led then to Chastel-Nouvel, where a castle stood which was property of the bishops. Finally the Pan des Claustres, whose name comes from cloisters, was the largest of the city and is now between the and , i.e. between the two tombs of (the chapel Saint-Ilpide on the hill of the executioner, and the crypt of Sainte-Thècle under the cathedral square).The historic city centre is bordered by boulevards which took the place of the ancient walls. In addition to housing, the centre is mostly occupied by convenience stores and artisans. Beyond the boulevards, there are other houses as well as government buildings. The General Council and the prefecture indeed share the former , but services are scattered throughout the city. "Allée Piencourt" connects downtown roads to Badaroux and Chastel-Nouvel, near the ancient diocese (pré claux and pré vival) having been built.North of the "Allée Piencourt", past the Berlière Bridge, dwellings are present at the foot of the Causse d'Auge. These were established in several instalments over the 19th and 20th centuries, the first of these being Chaldecoste. It is in this part of the city that the large and the small seminary as well as the Convent of Carmel are found. The city extends to the north in the direction of Alteyrac (commune of Chastel-Nouvel). Between these areas and Alteyrac is located the zone of economic activities (ZAE) of the Causse d'Auge. The northern districts often bear names of flowers, this part of the city that historically sheltered gardens and vineyards, along the draille linking the "Plateau du Palais du Roi" [King's Palace Plateau].The causse is bounded by two streams, the Rieucros in the east and the to the west.Above the Badaroux road, on a hill, lies the Fontanilles district. It was originally social housing. At the foot of the hill is the Lycée Notre-Dame, while beyond the district of Saint-Laurent (where one finds traces of history with the presence of a chapel and a windmill) and, later, the Gardès ZAE. In this part, to the west of Gardès, is also the village of Sirvens where traces of a Gallo-Roman villa were discovered.Stuck between Fontanille, Mont Mimat and the city centre, are districts located roadside above pré claux. In this area are located the centre of firefighters, the Château of Bellesagne and the former gendarmerie. The market is also in this area, but more to the east than the precedents cited (beyond the boulevards, however). Above it lies the Vabre district and Hill of the Executioner where the first traces of dwellings of the city were found. Also nearby is the city's prison.In the westerly direction, found the District of Le Chapitre with the sports complex and the holiday village. This area is at the foot of a portion of the Causse de Changefège, where homes are installed along the Chabrits road ("Avenue du 11-Novembre", north-west of the city). It is in this part of the city which the district of Valcroze is found (new in the 19th century), the Chabrits ZAE and technology park.The other side of the Lot, along the , is found the avenue of the Gorges du Tarn and the area of Ramille. It is in this part where retail establishments are found. The Ramille zone saw the introduction, despite some criticism about the instability of the ground, of the hypermarket of the department, as well as a commercial area.On the map are the main roads of the city. To the west, the RN 88 is joined to Balsièges, passing through the Rocher de Moïse (classified site) located at the left end. To the northwest, it is the hamlet of Chabannes, and further to Chabrits. To the south, is found, where the new cross stands which symbolically marks the top of the hill (although it continues a little higher). This road leads to the Hermitage of , at the cross of the same name and the route of Valdonnez (Lanuéjols, Brenoux, Saint-Bauzile).To the east, Fontanille district is on a hillock, circumvented by the Lot. Behind lies the district of Saint-Laurent, then the ZAE de Gardès (and the village of the same name) and the village of Sirvens. Following the RN 88, one reaches Badaroux. Finally to the north, is the area of the Chaldecoste (broken down into several districts: Bergerie, Chanteperdrix, Vignette, etc.) where one can reach the ZAE du causse d'Auge. Further to the north, one finds Chastel-Nouvel before returning to the ground of and the "Plateau du Palais du Roi". The drinking water of the city of Mende comes from this direction, because of the Lac de Charpal reservoir, which is the main source.In 2017, Mende had 6,851 residences for an official population of 12,134 people. 87% of them are primary residences and 6.1% of secondary residences, which contrasts sharply with the figure of the Lozère department amounting to a 32.3% share of secondary housing.The population has been growing for several years, and the city has acquired new quarters over the years: Chaldecoste and Chanteperdrix in the 1970s, La Bergerie in the 1990s, and Valcroze in the 2000s. The city has 17.9% of HLM-type accommodations.59% of dwellings have four rooms or more and 19% have three rooms. The city is composed of many individual homes, small and large dwellings remaining in the minority. However, one can see that between 1990 and 1999 there was an increase of 85.3% of dwellings of one or two rooms. This can partly be explained by the development of higher education, with the branch of the University of Perpignan.The region is an ancient site of settlement dating back to the Bronze Age, although the capital of the Gévaudan, the Gallic period then Gallo-Roman, was Anderitum. Found in the ancient texts are the names of "Mimate", "Mimata" (mountain), which refer to this town at the foot of "Mons Mimatensis" (). In the same spirit, another name circulating is that of "Viculus Mimatensis" (or "Vicus Mimatensis"). It is the city which gave its name to Mont Mimat ("mount of the Mendois", literally) and not vice versa.Traces of dwellings dating from 200 BC were found, ancient Roman "villae", as well as around the city. However, residents could have been be domiciled here well before. Indeed, on Mont Mimat to Chapieu, a dolmen was found around 1913 including a trepanned skull. The other surrounding plateaux also attest this presence with other dolmens (on the Causse de Changefege for example). These remains may date from the Chalcolithic period.The city, strictly speaking, dates from the Middle Ages, and it is not found cited at the end of the 6th century by Gregory of Tours in his "Histoire des Francs". This text speaks of the martyrdom of , the first bishop of the Gabali, who was the origin of a pilgrimage to the hermitage and the caves where he had retired. Mende in the 3rd century was then only a village. The history of Privat is thus situated around the 3rd century, while he was sent by Austromoine to evangelize the Gévaudan. It was during this period that the Alemanni invaded the country, guided by their leader, Chrocus.The Gabali took refuge in the fortress of Grèzes where they were under siege for two years. Their bishop, Privat, was meanwhile in one of the caves of Mont Mimat which he had converted into a hermitage. When Chrocus learned that the bishop was not among his people, he went looking for him to use as a hostage in order to get the Gabali to leave Grèzes. Privat was martyred at his cave on near the village of Mimate. Presented to the Gabali, he refused to deliver his people despite all the barbaric tortures to which he was subjected (according to Gregory of Tours:""The good shepherd refused to deliver his sheep to wolves, and they tried to force his to sacrifice to demons""). Exhausted, the Alemanni would leave the Gabali free, by promising them peace. Privat succumbed to his injuries in the following days. His act of resistance, refusing to deliver his compatriots, thus earned him great popular fervour, and it was around his tomb and his hermitage that pilgrimage began, allowing the village to grow.In the 12th century Gévaudan was part of the County of Barcelona. In Mende, the counties have a castle, the castel frag. Three other lords had their castle around the Romanesque church: That of Canilhac (who owned the archtreasurer rights of the church), that of Cabrières (who was granted rights of archdeacon) and Dolan (who administered and ruled the episcopal home during the interregnum of bishops). In 1161, Mende, who was under the suzerainty of the King of France, saw his Bishop get the royal rights. It was the golden bull, an act signed by the king and marked with a royal seal in gold, which contained the terms of this agreement. It thus gave Aldebert and his successors, in perpetuity, the Royal power and the full powers of justice on the inhabitants of the bishopric. This fact is quite rare because only four golden bulls in six centuries were granted by the Kings of France.It was from this time that the city walls were built. Aldebert wished to protect the city and secure channels that lead there. he recovered and also built the fortress of Chapieu on , and was done so that it could accommodate a garrison. This allowed the monitoring of the direct route between Mont Lozère and Villefort, in other words towards the Regordane Way, trade route.At that time, however, Mende was not provided the civil and religious capital of Gévaudan. In fact the power was always dependent of two entities: The county and Viscount of Grèzes. The Viscount, property of the King of Aragon, was recovered by the King of France in 1258. The bishop had great power as a vassal, but he didn't have the total legitimacy of some Royal officials. This situation ended from 1307 with the Act of paréage between Bishop Guillaume VI Durand and King Philip IV. Indeed, it definitively fixed the possessions of the king and those of the bishop, even if some disputes persisted.During the Hundred Years' War security increased with the strengthening of the fortifications and the construction of ditches to 1361-1362. At that time, the chapter of Mende had a castle on the heights of the city, Chastel-Nouvel. In 1370 many locals felt safe from the ramparts of the city, despite threats from the routiers. Also, few of them took refuge in Chastel-Nouvel. But the walls were insufficient, and could not prevent the pillages. This period isolated Mende from its neighbours, including Le Puy-en-Velay, and waited the arrival of the Constable of France, Bertrand du Guesclin, then the intervention of Charles VI and the liberation of the region so that the roads reopened around 1452.In 1390, was in Mende, where John III of Armagnac sought, on behalf of the King of France, to put an end to the private war that Raymond de Turenne led against the Pope from Avignon. The Gascon signed as a witness to an agreement between the legate of Clement VII, Antoine de Lisa, , and a representative of the Viscount of Turenne. This interview of Mende helped the Florentines to send ambassadors to solicit the Count of Armagnac. He was proposed to cross the Alps and attack the Count of Vertus in Lombardy.It was also at this time that blessed Pope Urban V began the work of the cathedral (1368), for a completion in 1467. By its letters patent, King Louis XI confirmed the privileges for this cathedral, granted by his predecessors, in September 1464.At the beginning of the 1470s, conflict erupted between Bishop and King Louis XI, because of the support that the bishop had given to the County of Armagnac when it had revolted. To counter it, the king subtracted La Panouse authority over the city which then became autonomous. It wasn't until 1478 that the bishops found authority over the city, sharing revenues with the consul.At the end of the Hundred Years' War, Mende developed its production of drapery, and thus increased its role as a commercial crossroads between the Languedoc and Auvergne, exporting its fame. It is estimated that in the 16th century Mende was one of the richest dioceses of Languedoc before Montpellier and Toulouse. This wealth of the diocese reinforced the ecclesiastical power. Thus among the list of the bishops of the time one can count a number from the family of the Pope. Giuliano della Rovere was ordained bishop of Mende, although he never visited in the capital of Gévaudan (practice known as commendation). His nephews, Clement and , succeeded him in this position. During his tenure, François adorned the cathedral with its bell towers, which one hosted the "Non Pareille", the largest bell in the world.In October 1485, when Clement de La Rovere came to the episcopal seat, old quarrels between the consul and the bishopric re-emerged, first mentioned with fear of losing this privilege. Thus they barricaded the gates of Mende, so that the bishop could not access. At this time the bishops primarily used their Balsièges Castle as a residence (that of Chanac being the summer residence). In vain as the Della Rovere family covered the full authority by notice of the king in 1492. The title of consul was held in place of the traditional title of trustee.In the 16th century, the main events were the Reformation and the Wars of Religion which resulted. On 21 July 1562, 4,000 Protestants got within the walls of the city. They destroyed the unprotected monuments and besieged the city by depriving it of water. They withdrew four days later, largely due to being given 2,000 ecus. This ransom ensured the city a few years of peace.During the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, Astorg de Peyre was murdered in the king's room: his widow then hired a young man, Matthieu Merle to avenge the death of her husband. From 1569 to 1576 he held with his troops the fortress of Grèzes where he gradually seized the north of Gévaudan. From 1577 he moved with his troops to Marvejols intending to seize Mende, although not ceasing his conquests to the north, he failed however in August 1578 at Saint-flour. The night of Christmas 1579, to enter the city, Merle's soldiers expected that the people of Mendes were at midnight mass.During his stay in Mende, Merle made further fortification to the city, not hesitating razing 120 homes to restore the ramparts. In February 1581, while he ruled all the Gévaudan, he enforced the threat he had made to the people. He had in fact asked them to deliver 4,000 ecus, a sum that the Mendois could not collect. He partially destroyed Mende Cathedral built by Pope Urban V. He saved a bell tower to avoid damaging the episcopal palace where his home was established. It was at this time that the "Non Pareille" was melted, the biggest bell in the world, to manufacture culverins and other cannonballs. The city was liberated on bail that year thanks to the intervention of the King of Navarre.The city liberated, a seneschal was created to ensure the peace. Response to the attack of Merle was organised in 1586 against the town of Marvejols, led by baron de Saint-Vidal. It was during this response that the Peyre fortress disappeared from the rock of Peyre. The seneschal took its place. The Tower of Auriac, today known as the Tower of Penitents, was built to accommodate one hundred soldiers. The seneschal gradually took precedence over the diocese, which called for the help of the Duke of Languedoc in 1597. It was after this episode that the Seneschal of Mende disappeared.The beginning of the 17th century was coloured by the work of reconstruction of the cathedral for an inauguration in 1605, although work had lasted until 1629. Far from the splendour of the original, while taking up the same plane, this new cathedral was characterised by a bell tower which was smaller than the other.Between 1645 and 1660, the city was the scene of strife between two rival factions: The Marmaux and the Catharinaux, all members of the consuls or the bourgeoisie, but not having the same opinion on the importance of episcopal power, the latter being opposed. The bishop was also the target of an attack while he officiated in Mende Cathedral in 1645 (he was actually not touched). After several trials, it was not without difficulty that the kingdom gave back his ancestral power, the consul remaining under his control.At the end of the century, landscaped a lane which joined to the Lot (since known as ""Allée Piencourt"") and especially acquired the Aubusson tapestries for the episcopal palace. These tapestries, classified, since adorn the cathedral. It was also behind the early educational development in the city and contributed to the building of the hospital. It also made the hospital its heir, allowing it to develop.In 1702, the war of the Camisards was triggered in the Cévennes. Mende somewhat landscaped its walls in order to prevent any attack. However, this war which began with the murder of Father du Chayla at Le Pont-de-Montvert never reached Mende.In 1721, the Great Plague arrived in Gévaudan affecting the town of Mende with an amount of 1,078 victims in one year. Two generations later, the walls were removed (in 1768), "so the air circulates better".Once all these troubles passed, the city redeveloped its economy around wool and sheep farming. The city extended a little bit under the development of the appearance of the mills, and its first factory. In 1754, Mende saw Louis Mandrin the famous brigand, who lodged in a house there and, according to legend, hid treasure.Between 1764 and 1767, Mende was the witness the comings and goings of the wolf-hunters of the king, who came to seek rest in the city before returning to hunt the beast which was terrorising the north of the country. It was seen close to Mende, once at Pailhou and between Rieutort-de-Randon and Chastel-Nouvel but remained primarily in Margeride. At this time the quarrel between the consul and the bishop was brought up to date by the edict on municipal organizations. The burghers and nobles opposed, but the bishop finally retained power in 1771.During the French Revolution, Mende had to share with Marvejols the function of department capital of Gévaudan. This was renamed in the Lozère department in 1790, and the guardianship of the church disappeared in 1791, thus putting an end to the paréage of 1307. Mende was the scene of small counter-revolutionary clashes, but without great effects. It became the sole capital shortly after.In 1800, the prefect settled in the city, and the prefecture occupies the episcopal palace after the sale of the property of the church. In the middle of the 19th century, the causses around Mende are planted with Austrian black pine, this national forest has continued since then. The choice of black pine was due to its ease of acclimation, and its robustness. The presence of this forest often protected Mende from floods.Then the railway appeared in the prefecture, then linking to Sévérac-le-Château (3 May 1884). The railway line follows the Lot to cross the city, and also continues to follow, like the newly created road. In 1887 the old episcopal palace disappeared in flames, the prefecture had to be rebuilt.On 8 April 1888 Mende became one of the first cities in France, and the first chef-lieu to have electric lighting. The plant was installed in the old .The twentieth century was marked by a beginning of economic decline. The gradual end of the wool industry, the First and the Second World War depopulated the city. Between 1931 and 1934 baths are built, since becoming the Home, and located on the market square. The building was destroyed in summer 2013, to be replaced by a multi-cultural hall.In 1939, shortly before World War II, an internment camp was built in the woods of the Rieucros. The population was opposed to this transit camp for anti-fascists and communists. It then became an internment camp exclusively for women. The mayor at the time, , condemned the Vichy regime and the camp in his hometown, where he made sure that children interned with their mother followed a normal education. His hostile words and acts to the regime in place led him to be removed from his post in 1941. He then joined Resistance where he became one of the leaders for the Lozère. Arrested and sent to German camps in 1944, he died during a transfer in 1945.Ideally placed between the Maquis of the Cévennes and the Aubrac, the town was located as well as a centre for the coordination of the Lozère Interior Resistance. As for the population, it protected itself where shelters against aerial bombardments were implemented.From the 1970s, the city had a sizable population growth. The city then extended to the Causse d'Auge. In the 1980s and 1990s, one can also see that the department was depopulating overall, while its prefecture was expanding. Culture and sport took more importance in the life of the city.During the 1990s, the city developed administrative reconciliations with nearby cities. Therefore, it formed the Estelle city network with Aurillac and Rodez. The principle of the network was to share experiences and pool resources to develop such medium-sized cities. Shortly after, it was with other networks that Mende became closer to other cities of the Massif Central. This is the case, for example, with the Cyber Massif network dedicated to the digital opening up of the region.Moreover, since the beginning of the 21st century, Mende had tried to actively participate in the policies of opening up of the Massif Central. The city lies in the Lot Valley and reached an area of in the 2000s. It also seeks to enroll in a sustainable development project, in the image of the department with, among other projects, the construction of a cogeneration plant and the establishment of a network of heat. The timber industry, so important in the economy of the city, could therefore be put to further use. The establishment of bio-energy in the city has also been carried out by the appearance of a wind farm north of the city.Mende is the chef-lieu of the Lozère department: It welcomes in this regard the prefecture and the headquarters of the General Council. The buildings of these two institutions are scattered within the city. A project of the Department Hall to consolidate all services of the General Council is under consideration. The mayor's office is housed in the town hall which dates from the 18th century, however, a large part of the services have been moved to the annex of the mayor's office.This is the old consular house which was used as a city hall of the Revolution until 1852. On that date, Mayor Becamel bought the Pages family mansion located in the "Place d'Angiran". Since then the city hall has been based in this city mansion (listed historical monument) in the square which has become "Place Charles-de-Gaulle", although a part of the services is now located in the annex which faces it. As the cathedral, the city hall also houses the tapestries of Aubusson, classified since 1909.Since 1945, the following were elected mayors of the city of Mende:The city of Mende belongs to the . It was created in December 2001 under the name of "Communauté de communes de la Haute Vallée d'Olt" before changing its name in 2009. The commune being the largest in terms of population, it was its mayor, Jean-Jacques Delmas, who became the first president of the community.The implementation of this community of communes has allowed a transfer of powers. So, all areas of economic activity and sports facilities now fall under the responsibility of the community, rather than the commune itself.However, the actions are much wider since waste treatment also enters the competence of the community. The waste disposal site of the commune lies in the ZAE du Causse d'Auge, north of the city. In this context, unsorted collection is also the responsibility of the community of communes.This community of communes is not the only grouping of communities for the town of Mende. A comprehensive plan was implemented around the label "Pays d'Art et d'Histoire de Mende et Lot en Gévaudan" [Lands of art and history of Mende and Lot in Gevaudan]. These are twenty-two communes which now belong to the Pays d'Art [Lands of Art] which comes in the continuity of the city of art and history label which Mende has had since 1981. The lands comprises four communities: Cœur de Lozère, , and , which is assistant to the Chastel-Nouvel commune.The city is the chef-lieu of two cantons: Mende-1 and Mende-2 since 2015. Mende-1 comprises the northern part of the city, Mende-2 the southern part.Before the Act of paréage of 1307, Mendoise and Gevaudanaise justice was fully devolved to the bishops. This power was shared with the king after the signing of the Act. Power was shared between the various for the communal land, with Mende being in the land of the bishops and Marvejols in lands of the king, and like this until 1789.The courthouse was built between 1833 and 1835. On 18 February 1994, it was the target of a bombing by the FLNC.The tribunal groups together a children's tribunal, a tribunal of commerce, a court and a high court. It depends on the .The city has long held prisons. Current prison was commissioned in 1891. One of the first high-security areas of France was then moved there in 1949. It was at this date that the prison ownership changed, from the State Department. Several personalities have stayed here, the most famous being Jacques Mesrine. André Génovès' film, "Mesrine" released in 1983, also tells of the criminal plan to destroy the QHS. had sought to bring Jacques Mesrine out of prison when he was imprisoned in Mende. This area had also been the target of critics, such as those of the Committee of action of prisoners and Serge Livrozet, in 1975. In 1989, the Mende detention centre was again publicised with the escape of , who managed to escape by threatening guards with a dummy gun. The last prison 'personality' of Mende, , activist of the alongside José Bové, was imprisoned after the case of the McDonald's franchise destruction in Millau.Mende is twinned with:Since 2007, the cities of Wunsiedel and Volterra are also paired together. The twinning with Vila Real (much more populous than the city of Mende) is explained by the fact that a large part of the Portuguese population of Mende, and Lozère in general, is from this region.In contrast to the department of Lozère, the prefecture saw its demographic curve draw increasingly since the French Revolution. If the department was strongly affected by the and the great wars of the 20th century, the city had the presence of its own authorities. This may explain why Mende has not experienced the same trend as Lozère. This table shows the demographic for the town of Mende, but it can be considered that the "bassin Mendois" [Mende area] follows the same trend.In 2017, the commune had 12,134 inhabitants.The Mende population is fairly young taking into account the ageing population of Lozère. Compared with the 1990 census, it is the age group of 15–29 years which has had the greatest increase at the expense of those aged 0–14 and 30–44 years. The number of near-centenarians was also greater in 1999 than in 1990.In Mende, the share of the immigrant population represents about 8% of the total population. They originate mostly from Portugal (mainly from Vila Real), Morocco, Algeria, and Turkey. This being the image of immigration in the region. The Spanish immigration, which was very present in the middle of the twentieth century, has been disappearing since the 1970s.Mende has three nursery schools: "Solelhons" (the small Suns in Occitan), the Chênes school and Fontanilles school. They are in close relations with the primary schools of the Groupe solaire, Annex Michel del Castillo School and Fontanilles School, Jeanne d'Arc School dealing with private education.The public college of Henri-Bourillon is located in the former small seminary, and share places with the Lycée Chaptal. It hosts students from the city as well as a number from other neighbouring municipalities (Badaroux, Barjac, Chanac, Saint-Bauzile, Saint-Étienne-du-Valdonnez, etc.). The private college is the college of . The continuity of private education is at the Lycée Notre-Dame. Another high school, the Lycée Emile Peytavin allows, in addition to general education, technical and vocational education. Finally, now attached to the Lycée Notre-Dame, we find the Private Professional Lycée Plaisance.Institutions of the city are also have one of the best success rates for the Baccalauréat diploma, compared with the other schools in the area, which puts them in the first half best institutions of France.At the level of higher education, Mende welcomes a BTS in its different high schools. An , branch of the University of Perpignan, offers four courses: Multimedia, gerontology, City Council Secretary, and tourism. It is located in the buildings of the former Lamolle barracks, which had housed the . Finally the city also houses a teacher training Institute, an (IFSIL), a and a .The festivities of the town of Mende are held annually in the month of August. They were related to the feast of , on 21 August. They are decorated with a flower parade and the election of "Miss Mende". Then, in September, every other year, Mende hosts its beer festival, with its twin town of Wunsiedel. The city has also several sports events. At the cultural level, the "meetings of writers" were organized at the beginning of the 1990s, in August. They have welcomed regional authors but also renowned authors such as Calixthe Beyala and Michel Folco.The department has a hospital, which opened in 1970. Five of the six services are located in Mende: Guy de Chauliac Hospital, the retirement home, the convalescence centre, the Training Institute in Nursing and boarding school. The sixth branch, another retirement home, is based at Rieutort-de-Randon.The hospital has approximately 70 physicians and 750 health professionals. Moreover, since 2011, it welcomes in its structure the home of the Paul Éluard psychological and psychiatric unit, a branch of the of Saint-Alban-sur-Limagnole.To this one can add 20 physicians, general practitioners and specialists as well as a centre of firefighters. Though, if the implementation of the current hospital is fairly recent, the city has a fairly old hospital story.In the 12th century was the "alms house" for the population. This hospital, located on "Rue Angiran", derived its income from the operation of a mill in the district of La Vernède, as well as donations of the lords of the lands. It was partially destroyed in 1593 during the construction of a nearby citadel. Though the citadel disappeared in 1597, the hospital was not repaired immediately. From 1635 a budget was allocated for the rebuilding of the institution. It would not be built in the same place, and would take the name of "Hospital of Aygues-Passes". In 1677 became and thus Count of Gévaudan. In his first year as bishop, he rebuilt a new hospital which became the "general hospital". In 1702 it enlarged, and at his death he bequeathed it all of his possessions. This hospital, today the Piencourt residence, remained in use until the inauguration of the hospital. Added to this hospital, two establishments existed following periods of epidemics, both which were outside the city. A plague centre, referred to as 'House of God', was established in the district of Janicot. At the Saint-Jean Bridge (now Pont-Roupt), a "maladrerie" was rebuilt in 1242, intended for the accommodation of lepers.Mende is, by its number of licensees and all events, a sports town. Therefore, she was elected twice the by the daily newspaper "L'Équipe" (1988 and 1998) and a finalist in 2011. It is one of only a few cities of France to have achieved this distinction twice.Mende features a sports zone known as the "Complexe sportif de Jean Jacques Delmas" [Sports complex of Jean Jacques Delmas], in honour of his death, having been originally of this project he was the mayor of Mende for 25 years. There are 3 football/rugby pitches (the Stade du Chapitre and 2 training grounds), the semi-Olympic pool, tennis courts, a fitness room, a skate-park, a street-ball court, table-tennis hall and archery/shooting. It is in this complex which the '"Festival of sport" takes place every two years. Chapitre Stadium, enlarged at the Mediterranean Games has 500 seats, but this figure may be largely surpassed during some matches.Installed on the causse d'Auge are three soccer/rugby fields and an athletics track, which came to replace the old track of Mirandol. The Stade de Mirandol had the municipal stadium office until the 1980s. Since 2006, an equestrian centre is also located on the causse, it comes in addition to the aging Sirvens centre located at the exit of the city. Finally, the causse d'Auge was the chosen site, in 2008, for the construction of a new gymnasium, opposite the football fields.Near the Chaptal Lycée and the Henri Bourrillon College is the La Vernède complex. In this area are two gymnasiums, a dojo, a gymnastics Hall, one dance, one climbing (over an area outdoors), a covered petanque pitch and one outdoors. Before the construction of the gymnasium of La Vernède, this place was that of the municipal swimming pool and two tennis courts.Close to other educational institutions, other gyms are installed. There are six in all in the city: La Vernède, Lycée Notre-Dame, Piencourt, Lycée Chaptal, Lycée Théophile Roussel and college Saint-Privat.Many clubs share the facilities of the city. Football club Éveil Mendois evolved in CFA2 during two seasons (2000–01 and 2001–02), its successor, AF Lozère, plays in the (6th division). The Éveil Mendois football club came from the of the same name, founded in 1920. One of the highlights of its history remains a finish in the last 32 of Coupe de France final played opposite Angoulême on 24 January 1999. More recently, Mende moved up to the last 16 of the finals at the 2013 Coupe de France, winning on this occasion the "ranking of the Petits Poucets".The key club is the (formerly Mende Volley Ball) which plays in the Elite division, for the season 2014-2014 (3rd national division). At the top level, the MVL has a title of obtained at the end of the 2008-2009 season and a participation in the third round of the 2010-2011 Coupe de France.Of Rugby union ("Rugby Club Mende Lozère"), it found its place in Fédérale 3 in 2006, but returned to the regional level in the 2010s. The club however already evolved to a higher level a few years previously.The handball team ("Mende Gévaudan Club") is evolving in 2014-2015 in the National 3 France Championship. Finally, the basketball team ("basketball Causses Mendois") was found in 2014-2015 at the regional level. For women there are also handball, volleyball and basketball clubs which are Mendois clubs of highest level.Mende can be granted a special status to orienteering, an individual sport with team competitions. The fact remains that Mende is playing in the elite league of France, and "M. G. C. Pétanque" and its three veteran champions of France in 2007.Sports diversity does not stop there. Mende clubs also include roller hockey ("Les Comets"). Mende is also home to individual sports: Athletics, badminton, cycling, motorcycling, as well as many combat sports clubs.Since the beginning of the 2000s, a sports centre was set up to accompany young high school athletes to prepare for the best level. From the membership of the COL (centre omnisports Lozère), there is (France MTB 2010 downhill champion) and Fanny Lombard (Junior Champion of Europe 2009 and 2010 in the same discipline).Among professional sportspeople born in Mende, is the cyclist Christophe Laurent who shone by winning the jersey for the best climber of the Tour de l'Avenir and the Tour of California.The motorcyclist , winner of the prologue of the Paris-Dakar Rally (1991), also hails from Mende. He was one of the best enduro riders with the palmares of France, and was also vice World champion.Kayaker Brigitte Guibal, Olympic silver medallist in 2000 in Sydney, was also born in Mende.It is in 1988 that Marion Buisson was born in Mende. After making her athletics debut at the "Éveil mendois", she continued her career at Clermont athletics. She became champion of France in the pole vault in , thereby achieving the minimum to participate in the Beijing Summer Olympics.Each year, the , an enduro competition, centres its course on the city of Mende. This race is part of the most renowned of the enduro season and allows, in addition, mixing professional and amateur riders.One month later (July), the city centre is dedicated to foot racing and the arrival of . This race starts from Marvejols, joining Mende by the Col de Goudard and the Côte de Chabrits. It is sometimes used as a preparation marathon for major events (the World Championships, Olympic Games), but is also open to amateurs as the majority of the marathons. Since 2006, the month of July is also marked by the organisation of a national of pétanque.Cycling is also in honour of the city. The hosted the best professionals in the 1970s. Since then, the has seen five stage finishes in the Tour de France (1995, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2018), and stages in the Tour de l'Avenir, the Grand Prix du Midi Libre, the and Paris-Nice. Since 2006 and the rebirth of the Tour du Gévaudan, Mende is judged the final arrival of this amateur race of great importance. In 2008, the event was organised as the "Finale de la Coupe des France des clubs" [final of the Cup of France for clubs]. During the winter, a grand prix of regional cyclo-cross is also organized. The grand departure of the Tour de France VTT 1996, as well as the first two stages, happened at Mende.Mende was also host city of the Mediterranean Games in 1993 by hosting cycling, football and swimming events.In October 2005, the city hosted the 37th national congress of the French hiking federation, Lozère being a popular department for hikers, and is crossed by two of the most important roads of the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Then, in 2007, Mende was the host of a round of the French enduro championships, as well as the final of the Coupe de France rally.In 2008, France welcomed the enduro European grand prix, the final of the World Championship (WEC). It was the town of Alès which was chosen to host the competition. However the organization was forced to give up, and it was finally hosted by Mende on 11 and 12 October 2008. In 2011, the city hosted the Grand Prix of France, final of the World Championship.Mende is the seat of most of the media of Lozére. Thus we find the writings of the Lozère edition of "Midi Libre" and [New Lozère], with regard to the written press.The radio station France Bleu and have their editorial offices in Lozère. While Radio Eaux-Vives Lozère is installed at the former Grand Seminary.The town of Mende is the episcopal seat of Gévaudan and Lozère, religious life has always been linked with its bishops. Also chapter headquarters, Mende has welcomed a large number of canons. A religious brotherhood, the "Brotherhood of the White Penitents" has long existed and has a procession every Holy Thursday since the 17th century. The Tower of the Penitents (called so because it is adjacent to the chapel of the penitents) is one of the last vestiges of the ramparts of the city.The large and small seminaries are traces of the presence of the formation of Catholic priests.The main place of worship is the Cathedral of Notre-Dame and Saint-Privat, built at the request of Pope Urban V, in place of the old church built over the tomb of but the city has many small chapels. One of the oldest is the chapel of Saint-Ilpide, on the hill of the executioner, which however was destroyed and replaced by a small chapel. Two other chapels are no longer used: That of the Penitents (future Museum of Religious Art) and the Chapel of Saint-Dominique (exhibition hall). The Chapel of the Hermitage (on ) and the cave which was drilled alongside, can still be used for offices.The Carmelite convent has existed since 1880 and has hosted a community of Carmelite nuns, which ensures production of altar bread (or wafers) for the diocese (and those nearby). Another Convent is installed in Mende, which is the Adoration of Picpus Convent. At the "Rue de la Chicanette" is installed the Jeanne Delanoue community of the Providence; little used for celebration services, the place is used for meetings between people in the religious world. The community is at the origin of the creation of the institution Notre-Dame-de-la-Providence, a social children's home adjacent to its premises and which hosts minors under administrative and judicial protection. There are of other religious communities, mainly related to private schools and retirement or rest homes.Worship in Mende, due to its history, is very oriented towards Catholicism, but there are other places of worship for other religions. Thus Mende, near of the Cévennes, has a Protestant temple installed in the "Allée Paul Doumer".The city also had a synagogue in the former Jewish quarter, but it has long since been abandoned. This synagogue, also called Ferrier House from the name of one of its former owners, is the last vestige of the Mende ghetto. The Jews were expelled from the Gévaudan in the 14th century, and this synagogue became the (Catholic) college of All Saints until the French Revolution.Whilst counting the presence of a Muslim community, the city has no mosque, but simply an apartment that serves as place of worship.Industrial (wood industry, jewelry), service centre (shops, restaurants, bars), administrative (generates a lot of jobs) and tourism (medieval town, excursions to Gorges du Tarn), Mende is the starting point for the establishment of new businesses in the department, and turned more towards new technologies, with the advent of the technological hub.The city has more than 1300 companies, including about 900 in the commercial sector, and has an unemployment rate of 10.7% (2017).The city has five zones of economic activities (ZAE), each having a rather clearly defined role. The largest is the ZAE of the Causse d'Auge (north of the city), with a mainly industrial orientation in automation or in the management of the wood. The ZI of Gardès, on the road to Badaroux is an industrial area covering public works and mainly the building companies. The ZAE Lou Chaousse and Chabrits (both in the northwest) also have a vocation craft, but more oriented towards the trade for individuals. And finally, the "Pôle lozérien d'économie numérique" (POLeN) is turned to the new technologies.In addition, since the mid-2000s, the de Ramille was created. This area, wedged between the Lot and the RN 88 on the road to Balsièges hosts a commercial zone which has tended to develop. It is without doubt, with the area of the Causse d'Auge, the area of activity that has extended most recently.In the near future a new area of activity should emerge north of Mende, in the commune of Badaroux. This area whose size is expected to reach approximately initially, would be served by the landscaped expressway.If the commune no longer has many farms, the city remains at the centre of a very rural area and is very oriented towards agriculture. Indeed, 54% of the Lozère territory is classified as a "utilised agricultural area". Livestock in the commune is mainly dedicated to the sheep sector, although cattle farms are found located between Mende and neighbouring communes.This attraction to sheep is ancestral to Mende, since the city has long lived wool exploitation, since the 16th century. In 1333 the city already had a brotherhood of the weavers. In 1849, the town was still equipped with five large mills. However, while having a rich textile past, the city now retains no activity.Like the Lozère department, industry in Mende is mainly oriented towards the timber sector: Its operation, its treatment, its derivatives, etc. Another industry that holds an important place in the city is that of construction and public works.Mende is also the seat of the that handles .The city is strongly turned towards the tertiary sector. As said above, a majority of the enterprises of the city are shops. Mende is the centre of an area's population of approximately 20,000 inhabitants around the Lot Valley, the city therefore centralises much of the services. Its quality of prefecture adds to the presence of public service.Tourism has also developed since the end of the 20th century. This openness on tourism translated between 1983 and 2008 by the creation of the office of tourism (municipal and intermunicipal), an increase of 400 beds offered to tourists, the opening of a holiday village and of a youth hostel, but also the creation of activity centre (canoe base, Freestyle Park, etc.). The city has eleven hotels, four with three stars and four having two. To this one can add the holiday village of Chapitre that offers 42 gîtes for rent, as well as two campsites near the Lot.Other businesses are those that can be found in other modern cities (banks, insurance, bakeries, the press houses, clothes, etc.). The city has a supermarket and a hypermarket, as well as several superettes and other discounters. The hypermarket, which is of recent construction, belongs to the Système U group and is located in the new area of activity of Ramilles. The supermarket (Intermarché) is, meanwhile, close to the city centre. Markets, vestiges of the traditional markets of the city are many, taking place on Wednesday (textile, utility, etc.) at "Place Chaptal", and on Saturday mornings (food market) at "Place Chaptal" and "Place Urbain V". In addition, night markets are held during the summer.The main companies in terms of turnover, as well as major private employers are:Since 1981 Mende has been classified as a city of art, and, since 2000, the grouping of "Mende and Lot in the Gévaudan" has the label of "city and land of art and history".Indeed, the city has a rich architectural heritage, witness of the prosperous time related to the papacy.The Cathedral of Saint-Privat (classed as a historical monument in 1906) whose construction began in 1368 at the initiative of Pope Urban V. Its bell towers date back, however, to the 16th century, following the destruction of one of them during the passage of the Huguenots by Matthieu Merle. The large belfry included housing ""Non Pareille"", the largest bell in the world melted between 1517 and 1521 in Villefort and destroyed during the Wars of Religion. There remains only the clapper. The cathedral consists of twelve rectangular chapels, two pentagonal chapels and a sacristy. Originally it was built above the Sainte-Thècle crypt where the body of Saint Privat had been buried. It is located next to the old episcopal palace.The city has many public fountains. Water from the causses thus enters a piping system located beneath the city before joining the Lot. Two of them (Aigues-Passe and Soubeyrand) are classified as historic monuments. Piped water also enters the old wash house of the Calquières, still visible on "Rue d'Angiran".This tower is one of the few remains of the ancient walls of the 12th century. Protecting the Gate of Angiran which was next to it, this tower served as guard for the short-lived Seneschal of Mende. It includes three floors and an attic. This is the installation of the chapel which is adjacent, and especially its bell tower at the top which saved the tower during the destruction of the walls in 1768.Dating back to the 13th century, this bridge is one of the symbols of the city. It has never been carried away by frequent floods in Mende. It formerly went by the name of Peyrenc Bridge, then took the name of Notre Dame due to the presence on its mouth of a Virgin, which disappeared during the Wars of Religion. Its span has a opening and is high.Saint Privat withdrew, in the 3rd century, into caves that he had built over Mende, on . Since his Hermitage was built, it also to allow the pilgrims to go there. It can be accessed either by Way of the Cross (from the market) or by road from the causse (RD 25). At the hermitage, we find a hotel for the reception of the pilgrims, a chapel, grotto and a breakthrough designed to the original cave.The House where the consul sat, since 1578, also served as city hall after the Revolution. On its pediment is found the arms of the city: ""Azure in the Gothic M of or, a shining Sun similarly topped."" Facing it is a trompe-l'œil wall symbolizing the twinning of Mende and Volterra.Located in the northwest of the city, the Bahours locality had two castles, one of which was destroyed in 1960. The remaining one is a strong house (manse) built in the 17th century, possibly on the foundations of a more ancient building. The main interest of this strong house is its kitchen listed as a historical monument, like the whole building.Mende features a municipal theatre and several rooms that can be used to this kind of show. The ancient theatre of the city turned into cinema. A development project involves the construction of a new multicultural hall. In addition, Mende has a departmental library, the Lamartine Library.The ancient theatre of the city, established between 1890 and 1895, was replaced by a cinema. The main room used for the theatre is now the festival hall located at the market. This room, and its natural scenery of arches, is multi-cultural and is the largest in the city in terms of capacity. On the market lies the "antirouille", a municipal building for young people and allowing everyone to have access to the internet, this building has a room to organize concerts.Near the market, along the "Chemin Saint-Ilpide", the Urban V municipal room hosts plays, live shows, and also meetings and projections (world knowledge, for example).Finally as part of the redevelopment of the market (started by the installation of the intercommunal tourism office and the renovation of the Lamartine Library), an auditorium should be created behind the festival hall (the Emile-Joly Square being moved).The Ignon-Fabre Museum (or the Museum of Mende) was located on "Rue de l'Epine" [street of the Holy thorn], at the , where there was installed the first electrification plant of the city. It was however closed due to lack of budget. Before it, a museum was located in a house next to the prison.The Chapel of Saint-Dominique and the current Department Hall can serve as an exhibition space, as can the Chapel of the Penitents and the former consular house.In addition a project of the Museum of , currently under study, should be installed in the Chapel of the Penitents.The poem, written by an author whose story did not retain the name, was confirmed in the 19th century:However, not everyone had a positive vision of the city. It had long had problems with sewage into the modern era, and was denigrated despite its charm:This quote comes perhaps from the conditions in which the geographer of the king came in the city. Like those who would declare to Serge Livrozet that Mende was "capital of Lozère and torture".Those born in Mende, or having a very strong tie with the city include:When King Louis XI granted autonomy to the city, he granted new arms in 1469. An 'L' surmounted by a crown, in gratitude to the king, was added to these in 1475.The current coat of arms dates from the sixteenth century. These weapons were registered in the Armorial General of France in 1697.
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[
"Jean-Jacques Delmas",
"Alain Bertrand",
"Paulin Daudé-Gleize"
] |
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Who was the head of Mende in Feb 26, 1972?
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February 26, 1972
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{
"text": [
"Henri Trémolet de Villers"
]
}
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L2_Q191772_P6_1
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Paulin Daudé-Gleize is the head of the government of Mende from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1928.
Henri Trémolet de Villers is the head of the government of Mende from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1977.
Jean-Jacques Delmas is the head of the government of Mende from Mar, 1983 to Jan, 2008.
Alain Bertrand is the head of the government of Mende from Mar, 2012 to Dec, 2022.
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Mende, LozèreMende (, ) is a commune and prefecture of the department of Lozère and of the region of Occitanie in southern France. Its inhabitants are called the "Mendois". The city, including the first traces of dwellings date back to 200 BC, was originally named "Mimata", probably in reference to the mountains that surround it.Mende is located between Clermont-Ferrand and Montpellier, but also on the axis of Lyon–Saint-Étienne–Albi–Toulouse. The other important nearby towns are Aurillac and Saint-Flour (Cantal), Le Puy-en-Velay (Haute-Loire), Rodez, Millau (Aveyron) and Alès and Nîmes (Gard).Even though Mende remains a relatively sparsely populated city (approximately 12,000 inhabitants), it remains the most important of the Lozère Department. In addition, it is the city-centre of the unique urban area of this department.It is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mende.Mende is situated in the high valley of the Lot, in a mountainous area, in the "Pays du Gévaudan", the Rieucros stream joins to it on its right bank. The city is overlooked (on the left bank of the Lot) by and its . Access is by the . On the right bank, residential areas extend over different causses, including the "Causse d'Auge". Located on the axis of Lyon-Toulouse, the city has long been a commercial crossroads between the Auvergne, Rhone and the Languedoc.The commune is bordered by Chastel-Nouvel to the north, Badaroux to the east, Lanuéjols to the southeast, Brenoux and Saint-Bauzile to the south, Balsièges to the southwest, and Barjac and Servières to the west.Mende is one of the "gateway cities" (along with Millau, Lodève, Alès and Ganges) for the site of the Causses and Cévennes, of world heritage by UNESCO under the inscription "Les Causses and Cevennes, Mediterranean agro-pastoral cultural landscape".According to the INSEE, Mende is an urban commune without suburbs ("ville isolée" [isolated town]). It lies at the centre of an urban area composed of 15 communes, the only one in the department of Lozère.The town of Mende is built in the Lot Valley, within the area of the . The region of the Causses in Lozère is one of the four of Lozère, with the Margeride, the Aubrac and the Cévennes. The city is nestled in the middle of different Causses which form as natural barriers. However, over the 20th century, urbanisation began to extend beyond these limits.Of the Causses, is the most significant. The causse is overhung by the Cross of . A first wooden cross was planted in 1900 or 1907. It was replaced a few years later, on 8 July 1933, a Jubilee year, by a -high iron cross. Until 1945, this cross was the place of large gatherings in honour of Mendois soldiers. This cross has been illuminated since the summer of 1965. The mount also houses the chapel where Privat, the martyr of the Gévaudan, withdrew to. At its foot lies the area of Vabre where can be found the first remains of houses in the city. Opposite this is the Causse d'Auge (northeast) and the Causse du Crouzet (northwest), and the Margeride mountains beyond. To the west is Causse de Changefège, located between Mende and Barjac, which complements the borders of the city.The geology of the city of Mende is very dependent on the surrounding causses and streams that pass through them. The Mont Mimat and the Causse de Changefège are composed of limestone of the "Grands Causses", thus presenting abrupt edges. The other causses (as well as the butte de Fontanille) are composed of limestone of the "Petits Causses" (without these edges). The Lot Valley is composed of marl. The Valley, in the south of Mende, is full of blue marl, leaving one to presuppose that the marl of the town of Mende would be, in part, of the same origin. Finally, the various streams (the Rieucros) of the causses of the north of the city are lined by mica-schist.The city of Mende was built on the banks of the Lot. But the Lot is not the only presence of water in the city: Indeed, it has several sources, including those of . The most significant of them is located in the Vabre district, close to the first houses. These sources have also often been channeled and feed the underground water system of the city, visible on the surface through numerous fountains and the old wash house. The streets, such as the "Rue du Torrent", attest to the passage of water from Mont Mimat.To the north, on the other side of the Lot, the sources are much more distant, but water is present in the stream known as Rieucros.Mende is subject to an oceanic stream that comes from the Aubrac and Mediterranean and flows from the Cévennes. The department of Lozère, Mende in particular, benefit from insolation (or sunlight) similar to that of Toulouse with approximately 2,069 hours of sunshine per year. The city, away from the mountains that surround it, has a more protected climate than the highlands of Gévaudan: So, average temperatures oscillate between and . With respect to annual precipitation, data for the Lozère is between , depending on the exposure of the regions, with up to 50 days of snow per year.Between 1971 and 2000, monthly rainfall ranged from (March) and (September).In more detail, here are some statements in Mende records since 1985:Mende is located in the centre of the Lozère department and therefore centralises the roads. The city has rail and air access, but the Lot is not navigable (too shallow) as with all the rivers of the department (except for recreational canoeing, or in rare exceptions for the transport of people such as the crossing of the Tarn towards La Malène).Mende is located on the , linking Lyon and Toulouse. The road comes from Balsièges to the west and Badaroux to the east. This axis can be reached easily. Haute-Loire and Ardèche are to the east, via Langogne and Aveyron is to the west via La Canourgue-Banassac, as well as the A75 autoroute. A road doubling project is underway in the department, bypassing Mende from the north. This doubling is however a long project (1993), having had several outlines and some opposition. The project was finally abandoned in October 2012 making Lozère a department without draft dual carriageways on RN 88. Indeed, its neighbours Aveyron and Tarn continue their projects of dual carriageways between Rodez and Toulouse with all expected to be commissioned in December 2015. The work of the Rodez - Séverac section should be completed by the end of 2019. The same will be the case for Haute-Loire, which continues its road access. However, the workarounds of Mende and Langogne are budgeted. These projects in adjacent departments will reach major cities nearby to Mende (Rodez, Albi, Toulouse, Le Puy and even Lyon). Finally, the economic impact or the absence of dual carriageways in Lozere must be assessed in the medium and long term.Furthermore, a viaduct (the Rieucros Viaduct) commissioned in December 2009 will be used to ensure a first bypass of Mende. It connects the industrial area of the Causse d'Auge to the technological centre of Valcroze (and the RD 42) and also helps to relieve the traffic connecting the districts north and northwest of the city.The RN 88 deviation from Mende should be the first from Pelouse to reach up to the Causse d'Auge with an "expressway" configuration. Then it would continue on the D 806 (ex north) to the Rieucros Viaduct, and then a new section of the viaduct to the Mende exit in the hamlet of La Thébaïde (west bypass). These two sections will only be of two lanes. Subsequently, the expressway from the Causse d'Auge will be directly linked to the A 75.Another national road, the RN 106, formerly ran through the city. This name is no longer valid for the section coming from the Gard and joining Mende via Florac (it is then of the RN 88 on the stretch between Balsièges and Mende). The northern part of the road was decommissioned in 2007 and now bears the name of D 806. This stretch goes from Mende to Saint-Chély-d'Apcher (and the A75 autoroute) via Chastel-Nouvel.Secondary access is provided by the RD 42 from the northwest, which joins the RN 88 at Barjac, and by the RD 25 which, passing through the , crosses before arriving at the Valdonnez.Mende features an SNCF railway station, located on the railway line of the , between Le Monastier (the ) and La Bastide - Saint-Laurent-les-Bains (). This line, built at the very beginning of the 20th century, bears the nickname of ""ligne du toit de la France"" [the roof of France line], and Mende is the main railway station. Ten weekly links are provided by rail.The station is also the starting point of the TER connection to Clermont-Ferrand by bus, which is daily.Referred to as TUM (for "Transports Urbains Mendois") the urban transport network is exclusively equipped with buses, which run through the city and some nearby villages (Les Boulaines, Chabrits, Chabannes). Since its establishment in 2000, it has replaced the school bus service. The urban transport network is also responsible for the management of the pay car parks in the city. A part of the city centre is also exclusively pedestrian.The prefecture of the Lozère department shares with the neighbouring village of Brenoux. This airfield, located on , is thus from Clermont-Ferrand, from Montpellier and away from Lyon and Toulouse. Highlights include it being the site of the final scene of the film "La Grande Vadrouille", and also of five stages of the Tour de France (1995, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2018).Furthermore, a Mende-Paris air link was implemented in October 2007. However, the flight was departing from the aerodrome of Le Puy-en-Velay, located from Mende and reached by a shuttle. This connection was born of a desire to open up Mende to air travel, which is indeed late at this level for a prefecture, and has no direct flight to Paris unlike its neighbours Clermont-Ferrand, Rodez, Aurillac or Le Puy-en-Velay.Since the beginning of 2008, a study has been conducted by the CCI of the Lozère department, in order to discuss the possibility of the establishment of a link between the Lozerian prefecture and the regional capital, Montpellier but four years after the launch of this study, no concrete project to date has been presented.Finally, two more major airports with international influence and close to Mende are Clermont-Ferrand Aulnat and Rodez-Aveyron.In the 13th century, the city was concentrated in what is now the city centre, bounded by the boulevards, and formerly the ramparts. It was then split into five sections (or neighbourhoods) known as "pans": Auriac, Aygues-Passe, Champnau, Chastel and Claustres.When it was initially named as such, the Pan d'Auriac was mainly a place of settlement, before becoming the "quartier des pénitents blancs" [district of the white penitents] who settled there. The Pan d'Aygues-Passe (or Aigues-Passe), meaning "water that passes", owes its name to the inclination of its streets, where the water flowed during cleaning. The Pan de Champnau derives its name from "new field", and includes what was a new residential area, at north of the city. The Pan de Chastel is the old commercial district of the city. It is located towards the Chastel Gate, which led then to Chastel-Nouvel, where a castle stood which was property of the bishops. Finally the Pan des Claustres, whose name comes from cloisters, was the largest of the city and is now between the and , i.e. between the two tombs of (the chapel Saint-Ilpide on the hill of the executioner, and the crypt of Sainte-Thècle under the cathedral square).The historic city centre is bordered by boulevards which took the place of the ancient walls. In addition to housing, the centre is mostly occupied by convenience stores and artisans. Beyond the boulevards, there are other houses as well as government buildings. The General Council and the prefecture indeed share the former , but services are scattered throughout the city. "Allée Piencourt" connects downtown roads to Badaroux and Chastel-Nouvel, near the ancient diocese (pré claux and pré vival) having been built.North of the "Allée Piencourt", past the Berlière Bridge, dwellings are present at the foot of the Causse d'Auge. These were established in several instalments over the 19th and 20th centuries, the first of these being Chaldecoste. It is in this part of the city that the large and the small seminary as well as the Convent of Carmel are found. The city extends to the north in the direction of Alteyrac (commune of Chastel-Nouvel). Between these areas and Alteyrac is located the zone of economic activities (ZAE) of the Causse d'Auge. The northern districts often bear names of flowers, this part of the city that historically sheltered gardens and vineyards, along the draille linking the "Plateau du Palais du Roi" [King's Palace Plateau].The causse is bounded by two streams, the Rieucros in the east and the to the west.Above the Badaroux road, on a hill, lies the Fontanilles district. It was originally social housing. At the foot of the hill is the Lycée Notre-Dame, while beyond the district of Saint-Laurent (where one finds traces of history with the presence of a chapel and a windmill) and, later, the Gardès ZAE. In this part, to the west of Gardès, is also the village of Sirvens where traces of a Gallo-Roman villa were discovered.Stuck between Fontanille, Mont Mimat and the city centre, are districts located roadside above pré claux. In this area are located the centre of firefighters, the Château of Bellesagne and the former gendarmerie. The market is also in this area, but more to the east than the precedents cited (beyond the boulevards, however). Above it lies the Vabre district and Hill of the Executioner where the first traces of dwellings of the city were found. Also nearby is the city's prison.In the westerly direction, found the District of Le Chapitre with the sports complex and the holiday village. This area is at the foot of a portion of the Causse de Changefège, where homes are installed along the Chabrits road ("Avenue du 11-Novembre", north-west of the city). It is in this part of the city which the district of Valcroze is found (new in the 19th century), the Chabrits ZAE and technology park.The other side of the Lot, along the , is found the avenue of the Gorges du Tarn and the area of Ramille. It is in this part where retail establishments are found. The Ramille zone saw the introduction, despite some criticism about the instability of the ground, of the hypermarket of the department, as well as a commercial area.On the map are the main roads of the city. To the west, the RN 88 is joined to Balsièges, passing through the Rocher de Moïse (classified site) located at the left end. To the northwest, it is the hamlet of Chabannes, and further to Chabrits. To the south, is found, where the new cross stands which symbolically marks the top of the hill (although it continues a little higher). This road leads to the Hermitage of , at the cross of the same name and the route of Valdonnez (Lanuéjols, Brenoux, Saint-Bauzile).To the east, Fontanille district is on a hillock, circumvented by the Lot. Behind lies the district of Saint-Laurent, then the ZAE de Gardès (and the village of the same name) and the village of Sirvens. Following the RN 88, one reaches Badaroux. Finally to the north, is the area of the Chaldecoste (broken down into several districts: Bergerie, Chanteperdrix, Vignette, etc.) where one can reach the ZAE du causse d'Auge. Further to the north, one finds Chastel-Nouvel before returning to the ground of and the "Plateau du Palais du Roi". The drinking water of the city of Mende comes from this direction, because of the Lac de Charpal reservoir, which is the main source.In 2017, Mende had 6,851 residences for an official population of 12,134 people. 87% of them are primary residences and 6.1% of secondary residences, which contrasts sharply with the figure of the Lozère department amounting to a 32.3% share of secondary housing.The population has been growing for several years, and the city has acquired new quarters over the years: Chaldecoste and Chanteperdrix in the 1970s, La Bergerie in the 1990s, and Valcroze in the 2000s. The city has 17.9% of HLM-type accommodations.59% of dwellings have four rooms or more and 19% have three rooms. The city is composed of many individual homes, small and large dwellings remaining in the minority. However, one can see that between 1990 and 1999 there was an increase of 85.3% of dwellings of one or two rooms. This can partly be explained by the development of higher education, with the branch of the University of Perpignan.The region is an ancient site of settlement dating back to the Bronze Age, although the capital of the Gévaudan, the Gallic period then Gallo-Roman, was Anderitum. Found in the ancient texts are the names of "Mimate", "Mimata" (mountain), which refer to this town at the foot of "Mons Mimatensis" (). In the same spirit, another name circulating is that of "Viculus Mimatensis" (or "Vicus Mimatensis"). It is the city which gave its name to Mont Mimat ("mount of the Mendois", literally) and not vice versa.Traces of dwellings dating from 200 BC were found, ancient Roman "villae", as well as around the city. However, residents could have been be domiciled here well before. Indeed, on Mont Mimat to Chapieu, a dolmen was found around 1913 including a trepanned skull. The other surrounding plateaux also attest this presence with other dolmens (on the Causse de Changefege for example). These remains may date from the Chalcolithic period.The city, strictly speaking, dates from the Middle Ages, and it is not found cited at the end of the 6th century by Gregory of Tours in his "Histoire des Francs". This text speaks of the martyrdom of , the first bishop of the Gabali, who was the origin of a pilgrimage to the hermitage and the caves where he had retired. Mende in the 3rd century was then only a village. The history of Privat is thus situated around the 3rd century, while he was sent by Austromoine to evangelize the Gévaudan. It was during this period that the Alemanni invaded the country, guided by their leader, Chrocus.The Gabali took refuge in the fortress of Grèzes where they were under siege for two years. Their bishop, Privat, was meanwhile in one of the caves of Mont Mimat which he had converted into a hermitage. When Chrocus learned that the bishop was not among his people, he went looking for him to use as a hostage in order to get the Gabali to leave Grèzes. Privat was martyred at his cave on near the village of Mimate. Presented to the Gabali, he refused to deliver his people despite all the barbaric tortures to which he was subjected (according to Gregory of Tours:""The good shepherd refused to deliver his sheep to wolves, and they tried to force his to sacrifice to demons""). Exhausted, the Alemanni would leave the Gabali free, by promising them peace. Privat succumbed to his injuries in the following days. His act of resistance, refusing to deliver his compatriots, thus earned him great popular fervour, and it was around his tomb and his hermitage that pilgrimage began, allowing the village to grow.In the 12th century Gévaudan was part of the County of Barcelona. In Mende, the counties have a castle, the castel frag. Three other lords had their castle around the Romanesque church: That of Canilhac (who owned the archtreasurer rights of the church), that of Cabrières (who was granted rights of archdeacon) and Dolan (who administered and ruled the episcopal home during the interregnum of bishops). In 1161, Mende, who was under the suzerainty of the King of France, saw his Bishop get the royal rights. It was the golden bull, an act signed by the king and marked with a royal seal in gold, which contained the terms of this agreement. It thus gave Aldebert and his successors, in perpetuity, the Royal power and the full powers of justice on the inhabitants of the bishopric. This fact is quite rare because only four golden bulls in six centuries were granted by the Kings of France.It was from this time that the city walls were built. Aldebert wished to protect the city and secure channels that lead there. he recovered and also built the fortress of Chapieu on , and was done so that it could accommodate a garrison. This allowed the monitoring of the direct route between Mont Lozère and Villefort, in other words towards the Regordane Way, trade route.At that time, however, Mende was not provided the civil and religious capital of Gévaudan. In fact the power was always dependent of two entities: The county and Viscount of Grèzes. The Viscount, property of the King of Aragon, was recovered by the King of France in 1258. The bishop had great power as a vassal, but he didn't have the total legitimacy of some Royal officials. This situation ended from 1307 with the Act of paréage between Bishop Guillaume VI Durand and King Philip IV. Indeed, it definitively fixed the possessions of the king and those of the bishop, even if some disputes persisted.During the Hundred Years' War security increased with the strengthening of the fortifications and the construction of ditches to 1361-1362. At that time, the chapter of Mende had a castle on the heights of the city, Chastel-Nouvel. In 1370 many locals felt safe from the ramparts of the city, despite threats from the routiers. Also, few of them took refuge in Chastel-Nouvel. But the walls were insufficient, and could not prevent the pillages. This period isolated Mende from its neighbours, including Le Puy-en-Velay, and waited the arrival of the Constable of France, Bertrand du Guesclin, then the intervention of Charles VI and the liberation of the region so that the roads reopened around 1452.In 1390, was in Mende, where John III of Armagnac sought, on behalf of the King of France, to put an end to the private war that Raymond de Turenne led against the Pope from Avignon. The Gascon signed as a witness to an agreement between the legate of Clement VII, Antoine de Lisa, , and a representative of the Viscount of Turenne. This interview of Mende helped the Florentines to send ambassadors to solicit the Count of Armagnac. He was proposed to cross the Alps and attack the Count of Vertus in Lombardy.It was also at this time that blessed Pope Urban V began the work of the cathedral (1368), for a completion in 1467. By its letters patent, King Louis XI confirmed the privileges for this cathedral, granted by his predecessors, in September 1464.At the beginning of the 1470s, conflict erupted between Bishop and King Louis XI, because of the support that the bishop had given to the County of Armagnac when it had revolted. To counter it, the king subtracted La Panouse authority over the city which then became autonomous. It wasn't until 1478 that the bishops found authority over the city, sharing revenues with the consul.At the end of the Hundred Years' War, Mende developed its production of drapery, and thus increased its role as a commercial crossroads between the Languedoc and Auvergne, exporting its fame. It is estimated that in the 16th century Mende was one of the richest dioceses of Languedoc before Montpellier and Toulouse. This wealth of the diocese reinforced the ecclesiastical power. Thus among the list of the bishops of the time one can count a number from the family of the Pope. Giuliano della Rovere was ordained bishop of Mende, although he never visited in the capital of Gévaudan (practice known as commendation). His nephews, Clement and , succeeded him in this position. During his tenure, François adorned the cathedral with its bell towers, which one hosted the "Non Pareille", the largest bell in the world.In October 1485, when Clement de La Rovere came to the episcopal seat, old quarrels between the consul and the bishopric re-emerged, first mentioned with fear of losing this privilege. Thus they barricaded the gates of Mende, so that the bishop could not access. At this time the bishops primarily used their Balsièges Castle as a residence (that of Chanac being the summer residence). In vain as the Della Rovere family covered the full authority by notice of the king in 1492. The title of consul was held in place of the traditional title of trustee.In the 16th century, the main events were the Reformation and the Wars of Religion which resulted. On 21 July 1562, 4,000 Protestants got within the walls of the city. They destroyed the unprotected monuments and besieged the city by depriving it of water. They withdrew four days later, largely due to being given 2,000 ecus. This ransom ensured the city a few years of peace.During the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, Astorg de Peyre was murdered in the king's room: his widow then hired a young man, Matthieu Merle to avenge the death of her husband. From 1569 to 1576 he held with his troops the fortress of Grèzes where he gradually seized the north of Gévaudan. From 1577 he moved with his troops to Marvejols intending to seize Mende, although not ceasing his conquests to the north, he failed however in August 1578 at Saint-flour. The night of Christmas 1579, to enter the city, Merle's soldiers expected that the people of Mendes were at midnight mass.During his stay in Mende, Merle made further fortification to the city, not hesitating razing 120 homes to restore the ramparts. In February 1581, while he ruled all the Gévaudan, he enforced the threat he had made to the people. He had in fact asked them to deliver 4,000 ecus, a sum that the Mendois could not collect. He partially destroyed Mende Cathedral built by Pope Urban V. He saved a bell tower to avoid damaging the episcopal palace where his home was established. It was at this time that the "Non Pareille" was melted, the biggest bell in the world, to manufacture culverins and other cannonballs. The city was liberated on bail that year thanks to the intervention of the King of Navarre.The city liberated, a seneschal was created to ensure the peace. Response to the attack of Merle was organised in 1586 against the town of Marvejols, led by baron de Saint-Vidal. It was during this response that the Peyre fortress disappeared from the rock of Peyre. The seneschal took its place. The Tower of Auriac, today known as the Tower of Penitents, was built to accommodate one hundred soldiers. The seneschal gradually took precedence over the diocese, which called for the help of the Duke of Languedoc in 1597. It was after this episode that the Seneschal of Mende disappeared.The beginning of the 17th century was coloured by the work of reconstruction of the cathedral for an inauguration in 1605, although work had lasted until 1629. Far from the splendour of the original, while taking up the same plane, this new cathedral was characterised by a bell tower which was smaller than the other.Between 1645 and 1660, the city was the scene of strife between two rival factions: The Marmaux and the Catharinaux, all members of the consuls or the bourgeoisie, but not having the same opinion on the importance of episcopal power, the latter being opposed. The bishop was also the target of an attack while he officiated in Mende Cathedral in 1645 (he was actually not touched). After several trials, it was not without difficulty that the kingdom gave back his ancestral power, the consul remaining under his control.At the end of the century, landscaped a lane which joined to the Lot (since known as ""Allée Piencourt"") and especially acquired the Aubusson tapestries for the episcopal palace. These tapestries, classified, since adorn the cathedral. It was also behind the early educational development in the city and contributed to the building of the hospital. It also made the hospital its heir, allowing it to develop.In 1702, the war of the Camisards was triggered in the Cévennes. Mende somewhat landscaped its walls in order to prevent any attack. However, this war which began with the murder of Father du Chayla at Le Pont-de-Montvert never reached Mende.In 1721, the Great Plague arrived in Gévaudan affecting the town of Mende with an amount of 1,078 victims in one year. Two generations later, the walls were removed (in 1768), "so the air circulates better".Once all these troubles passed, the city redeveloped its economy around wool and sheep farming. The city extended a little bit under the development of the appearance of the mills, and its first factory. In 1754, Mende saw Louis Mandrin the famous brigand, who lodged in a house there and, according to legend, hid treasure.Between 1764 and 1767, Mende was the witness the comings and goings of the wolf-hunters of the king, who came to seek rest in the city before returning to hunt the beast which was terrorising the north of the country. It was seen close to Mende, once at Pailhou and between Rieutort-de-Randon and Chastel-Nouvel but remained primarily in Margeride. At this time the quarrel between the consul and the bishop was brought up to date by the edict on municipal organizations. The burghers and nobles opposed, but the bishop finally retained power in 1771.During the French Revolution, Mende had to share with Marvejols the function of department capital of Gévaudan. This was renamed in the Lozère department in 1790, and the guardianship of the church disappeared in 1791, thus putting an end to the paréage of 1307. Mende was the scene of small counter-revolutionary clashes, but without great effects. It became the sole capital shortly after.In 1800, the prefect settled in the city, and the prefecture occupies the episcopal palace after the sale of the property of the church. In the middle of the 19th century, the causses around Mende are planted with Austrian black pine, this national forest has continued since then. The choice of black pine was due to its ease of acclimation, and its robustness. The presence of this forest often protected Mende from floods.Then the railway appeared in the prefecture, then linking to Sévérac-le-Château (3 May 1884). The railway line follows the Lot to cross the city, and also continues to follow, like the newly created road. In 1887 the old episcopal palace disappeared in flames, the prefecture had to be rebuilt.On 8 April 1888 Mende became one of the first cities in France, and the first chef-lieu to have electric lighting. The plant was installed in the old .The twentieth century was marked by a beginning of economic decline. The gradual end of the wool industry, the First and the Second World War depopulated the city. Between 1931 and 1934 baths are built, since becoming the Home, and located on the market square. The building was destroyed in summer 2013, to be replaced by a multi-cultural hall.In 1939, shortly before World War II, an internment camp was built in the woods of the Rieucros. The population was opposed to this transit camp for anti-fascists and communists. It then became an internment camp exclusively for women. The mayor at the time, , condemned the Vichy regime and the camp in his hometown, where he made sure that children interned with their mother followed a normal education. His hostile words and acts to the regime in place led him to be removed from his post in 1941. He then joined Resistance where he became one of the leaders for the Lozère. Arrested and sent to German camps in 1944, he died during a transfer in 1945.Ideally placed between the Maquis of the Cévennes and the Aubrac, the town was located as well as a centre for the coordination of the Lozère Interior Resistance. As for the population, it protected itself where shelters against aerial bombardments were implemented.From the 1970s, the city had a sizable population growth. The city then extended to the Causse d'Auge. In the 1980s and 1990s, one can also see that the department was depopulating overall, while its prefecture was expanding. Culture and sport took more importance in the life of the city.During the 1990s, the city developed administrative reconciliations with nearby cities. Therefore, it formed the Estelle city network with Aurillac and Rodez. The principle of the network was to share experiences and pool resources to develop such medium-sized cities. Shortly after, it was with other networks that Mende became closer to other cities of the Massif Central. This is the case, for example, with the Cyber Massif network dedicated to the digital opening up of the region.Moreover, since the beginning of the 21st century, Mende had tried to actively participate in the policies of opening up of the Massif Central. The city lies in the Lot Valley and reached an area of in the 2000s. It also seeks to enroll in a sustainable development project, in the image of the department with, among other projects, the construction of a cogeneration plant and the establishment of a network of heat. The timber industry, so important in the economy of the city, could therefore be put to further use. The establishment of bio-energy in the city has also been carried out by the appearance of a wind farm north of the city.Mende is the chef-lieu of the Lozère department: It welcomes in this regard the prefecture and the headquarters of the General Council. The buildings of these two institutions are scattered within the city. A project of the Department Hall to consolidate all services of the General Council is under consideration. The mayor's office is housed in the town hall which dates from the 18th century, however, a large part of the services have been moved to the annex of the mayor's office.This is the old consular house which was used as a city hall of the Revolution until 1852. On that date, Mayor Becamel bought the Pages family mansion located in the "Place d'Angiran". Since then the city hall has been based in this city mansion (listed historical monument) in the square which has become "Place Charles-de-Gaulle", although a part of the services is now located in the annex which faces it. As the cathedral, the city hall also houses the tapestries of Aubusson, classified since 1909.Since 1945, the following were elected mayors of the city of Mende:The city of Mende belongs to the . It was created in December 2001 under the name of "Communauté de communes de la Haute Vallée d'Olt" before changing its name in 2009. The commune being the largest in terms of population, it was its mayor, Jean-Jacques Delmas, who became the first president of the community.The implementation of this community of communes has allowed a transfer of powers. So, all areas of economic activity and sports facilities now fall under the responsibility of the community, rather than the commune itself.However, the actions are much wider since waste treatment also enters the competence of the community. The waste disposal site of the commune lies in the ZAE du Causse d'Auge, north of the city. In this context, unsorted collection is also the responsibility of the community of communes.This community of communes is not the only grouping of communities for the town of Mende. A comprehensive plan was implemented around the label "Pays d'Art et d'Histoire de Mende et Lot en Gévaudan" [Lands of art and history of Mende and Lot in Gevaudan]. These are twenty-two communes which now belong to the Pays d'Art [Lands of Art] which comes in the continuity of the city of art and history label which Mende has had since 1981. The lands comprises four communities: Cœur de Lozère, , and , which is assistant to the Chastel-Nouvel commune.The city is the chef-lieu of two cantons: Mende-1 and Mende-2 since 2015. Mende-1 comprises the northern part of the city, Mende-2 the southern part.Before the Act of paréage of 1307, Mendoise and Gevaudanaise justice was fully devolved to the bishops. This power was shared with the king after the signing of the Act. Power was shared between the various for the communal land, with Mende being in the land of the bishops and Marvejols in lands of the king, and like this until 1789.The courthouse was built between 1833 and 1835. On 18 February 1994, it was the target of a bombing by the FLNC.The tribunal groups together a children's tribunal, a tribunal of commerce, a court and a high court. It depends on the .The city has long held prisons. Current prison was commissioned in 1891. One of the first high-security areas of France was then moved there in 1949. It was at this date that the prison ownership changed, from the State Department. Several personalities have stayed here, the most famous being Jacques Mesrine. André Génovès' film, "Mesrine" released in 1983, also tells of the criminal plan to destroy the QHS. had sought to bring Jacques Mesrine out of prison when he was imprisoned in Mende. This area had also been the target of critics, such as those of the Committee of action of prisoners and Serge Livrozet, in 1975. In 1989, the Mende detention centre was again publicised with the escape of , who managed to escape by threatening guards with a dummy gun. The last prison 'personality' of Mende, , activist of the alongside José Bové, was imprisoned after the case of the McDonald's franchise destruction in Millau.Mende is twinned with:Since 2007, the cities of Wunsiedel and Volterra are also paired together. The twinning with Vila Real (much more populous than the city of Mende) is explained by the fact that a large part of the Portuguese population of Mende, and Lozère in general, is from this region.In contrast to the department of Lozère, the prefecture saw its demographic curve draw increasingly since the French Revolution. If the department was strongly affected by the and the great wars of the 20th century, the city had the presence of its own authorities. This may explain why Mende has not experienced the same trend as Lozère. This table shows the demographic for the town of Mende, but it can be considered that the "bassin Mendois" [Mende area] follows the same trend.In 2017, the commune had 12,134 inhabitants.The Mende population is fairly young taking into account the ageing population of Lozère. Compared with the 1990 census, it is the age group of 15–29 years which has had the greatest increase at the expense of those aged 0–14 and 30–44 years. The number of near-centenarians was also greater in 1999 than in 1990.In Mende, the share of the immigrant population represents about 8% of the total population. They originate mostly from Portugal (mainly from Vila Real), Morocco, Algeria, and Turkey. This being the image of immigration in the region. The Spanish immigration, which was very present in the middle of the twentieth century, has been disappearing since the 1970s.Mende has three nursery schools: "Solelhons" (the small Suns in Occitan), the Chênes school and Fontanilles school. They are in close relations with the primary schools of the Groupe solaire, Annex Michel del Castillo School and Fontanilles School, Jeanne d'Arc School dealing with private education.The public college of Henri-Bourillon is located in the former small seminary, and share places with the Lycée Chaptal. It hosts students from the city as well as a number from other neighbouring municipalities (Badaroux, Barjac, Chanac, Saint-Bauzile, Saint-Étienne-du-Valdonnez, etc.). The private college is the college of . The continuity of private education is at the Lycée Notre-Dame. Another high school, the Lycée Emile Peytavin allows, in addition to general education, technical and vocational education. Finally, now attached to the Lycée Notre-Dame, we find the Private Professional Lycée Plaisance.Institutions of the city are also have one of the best success rates for the Baccalauréat diploma, compared with the other schools in the area, which puts them in the first half best institutions of France.At the level of higher education, Mende welcomes a BTS in its different high schools. An , branch of the University of Perpignan, offers four courses: Multimedia, gerontology, City Council Secretary, and tourism. It is located in the buildings of the former Lamolle barracks, which had housed the . Finally the city also houses a teacher training Institute, an (IFSIL), a and a .The festivities of the town of Mende are held annually in the month of August. They were related to the feast of , on 21 August. They are decorated with a flower parade and the election of "Miss Mende". Then, in September, every other year, Mende hosts its beer festival, with its twin town of Wunsiedel. The city has also several sports events. At the cultural level, the "meetings of writers" were organized at the beginning of the 1990s, in August. They have welcomed regional authors but also renowned authors such as Calixthe Beyala and Michel Folco.The department has a hospital, which opened in 1970. Five of the six services are located in Mende: Guy de Chauliac Hospital, the retirement home, the convalescence centre, the Training Institute in Nursing and boarding school. The sixth branch, another retirement home, is based at Rieutort-de-Randon.The hospital has approximately 70 physicians and 750 health professionals. Moreover, since 2011, it welcomes in its structure the home of the Paul Éluard psychological and psychiatric unit, a branch of the of Saint-Alban-sur-Limagnole.To this one can add 20 physicians, general practitioners and specialists as well as a centre of firefighters. Though, if the implementation of the current hospital is fairly recent, the city has a fairly old hospital story.In the 12th century was the "alms house" for the population. This hospital, located on "Rue Angiran", derived its income from the operation of a mill in the district of La Vernède, as well as donations of the lords of the lands. It was partially destroyed in 1593 during the construction of a nearby citadel. Though the citadel disappeared in 1597, the hospital was not repaired immediately. From 1635 a budget was allocated for the rebuilding of the institution. It would not be built in the same place, and would take the name of "Hospital of Aygues-Passes". In 1677 became and thus Count of Gévaudan. In his first year as bishop, he rebuilt a new hospital which became the "general hospital". In 1702 it enlarged, and at his death he bequeathed it all of his possessions. This hospital, today the Piencourt residence, remained in use until the inauguration of the hospital. Added to this hospital, two establishments existed following periods of epidemics, both which were outside the city. A plague centre, referred to as 'House of God', was established in the district of Janicot. At the Saint-Jean Bridge (now Pont-Roupt), a "maladrerie" was rebuilt in 1242, intended for the accommodation of lepers.Mende is, by its number of licensees and all events, a sports town. Therefore, she was elected twice the by the daily newspaper "L'Équipe" (1988 and 1998) and a finalist in 2011. It is one of only a few cities of France to have achieved this distinction twice.Mende features a sports zone known as the "Complexe sportif de Jean Jacques Delmas" [Sports complex of Jean Jacques Delmas], in honour of his death, having been originally of this project he was the mayor of Mende for 25 years. There are 3 football/rugby pitches (the Stade du Chapitre and 2 training grounds), the semi-Olympic pool, tennis courts, a fitness room, a skate-park, a street-ball court, table-tennis hall and archery/shooting. It is in this complex which the '"Festival of sport" takes place every two years. Chapitre Stadium, enlarged at the Mediterranean Games has 500 seats, but this figure may be largely surpassed during some matches.Installed on the causse d'Auge are three soccer/rugby fields and an athletics track, which came to replace the old track of Mirandol. The Stade de Mirandol had the municipal stadium office until the 1980s. Since 2006, an equestrian centre is also located on the causse, it comes in addition to the aging Sirvens centre located at the exit of the city. Finally, the causse d'Auge was the chosen site, in 2008, for the construction of a new gymnasium, opposite the football fields.Near the Chaptal Lycée and the Henri Bourrillon College is the La Vernède complex. In this area are two gymnasiums, a dojo, a gymnastics Hall, one dance, one climbing (over an area outdoors), a covered petanque pitch and one outdoors. Before the construction of the gymnasium of La Vernède, this place was that of the municipal swimming pool and two tennis courts.Close to other educational institutions, other gyms are installed. There are six in all in the city: La Vernède, Lycée Notre-Dame, Piencourt, Lycée Chaptal, Lycée Théophile Roussel and college Saint-Privat.Many clubs share the facilities of the city. Football club Éveil Mendois evolved in CFA2 during two seasons (2000–01 and 2001–02), its successor, AF Lozère, plays in the (6th division). The Éveil Mendois football club came from the of the same name, founded in 1920. One of the highlights of its history remains a finish in the last 32 of Coupe de France final played opposite Angoulême on 24 January 1999. More recently, Mende moved up to the last 16 of the finals at the 2013 Coupe de France, winning on this occasion the "ranking of the Petits Poucets".The key club is the (formerly Mende Volley Ball) which plays in the Elite division, for the season 2014-2014 (3rd national division). At the top level, the MVL has a title of obtained at the end of the 2008-2009 season and a participation in the third round of the 2010-2011 Coupe de France.Of Rugby union ("Rugby Club Mende Lozère"), it found its place in Fédérale 3 in 2006, but returned to the regional level in the 2010s. The club however already evolved to a higher level a few years previously.The handball team ("Mende Gévaudan Club") is evolving in 2014-2015 in the National 3 France Championship. Finally, the basketball team ("basketball Causses Mendois") was found in 2014-2015 at the regional level. For women there are also handball, volleyball and basketball clubs which are Mendois clubs of highest level.Mende can be granted a special status to orienteering, an individual sport with team competitions. The fact remains that Mende is playing in the elite league of France, and "M. G. C. Pétanque" and its three veteran champions of France in 2007.Sports diversity does not stop there. Mende clubs also include roller hockey ("Les Comets"). Mende is also home to individual sports: Athletics, badminton, cycling, motorcycling, as well as many combat sports clubs.Since the beginning of the 2000s, a sports centre was set up to accompany young high school athletes to prepare for the best level. From the membership of the COL (centre omnisports Lozère), there is (France MTB 2010 downhill champion) and Fanny Lombard (Junior Champion of Europe 2009 and 2010 in the same discipline).Among professional sportspeople born in Mende, is the cyclist Christophe Laurent who shone by winning the jersey for the best climber of the Tour de l'Avenir and the Tour of California.The motorcyclist , winner of the prologue of the Paris-Dakar Rally (1991), also hails from Mende. He was one of the best enduro riders with the palmares of France, and was also vice World champion.Kayaker Brigitte Guibal, Olympic silver medallist in 2000 in Sydney, was also born in Mende.It is in 1988 that Marion Buisson was born in Mende. After making her athletics debut at the "Éveil mendois", she continued her career at Clermont athletics. She became champion of France in the pole vault in , thereby achieving the minimum to participate in the Beijing Summer Olympics.Each year, the , an enduro competition, centres its course on the city of Mende. This race is part of the most renowned of the enduro season and allows, in addition, mixing professional and amateur riders.One month later (July), the city centre is dedicated to foot racing and the arrival of . This race starts from Marvejols, joining Mende by the Col de Goudard and the Côte de Chabrits. It is sometimes used as a preparation marathon for major events (the World Championships, Olympic Games), but is also open to amateurs as the majority of the marathons. Since 2006, the month of July is also marked by the organisation of a national of pétanque.Cycling is also in honour of the city. The hosted the best professionals in the 1970s. Since then, the has seen five stage finishes in the Tour de France (1995, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2018), and stages in the Tour de l'Avenir, the Grand Prix du Midi Libre, the and Paris-Nice. Since 2006 and the rebirth of the Tour du Gévaudan, Mende is judged the final arrival of this amateur race of great importance. In 2008, the event was organised as the "Finale de la Coupe des France des clubs" [final of the Cup of France for clubs]. During the winter, a grand prix of regional cyclo-cross is also organized. The grand departure of the Tour de France VTT 1996, as well as the first two stages, happened at Mende.Mende was also host city of the Mediterranean Games in 1993 by hosting cycling, football and swimming events.In October 2005, the city hosted the 37th national congress of the French hiking federation, Lozère being a popular department for hikers, and is crossed by two of the most important roads of the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Then, in 2007, Mende was the host of a round of the French enduro championships, as well as the final of the Coupe de France rally.In 2008, France welcomed the enduro European grand prix, the final of the World Championship (WEC). It was the town of Alès which was chosen to host the competition. However the organization was forced to give up, and it was finally hosted by Mende on 11 and 12 October 2008. In 2011, the city hosted the Grand Prix of France, final of the World Championship.Mende is the seat of most of the media of Lozére. Thus we find the writings of the Lozère edition of "Midi Libre" and [New Lozère], with regard to the written press.The radio station France Bleu and have their editorial offices in Lozère. While Radio Eaux-Vives Lozère is installed at the former Grand Seminary.The town of Mende is the episcopal seat of Gévaudan and Lozère, religious life has always been linked with its bishops. Also chapter headquarters, Mende has welcomed a large number of canons. A religious brotherhood, the "Brotherhood of the White Penitents" has long existed and has a procession every Holy Thursday since the 17th century. The Tower of the Penitents (called so because it is adjacent to the chapel of the penitents) is one of the last vestiges of the ramparts of the city.The large and small seminaries are traces of the presence of the formation of Catholic priests.The main place of worship is the Cathedral of Notre-Dame and Saint-Privat, built at the request of Pope Urban V, in place of the old church built over the tomb of but the city has many small chapels. One of the oldest is the chapel of Saint-Ilpide, on the hill of the executioner, which however was destroyed and replaced by a small chapel. Two other chapels are no longer used: That of the Penitents (future Museum of Religious Art) and the Chapel of Saint-Dominique (exhibition hall). The Chapel of the Hermitage (on ) and the cave which was drilled alongside, can still be used for offices.The Carmelite convent has existed since 1880 and has hosted a community of Carmelite nuns, which ensures production of altar bread (or wafers) for the diocese (and those nearby). Another Convent is installed in Mende, which is the Adoration of Picpus Convent. At the "Rue de la Chicanette" is installed the Jeanne Delanoue community of the Providence; little used for celebration services, the place is used for meetings between people in the religious world. The community is at the origin of the creation of the institution Notre-Dame-de-la-Providence, a social children's home adjacent to its premises and which hosts minors under administrative and judicial protection. There are of other religious communities, mainly related to private schools and retirement or rest homes.Worship in Mende, due to its history, is very oriented towards Catholicism, but there are other places of worship for other religions. Thus Mende, near of the Cévennes, has a Protestant temple installed in the "Allée Paul Doumer".The city also had a synagogue in the former Jewish quarter, but it has long since been abandoned. This synagogue, also called Ferrier House from the name of one of its former owners, is the last vestige of the Mende ghetto. The Jews were expelled from the Gévaudan in the 14th century, and this synagogue became the (Catholic) college of All Saints until the French Revolution.Whilst counting the presence of a Muslim community, the city has no mosque, but simply an apartment that serves as place of worship.Industrial (wood industry, jewelry), service centre (shops, restaurants, bars), administrative (generates a lot of jobs) and tourism (medieval town, excursions to Gorges du Tarn), Mende is the starting point for the establishment of new businesses in the department, and turned more towards new technologies, with the advent of the technological hub.The city has more than 1300 companies, including about 900 in the commercial sector, and has an unemployment rate of 10.7% (2017).The city has five zones of economic activities (ZAE), each having a rather clearly defined role. The largest is the ZAE of the Causse d'Auge (north of the city), with a mainly industrial orientation in automation or in the management of the wood. The ZI of Gardès, on the road to Badaroux is an industrial area covering public works and mainly the building companies. The ZAE Lou Chaousse and Chabrits (both in the northwest) also have a vocation craft, but more oriented towards the trade for individuals. And finally, the "Pôle lozérien d'économie numérique" (POLeN) is turned to the new technologies.In addition, since the mid-2000s, the de Ramille was created. This area, wedged between the Lot and the RN 88 on the road to Balsièges hosts a commercial zone which has tended to develop. It is without doubt, with the area of the Causse d'Auge, the area of activity that has extended most recently.In the near future a new area of activity should emerge north of Mende, in the commune of Badaroux. This area whose size is expected to reach approximately initially, would be served by the landscaped expressway.If the commune no longer has many farms, the city remains at the centre of a very rural area and is very oriented towards agriculture. Indeed, 54% of the Lozère territory is classified as a "utilised agricultural area". Livestock in the commune is mainly dedicated to the sheep sector, although cattle farms are found located between Mende and neighbouring communes.This attraction to sheep is ancestral to Mende, since the city has long lived wool exploitation, since the 16th century. In 1333 the city already had a brotherhood of the weavers. In 1849, the town was still equipped with five large mills. However, while having a rich textile past, the city now retains no activity.Like the Lozère department, industry in Mende is mainly oriented towards the timber sector: Its operation, its treatment, its derivatives, etc. Another industry that holds an important place in the city is that of construction and public works.Mende is also the seat of the that handles .The city is strongly turned towards the tertiary sector. As said above, a majority of the enterprises of the city are shops. Mende is the centre of an area's population of approximately 20,000 inhabitants around the Lot Valley, the city therefore centralises much of the services. Its quality of prefecture adds to the presence of public service.Tourism has also developed since the end of the 20th century. This openness on tourism translated between 1983 and 2008 by the creation of the office of tourism (municipal and intermunicipal), an increase of 400 beds offered to tourists, the opening of a holiday village and of a youth hostel, but also the creation of activity centre (canoe base, Freestyle Park, etc.). The city has eleven hotels, four with three stars and four having two. To this one can add the holiday village of Chapitre that offers 42 gîtes for rent, as well as two campsites near the Lot.Other businesses are those that can be found in other modern cities (banks, insurance, bakeries, the press houses, clothes, etc.). The city has a supermarket and a hypermarket, as well as several superettes and other discounters. The hypermarket, which is of recent construction, belongs to the Système U group and is located in the new area of activity of Ramilles. The supermarket (Intermarché) is, meanwhile, close to the city centre. Markets, vestiges of the traditional markets of the city are many, taking place on Wednesday (textile, utility, etc.) at "Place Chaptal", and on Saturday mornings (food market) at "Place Chaptal" and "Place Urbain V". In addition, night markets are held during the summer.The main companies in terms of turnover, as well as major private employers are:Since 1981 Mende has been classified as a city of art, and, since 2000, the grouping of "Mende and Lot in the Gévaudan" has the label of "city and land of art and history".Indeed, the city has a rich architectural heritage, witness of the prosperous time related to the papacy.The Cathedral of Saint-Privat (classed as a historical monument in 1906) whose construction began in 1368 at the initiative of Pope Urban V. Its bell towers date back, however, to the 16th century, following the destruction of one of them during the passage of the Huguenots by Matthieu Merle. The large belfry included housing ""Non Pareille"", the largest bell in the world melted between 1517 and 1521 in Villefort and destroyed during the Wars of Religion. There remains only the clapper. The cathedral consists of twelve rectangular chapels, two pentagonal chapels and a sacristy. Originally it was built above the Sainte-Thècle crypt where the body of Saint Privat had been buried. It is located next to the old episcopal palace.The city has many public fountains. Water from the causses thus enters a piping system located beneath the city before joining the Lot. Two of them (Aigues-Passe and Soubeyrand) are classified as historic monuments. Piped water also enters the old wash house of the Calquières, still visible on "Rue d'Angiran".This tower is one of the few remains of the ancient walls of the 12th century. Protecting the Gate of Angiran which was next to it, this tower served as guard for the short-lived Seneschal of Mende. It includes three floors and an attic. This is the installation of the chapel which is adjacent, and especially its bell tower at the top which saved the tower during the destruction of the walls in 1768.Dating back to the 13th century, this bridge is one of the symbols of the city. It has never been carried away by frequent floods in Mende. It formerly went by the name of Peyrenc Bridge, then took the name of Notre Dame due to the presence on its mouth of a Virgin, which disappeared during the Wars of Religion. Its span has a opening and is high.Saint Privat withdrew, in the 3rd century, into caves that he had built over Mende, on . Since his Hermitage was built, it also to allow the pilgrims to go there. It can be accessed either by Way of the Cross (from the market) or by road from the causse (RD 25). At the hermitage, we find a hotel for the reception of the pilgrims, a chapel, grotto and a breakthrough designed to the original cave.The House where the consul sat, since 1578, also served as city hall after the Revolution. On its pediment is found the arms of the city: ""Azure in the Gothic M of or, a shining Sun similarly topped."" Facing it is a trompe-l'œil wall symbolizing the twinning of Mende and Volterra.Located in the northwest of the city, the Bahours locality had two castles, one of which was destroyed in 1960. The remaining one is a strong house (manse) built in the 17th century, possibly on the foundations of a more ancient building. The main interest of this strong house is its kitchen listed as a historical monument, like the whole building.Mende features a municipal theatre and several rooms that can be used to this kind of show. The ancient theatre of the city turned into cinema. A development project involves the construction of a new multicultural hall. In addition, Mende has a departmental library, the Lamartine Library.The ancient theatre of the city, established between 1890 and 1895, was replaced by a cinema. The main room used for the theatre is now the festival hall located at the market. This room, and its natural scenery of arches, is multi-cultural and is the largest in the city in terms of capacity. On the market lies the "antirouille", a municipal building for young people and allowing everyone to have access to the internet, this building has a room to organize concerts.Near the market, along the "Chemin Saint-Ilpide", the Urban V municipal room hosts plays, live shows, and also meetings and projections (world knowledge, for example).Finally as part of the redevelopment of the market (started by the installation of the intercommunal tourism office and the renovation of the Lamartine Library), an auditorium should be created behind the festival hall (the Emile-Joly Square being moved).The Ignon-Fabre Museum (or the Museum of Mende) was located on "Rue de l'Epine" [street of the Holy thorn], at the , where there was installed the first electrification plant of the city. It was however closed due to lack of budget. Before it, a museum was located in a house next to the prison.The Chapel of Saint-Dominique and the current Department Hall can serve as an exhibition space, as can the Chapel of the Penitents and the former consular house.In addition a project of the Museum of , currently under study, should be installed in the Chapel of the Penitents.The poem, written by an author whose story did not retain the name, was confirmed in the 19th century:However, not everyone had a positive vision of the city. It had long had problems with sewage into the modern era, and was denigrated despite its charm:This quote comes perhaps from the conditions in which the geographer of the king came in the city. Like those who would declare to Serge Livrozet that Mende was "capital of Lozère and torture".Those born in Mende, or having a very strong tie with the city include:When King Louis XI granted autonomy to the city, he granted new arms in 1469. An 'L' surmounted by a crown, in gratitude to the king, was added to these in 1475.The current coat of arms dates from the sixteenth century. These weapons were registered in the Armorial General of France in 1697.
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[
"Jean-Jacques Delmas",
"Alain Bertrand",
"Paulin Daudé-Gleize"
] |
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Who was the head of Mende in 02/26/1972?
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February 26, 1972
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{
"text": [
"Henri Trémolet de Villers"
]
}
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L2_Q191772_P6_1
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Paulin Daudé-Gleize is the head of the government of Mende from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1928.
Henri Trémolet de Villers is the head of the government of Mende from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1977.
Jean-Jacques Delmas is the head of the government of Mende from Mar, 1983 to Jan, 2008.
Alain Bertrand is the head of the government of Mende from Mar, 2012 to Dec, 2022.
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Mende, LozèreMende (, ) is a commune and prefecture of the department of Lozère and of the region of Occitanie in southern France. Its inhabitants are called the "Mendois". The city, including the first traces of dwellings date back to 200 BC, was originally named "Mimata", probably in reference to the mountains that surround it.Mende is located between Clermont-Ferrand and Montpellier, but also on the axis of Lyon–Saint-Étienne–Albi–Toulouse. The other important nearby towns are Aurillac and Saint-Flour (Cantal), Le Puy-en-Velay (Haute-Loire), Rodez, Millau (Aveyron) and Alès and Nîmes (Gard).Even though Mende remains a relatively sparsely populated city (approximately 12,000 inhabitants), it remains the most important of the Lozère Department. In addition, it is the city-centre of the unique urban area of this department.It is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mende.Mende is situated in the high valley of the Lot, in a mountainous area, in the "Pays du Gévaudan", the Rieucros stream joins to it on its right bank. The city is overlooked (on the left bank of the Lot) by and its . Access is by the . On the right bank, residential areas extend over different causses, including the "Causse d'Auge". Located on the axis of Lyon-Toulouse, the city has long been a commercial crossroads between the Auvergne, Rhone and the Languedoc.The commune is bordered by Chastel-Nouvel to the north, Badaroux to the east, Lanuéjols to the southeast, Brenoux and Saint-Bauzile to the south, Balsièges to the southwest, and Barjac and Servières to the west.Mende is one of the "gateway cities" (along with Millau, Lodève, Alès and Ganges) for the site of the Causses and Cévennes, of world heritage by UNESCO under the inscription "Les Causses and Cevennes, Mediterranean agro-pastoral cultural landscape".According to the INSEE, Mende is an urban commune without suburbs ("ville isolée" [isolated town]). It lies at the centre of an urban area composed of 15 communes, the only one in the department of Lozère.The town of Mende is built in the Lot Valley, within the area of the . The region of the Causses in Lozère is one of the four of Lozère, with the Margeride, the Aubrac and the Cévennes. The city is nestled in the middle of different Causses which form as natural barriers. However, over the 20th century, urbanisation began to extend beyond these limits.Of the Causses, is the most significant. The causse is overhung by the Cross of . A first wooden cross was planted in 1900 or 1907. It was replaced a few years later, on 8 July 1933, a Jubilee year, by a -high iron cross. Until 1945, this cross was the place of large gatherings in honour of Mendois soldiers. This cross has been illuminated since the summer of 1965. The mount also houses the chapel where Privat, the martyr of the Gévaudan, withdrew to. At its foot lies the area of Vabre where can be found the first remains of houses in the city. Opposite this is the Causse d'Auge (northeast) and the Causse du Crouzet (northwest), and the Margeride mountains beyond. To the west is Causse de Changefège, located between Mende and Barjac, which complements the borders of the city.The geology of the city of Mende is very dependent on the surrounding causses and streams that pass through them. The Mont Mimat and the Causse de Changefège are composed of limestone of the "Grands Causses", thus presenting abrupt edges. The other causses (as well as the butte de Fontanille) are composed of limestone of the "Petits Causses" (without these edges). The Lot Valley is composed of marl. The Valley, in the south of Mende, is full of blue marl, leaving one to presuppose that the marl of the town of Mende would be, in part, of the same origin. Finally, the various streams (the Rieucros) of the causses of the north of the city are lined by mica-schist.The city of Mende was built on the banks of the Lot. But the Lot is not the only presence of water in the city: Indeed, it has several sources, including those of . The most significant of them is located in the Vabre district, close to the first houses. These sources have also often been channeled and feed the underground water system of the city, visible on the surface through numerous fountains and the old wash house. The streets, such as the "Rue du Torrent", attest to the passage of water from Mont Mimat.To the north, on the other side of the Lot, the sources are much more distant, but water is present in the stream known as Rieucros.Mende is subject to an oceanic stream that comes from the Aubrac and Mediterranean and flows from the Cévennes. The department of Lozère, Mende in particular, benefit from insolation (or sunlight) similar to that of Toulouse with approximately 2,069 hours of sunshine per year. The city, away from the mountains that surround it, has a more protected climate than the highlands of Gévaudan: So, average temperatures oscillate between and . With respect to annual precipitation, data for the Lozère is between , depending on the exposure of the regions, with up to 50 days of snow per year.Between 1971 and 2000, monthly rainfall ranged from (March) and (September).In more detail, here are some statements in Mende records since 1985:Mende is located in the centre of the Lozère department and therefore centralises the roads. The city has rail and air access, but the Lot is not navigable (too shallow) as with all the rivers of the department (except for recreational canoeing, or in rare exceptions for the transport of people such as the crossing of the Tarn towards La Malène).Mende is located on the , linking Lyon and Toulouse. The road comes from Balsièges to the west and Badaroux to the east. This axis can be reached easily. Haute-Loire and Ardèche are to the east, via Langogne and Aveyron is to the west via La Canourgue-Banassac, as well as the A75 autoroute. A road doubling project is underway in the department, bypassing Mende from the north. This doubling is however a long project (1993), having had several outlines and some opposition. The project was finally abandoned in October 2012 making Lozère a department without draft dual carriageways on RN 88. Indeed, its neighbours Aveyron and Tarn continue their projects of dual carriageways between Rodez and Toulouse with all expected to be commissioned in December 2015. The work of the Rodez - Séverac section should be completed by the end of 2019. The same will be the case for Haute-Loire, which continues its road access. However, the workarounds of Mende and Langogne are budgeted. These projects in adjacent departments will reach major cities nearby to Mende (Rodez, Albi, Toulouse, Le Puy and even Lyon). Finally, the economic impact or the absence of dual carriageways in Lozere must be assessed in the medium and long term.Furthermore, a viaduct (the Rieucros Viaduct) commissioned in December 2009 will be used to ensure a first bypass of Mende. It connects the industrial area of the Causse d'Auge to the technological centre of Valcroze (and the RD 42) and also helps to relieve the traffic connecting the districts north and northwest of the city.The RN 88 deviation from Mende should be the first from Pelouse to reach up to the Causse d'Auge with an "expressway" configuration. Then it would continue on the D 806 (ex north) to the Rieucros Viaduct, and then a new section of the viaduct to the Mende exit in the hamlet of La Thébaïde (west bypass). These two sections will only be of two lanes. Subsequently, the expressway from the Causse d'Auge will be directly linked to the A 75.Another national road, the RN 106, formerly ran through the city. This name is no longer valid for the section coming from the Gard and joining Mende via Florac (it is then of the RN 88 on the stretch between Balsièges and Mende). The northern part of the road was decommissioned in 2007 and now bears the name of D 806. This stretch goes from Mende to Saint-Chély-d'Apcher (and the A75 autoroute) via Chastel-Nouvel.Secondary access is provided by the RD 42 from the northwest, which joins the RN 88 at Barjac, and by the RD 25 which, passing through the , crosses before arriving at the Valdonnez.Mende features an SNCF railway station, located on the railway line of the , between Le Monastier (the ) and La Bastide - Saint-Laurent-les-Bains (). This line, built at the very beginning of the 20th century, bears the nickname of ""ligne du toit de la France"" [the roof of France line], and Mende is the main railway station. Ten weekly links are provided by rail.The station is also the starting point of the TER connection to Clermont-Ferrand by bus, which is daily.Referred to as TUM (for "Transports Urbains Mendois") the urban transport network is exclusively equipped with buses, which run through the city and some nearby villages (Les Boulaines, Chabrits, Chabannes). Since its establishment in 2000, it has replaced the school bus service. The urban transport network is also responsible for the management of the pay car parks in the city. A part of the city centre is also exclusively pedestrian.The prefecture of the Lozère department shares with the neighbouring village of Brenoux. This airfield, located on , is thus from Clermont-Ferrand, from Montpellier and away from Lyon and Toulouse. Highlights include it being the site of the final scene of the film "La Grande Vadrouille", and also of five stages of the Tour de France (1995, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2018).Furthermore, a Mende-Paris air link was implemented in October 2007. However, the flight was departing from the aerodrome of Le Puy-en-Velay, located from Mende and reached by a shuttle. This connection was born of a desire to open up Mende to air travel, which is indeed late at this level for a prefecture, and has no direct flight to Paris unlike its neighbours Clermont-Ferrand, Rodez, Aurillac or Le Puy-en-Velay.Since the beginning of 2008, a study has been conducted by the CCI of the Lozère department, in order to discuss the possibility of the establishment of a link between the Lozerian prefecture and the regional capital, Montpellier but four years after the launch of this study, no concrete project to date has been presented.Finally, two more major airports with international influence and close to Mende are Clermont-Ferrand Aulnat and Rodez-Aveyron.In the 13th century, the city was concentrated in what is now the city centre, bounded by the boulevards, and formerly the ramparts. It was then split into five sections (or neighbourhoods) known as "pans": Auriac, Aygues-Passe, Champnau, Chastel and Claustres.When it was initially named as such, the Pan d'Auriac was mainly a place of settlement, before becoming the "quartier des pénitents blancs" [district of the white penitents] who settled there. The Pan d'Aygues-Passe (or Aigues-Passe), meaning "water that passes", owes its name to the inclination of its streets, where the water flowed during cleaning. The Pan de Champnau derives its name from "new field", and includes what was a new residential area, at north of the city. The Pan de Chastel is the old commercial district of the city. It is located towards the Chastel Gate, which led then to Chastel-Nouvel, where a castle stood which was property of the bishops. Finally the Pan des Claustres, whose name comes from cloisters, was the largest of the city and is now between the and , i.e. between the two tombs of (the chapel Saint-Ilpide on the hill of the executioner, and the crypt of Sainte-Thècle under the cathedral square).The historic city centre is bordered by boulevards which took the place of the ancient walls. In addition to housing, the centre is mostly occupied by convenience stores and artisans. Beyond the boulevards, there are other houses as well as government buildings. The General Council and the prefecture indeed share the former , but services are scattered throughout the city. "Allée Piencourt" connects downtown roads to Badaroux and Chastel-Nouvel, near the ancient diocese (pré claux and pré vival) having been built.North of the "Allée Piencourt", past the Berlière Bridge, dwellings are present at the foot of the Causse d'Auge. These were established in several instalments over the 19th and 20th centuries, the first of these being Chaldecoste. It is in this part of the city that the large and the small seminary as well as the Convent of Carmel are found. The city extends to the north in the direction of Alteyrac (commune of Chastel-Nouvel). Between these areas and Alteyrac is located the zone of economic activities (ZAE) of the Causse d'Auge. The northern districts often bear names of flowers, this part of the city that historically sheltered gardens and vineyards, along the draille linking the "Plateau du Palais du Roi" [King's Palace Plateau].The causse is bounded by two streams, the Rieucros in the east and the to the west.Above the Badaroux road, on a hill, lies the Fontanilles district. It was originally social housing. At the foot of the hill is the Lycée Notre-Dame, while beyond the district of Saint-Laurent (where one finds traces of history with the presence of a chapel and a windmill) and, later, the Gardès ZAE. In this part, to the west of Gardès, is also the village of Sirvens where traces of a Gallo-Roman villa were discovered.Stuck between Fontanille, Mont Mimat and the city centre, are districts located roadside above pré claux. In this area are located the centre of firefighters, the Château of Bellesagne and the former gendarmerie. The market is also in this area, but more to the east than the precedents cited (beyond the boulevards, however). Above it lies the Vabre district and Hill of the Executioner where the first traces of dwellings of the city were found. Also nearby is the city's prison.In the westerly direction, found the District of Le Chapitre with the sports complex and the holiday village. This area is at the foot of a portion of the Causse de Changefège, where homes are installed along the Chabrits road ("Avenue du 11-Novembre", north-west of the city). It is in this part of the city which the district of Valcroze is found (new in the 19th century), the Chabrits ZAE and technology park.The other side of the Lot, along the , is found the avenue of the Gorges du Tarn and the area of Ramille. It is in this part where retail establishments are found. The Ramille zone saw the introduction, despite some criticism about the instability of the ground, of the hypermarket of the department, as well as a commercial area.On the map are the main roads of the city. To the west, the RN 88 is joined to Balsièges, passing through the Rocher de Moïse (classified site) located at the left end. To the northwest, it is the hamlet of Chabannes, and further to Chabrits. To the south, is found, where the new cross stands which symbolically marks the top of the hill (although it continues a little higher). This road leads to the Hermitage of , at the cross of the same name and the route of Valdonnez (Lanuéjols, Brenoux, Saint-Bauzile).To the east, Fontanille district is on a hillock, circumvented by the Lot. Behind lies the district of Saint-Laurent, then the ZAE de Gardès (and the village of the same name) and the village of Sirvens. Following the RN 88, one reaches Badaroux. Finally to the north, is the area of the Chaldecoste (broken down into several districts: Bergerie, Chanteperdrix, Vignette, etc.) where one can reach the ZAE du causse d'Auge. Further to the north, one finds Chastel-Nouvel before returning to the ground of and the "Plateau du Palais du Roi". The drinking water of the city of Mende comes from this direction, because of the Lac de Charpal reservoir, which is the main source.In 2017, Mende had 6,851 residences for an official population of 12,134 people. 87% of them are primary residences and 6.1% of secondary residences, which contrasts sharply with the figure of the Lozère department amounting to a 32.3% share of secondary housing.The population has been growing for several years, and the city has acquired new quarters over the years: Chaldecoste and Chanteperdrix in the 1970s, La Bergerie in the 1990s, and Valcroze in the 2000s. The city has 17.9% of HLM-type accommodations.59% of dwellings have four rooms or more and 19% have three rooms. The city is composed of many individual homes, small and large dwellings remaining in the minority. However, one can see that between 1990 and 1999 there was an increase of 85.3% of dwellings of one or two rooms. This can partly be explained by the development of higher education, with the branch of the University of Perpignan.The region is an ancient site of settlement dating back to the Bronze Age, although the capital of the Gévaudan, the Gallic period then Gallo-Roman, was Anderitum. Found in the ancient texts are the names of "Mimate", "Mimata" (mountain), which refer to this town at the foot of "Mons Mimatensis" (). In the same spirit, another name circulating is that of "Viculus Mimatensis" (or "Vicus Mimatensis"). It is the city which gave its name to Mont Mimat ("mount of the Mendois", literally) and not vice versa.Traces of dwellings dating from 200 BC were found, ancient Roman "villae", as well as around the city. However, residents could have been be domiciled here well before. Indeed, on Mont Mimat to Chapieu, a dolmen was found around 1913 including a trepanned skull. The other surrounding plateaux also attest this presence with other dolmens (on the Causse de Changefege for example). These remains may date from the Chalcolithic period.The city, strictly speaking, dates from the Middle Ages, and it is not found cited at the end of the 6th century by Gregory of Tours in his "Histoire des Francs". This text speaks of the martyrdom of , the first bishop of the Gabali, who was the origin of a pilgrimage to the hermitage and the caves where he had retired. Mende in the 3rd century was then only a village. The history of Privat is thus situated around the 3rd century, while he was sent by Austromoine to evangelize the Gévaudan. It was during this period that the Alemanni invaded the country, guided by their leader, Chrocus.The Gabali took refuge in the fortress of Grèzes where they were under siege for two years. Their bishop, Privat, was meanwhile in one of the caves of Mont Mimat which he had converted into a hermitage. When Chrocus learned that the bishop was not among his people, he went looking for him to use as a hostage in order to get the Gabali to leave Grèzes. Privat was martyred at his cave on near the village of Mimate. Presented to the Gabali, he refused to deliver his people despite all the barbaric tortures to which he was subjected (according to Gregory of Tours:""The good shepherd refused to deliver his sheep to wolves, and they tried to force his to sacrifice to demons""). Exhausted, the Alemanni would leave the Gabali free, by promising them peace. Privat succumbed to his injuries in the following days. His act of resistance, refusing to deliver his compatriots, thus earned him great popular fervour, and it was around his tomb and his hermitage that pilgrimage began, allowing the village to grow.In the 12th century Gévaudan was part of the County of Barcelona. In Mende, the counties have a castle, the castel frag. Three other lords had their castle around the Romanesque church: That of Canilhac (who owned the archtreasurer rights of the church), that of Cabrières (who was granted rights of archdeacon) and Dolan (who administered and ruled the episcopal home during the interregnum of bishops). In 1161, Mende, who was under the suzerainty of the King of France, saw his Bishop get the royal rights. It was the golden bull, an act signed by the king and marked with a royal seal in gold, which contained the terms of this agreement. It thus gave Aldebert and his successors, in perpetuity, the Royal power and the full powers of justice on the inhabitants of the bishopric. This fact is quite rare because only four golden bulls in six centuries were granted by the Kings of France.It was from this time that the city walls were built. Aldebert wished to protect the city and secure channels that lead there. he recovered and also built the fortress of Chapieu on , and was done so that it could accommodate a garrison. This allowed the monitoring of the direct route between Mont Lozère and Villefort, in other words towards the Regordane Way, trade route.At that time, however, Mende was not provided the civil and religious capital of Gévaudan. In fact the power was always dependent of two entities: The county and Viscount of Grèzes. The Viscount, property of the King of Aragon, was recovered by the King of France in 1258. The bishop had great power as a vassal, but he didn't have the total legitimacy of some Royal officials. This situation ended from 1307 with the Act of paréage between Bishop Guillaume VI Durand and King Philip IV. Indeed, it definitively fixed the possessions of the king and those of the bishop, even if some disputes persisted.During the Hundred Years' War security increased with the strengthening of the fortifications and the construction of ditches to 1361-1362. At that time, the chapter of Mende had a castle on the heights of the city, Chastel-Nouvel. In 1370 many locals felt safe from the ramparts of the city, despite threats from the routiers. Also, few of them took refuge in Chastel-Nouvel. But the walls were insufficient, and could not prevent the pillages. This period isolated Mende from its neighbours, including Le Puy-en-Velay, and waited the arrival of the Constable of France, Bertrand du Guesclin, then the intervention of Charles VI and the liberation of the region so that the roads reopened around 1452.In 1390, was in Mende, where John III of Armagnac sought, on behalf of the King of France, to put an end to the private war that Raymond de Turenne led against the Pope from Avignon. The Gascon signed as a witness to an agreement between the legate of Clement VII, Antoine de Lisa, , and a representative of the Viscount of Turenne. This interview of Mende helped the Florentines to send ambassadors to solicit the Count of Armagnac. He was proposed to cross the Alps and attack the Count of Vertus in Lombardy.It was also at this time that blessed Pope Urban V began the work of the cathedral (1368), for a completion in 1467. By its letters patent, King Louis XI confirmed the privileges for this cathedral, granted by his predecessors, in September 1464.At the beginning of the 1470s, conflict erupted between Bishop and King Louis XI, because of the support that the bishop had given to the County of Armagnac when it had revolted. To counter it, the king subtracted La Panouse authority over the city which then became autonomous. It wasn't until 1478 that the bishops found authority over the city, sharing revenues with the consul.At the end of the Hundred Years' War, Mende developed its production of drapery, and thus increased its role as a commercial crossroads between the Languedoc and Auvergne, exporting its fame. It is estimated that in the 16th century Mende was one of the richest dioceses of Languedoc before Montpellier and Toulouse. This wealth of the diocese reinforced the ecclesiastical power. Thus among the list of the bishops of the time one can count a number from the family of the Pope. Giuliano della Rovere was ordained bishop of Mende, although he never visited in the capital of Gévaudan (practice known as commendation). His nephews, Clement and , succeeded him in this position. During his tenure, François adorned the cathedral with its bell towers, which one hosted the "Non Pareille", the largest bell in the world.In October 1485, when Clement de La Rovere came to the episcopal seat, old quarrels between the consul and the bishopric re-emerged, first mentioned with fear of losing this privilege. Thus they barricaded the gates of Mende, so that the bishop could not access. At this time the bishops primarily used their Balsièges Castle as a residence (that of Chanac being the summer residence). In vain as the Della Rovere family covered the full authority by notice of the king in 1492. The title of consul was held in place of the traditional title of trustee.In the 16th century, the main events were the Reformation and the Wars of Religion which resulted. On 21 July 1562, 4,000 Protestants got within the walls of the city. They destroyed the unprotected monuments and besieged the city by depriving it of water. They withdrew four days later, largely due to being given 2,000 ecus. This ransom ensured the city a few years of peace.During the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, Astorg de Peyre was murdered in the king's room: his widow then hired a young man, Matthieu Merle to avenge the death of her husband. From 1569 to 1576 he held with his troops the fortress of Grèzes where he gradually seized the north of Gévaudan. From 1577 he moved with his troops to Marvejols intending to seize Mende, although not ceasing his conquests to the north, he failed however in August 1578 at Saint-flour. The night of Christmas 1579, to enter the city, Merle's soldiers expected that the people of Mendes were at midnight mass.During his stay in Mende, Merle made further fortification to the city, not hesitating razing 120 homes to restore the ramparts. In February 1581, while he ruled all the Gévaudan, he enforced the threat he had made to the people. He had in fact asked them to deliver 4,000 ecus, a sum that the Mendois could not collect. He partially destroyed Mende Cathedral built by Pope Urban V. He saved a bell tower to avoid damaging the episcopal palace where his home was established. It was at this time that the "Non Pareille" was melted, the biggest bell in the world, to manufacture culverins and other cannonballs. The city was liberated on bail that year thanks to the intervention of the King of Navarre.The city liberated, a seneschal was created to ensure the peace. Response to the attack of Merle was organised in 1586 against the town of Marvejols, led by baron de Saint-Vidal. It was during this response that the Peyre fortress disappeared from the rock of Peyre. The seneschal took its place. The Tower of Auriac, today known as the Tower of Penitents, was built to accommodate one hundred soldiers. The seneschal gradually took precedence over the diocese, which called for the help of the Duke of Languedoc in 1597. It was after this episode that the Seneschal of Mende disappeared.The beginning of the 17th century was coloured by the work of reconstruction of the cathedral for an inauguration in 1605, although work had lasted until 1629. Far from the splendour of the original, while taking up the same plane, this new cathedral was characterised by a bell tower which was smaller than the other.Between 1645 and 1660, the city was the scene of strife between two rival factions: The Marmaux and the Catharinaux, all members of the consuls or the bourgeoisie, but not having the same opinion on the importance of episcopal power, the latter being opposed. The bishop was also the target of an attack while he officiated in Mende Cathedral in 1645 (he was actually not touched). After several trials, it was not without difficulty that the kingdom gave back his ancestral power, the consul remaining under his control.At the end of the century, landscaped a lane which joined to the Lot (since known as ""Allée Piencourt"") and especially acquired the Aubusson tapestries for the episcopal palace. These tapestries, classified, since adorn the cathedral. It was also behind the early educational development in the city and contributed to the building of the hospital. It also made the hospital its heir, allowing it to develop.In 1702, the war of the Camisards was triggered in the Cévennes. Mende somewhat landscaped its walls in order to prevent any attack. However, this war which began with the murder of Father du Chayla at Le Pont-de-Montvert never reached Mende.In 1721, the Great Plague arrived in Gévaudan affecting the town of Mende with an amount of 1,078 victims in one year. Two generations later, the walls were removed (in 1768), "so the air circulates better".Once all these troubles passed, the city redeveloped its economy around wool and sheep farming. The city extended a little bit under the development of the appearance of the mills, and its first factory. In 1754, Mende saw Louis Mandrin the famous brigand, who lodged in a house there and, according to legend, hid treasure.Between 1764 and 1767, Mende was the witness the comings and goings of the wolf-hunters of the king, who came to seek rest in the city before returning to hunt the beast which was terrorising the north of the country. It was seen close to Mende, once at Pailhou and between Rieutort-de-Randon and Chastel-Nouvel but remained primarily in Margeride. At this time the quarrel between the consul and the bishop was brought up to date by the edict on municipal organizations. The burghers and nobles opposed, but the bishop finally retained power in 1771.During the French Revolution, Mende had to share with Marvejols the function of department capital of Gévaudan. This was renamed in the Lozère department in 1790, and the guardianship of the church disappeared in 1791, thus putting an end to the paréage of 1307. Mende was the scene of small counter-revolutionary clashes, but without great effects. It became the sole capital shortly after.In 1800, the prefect settled in the city, and the prefecture occupies the episcopal palace after the sale of the property of the church. In the middle of the 19th century, the causses around Mende are planted with Austrian black pine, this national forest has continued since then. The choice of black pine was due to its ease of acclimation, and its robustness. The presence of this forest often protected Mende from floods.Then the railway appeared in the prefecture, then linking to Sévérac-le-Château (3 May 1884). The railway line follows the Lot to cross the city, and also continues to follow, like the newly created road. In 1887 the old episcopal palace disappeared in flames, the prefecture had to be rebuilt.On 8 April 1888 Mende became one of the first cities in France, and the first chef-lieu to have electric lighting. The plant was installed in the old .The twentieth century was marked by a beginning of economic decline. The gradual end of the wool industry, the First and the Second World War depopulated the city. Between 1931 and 1934 baths are built, since becoming the Home, and located on the market square. The building was destroyed in summer 2013, to be replaced by a multi-cultural hall.In 1939, shortly before World War II, an internment camp was built in the woods of the Rieucros. The population was opposed to this transit camp for anti-fascists and communists. It then became an internment camp exclusively for women. The mayor at the time, , condemned the Vichy regime and the camp in his hometown, where he made sure that children interned with their mother followed a normal education. His hostile words and acts to the regime in place led him to be removed from his post in 1941. He then joined Resistance where he became one of the leaders for the Lozère. Arrested and sent to German camps in 1944, he died during a transfer in 1945.Ideally placed between the Maquis of the Cévennes and the Aubrac, the town was located as well as a centre for the coordination of the Lozère Interior Resistance. As for the population, it protected itself where shelters against aerial bombardments were implemented.From the 1970s, the city had a sizable population growth. The city then extended to the Causse d'Auge. In the 1980s and 1990s, one can also see that the department was depopulating overall, while its prefecture was expanding. Culture and sport took more importance in the life of the city.During the 1990s, the city developed administrative reconciliations with nearby cities. Therefore, it formed the Estelle city network with Aurillac and Rodez. The principle of the network was to share experiences and pool resources to develop such medium-sized cities. Shortly after, it was with other networks that Mende became closer to other cities of the Massif Central. This is the case, for example, with the Cyber Massif network dedicated to the digital opening up of the region.Moreover, since the beginning of the 21st century, Mende had tried to actively participate in the policies of opening up of the Massif Central. The city lies in the Lot Valley and reached an area of in the 2000s. It also seeks to enroll in a sustainable development project, in the image of the department with, among other projects, the construction of a cogeneration plant and the establishment of a network of heat. The timber industry, so important in the economy of the city, could therefore be put to further use. The establishment of bio-energy in the city has also been carried out by the appearance of a wind farm north of the city.Mende is the chef-lieu of the Lozère department: It welcomes in this regard the prefecture and the headquarters of the General Council. The buildings of these two institutions are scattered within the city. A project of the Department Hall to consolidate all services of the General Council is under consideration. The mayor's office is housed in the town hall which dates from the 18th century, however, a large part of the services have been moved to the annex of the mayor's office.This is the old consular house which was used as a city hall of the Revolution until 1852. On that date, Mayor Becamel bought the Pages family mansion located in the "Place d'Angiran". Since then the city hall has been based in this city mansion (listed historical monument) in the square which has become "Place Charles-de-Gaulle", although a part of the services is now located in the annex which faces it. As the cathedral, the city hall also houses the tapestries of Aubusson, classified since 1909.Since 1945, the following were elected mayors of the city of Mende:The city of Mende belongs to the . It was created in December 2001 under the name of "Communauté de communes de la Haute Vallée d'Olt" before changing its name in 2009. The commune being the largest in terms of population, it was its mayor, Jean-Jacques Delmas, who became the first president of the community.The implementation of this community of communes has allowed a transfer of powers. So, all areas of economic activity and sports facilities now fall under the responsibility of the community, rather than the commune itself.However, the actions are much wider since waste treatment also enters the competence of the community. The waste disposal site of the commune lies in the ZAE du Causse d'Auge, north of the city. In this context, unsorted collection is also the responsibility of the community of communes.This community of communes is not the only grouping of communities for the town of Mende. A comprehensive plan was implemented around the label "Pays d'Art et d'Histoire de Mende et Lot en Gévaudan" [Lands of art and history of Mende and Lot in Gevaudan]. These are twenty-two communes which now belong to the Pays d'Art [Lands of Art] which comes in the continuity of the city of art and history label which Mende has had since 1981. The lands comprises four communities: Cœur de Lozère, , and , which is assistant to the Chastel-Nouvel commune.The city is the chef-lieu of two cantons: Mende-1 and Mende-2 since 2015. Mende-1 comprises the northern part of the city, Mende-2 the southern part.Before the Act of paréage of 1307, Mendoise and Gevaudanaise justice was fully devolved to the bishops. This power was shared with the king after the signing of the Act. Power was shared between the various for the communal land, with Mende being in the land of the bishops and Marvejols in lands of the king, and like this until 1789.The courthouse was built between 1833 and 1835. On 18 February 1994, it was the target of a bombing by the FLNC.The tribunal groups together a children's tribunal, a tribunal of commerce, a court and a high court. It depends on the .The city has long held prisons. Current prison was commissioned in 1891. One of the first high-security areas of France was then moved there in 1949. It was at this date that the prison ownership changed, from the State Department. Several personalities have stayed here, the most famous being Jacques Mesrine. André Génovès' film, "Mesrine" released in 1983, also tells of the criminal plan to destroy the QHS. had sought to bring Jacques Mesrine out of prison when he was imprisoned in Mende. This area had also been the target of critics, such as those of the Committee of action of prisoners and Serge Livrozet, in 1975. In 1989, the Mende detention centre was again publicised with the escape of , who managed to escape by threatening guards with a dummy gun. The last prison 'personality' of Mende, , activist of the alongside José Bové, was imprisoned after the case of the McDonald's franchise destruction in Millau.Mende is twinned with:Since 2007, the cities of Wunsiedel and Volterra are also paired together. The twinning with Vila Real (much more populous than the city of Mende) is explained by the fact that a large part of the Portuguese population of Mende, and Lozère in general, is from this region.In contrast to the department of Lozère, the prefecture saw its demographic curve draw increasingly since the French Revolution. If the department was strongly affected by the and the great wars of the 20th century, the city had the presence of its own authorities. This may explain why Mende has not experienced the same trend as Lozère. This table shows the demographic for the town of Mende, but it can be considered that the "bassin Mendois" [Mende area] follows the same trend.In 2017, the commune had 12,134 inhabitants.The Mende population is fairly young taking into account the ageing population of Lozère. Compared with the 1990 census, it is the age group of 15–29 years which has had the greatest increase at the expense of those aged 0–14 and 30–44 years. The number of near-centenarians was also greater in 1999 than in 1990.In Mende, the share of the immigrant population represents about 8% of the total population. They originate mostly from Portugal (mainly from Vila Real), Morocco, Algeria, and Turkey. This being the image of immigration in the region. The Spanish immigration, which was very present in the middle of the twentieth century, has been disappearing since the 1970s.Mende has three nursery schools: "Solelhons" (the small Suns in Occitan), the Chênes school and Fontanilles school. They are in close relations with the primary schools of the Groupe solaire, Annex Michel del Castillo School and Fontanilles School, Jeanne d'Arc School dealing with private education.The public college of Henri-Bourillon is located in the former small seminary, and share places with the Lycée Chaptal. It hosts students from the city as well as a number from other neighbouring municipalities (Badaroux, Barjac, Chanac, Saint-Bauzile, Saint-Étienne-du-Valdonnez, etc.). The private college is the college of . The continuity of private education is at the Lycée Notre-Dame. Another high school, the Lycée Emile Peytavin allows, in addition to general education, technical and vocational education. Finally, now attached to the Lycée Notre-Dame, we find the Private Professional Lycée Plaisance.Institutions of the city are also have one of the best success rates for the Baccalauréat diploma, compared with the other schools in the area, which puts them in the first half best institutions of France.At the level of higher education, Mende welcomes a BTS in its different high schools. An , branch of the University of Perpignan, offers four courses: Multimedia, gerontology, City Council Secretary, and tourism. It is located in the buildings of the former Lamolle barracks, which had housed the . Finally the city also houses a teacher training Institute, an (IFSIL), a and a .The festivities of the town of Mende are held annually in the month of August. They were related to the feast of , on 21 August. They are decorated with a flower parade and the election of "Miss Mende". Then, in September, every other year, Mende hosts its beer festival, with its twin town of Wunsiedel. The city has also several sports events. At the cultural level, the "meetings of writers" were organized at the beginning of the 1990s, in August. They have welcomed regional authors but also renowned authors such as Calixthe Beyala and Michel Folco.The department has a hospital, which opened in 1970. Five of the six services are located in Mende: Guy de Chauliac Hospital, the retirement home, the convalescence centre, the Training Institute in Nursing and boarding school. The sixth branch, another retirement home, is based at Rieutort-de-Randon.The hospital has approximately 70 physicians and 750 health professionals. Moreover, since 2011, it welcomes in its structure the home of the Paul Éluard psychological and psychiatric unit, a branch of the of Saint-Alban-sur-Limagnole.To this one can add 20 physicians, general practitioners and specialists as well as a centre of firefighters. Though, if the implementation of the current hospital is fairly recent, the city has a fairly old hospital story.In the 12th century was the "alms house" for the population. This hospital, located on "Rue Angiran", derived its income from the operation of a mill in the district of La Vernède, as well as donations of the lords of the lands. It was partially destroyed in 1593 during the construction of a nearby citadel. Though the citadel disappeared in 1597, the hospital was not repaired immediately. From 1635 a budget was allocated for the rebuilding of the institution. It would not be built in the same place, and would take the name of "Hospital of Aygues-Passes". In 1677 became and thus Count of Gévaudan. In his first year as bishop, he rebuilt a new hospital which became the "general hospital". In 1702 it enlarged, and at his death he bequeathed it all of his possessions. This hospital, today the Piencourt residence, remained in use until the inauguration of the hospital. Added to this hospital, two establishments existed following periods of epidemics, both which were outside the city. A plague centre, referred to as 'House of God', was established in the district of Janicot. At the Saint-Jean Bridge (now Pont-Roupt), a "maladrerie" was rebuilt in 1242, intended for the accommodation of lepers.Mende is, by its number of licensees and all events, a sports town. Therefore, she was elected twice the by the daily newspaper "L'Équipe" (1988 and 1998) and a finalist in 2011. It is one of only a few cities of France to have achieved this distinction twice.Mende features a sports zone known as the "Complexe sportif de Jean Jacques Delmas" [Sports complex of Jean Jacques Delmas], in honour of his death, having been originally of this project he was the mayor of Mende for 25 years. There are 3 football/rugby pitches (the Stade du Chapitre and 2 training grounds), the semi-Olympic pool, tennis courts, a fitness room, a skate-park, a street-ball court, table-tennis hall and archery/shooting. It is in this complex which the '"Festival of sport" takes place every two years. Chapitre Stadium, enlarged at the Mediterranean Games has 500 seats, but this figure may be largely surpassed during some matches.Installed on the causse d'Auge are three soccer/rugby fields and an athletics track, which came to replace the old track of Mirandol. The Stade de Mirandol had the municipal stadium office until the 1980s. Since 2006, an equestrian centre is also located on the causse, it comes in addition to the aging Sirvens centre located at the exit of the city. Finally, the causse d'Auge was the chosen site, in 2008, for the construction of a new gymnasium, opposite the football fields.Near the Chaptal Lycée and the Henri Bourrillon College is the La Vernède complex. In this area are two gymnasiums, a dojo, a gymnastics Hall, one dance, one climbing (over an area outdoors), a covered petanque pitch and one outdoors. Before the construction of the gymnasium of La Vernède, this place was that of the municipal swimming pool and two tennis courts.Close to other educational institutions, other gyms are installed. There are six in all in the city: La Vernède, Lycée Notre-Dame, Piencourt, Lycée Chaptal, Lycée Théophile Roussel and college Saint-Privat.Many clubs share the facilities of the city. Football club Éveil Mendois evolved in CFA2 during two seasons (2000–01 and 2001–02), its successor, AF Lozère, plays in the (6th division). The Éveil Mendois football club came from the of the same name, founded in 1920. One of the highlights of its history remains a finish in the last 32 of Coupe de France final played opposite Angoulême on 24 January 1999. More recently, Mende moved up to the last 16 of the finals at the 2013 Coupe de France, winning on this occasion the "ranking of the Petits Poucets".The key club is the (formerly Mende Volley Ball) which plays in the Elite division, for the season 2014-2014 (3rd national division). At the top level, the MVL has a title of obtained at the end of the 2008-2009 season and a participation in the third round of the 2010-2011 Coupe de France.Of Rugby union ("Rugby Club Mende Lozère"), it found its place in Fédérale 3 in 2006, but returned to the regional level in the 2010s. The club however already evolved to a higher level a few years previously.The handball team ("Mende Gévaudan Club") is evolving in 2014-2015 in the National 3 France Championship. Finally, the basketball team ("basketball Causses Mendois") was found in 2014-2015 at the regional level. For women there are also handball, volleyball and basketball clubs which are Mendois clubs of highest level.Mende can be granted a special status to orienteering, an individual sport with team competitions. The fact remains that Mende is playing in the elite league of France, and "M. G. C. Pétanque" and its three veteran champions of France in 2007.Sports diversity does not stop there. Mende clubs also include roller hockey ("Les Comets"). Mende is also home to individual sports: Athletics, badminton, cycling, motorcycling, as well as many combat sports clubs.Since the beginning of the 2000s, a sports centre was set up to accompany young high school athletes to prepare for the best level. From the membership of the COL (centre omnisports Lozère), there is (France MTB 2010 downhill champion) and Fanny Lombard (Junior Champion of Europe 2009 and 2010 in the same discipline).Among professional sportspeople born in Mende, is the cyclist Christophe Laurent who shone by winning the jersey for the best climber of the Tour de l'Avenir and the Tour of California.The motorcyclist , winner of the prologue of the Paris-Dakar Rally (1991), also hails from Mende. He was one of the best enduro riders with the palmares of France, and was also vice World champion.Kayaker Brigitte Guibal, Olympic silver medallist in 2000 in Sydney, was also born in Mende.It is in 1988 that Marion Buisson was born in Mende. After making her athletics debut at the "Éveil mendois", she continued her career at Clermont athletics. She became champion of France in the pole vault in , thereby achieving the minimum to participate in the Beijing Summer Olympics.Each year, the , an enduro competition, centres its course on the city of Mende. This race is part of the most renowned of the enduro season and allows, in addition, mixing professional and amateur riders.One month later (July), the city centre is dedicated to foot racing and the arrival of . This race starts from Marvejols, joining Mende by the Col de Goudard and the Côte de Chabrits. It is sometimes used as a preparation marathon for major events (the World Championships, Olympic Games), but is also open to amateurs as the majority of the marathons. Since 2006, the month of July is also marked by the organisation of a national of pétanque.Cycling is also in honour of the city. The hosted the best professionals in the 1970s. Since then, the has seen five stage finishes in the Tour de France (1995, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2018), and stages in the Tour de l'Avenir, the Grand Prix du Midi Libre, the and Paris-Nice. Since 2006 and the rebirth of the Tour du Gévaudan, Mende is judged the final arrival of this amateur race of great importance. In 2008, the event was organised as the "Finale de la Coupe des France des clubs" [final of the Cup of France for clubs]. During the winter, a grand prix of regional cyclo-cross is also organized. The grand departure of the Tour de France VTT 1996, as well as the first two stages, happened at Mende.Mende was also host city of the Mediterranean Games in 1993 by hosting cycling, football and swimming events.In October 2005, the city hosted the 37th national congress of the French hiking federation, Lozère being a popular department for hikers, and is crossed by two of the most important roads of the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Then, in 2007, Mende was the host of a round of the French enduro championships, as well as the final of the Coupe de France rally.In 2008, France welcomed the enduro European grand prix, the final of the World Championship (WEC). It was the town of Alès which was chosen to host the competition. However the organization was forced to give up, and it was finally hosted by Mende on 11 and 12 October 2008. In 2011, the city hosted the Grand Prix of France, final of the World Championship.Mende is the seat of most of the media of Lozére. Thus we find the writings of the Lozère edition of "Midi Libre" and [New Lozère], with regard to the written press.The radio station France Bleu and have their editorial offices in Lozère. While Radio Eaux-Vives Lozère is installed at the former Grand Seminary.The town of Mende is the episcopal seat of Gévaudan and Lozère, religious life has always been linked with its bishops. Also chapter headquarters, Mende has welcomed a large number of canons. A religious brotherhood, the "Brotherhood of the White Penitents" has long existed and has a procession every Holy Thursday since the 17th century. The Tower of the Penitents (called so because it is adjacent to the chapel of the penitents) is one of the last vestiges of the ramparts of the city.The large and small seminaries are traces of the presence of the formation of Catholic priests.The main place of worship is the Cathedral of Notre-Dame and Saint-Privat, built at the request of Pope Urban V, in place of the old church built over the tomb of but the city has many small chapels. One of the oldest is the chapel of Saint-Ilpide, on the hill of the executioner, which however was destroyed and replaced by a small chapel. Two other chapels are no longer used: That of the Penitents (future Museum of Religious Art) and the Chapel of Saint-Dominique (exhibition hall). The Chapel of the Hermitage (on ) and the cave which was drilled alongside, can still be used for offices.The Carmelite convent has existed since 1880 and has hosted a community of Carmelite nuns, which ensures production of altar bread (or wafers) for the diocese (and those nearby). Another Convent is installed in Mende, which is the Adoration of Picpus Convent. At the "Rue de la Chicanette" is installed the Jeanne Delanoue community of the Providence; little used for celebration services, the place is used for meetings between people in the religious world. The community is at the origin of the creation of the institution Notre-Dame-de-la-Providence, a social children's home adjacent to its premises and which hosts minors under administrative and judicial protection. There are of other religious communities, mainly related to private schools and retirement or rest homes.Worship in Mende, due to its history, is very oriented towards Catholicism, but there are other places of worship for other religions. Thus Mende, near of the Cévennes, has a Protestant temple installed in the "Allée Paul Doumer".The city also had a synagogue in the former Jewish quarter, but it has long since been abandoned. This synagogue, also called Ferrier House from the name of one of its former owners, is the last vestige of the Mende ghetto. The Jews were expelled from the Gévaudan in the 14th century, and this synagogue became the (Catholic) college of All Saints until the French Revolution.Whilst counting the presence of a Muslim community, the city has no mosque, but simply an apartment that serves as place of worship.Industrial (wood industry, jewelry), service centre (shops, restaurants, bars), administrative (generates a lot of jobs) and tourism (medieval town, excursions to Gorges du Tarn), Mende is the starting point for the establishment of new businesses in the department, and turned more towards new technologies, with the advent of the technological hub.The city has more than 1300 companies, including about 900 in the commercial sector, and has an unemployment rate of 10.7% (2017).The city has five zones of economic activities (ZAE), each having a rather clearly defined role. The largest is the ZAE of the Causse d'Auge (north of the city), with a mainly industrial orientation in automation or in the management of the wood. The ZI of Gardès, on the road to Badaroux is an industrial area covering public works and mainly the building companies. The ZAE Lou Chaousse and Chabrits (both in the northwest) also have a vocation craft, but more oriented towards the trade for individuals. And finally, the "Pôle lozérien d'économie numérique" (POLeN) is turned to the new technologies.In addition, since the mid-2000s, the de Ramille was created. This area, wedged between the Lot and the RN 88 on the road to Balsièges hosts a commercial zone which has tended to develop. It is without doubt, with the area of the Causse d'Auge, the area of activity that has extended most recently.In the near future a new area of activity should emerge north of Mende, in the commune of Badaroux. This area whose size is expected to reach approximately initially, would be served by the landscaped expressway.If the commune no longer has many farms, the city remains at the centre of a very rural area and is very oriented towards agriculture. Indeed, 54% of the Lozère territory is classified as a "utilised agricultural area". Livestock in the commune is mainly dedicated to the sheep sector, although cattle farms are found located between Mende and neighbouring communes.This attraction to sheep is ancestral to Mende, since the city has long lived wool exploitation, since the 16th century. In 1333 the city already had a brotherhood of the weavers. In 1849, the town was still equipped with five large mills. However, while having a rich textile past, the city now retains no activity.Like the Lozère department, industry in Mende is mainly oriented towards the timber sector: Its operation, its treatment, its derivatives, etc. Another industry that holds an important place in the city is that of construction and public works.Mende is also the seat of the that handles .The city is strongly turned towards the tertiary sector. As said above, a majority of the enterprises of the city are shops. Mende is the centre of an area's population of approximately 20,000 inhabitants around the Lot Valley, the city therefore centralises much of the services. Its quality of prefecture adds to the presence of public service.Tourism has also developed since the end of the 20th century. This openness on tourism translated between 1983 and 2008 by the creation of the office of tourism (municipal and intermunicipal), an increase of 400 beds offered to tourists, the opening of a holiday village and of a youth hostel, but also the creation of activity centre (canoe base, Freestyle Park, etc.). The city has eleven hotels, four with three stars and four having two. To this one can add the holiday village of Chapitre that offers 42 gîtes for rent, as well as two campsites near the Lot.Other businesses are those that can be found in other modern cities (banks, insurance, bakeries, the press houses, clothes, etc.). The city has a supermarket and a hypermarket, as well as several superettes and other discounters. The hypermarket, which is of recent construction, belongs to the Système U group and is located in the new area of activity of Ramilles. The supermarket (Intermarché) is, meanwhile, close to the city centre. Markets, vestiges of the traditional markets of the city are many, taking place on Wednesday (textile, utility, etc.) at "Place Chaptal", and on Saturday mornings (food market) at "Place Chaptal" and "Place Urbain V". In addition, night markets are held during the summer.The main companies in terms of turnover, as well as major private employers are:Since 1981 Mende has been classified as a city of art, and, since 2000, the grouping of "Mende and Lot in the Gévaudan" has the label of "city and land of art and history".Indeed, the city has a rich architectural heritage, witness of the prosperous time related to the papacy.The Cathedral of Saint-Privat (classed as a historical monument in 1906) whose construction began in 1368 at the initiative of Pope Urban V. Its bell towers date back, however, to the 16th century, following the destruction of one of them during the passage of the Huguenots by Matthieu Merle. The large belfry included housing ""Non Pareille"", the largest bell in the world melted between 1517 and 1521 in Villefort and destroyed during the Wars of Religion. There remains only the clapper. The cathedral consists of twelve rectangular chapels, two pentagonal chapels and a sacristy. Originally it was built above the Sainte-Thècle crypt where the body of Saint Privat had been buried. It is located next to the old episcopal palace.The city has many public fountains. Water from the causses thus enters a piping system located beneath the city before joining the Lot. Two of them (Aigues-Passe and Soubeyrand) are classified as historic monuments. Piped water also enters the old wash house of the Calquières, still visible on "Rue d'Angiran".This tower is one of the few remains of the ancient walls of the 12th century. Protecting the Gate of Angiran which was next to it, this tower served as guard for the short-lived Seneschal of Mende. It includes three floors and an attic. This is the installation of the chapel which is adjacent, and especially its bell tower at the top which saved the tower during the destruction of the walls in 1768.Dating back to the 13th century, this bridge is one of the symbols of the city. It has never been carried away by frequent floods in Mende. It formerly went by the name of Peyrenc Bridge, then took the name of Notre Dame due to the presence on its mouth of a Virgin, which disappeared during the Wars of Religion. Its span has a opening and is high.Saint Privat withdrew, in the 3rd century, into caves that he had built over Mende, on . Since his Hermitage was built, it also to allow the pilgrims to go there. It can be accessed either by Way of the Cross (from the market) or by road from the causse (RD 25). At the hermitage, we find a hotel for the reception of the pilgrims, a chapel, grotto and a breakthrough designed to the original cave.The House where the consul sat, since 1578, also served as city hall after the Revolution. On its pediment is found the arms of the city: ""Azure in the Gothic M of or, a shining Sun similarly topped."" Facing it is a trompe-l'œil wall symbolizing the twinning of Mende and Volterra.Located in the northwest of the city, the Bahours locality had two castles, one of which was destroyed in 1960. The remaining one is a strong house (manse) built in the 17th century, possibly on the foundations of a more ancient building. The main interest of this strong house is its kitchen listed as a historical monument, like the whole building.Mende features a municipal theatre and several rooms that can be used to this kind of show. The ancient theatre of the city turned into cinema. A development project involves the construction of a new multicultural hall. In addition, Mende has a departmental library, the Lamartine Library.The ancient theatre of the city, established between 1890 and 1895, was replaced by a cinema. The main room used for the theatre is now the festival hall located at the market. This room, and its natural scenery of arches, is multi-cultural and is the largest in the city in terms of capacity. On the market lies the "antirouille", a municipal building for young people and allowing everyone to have access to the internet, this building has a room to organize concerts.Near the market, along the "Chemin Saint-Ilpide", the Urban V municipal room hosts plays, live shows, and also meetings and projections (world knowledge, for example).Finally as part of the redevelopment of the market (started by the installation of the intercommunal tourism office and the renovation of the Lamartine Library), an auditorium should be created behind the festival hall (the Emile-Joly Square being moved).The Ignon-Fabre Museum (or the Museum of Mende) was located on "Rue de l'Epine" [street of the Holy thorn], at the , where there was installed the first electrification plant of the city. It was however closed due to lack of budget. Before it, a museum was located in a house next to the prison.The Chapel of Saint-Dominique and the current Department Hall can serve as an exhibition space, as can the Chapel of the Penitents and the former consular house.In addition a project of the Museum of , currently under study, should be installed in the Chapel of the Penitents.The poem, written by an author whose story did not retain the name, was confirmed in the 19th century:However, not everyone had a positive vision of the city. It had long had problems with sewage into the modern era, and was denigrated despite its charm:This quote comes perhaps from the conditions in which the geographer of the king came in the city. Like those who would declare to Serge Livrozet that Mende was "capital of Lozère and torture".Those born in Mende, or having a very strong tie with the city include:When King Louis XI granted autonomy to the city, he granted new arms in 1469. An 'L' surmounted by a crown, in gratitude to the king, was added to these in 1475.The current coat of arms dates from the sixteenth century. These weapons were registered in the Armorial General of France in 1697.
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[
"Jean-Jacques Delmas",
"Alain Bertrand",
"Paulin Daudé-Gleize"
] |
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Who was the head of Mende in 26-Feb-197226-February-1972?
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February 26, 1972
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{
"text": [
"Henri Trémolet de Villers"
]
}
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L2_Q191772_P6_1
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Paulin Daudé-Gleize is the head of the government of Mende from Jan, 1919 to Jan, 1928.
Henri Trémolet de Villers is the head of the government of Mende from Jan, 1971 to Jan, 1977.
Jean-Jacques Delmas is the head of the government of Mende from Mar, 1983 to Jan, 2008.
Alain Bertrand is the head of the government of Mende from Mar, 2012 to Dec, 2022.
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Mende, LozèreMende (, ) is a commune and prefecture of the department of Lozère and of the region of Occitanie in southern France. Its inhabitants are called the "Mendois". The city, including the first traces of dwellings date back to 200 BC, was originally named "Mimata", probably in reference to the mountains that surround it.Mende is located between Clermont-Ferrand and Montpellier, but also on the axis of Lyon–Saint-Étienne–Albi–Toulouse. The other important nearby towns are Aurillac and Saint-Flour (Cantal), Le Puy-en-Velay (Haute-Loire), Rodez, Millau (Aveyron) and Alès and Nîmes (Gard).Even though Mende remains a relatively sparsely populated city (approximately 12,000 inhabitants), it remains the most important of the Lozère Department. In addition, it is the city-centre of the unique urban area of this department.It is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Mende.Mende is situated in the high valley of the Lot, in a mountainous area, in the "Pays du Gévaudan", the Rieucros stream joins to it on its right bank. The city is overlooked (on the left bank of the Lot) by and its . Access is by the . On the right bank, residential areas extend over different causses, including the "Causse d'Auge". Located on the axis of Lyon-Toulouse, the city has long been a commercial crossroads between the Auvergne, Rhone and the Languedoc.The commune is bordered by Chastel-Nouvel to the north, Badaroux to the east, Lanuéjols to the southeast, Brenoux and Saint-Bauzile to the south, Balsièges to the southwest, and Barjac and Servières to the west.Mende is one of the "gateway cities" (along with Millau, Lodève, Alès and Ganges) for the site of the Causses and Cévennes, of world heritage by UNESCO under the inscription "Les Causses and Cevennes, Mediterranean agro-pastoral cultural landscape".According to the INSEE, Mende is an urban commune without suburbs ("ville isolée" [isolated town]). It lies at the centre of an urban area composed of 15 communes, the only one in the department of Lozère.The town of Mende is built in the Lot Valley, within the area of the . The region of the Causses in Lozère is one of the four of Lozère, with the Margeride, the Aubrac and the Cévennes. The city is nestled in the middle of different Causses which form as natural barriers. However, over the 20th century, urbanisation began to extend beyond these limits.Of the Causses, is the most significant. The causse is overhung by the Cross of . A first wooden cross was planted in 1900 or 1907. It was replaced a few years later, on 8 July 1933, a Jubilee year, by a -high iron cross. Until 1945, this cross was the place of large gatherings in honour of Mendois soldiers. This cross has been illuminated since the summer of 1965. The mount also houses the chapel where Privat, the martyr of the Gévaudan, withdrew to. At its foot lies the area of Vabre where can be found the first remains of houses in the city. Opposite this is the Causse d'Auge (northeast) and the Causse du Crouzet (northwest), and the Margeride mountains beyond. To the west is Causse de Changefège, located between Mende and Barjac, which complements the borders of the city.The geology of the city of Mende is very dependent on the surrounding causses and streams that pass through them. The Mont Mimat and the Causse de Changefège are composed of limestone of the "Grands Causses", thus presenting abrupt edges. The other causses (as well as the butte de Fontanille) are composed of limestone of the "Petits Causses" (without these edges). The Lot Valley is composed of marl. The Valley, in the south of Mende, is full of blue marl, leaving one to presuppose that the marl of the town of Mende would be, in part, of the same origin. Finally, the various streams (the Rieucros) of the causses of the north of the city are lined by mica-schist.The city of Mende was built on the banks of the Lot. But the Lot is not the only presence of water in the city: Indeed, it has several sources, including those of . The most significant of them is located in the Vabre district, close to the first houses. These sources have also often been channeled and feed the underground water system of the city, visible on the surface through numerous fountains and the old wash house. The streets, such as the "Rue du Torrent", attest to the passage of water from Mont Mimat.To the north, on the other side of the Lot, the sources are much more distant, but water is present in the stream known as Rieucros.Mende is subject to an oceanic stream that comes from the Aubrac and Mediterranean and flows from the Cévennes. The department of Lozère, Mende in particular, benefit from insolation (or sunlight) similar to that of Toulouse with approximately 2,069 hours of sunshine per year. The city, away from the mountains that surround it, has a more protected climate than the highlands of Gévaudan: So, average temperatures oscillate between and . With respect to annual precipitation, data for the Lozère is between , depending on the exposure of the regions, with up to 50 days of snow per year.Between 1971 and 2000, monthly rainfall ranged from (March) and (September).In more detail, here are some statements in Mende records since 1985:Mende is located in the centre of the Lozère department and therefore centralises the roads. The city has rail and air access, but the Lot is not navigable (too shallow) as with all the rivers of the department (except for recreational canoeing, or in rare exceptions for the transport of people such as the crossing of the Tarn towards La Malène).Mende is located on the , linking Lyon and Toulouse. The road comes from Balsièges to the west and Badaroux to the east. This axis can be reached easily. Haute-Loire and Ardèche are to the east, via Langogne and Aveyron is to the west via La Canourgue-Banassac, as well as the A75 autoroute. A road doubling project is underway in the department, bypassing Mende from the north. This doubling is however a long project (1993), having had several outlines and some opposition. The project was finally abandoned in October 2012 making Lozère a department without draft dual carriageways on RN 88. Indeed, its neighbours Aveyron and Tarn continue their projects of dual carriageways between Rodez and Toulouse with all expected to be commissioned in December 2015. The work of the Rodez - Séverac section should be completed by the end of 2019. The same will be the case for Haute-Loire, which continues its road access. However, the workarounds of Mende and Langogne are budgeted. These projects in adjacent departments will reach major cities nearby to Mende (Rodez, Albi, Toulouse, Le Puy and even Lyon). Finally, the economic impact or the absence of dual carriageways in Lozere must be assessed in the medium and long term.Furthermore, a viaduct (the Rieucros Viaduct) commissioned in December 2009 will be used to ensure a first bypass of Mende. It connects the industrial area of the Causse d'Auge to the technological centre of Valcroze (and the RD 42) and also helps to relieve the traffic connecting the districts north and northwest of the city.The RN 88 deviation from Mende should be the first from Pelouse to reach up to the Causse d'Auge with an "expressway" configuration. Then it would continue on the D 806 (ex north) to the Rieucros Viaduct, and then a new section of the viaduct to the Mende exit in the hamlet of La Thébaïde (west bypass). These two sections will only be of two lanes. Subsequently, the expressway from the Causse d'Auge will be directly linked to the A 75.Another national road, the RN 106, formerly ran through the city. This name is no longer valid for the section coming from the Gard and joining Mende via Florac (it is then of the RN 88 on the stretch between Balsièges and Mende). The northern part of the road was decommissioned in 2007 and now bears the name of D 806. This stretch goes from Mende to Saint-Chély-d'Apcher (and the A75 autoroute) via Chastel-Nouvel.Secondary access is provided by the RD 42 from the northwest, which joins the RN 88 at Barjac, and by the RD 25 which, passing through the , crosses before arriving at the Valdonnez.Mende features an SNCF railway station, located on the railway line of the , between Le Monastier (the ) and La Bastide - Saint-Laurent-les-Bains (). This line, built at the very beginning of the 20th century, bears the nickname of ""ligne du toit de la France"" [the roof of France line], and Mende is the main railway station. Ten weekly links are provided by rail.The station is also the starting point of the TER connection to Clermont-Ferrand by bus, which is daily.Referred to as TUM (for "Transports Urbains Mendois") the urban transport network is exclusively equipped with buses, which run through the city and some nearby villages (Les Boulaines, Chabrits, Chabannes). Since its establishment in 2000, it has replaced the school bus service. The urban transport network is also responsible for the management of the pay car parks in the city. A part of the city centre is also exclusively pedestrian.The prefecture of the Lozère department shares with the neighbouring village of Brenoux. This airfield, located on , is thus from Clermont-Ferrand, from Montpellier and away from Lyon and Toulouse. Highlights include it being the site of the final scene of the film "La Grande Vadrouille", and also of five stages of the Tour de France (1995, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2018).Furthermore, a Mende-Paris air link was implemented in October 2007. However, the flight was departing from the aerodrome of Le Puy-en-Velay, located from Mende and reached by a shuttle. This connection was born of a desire to open up Mende to air travel, which is indeed late at this level for a prefecture, and has no direct flight to Paris unlike its neighbours Clermont-Ferrand, Rodez, Aurillac or Le Puy-en-Velay.Since the beginning of 2008, a study has been conducted by the CCI of the Lozère department, in order to discuss the possibility of the establishment of a link between the Lozerian prefecture and the regional capital, Montpellier but four years after the launch of this study, no concrete project to date has been presented.Finally, two more major airports with international influence and close to Mende are Clermont-Ferrand Aulnat and Rodez-Aveyron.In the 13th century, the city was concentrated in what is now the city centre, bounded by the boulevards, and formerly the ramparts. It was then split into five sections (or neighbourhoods) known as "pans": Auriac, Aygues-Passe, Champnau, Chastel and Claustres.When it was initially named as such, the Pan d'Auriac was mainly a place of settlement, before becoming the "quartier des pénitents blancs" [district of the white penitents] who settled there. The Pan d'Aygues-Passe (or Aigues-Passe), meaning "water that passes", owes its name to the inclination of its streets, where the water flowed during cleaning. The Pan de Champnau derives its name from "new field", and includes what was a new residential area, at north of the city. The Pan de Chastel is the old commercial district of the city. It is located towards the Chastel Gate, which led then to Chastel-Nouvel, where a castle stood which was property of the bishops. Finally the Pan des Claustres, whose name comes from cloisters, was the largest of the city and is now between the and , i.e. between the two tombs of (the chapel Saint-Ilpide on the hill of the executioner, and the crypt of Sainte-Thècle under the cathedral square).The historic city centre is bordered by boulevards which took the place of the ancient walls. In addition to housing, the centre is mostly occupied by convenience stores and artisans. Beyond the boulevards, there are other houses as well as government buildings. The General Council and the prefecture indeed share the former , but services are scattered throughout the city. "Allée Piencourt" connects downtown roads to Badaroux and Chastel-Nouvel, near the ancient diocese (pré claux and pré vival) having been built.North of the "Allée Piencourt", past the Berlière Bridge, dwellings are present at the foot of the Causse d'Auge. These were established in several instalments over the 19th and 20th centuries, the first of these being Chaldecoste. It is in this part of the city that the large and the small seminary as well as the Convent of Carmel are found. The city extends to the north in the direction of Alteyrac (commune of Chastel-Nouvel). Between these areas and Alteyrac is located the zone of economic activities (ZAE) of the Causse d'Auge. The northern districts often bear names of flowers, this part of the city that historically sheltered gardens and vineyards, along the draille linking the "Plateau du Palais du Roi" [King's Palace Plateau].The causse is bounded by two streams, the Rieucros in the east and the to the west.Above the Badaroux road, on a hill, lies the Fontanilles district. It was originally social housing. At the foot of the hill is the Lycée Notre-Dame, while beyond the district of Saint-Laurent (where one finds traces of history with the presence of a chapel and a windmill) and, later, the Gardès ZAE. In this part, to the west of Gardès, is also the village of Sirvens where traces of a Gallo-Roman villa were discovered.Stuck between Fontanille, Mont Mimat and the city centre, are districts located roadside above pré claux. In this area are located the centre of firefighters, the Château of Bellesagne and the former gendarmerie. The market is also in this area, but more to the east than the precedents cited (beyond the boulevards, however). Above it lies the Vabre district and Hill of the Executioner where the first traces of dwellings of the city were found. Also nearby is the city's prison.In the westerly direction, found the District of Le Chapitre with the sports complex and the holiday village. This area is at the foot of a portion of the Causse de Changefège, where homes are installed along the Chabrits road ("Avenue du 11-Novembre", north-west of the city). It is in this part of the city which the district of Valcroze is found (new in the 19th century), the Chabrits ZAE and technology park.The other side of the Lot, along the , is found the avenue of the Gorges du Tarn and the area of Ramille. It is in this part where retail establishments are found. The Ramille zone saw the introduction, despite some criticism about the instability of the ground, of the hypermarket of the department, as well as a commercial area.On the map are the main roads of the city. To the west, the RN 88 is joined to Balsièges, passing through the Rocher de Moïse (classified site) located at the left end. To the northwest, it is the hamlet of Chabannes, and further to Chabrits. To the south, is found, where the new cross stands which symbolically marks the top of the hill (although it continues a little higher). This road leads to the Hermitage of , at the cross of the same name and the route of Valdonnez (Lanuéjols, Brenoux, Saint-Bauzile).To the east, Fontanille district is on a hillock, circumvented by the Lot. Behind lies the district of Saint-Laurent, then the ZAE de Gardès (and the village of the same name) and the village of Sirvens. Following the RN 88, one reaches Badaroux. Finally to the north, is the area of the Chaldecoste (broken down into several districts: Bergerie, Chanteperdrix, Vignette, etc.) where one can reach the ZAE du causse d'Auge. Further to the north, one finds Chastel-Nouvel before returning to the ground of and the "Plateau du Palais du Roi". The drinking water of the city of Mende comes from this direction, because of the Lac de Charpal reservoir, which is the main source.In 2017, Mende had 6,851 residences for an official population of 12,134 people. 87% of them are primary residences and 6.1% of secondary residences, which contrasts sharply with the figure of the Lozère department amounting to a 32.3% share of secondary housing.The population has been growing for several years, and the city has acquired new quarters over the years: Chaldecoste and Chanteperdrix in the 1970s, La Bergerie in the 1990s, and Valcroze in the 2000s. The city has 17.9% of HLM-type accommodations.59% of dwellings have four rooms or more and 19% have three rooms. The city is composed of many individual homes, small and large dwellings remaining in the minority. However, one can see that between 1990 and 1999 there was an increase of 85.3% of dwellings of one or two rooms. This can partly be explained by the development of higher education, with the branch of the University of Perpignan.The region is an ancient site of settlement dating back to the Bronze Age, although the capital of the Gévaudan, the Gallic period then Gallo-Roman, was Anderitum. Found in the ancient texts are the names of "Mimate", "Mimata" (mountain), which refer to this town at the foot of "Mons Mimatensis" (). In the same spirit, another name circulating is that of "Viculus Mimatensis" (or "Vicus Mimatensis"). It is the city which gave its name to Mont Mimat ("mount of the Mendois", literally) and not vice versa.Traces of dwellings dating from 200 BC were found, ancient Roman "villae", as well as around the city. However, residents could have been be domiciled here well before. Indeed, on Mont Mimat to Chapieu, a dolmen was found around 1913 including a trepanned skull. The other surrounding plateaux also attest this presence with other dolmens (on the Causse de Changefege for example). These remains may date from the Chalcolithic period.The city, strictly speaking, dates from the Middle Ages, and it is not found cited at the end of the 6th century by Gregory of Tours in his "Histoire des Francs". This text speaks of the martyrdom of , the first bishop of the Gabali, who was the origin of a pilgrimage to the hermitage and the caves where he had retired. Mende in the 3rd century was then only a village. The history of Privat is thus situated around the 3rd century, while he was sent by Austromoine to evangelize the Gévaudan. It was during this period that the Alemanni invaded the country, guided by their leader, Chrocus.The Gabali took refuge in the fortress of Grèzes where they were under siege for two years. Their bishop, Privat, was meanwhile in one of the caves of Mont Mimat which he had converted into a hermitage. When Chrocus learned that the bishop was not among his people, he went looking for him to use as a hostage in order to get the Gabali to leave Grèzes. Privat was martyred at his cave on near the village of Mimate. Presented to the Gabali, he refused to deliver his people despite all the barbaric tortures to which he was subjected (according to Gregory of Tours:""The good shepherd refused to deliver his sheep to wolves, and they tried to force his to sacrifice to demons""). Exhausted, the Alemanni would leave the Gabali free, by promising them peace. Privat succumbed to his injuries in the following days. His act of resistance, refusing to deliver his compatriots, thus earned him great popular fervour, and it was around his tomb and his hermitage that pilgrimage began, allowing the village to grow.In the 12th century Gévaudan was part of the County of Barcelona. In Mende, the counties have a castle, the castel frag. Three other lords had their castle around the Romanesque church: That of Canilhac (who owned the archtreasurer rights of the church), that of Cabrières (who was granted rights of archdeacon) and Dolan (who administered and ruled the episcopal home during the interregnum of bishops). In 1161, Mende, who was under the suzerainty of the King of France, saw his Bishop get the royal rights. It was the golden bull, an act signed by the king and marked with a royal seal in gold, which contained the terms of this agreement. It thus gave Aldebert and his successors, in perpetuity, the Royal power and the full powers of justice on the inhabitants of the bishopric. This fact is quite rare because only four golden bulls in six centuries were granted by the Kings of France.It was from this time that the city walls were built. Aldebert wished to protect the city and secure channels that lead there. he recovered and also built the fortress of Chapieu on , and was done so that it could accommodate a garrison. This allowed the monitoring of the direct route between Mont Lozère and Villefort, in other words towards the Regordane Way, trade route.At that time, however, Mende was not provided the civil and religious capital of Gévaudan. In fact the power was always dependent of two entities: The county and Viscount of Grèzes. The Viscount, property of the King of Aragon, was recovered by the King of France in 1258. The bishop had great power as a vassal, but he didn't have the total legitimacy of some Royal officials. This situation ended from 1307 with the Act of paréage between Bishop Guillaume VI Durand and King Philip IV. Indeed, it definitively fixed the possessions of the king and those of the bishop, even if some disputes persisted.During the Hundred Years' War security increased with the strengthening of the fortifications and the construction of ditches to 1361-1362. At that time, the chapter of Mende had a castle on the heights of the city, Chastel-Nouvel. In 1370 many locals felt safe from the ramparts of the city, despite threats from the routiers. Also, few of them took refuge in Chastel-Nouvel. But the walls were insufficient, and could not prevent the pillages. This period isolated Mende from its neighbours, including Le Puy-en-Velay, and waited the arrival of the Constable of France, Bertrand du Guesclin, then the intervention of Charles VI and the liberation of the region so that the roads reopened around 1452.In 1390, was in Mende, where John III of Armagnac sought, on behalf of the King of France, to put an end to the private war that Raymond de Turenne led against the Pope from Avignon. The Gascon signed as a witness to an agreement between the legate of Clement VII, Antoine de Lisa, , and a representative of the Viscount of Turenne. This interview of Mende helped the Florentines to send ambassadors to solicit the Count of Armagnac. He was proposed to cross the Alps and attack the Count of Vertus in Lombardy.It was also at this time that blessed Pope Urban V began the work of the cathedral (1368), for a completion in 1467. By its letters patent, King Louis XI confirmed the privileges for this cathedral, granted by his predecessors, in September 1464.At the beginning of the 1470s, conflict erupted between Bishop and King Louis XI, because of the support that the bishop had given to the County of Armagnac when it had revolted. To counter it, the king subtracted La Panouse authority over the city which then became autonomous. It wasn't until 1478 that the bishops found authority over the city, sharing revenues with the consul.At the end of the Hundred Years' War, Mende developed its production of drapery, and thus increased its role as a commercial crossroads between the Languedoc and Auvergne, exporting its fame. It is estimated that in the 16th century Mende was one of the richest dioceses of Languedoc before Montpellier and Toulouse. This wealth of the diocese reinforced the ecclesiastical power. Thus among the list of the bishops of the time one can count a number from the family of the Pope. Giuliano della Rovere was ordained bishop of Mende, although he never visited in the capital of Gévaudan (practice known as commendation). His nephews, Clement and , succeeded him in this position. During his tenure, François adorned the cathedral with its bell towers, which one hosted the "Non Pareille", the largest bell in the world.In October 1485, when Clement de La Rovere came to the episcopal seat, old quarrels between the consul and the bishopric re-emerged, first mentioned with fear of losing this privilege. Thus they barricaded the gates of Mende, so that the bishop could not access. At this time the bishops primarily used their Balsièges Castle as a residence (that of Chanac being the summer residence). In vain as the Della Rovere family covered the full authority by notice of the king in 1492. The title of consul was held in place of the traditional title of trustee.In the 16th century, the main events were the Reformation and the Wars of Religion which resulted. On 21 July 1562, 4,000 Protestants got within the walls of the city. They destroyed the unprotected monuments and besieged the city by depriving it of water. They withdrew four days later, largely due to being given 2,000 ecus. This ransom ensured the city a few years of peace.During the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, Astorg de Peyre was murdered in the king's room: his widow then hired a young man, Matthieu Merle to avenge the death of her husband. From 1569 to 1576 he held with his troops the fortress of Grèzes where he gradually seized the north of Gévaudan. From 1577 he moved with his troops to Marvejols intending to seize Mende, although not ceasing his conquests to the north, he failed however in August 1578 at Saint-flour. The night of Christmas 1579, to enter the city, Merle's soldiers expected that the people of Mendes were at midnight mass.During his stay in Mende, Merle made further fortification to the city, not hesitating razing 120 homes to restore the ramparts. In February 1581, while he ruled all the Gévaudan, he enforced the threat he had made to the people. He had in fact asked them to deliver 4,000 ecus, a sum that the Mendois could not collect. He partially destroyed Mende Cathedral built by Pope Urban V. He saved a bell tower to avoid damaging the episcopal palace where his home was established. It was at this time that the "Non Pareille" was melted, the biggest bell in the world, to manufacture culverins and other cannonballs. The city was liberated on bail that year thanks to the intervention of the King of Navarre.The city liberated, a seneschal was created to ensure the peace. Response to the attack of Merle was organised in 1586 against the town of Marvejols, led by baron de Saint-Vidal. It was during this response that the Peyre fortress disappeared from the rock of Peyre. The seneschal took its place. The Tower of Auriac, today known as the Tower of Penitents, was built to accommodate one hundred soldiers. The seneschal gradually took precedence over the diocese, which called for the help of the Duke of Languedoc in 1597. It was after this episode that the Seneschal of Mende disappeared.The beginning of the 17th century was coloured by the work of reconstruction of the cathedral for an inauguration in 1605, although work had lasted until 1629. Far from the splendour of the original, while taking up the same plane, this new cathedral was characterised by a bell tower which was smaller than the other.Between 1645 and 1660, the city was the scene of strife between two rival factions: The Marmaux and the Catharinaux, all members of the consuls or the bourgeoisie, but not having the same opinion on the importance of episcopal power, the latter being opposed. The bishop was also the target of an attack while he officiated in Mende Cathedral in 1645 (he was actually not touched). After several trials, it was not without difficulty that the kingdom gave back his ancestral power, the consul remaining under his control.At the end of the century, landscaped a lane which joined to the Lot (since known as ""Allée Piencourt"") and especially acquired the Aubusson tapestries for the episcopal palace. These tapestries, classified, since adorn the cathedral. It was also behind the early educational development in the city and contributed to the building of the hospital. It also made the hospital its heir, allowing it to develop.In 1702, the war of the Camisards was triggered in the Cévennes. Mende somewhat landscaped its walls in order to prevent any attack. However, this war which began with the murder of Father du Chayla at Le Pont-de-Montvert never reached Mende.In 1721, the Great Plague arrived in Gévaudan affecting the town of Mende with an amount of 1,078 victims in one year. Two generations later, the walls were removed (in 1768), "so the air circulates better".Once all these troubles passed, the city redeveloped its economy around wool and sheep farming. The city extended a little bit under the development of the appearance of the mills, and its first factory. In 1754, Mende saw Louis Mandrin the famous brigand, who lodged in a house there and, according to legend, hid treasure.Between 1764 and 1767, Mende was the witness the comings and goings of the wolf-hunters of the king, who came to seek rest in the city before returning to hunt the beast which was terrorising the north of the country. It was seen close to Mende, once at Pailhou and between Rieutort-de-Randon and Chastel-Nouvel but remained primarily in Margeride. At this time the quarrel between the consul and the bishop was brought up to date by the edict on municipal organizations. The burghers and nobles opposed, but the bishop finally retained power in 1771.During the French Revolution, Mende had to share with Marvejols the function of department capital of Gévaudan. This was renamed in the Lozère department in 1790, and the guardianship of the church disappeared in 1791, thus putting an end to the paréage of 1307. Mende was the scene of small counter-revolutionary clashes, but without great effects. It became the sole capital shortly after.In 1800, the prefect settled in the city, and the prefecture occupies the episcopal palace after the sale of the property of the church. In the middle of the 19th century, the causses around Mende are planted with Austrian black pine, this national forest has continued since then. The choice of black pine was due to its ease of acclimation, and its robustness. The presence of this forest often protected Mende from floods.Then the railway appeared in the prefecture, then linking to Sévérac-le-Château (3 May 1884). The railway line follows the Lot to cross the city, and also continues to follow, like the newly created road. In 1887 the old episcopal palace disappeared in flames, the prefecture had to be rebuilt.On 8 April 1888 Mende became one of the first cities in France, and the first chef-lieu to have electric lighting. The plant was installed in the old .The twentieth century was marked by a beginning of economic decline. The gradual end of the wool industry, the First and the Second World War depopulated the city. Between 1931 and 1934 baths are built, since becoming the Home, and located on the market square. The building was destroyed in summer 2013, to be replaced by a multi-cultural hall.In 1939, shortly before World War II, an internment camp was built in the woods of the Rieucros. The population was opposed to this transit camp for anti-fascists and communists. It then became an internment camp exclusively for women. The mayor at the time, , condemned the Vichy regime and the camp in his hometown, where he made sure that children interned with their mother followed a normal education. His hostile words and acts to the regime in place led him to be removed from his post in 1941. He then joined Resistance where he became one of the leaders for the Lozère. Arrested and sent to German camps in 1944, he died during a transfer in 1945.Ideally placed between the Maquis of the Cévennes and the Aubrac, the town was located as well as a centre for the coordination of the Lozère Interior Resistance. As for the population, it protected itself where shelters against aerial bombardments were implemented.From the 1970s, the city had a sizable population growth. The city then extended to the Causse d'Auge. In the 1980s and 1990s, one can also see that the department was depopulating overall, while its prefecture was expanding. Culture and sport took more importance in the life of the city.During the 1990s, the city developed administrative reconciliations with nearby cities. Therefore, it formed the Estelle city network with Aurillac and Rodez. The principle of the network was to share experiences and pool resources to develop such medium-sized cities. Shortly after, it was with other networks that Mende became closer to other cities of the Massif Central. This is the case, for example, with the Cyber Massif network dedicated to the digital opening up of the region.Moreover, since the beginning of the 21st century, Mende had tried to actively participate in the policies of opening up of the Massif Central. The city lies in the Lot Valley and reached an area of in the 2000s. It also seeks to enroll in a sustainable development project, in the image of the department with, among other projects, the construction of a cogeneration plant and the establishment of a network of heat. The timber industry, so important in the economy of the city, could therefore be put to further use. The establishment of bio-energy in the city has also been carried out by the appearance of a wind farm north of the city.Mende is the chef-lieu of the Lozère department: It welcomes in this regard the prefecture and the headquarters of the General Council. The buildings of these two institutions are scattered within the city. A project of the Department Hall to consolidate all services of the General Council is under consideration. The mayor's office is housed in the town hall which dates from the 18th century, however, a large part of the services have been moved to the annex of the mayor's office.This is the old consular house which was used as a city hall of the Revolution until 1852. On that date, Mayor Becamel bought the Pages family mansion located in the "Place d'Angiran". Since then the city hall has been based in this city mansion (listed historical monument) in the square which has become "Place Charles-de-Gaulle", although a part of the services is now located in the annex which faces it. As the cathedral, the city hall also houses the tapestries of Aubusson, classified since 1909.Since 1945, the following were elected mayors of the city of Mende:The city of Mende belongs to the . It was created in December 2001 under the name of "Communauté de communes de la Haute Vallée d'Olt" before changing its name in 2009. The commune being the largest in terms of population, it was its mayor, Jean-Jacques Delmas, who became the first president of the community.The implementation of this community of communes has allowed a transfer of powers. So, all areas of economic activity and sports facilities now fall under the responsibility of the community, rather than the commune itself.However, the actions are much wider since waste treatment also enters the competence of the community. The waste disposal site of the commune lies in the ZAE du Causse d'Auge, north of the city. In this context, unsorted collection is also the responsibility of the community of communes.This community of communes is not the only grouping of communities for the town of Mende. A comprehensive plan was implemented around the label "Pays d'Art et d'Histoire de Mende et Lot en Gévaudan" [Lands of art and history of Mende and Lot in Gevaudan]. These are twenty-two communes which now belong to the Pays d'Art [Lands of Art] which comes in the continuity of the city of art and history label which Mende has had since 1981. The lands comprises four communities: Cœur de Lozère, , and , which is assistant to the Chastel-Nouvel commune.The city is the chef-lieu of two cantons: Mende-1 and Mende-2 since 2015. Mende-1 comprises the northern part of the city, Mende-2 the southern part.Before the Act of paréage of 1307, Mendoise and Gevaudanaise justice was fully devolved to the bishops. This power was shared with the king after the signing of the Act. Power was shared between the various for the communal land, with Mende being in the land of the bishops and Marvejols in lands of the king, and like this until 1789.The courthouse was built between 1833 and 1835. On 18 February 1994, it was the target of a bombing by the FLNC.The tribunal groups together a children's tribunal, a tribunal of commerce, a court and a high court. It depends on the .The city has long held prisons. Current prison was commissioned in 1891. One of the first high-security areas of France was then moved there in 1949. It was at this date that the prison ownership changed, from the State Department. Several personalities have stayed here, the most famous being Jacques Mesrine. André Génovès' film, "Mesrine" released in 1983, also tells of the criminal plan to destroy the QHS. had sought to bring Jacques Mesrine out of prison when he was imprisoned in Mende. This area had also been the target of critics, such as those of the Committee of action of prisoners and Serge Livrozet, in 1975. In 1989, the Mende detention centre was again publicised with the escape of , who managed to escape by threatening guards with a dummy gun. The last prison 'personality' of Mende, , activist of the alongside José Bové, was imprisoned after the case of the McDonald's franchise destruction in Millau.Mende is twinned with:Since 2007, the cities of Wunsiedel and Volterra are also paired together. The twinning with Vila Real (much more populous than the city of Mende) is explained by the fact that a large part of the Portuguese population of Mende, and Lozère in general, is from this region.In contrast to the department of Lozère, the prefecture saw its demographic curve draw increasingly since the French Revolution. If the department was strongly affected by the and the great wars of the 20th century, the city had the presence of its own authorities. This may explain why Mende has not experienced the same trend as Lozère. This table shows the demographic for the town of Mende, but it can be considered that the "bassin Mendois" [Mende area] follows the same trend.In 2017, the commune had 12,134 inhabitants.The Mende population is fairly young taking into account the ageing population of Lozère. Compared with the 1990 census, it is the age group of 15–29 years which has had the greatest increase at the expense of those aged 0–14 and 30–44 years. The number of near-centenarians was also greater in 1999 than in 1990.In Mende, the share of the immigrant population represents about 8% of the total population. They originate mostly from Portugal (mainly from Vila Real), Morocco, Algeria, and Turkey. This being the image of immigration in the region. The Spanish immigration, which was very present in the middle of the twentieth century, has been disappearing since the 1970s.Mende has three nursery schools: "Solelhons" (the small Suns in Occitan), the Chênes school and Fontanilles school. They are in close relations with the primary schools of the Groupe solaire, Annex Michel del Castillo School and Fontanilles School, Jeanne d'Arc School dealing with private education.The public college of Henri-Bourillon is located in the former small seminary, and share places with the Lycée Chaptal. It hosts students from the city as well as a number from other neighbouring municipalities (Badaroux, Barjac, Chanac, Saint-Bauzile, Saint-Étienne-du-Valdonnez, etc.). The private college is the college of . The continuity of private education is at the Lycée Notre-Dame. Another high school, the Lycée Emile Peytavin allows, in addition to general education, technical and vocational education. Finally, now attached to the Lycée Notre-Dame, we find the Private Professional Lycée Plaisance.Institutions of the city are also have one of the best success rates for the Baccalauréat diploma, compared with the other schools in the area, which puts them in the first half best institutions of France.At the level of higher education, Mende welcomes a BTS in its different high schools. An , branch of the University of Perpignan, offers four courses: Multimedia, gerontology, City Council Secretary, and tourism. It is located in the buildings of the former Lamolle barracks, which had housed the . Finally the city also houses a teacher training Institute, an (IFSIL), a and a .The festivities of the town of Mende are held annually in the month of August. They were related to the feast of , on 21 August. They are decorated with a flower parade and the election of "Miss Mende". Then, in September, every other year, Mende hosts its beer festival, with its twin town of Wunsiedel. The city has also several sports events. At the cultural level, the "meetings of writers" were organized at the beginning of the 1990s, in August. They have welcomed regional authors but also renowned authors such as Calixthe Beyala and Michel Folco.The department has a hospital, which opened in 1970. Five of the six services are located in Mende: Guy de Chauliac Hospital, the retirement home, the convalescence centre, the Training Institute in Nursing and boarding school. The sixth branch, another retirement home, is based at Rieutort-de-Randon.The hospital has approximately 70 physicians and 750 health professionals. Moreover, since 2011, it welcomes in its structure the home of the Paul Éluard psychological and psychiatric unit, a branch of the of Saint-Alban-sur-Limagnole.To this one can add 20 physicians, general practitioners and specialists as well as a centre of firefighters. Though, if the implementation of the current hospital is fairly recent, the city has a fairly old hospital story.In the 12th century was the "alms house" for the population. This hospital, located on "Rue Angiran", derived its income from the operation of a mill in the district of La Vernède, as well as donations of the lords of the lands. It was partially destroyed in 1593 during the construction of a nearby citadel. Though the citadel disappeared in 1597, the hospital was not repaired immediately. From 1635 a budget was allocated for the rebuilding of the institution. It would not be built in the same place, and would take the name of "Hospital of Aygues-Passes". In 1677 became and thus Count of Gévaudan. In his first year as bishop, he rebuilt a new hospital which became the "general hospital". In 1702 it enlarged, and at his death he bequeathed it all of his possessions. This hospital, today the Piencourt residence, remained in use until the inauguration of the hospital. Added to this hospital, two establishments existed following periods of epidemics, both which were outside the city. A plague centre, referred to as 'House of God', was established in the district of Janicot. At the Saint-Jean Bridge (now Pont-Roupt), a "maladrerie" was rebuilt in 1242, intended for the accommodation of lepers.Mende is, by its number of licensees and all events, a sports town. Therefore, she was elected twice the by the daily newspaper "L'Équipe" (1988 and 1998) and a finalist in 2011. It is one of only a few cities of France to have achieved this distinction twice.Mende features a sports zone known as the "Complexe sportif de Jean Jacques Delmas" [Sports complex of Jean Jacques Delmas], in honour of his death, having been originally of this project he was the mayor of Mende for 25 years. There are 3 football/rugby pitches (the Stade du Chapitre and 2 training grounds), the semi-Olympic pool, tennis courts, a fitness room, a skate-park, a street-ball court, table-tennis hall and archery/shooting. It is in this complex which the '"Festival of sport" takes place every two years. Chapitre Stadium, enlarged at the Mediterranean Games has 500 seats, but this figure may be largely surpassed during some matches.Installed on the causse d'Auge are three soccer/rugby fields and an athletics track, which came to replace the old track of Mirandol. The Stade de Mirandol had the municipal stadium office until the 1980s. Since 2006, an equestrian centre is also located on the causse, it comes in addition to the aging Sirvens centre located at the exit of the city. Finally, the causse d'Auge was the chosen site, in 2008, for the construction of a new gymnasium, opposite the football fields.Near the Chaptal Lycée and the Henri Bourrillon College is the La Vernède complex. In this area are two gymnasiums, a dojo, a gymnastics Hall, one dance, one climbing (over an area outdoors), a covered petanque pitch and one outdoors. Before the construction of the gymnasium of La Vernède, this place was that of the municipal swimming pool and two tennis courts.Close to other educational institutions, other gyms are installed. There are six in all in the city: La Vernède, Lycée Notre-Dame, Piencourt, Lycée Chaptal, Lycée Théophile Roussel and college Saint-Privat.Many clubs share the facilities of the city. Football club Éveil Mendois evolved in CFA2 during two seasons (2000–01 and 2001–02), its successor, AF Lozère, plays in the (6th division). The Éveil Mendois football club came from the of the same name, founded in 1920. One of the highlights of its history remains a finish in the last 32 of Coupe de France final played opposite Angoulême on 24 January 1999. More recently, Mende moved up to the last 16 of the finals at the 2013 Coupe de France, winning on this occasion the "ranking of the Petits Poucets".The key club is the (formerly Mende Volley Ball) which plays in the Elite division, for the season 2014-2014 (3rd national division). At the top level, the MVL has a title of obtained at the end of the 2008-2009 season and a participation in the third round of the 2010-2011 Coupe de France.Of Rugby union ("Rugby Club Mende Lozère"), it found its place in Fédérale 3 in 2006, but returned to the regional level in the 2010s. The club however already evolved to a higher level a few years previously.The handball team ("Mende Gévaudan Club") is evolving in 2014-2015 in the National 3 France Championship. Finally, the basketball team ("basketball Causses Mendois") was found in 2014-2015 at the regional level. For women there are also handball, volleyball and basketball clubs which are Mendois clubs of highest level.Mende can be granted a special status to orienteering, an individual sport with team competitions. The fact remains that Mende is playing in the elite league of France, and "M. G. C. Pétanque" and its three veteran champions of France in 2007.Sports diversity does not stop there. Mende clubs also include roller hockey ("Les Comets"). Mende is also home to individual sports: Athletics, badminton, cycling, motorcycling, as well as many combat sports clubs.Since the beginning of the 2000s, a sports centre was set up to accompany young high school athletes to prepare for the best level. From the membership of the COL (centre omnisports Lozère), there is (France MTB 2010 downhill champion) and Fanny Lombard (Junior Champion of Europe 2009 and 2010 in the same discipline).Among professional sportspeople born in Mende, is the cyclist Christophe Laurent who shone by winning the jersey for the best climber of the Tour de l'Avenir and the Tour of California.The motorcyclist , winner of the prologue of the Paris-Dakar Rally (1991), also hails from Mende. He was one of the best enduro riders with the palmares of France, and was also vice World champion.Kayaker Brigitte Guibal, Olympic silver medallist in 2000 in Sydney, was also born in Mende.It is in 1988 that Marion Buisson was born in Mende. After making her athletics debut at the "Éveil mendois", she continued her career at Clermont athletics. She became champion of France in the pole vault in , thereby achieving the minimum to participate in the Beijing Summer Olympics.Each year, the , an enduro competition, centres its course on the city of Mende. This race is part of the most renowned of the enduro season and allows, in addition, mixing professional and amateur riders.One month later (July), the city centre is dedicated to foot racing and the arrival of . This race starts from Marvejols, joining Mende by the Col de Goudard and the Côte de Chabrits. It is sometimes used as a preparation marathon for major events (the World Championships, Olympic Games), but is also open to amateurs as the majority of the marathons. Since 2006, the month of July is also marked by the organisation of a national of pétanque.Cycling is also in honour of the city. The hosted the best professionals in the 1970s. Since then, the has seen five stage finishes in the Tour de France (1995, 2005, 2010, 2015, 2018), and stages in the Tour de l'Avenir, the Grand Prix du Midi Libre, the and Paris-Nice. Since 2006 and the rebirth of the Tour du Gévaudan, Mende is judged the final arrival of this amateur race of great importance. In 2008, the event was organised as the "Finale de la Coupe des France des clubs" [final of the Cup of France for clubs]. During the winter, a grand prix of regional cyclo-cross is also organized. The grand departure of the Tour de France VTT 1996, as well as the first two stages, happened at Mende.Mende was also host city of the Mediterranean Games in 1993 by hosting cycling, football and swimming events.In October 2005, the city hosted the 37th national congress of the French hiking federation, Lozère being a popular department for hikers, and is crossed by two of the most important roads of the pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela. Then, in 2007, Mende was the host of a round of the French enduro championships, as well as the final of the Coupe de France rally.In 2008, France welcomed the enduro European grand prix, the final of the World Championship (WEC). It was the town of Alès which was chosen to host the competition. However the organization was forced to give up, and it was finally hosted by Mende on 11 and 12 October 2008. In 2011, the city hosted the Grand Prix of France, final of the World Championship.Mende is the seat of most of the media of Lozére. Thus we find the writings of the Lozère edition of "Midi Libre" and [New Lozère], with regard to the written press.The radio station France Bleu and have their editorial offices in Lozère. While Radio Eaux-Vives Lozère is installed at the former Grand Seminary.The town of Mende is the episcopal seat of Gévaudan and Lozère, religious life has always been linked with its bishops. Also chapter headquarters, Mende has welcomed a large number of canons. A religious brotherhood, the "Brotherhood of the White Penitents" has long existed and has a procession every Holy Thursday since the 17th century. The Tower of the Penitents (called so because it is adjacent to the chapel of the penitents) is one of the last vestiges of the ramparts of the city.The large and small seminaries are traces of the presence of the formation of Catholic priests.The main place of worship is the Cathedral of Notre-Dame and Saint-Privat, built at the request of Pope Urban V, in place of the old church built over the tomb of but the city has many small chapels. One of the oldest is the chapel of Saint-Ilpide, on the hill of the executioner, which however was destroyed and replaced by a small chapel. Two other chapels are no longer used: That of the Penitents (future Museum of Religious Art) and the Chapel of Saint-Dominique (exhibition hall). The Chapel of the Hermitage (on ) and the cave which was drilled alongside, can still be used for offices.The Carmelite convent has existed since 1880 and has hosted a community of Carmelite nuns, which ensures production of altar bread (or wafers) for the diocese (and those nearby). Another Convent is installed in Mende, which is the Adoration of Picpus Convent. At the "Rue de la Chicanette" is installed the Jeanne Delanoue community of the Providence; little used for celebration services, the place is used for meetings between people in the religious world. The community is at the origin of the creation of the institution Notre-Dame-de-la-Providence, a social children's home adjacent to its premises and which hosts minors under administrative and judicial protection. There are of other religious communities, mainly related to private schools and retirement or rest homes.Worship in Mende, due to its history, is very oriented towards Catholicism, but there are other places of worship for other religions. Thus Mende, near of the Cévennes, has a Protestant temple installed in the "Allée Paul Doumer".The city also had a synagogue in the former Jewish quarter, but it has long since been abandoned. This synagogue, also called Ferrier House from the name of one of its former owners, is the last vestige of the Mende ghetto. The Jews were expelled from the Gévaudan in the 14th century, and this synagogue became the (Catholic) college of All Saints until the French Revolution.Whilst counting the presence of a Muslim community, the city has no mosque, but simply an apartment that serves as place of worship.Industrial (wood industry, jewelry), service centre (shops, restaurants, bars), administrative (generates a lot of jobs) and tourism (medieval town, excursions to Gorges du Tarn), Mende is the starting point for the establishment of new businesses in the department, and turned more towards new technologies, with the advent of the technological hub.The city has more than 1300 companies, including about 900 in the commercial sector, and has an unemployment rate of 10.7% (2017).The city has five zones of economic activities (ZAE), each having a rather clearly defined role. The largest is the ZAE of the Causse d'Auge (north of the city), with a mainly industrial orientation in automation or in the management of the wood. The ZI of Gardès, on the road to Badaroux is an industrial area covering public works and mainly the building companies. The ZAE Lou Chaousse and Chabrits (both in the northwest) also have a vocation craft, but more oriented towards the trade for individuals. And finally, the "Pôle lozérien d'économie numérique" (POLeN) is turned to the new technologies.In addition, since the mid-2000s, the de Ramille was created. This area, wedged between the Lot and the RN 88 on the road to Balsièges hosts a commercial zone which has tended to develop. It is without doubt, with the area of the Causse d'Auge, the area of activity that has extended most recently.In the near future a new area of activity should emerge north of Mende, in the commune of Badaroux. This area whose size is expected to reach approximately initially, would be served by the landscaped expressway.If the commune no longer has many farms, the city remains at the centre of a very rural area and is very oriented towards agriculture. Indeed, 54% of the Lozère territory is classified as a "utilised agricultural area". Livestock in the commune is mainly dedicated to the sheep sector, although cattle farms are found located between Mende and neighbouring communes.This attraction to sheep is ancestral to Mende, since the city has long lived wool exploitation, since the 16th century. In 1333 the city already had a brotherhood of the weavers. In 1849, the town was still equipped with five large mills. However, while having a rich textile past, the city now retains no activity.Like the Lozère department, industry in Mende is mainly oriented towards the timber sector: Its operation, its treatment, its derivatives, etc. Another industry that holds an important place in the city is that of construction and public works.Mende is also the seat of the that handles .The city is strongly turned towards the tertiary sector. As said above, a majority of the enterprises of the city are shops. Mende is the centre of an area's population of approximately 20,000 inhabitants around the Lot Valley, the city therefore centralises much of the services. Its quality of prefecture adds to the presence of public service.Tourism has also developed since the end of the 20th century. This openness on tourism translated between 1983 and 2008 by the creation of the office of tourism (municipal and intermunicipal), an increase of 400 beds offered to tourists, the opening of a holiday village and of a youth hostel, but also the creation of activity centre (canoe base, Freestyle Park, etc.). The city has eleven hotels, four with three stars and four having two. To this one can add the holiday village of Chapitre that offers 42 gîtes for rent, as well as two campsites near the Lot.Other businesses are those that can be found in other modern cities (banks, insurance, bakeries, the press houses, clothes, etc.). The city has a supermarket and a hypermarket, as well as several superettes and other discounters. The hypermarket, which is of recent construction, belongs to the Système U group and is located in the new area of activity of Ramilles. The supermarket (Intermarché) is, meanwhile, close to the city centre. Markets, vestiges of the traditional markets of the city are many, taking place on Wednesday (textile, utility, etc.) at "Place Chaptal", and on Saturday mornings (food market) at "Place Chaptal" and "Place Urbain V". In addition, night markets are held during the summer.The main companies in terms of turnover, as well as major private employers are:Since 1981 Mende has been classified as a city of art, and, since 2000, the grouping of "Mende and Lot in the Gévaudan" has the label of "city and land of art and history".Indeed, the city has a rich architectural heritage, witness of the prosperous time related to the papacy.The Cathedral of Saint-Privat (classed as a historical monument in 1906) whose construction began in 1368 at the initiative of Pope Urban V. Its bell towers date back, however, to the 16th century, following the destruction of one of them during the passage of the Huguenots by Matthieu Merle. The large belfry included housing ""Non Pareille"", the largest bell in the world melted between 1517 and 1521 in Villefort and destroyed during the Wars of Religion. There remains only the clapper. The cathedral consists of twelve rectangular chapels, two pentagonal chapels and a sacristy. Originally it was built above the Sainte-Thècle crypt where the body of Saint Privat had been buried. It is located next to the old episcopal palace.The city has many public fountains. Water from the causses thus enters a piping system located beneath the city before joining the Lot. Two of them (Aigues-Passe and Soubeyrand) are classified as historic monuments. Piped water also enters the old wash house of the Calquières, still visible on "Rue d'Angiran".This tower is one of the few remains of the ancient walls of the 12th century. Protecting the Gate of Angiran which was next to it, this tower served as guard for the short-lived Seneschal of Mende. It includes three floors and an attic. This is the installation of the chapel which is adjacent, and especially its bell tower at the top which saved the tower during the destruction of the walls in 1768.Dating back to the 13th century, this bridge is one of the symbols of the city. It has never been carried away by frequent floods in Mende. It formerly went by the name of Peyrenc Bridge, then took the name of Notre Dame due to the presence on its mouth of a Virgin, which disappeared during the Wars of Religion. Its span has a opening and is high.Saint Privat withdrew, in the 3rd century, into caves that he had built over Mende, on . Since his Hermitage was built, it also to allow the pilgrims to go there. It can be accessed either by Way of the Cross (from the market) or by road from the causse (RD 25). At the hermitage, we find a hotel for the reception of the pilgrims, a chapel, grotto and a breakthrough designed to the original cave.The House where the consul sat, since 1578, also served as city hall after the Revolution. On its pediment is found the arms of the city: ""Azure in the Gothic M of or, a shining Sun similarly topped."" Facing it is a trompe-l'œil wall symbolizing the twinning of Mende and Volterra.Located in the northwest of the city, the Bahours locality had two castles, one of which was destroyed in 1960. The remaining one is a strong house (manse) built in the 17th century, possibly on the foundations of a more ancient building. The main interest of this strong house is its kitchen listed as a historical monument, like the whole building.Mende features a municipal theatre and several rooms that can be used to this kind of show. The ancient theatre of the city turned into cinema. A development project involves the construction of a new multicultural hall. In addition, Mende has a departmental library, the Lamartine Library.The ancient theatre of the city, established between 1890 and 1895, was replaced by a cinema. The main room used for the theatre is now the festival hall located at the market. This room, and its natural scenery of arches, is multi-cultural and is the largest in the city in terms of capacity. On the market lies the "antirouille", a municipal building for young people and allowing everyone to have access to the internet, this building has a room to organize concerts.Near the market, along the "Chemin Saint-Ilpide", the Urban V municipal room hosts plays, live shows, and also meetings and projections (world knowledge, for example).Finally as part of the redevelopment of the market (started by the installation of the intercommunal tourism office and the renovation of the Lamartine Library), an auditorium should be created behind the festival hall (the Emile-Joly Square being moved).The Ignon-Fabre Museum (or the Museum of Mende) was located on "Rue de l'Epine" [street of the Holy thorn], at the , where there was installed the first electrification plant of the city. It was however closed due to lack of budget. Before it, a museum was located in a house next to the prison.The Chapel of Saint-Dominique and the current Department Hall can serve as an exhibition space, as can the Chapel of the Penitents and the former consular house.In addition a project of the Museum of , currently under study, should be installed in the Chapel of the Penitents.The poem, written by an author whose story did not retain the name, was confirmed in the 19th century:However, not everyone had a positive vision of the city. It had long had problems with sewage into the modern era, and was denigrated despite its charm:This quote comes perhaps from the conditions in which the geographer of the king came in the city. Like those who would declare to Serge Livrozet that Mende was "capital of Lozère and torture".Those born in Mende, or having a very strong tie with the city include:When King Louis XI granted autonomy to the city, he granted new arms in 1469. An 'L' surmounted by a crown, in gratitude to the king, was added to these in 1475.The current coat of arms dates from the sixteenth century. These weapons were registered in the Armorial General of France in 1697.
|
[
"Jean-Jacques Delmas",
"Alain Bertrand",
"Paulin Daudé-Gleize"
] |
|
Which position did Ernest Soares hold in Jan, 1911?
|
January 27, 1911
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5393826_P39_3
|
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1910 to Apr, 1911.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
Ernest SoaresSir Ernest Joseph Soares (20 October 1864 – 15 March 1926), of 36 Princes Gate, London, and of Upcott House in the parish of Pilton, near Barnstaple in North Devon, was a British solicitor and Liberal politician.Soares was the son of José Luís Xavier Soares, a Liverpool merchant of Indian origin tracing his roots to Ucassaim, Goa in Portuguese India and Hannah Hollingsworth of Liverpool.Prior to conversion to Christianity the family were Gaud Saraswat Brahmins with the surname Gaitonde.He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he read law. He was a partner in Allen, Prestage and Soares, solicitors, of Manchester. In 1900 he was elected to the House of Commons for Barnstaple, and rented Upcott House, where he was resident in 1901, a large white stucco Georgian mansion one mile from the centre of Barnstaple and a prominent landmark for the voters and inhabitants of that town, from Sir William Robert Williams, 3rd Baronet of nearby Heanton Court. He served in the Liberal administration of H. H. Asquith as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1910 to 1911. The latter year failing health forced him to resign this post and his seat in the House of Commons. He was knighted the same year.When Soares was working as a solicitor in Manchester and residing at "Woodheys", on Washway Road, in Ashton upon Mersey (today Sale), he married Kate Carolyn Lord (1864-1932), daughter of his then near-neighbour Samuel Lord (1803-1889), the British-born American retail millionaire and founder of Lord & Taylor today the oldest luxury department store in the United States. Lord was born in Saddleworth, West Riding of Yorkshire, and emigrated to America in about 1821. Having retired from managing his retail empire, in 1866 he returned to England and resided at "Oakleigh", on "The Avenue" in Ashton upon Mersey. Lord left nine million dollars (£1.848 million) at his death. By his wife Soares had one daughter and only child:He died in Mayfair, London, in March 1926, aged 61.
|
[
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Ernest Soares hold in 1911-01-27?
|
January 27, 1911
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5393826_P39_3
|
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1910 to Apr, 1911.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
Ernest SoaresSir Ernest Joseph Soares (20 October 1864 – 15 March 1926), of 36 Princes Gate, London, and of Upcott House in the parish of Pilton, near Barnstaple in North Devon, was a British solicitor and Liberal politician.Soares was the son of José Luís Xavier Soares, a Liverpool merchant of Indian origin tracing his roots to Ucassaim, Goa in Portuguese India and Hannah Hollingsworth of Liverpool.Prior to conversion to Christianity the family were Gaud Saraswat Brahmins with the surname Gaitonde.He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he read law. He was a partner in Allen, Prestage and Soares, solicitors, of Manchester. In 1900 he was elected to the House of Commons for Barnstaple, and rented Upcott House, where he was resident in 1901, a large white stucco Georgian mansion one mile from the centre of Barnstaple and a prominent landmark for the voters and inhabitants of that town, from Sir William Robert Williams, 3rd Baronet of nearby Heanton Court. He served in the Liberal administration of H. H. Asquith as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1910 to 1911. The latter year failing health forced him to resign this post and his seat in the House of Commons. He was knighted the same year.When Soares was working as a solicitor in Manchester and residing at "Woodheys", on Washway Road, in Ashton upon Mersey (today Sale), he married Kate Carolyn Lord (1864-1932), daughter of his then near-neighbour Samuel Lord (1803-1889), the British-born American retail millionaire and founder of Lord & Taylor today the oldest luxury department store in the United States. Lord was born in Saddleworth, West Riding of Yorkshire, and emigrated to America in about 1821. Having retired from managing his retail empire, in 1866 he returned to England and resided at "Oakleigh", on "The Avenue" in Ashton upon Mersey. Lord left nine million dollars (£1.848 million) at his death. By his wife Soares had one daughter and only child:He died in Mayfair, London, in March 1926, aged 61.
|
[
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Ernest Soares hold in 27/01/1911?
|
January 27, 1911
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5393826_P39_3
|
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1910 to Apr, 1911.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
Ernest SoaresSir Ernest Joseph Soares (20 October 1864 – 15 March 1926), of 36 Princes Gate, London, and of Upcott House in the parish of Pilton, near Barnstaple in North Devon, was a British solicitor and Liberal politician.Soares was the son of José Luís Xavier Soares, a Liverpool merchant of Indian origin tracing his roots to Ucassaim, Goa in Portuguese India and Hannah Hollingsworth of Liverpool.Prior to conversion to Christianity the family were Gaud Saraswat Brahmins with the surname Gaitonde.He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he read law. He was a partner in Allen, Prestage and Soares, solicitors, of Manchester. In 1900 he was elected to the House of Commons for Barnstaple, and rented Upcott House, where he was resident in 1901, a large white stucco Georgian mansion one mile from the centre of Barnstaple and a prominent landmark for the voters and inhabitants of that town, from Sir William Robert Williams, 3rd Baronet of nearby Heanton Court. He served in the Liberal administration of H. H. Asquith as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1910 to 1911. The latter year failing health forced him to resign this post and his seat in the House of Commons. He was knighted the same year.When Soares was working as a solicitor in Manchester and residing at "Woodheys", on Washway Road, in Ashton upon Mersey (today Sale), he married Kate Carolyn Lord (1864-1932), daughter of his then near-neighbour Samuel Lord (1803-1889), the British-born American retail millionaire and founder of Lord & Taylor today the oldest luxury department store in the United States. Lord was born in Saddleworth, West Riding of Yorkshire, and emigrated to America in about 1821. Having retired from managing his retail empire, in 1866 he returned to England and resided at "Oakleigh", on "The Avenue" in Ashton upon Mersey. Lord left nine million dollars (£1.848 million) at his death. By his wife Soares had one daughter and only child:He died in Mayfair, London, in March 1926, aged 61.
|
[
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Ernest Soares hold in Jan 27, 1911?
|
January 27, 1911
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5393826_P39_3
|
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1910 to Apr, 1911.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
Ernest SoaresSir Ernest Joseph Soares (20 October 1864 – 15 March 1926), of 36 Princes Gate, London, and of Upcott House in the parish of Pilton, near Barnstaple in North Devon, was a British solicitor and Liberal politician.Soares was the son of José Luís Xavier Soares, a Liverpool merchant of Indian origin tracing his roots to Ucassaim, Goa in Portuguese India and Hannah Hollingsworth of Liverpool.Prior to conversion to Christianity the family were Gaud Saraswat Brahmins with the surname Gaitonde.He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he read law. He was a partner in Allen, Prestage and Soares, solicitors, of Manchester. In 1900 he was elected to the House of Commons for Barnstaple, and rented Upcott House, where he was resident in 1901, a large white stucco Georgian mansion one mile from the centre of Barnstaple and a prominent landmark for the voters and inhabitants of that town, from Sir William Robert Williams, 3rd Baronet of nearby Heanton Court. He served in the Liberal administration of H. H. Asquith as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1910 to 1911. The latter year failing health forced him to resign this post and his seat in the House of Commons. He was knighted the same year.When Soares was working as a solicitor in Manchester and residing at "Woodheys", on Washway Road, in Ashton upon Mersey (today Sale), he married Kate Carolyn Lord (1864-1932), daughter of his then near-neighbour Samuel Lord (1803-1889), the British-born American retail millionaire and founder of Lord & Taylor today the oldest luxury department store in the United States. Lord was born in Saddleworth, West Riding of Yorkshire, and emigrated to America in about 1821. Having retired from managing his retail empire, in 1866 he returned to England and resided at "Oakleigh", on "The Avenue" in Ashton upon Mersey. Lord left nine million dollars (£1.848 million) at his death. By his wife Soares had one daughter and only child:He died in Mayfair, London, in March 1926, aged 61.
|
[
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Ernest Soares hold in 01/27/1911?
|
January 27, 1911
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5393826_P39_3
|
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1910 to Apr, 1911.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
Ernest SoaresSir Ernest Joseph Soares (20 October 1864 – 15 March 1926), of 36 Princes Gate, London, and of Upcott House in the parish of Pilton, near Barnstaple in North Devon, was a British solicitor and Liberal politician.Soares was the son of José Luís Xavier Soares, a Liverpool merchant of Indian origin tracing his roots to Ucassaim, Goa in Portuguese India and Hannah Hollingsworth of Liverpool.Prior to conversion to Christianity the family were Gaud Saraswat Brahmins with the surname Gaitonde.He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he read law. He was a partner in Allen, Prestage and Soares, solicitors, of Manchester. In 1900 he was elected to the House of Commons for Barnstaple, and rented Upcott House, where he was resident in 1901, a large white stucco Georgian mansion one mile from the centre of Barnstaple and a prominent landmark for the voters and inhabitants of that town, from Sir William Robert Williams, 3rd Baronet of nearby Heanton Court. He served in the Liberal administration of H. H. Asquith as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1910 to 1911. The latter year failing health forced him to resign this post and his seat in the House of Commons. He was knighted the same year.When Soares was working as a solicitor in Manchester and residing at "Woodheys", on Washway Road, in Ashton upon Mersey (today Sale), he married Kate Carolyn Lord (1864-1932), daughter of his then near-neighbour Samuel Lord (1803-1889), the British-born American retail millionaire and founder of Lord & Taylor today the oldest luxury department store in the United States. Lord was born in Saddleworth, West Riding of Yorkshire, and emigrated to America in about 1821. Having retired from managing his retail empire, in 1866 he returned to England and resided at "Oakleigh", on "The Avenue" in Ashton upon Mersey. Lord left nine million dollars (£1.848 million) at his death. By his wife Soares had one daughter and only child:He died in Mayfair, London, in March 1926, aged 61.
|
[
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did Ernest Soares hold in 27-Jan-191127-January-1911?
|
January 27, 1911
|
{
"text": [
"Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
]
}
|
L2_Q5393826_P39_3
|
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Oct, 1900 to Jan, 1906.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1906 to Jan, 1910.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 30th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Dec, 1910 to Apr, 1911.
Ernest Soares holds the position of Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom from Jan, 1910 to Nov, 1910.
|
Ernest SoaresSir Ernest Joseph Soares (20 October 1864 – 15 March 1926), of 36 Princes Gate, London, and of Upcott House in the parish of Pilton, near Barnstaple in North Devon, was a British solicitor and Liberal politician.Soares was the son of José Luís Xavier Soares, a Liverpool merchant of Indian origin tracing his roots to Ucassaim, Goa in Portuguese India and Hannah Hollingsworth of Liverpool.Prior to conversion to Christianity the family were Gaud Saraswat Brahmins with the surname Gaitonde.He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he read law. He was a partner in Allen, Prestage and Soares, solicitors, of Manchester. In 1900 he was elected to the House of Commons for Barnstaple, and rented Upcott House, where he was resident in 1901, a large white stucco Georgian mansion one mile from the centre of Barnstaple and a prominent landmark for the voters and inhabitants of that town, from Sir William Robert Williams, 3rd Baronet of nearby Heanton Court. He served in the Liberal administration of H. H. Asquith as a Junior Lord of the Treasury from 1910 to 1911. The latter year failing health forced him to resign this post and his seat in the House of Commons. He was knighted the same year.When Soares was working as a solicitor in Manchester and residing at "Woodheys", on Washway Road, in Ashton upon Mersey (today Sale), he married Kate Carolyn Lord (1864-1932), daughter of his then near-neighbour Samuel Lord (1803-1889), the British-born American retail millionaire and founder of Lord & Taylor today the oldest luxury department store in the United States. Lord was born in Saddleworth, West Riding of Yorkshire, and emigrated to America in about 1821. Having retired from managing his retail empire, in 1866 he returned to England and resided at "Oakleigh", on "The Avenue" in Ashton upon Mersey. Lord left nine million dollars (£1.848 million) at his death. By his wife Soares had one daughter and only child:He died in Mayfair, London, in March 1926, aged 61.
|
[
"Member of the 28th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 27th Parliament of the United Kingdom",
"Member of the 29th Parliament of the United Kingdom"
] |
|
Which position did John Adair hold in Feb, 1806?
|
February 26, 1806
|
{
"text": [
"United States senator"
]
}
|
L2_Q11595_P39_0
|
John Adair holds the position of United States representative from Mar, 1831 to Mar, 1833.
John Adair holds the position of Governor of Kentucky from Aug, 1820 to Aug, 1824.
John Adair holds the position of United States senator from Nov, 1805 to Nov, 1806.
|
John AdairJohn Adair (January 9, 1757 – May 19, 1840) was an American pioneer, soldier, and politician. He was the eighth Governor of Kentucky and represented the state in both the U.S. House and Senate. A native of South Carolina, Adair enlisted in the state militia and served in the Revolutionary War, during which he was twice captured and held as a prisoner of war by the British. Following the War, he was elected as a delegate to South Carolina's convention to ratify the United States Constitution.After moving to Kentucky in 1786, Adair participated in the Northwest Indian War, including a skirmish with the Miami Chief Little Turtle near Fort St. Clair in 1792. Popular for his service in two wars, he entered politics in 1792 as a delegate to Kentucky's constitutional convention. Adair was elected to a total of eight terms in the state House of Representatives between 1793 and 1803. He served as Speaker of the Kentucky House in 1802 and 1803, and was a delegate to the state's Second Constitutional Convention in 1799. He ascended to the United States Senate to fill the seat vacated when John Breckinridge resigned to become Attorney General of the United States in the Cabinet of Thomas Jefferson, but failed to win a full term in the subsequent election due to his implication in a treason conspiracy involving Vice President Aaron Burr. After a long legal battle, he was acquitted of any wrongdoing; and his accuser, General James Wilkinson, was ordered to issue an apology. The negative publicity kept him out of politics for more than a decade.Adair's participation in the War of 1812, and a subsequent protracted defense of Kentucky's soldiers against General Andrew Jackson's charges that they showed cowardice at the Battle of New Orleans, restored his reputation. He returned to the State House in 1817, and Isaac Shelby, his commanding officer in the War who was serving a second term as governor, appointed him adjutant general of the state militia. In 1820, Adair was elected eighth governor on a platform of financial relief for Kentuckians hit hard by the Panic of 1819, and the ensuing economic recession. His primary effort toward this end was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth, but many of his other financial reforms were deemed unconstitutional by the Kentucky Court of Appeals, touching off the Old Court–New Court controversy. Following his term as governor, Adair served one undistinguished term in the United States House of Representatives and did not run for re-election.John Adair was born January 9, 1757, in Chester County in the Province of South Carolina, a son of Scottish immigrants Baron William and Mary [Moore] Adair. He was educated at schools in Charlotte, North Carolina, and enlisted in the South Carolina colonial militia at the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. He was assigned to the regiment of his friend, Edward Lacey, under the command of Colonel Thomas Sumter and participated in the failed Colonial assault on a Loyalist outpost at the Battle of Rocky Mount and the subsequent Colonial victory at the Battle of Hanging Rock. During the British victory over the Colonists at the August 16, 1780, Battle of Camden, Adair was taken as a prisoner of war. He contracted smallpox and was treated harshly by his captors during his months-long imprisonment. Although he escaped at one point, Adair was unable to reach safety because of difficulties related to his smallpox infection and was recaptured by British Colonel Banastre Tarleton after just three days. Subsequently, he was released via a prisoner exchange. In 1781, he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the South Carolina militia, and fought in the drawn Battle of Eutaw Springs, the war's last major battle in the Carolinas. Edward Lacey was elected sheriff of Chester County after the war, and Adair replaced him in his former capacity as the county's justice of the peace. He was chosen as a delegate to the South Carolina convention to ratify the U.S. Constitution.In 1784, Adair married Katherine Palmer. They had twelve children, ten of them daughters. One married Thomas Bell Monroe, who later served as Adair's Secretary of State and was appointed to a federal judgeship. In 1786, the Adairs migrated westward to Kentucky, settling in Mercer County.Enlisting for service as a captain in the Northwest Indian War in 1791, Adair was soon promoted to major and assigned to the brigade of James Wilkinson. On November 6, 1792, a band of Miamis under the command of Little Turtle encountered Adair and about 100 men serving under him on a scouting mission near Fort St. Clair in Ohio. When the Miami attacked, Adair ordered Lieutenant (and later governor of Kentucky) George Madison to attack their right flank while Adair led 25 men to attack the left flank. (Adair had intended for a subordinate to lead the charge, but the officer was killed before Adair could give the order.) The maneuver forced the Miamis to fall back and allowed Adair's men to escape. They retreated to their camp and made a stand, forcing the Miamis to withdraw. Six of Adair's men were killed; another four were missing and five were wounded. Among the wounded were Madison and Richard Taylor, father of future U.S. President Zachary Taylor.Recognizing his bravery and fighting skill, Adair's superiors promoted him to lieutenant colonel. He was assigned to the command of Charles Scott, who would eventually serve as Kentucky's fourth governor. He assisted in the construction of Fort Greeneville in 1794, forwarding supplies to Anthony Wayne during his operations which ended in a decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.Popular for his military service, Adair was chosen as a delegate to the Kentucky constitutional convention in 1792. Upon the state's admission to the Union, he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives, serving from 1793 to 1795. He remained active in the Kentucky militia, and on February 25, 1797, he was promoted to brigadier general and given command of the 2nd Brigade of the Kentucky Militia. He was promoted to major general and given command of the 2nd Division of the Kentucky Militia on December 16, 1799.Adair returned to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1798. When Kentuckians voted to hold another constitutional convention in 1799 to correct weaknesses in their first constitution, Adair was chosen as a delegate. At the convention, he was the leader of a group of politically ambitious delegates who opposed most limits on the powers and terms of office of elected officials, particularly on legislators. He was elected to the Kentucky House again from 1800 to 1803. A candidate for a seat in the U.S. Senate in 1800, he was defeated in an overwhelming 68–13 vote of the legislature by John Breckinridge, who had been the acknowledged leader of the just-concluded constitutional convention. In 1802, Adair succeeded Breckinridge as Speaker of the House by a vote of 30–14 over Elder David Purviance, the candidate preferred by Governor James Garrard. He continued to serve as Speaker for the duration of his tenure in the House. In 1802, the legislature formed Adair County, Kentucky, naming it after the popular Speaker.In January 1804, Garrard nominated Adair to the position of registrar of the state land office. Adair's was the seventh name submitted by Garrard to the state Senate for the position; his approval by the Senate marked the end of a two-month imbroglio between Garrard and the legislature over the appointment. Later that year, he was a candidate for the U.S. Senate seat then occupied by John Brown. Although Henry Clay supported Brown's re-election, Adair had the support of Felix Grundy. Grundy accused Brown of involvement in a conspiracy to make Kentucky a province of the Spanish government, damaging his popularity. Adair won a plurality, but not a majority, of the votes cast in six consecutive ballots. Clay then threw his support to Buckner Thruston, a more palatable candidate who defeated Adair on the seventh ballot. Grundy's influence in the legislature continued to grow, and when John Breckinridge resigned to accept President Thomas Jefferson's appointment as U.S. Attorney General in August 1805, the Senate chose Adair to fill the vacancy.Former Vice-President Aaron Burr visited Kentucky in 1805, reaching Frankfort, Kentucky, on May 25 and lodging with former Senator John Brown. During the trip, he consulted with many prominent politicians, Adair among them, about the possibility of wresting Mexico from Spain. Most of those he spoke with believed he was acting on behalf of the federal government and intended to expand U.S. holdings in Mexico. Adair believed this too, having received letters from his former commander, James Wilkinson, which appeared to confirm it. In 1806, however, Burr was arrested in Frankfort on charges of treason. Officials claimed he in fact intended to create a new, independent nation in Spanish lands.Convinced of his innocence, Henry Clay represented Burr, while Joseph Hamilton Daveiss acted as prosecutor. Harry Innes presided over the trial, which commenced November 11. Daveiss had to ask for a postponement because Davis Floyd, one of his key witnesses, was then serving in the Indiana General Assembly and could not be present in court. The court next convened on December 2, and Daveiss again had to ask for a postponement, this time because Adair, another witness, was not present. Adair had traveled to Louisiana to inspect a tract of land he had recently purchased there. On his arrival in New Orleans, he was arrested on the order of his former commander, James Wilkinson, then serving as governor of the Louisiana Territory.Clay had insisted that the trial proceed in Adair's absence, and, the next day, Daveiss presented indictments against Burr for treason and against Adair as a co-conspirator. After hearing testimony, the grand jury rejected the indictment against Adair as "not a true bill" and similarly dismissed the charges against Burr two days later. After his vindication by the grand jury, Adair counter-sued Wilkinson in federal court. Although the legal battle between the two spanned several years, the court found that Wilkinson had no solid evidence against Adair and ordered Wilkinson to issue a public apology and pay Adair $2,500 in damages. Adair's acquittal and successful counter-suit came too late to prevent damage to his political career. Because of his association with Burr's scheme, he lost the election for a full term in the Senate in November 1806. Rather than wait for his partial term to expire, he resigned on November 18, 1806.Adair rejoined the Kentucky militia at the outset of the War of 1812. After Oliver Hazard Perry's victory in the September 10, 1813, Battle of Lake Erie, William Henry Harrison called on Kentucky Governor Isaac Shelby, a popular Revolutionary War hero, to recruit troops in Kentucky and join him in his invasion of Canada. Shelby asked Adair to serve as his first aide-de-camp. Future Kentucky governor and U.S. Senator John J. Crittenden was Shelby's second aide, and future U.S. Senator and Postmaster General William T. Barry was his secretary. Adair rendered commendable service in the campaign, most notably at the American victory in the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813. Shelby praised Adair's service and in 1814, made him adjutant general of Kentucky and brevetted him to the rank of brigadier general.In late 1814, Andrew Jackson requested reinforcements from Kentucky for his defense of the Gulf of Mexico. Adair quickly raised three regiments, but the federal government provided them no weapons and no means of transportation. James Taylor, Jr., then serving as quartermaster general of the state militia, took out a $6,000 mortgage on his personal land to purchase boats to transport Adair's men. The number of men with Adair was later disputed; sources variously give numbers between 700 and 1,500. Many did not have weapons, and the ones who did were primarily armed with their own civilian rifles. John Thomas, to whom Adair was an adjunct, fell ill just before the battle commenced, leaving Adair responsible for all the Kentuckians present at the battle.On January 7, 1815, Adair traveled to New Orleans and requested that the city's leaders lend him several stands of arms from the city armory to arm his militiamen. The officials agreed under the condition that the removal of the arms from the armory be kept secret from the citizenry. The weapons were placed in boxes and delivered to Adair's camp on the night of January 7. At Adair's suggestion, his men were placed in reserve and located centrally behind the Tennessee militiamen under William Carroll. From there, they could quickly move to reinforce whichever portion of the American line received the heaviest attack from the British.Apparently unaware of Adair's request, that evening, Jackson ordered 400 unarmed Kentucky militiamen under Colonel John Davis to march to New Orleans to obtain arms, then reinforce the 450 Louisiana militiamen under David B. Morgan on the west bank of the Mississippi River. When they arrived in New Orleans, they were told that the city's arms had already been shipped to Adair. The citizens collected what weapons they had —mostly old muskets in various states of disrepair —and gave them to Davis' men. About 200 men were thus armed and reported to Morgan as ordered, just hours before the start of the Battle of New Orleans. The remainder of Davis's men returned to the main camp, still without weapons.As the British approached on the morning of January 8, it became evident that they would try to break the American line through Carroll's Tennesseans, and Adair advanced his men to support them. The main American line held and repulsed the British attack; in total, only six Americans were killed and seven wounded. Meanwhile, Davis' Kentuckians on the west bank had, upon their arrival in Morgan's camp, been sent to meet the advance of a secondary British force. Outnumbered, poorly armed, and without the benefit of breastworks or artillery support, they were quickly outflanked and forced to retreat. Seeing the retreat of the Kentuckians, Morgan's militiamen abandoned their breastworks; Adair would later claim they had never even fired a shot. The British quickly abandoned the position they had just captured, but Jackson resented the setback in an otherwise spectacular victory.Jackson's official report blamed the Kentuckians' retreat for the collapse of the west bank defenses, and many Kentuckians felt it played down the importance of Adair's militiamen on the east bank in preserving the American line and securing the victory. Davis' men insisted the report was based on Jackson's misunderstanding of the facts and asked that Adair request a court of inquiry, which convened in February 1815 with Major General Carroll of Tennessee presiding. The court's report found that "[t]he retreat of the Kentucky militia, which, considering their position, the deficiency of their arms, and other causes, may be excusable," and that the formation of the troops on the west bank was "exceptional", noting that 500 Louisiana troops supported by three artillery pieces and protected by a strong breastwork were charged with defending a line that stretched only while Davis's 170 Kentuckians, poorly armed and protected only by a small ditch, were expected to defend a line over long. On February 10, 1816, the Kentucky General Assembly passed a resolution thanking Adair for his service at the Battle of New Orleans and for his defense of the soldiers accused by Jackson.Jackson approved the court's findings, but they were not the full refutation of Jackson's report that many Kentuckians —including Adair —had wanted. In a letter that was quickly made public, Adair —formerly one of Jackson's close friends —insisted that Jackson withdraw or modify his official report, but Jackson refused. This ended the matter until June 1815 when H. P. Helm, secretary to John Thomas, forwarded to a Frankfort newspaper remarks from "the general" that had been annexed to the official report. "The remarks" stated that the general was now convinced that the initial reports of cowardice by Davis's men "had been misrepresented" and that their retreat had been "not only excusable, but absolutely justifiable." The remarks, popularly believed to be from Jackson in response to Adair's letter, were subsequently reprinted across Kentucky. The "general" referenced was in fact General John Thomas; Jackson had never seen them. Helm claimed he sent a subsequent correction to the newspaper that published the remarks, but it was never printed.Jackson did not discover the remarks until they were published again in January 1817 in response to a Boston newspaper's criticism of Kentucky militiamen. He wrote to the "Kentucky Reporter" at that time, denouncing the remarks as a forgery. The "Reporter" investigated and published an explanation of how Thomas's remarks had been attributed to Jackson. They did not reprint Jackson's letter because they felt his claim that the remarks had been intentionally forged —a charge which was now found to be false —was too inflammatory. The editors promised that if their retraction did not satisfy Jackson, they would fully publish any of his additional remarks on the subject. In Jackson's April 1817 response, he implied that Adair had intentionally misrepresented the remarks, and reasserted that they had been forged, possibly by Adair himself. Adair believed Jackson's references to the remarks as a "forged dish, dressed in the true Spanish style" was a thinly veiled reference to Adair's alleged participation in the Burr conspiracy. As ostensible proof that he was not predisposed against Kentuckians, Jackson also implied that he had not reported additional dishonorable behavior by Kentucky militiamen during the battle. This letter thrust the dispute into the national spotlight and prompted Adair to resume correspondence with him both to defend Davis's men and refute Jackson's charges of conspiracy. In his May 1817 response, he reasserted his defense of the Kentucky militiamen at New Orleans and dismissed many of Jackson's allegations as unimportant and untrue. He flatly denied the existence of a conspiracy, and chastised Jackson for making charges without supporting evidence. Responding to Jackson's allusion to Spain, Adair recalled that Jackson had also been implicated with Burr.Unable to provide tangible evidence of Adair's alleged misdeeds, Jackson provided indirect evidence that a conspiracy was possible. His response, delayed by his treaty negotiations with the Cherokee, was printed September 3, 1817, and used complicated calculations based on spacing and distance, to argue that Adair had only half the number of men he claimed to have commanded at the Battle of New Orleans. Further, he claimed that Adair had ordered Davis to New Orleans to obtain weapons knowing that the arms had already been taken by other brigades under Adair's command. Either Adair had given a foolish order, or he did not have as many men in his main force as he claimed. He closed by promising that this would be his last statement on the matter. Adair's October 29, 1817, response was delayed, he said, because he was awaiting documents from New Orleans that never came. In it, he quoted from a letter to Jackson's aide-de-camp —cited by Jackson himself in previous correspondence —showing that Jackson had been made aware of both the existence and the authorship of Thomas's remarks in 1815 but declined the opportunity to refute them. He also defended his account of the number of troops under his command, which he had consistently reported as being near 1,000, and asked why Jackson had not challenged it until now. Finally, he claimed that not only did he retrieve the weapons from New Orleans under Jackson's orders, but he rode Jackson's horse to New Orleans to effect the transaction. Tradition holds that this letter prompted either Adair or Jackson to challenge the other to a duel, but friends of both men averted the conflict after assembling to watch; no written evidence of the event exists. Tensions between the two eventually eased, and Adair came to comfort Jackson after his wife Rachel's death in 1828. Adair also campaigned for Jackson during his presidential campaigns in 1824, 1828, and 1832. Jackson's opponents compiled copies of his letters into campaign pamphlets to use against him in Kentucky during these elections.Adair's participation in the War of 1812 and subsequent correspondence with Jackson restored his reputation. He continued to serve as adjutant general until 1817, when the voters returned him to the state House of Representatives. He was nominated for Speaker of the House during that term, and, although he was not elected, he drew support from members of both parties, largely because of his correspondence with Jackson.In the aftermath of the Panic of 1819 —the first major financial crisis in United States history —the primary political issue of the day was debt relief. The federal government had created the Second Bank of the United States in 1817, and its strict credit policy hit Kentucky's large debtor class hard. Sitting governor Gabriel Slaughter had lobbied for some measures favored by the state's debtors, particularly punitive taxes against the branches of the Bank of the United States in Louisville and Lexington. The Second Party System had not yet developed, but there were nonetheless two opposing factions that arose around the debt relief issue. The first —primarily composed of land speculators who had bought large land parcels on credit and were unable to repay their debts due to the financial crisis —was dubbed the Relief Party (or "faction") and favored more legislation favorable to debtors. Opposed to them was the Anti-Relief Party; it was composed primarily of the state's aristocracy, many of whom were creditors to the land speculators and demanded that their contracts be adhered to without interference from the government. They claimed that no government intervention could effectively aid the debtors and that attempts to do so would only prolong the economic depression.Adair was the clear leader of the Relief faction, and his popularity had been enhanced thanks to his lengthy and public dispute with Jackson. In the 1820 gubernatorial election, he was elected as Kentucky's chief executive over three fellow Democratic-Republicans. Adair garnered 20,493 votes; U.S. Senator William Logan finished second with 19,497, fellow veteran Joseph Desha received 12,419, and Colonel Anthony Butler mustered only 9,567 votes. Proponents of debt relief measures also won majorities in both houses of the General Assembly.Kentucky historian Lowell H. Harrison opined that the most important measure implemented during Adair's administration was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth in 1820. The bank made generous loans and liberally issued paper money. Although bank notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth quickly fell well below par, creditors who refused to accept these devalued notes had to wait two years before seeking replevin. To inspire confidence in the devalued notes, Adair mandated that all officers of the state receive their salaries in notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth.The state's other bank, the Bank of Kentucky, adhered to more conservative banking practices. While this held the value of its notes closer to par, it also rendered loans less available, which angered relief-minded legislators; consequently, they revoked the bank's charter in December 1822. Adair oversaw the abolition of the practice of incarceration for debt, and sanctioned rigorous anti-gambling legislation. Legislators also exempted from forced sale the items then considered necessary for making a living —a horse, a plow, a hoe, and an ax.The Kentucky Court of Appeals, then the state's court of last resort, struck down the law ordering a two-year stay of replevin because it impaired the obligation of contracts. At about the same time, the U.S. Supreme Court issued its decision in the case of "Green v. Biddle", holding that land claims granted by Virginia in the District of Kentucky before Kentucky became a separate state took precedence over those later granted by the state of Kentucky if the two were in conflict. Adair denounced this decision in an 1823 message to the legislature, warning against federal and judicial interference in the will of the people, expressed through the legislature. Emboldened by Adair's message, Relief partisans sought to remove the three justices of the state Court of Appeals, as well as James Clark, a lower court judge who had issued a similar ruling, from the bench. The judges were spared when their opponents failed to obtain the two-thirds majority required for removal.Adair urged legislators to create a public school system. In response, the General Assembly passed an act creating a state "Literary Fund" which received half of the clear profits accrued by the Bank of the Commonwealth. The fund was to be available, proportionally, to each of the state's counties for the establishment of "a system of general education". In the tumultuous economic environment, however, legislators routinely voted to borrow from the Literary Fund to pay for other priorities, chiefly the construction of internal improvements.Adair's lieutenant governor, William T. Barry, and John Pope, Secretary of State under Adair's predecessor, headed a six-man committee authorized by the act to study the creation of a system of common schools. The "Barry Report," delivered to the legislature in December 1822, was lauded by statesmen including John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison. Authored by committee member Amos Kendall, it criticized the idea of land grant academies then prevalent in the state as unworkable outside affluent towns. It also concluded that the Literary Fund alone was insufficient for funding a system of common schools. The report recommended that funds only be made available to counties that imposed a county tax for the benefit of the public school system. Legislators largely ignored the report, a decision Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark called "one of the most egregious blunders in American educational history".Adair's endorsement of the Missouri Compromise was instrumental in securing its passage by Kentucky legislators. He advocated prison reform and better treatment of the insane. He also oversaw the enactment of a plan for internal improvements, including improved navigation on the Ohio River.Barred from seeking immediate re-election by the state constitution, Adair retired to his farm in Mercer County at the expiration of his term as governor. Shortly after returning to private life, he began to complain about the low value of Bank of the Commonwealth notes —then worth about half par —and petitioned the legislature to remedy the situation. The complaint of a former Relief Party governor over the ill effects of pro-relief legislation prompted wry celebration among members of the Anti-Relief faction.Adair made one final contribution to the public when he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Jackson Democrat in 1831. During the 22nd Congress, he served on the Committee on Military Affairs. During his term, he made only one speech, and it was so inaudible that no one knew what position he was advocating. The House reporter speculated that it concerned mounting Federal troops on horseback. He did not run for re-election in 1833, and left public life for good.He died at home in Harrodsburg on May 19, 1840, and was buried on the grounds of his estate, White Hall. In 1872, his remains were moved to the Frankfort Cemetery, by the state capitol, and the Commonwealth erected a marker over his grave there.In addition to Adair County in Kentucky, Adair County, Missouri, Adair County, Iowa, and the towns of Adairville, Kentucky, and Adair, Iowa, were named in his honor.
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[
"Governor of Kentucky",
"United States representative"
] |
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Which position did John Adair hold in 1806-02-26?
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February 26, 1806
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{
"text": [
"United States senator"
]
}
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L2_Q11595_P39_0
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John Adair holds the position of United States representative from Mar, 1831 to Mar, 1833.
John Adair holds the position of Governor of Kentucky from Aug, 1820 to Aug, 1824.
John Adair holds the position of United States senator from Nov, 1805 to Nov, 1806.
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John AdairJohn Adair (January 9, 1757 – May 19, 1840) was an American pioneer, soldier, and politician. He was the eighth Governor of Kentucky and represented the state in both the U.S. House and Senate. A native of South Carolina, Adair enlisted in the state militia and served in the Revolutionary War, during which he was twice captured and held as a prisoner of war by the British. Following the War, he was elected as a delegate to South Carolina's convention to ratify the United States Constitution.After moving to Kentucky in 1786, Adair participated in the Northwest Indian War, including a skirmish with the Miami Chief Little Turtle near Fort St. Clair in 1792. Popular for his service in two wars, he entered politics in 1792 as a delegate to Kentucky's constitutional convention. Adair was elected to a total of eight terms in the state House of Representatives between 1793 and 1803. He served as Speaker of the Kentucky House in 1802 and 1803, and was a delegate to the state's Second Constitutional Convention in 1799. He ascended to the United States Senate to fill the seat vacated when John Breckinridge resigned to become Attorney General of the United States in the Cabinet of Thomas Jefferson, but failed to win a full term in the subsequent election due to his implication in a treason conspiracy involving Vice President Aaron Burr. After a long legal battle, he was acquitted of any wrongdoing; and his accuser, General James Wilkinson, was ordered to issue an apology. The negative publicity kept him out of politics for more than a decade.Adair's participation in the War of 1812, and a subsequent protracted defense of Kentucky's soldiers against General Andrew Jackson's charges that they showed cowardice at the Battle of New Orleans, restored his reputation. He returned to the State House in 1817, and Isaac Shelby, his commanding officer in the War who was serving a second term as governor, appointed him adjutant general of the state militia. In 1820, Adair was elected eighth governor on a platform of financial relief for Kentuckians hit hard by the Panic of 1819, and the ensuing economic recession. His primary effort toward this end was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth, but many of his other financial reforms were deemed unconstitutional by the Kentucky Court of Appeals, touching off the Old Court–New Court controversy. Following his term as governor, Adair served one undistinguished term in the United States House of Representatives and did not run for re-election.John Adair was born January 9, 1757, in Chester County in the Province of South Carolina, a son of Scottish immigrants Baron William and Mary [Moore] Adair. He was educated at schools in Charlotte, North Carolina, and enlisted in the South Carolina colonial militia at the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. He was assigned to the regiment of his friend, Edward Lacey, under the command of Colonel Thomas Sumter and participated in the failed Colonial assault on a Loyalist outpost at the Battle of Rocky Mount and the subsequent Colonial victory at the Battle of Hanging Rock. During the British victory over the Colonists at the August 16, 1780, Battle of Camden, Adair was taken as a prisoner of war. He contracted smallpox and was treated harshly by his captors during his months-long imprisonment. Although he escaped at one point, Adair was unable to reach safety because of difficulties related to his smallpox infection and was recaptured by British Colonel Banastre Tarleton after just three days. Subsequently, he was released via a prisoner exchange. In 1781, he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the South Carolina militia, and fought in the drawn Battle of Eutaw Springs, the war's last major battle in the Carolinas. Edward Lacey was elected sheriff of Chester County after the war, and Adair replaced him in his former capacity as the county's justice of the peace. He was chosen as a delegate to the South Carolina convention to ratify the U.S. Constitution.In 1784, Adair married Katherine Palmer. They had twelve children, ten of them daughters. One married Thomas Bell Monroe, who later served as Adair's Secretary of State and was appointed to a federal judgeship. In 1786, the Adairs migrated westward to Kentucky, settling in Mercer County.Enlisting for service as a captain in the Northwest Indian War in 1791, Adair was soon promoted to major and assigned to the brigade of James Wilkinson. On November 6, 1792, a band of Miamis under the command of Little Turtle encountered Adair and about 100 men serving under him on a scouting mission near Fort St. Clair in Ohio. When the Miami attacked, Adair ordered Lieutenant (and later governor of Kentucky) George Madison to attack their right flank while Adair led 25 men to attack the left flank. (Adair had intended for a subordinate to lead the charge, but the officer was killed before Adair could give the order.) The maneuver forced the Miamis to fall back and allowed Adair's men to escape. They retreated to their camp and made a stand, forcing the Miamis to withdraw. Six of Adair's men were killed; another four were missing and five were wounded. Among the wounded were Madison and Richard Taylor, father of future U.S. President Zachary Taylor.Recognizing his bravery and fighting skill, Adair's superiors promoted him to lieutenant colonel. He was assigned to the command of Charles Scott, who would eventually serve as Kentucky's fourth governor. He assisted in the construction of Fort Greeneville in 1794, forwarding supplies to Anthony Wayne during his operations which ended in a decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.Popular for his military service, Adair was chosen as a delegate to the Kentucky constitutional convention in 1792. Upon the state's admission to the Union, he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives, serving from 1793 to 1795. He remained active in the Kentucky militia, and on February 25, 1797, he was promoted to brigadier general and given command of the 2nd Brigade of the Kentucky Militia. He was promoted to major general and given command of the 2nd Division of the Kentucky Militia on December 16, 1799.Adair returned to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1798. When Kentuckians voted to hold another constitutional convention in 1799 to correct weaknesses in their first constitution, Adair was chosen as a delegate. At the convention, he was the leader of a group of politically ambitious delegates who opposed most limits on the powers and terms of office of elected officials, particularly on legislators. He was elected to the Kentucky House again from 1800 to 1803. A candidate for a seat in the U.S. Senate in 1800, he was defeated in an overwhelming 68–13 vote of the legislature by John Breckinridge, who had been the acknowledged leader of the just-concluded constitutional convention. In 1802, Adair succeeded Breckinridge as Speaker of the House by a vote of 30–14 over Elder David Purviance, the candidate preferred by Governor James Garrard. He continued to serve as Speaker for the duration of his tenure in the House. In 1802, the legislature formed Adair County, Kentucky, naming it after the popular Speaker.In January 1804, Garrard nominated Adair to the position of registrar of the state land office. Adair's was the seventh name submitted by Garrard to the state Senate for the position; his approval by the Senate marked the end of a two-month imbroglio between Garrard and the legislature over the appointment. Later that year, he was a candidate for the U.S. Senate seat then occupied by John Brown. Although Henry Clay supported Brown's re-election, Adair had the support of Felix Grundy. Grundy accused Brown of involvement in a conspiracy to make Kentucky a province of the Spanish government, damaging his popularity. Adair won a plurality, but not a majority, of the votes cast in six consecutive ballots. Clay then threw his support to Buckner Thruston, a more palatable candidate who defeated Adair on the seventh ballot. Grundy's influence in the legislature continued to grow, and when John Breckinridge resigned to accept President Thomas Jefferson's appointment as U.S. Attorney General in August 1805, the Senate chose Adair to fill the vacancy.Former Vice-President Aaron Burr visited Kentucky in 1805, reaching Frankfort, Kentucky, on May 25 and lodging with former Senator John Brown. During the trip, he consulted with many prominent politicians, Adair among them, about the possibility of wresting Mexico from Spain. Most of those he spoke with believed he was acting on behalf of the federal government and intended to expand U.S. holdings in Mexico. Adair believed this too, having received letters from his former commander, James Wilkinson, which appeared to confirm it. In 1806, however, Burr was arrested in Frankfort on charges of treason. Officials claimed he in fact intended to create a new, independent nation in Spanish lands.Convinced of his innocence, Henry Clay represented Burr, while Joseph Hamilton Daveiss acted as prosecutor. Harry Innes presided over the trial, which commenced November 11. Daveiss had to ask for a postponement because Davis Floyd, one of his key witnesses, was then serving in the Indiana General Assembly and could not be present in court. The court next convened on December 2, and Daveiss again had to ask for a postponement, this time because Adair, another witness, was not present. Adair had traveled to Louisiana to inspect a tract of land he had recently purchased there. On his arrival in New Orleans, he was arrested on the order of his former commander, James Wilkinson, then serving as governor of the Louisiana Territory.Clay had insisted that the trial proceed in Adair's absence, and, the next day, Daveiss presented indictments against Burr for treason and against Adair as a co-conspirator. After hearing testimony, the grand jury rejected the indictment against Adair as "not a true bill" and similarly dismissed the charges against Burr two days later. After his vindication by the grand jury, Adair counter-sued Wilkinson in federal court. Although the legal battle between the two spanned several years, the court found that Wilkinson had no solid evidence against Adair and ordered Wilkinson to issue a public apology and pay Adair $2,500 in damages. Adair's acquittal and successful counter-suit came too late to prevent damage to his political career. Because of his association with Burr's scheme, he lost the election for a full term in the Senate in November 1806. Rather than wait for his partial term to expire, he resigned on November 18, 1806.Adair rejoined the Kentucky militia at the outset of the War of 1812. After Oliver Hazard Perry's victory in the September 10, 1813, Battle of Lake Erie, William Henry Harrison called on Kentucky Governor Isaac Shelby, a popular Revolutionary War hero, to recruit troops in Kentucky and join him in his invasion of Canada. Shelby asked Adair to serve as his first aide-de-camp. Future Kentucky governor and U.S. Senator John J. Crittenden was Shelby's second aide, and future U.S. Senator and Postmaster General William T. Barry was his secretary. Adair rendered commendable service in the campaign, most notably at the American victory in the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813. Shelby praised Adair's service and in 1814, made him adjutant general of Kentucky and brevetted him to the rank of brigadier general.In late 1814, Andrew Jackson requested reinforcements from Kentucky for his defense of the Gulf of Mexico. Adair quickly raised three regiments, but the federal government provided them no weapons and no means of transportation. James Taylor, Jr., then serving as quartermaster general of the state militia, took out a $6,000 mortgage on his personal land to purchase boats to transport Adair's men. The number of men with Adair was later disputed; sources variously give numbers between 700 and 1,500. Many did not have weapons, and the ones who did were primarily armed with their own civilian rifles. John Thomas, to whom Adair was an adjunct, fell ill just before the battle commenced, leaving Adair responsible for all the Kentuckians present at the battle.On January 7, 1815, Adair traveled to New Orleans and requested that the city's leaders lend him several stands of arms from the city armory to arm his militiamen. The officials agreed under the condition that the removal of the arms from the armory be kept secret from the citizenry. The weapons were placed in boxes and delivered to Adair's camp on the night of January 7. At Adair's suggestion, his men were placed in reserve and located centrally behind the Tennessee militiamen under William Carroll. From there, they could quickly move to reinforce whichever portion of the American line received the heaviest attack from the British.Apparently unaware of Adair's request, that evening, Jackson ordered 400 unarmed Kentucky militiamen under Colonel John Davis to march to New Orleans to obtain arms, then reinforce the 450 Louisiana militiamen under David B. Morgan on the west bank of the Mississippi River. When they arrived in New Orleans, they were told that the city's arms had already been shipped to Adair. The citizens collected what weapons they had —mostly old muskets in various states of disrepair —and gave them to Davis' men. About 200 men were thus armed and reported to Morgan as ordered, just hours before the start of the Battle of New Orleans. The remainder of Davis's men returned to the main camp, still without weapons.As the British approached on the morning of January 8, it became evident that they would try to break the American line through Carroll's Tennesseans, and Adair advanced his men to support them. The main American line held and repulsed the British attack; in total, only six Americans were killed and seven wounded. Meanwhile, Davis' Kentuckians on the west bank had, upon their arrival in Morgan's camp, been sent to meet the advance of a secondary British force. Outnumbered, poorly armed, and without the benefit of breastworks or artillery support, they were quickly outflanked and forced to retreat. Seeing the retreat of the Kentuckians, Morgan's militiamen abandoned their breastworks; Adair would later claim they had never even fired a shot. The British quickly abandoned the position they had just captured, but Jackson resented the setback in an otherwise spectacular victory.Jackson's official report blamed the Kentuckians' retreat for the collapse of the west bank defenses, and many Kentuckians felt it played down the importance of Adair's militiamen on the east bank in preserving the American line and securing the victory. Davis' men insisted the report was based on Jackson's misunderstanding of the facts and asked that Adair request a court of inquiry, which convened in February 1815 with Major General Carroll of Tennessee presiding. The court's report found that "[t]he retreat of the Kentucky militia, which, considering their position, the deficiency of their arms, and other causes, may be excusable," and that the formation of the troops on the west bank was "exceptional", noting that 500 Louisiana troops supported by three artillery pieces and protected by a strong breastwork were charged with defending a line that stretched only while Davis's 170 Kentuckians, poorly armed and protected only by a small ditch, were expected to defend a line over long. On February 10, 1816, the Kentucky General Assembly passed a resolution thanking Adair for his service at the Battle of New Orleans and for his defense of the soldiers accused by Jackson.Jackson approved the court's findings, but they were not the full refutation of Jackson's report that many Kentuckians —including Adair —had wanted. In a letter that was quickly made public, Adair —formerly one of Jackson's close friends —insisted that Jackson withdraw or modify his official report, but Jackson refused. This ended the matter until June 1815 when H. P. Helm, secretary to John Thomas, forwarded to a Frankfort newspaper remarks from "the general" that had been annexed to the official report. "The remarks" stated that the general was now convinced that the initial reports of cowardice by Davis's men "had been misrepresented" and that their retreat had been "not only excusable, but absolutely justifiable." The remarks, popularly believed to be from Jackson in response to Adair's letter, were subsequently reprinted across Kentucky. The "general" referenced was in fact General John Thomas; Jackson had never seen them. Helm claimed he sent a subsequent correction to the newspaper that published the remarks, but it was never printed.Jackson did not discover the remarks until they were published again in January 1817 in response to a Boston newspaper's criticism of Kentucky militiamen. He wrote to the "Kentucky Reporter" at that time, denouncing the remarks as a forgery. The "Reporter" investigated and published an explanation of how Thomas's remarks had been attributed to Jackson. They did not reprint Jackson's letter because they felt his claim that the remarks had been intentionally forged —a charge which was now found to be false —was too inflammatory. The editors promised that if their retraction did not satisfy Jackson, they would fully publish any of his additional remarks on the subject. In Jackson's April 1817 response, he implied that Adair had intentionally misrepresented the remarks, and reasserted that they had been forged, possibly by Adair himself. Adair believed Jackson's references to the remarks as a "forged dish, dressed in the true Spanish style" was a thinly veiled reference to Adair's alleged participation in the Burr conspiracy. As ostensible proof that he was not predisposed against Kentuckians, Jackson also implied that he had not reported additional dishonorable behavior by Kentucky militiamen during the battle. This letter thrust the dispute into the national spotlight and prompted Adair to resume correspondence with him both to defend Davis's men and refute Jackson's charges of conspiracy. In his May 1817 response, he reasserted his defense of the Kentucky militiamen at New Orleans and dismissed many of Jackson's allegations as unimportant and untrue. He flatly denied the existence of a conspiracy, and chastised Jackson for making charges without supporting evidence. Responding to Jackson's allusion to Spain, Adair recalled that Jackson had also been implicated with Burr.Unable to provide tangible evidence of Adair's alleged misdeeds, Jackson provided indirect evidence that a conspiracy was possible. His response, delayed by his treaty negotiations with the Cherokee, was printed September 3, 1817, and used complicated calculations based on spacing and distance, to argue that Adair had only half the number of men he claimed to have commanded at the Battle of New Orleans. Further, he claimed that Adair had ordered Davis to New Orleans to obtain weapons knowing that the arms had already been taken by other brigades under Adair's command. Either Adair had given a foolish order, or he did not have as many men in his main force as he claimed. He closed by promising that this would be his last statement on the matter. Adair's October 29, 1817, response was delayed, he said, because he was awaiting documents from New Orleans that never came. In it, he quoted from a letter to Jackson's aide-de-camp —cited by Jackson himself in previous correspondence —showing that Jackson had been made aware of both the existence and the authorship of Thomas's remarks in 1815 but declined the opportunity to refute them. He also defended his account of the number of troops under his command, which he had consistently reported as being near 1,000, and asked why Jackson had not challenged it until now. Finally, he claimed that not only did he retrieve the weapons from New Orleans under Jackson's orders, but he rode Jackson's horse to New Orleans to effect the transaction. Tradition holds that this letter prompted either Adair or Jackson to challenge the other to a duel, but friends of both men averted the conflict after assembling to watch; no written evidence of the event exists. Tensions between the two eventually eased, and Adair came to comfort Jackson after his wife Rachel's death in 1828. Adair also campaigned for Jackson during his presidential campaigns in 1824, 1828, and 1832. Jackson's opponents compiled copies of his letters into campaign pamphlets to use against him in Kentucky during these elections.Adair's participation in the War of 1812 and subsequent correspondence with Jackson restored his reputation. He continued to serve as adjutant general until 1817, when the voters returned him to the state House of Representatives. He was nominated for Speaker of the House during that term, and, although he was not elected, he drew support from members of both parties, largely because of his correspondence with Jackson.In the aftermath of the Panic of 1819 —the first major financial crisis in United States history —the primary political issue of the day was debt relief. The federal government had created the Second Bank of the United States in 1817, and its strict credit policy hit Kentucky's large debtor class hard. Sitting governor Gabriel Slaughter had lobbied for some measures favored by the state's debtors, particularly punitive taxes against the branches of the Bank of the United States in Louisville and Lexington. The Second Party System had not yet developed, but there were nonetheless two opposing factions that arose around the debt relief issue. The first —primarily composed of land speculators who had bought large land parcels on credit and were unable to repay their debts due to the financial crisis —was dubbed the Relief Party (or "faction") and favored more legislation favorable to debtors. Opposed to them was the Anti-Relief Party; it was composed primarily of the state's aristocracy, many of whom were creditors to the land speculators and demanded that their contracts be adhered to without interference from the government. They claimed that no government intervention could effectively aid the debtors and that attempts to do so would only prolong the economic depression.Adair was the clear leader of the Relief faction, and his popularity had been enhanced thanks to his lengthy and public dispute with Jackson. In the 1820 gubernatorial election, he was elected as Kentucky's chief executive over three fellow Democratic-Republicans. Adair garnered 20,493 votes; U.S. Senator William Logan finished second with 19,497, fellow veteran Joseph Desha received 12,419, and Colonel Anthony Butler mustered only 9,567 votes. Proponents of debt relief measures also won majorities in both houses of the General Assembly.Kentucky historian Lowell H. Harrison opined that the most important measure implemented during Adair's administration was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth in 1820. The bank made generous loans and liberally issued paper money. Although bank notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth quickly fell well below par, creditors who refused to accept these devalued notes had to wait two years before seeking replevin. To inspire confidence in the devalued notes, Adair mandated that all officers of the state receive their salaries in notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth.The state's other bank, the Bank of Kentucky, adhered to more conservative banking practices. While this held the value of its notes closer to par, it also rendered loans less available, which angered relief-minded legislators; consequently, they revoked the bank's charter in December 1822. Adair oversaw the abolition of the practice of incarceration for debt, and sanctioned rigorous anti-gambling legislation. Legislators also exempted from forced sale the items then considered necessary for making a living —a horse, a plow, a hoe, and an ax.The Kentucky Court of Appeals, then the state's court of last resort, struck down the law ordering a two-year stay of replevin because it impaired the obligation of contracts. At about the same time, the U.S. Supreme Court issued its decision in the case of "Green v. Biddle", holding that land claims granted by Virginia in the District of Kentucky before Kentucky became a separate state took precedence over those later granted by the state of Kentucky if the two were in conflict. Adair denounced this decision in an 1823 message to the legislature, warning against federal and judicial interference in the will of the people, expressed through the legislature. Emboldened by Adair's message, Relief partisans sought to remove the three justices of the state Court of Appeals, as well as James Clark, a lower court judge who had issued a similar ruling, from the bench. The judges were spared when their opponents failed to obtain the two-thirds majority required for removal.Adair urged legislators to create a public school system. In response, the General Assembly passed an act creating a state "Literary Fund" which received half of the clear profits accrued by the Bank of the Commonwealth. The fund was to be available, proportionally, to each of the state's counties for the establishment of "a system of general education". In the tumultuous economic environment, however, legislators routinely voted to borrow from the Literary Fund to pay for other priorities, chiefly the construction of internal improvements.Adair's lieutenant governor, William T. Barry, and John Pope, Secretary of State under Adair's predecessor, headed a six-man committee authorized by the act to study the creation of a system of common schools. The "Barry Report," delivered to the legislature in December 1822, was lauded by statesmen including John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison. Authored by committee member Amos Kendall, it criticized the idea of land grant academies then prevalent in the state as unworkable outside affluent towns. It also concluded that the Literary Fund alone was insufficient for funding a system of common schools. The report recommended that funds only be made available to counties that imposed a county tax for the benefit of the public school system. Legislators largely ignored the report, a decision Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark called "one of the most egregious blunders in American educational history".Adair's endorsement of the Missouri Compromise was instrumental in securing its passage by Kentucky legislators. He advocated prison reform and better treatment of the insane. He also oversaw the enactment of a plan for internal improvements, including improved navigation on the Ohio River.Barred from seeking immediate re-election by the state constitution, Adair retired to his farm in Mercer County at the expiration of his term as governor. Shortly after returning to private life, he began to complain about the low value of Bank of the Commonwealth notes —then worth about half par —and petitioned the legislature to remedy the situation. The complaint of a former Relief Party governor over the ill effects of pro-relief legislation prompted wry celebration among members of the Anti-Relief faction.Adair made one final contribution to the public when he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Jackson Democrat in 1831. During the 22nd Congress, he served on the Committee on Military Affairs. During his term, he made only one speech, and it was so inaudible that no one knew what position he was advocating. The House reporter speculated that it concerned mounting Federal troops on horseback. He did not run for re-election in 1833, and left public life for good.He died at home in Harrodsburg on May 19, 1840, and was buried on the grounds of his estate, White Hall. In 1872, his remains were moved to the Frankfort Cemetery, by the state capitol, and the Commonwealth erected a marker over his grave there.In addition to Adair County in Kentucky, Adair County, Missouri, Adair County, Iowa, and the towns of Adairville, Kentucky, and Adair, Iowa, were named in his honor.
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[
"Governor of Kentucky",
"United States representative"
] |
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Which position did John Adair hold in 26/02/1806?
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February 26, 1806
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{
"text": [
"United States senator"
]
}
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L2_Q11595_P39_0
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John Adair holds the position of United States representative from Mar, 1831 to Mar, 1833.
John Adair holds the position of Governor of Kentucky from Aug, 1820 to Aug, 1824.
John Adair holds the position of United States senator from Nov, 1805 to Nov, 1806.
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John AdairJohn Adair (January 9, 1757 – May 19, 1840) was an American pioneer, soldier, and politician. He was the eighth Governor of Kentucky and represented the state in both the U.S. House and Senate. A native of South Carolina, Adair enlisted in the state militia and served in the Revolutionary War, during which he was twice captured and held as a prisoner of war by the British. Following the War, he was elected as a delegate to South Carolina's convention to ratify the United States Constitution.After moving to Kentucky in 1786, Adair participated in the Northwest Indian War, including a skirmish with the Miami Chief Little Turtle near Fort St. Clair in 1792. Popular for his service in two wars, he entered politics in 1792 as a delegate to Kentucky's constitutional convention. Adair was elected to a total of eight terms in the state House of Representatives between 1793 and 1803. He served as Speaker of the Kentucky House in 1802 and 1803, and was a delegate to the state's Second Constitutional Convention in 1799. He ascended to the United States Senate to fill the seat vacated when John Breckinridge resigned to become Attorney General of the United States in the Cabinet of Thomas Jefferson, but failed to win a full term in the subsequent election due to his implication in a treason conspiracy involving Vice President Aaron Burr. After a long legal battle, he was acquitted of any wrongdoing; and his accuser, General James Wilkinson, was ordered to issue an apology. The negative publicity kept him out of politics for more than a decade.Adair's participation in the War of 1812, and a subsequent protracted defense of Kentucky's soldiers against General Andrew Jackson's charges that they showed cowardice at the Battle of New Orleans, restored his reputation. He returned to the State House in 1817, and Isaac Shelby, his commanding officer in the War who was serving a second term as governor, appointed him adjutant general of the state militia. In 1820, Adair was elected eighth governor on a platform of financial relief for Kentuckians hit hard by the Panic of 1819, and the ensuing economic recession. His primary effort toward this end was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth, but many of his other financial reforms were deemed unconstitutional by the Kentucky Court of Appeals, touching off the Old Court–New Court controversy. Following his term as governor, Adair served one undistinguished term in the United States House of Representatives and did not run for re-election.John Adair was born January 9, 1757, in Chester County in the Province of South Carolina, a son of Scottish immigrants Baron William and Mary [Moore] Adair. He was educated at schools in Charlotte, North Carolina, and enlisted in the South Carolina colonial militia at the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. He was assigned to the regiment of his friend, Edward Lacey, under the command of Colonel Thomas Sumter and participated in the failed Colonial assault on a Loyalist outpost at the Battle of Rocky Mount and the subsequent Colonial victory at the Battle of Hanging Rock. During the British victory over the Colonists at the August 16, 1780, Battle of Camden, Adair was taken as a prisoner of war. He contracted smallpox and was treated harshly by his captors during his months-long imprisonment. Although he escaped at one point, Adair was unable to reach safety because of difficulties related to his smallpox infection and was recaptured by British Colonel Banastre Tarleton after just three days. Subsequently, he was released via a prisoner exchange. In 1781, he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the South Carolina militia, and fought in the drawn Battle of Eutaw Springs, the war's last major battle in the Carolinas. Edward Lacey was elected sheriff of Chester County after the war, and Adair replaced him in his former capacity as the county's justice of the peace. He was chosen as a delegate to the South Carolina convention to ratify the U.S. Constitution.In 1784, Adair married Katherine Palmer. They had twelve children, ten of them daughters. One married Thomas Bell Monroe, who later served as Adair's Secretary of State and was appointed to a federal judgeship. In 1786, the Adairs migrated westward to Kentucky, settling in Mercer County.Enlisting for service as a captain in the Northwest Indian War in 1791, Adair was soon promoted to major and assigned to the brigade of James Wilkinson. On November 6, 1792, a band of Miamis under the command of Little Turtle encountered Adair and about 100 men serving under him on a scouting mission near Fort St. Clair in Ohio. When the Miami attacked, Adair ordered Lieutenant (and later governor of Kentucky) George Madison to attack their right flank while Adair led 25 men to attack the left flank. (Adair had intended for a subordinate to lead the charge, but the officer was killed before Adair could give the order.) The maneuver forced the Miamis to fall back and allowed Adair's men to escape. They retreated to their camp and made a stand, forcing the Miamis to withdraw. Six of Adair's men were killed; another four were missing and five were wounded. Among the wounded were Madison and Richard Taylor, father of future U.S. President Zachary Taylor.Recognizing his bravery and fighting skill, Adair's superiors promoted him to lieutenant colonel. He was assigned to the command of Charles Scott, who would eventually serve as Kentucky's fourth governor. He assisted in the construction of Fort Greeneville in 1794, forwarding supplies to Anthony Wayne during his operations which ended in a decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.Popular for his military service, Adair was chosen as a delegate to the Kentucky constitutional convention in 1792. Upon the state's admission to the Union, he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives, serving from 1793 to 1795. He remained active in the Kentucky militia, and on February 25, 1797, he was promoted to brigadier general and given command of the 2nd Brigade of the Kentucky Militia. He was promoted to major general and given command of the 2nd Division of the Kentucky Militia on December 16, 1799.Adair returned to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1798. When Kentuckians voted to hold another constitutional convention in 1799 to correct weaknesses in their first constitution, Adair was chosen as a delegate. At the convention, he was the leader of a group of politically ambitious delegates who opposed most limits on the powers and terms of office of elected officials, particularly on legislators. He was elected to the Kentucky House again from 1800 to 1803. A candidate for a seat in the U.S. Senate in 1800, he was defeated in an overwhelming 68–13 vote of the legislature by John Breckinridge, who had been the acknowledged leader of the just-concluded constitutional convention. In 1802, Adair succeeded Breckinridge as Speaker of the House by a vote of 30–14 over Elder David Purviance, the candidate preferred by Governor James Garrard. He continued to serve as Speaker for the duration of his tenure in the House. In 1802, the legislature formed Adair County, Kentucky, naming it after the popular Speaker.In January 1804, Garrard nominated Adair to the position of registrar of the state land office. Adair's was the seventh name submitted by Garrard to the state Senate for the position; his approval by the Senate marked the end of a two-month imbroglio between Garrard and the legislature over the appointment. Later that year, he was a candidate for the U.S. Senate seat then occupied by John Brown. Although Henry Clay supported Brown's re-election, Adair had the support of Felix Grundy. Grundy accused Brown of involvement in a conspiracy to make Kentucky a province of the Spanish government, damaging his popularity. Adair won a plurality, but not a majority, of the votes cast in six consecutive ballots. Clay then threw his support to Buckner Thruston, a more palatable candidate who defeated Adair on the seventh ballot. Grundy's influence in the legislature continued to grow, and when John Breckinridge resigned to accept President Thomas Jefferson's appointment as U.S. Attorney General in August 1805, the Senate chose Adair to fill the vacancy.Former Vice-President Aaron Burr visited Kentucky in 1805, reaching Frankfort, Kentucky, on May 25 and lodging with former Senator John Brown. During the trip, he consulted with many prominent politicians, Adair among them, about the possibility of wresting Mexico from Spain. Most of those he spoke with believed he was acting on behalf of the federal government and intended to expand U.S. holdings in Mexico. Adair believed this too, having received letters from his former commander, James Wilkinson, which appeared to confirm it. In 1806, however, Burr was arrested in Frankfort on charges of treason. Officials claimed he in fact intended to create a new, independent nation in Spanish lands.Convinced of his innocence, Henry Clay represented Burr, while Joseph Hamilton Daveiss acted as prosecutor. Harry Innes presided over the trial, which commenced November 11. Daveiss had to ask for a postponement because Davis Floyd, one of his key witnesses, was then serving in the Indiana General Assembly and could not be present in court. The court next convened on December 2, and Daveiss again had to ask for a postponement, this time because Adair, another witness, was not present. Adair had traveled to Louisiana to inspect a tract of land he had recently purchased there. On his arrival in New Orleans, he was arrested on the order of his former commander, James Wilkinson, then serving as governor of the Louisiana Territory.Clay had insisted that the trial proceed in Adair's absence, and, the next day, Daveiss presented indictments against Burr for treason and against Adair as a co-conspirator. After hearing testimony, the grand jury rejected the indictment against Adair as "not a true bill" and similarly dismissed the charges against Burr two days later. After his vindication by the grand jury, Adair counter-sued Wilkinson in federal court. Although the legal battle between the two spanned several years, the court found that Wilkinson had no solid evidence against Adair and ordered Wilkinson to issue a public apology and pay Adair $2,500 in damages. Adair's acquittal and successful counter-suit came too late to prevent damage to his political career. Because of his association with Burr's scheme, he lost the election for a full term in the Senate in November 1806. Rather than wait for his partial term to expire, he resigned on November 18, 1806.Adair rejoined the Kentucky militia at the outset of the War of 1812. After Oliver Hazard Perry's victory in the September 10, 1813, Battle of Lake Erie, William Henry Harrison called on Kentucky Governor Isaac Shelby, a popular Revolutionary War hero, to recruit troops in Kentucky and join him in his invasion of Canada. Shelby asked Adair to serve as his first aide-de-camp. Future Kentucky governor and U.S. Senator John J. Crittenden was Shelby's second aide, and future U.S. Senator and Postmaster General William T. Barry was his secretary. Adair rendered commendable service in the campaign, most notably at the American victory in the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813. Shelby praised Adair's service and in 1814, made him adjutant general of Kentucky and brevetted him to the rank of brigadier general.In late 1814, Andrew Jackson requested reinforcements from Kentucky for his defense of the Gulf of Mexico. Adair quickly raised three regiments, but the federal government provided them no weapons and no means of transportation. James Taylor, Jr., then serving as quartermaster general of the state militia, took out a $6,000 mortgage on his personal land to purchase boats to transport Adair's men. The number of men with Adair was later disputed; sources variously give numbers between 700 and 1,500. Many did not have weapons, and the ones who did were primarily armed with their own civilian rifles. John Thomas, to whom Adair was an adjunct, fell ill just before the battle commenced, leaving Adair responsible for all the Kentuckians present at the battle.On January 7, 1815, Adair traveled to New Orleans and requested that the city's leaders lend him several stands of arms from the city armory to arm his militiamen. The officials agreed under the condition that the removal of the arms from the armory be kept secret from the citizenry. The weapons were placed in boxes and delivered to Adair's camp on the night of January 7. At Adair's suggestion, his men were placed in reserve and located centrally behind the Tennessee militiamen under William Carroll. From there, they could quickly move to reinforce whichever portion of the American line received the heaviest attack from the British.Apparently unaware of Adair's request, that evening, Jackson ordered 400 unarmed Kentucky militiamen under Colonel John Davis to march to New Orleans to obtain arms, then reinforce the 450 Louisiana militiamen under David B. Morgan on the west bank of the Mississippi River. When they arrived in New Orleans, they were told that the city's arms had already been shipped to Adair. The citizens collected what weapons they had —mostly old muskets in various states of disrepair —and gave them to Davis' men. About 200 men were thus armed and reported to Morgan as ordered, just hours before the start of the Battle of New Orleans. The remainder of Davis's men returned to the main camp, still without weapons.As the British approached on the morning of January 8, it became evident that they would try to break the American line through Carroll's Tennesseans, and Adair advanced his men to support them. The main American line held and repulsed the British attack; in total, only six Americans were killed and seven wounded. Meanwhile, Davis' Kentuckians on the west bank had, upon their arrival in Morgan's camp, been sent to meet the advance of a secondary British force. Outnumbered, poorly armed, and without the benefit of breastworks or artillery support, they were quickly outflanked and forced to retreat. Seeing the retreat of the Kentuckians, Morgan's militiamen abandoned their breastworks; Adair would later claim they had never even fired a shot. The British quickly abandoned the position they had just captured, but Jackson resented the setback in an otherwise spectacular victory.Jackson's official report blamed the Kentuckians' retreat for the collapse of the west bank defenses, and many Kentuckians felt it played down the importance of Adair's militiamen on the east bank in preserving the American line and securing the victory. Davis' men insisted the report was based on Jackson's misunderstanding of the facts and asked that Adair request a court of inquiry, which convened in February 1815 with Major General Carroll of Tennessee presiding. The court's report found that "[t]he retreat of the Kentucky militia, which, considering their position, the deficiency of their arms, and other causes, may be excusable," and that the formation of the troops on the west bank was "exceptional", noting that 500 Louisiana troops supported by three artillery pieces and protected by a strong breastwork were charged with defending a line that stretched only while Davis's 170 Kentuckians, poorly armed and protected only by a small ditch, were expected to defend a line over long. On February 10, 1816, the Kentucky General Assembly passed a resolution thanking Adair for his service at the Battle of New Orleans and for his defense of the soldiers accused by Jackson.Jackson approved the court's findings, but they were not the full refutation of Jackson's report that many Kentuckians —including Adair —had wanted. In a letter that was quickly made public, Adair —formerly one of Jackson's close friends —insisted that Jackson withdraw or modify his official report, but Jackson refused. This ended the matter until June 1815 when H. P. Helm, secretary to John Thomas, forwarded to a Frankfort newspaper remarks from "the general" that had been annexed to the official report. "The remarks" stated that the general was now convinced that the initial reports of cowardice by Davis's men "had been misrepresented" and that their retreat had been "not only excusable, but absolutely justifiable." The remarks, popularly believed to be from Jackson in response to Adair's letter, were subsequently reprinted across Kentucky. The "general" referenced was in fact General John Thomas; Jackson had never seen them. Helm claimed he sent a subsequent correction to the newspaper that published the remarks, but it was never printed.Jackson did not discover the remarks until they were published again in January 1817 in response to a Boston newspaper's criticism of Kentucky militiamen. He wrote to the "Kentucky Reporter" at that time, denouncing the remarks as a forgery. The "Reporter" investigated and published an explanation of how Thomas's remarks had been attributed to Jackson. They did not reprint Jackson's letter because they felt his claim that the remarks had been intentionally forged —a charge which was now found to be false —was too inflammatory. The editors promised that if their retraction did not satisfy Jackson, they would fully publish any of his additional remarks on the subject. In Jackson's April 1817 response, he implied that Adair had intentionally misrepresented the remarks, and reasserted that they had been forged, possibly by Adair himself. Adair believed Jackson's references to the remarks as a "forged dish, dressed in the true Spanish style" was a thinly veiled reference to Adair's alleged participation in the Burr conspiracy. As ostensible proof that he was not predisposed against Kentuckians, Jackson also implied that he had not reported additional dishonorable behavior by Kentucky militiamen during the battle. This letter thrust the dispute into the national spotlight and prompted Adair to resume correspondence with him both to defend Davis's men and refute Jackson's charges of conspiracy. In his May 1817 response, he reasserted his defense of the Kentucky militiamen at New Orleans and dismissed many of Jackson's allegations as unimportant and untrue. He flatly denied the existence of a conspiracy, and chastised Jackson for making charges without supporting evidence. Responding to Jackson's allusion to Spain, Adair recalled that Jackson had also been implicated with Burr.Unable to provide tangible evidence of Adair's alleged misdeeds, Jackson provided indirect evidence that a conspiracy was possible. His response, delayed by his treaty negotiations with the Cherokee, was printed September 3, 1817, and used complicated calculations based on spacing and distance, to argue that Adair had only half the number of men he claimed to have commanded at the Battle of New Orleans. Further, he claimed that Adair had ordered Davis to New Orleans to obtain weapons knowing that the arms had already been taken by other brigades under Adair's command. Either Adair had given a foolish order, or he did not have as many men in his main force as he claimed. He closed by promising that this would be his last statement on the matter. Adair's October 29, 1817, response was delayed, he said, because he was awaiting documents from New Orleans that never came. In it, he quoted from a letter to Jackson's aide-de-camp —cited by Jackson himself in previous correspondence —showing that Jackson had been made aware of both the existence and the authorship of Thomas's remarks in 1815 but declined the opportunity to refute them. He also defended his account of the number of troops under his command, which he had consistently reported as being near 1,000, and asked why Jackson had not challenged it until now. Finally, he claimed that not only did he retrieve the weapons from New Orleans under Jackson's orders, but he rode Jackson's horse to New Orleans to effect the transaction. Tradition holds that this letter prompted either Adair or Jackson to challenge the other to a duel, but friends of both men averted the conflict after assembling to watch; no written evidence of the event exists. Tensions between the two eventually eased, and Adair came to comfort Jackson after his wife Rachel's death in 1828. Adair also campaigned for Jackson during his presidential campaigns in 1824, 1828, and 1832. Jackson's opponents compiled copies of his letters into campaign pamphlets to use against him in Kentucky during these elections.Adair's participation in the War of 1812 and subsequent correspondence with Jackson restored his reputation. He continued to serve as adjutant general until 1817, when the voters returned him to the state House of Representatives. He was nominated for Speaker of the House during that term, and, although he was not elected, he drew support from members of both parties, largely because of his correspondence with Jackson.In the aftermath of the Panic of 1819 —the first major financial crisis in United States history —the primary political issue of the day was debt relief. The federal government had created the Second Bank of the United States in 1817, and its strict credit policy hit Kentucky's large debtor class hard. Sitting governor Gabriel Slaughter had lobbied for some measures favored by the state's debtors, particularly punitive taxes against the branches of the Bank of the United States in Louisville and Lexington. The Second Party System had not yet developed, but there were nonetheless two opposing factions that arose around the debt relief issue. The first —primarily composed of land speculators who had bought large land parcels on credit and were unable to repay their debts due to the financial crisis —was dubbed the Relief Party (or "faction") and favored more legislation favorable to debtors. Opposed to them was the Anti-Relief Party; it was composed primarily of the state's aristocracy, many of whom were creditors to the land speculators and demanded that their contracts be adhered to without interference from the government. They claimed that no government intervention could effectively aid the debtors and that attempts to do so would only prolong the economic depression.Adair was the clear leader of the Relief faction, and his popularity had been enhanced thanks to his lengthy and public dispute with Jackson. In the 1820 gubernatorial election, he was elected as Kentucky's chief executive over three fellow Democratic-Republicans. Adair garnered 20,493 votes; U.S. Senator William Logan finished second with 19,497, fellow veteran Joseph Desha received 12,419, and Colonel Anthony Butler mustered only 9,567 votes. Proponents of debt relief measures also won majorities in both houses of the General Assembly.Kentucky historian Lowell H. Harrison opined that the most important measure implemented during Adair's administration was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth in 1820. The bank made generous loans and liberally issued paper money. Although bank notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth quickly fell well below par, creditors who refused to accept these devalued notes had to wait two years before seeking replevin. To inspire confidence in the devalued notes, Adair mandated that all officers of the state receive their salaries in notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth.The state's other bank, the Bank of Kentucky, adhered to more conservative banking practices. While this held the value of its notes closer to par, it also rendered loans less available, which angered relief-minded legislators; consequently, they revoked the bank's charter in December 1822. Adair oversaw the abolition of the practice of incarceration for debt, and sanctioned rigorous anti-gambling legislation. Legislators also exempted from forced sale the items then considered necessary for making a living —a horse, a plow, a hoe, and an ax.The Kentucky Court of Appeals, then the state's court of last resort, struck down the law ordering a two-year stay of replevin because it impaired the obligation of contracts. At about the same time, the U.S. Supreme Court issued its decision in the case of "Green v. Biddle", holding that land claims granted by Virginia in the District of Kentucky before Kentucky became a separate state took precedence over those later granted by the state of Kentucky if the two were in conflict. Adair denounced this decision in an 1823 message to the legislature, warning against federal and judicial interference in the will of the people, expressed through the legislature. Emboldened by Adair's message, Relief partisans sought to remove the three justices of the state Court of Appeals, as well as James Clark, a lower court judge who had issued a similar ruling, from the bench. The judges were spared when their opponents failed to obtain the two-thirds majority required for removal.Adair urged legislators to create a public school system. In response, the General Assembly passed an act creating a state "Literary Fund" which received half of the clear profits accrued by the Bank of the Commonwealth. The fund was to be available, proportionally, to each of the state's counties for the establishment of "a system of general education". In the tumultuous economic environment, however, legislators routinely voted to borrow from the Literary Fund to pay for other priorities, chiefly the construction of internal improvements.Adair's lieutenant governor, William T. Barry, and John Pope, Secretary of State under Adair's predecessor, headed a six-man committee authorized by the act to study the creation of a system of common schools. The "Barry Report," delivered to the legislature in December 1822, was lauded by statesmen including John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison. Authored by committee member Amos Kendall, it criticized the idea of land grant academies then prevalent in the state as unworkable outside affluent towns. It also concluded that the Literary Fund alone was insufficient for funding a system of common schools. The report recommended that funds only be made available to counties that imposed a county tax for the benefit of the public school system. Legislators largely ignored the report, a decision Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark called "one of the most egregious blunders in American educational history".Adair's endorsement of the Missouri Compromise was instrumental in securing its passage by Kentucky legislators. He advocated prison reform and better treatment of the insane. He also oversaw the enactment of a plan for internal improvements, including improved navigation on the Ohio River.Barred from seeking immediate re-election by the state constitution, Adair retired to his farm in Mercer County at the expiration of his term as governor. Shortly after returning to private life, he began to complain about the low value of Bank of the Commonwealth notes —then worth about half par —and petitioned the legislature to remedy the situation. The complaint of a former Relief Party governor over the ill effects of pro-relief legislation prompted wry celebration among members of the Anti-Relief faction.Adair made one final contribution to the public when he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Jackson Democrat in 1831. During the 22nd Congress, he served on the Committee on Military Affairs. During his term, he made only one speech, and it was so inaudible that no one knew what position he was advocating. The House reporter speculated that it concerned mounting Federal troops on horseback. He did not run for re-election in 1833, and left public life for good.He died at home in Harrodsburg on May 19, 1840, and was buried on the grounds of his estate, White Hall. In 1872, his remains were moved to the Frankfort Cemetery, by the state capitol, and the Commonwealth erected a marker over his grave there.In addition to Adair County in Kentucky, Adair County, Missouri, Adair County, Iowa, and the towns of Adairville, Kentucky, and Adair, Iowa, were named in his honor.
|
[
"Governor of Kentucky",
"United States representative"
] |
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Which position did John Adair hold in Feb 26, 1806?
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February 26, 1806
|
{
"text": [
"United States senator"
]
}
|
L2_Q11595_P39_0
|
John Adair holds the position of United States representative from Mar, 1831 to Mar, 1833.
John Adair holds the position of Governor of Kentucky from Aug, 1820 to Aug, 1824.
John Adair holds the position of United States senator from Nov, 1805 to Nov, 1806.
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John AdairJohn Adair (January 9, 1757 – May 19, 1840) was an American pioneer, soldier, and politician. He was the eighth Governor of Kentucky and represented the state in both the U.S. House and Senate. A native of South Carolina, Adair enlisted in the state militia and served in the Revolutionary War, during which he was twice captured and held as a prisoner of war by the British. Following the War, he was elected as a delegate to South Carolina's convention to ratify the United States Constitution.After moving to Kentucky in 1786, Adair participated in the Northwest Indian War, including a skirmish with the Miami Chief Little Turtle near Fort St. Clair in 1792. Popular for his service in two wars, he entered politics in 1792 as a delegate to Kentucky's constitutional convention. Adair was elected to a total of eight terms in the state House of Representatives between 1793 and 1803. He served as Speaker of the Kentucky House in 1802 and 1803, and was a delegate to the state's Second Constitutional Convention in 1799. He ascended to the United States Senate to fill the seat vacated when John Breckinridge resigned to become Attorney General of the United States in the Cabinet of Thomas Jefferson, but failed to win a full term in the subsequent election due to his implication in a treason conspiracy involving Vice President Aaron Burr. After a long legal battle, he was acquitted of any wrongdoing; and his accuser, General James Wilkinson, was ordered to issue an apology. The negative publicity kept him out of politics for more than a decade.Adair's participation in the War of 1812, and a subsequent protracted defense of Kentucky's soldiers against General Andrew Jackson's charges that they showed cowardice at the Battle of New Orleans, restored his reputation. He returned to the State House in 1817, and Isaac Shelby, his commanding officer in the War who was serving a second term as governor, appointed him adjutant general of the state militia. In 1820, Adair was elected eighth governor on a platform of financial relief for Kentuckians hit hard by the Panic of 1819, and the ensuing economic recession. His primary effort toward this end was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth, but many of his other financial reforms were deemed unconstitutional by the Kentucky Court of Appeals, touching off the Old Court–New Court controversy. Following his term as governor, Adair served one undistinguished term in the United States House of Representatives and did not run for re-election.John Adair was born January 9, 1757, in Chester County in the Province of South Carolina, a son of Scottish immigrants Baron William and Mary [Moore] Adair. He was educated at schools in Charlotte, North Carolina, and enlisted in the South Carolina colonial militia at the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. He was assigned to the regiment of his friend, Edward Lacey, under the command of Colonel Thomas Sumter and participated in the failed Colonial assault on a Loyalist outpost at the Battle of Rocky Mount and the subsequent Colonial victory at the Battle of Hanging Rock. During the British victory over the Colonists at the August 16, 1780, Battle of Camden, Adair was taken as a prisoner of war. He contracted smallpox and was treated harshly by his captors during his months-long imprisonment. Although he escaped at one point, Adair was unable to reach safety because of difficulties related to his smallpox infection and was recaptured by British Colonel Banastre Tarleton after just three days. Subsequently, he was released via a prisoner exchange. In 1781, he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the South Carolina militia, and fought in the drawn Battle of Eutaw Springs, the war's last major battle in the Carolinas. Edward Lacey was elected sheriff of Chester County after the war, and Adair replaced him in his former capacity as the county's justice of the peace. He was chosen as a delegate to the South Carolina convention to ratify the U.S. Constitution.In 1784, Adair married Katherine Palmer. They had twelve children, ten of them daughters. One married Thomas Bell Monroe, who later served as Adair's Secretary of State and was appointed to a federal judgeship. In 1786, the Adairs migrated westward to Kentucky, settling in Mercer County.Enlisting for service as a captain in the Northwest Indian War in 1791, Adair was soon promoted to major and assigned to the brigade of James Wilkinson. On November 6, 1792, a band of Miamis under the command of Little Turtle encountered Adair and about 100 men serving under him on a scouting mission near Fort St. Clair in Ohio. When the Miami attacked, Adair ordered Lieutenant (and later governor of Kentucky) George Madison to attack their right flank while Adair led 25 men to attack the left flank. (Adair had intended for a subordinate to lead the charge, but the officer was killed before Adair could give the order.) The maneuver forced the Miamis to fall back and allowed Adair's men to escape. They retreated to their camp and made a stand, forcing the Miamis to withdraw. Six of Adair's men were killed; another four were missing and five were wounded. Among the wounded were Madison and Richard Taylor, father of future U.S. President Zachary Taylor.Recognizing his bravery and fighting skill, Adair's superiors promoted him to lieutenant colonel. He was assigned to the command of Charles Scott, who would eventually serve as Kentucky's fourth governor. He assisted in the construction of Fort Greeneville in 1794, forwarding supplies to Anthony Wayne during his operations which ended in a decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.Popular for his military service, Adair was chosen as a delegate to the Kentucky constitutional convention in 1792. Upon the state's admission to the Union, he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives, serving from 1793 to 1795. He remained active in the Kentucky militia, and on February 25, 1797, he was promoted to brigadier general and given command of the 2nd Brigade of the Kentucky Militia. He was promoted to major general and given command of the 2nd Division of the Kentucky Militia on December 16, 1799.Adair returned to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1798. When Kentuckians voted to hold another constitutional convention in 1799 to correct weaknesses in their first constitution, Adair was chosen as a delegate. At the convention, he was the leader of a group of politically ambitious delegates who opposed most limits on the powers and terms of office of elected officials, particularly on legislators. He was elected to the Kentucky House again from 1800 to 1803. A candidate for a seat in the U.S. Senate in 1800, he was defeated in an overwhelming 68–13 vote of the legislature by John Breckinridge, who had been the acknowledged leader of the just-concluded constitutional convention. In 1802, Adair succeeded Breckinridge as Speaker of the House by a vote of 30–14 over Elder David Purviance, the candidate preferred by Governor James Garrard. He continued to serve as Speaker for the duration of his tenure in the House. In 1802, the legislature formed Adair County, Kentucky, naming it after the popular Speaker.In January 1804, Garrard nominated Adair to the position of registrar of the state land office. Adair's was the seventh name submitted by Garrard to the state Senate for the position; his approval by the Senate marked the end of a two-month imbroglio between Garrard and the legislature over the appointment. Later that year, he was a candidate for the U.S. Senate seat then occupied by John Brown. Although Henry Clay supported Brown's re-election, Adair had the support of Felix Grundy. Grundy accused Brown of involvement in a conspiracy to make Kentucky a province of the Spanish government, damaging his popularity. Adair won a plurality, but not a majority, of the votes cast in six consecutive ballots. Clay then threw his support to Buckner Thruston, a more palatable candidate who defeated Adair on the seventh ballot. Grundy's influence in the legislature continued to grow, and when John Breckinridge resigned to accept President Thomas Jefferson's appointment as U.S. Attorney General in August 1805, the Senate chose Adair to fill the vacancy.Former Vice-President Aaron Burr visited Kentucky in 1805, reaching Frankfort, Kentucky, on May 25 and lodging with former Senator John Brown. During the trip, he consulted with many prominent politicians, Adair among them, about the possibility of wresting Mexico from Spain. Most of those he spoke with believed he was acting on behalf of the federal government and intended to expand U.S. holdings in Mexico. Adair believed this too, having received letters from his former commander, James Wilkinson, which appeared to confirm it. In 1806, however, Burr was arrested in Frankfort on charges of treason. Officials claimed he in fact intended to create a new, independent nation in Spanish lands.Convinced of his innocence, Henry Clay represented Burr, while Joseph Hamilton Daveiss acted as prosecutor. Harry Innes presided over the trial, which commenced November 11. Daveiss had to ask for a postponement because Davis Floyd, one of his key witnesses, was then serving in the Indiana General Assembly and could not be present in court. The court next convened on December 2, and Daveiss again had to ask for a postponement, this time because Adair, another witness, was not present. Adair had traveled to Louisiana to inspect a tract of land he had recently purchased there. On his arrival in New Orleans, he was arrested on the order of his former commander, James Wilkinson, then serving as governor of the Louisiana Territory.Clay had insisted that the trial proceed in Adair's absence, and, the next day, Daveiss presented indictments against Burr for treason and against Adair as a co-conspirator. After hearing testimony, the grand jury rejected the indictment against Adair as "not a true bill" and similarly dismissed the charges against Burr two days later. After his vindication by the grand jury, Adair counter-sued Wilkinson in federal court. Although the legal battle between the two spanned several years, the court found that Wilkinson had no solid evidence against Adair and ordered Wilkinson to issue a public apology and pay Adair $2,500 in damages. Adair's acquittal and successful counter-suit came too late to prevent damage to his political career. Because of his association with Burr's scheme, he lost the election for a full term in the Senate in November 1806. Rather than wait for his partial term to expire, he resigned on November 18, 1806.Adair rejoined the Kentucky militia at the outset of the War of 1812. After Oliver Hazard Perry's victory in the September 10, 1813, Battle of Lake Erie, William Henry Harrison called on Kentucky Governor Isaac Shelby, a popular Revolutionary War hero, to recruit troops in Kentucky and join him in his invasion of Canada. Shelby asked Adair to serve as his first aide-de-camp. Future Kentucky governor and U.S. Senator John J. Crittenden was Shelby's second aide, and future U.S. Senator and Postmaster General William T. Barry was his secretary. Adair rendered commendable service in the campaign, most notably at the American victory in the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813. Shelby praised Adair's service and in 1814, made him adjutant general of Kentucky and brevetted him to the rank of brigadier general.In late 1814, Andrew Jackson requested reinforcements from Kentucky for his defense of the Gulf of Mexico. Adair quickly raised three regiments, but the federal government provided them no weapons and no means of transportation. James Taylor, Jr., then serving as quartermaster general of the state militia, took out a $6,000 mortgage on his personal land to purchase boats to transport Adair's men. The number of men with Adair was later disputed; sources variously give numbers between 700 and 1,500. Many did not have weapons, and the ones who did were primarily armed with their own civilian rifles. John Thomas, to whom Adair was an adjunct, fell ill just before the battle commenced, leaving Adair responsible for all the Kentuckians present at the battle.On January 7, 1815, Adair traveled to New Orleans and requested that the city's leaders lend him several stands of arms from the city armory to arm his militiamen. The officials agreed under the condition that the removal of the arms from the armory be kept secret from the citizenry. The weapons were placed in boxes and delivered to Adair's camp on the night of January 7. At Adair's suggestion, his men were placed in reserve and located centrally behind the Tennessee militiamen under William Carroll. From there, they could quickly move to reinforce whichever portion of the American line received the heaviest attack from the British.Apparently unaware of Adair's request, that evening, Jackson ordered 400 unarmed Kentucky militiamen under Colonel John Davis to march to New Orleans to obtain arms, then reinforce the 450 Louisiana militiamen under David B. Morgan on the west bank of the Mississippi River. When they arrived in New Orleans, they were told that the city's arms had already been shipped to Adair. The citizens collected what weapons they had —mostly old muskets in various states of disrepair —and gave them to Davis' men. About 200 men were thus armed and reported to Morgan as ordered, just hours before the start of the Battle of New Orleans. The remainder of Davis's men returned to the main camp, still without weapons.As the British approached on the morning of January 8, it became evident that they would try to break the American line through Carroll's Tennesseans, and Adair advanced his men to support them. The main American line held and repulsed the British attack; in total, only six Americans were killed and seven wounded. Meanwhile, Davis' Kentuckians on the west bank had, upon their arrival in Morgan's camp, been sent to meet the advance of a secondary British force. Outnumbered, poorly armed, and without the benefit of breastworks or artillery support, they were quickly outflanked and forced to retreat. Seeing the retreat of the Kentuckians, Morgan's militiamen abandoned their breastworks; Adair would later claim they had never even fired a shot. The British quickly abandoned the position they had just captured, but Jackson resented the setback in an otherwise spectacular victory.Jackson's official report blamed the Kentuckians' retreat for the collapse of the west bank defenses, and many Kentuckians felt it played down the importance of Adair's militiamen on the east bank in preserving the American line and securing the victory. Davis' men insisted the report was based on Jackson's misunderstanding of the facts and asked that Adair request a court of inquiry, which convened in February 1815 with Major General Carroll of Tennessee presiding. The court's report found that "[t]he retreat of the Kentucky militia, which, considering their position, the deficiency of their arms, and other causes, may be excusable," and that the formation of the troops on the west bank was "exceptional", noting that 500 Louisiana troops supported by three artillery pieces and protected by a strong breastwork were charged with defending a line that stretched only while Davis's 170 Kentuckians, poorly armed and protected only by a small ditch, were expected to defend a line over long. On February 10, 1816, the Kentucky General Assembly passed a resolution thanking Adair for his service at the Battle of New Orleans and for his defense of the soldiers accused by Jackson.Jackson approved the court's findings, but they were not the full refutation of Jackson's report that many Kentuckians —including Adair —had wanted. In a letter that was quickly made public, Adair —formerly one of Jackson's close friends —insisted that Jackson withdraw or modify his official report, but Jackson refused. This ended the matter until June 1815 when H. P. Helm, secretary to John Thomas, forwarded to a Frankfort newspaper remarks from "the general" that had been annexed to the official report. "The remarks" stated that the general was now convinced that the initial reports of cowardice by Davis's men "had been misrepresented" and that their retreat had been "not only excusable, but absolutely justifiable." The remarks, popularly believed to be from Jackson in response to Adair's letter, were subsequently reprinted across Kentucky. The "general" referenced was in fact General John Thomas; Jackson had never seen them. Helm claimed he sent a subsequent correction to the newspaper that published the remarks, but it was never printed.Jackson did not discover the remarks until they were published again in January 1817 in response to a Boston newspaper's criticism of Kentucky militiamen. He wrote to the "Kentucky Reporter" at that time, denouncing the remarks as a forgery. The "Reporter" investigated and published an explanation of how Thomas's remarks had been attributed to Jackson. They did not reprint Jackson's letter because they felt his claim that the remarks had been intentionally forged —a charge which was now found to be false —was too inflammatory. The editors promised that if their retraction did not satisfy Jackson, they would fully publish any of his additional remarks on the subject. In Jackson's April 1817 response, he implied that Adair had intentionally misrepresented the remarks, and reasserted that they had been forged, possibly by Adair himself. Adair believed Jackson's references to the remarks as a "forged dish, dressed in the true Spanish style" was a thinly veiled reference to Adair's alleged participation in the Burr conspiracy. As ostensible proof that he was not predisposed against Kentuckians, Jackson also implied that he had not reported additional dishonorable behavior by Kentucky militiamen during the battle. This letter thrust the dispute into the national spotlight and prompted Adair to resume correspondence with him both to defend Davis's men and refute Jackson's charges of conspiracy. In his May 1817 response, he reasserted his defense of the Kentucky militiamen at New Orleans and dismissed many of Jackson's allegations as unimportant and untrue. He flatly denied the existence of a conspiracy, and chastised Jackson for making charges without supporting evidence. Responding to Jackson's allusion to Spain, Adair recalled that Jackson had also been implicated with Burr.Unable to provide tangible evidence of Adair's alleged misdeeds, Jackson provided indirect evidence that a conspiracy was possible. His response, delayed by his treaty negotiations with the Cherokee, was printed September 3, 1817, and used complicated calculations based on spacing and distance, to argue that Adair had only half the number of men he claimed to have commanded at the Battle of New Orleans. Further, he claimed that Adair had ordered Davis to New Orleans to obtain weapons knowing that the arms had already been taken by other brigades under Adair's command. Either Adair had given a foolish order, or he did not have as many men in his main force as he claimed. He closed by promising that this would be his last statement on the matter. Adair's October 29, 1817, response was delayed, he said, because he was awaiting documents from New Orleans that never came. In it, he quoted from a letter to Jackson's aide-de-camp —cited by Jackson himself in previous correspondence —showing that Jackson had been made aware of both the existence and the authorship of Thomas's remarks in 1815 but declined the opportunity to refute them. He also defended his account of the number of troops under his command, which he had consistently reported as being near 1,000, and asked why Jackson had not challenged it until now. Finally, he claimed that not only did he retrieve the weapons from New Orleans under Jackson's orders, but he rode Jackson's horse to New Orleans to effect the transaction. Tradition holds that this letter prompted either Adair or Jackson to challenge the other to a duel, but friends of both men averted the conflict after assembling to watch; no written evidence of the event exists. Tensions between the two eventually eased, and Adair came to comfort Jackson after his wife Rachel's death in 1828. Adair also campaigned for Jackson during his presidential campaigns in 1824, 1828, and 1832. Jackson's opponents compiled copies of his letters into campaign pamphlets to use against him in Kentucky during these elections.Adair's participation in the War of 1812 and subsequent correspondence with Jackson restored his reputation. He continued to serve as adjutant general until 1817, when the voters returned him to the state House of Representatives. He was nominated for Speaker of the House during that term, and, although he was not elected, he drew support from members of both parties, largely because of his correspondence with Jackson.In the aftermath of the Panic of 1819 —the first major financial crisis in United States history —the primary political issue of the day was debt relief. The federal government had created the Second Bank of the United States in 1817, and its strict credit policy hit Kentucky's large debtor class hard. Sitting governor Gabriel Slaughter had lobbied for some measures favored by the state's debtors, particularly punitive taxes against the branches of the Bank of the United States in Louisville and Lexington. The Second Party System had not yet developed, but there were nonetheless two opposing factions that arose around the debt relief issue. The first —primarily composed of land speculators who had bought large land parcels on credit and were unable to repay their debts due to the financial crisis —was dubbed the Relief Party (or "faction") and favored more legislation favorable to debtors. Opposed to them was the Anti-Relief Party; it was composed primarily of the state's aristocracy, many of whom were creditors to the land speculators and demanded that their contracts be adhered to without interference from the government. They claimed that no government intervention could effectively aid the debtors and that attempts to do so would only prolong the economic depression.Adair was the clear leader of the Relief faction, and his popularity had been enhanced thanks to his lengthy and public dispute with Jackson. In the 1820 gubernatorial election, he was elected as Kentucky's chief executive over three fellow Democratic-Republicans. Adair garnered 20,493 votes; U.S. Senator William Logan finished second with 19,497, fellow veteran Joseph Desha received 12,419, and Colonel Anthony Butler mustered only 9,567 votes. Proponents of debt relief measures also won majorities in both houses of the General Assembly.Kentucky historian Lowell H. Harrison opined that the most important measure implemented during Adair's administration was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth in 1820. The bank made generous loans and liberally issued paper money. Although bank notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth quickly fell well below par, creditors who refused to accept these devalued notes had to wait two years before seeking replevin. To inspire confidence in the devalued notes, Adair mandated that all officers of the state receive their salaries in notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth.The state's other bank, the Bank of Kentucky, adhered to more conservative banking practices. While this held the value of its notes closer to par, it also rendered loans less available, which angered relief-minded legislators; consequently, they revoked the bank's charter in December 1822. Adair oversaw the abolition of the practice of incarceration for debt, and sanctioned rigorous anti-gambling legislation. Legislators also exempted from forced sale the items then considered necessary for making a living —a horse, a plow, a hoe, and an ax.The Kentucky Court of Appeals, then the state's court of last resort, struck down the law ordering a two-year stay of replevin because it impaired the obligation of contracts. At about the same time, the U.S. Supreme Court issued its decision in the case of "Green v. Biddle", holding that land claims granted by Virginia in the District of Kentucky before Kentucky became a separate state took precedence over those later granted by the state of Kentucky if the two were in conflict. Adair denounced this decision in an 1823 message to the legislature, warning against federal and judicial interference in the will of the people, expressed through the legislature. Emboldened by Adair's message, Relief partisans sought to remove the three justices of the state Court of Appeals, as well as James Clark, a lower court judge who had issued a similar ruling, from the bench. The judges were spared when their opponents failed to obtain the two-thirds majority required for removal.Adair urged legislators to create a public school system. In response, the General Assembly passed an act creating a state "Literary Fund" which received half of the clear profits accrued by the Bank of the Commonwealth. The fund was to be available, proportionally, to each of the state's counties for the establishment of "a system of general education". In the tumultuous economic environment, however, legislators routinely voted to borrow from the Literary Fund to pay for other priorities, chiefly the construction of internal improvements.Adair's lieutenant governor, William T. Barry, and John Pope, Secretary of State under Adair's predecessor, headed a six-man committee authorized by the act to study the creation of a system of common schools. The "Barry Report," delivered to the legislature in December 1822, was lauded by statesmen including John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison. Authored by committee member Amos Kendall, it criticized the idea of land grant academies then prevalent in the state as unworkable outside affluent towns. It also concluded that the Literary Fund alone was insufficient for funding a system of common schools. The report recommended that funds only be made available to counties that imposed a county tax for the benefit of the public school system. Legislators largely ignored the report, a decision Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark called "one of the most egregious blunders in American educational history".Adair's endorsement of the Missouri Compromise was instrumental in securing its passage by Kentucky legislators. He advocated prison reform and better treatment of the insane. He also oversaw the enactment of a plan for internal improvements, including improved navigation on the Ohio River.Barred from seeking immediate re-election by the state constitution, Adair retired to his farm in Mercer County at the expiration of his term as governor. Shortly after returning to private life, he began to complain about the low value of Bank of the Commonwealth notes —then worth about half par —and petitioned the legislature to remedy the situation. The complaint of a former Relief Party governor over the ill effects of pro-relief legislation prompted wry celebration among members of the Anti-Relief faction.Adair made one final contribution to the public when he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Jackson Democrat in 1831. During the 22nd Congress, he served on the Committee on Military Affairs. During his term, he made only one speech, and it was so inaudible that no one knew what position he was advocating. The House reporter speculated that it concerned mounting Federal troops on horseback. He did not run for re-election in 1833, and left public life for good.He died at home in Harrodsburg on May 19, 1840, and was buried on the grounds of his estate, White Hall. In 1872, his remains were moved to the Frankfort Cemetery, by the state capitol, and the Commonwealth erected a marker over his grave there.In addition to Adair County in Kentucky, Adair County, Missouri, Adair County, Iowa, and the towns of Adairville, Kentucky, and Adair, Iowa, were named in his honor.
|
[
"Governor of Kentucky",
"United States representative"
] |
|
Which position did John Adair hold in 02/26/1806?
|
February 26, 1806
|
{
"text": [
"United States senator"
]
}
|
L2_Q11595_P39_0
|
John Adair holds the position of United States representative from Mar, 1831 to Mar, 1833.
John Adair holds the position of Governor of Kentucky from Aug, 1820 to Aug, 1824.
John Adair holds the position of United States senator from Nov, 1805 to Nov, 1806.
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John AdairJohn Adair (January 9, 1757 – May 19, 1840) was an American pioneer, soldier, and politician. He was the eighth Governor of Kentucky and represented the state in both the U.S. House and Senate. A native of South Carolina, Adair enlisted in the state militia and served in the Revolutionary War, during which he was twice captured and held as a prisoner of war by the British. Following the War, he was elected as a delegate to South Carolina's convention to ratify the United States Constitution.After moving to Kentucky in 1786, Adair participated in the Northwest Indian War, including a skirmish with the Miami Chief Little Turtle near Fort St. Clair in 1792. Popular for his service in two wars, he entered politics in 1792 as a delegate to Kentucky's constitutional convention. Adair was elected to a total of eight terms in the state House of Representatives between 1793 and 1803. He served as Speaker of the Kentucky House in 1802 and 1803, and was a delegate to the state's Second Constitutional Convention in 1799. He ascended to the United States Senate to fill the seat vacated when John Breckinridge resigned to become Attorney General of the United States in the Cabinet of Thomas Jefferson, but failed to win a full term in the subsequent election due to his implication in a treason conspiracy involving Vice President Aaron Burr. After a long legal battle, he was acquitted of any wrongdoing; and his accuser, General James Wilkinson, was ordered to issue an apology. The negative publicity kept him out of politics for more than a decade.Adair's participation in the War of 1812, and a subsequent protracted defense of Kentucky's soldiers against General Andrew Jackson's charges that they showed cowardice at the Battle of New Orleans, restored his reputation. He returned to the State House in 1817, and Isaac Shelby, his commanding officer in the War who was serving a second term as governor, appointed him adjutant general of the state militia. In 1820, Adair was elected eighth governor on a platform of financial relief for Kentuckians hit hard by the Panic of 1819, and the ensuing economic recession. His primary effort toward this end was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth, but many of his other financial reforms were deemed unconstitutional by the Kentucky Court of Appeals, touching off the Old Court–New Court controversy. Following his term as governor, Adair served one undistinguished term in the United States House of Representatives and did not run for re-election.John Adair was born January 9, 1757, in Chester County in the Province of South Carolina, a son of Scottish immigrants Baron William and Mary [Moore] Adair. He was educated at schools in Charlotte, North Carolina, and enlisted in the South Carolina colonial militia at the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. He was assigned to the regiment of his friend, Edward Lacey, under the command of Colonel Thomas Sumter and participated in the failed Colonial assault on a Loyalist outpost at the Battle of Rocky Mount and the subsequent Colonial victory at the Battle of Hanging Rock. During the British victory over the Colonists at the August 16, 1780, Battle of Camden, Adair was taken as a prisoner of war. He contracted smallpox and was treated harshly by his captors during his months-long imprisonment. Although he escaped at one point, Adair was unable to reach safety because of difficulties related to his smallpox infection and was recaptured by British Colonel Banastre Tarleton after just three days. Subsequently, he was released via a prisoner exchange. In 1781, he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the South Carolina militia, and fought in the drawn Battle of Eutaw Springs, the war's last major battle in the Carolinas. Edward Lacey was elected sheriff of Chester County after the war, and Adair replaced him in his former capacity as the county's justice of the peace. He was chosen as a delegate to the South Carolina convention to ratify the U.S. Constitution.In 1784, Adair married Katherine Palmer. They had twelve children, ten of them daughters. One married Thomas Bell Monroe, who later served as Adair's Secretary of State and was appointed to a federal judgeship. In 1786, the Adairs migrated westward to Kentucky, settling in Mercer County.Enlisting for service as a captain in the Northwest Indian War in 1791, Adair was soon promoted to major and assigned to the brigade of James Wilkinson. On November 6, 1792, a band of Miamis under the command of Little Turtle encountered Adair and about 100 men serving under him on a scouting mission near Fort St. Clair in Ohio. When the Miami attacked, Adair ordered Lieutenant (and later governor of Kentucky) George Madison to attack their right flank while Adair led 25 men to attack the left flank. (Adair had intended for a subordinate to lead the charge, but the officer was killed before Adair could give the order.) The maneuver forced the Miamis to fall back and allowed Adair's men to escape. They retreated to their camp and made a stand, forcing the Miamis to withdraw. Six of Adair's men were killed; another four were missing and five were wounded. Among the wounded were Madison and Richard Taylor, father of future U.S. President Zachary Taylor.Recognizing his bravery and fighting skill, Adair's superiors promoted him to lieutenant colonel. He was assigned to the command of Charles Scott, who would eventually serve as Kentucky's fourth governor. He assisted in the construction of Fort Greeneville in 1794, forwarding supplies to Anthony Wayne during his operations which ended in a decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.Popular for his military service, Adair was chosen as a delegate to the Kentucky constitutional convention in 1792. Upon the state's admission to the Union, he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives, serving from 1793 to 1795. He remained active in the Kentucky militia, and on February 25, 1797, he was promoted to brigadier general and given command of the 2nd Brigade of the Kentucky Militia. He was promoted to major general and given command of the 2nd Division of the Kentucky Militia on December 16, 1799.Adair returned to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1798. When Kentuckians voted to hold another constitutional convention in 1799 to correct weaknesses in their first constitution, Adair was chosen as a delegate. At the convention, he was the leader of a group of politically ambitious delegates who opposed most limits on the powers and terms of office of elected officials, particularly on legislators. He was elected to the Kentucky House again from 1800 to 1803. A candidate for a seat in the U.S. Senate in 1800, he was defeated in an overwhelming 68–13 vote of the legislature by John Breckinridge, who had been the acknowledged leader of the just-concluded constitutional convention. In 1802, Adair succeeded Breckinridge as Speaker of the House by a vote of 30–14 over Elder David Purviance, the candidate preferred by Governor James Garrard. He continued to serve as Speaker for the duration of his tenure in the House. In 1802, the legislature formed Adair County, Kentucky, naming it after the popular Speaker.In January 1804, Garrard nominated Adair to the position of registrar of the state land office. Adair's was the seventh name submitted by Garrard to the state Senate for the position; his approval by the Senate marked the end of a two-month imbroglio between Garrard and the legislature over the appointment. Later that year, he was a candidate for the U.S. Senate seat then occupied by John Brown. Although Henry Clay supported Brown's re-election, Adair had the support of Felix Grundy. Grundy accused Brown of involvement in a conspiracy to make Kentucky a province of the Spanish government, damaging his popularity. Adair won a plurality, but not a majority, of the votes cast in six consecutive ballots. Clay then threw his support to Buckner Thruston, a more palatable candidate who defeated Adair on the seventh ballot. Grundy's influence in the legislature continued to grow, and when John Breckinridge resigned to accept President Thomas Jefferson's appointment as U.S. Attorney General in August 1805, the Senate chose Adair to fill the vacancy.Former Vice-President Aaron Burr visited Kentucky in 1805, reaching Frankfort, Kentucky, on May 25 and lodging with former Senator John Brown. During the trip, he consulted with many prominent politicians, Adair among them, about the possibility of wresting Mexico from Spain. Most of those he spoke with believed he was acting on behalf of the federal government and intended to expand U.S. holdings in Mexico. Adair believed this too, having received letters from his former commander, James Wilkinson, which appeared to confirm it. In 1806, however, Burr was arrested in Frankfort on charges of treason. Officials claimed he in fact intended to create a new, independent nation in Spanish lands.Convinced of his innocence, Henry Clay represented Burr, while Joseph Hamilton Daveiss acted as prosecutor. Harry Innes presided over the trial, which commenced November 11. Daveiss had to ask for a postponement because Davis Floyd, one of his key witnesses, was then serving in the Indiana General Assembly and could not be present in court. The court next convened on December 2, and Daveiss again had to ask for a postponement, this time because Adair, another witness, was not present. Adair had traveled to Louisiana to inspect a tract of land he had recently purchased there. On his arrival in New Orleans, he was arrested on the order of his former commander, James Wilkinson, then serving as governor of the Louisiana Territory.Clay had insisted that the trial proceed in Adair's absence, and, the next day, Daveiss presented indictments against Burr for treason and against Adair as a co-conspirator. After hearing testimony, the grand jury rejected the indictment against Adair as "not a true bill" and similarly dismissed the charges against Burr two days later. After his vindication by the grand jury, Adair counter-sued Wilkinson in federal court. Although the legal battle between the two spanned several years, the court found that Wilkinson had no solid evidence against Adair and ordered Wilkinson to issue a public apology and pay Adair $2,500 in damages. Adair's acquittal and successful counter-suit came too late to prevent damage to his political career. Because of his association with Burr's scheme, he lost the election for a full term in the Senate in November 1806. Rather than wait for his partial term to expire, he resigned on November 18, 1806.Adair rejoined the Kentucky militia at the outset of the War of 1812. After Oliver Hazard Perry's victory in the September 10, 1813, Battle of Lake Erie, William Henry Harrison called on Kentucky Governor Isaac Shelby, a popular Revolutionary War hero, to recruit troops in Kentucky and join him in his invasion of Canada. Shelby asked Adair to serve as his first aide-de-camp. Future Kentucky governor and U.S. Senator John J. Crittenden was Shelby's second aide, and future U.S. Senator and Postmaster General William T. Barry was his secretary. Adair rendered commendable service in the campaign, most notably at the American victory in the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813. Shelby praised Adair's service and in 1814, made him adjutant general of Kentucky and brevetted him to the rank of brigadier general.In late 1814, Andrew Jackson requested reinforcements from Kentucky for his defense of the Gulf of Mexico. Adair quickly raised three regiments, but the federal government provided them no weapons and no means of transportation. James Taylor, Jr., then serving as quartermaster general of the state militia, took out a $6,000 mortgage on his personal land to purchase boats to transport Adair's men. The number of men with Adair was later disputed; sources variously give numbers between 700 and 1,500. Many did not have weapons, and the ones who did were primarily armed with their own civilian rifles. John Thomas, to whom Adair was an adjunct, fell ill just before the battle commenced, leaving Adair responsible for all the Kentuckians present at the battle.On January 7, 1815, Adair traveled to New Orleans and requested that the city's leaders lend him several stands of arms from the city armory to arm his militiamen. The officials agreed under the condition that the removal of the arms from the armory be kept secret from the citizenry. The weapons were placed in boxes and delivered to Adair's camp on the night of January 7. At Adair's suggestion, his men were placed in reserve and located centrally behind the Tennessee militiamen under William Carroll. From there, they could quickly move to reinforce whichever portion of the American line received the heaviest attack from the British.Apparently unaware of Adair's request, that evening, Jackson ordered 400 unarmed Kentucky militiamen under Colonel John Davis to march to New Orleans to obtain arms, then reinforce the 450 Louisiana militiamen under David B. Morgan on the west bank of the Mississippi River. When they arrived in New Orleans, they were told that the city's arms had already been shipped to Adair. The citizens collected what weapons they had —mostly old muskets in various states of disrepair —and gave them to Davis' men. About 200 men were thus armed and reported to Morgan as ordered, just hours before the start of the Battle of New Orleans. The remainder of Davis's men returned to the main camp, still without weapons.As the British approached on the morning of January 8, it became evident that they would try to break the American line through Carroll's Tennesseans, and Adair advanced his men to support them. The main American line held and repulsed the British attack; in total, only six Americans were killed and seven wounded. Meanwhile, Davis' Kentuckians on the west bank had, upon their arrival in Morgan's camp, been sent to meet the advance of a secondary British force. Outnumbered, poorly armed, and without the benefit of breastworks or artillery support, they were quickly outflanked and forced to retreat. Seeing the retreat of the Kentuckians, Morgan's militiamen abandoned their breastworks; Adair would later claim they had never even fired a shot. The British quickly abandoned the position they had just captured, but Jackson resented the setback in an otherwise spectacular victory.Jackson's official report blamed the Kentuckians' retreat for the collapse of the west bank defenses, and many Kentuckians felt it played down the importance of Adair's militiamen on the east bank in preserving the American line and securing the victory. Davis' men insisted the report was based on Jackson's misunderstanding of the facts and asked that Adair request a court of inquiry, which convened in February 1815 with Major General Carroll of Tennessee presiding. The court's report found that "[t]he retreat of the Kentucky militia, which, considering their position, the deficiency of their arms, and other causes, may be excusable," and that the formation of the troops on the west bank was "exceptional", noting that 500 Louisiana troops supported by three artillery pieces and protected by a strong breastwork were charged with defending a line that stretched only while Davis's 170 Kentuckians, poorly armed and protected only by a small ditch, were expected to defend a line over long. On February 10, 1816, the Kentucky General Assembly passed a resolution thanking Adair for his service at the Battle of New Orleans and for his defense of the soldiers accused by Jackson.Jackson approved the court's findings, but they were not the full refutation of Jackson's report that many Kentuckians —including Adair —had wanted. In a letter that was quickly made public, Adair —formerly one of Jackson's close friends —insisted that Jackson withdraw or modify his official report, but Jackson refused. This ended the matter until June 1815 when H. P. Helm, secretary to John Thomas, forwarded to a Frankfort newspaper remarks from "the general" that had been annexed to the official report. "The remarks" stated that the general was now convinced that the initial reports of cowardice by Davis's men "had been misrepresented" and that their retreat had been "not only excusable, but absolutely justifiable." The remarks, popularly believed to be from Jackson in response to Adair's letter, were subsequently reprinted across Kentucky. The "general" referenced was in fact General John Thomas; Jackson had never seen them. Helm claimed he sent a subsequent correction to the newspaper that published the remarks, but it was never printed.Jackson did not discover the remarks until they were published again in January 1817 in response to a Boston newspaper's criticism of Kentucky militiamen. He wrote to the "Kentucky Reporter" at that time, denouncing the remarks as a forgery. The "Reporter" investigated and published an explanation of how Thomas's remarks had been attributed to Jackson. They did not reprint Jackson's letter because they felt his claim that the remarks had been intentionally forged —a charge which was now found to be false —was too inflammatory. The editors promised that if their retraction did not satisfy Jackson, they would fully publish any of his additional remarks on the subject. In Jackson's April 1817 response, he implied that Adair had intentionally misrepresented the remarks, and reasserted that they had been forged, possibly by Adair himself. Adair believed Jackson's references to the remarks as a "forged dish, dressed in the true Spanish style" was a thinly veiled reference to Adair's alleged participation in the Burr conspiracy. As ostensible proof that he was not predisposed against Kentuckians, Jackson also implied that he had not reported additional dishonorable behavior by Kentucky militiamen during the battle. This letter thrust the dispute into the national spotlight and prompted Adair to resume correspondence with him both to defend Davis's men and refute Jackson's charges of conspiracy. In his May 1817 response, he reasserted his defense of the Kentucky militiamen at New Orleans and dismissed many of Jackson's allegations as unimportant and untrue. He flatly denied the existence of a conspiracy, and chastised Jackson for making charges without supporting evidence. Responding to Jackson's allusion to Spain, Adair recalled that Jackson had also been implicated with Burr.Unable to provide tangible evidence of Adair's alleged misdeeds, Jackson provided indirect evidence that a conspiracy was possible. His response, delayed by his treaty negotiations with the Cherokee, was printed September 3, 1817, and used complicated calculations based on spacing and distance, to argue that Adair had only half the number of men he claimed to have commanded at the Battle of New Orleans. Further, he claimed that Adair had ordered Davis to New Orleans to obtain weapons knowing that the arms had already been taken by other brigades under Adair's command. Either Adair had given a foolish order, or he did not have as many men in his main force as he claimed. He closed by promising that this would be his last statement on the matter. Adair's October 29, 1817, response was delayed, he said, because he was awaiting documents from New Orleans that never came. In it, he quoted from a letter to Jackson's aide-de-camp —cited by Jackson himself in previous correspondence —showing that Jackson had been made aware of both the existence and the authorship of Thomas's remarks in 1815 but declined the opportunity to refute them. He also defended his account of the number of troops under his command, which he had consistently reported as being near 1,000, and asked why Jackson had not challenged it until now. Finally, he claimed that not only did he retrieve the weapons from New Orleans under Jackson's orders, but he rode Jackson's horse to New Orleans to effect the transaction. Tradition holds that this letter prompted either Adair or Jackson to challenge the other to a duel, but friends of both men averted the conflict after assembling to watch; no written evidence of the event exists. Tensions between the two eventually eased, and Adair came to comfort Jackson after his wife Rachel's death in 1828. Adair also campaigned for Jackson during his presidential campaigns in 1824, 1828, and 1832. Jackson's opponents compiled copies of his letters into campaign pamphlets to use against him in Kentucky during these elections.Adair's participation in the War of 1812 and subsequent correspondence with Jackson restored his reputation. He continued to serve as adjutant general until 1817, when the voters returned him to the state House of Representatives. He was nominated for Speaker of the House during that term, and, although he was not elected, he drew support from members of both parties, largely because of his correspondence with Jackson.In the aftermath of the Panic of 1819 —the first major financial crisis in United States history —the primary political issue of the day was debt relief. The federal government had created the Second Bank of the United States in 1817, and its strict credit policy hit Kentucky's large debtor class hard. Sitting governor Gabriel Slaughter had lobbied for some measures favored by the state's debtors, particularly punitive taxes against the branches of the Bank of the United States in Louisville and Lexington. The Second Party System had not yet developed, but there were nonetheless two opposing factions that arose around the debt relief issue. The first —primarily composed of land speculators who had bought large land parcels on credit and were unable to repay their debts due to the financial crisis —was dubbed the Relief Party (or "faction") and favored more legislation favorable to debtors. Opposed to them was the Anti-Relief Party; it was composed primarily of the state's aristocracy, many of whom were creditors to the land speculators and demanded that their contracts be adhered to without interference from the government. They claimed that no government intervention could effectively aid the debtors and that attempts to do so would only prolong the economic depression.Adair was the clear leader of the Relief faction, and his popularity had been enhanced thanks to his lengthy and public dispute with Jackson. In the 1820 gubernatorial election, he was elected as Kentucky's chief executive over three fellow Democratic-Republicans. Adair garnered 20,493 votes; U.S. Senator William Logan finished second with 19,497, fellow veteran Joseph Desha received 12,419, and Colonel Anthony Butler mustered only 9,567 votes. Proponents of debt relief measures also won majorities in both houses of the General Assembly.Kentucky historian Lowell H. Harrison opined that the most important measure implemented during Adair's administration was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth in 1820. The bank made generous loans and liberally issued paper money. Although bank notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth quickly fell well below par, creditors who refused to accept these devalued notes had to wait two years before seeking replevin. To inspire confidence in the devalued notes, Adair mandated that all officers of the state receive their salaries in notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth.The state's other bank, the Bank of Kentucky, adhered to more conservative banking practices. While this held the value of its notes closer to par, it also rendered loans less available, which angered relief-minded legislators; consequently, they revoked the bank's charter in December 1822. Adair oversaw the abolition of the practice of incarceration for debt, and sanctioned rigorous anti-gambling legislation. Legislators also exempted from forced sale the items then considered necessary for making a living —a horse, a plow, a hoe, and an ax.The Kentucky Court of Appeals, then the state's court of last resort, struck down the law ordering a two-year stay of replevin because it impaired the obligation of contracts. At about the same time, the U.S. Supreme Court issued its decision in the case of "Green v. Biddle", holding that land claims granted by Virginia in the District of Kentucky before Kentucky became a separate state took precedence over those later granted by the state of Kentucky if the two were in conflict. Adair denounced this decision in an 1823 message to the legislature, warning against federal and judicial interference in the will of the people, expressed through the legislature. Emboldened by Adair's message, Relief partisans sought to remove the three justices of the state Court of Appeals, as well as James Clark, a lower court judge who had issued a similar ruling, from the bench. The judges were spared when their opponents failed to obtain the two-thirds majority required for removal.Adair urged legislators to create a public school system. In response, the General Assembly passed an act creating a state "Literary Fund" which received half of the clear profits accrued by the Bank of the Commonwealth. The fund was to be available, proportionally, to each of the state's counties for the establishment of "a system of general education". In the tumultuous economic environment, however, legislators routinely voted to borrow from the Literary Fund to pay for other priorities, chiefly the construction of internal improvements.Adair's lieutenant governor, William T. Barry, and John Pope, Secretary of State under Adair's predecessor, headed a six-man committee authorized by the act to study the creation of a system of common schools. The "Barry Report," delivered to the legislature in December 1822, was lauded by statesmen including John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison. Authored by committee member Amos Kendall, it criticized the idea of land grant academies then prevalent in the state as unworkable outside affluent towns. It also concluded that the Literary Fund alone was insufficient for funding a system of common schools. The report recommended that funds only be made available to counties that imposed a county tax for the benefit of the public school system. Legislators largely ignored the report, a decision Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark called "one of the most egregious blunders in American educational history".Adair's endorsement of the Missouri Compromise was instrumental in securing its passage by Kentucky legislators. He advocated prison reform and better treatment of the insane. He also oversaw the enactment of a plan for internal improvements, including improved navigation on the Ohio River.Barred from seeking immediate re-election by the state constitution, Adair retired to his farm in Mercer County at the expiration of his term as governor. Shortly after returning to private life, he began to complain about the low value of Bank of the Commonwealth notes —then worth about half par —and petitioned the legislature to remedy the situation. The complaint of a former Relief Party governor over the ill effects of pro-relief legislation prompted wry celebration among members of the Anti-Relief faction.Adair made one final contribution to the public when he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Jackson Democrat in 1831. During the 22nd Congress, he served on the Committee on Military Affairs. During his term, he made only one speech, and it was so inaudible that no one knew what position he was advocating. The House reporter speculated that it concerned mounting Federal troops on horseback. He did not run for re-election in 1833, and left public life for good.He died at home in Harrodsburg on May 19, 1840, and was buried on the grounds of his estate, White Hall. In 1872, his remains were moved to the Frankfort Cemetery, by the state capitol, and the Commonwealth erected a marker over his grave there.In addition to Adair County in Kentucky, Adair County, Missouri, Adair County, Iowa, and the towns of Adairville, Kentucky, and Adair, Iowa, were named in his honor.
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[
"Governor of Kentucky",
"United States representative"
] |
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Which position did John Adair hold in 26-Feb-180626-February-1806?
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February 26, 1806
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{
"text": [
"United States senator"
]
}
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L2_Q11595_P39_0
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John Adair holds the position of United States representative from Mar, 1831 to Mar, 1833.
John Adair holds the position of Governor of Kentucky from Aug, 1820 to Aug, 1824.
John Adair holds the position of United States senator from Nov, 1805 to Nov, 1806.
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John AdairJohn Adair (January 9, 1757 – May 19, 1840) was an American pioneer, soldier, and politician. He was the eighth Governor of Kentucky and represented the state in both the U.S. House and Senate. A native of South Carolina, Adair enlisted in the state militia and served in the Revolutionary War, during which he was twice captured and held as a prisoner of war by the British. Following the War, he was elected as a delegate to South Carolina's convention to ratify the United States Constitution.After moving to Kentucky in 1786, Adair participated in the Northwest Indian War, including a skirmish with the Miami Chief Little Turtle near Fort St. Clair in 1792. Popular for his service in two wars, he entered politics in 1792 as a delegate to Kentucky's constitutional convention. Adair was elected to a total of eight terms in the state House of Representatives between 1793 and 1803. He served as Speaker of the Kentucky House in 1802 and 1803, and was a delegate to the state's Second Constitutional Convention in 1799. He ascended to the United States Senate to fill the seat vacated when John Breckinridge resigned to become Attorney General of the United States in the Cabinet of Thomas Jefferson, but failed to win a full term in the subsequent election due to his implication in a treason conspiracy involving Vice President Aaron Burr. After a long legal battle, he was acquitted of any wrongdoing; and his accuser, General James Wilkinson, was ordered to issue an apology. The negative publicity kept him out of politics for more than a decade.Adair's participation in the War of 1812, and a subsequent protracted defense of Kentucky's soldiers against General Andrew Jackson's charges that they showed cowardice at the Battle of New Orleans, restored his reputation. He returned to the State House in 1817, and Isaac Shelby, his commanding officer in the War who was serving a second term as governor, appointed him adjutant general of the state militia. In 1820, Adair was elected eighth governor on a platform of financial relief for Kentuckians hit hard by the Panic of 1819, and the ensuing economic recession. His primary effort toward this end was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth, but many of his other financial reforms were deemed unconstitutional by the Kentucky Court of Appeals, touching off the Old Court–New Court controversy. Following his term as governor, Adair served one undistinguished term in the United States House of Representatives and did not run for re-election.John Adair was born January 9, 1757, in Chester County in the Province of South Carolina, a son of Scottish immigrants Baron William and Mary [Moore] Adair. He was educated at schools in Charlotte, North Carolina, and enlisted in the South Carolina colonial militia at the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. He was assigned to the regiment of his friend, Edward Lacey, under the command of Colonel Thomas Sumter and participated in the failed Colonial assault on a Loyalist outpost at the Battle of Rocky Mount and the subsequent Colonial victory at the Battle of Hanging Rock. During the British victory over the Colonists at the August 16, 1780, Battle of Camden, Adair was taken as a prisoner of war. He contracted smallpox and was treated harshly by his captors during his months-long imprisonment. Although he escaped at one point, Adair was unable to reach safety because of difficulties related to his smallpox infection and was recaptured by British Colonel Banastre Tarleton after just three days. Subsequently, he was released via a prisoner exchange. In 1781, he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the South Carolina militia, and fought in the drawn Battle of Eutaw Springs, the war's last major battle in the Carolinas. Edward Lacey was elected sheriff of Chester County after the war, and Adair replaced him in his former capacity as the county's justice of the peace. He was chosen as a delegate to the South Carolina convention to ratify the U.S. Constitution.In 1784, Adair married Katherine Palmer. They had twelve children, ten of them daughters. One married Thomas Bell Monroe, who later served as Adair's Secretary of State and was appointed to a federal judgeship. In 1786, the Adairs migrated westward to Kentucky, settling in Mercer County.Enlisting for service as a captain in the Northwest Indian War in 1791, Adair was soon promoted to major and assigned to the brigade of James Wilkinson. On November 6, 1792, a band of Miamis under the command of Little Turtle encountered Adair and about 100 men serving under him on a scouting mission near Fort St. Clair in Ohio. When the Miami attacked, Adair ordered Lieutenant (and later governor of Kentucky) George Madison to attack their right flank while Adair led 25 men to attack the left flank. (Adair had intended for a subordinate to lead the charge, but the officer was killed before Adair could give the order.) The maneuver forced the Miamis to fall back and allowed Adair's men to escape. They retreated to their camp and made a stand, forcing the Miamis to withdraw. Six of Adair's men were killed; another four were missing and five were wounded. Among the wounded were Madison and Richard Taylor, father of future U.S. President Zachary Taylor.Recognizing his bravery and fighting skill, Adair's superiors promoted him to lieutenant colonel. He was assigned to the command of Charles Scott, who would eventually serve as Kentucky's fourth governor. He assisted in the construction of Fort Greeneville in 1794, forwarding supplies to Anthony Wayne during his operations which ended in a decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.Popular for his military service, Adair was chosen as a delegate to the Kentucky constitutional convention in 1792. Upon the state's admission to the Union, he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives, serving from 1793 to 1795. He remained active in the Kentucky militia, and on February 25, 1797, he was promoted to brigadier general and given command of the 2nd Brigade of the Kentucky Militia. He was promoted to major general and given command of the 2nd Division of the Kentucky Militia on December 16, 1799.Adair returned to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1798. When Kentuckians voted to hold another constitutional convention in 1799 to correct weaknesses in their first constitution, Adair was chosen as a delegate. At the convention, he was the leader of a group of politically ambitious delegates who opposed most limits on the powers and terms of office of elected officials, particularly on legislators. He was elected to the Kentucky House again from 1800 to 1803. A candidate for a seat in the U.S. Senate in 1800, he was defeated in an overwhelming 68–13 vote of the legislature by John Breckinridge, who had been the acknowledged leader of the just-concluded constitutional convention. In 1802, Adair succeeded Breckinridge as Speaker of the House by a vote of 30–14 over Elder David Purviance, the candidate preferred by Governor James Garrard. He continued to serve as Speaker for the duration of his tenure in the House. In 1802, the legislature formed Adair County, Kentucky, naming it after the popular Speaker.In January 1804, Garrard nominated Adair to the position of registrar of the state land office. Adair's was the seventh name submitted by Garrard to the state Senate for the position; his approval by the Senate marked the end of a two-month imbroglio between Garrard and the legislature over the appointment. Later that year, he was a candidate for the U.S. Senate seat then occupied by John Brown. Although Henry Clay supported Brown's re-election, Adair had the support of Felix Grundy. Grundy accused Brown of involvement in a conspiracy to make Kentucky a province of the Spanish government, damaging his popularity. Adair won a plurality, but not a majority, of the votes cast in six consecutive ballots. Clay then threw his support to Buckner Thruston, a more palatable candidate who defeated Adair on the seventh ballot. Grundy's influence in the legislature continued to grow, and when John Breckinridge resigned to accept President Thomas Jefferson's appointment as U.S. Attorney General in August 1805, the Senate chose Adair to fill the vacancy.Former Vice-President Aaron Burr visited Kentucky in 1805, reaching Frankfort, Kentucky, on May 25 and lodging with former Senator John Brown. During the trip, he consulted with many prominent politicians, Adair among them, about the possibility of wresting Mexico from Spain. Most of those he spoke with believed he was acting on behalf of the federal government and intended to expand U.S. holdings in Mexico. Adair believed this too, having received letters from his former commander, James Wilkinson, which appeared to confirm it. In 1806, however, Burr was arrested in Frankfort on charges of treason. Officials claimed he in fact intended to create a new, independent nation in Spanish lands.Convinced of his innocence, Henry Clay represented Burr, while Joseph Hamilton Daveiss acted as prosecutor. Harry Innes presided over the trial, which commenced November 11. Daveiss had to ask for a postponement because Davis Floyd, one of his key witnesses, was then serving in the Indiana General Assembly and could not be present in court. The court next convened on December 2, and Daveiss again had to ask for a postponement, this time because Adair, another witness, was not present. Adair had traveled to Louisiana to inspect a tract of land he had recently purchased there. On his arrival in New Orleans, he was arrested on the order of his former commander, James Wilkinson, then serving as governor of the Louisiana Territory.Clay had insisted that the trial proceed in Adair's absence, and, the next day, Daveiss presented indictments against Burr for treason and against Adair as a co-conspirator. After hearing testimony, the grand jury rejected the indictment against Adair as "not a true bill" and similarly dismissed the charges against Burr two days later. After his vindication by the grand jury, Adair counter-sued Wilkinson in federal court. Although the legal battle between the two spanned several years, the court found that Wilkinson had no solid evidence against Adair and ordered Wilkinson to issue a public apology and pay Adair $2,500 in damages. Adair's acquittal and successful counter-suit came too late to prevent damage to his political career. Because of his association with Burr's scheme, he lost the election for a full term in the Senate in November 1806. Rather than wait for his partial term to expire, he resigned on November 18, 1806.Adair rejoined the Kentucky militia at the outset of the War of 1812. After Oliver Hazard Perry's victory in the September 10, 1813, Battle of Lake Erie, William Henry Harrison called on Kentucky Governor Isaac Shelby, a popular Revolutionary War hero, to recruit troops in Kentucky and join him in his invasion of Canada. Shelby asked Adair to serve as his first aide-de-camp. Future Kentucky governor and U.S. Senator John J. Crittenden was Shelby's second aide, and future U.S. Senator and Postmaster General William T. Barry was his secretary. Adair rendered commendable service in the campaign, most notably at the American victory in the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813. Shelby praised Adair's service and in 1814, made him adjutant general of Kentucky and brevetted him to the rank of brigadier general.In late 1814, Andrew Jackson requested reinforcements from Kentucky for his defense of the Gulf of Mexico. Adair quickly raised three regiments, but the federal government provided them no weapons and no means of transportation. James Taylor, Jr., then serving as quartermaster general of the state militia, took out a $6,000 mortgage on his personal land to purchase boats to transport Adair's men. The number of men with Adair was later disputed; sources variously give numbers between 700 and 1,500. Many did not have weapons, and the ones who did were primarily armed with their own civilian rifles. John Thomas, to whom Adair was an adjunct, fell ill just before the battle commenced, leaving Adair responsible for all the Kentuckians present at the battle.On January 7, 1815, Adair traveled to New Orleans and requested that the city's leaders lend him several stands of arms from the city armory to arm his militiamen. The officials agreed under the condition that the removal of the arms from the armory be kept secret from the citizenry. The weapons were placed in boxes and delivered to Adair's camp on the night of January 7. At Adair's suggestion, his men were placed in reserve and located centrally behind the Tennessee militiamen under William Carroll. From there, they could quickly move to reinforce whichever portion of the American line received the heaviest attack from the British.Apparently unaware of Adair's request, that evening, Jackson ordered 400 unarmed Kentucky militiamen under Colonel John Davis to march to New Orleans to obtain arms, then reinforce the 450 Louisiana militiamen under David B. Morgan on the west bank of the Mississippi River. When they arrived in New Orleans, they were told that the city's arms had already been shipped to Adair. The citizens collected what weapons they had —mostly old muskets in various states of disrepair —and gave them to Davis' men. About 200 men were thus armed and reported to Morgan as ordered, just hours before the start of the Battle of New Orleans. The remainder of Davis's men returned to the main camp, still without weapons.As the British approached on the morning of January 8, it became evident that they would try to break the American line through Carroll's Tennesseans, and Adair advanced his men to support them. The main American line held and repulsed the British attack; in total, only six Americans were killed and seven wounded. Meanwhile, Davis' Kentuckians on the west bank had, upon their arrival in Morgan's camp, been sent to meet the advance of a secondary British force. Outnumbered, poorly armed, and without the benefit of breastworks or artillery support, they were quickly outflanked and forced to retreat. Seeing the retreat of the Kentuckians, Morgan's militiamen abandoned their breastworks; Adair would later claim they had never even fired a shot. The British quickly abandoned the position they had just captured, but Jackson resented the setback in an otherwise spectacular victory.Jackson's official report blamed the Kentuckians' retreat for the collapse of the west bank defenses, and many Kentuckians felt it played down the importance of Adair's militiamen on the east bank in preserving the American line and securing the victory. Davis' men insisted the report was based on Jackson's misunderstanding of the facts and asked that Adair request a court of inquiry, which convened in February 1815 with Major General Carroll of Tennessee presiding. The court's report found that "[t]he retreat of the Kentucky militia, which, considering their position, the deficiency of their arms, and other causes, may be excusable," and that the formation of the troops on the west bank was "exceptional", noting that 500 Louisiana troops supported by three artillery pieces and protected by a strong breastwork were charged with defending a line that stretched only while Davis's 170 Kentuckians, poorly armed and protected only by a small ditch, were expected to defend a line over long. On February 10, 1816, the Kentucky General Assembly passed a resolution thanking Adair for his service at the Battle of New Orleans and for his defense of the soldiers accused by Jackson.Jackson approved the court's findings, but they were not the full refutation of Jackson's report that many Kentuckians —including Adair —had wanted. In a letter that was quickly made public, Adair —formerly one of Jackson's close friends —insisted that Jackson withdraw or modify his official report, but Jackson refused. This ended the matter until June 1815 when H. P. Helm, secretary to John Thomas, forwarded to a Frankfort newspaper remarks from "the general" that had been annexed to the official report. "The remarks" stated that the general was now convinced that the initial reports of cowardice by Davis's men "had been misrepresented" and that their retreat had been "not only excusable, but absolutely justifiable." The remarks, popularly believed to be from Jackson in response to Adair's letter, were subsequently reprinted across Kentucky. The "general" referenced was in fact General John Thomas; Jackson had never seen them. Helm claimed he sent a subsequent correction to the newspaper that published the remarks, but it was never printed.Jackson did not discover the remarks until they were published again in January 1817 in response to a Boston newspaper's criticism of Kentucky militiamen. He wrote to the "Kentucky Reporter" at that time, denouncing the remarks as a forgery. The "Reporter" investigated and published an explanation of how Thomas's remarks had been attributed to Jackson. They did not reprint Jackson's letter because they felt his claim that the remarks had been intentionally forged —a charge which was now found to be false —was too inflammatory. The editors promised that if their retraction did not satisfy Jackson, they would fully publish any of his additional remarks on the subject. In Jackson's April 1817 response, he implied that Adair had intentionally misrepresented the remarks, and reasserted that they had been forged, possibly by Adair himself. Adair believed Jackson's references to the remarks as a "forged dish, dressed in the true Spanish style" was a thinly veiled reference to Adair's alleged participation in the Burr conspiracy. As ostensible proof that he was not predisposed against Kentuckians, Jackson also implied that he had not reported additional dishonorable behavior by Kentucky militiamen during the battle. This letter thrust the dispute into the national spotlight and prompted Adair to resume correspondence with him both to defend Davis's men and refute Jackson's charges of conspiracy. In his May 1817 response, he reasserted his defense of the Kentucky militiamen at New Orleans and dismissed many of Jackson's allegations as unimportant and untrue. He flatly denied the existence of a conspiracy, and chastised Jackson for making charges without supporting evidence. Responding to Jackson's allusion to Spain, Adair recalled that Jackson had also been implicated with Burr.Unable to provide tangible evidence of Adair's alleged misdeeds, Jackson provided indirect evidence that a conspiracy was possible. His response, delayed by his treaty negotiations with the Cherokee, was printed September 3, 1817, and used complicated calculations based on spacing and distance, to argue that Adair had only half the number of men he claimed to have commanded at the Battle of New Orleans. Further, he claimed that Adair had ordered Davis to New Orleans to obtain weapons knowing that the arms had already been taken by other brigades under Adair's command. Either Adair had given a foolish order, or he did not have as many men in his main force as he claimed. He closed by promising that this would be his last statement on the matter. Adair's October 29, 1817, response was delayed, he said, because he was awaiting documents from New Orleans that never came. In it, he quoted from a letter to Jackson's aide-de-camp —cited by Jackson himself in previous correspondence —showing that Jackson had been made aware of both the existence and the authorship of Thomas's remarks in 1815 but declined the opportunity to refute them. He also defended his account of the number of troops under his command, which he had consistently reported as being near 1,000, and asked why Jackson had not challenged it until now. Finally, he claimed that not only did he retrieve the weapons from New Orleans under Jackson's orders, but he rode Jackson's horse to New Orleans to effect the transaction. Tradition holds that this letter prompted either Adair or Jackson to challenge the other to a duel, but friends of both men averted the conflict after assembling to watch; no written evidence of the event exists. Tensions between the two eventually eased, and Adair came to comfort Jackson after his wife Rachel's death in 1828. Adair also campaigned for Jackson during his presidential campaigns in 1824, 1828, and 1832. Jackson's opponents compiled copies of his letters into campaign pamphlets to use against him in Kentucky during these elections.Adair's participation in the War of 1812 and subsequent correspondence with Jackson restored his reputation. He continued to serve as adjutant general until 1817, when the voters returned him to the state House of Representatives. He was nominated for Speaker of the House during that term, and, although he was not elected, he drew support from members of both parties, largely because of his correspondence with Jackson.In the aftermath of the Panic of 1819 —the first major financial crisis in United States history —the primary political issue of the day was debt relief. The federal government had created the Second Bank of the United States in 1817, and its strict credit policy hit Kentucky's large debtor class hard. Sitting governor Gabriel Slaughter had lobbied for some measures favored by the state's debtors, particularly punitive taxes against the branches of the Bank of the United States in Louisville and Lexington. The Second Party System had not yet developed, but there were nonetheless two opposing factions that arose around the debt relief issue. The first —primarily composed of land speculators who had bought large land parcels on credit and were unable to repay their debts due to the financial crisis —was dubbed the Relief Party (or "faction") and favored more legislation favorable to debtors. Opposed to them was the Anti-Relief Party; it was composed primarily of the state's aristocracy, many of whom were creditors to the land speculators and demanded that their contracts be adhered to without interference from the government. They claimed that no government intervention could effectively aid the debtors and that attempts to do so would only prolong the economic depression.Adair was the clear leader of the Relief faction, and his popularity had been enhanced thanks to his lengthy and public dispute with Jackson. In the 1820 gubernatorial election, he was elected as Kentucky's chief executive over three fellow Democratic-Republicans. Adair garnered 20,493 votes; U.S. Senator William Logan finished second with 19,497, fellow veteran Joseph Desha received 12,419, and Colonel Anthony Butler mustered only 9,567 votes. Proponents of debt relief measures also won majorities in both houses of the General Assembly.Kentucky historian Lowell H. Harrison opined that the most important measure implemented during Adair's administration was the creation of the Bank of the Commonwealth in 1820. The bank made generous loans and liberally issued paper money. Although bank notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth quickly fell well below par, creditors who refused to accept these devalued notes had to wait two years before seeking replevin. To inspire confidence in the devalued notes, Adair mandated that all officers of the state receive their salaries in notes issued by the Bank of the Commonwealth.The state's other bank, the Bank of Kentucky, adhered to more conservative banking practices. While this held the value of its notes closer to par, it also rendered loans less available, which angered relief-minded legislators; consequently, they revoked the bank's charter in December 1822. Adair oversaw the abolition of the practice of incarceration for debt, and sanctioned rigorous anti-gambling legislation. Legislators also exempted from forced sale the items then considered necessary for making a living —a horse, a plow, a hoe, and an ax.The Kentucky Court of Appeals, then the state's court of last resort, struck down the law ordering a two-year stay of replevin because it impaired the obligation of contracts. At about the same time, the U.S. Supreme Court issued its decision in the case of "Green v. Biddle", holding that land claims granted by Virginia in the District of Kentucky before Kentucky became a separate state took precedence over those later granted by the state of Kentucky if the two were in conflict. Adair denounced this decision in an 1823 message to the legislature, warning against federal and judicial interference in the will of the people, expressed through the legislature. Emboldened by Adair's message, Relief partisans sought to remove the three justices of the state Court of Appeals, as well as James Clark, a lower court judge who had issued a similar ruling, from the bench. The judges were spared when their opponents failed to obtain the two-thirds majority required for removal.Adair urged legislators to create a public school system. In response, the General Assembly passed an act creating a state "Literary Fund" which received half of the clear profits accrued by the Bank of the Commonwealth. The fund was to be available, proportionally, to each of the state's counties for the establishment of "a system of general education". In the tumultuous economic environment, however, legislators routinely voted to borrow from the Literary Fund to pay for other priorities, chiefly the construction of internal improvements.Adair's lieutenant governor, William T. Barry, and John Pope, Secretary of State under Adair's predecessor, headed a six-man committee authorized by the act to study the creation of a system of common schools. The "Barry Report," delivered to the legislature in December 1822, was lauded by statesmen including John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison. Authored by committee member Amos Kendall, it criticized the idea of land grant academies then prevalent in the state as unworkable outside affluent towns. It also concluded that the Literary Fund alone was insufficient for funding a system of common schools. The report recommended that funds only be made available to counties that imposed a county tax for the benefit of the public school system. Legislators largely ignored the report, a decision Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark called "one of the most egregious blunders in American educational history".Adair's endorsement of the Missouri Compromise was instrumental in securing its passage by Kentucky legislators. He advocated prison reform and better treatment of the insane. He also oversaw the enactment of a plan for internal improvements, including improved navigation on the Ohio River.Barred from seeking immediate re-election by the state constitution, Adair retired to his farm in Mercer County at the expiration of his term as governor. Shortly after returning to private life, he began to complain about the low value of Bank of the Commonwealth notes —then worth about half par —and petitioned the legislature to remedy the situation. The complaint of a former Relief Party governor over the ill effects of pro-relief legislation prompted wry celebration among members of the Anti-Relief faction.Adair made one final contribution to the public when he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives as a Jackson Democrat in 1831. During the 22nd Congress, he served on the Committee on Military Affairs. During his term, he made only one speech, and it was so inaudible that no one knew what position he was advocating. The House reporter speculated that it concerned mounting Federal troops on horseback. He did not run for re-election in 1833, and left public life for good.He died at home in Harrodsburg on May 19, 1840, and was buried on the grounds of his estate, White Hall. In 1872, his remains were moved to the Frankfort Cemetery, by the state capitol, and the Commonwealth erected a marker over his grave there.In addition to Adair County in Kentucky, Adair County, Missouri, Adair County, Iowa, and the towns of Adairville, Kentucky, and Adair, Iowa, were named in his honor.
|
[
"Governor of Kentucky",
"United States representative"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee in Jan, 2008?
|
January 12, 2008
|
{
"text": [
"Anna Šabatová"
]
}
|
L2_Q341285_P488_2
|
Jiří Hájek is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1992.
Anna Šabatová is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2013.
Táňa Fischerová is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2019.
Václav Vlk is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.
Martin Palouš is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 1998.
|
Czech Helsinki CommitteeThe Czech Helsinki Committee is a non-governmental non-profit organization for human rights. It has operated in Czechoslovakia since 1988 and in the Czech Republic since 1993. It was founded as one of the first "Helsinki" organizations outside of the USSR, and is the first formalized human rights NGO in the country.Henry Kissinger is often credited with having coined the term détente in 1973 during the height of Cold War tensions. It was during the so-called détente phase, on 3 July 1973, that the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) was opened in Helsinki, Finland. The CSCE was created as a multilateral forum for dialogue and negotiation motivated by the political will to improve relations between East and West and contribute to peace, security, justice and cooperation in Europe.The CSCE continued again in Geneva, Switzerland from 18 September 1973 to 21 July 1975, and concluded in Helsinki on 1 August 1975. The meeting in August set up the Helsinki Final Act that contained key commitments on polito-military, economic, environmental, and human rights issues—later known as the “Helsinki process” or “Helsinki Accords”. The Helsinki Accords also established ten principles, the “Decalogue”, guiding relations between States and governing the relationship between States and their citizens.) Although the CSCE continued primarily as a series of meetings and conferences, the Paris Summit in November 1990—after the end of the Cold War—refocused the CSCE on managing the new changes in Europe. The CSCE gained permanent institutions and operational capabilities, and the name was changed to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) as part of a decision by the Budapest Summit of Heads of State or Government in December 1994.The thirty-five participating States of the CSCE signed the Helsinki Final Act, which at that time, was the only international agreement linking peace and security with an obligation for the respect of human rights. The Decalogue, specifically Principle VII, addressed “ for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief”.On May 12, 1976, at a press conference initiated by physicist and human rights activist Dr. Andrei Sakharov, Dr. Yuri F. Orlov—also a well respected physicist and member of the Armenian SSR Academy of Science—announced the formation of the Moscow Group for Assistance in Implementation of Helsinki Agreements, later known as the Moscow Helsinki Group. The watchdog organization based on Principle VII of the Decalogue, began documenting cases of humanitarian violations against USSR citizens and distributing the documents to the Supreme Soviet Presidium of the USSR, and the governments and media of the thirty-five signatories of the Helsinki Accords. Similar, Helsinki groups were established in Ukraine, Lithuania, Georgia, and Armenia respectively.As the Helsinki groups were forming inside the USSR, the Worker's Defense Committee was founded in Poland in September 1976. Quickly following, on 1 January 1977, Charter 77 was established in Czechoslovakia. Although not labeled “Helsinki”, these groups focused on human rights issues and the accountability of their respective State constitutions and signatures on the Helsinki Accords. In September 1979 the Helsinki Watch Group was formed, and other Helsinki-labeled watchdog organizations were created throughout the thirty-five signatory States of the Helsinki Accords.In 1982, after an appeal by Dr. Andrei Sakharov, in his 1978 book Alarm and Hope, for “a unified international committee to defend all Helsinki Watch Group members”, a number of Helsinki committees held an International Citizens Helsinki Watch Conference in Lake Como, Italy. Ironically, as these groups were meeting and creating a new organization, the Moscow Helsinki Group was forced to disband and almost all its members were arrested. The year before the conference, the U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee—later Human Rights Watch—traveled throughout Eastern and Western Europe seeking out groups and individuals interested in forming an International Helsinki Federation.On 9 November 1982, member groups from Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United States formed the International Helsinki Federation. A main goal was to create Helsinki Committees in all thirty-five Helsinki Accords signatory States. The establishment of the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee was announced on 11 November 1988, and predominantly organized by the founding members of Charter 77.Organizing the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee along with Charter 77 was, the Jazz Section, the Association for Friendship between the ČSSR and the US, the Independent Peace Association and the Democratic Initiative. The history of the Czech Helsinki Committee is undeniably intertwined with the legacy of other distinguished human rights organizations such as the OSCE, Charter 77, and Human Rights Watch. In fact, the first chairperson of the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee was Jiří Hájek, a former Minister of Foreign Affairs, and one of the co-founders of Charter 77.After the Velvet Revolution of November 1989 and the split of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Helsinki and Slovak Helsinki Committee were reformed as separate groups. The Czech Helsinki Committee continued working closely with other Helsinki committees and consulting with the Council of Europe. From monitoring and educating on Human Rights, to counseling centers and legal services the Czech Helsinki Committee continued to grow, and even spawned a separate Refugee Counseling Center and Citizenship Counseling Center. The mission today is similar and branching out to encompass areas such as prisoner's rights, women and children's rights, and asylum seekers.
|
[
"Václav Vlk",
"Táňa Fischerová",
"Jiří Hájek",
"Martin Palouš"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee in 2008-01-12?
|
January 12, 2008
|
{
"text": [
"Anna Šabatová"
]
}
|
L2_Q341285_P488_2
|
Jiří Hájek is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1992.
Anna Šabatová is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2013.
Táňa Fischerová is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2019.
Václav Vlk is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.
Martin Palouš is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 1998.
|
Czech Helsinki CommitteeThe Czech Helsinki Committee is a non-governmental non-profit organization for human rights. It has operated in Czechoslovakia since 1988 and in the Czech Republic since 1993. It was founded as one of the first "Helsinki" organizations outside of the USSR, and is the first formalized human rights NGO in the country.Henry Kissinger is often credited with having coined the term détente in 1973 during the height of Cold War tensions. It was during the so-called détente phase, on 3 July 1973, that the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) was opened in Helsinki, Finland. The CSCE was created as a multilateral forum for dialogue and negotiation motivated by the political will to improve relations between East and West and contribute to peace, security, justice and cooperation in Europe.The CSCE continued again in Geneva, Switzerland from 18 September 1973 to 21 July 1975, and concluded in Helsinki on 1 August 1975. The meeting in August set up the Helsinki Final Act that contained key commitments on polito-military, economic, environmental, and human rights issues—later known as the “Helsinki process” or “Helsinki Accords”. The Helsinki Accords also established ten principles, the “Decalogue”, guiding relations between States and governing the relationship between States and their citizens.) Although the CSCE continued primarily as a series of meetings and conferences, the Paris Summit in November 1990—after the end of the Cold War—refocused the CSCE on managing the new changes in Europe. The CSCE gained permanent institutions and operational capabilities, and the name was changed to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) as part of a decision by the Budapest Summit of Heads of State or Government in December 1994.The thirty-five participating States of the CSCE signed the Helsinki Final Act, which at that time, was the only international agreement linking peace and security with an obligation for the respect of human rights. The Decalogue, specifically Principle VII, addressed “ for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief”.On May 12, 1976, at a press conference initiated by physicist and human rights activist Dr. Andrei Sakharov, Dr. Yuri F. Orlov—also a well respected physicist and member of the Armenian SSR Academy of Science—announced the formation of the Moscow Group for Assistance in Implementation of Helsinki Agreements, later known as the Moscow Helsinki Group. The watchdog organization based on Principle VII of the Decalogue, began documenting cases of humanitarian violations against USSR citizens and distributing the documents to the Supreme Soviet Presidium of the USSR, and the governments and media of the thirty-five signatories of the Helsinki Accords. Similar, Helsinki groups were established in Ukraine, Lithuania, Georgia, and Armenia respectively.As the Helsinki groups were forming inside the USSR, the Worker's Defense Committee was founded in Poland in September 1976. Quickly following, on 1 January 1977, Charter 77 was established in Czechoslovakia. Although not labeled “Helsinki”, these groups focused on human rights issues and the accountability of their respective State constitutions and signatures on the Helsinki Accords. In September 1979 the Helsinki Watch Group was formed, and other Helsinki-labeled watchdog organizations were created throughout the thirty-five signatory States of the Helsinki Accords.In 1982, after an appeal by Dr. Andrei Sakharov, in his 1978 book Alarm and Hope, for “a unified international committee to defend all Helsinki Watch Group members”, a number of Helsinki committees held an International Citizens Helsinki Watch Conference in Lake Como, Italy. Ironically, as these groups were meeting and creating a new organization, the Moscow Helsinki Group was forced to disband and almost all its members were arrested. The year before the conference, the U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee—later Human Rights Watch—traveled throughout Eastern and Western Europe seeking out groups and individuals interested in forming an International Helsinki Federation.On 9 November 1982, member groups from Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United States formed the International Helsinki Federation. A main goal was to create Helsinki Committees in all thirty-five Helsinki Accords signatory States. The establishment of the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee was announced on 11 November 1988, and predominantly organized by the founding members of Charter 77.Organizing the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee along with Charter 77 was, the Jazz Section, the Association for Friendship between the ČSSR and the US, the Independent Peace Association and the Democratic Initiative. The history of the Czech Helsinki Committee is undeniably intertwined with the legacy of other distinguished human rights organizations such as the OSCE, Charter 77, and Human Rights Watch. In fact, the first chairperson of the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee was Jiří Hájek, a former Minister of Foreign Affairs, and one of the co-founders of Charter 77.After the Velvet Revolution of November 1989 and the split of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Helsinki and Slovak Helsinki Committee were reformed as separate groups. The Czech Helsinki Committee continued working closely with other Helsinki committees and consulting with the Council of Europe. From monitoring and educating on Human Rights, to counseling centers and legal services the Czech Helsinki Committee continued to grow, and even spawned a separate Refugee Counseling Center and Citizenship Counseling Center. The mission today is similar and branching out to encompass areas such as prisoner's rights, women and children's rights, and asylum seekers.
|
[
"Václav Vlk",
"Táňa Fischerová",
"Jiří Hájek",
"Martin Palouš"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee in 12/01/2008?
|
January 12, 2008
|
{
"text": [
"Anna Šabatová"
]
}
|
L2_Q341285_P488_2
|
Jiří Hájek is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1992.
Anna Šabatová is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2013.
Táňa Fischerová is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2019.
Václav Vlk is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.
Martin Palouš is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 1998.
|
Czech Helsinki CommitteeThe Czech Helsinki Committee is a non-governmental non-profit organization for human rights. It has operated in Czechoslovakia since 1988 and in the Czech Republic since 1993. It was founded as one of the first "Helsinki" organizations outside of the USSR, and is the first formalized human rights NGO in the country.Henry Kissinger is often credited with having coined the term détente in 1973 during the height of Cold War tensions. It was during the so-called détente phase, on 3 July 1973, that the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) was opened in Helsinki, Finland. The CSCE was created as a multilateral forum for dialogue and negotiation motivated by the political will to improve relations between East and West and contribute to peace, security, justice and cooperation in Europe.The CSCE continued again in Geneva, Switzerland from 18 September 1973 to 21 July 1975, and concluded in Helsinki on 1 August 1975. The meeting in August set up the Helsinki Final Act that contained key commitments on polito-military, economic, environmental, and human rights issues—later known as the “Helsinki process” or “Helsinki Accords”. The Helsinki Accords also established ten principles, the “Decalogue”, guiding relations between States and governing the relationship between States and their citizens.) Although the CSCE continued primarily as a series of meetings and conferences, the Paris Summit in November 1990—after the end of the Cold War—refocused the CSCE on managing the new changes in Europe. The CSCE gained permanent institutions and operational capabilities, and the name was changed to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) as part of a decision by the Budapest Summit of Heads of State or Government in December 1994.The thirty-five participating States of the CSCE signed the Helsinki Final Act, which at that time, was the only international agreement linking peace and security with an obligation for the respect of human rights. The Decalogue, specifically Principle VII, addressed “ for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief”.On May 12, 1976, at a press conference initiated by physicist and human rights activist Dr. Andrei Sakharov, Dr. Yuri F. Orlov—also a well respected physicist and member of the Armenian SSR Academy of Science—announced the formation of the Moscow Group for Assistance in Implementation of Helsinki Agreements, later known as the Moscow Helsinki Group. The watchdog organization based on Principle VII of the Decalogue, began documenting cases of humanitarian violations against USSR citizens and distributing the documents to the Supreme Soviet Presidium of the USSR, and the governments and media of the thirty-five signatories of the Helsinki Accords. Similar, Helsinki groups were established in Ukraine, Lithuania, Georgia, and Armenia respectively.As the Helsinki groups were forming inside the USSR, the Worker's Defense Committee was founded in Poland in September 1976. Quickly following, on 1 January 1977, Charter 77 was established in Czechoslovakia. Although not labeled “Helsinki”, these groups focused on human rights issues and the accountability of their respective State constitutions and signatures on the Helsinki Accords. In September 1979 the Helsinki Watch Group was formed, and other Helsinki-labeled watchdog organizations were created throughout the thirty-five signatory States of the Helsinki Accords.In 1982, after an appeal by Dr. Andrei Sakharov, in his 1978 book Alarm and Hope, for “a unified international committee to defend all Helsinki Watch Group members”, a number of Helsinki committees held an International Citizens Helsinki Watch Conference in Lake Como, Italy. Ironically, as these groups were meeting and creating a new organization, the Moscow Helsinki Group was forced to disband and almost all its members were arrested. The year before the conference, the U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee—later Human Rights Watch—traveled throughout Eastern and Western Europe seeking out groups and individuals interested in forming an International Helsinki Federation.On 9 November 1982, member groups from Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United States formed the International Helsinki Federation. A main goal was to create Helsinki Committees in all thirty-five Helsinki Accords signatory States. The establishment of the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee was announced on 11 November 1988, and predominantly organized by the founding members of Charter 77.Organizing the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee along with Charter 77 was, the Jazz Section, the Association for Friendship between the ČSSR and the US, the Independent Peace Association and the Democratic Initiative. The history of the Czech Helsinki Committee is undeniably intertwined with the legacy of other distinguished human rights organizations such as the OSCE, Charter 77, and Human Rights Watch. In fact, the first chairperson of the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee was Jiří Hájek, a former Minister of Foreign Affairs, and one of the co-founders of Charter 77.After the Velvet Revolution of November 1989 and the split of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Helsinki and Slovak Helsinki Committee were reformed as separate groups. The Czech Helsinki Committee continued working closely with other Helsinki committees and consulting with the Council of Europe. From monitoring and educating on Human Rights, to counseling centers and legal services the Czech Helsinki Committee continued to grow, and even spawned a separate Refugee Counseling Center and Citizenship Counseling Center. The mission today is similar and branching out to encompass areas such as prisoner's rights, women and children's rights, and asylum seekers.
|
[
"Václav Vlk",
"Táňa Fischerová",
"Jiří Hájek",
"Martin Palouš"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee in Jan 12, 2008?
|
January 12, 2008
|
{
"text": [
"Anna Šabatová"
]
}
|
L2_Q341285_P488_2
|
Jiří Hájek is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1992.
Anna Šabatová is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2013.
Táňa Fischerová is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2019.
Václav Vlk is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.
Martin Palouš is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 1998.
|
Czech Helsinki CommitteeThe Czech Helsinki Committee is a non-governmental non-profit organization for human rights. It has operated in Czechoslovakia since 1988 and in the Czech Republic since 1993. It was founded as one of the first "Helsinki" organizations outside of the USSR, and is the first formalized human rights NGO in the country.Henry Kissinger is often credited with having coined the term détente in 1973 during the height of Cold War tensions. It was during the so-called détente phase, on 3 July 1973, that the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) was opened in Helsinki, Finland. The CSCE was created as a multilateral forum for dialogue and negotiation motivated by the political will to improve relations between East and West and contribute to peace, security, justice and cooperation in Europe.The CSCE continued again in Geneva, Switzerland from 18 September 1973 to 21 July 1975, and concluded in Helsinki on 1 August 1975. The meeting in August set up the Helsinki Final Act that contained key commitments on polito-military, economic, environmental, and human rights issues—later known as the “Helsinki process” or “Helsinki Accords”. The Helsinki Accords also established ten principles, the “Decalogue”, guiding relations between States and governing the relationship between States and their citizens.) Although the CSCE continued primarily as a series of meetings and conferences, the Paris Summit in November 1990—after the end of the Cold War—refocused the CSCE on managing the new changes in Europe. The CSCE gained permanent institutions and operational capabilities, and the name was changed to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) as part of a decision by the Budapest Summit of Heads of State or Government in December 1994.The thirty-five participating States of the CSCE signed the Helsinki Final Act, which at that time, was the only international agreement linking peace and security with an obligation for the respect of human rights. The Decalogue, specifically Principle VII, addressed “ for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief”.On May 12, 1976, at a press conference initiated by physicist and human rights activist Dr. Andrei Sakharov, Dr. Yuri F. Orlov—also a well respected physicist and member of the Armenian SSR Academy of Science—announced the formation of the Moscow Group for Assistance in Implementation of Helsinki Agreements, later known as the Moscow Helsinki Group. The watchdog organization based on Principle VII of the Decalogue, began documenting cases of humanitarian violations against USSR citizens and distributing the documents to the Supreme Soviet Presidium of the USSR, and the governments and media of the thirty-five signatories of the Helsinki Accords. Similar, Helsinki groups were established in Ukraine, Lithuania, Georgia, and Armenia respectively.As the Helsinki groups were forming inside the USSR, the Worker's Defense Committee was founded in Poland in September 1976. Quickly following, on 1 January 1977, Charter 77 was established in Czechoslovakia. Although not labeled “Helsinki”, these groups focused on human rights issues and the accountability of their respective State constitutions and signatures on the Helsinki Accords. In September 1979 the Helsinki Watch Group was formed, and other Helsinki-labeled watchdog organizations were created throughout the thirty-five signatory States of the Helsinki Accords.In 1982, after an appeal by Dr. Andrei Sakharov, in his 1978 book Alarm and Hope, for “a unified international committee to defend all Helsinki Watch Group members”, a number of Helsinki committees held an International Citizens Helsinki Watch Conference in Lake Como, Italy. Ironically, as these groups were meeting and creating a new organization, the Moscow Helsinki Group was forced to disband and almost all its members were arrested. The year before the conference, the U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee—later Human Rights Watch—traveled throughout Eastern and Western Europe seeking out groups and individuals interested in forming an International Helsinki Federation.On 9 November 1982, member groups from Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United States formed the International Helsinki Federation. A main goal was to create Helsinki Committees in all thirty-five Helsinki Accords signatory States. The establishment of the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee was announced on 11 November 1988, and predominantly organized by the founding members of Charter 77.Organizing the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee along with Charter 77 was, the Jazz Section, the Association for Friendship between the ČSSR and the US, the Independent Peace Association and the Democratic Initiative. The history of the Czech Helsinki Committee is undeniably intertwined with the legacy of other distinguished human rights organizations such as the OSCE, Charter 77, and Human Rights Watch. In fact, the first chairperson of the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee was Jiří Hájek, a former Minister of Foreign Affairs, and one of the co-founders of Charter 77.After the Velvet Revolution of November 1989 and the split of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Helsinki and Slovak Helsinki Committee were reformed as separate groups. The Czech Helsinki Committee continued working closely with other Helsinki committees and consulting with the Council of Europe. From monitoring and educating on Human Rights, to counseling centers and legal services the Czech Helsinki Committee continued to grow, and even spawned a separate Refugee Counseling Center and Citizenship Counseling Center. The mission today is similar and branching out to encompass areas such as prisoner's rights, women and children's rights, and asylum seekers.
|
[
"Václav Vlk",
"Táňa Fischerová",
"Jiří Hájek",
"Martin Palouš"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee in 01/12/2008?
|
January 12, 2008
|
{
"text": [
"Anna Šabatová"
]
}
|
L2_Q341285_P488_2
|
Jiří Hájek is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1992.
Anna Šabatová is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2013.
Táňa Fischerová is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2019.
Václav Vlk is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.
Martin Palouš is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 1998.
|
Czech Helsinki CommitteeThe Czech Helsinki Committee is a non-governmental non-profit organization for human rights. It has operated in Czechoslovakia since 1988 and in the Czech Republic since 1993. It was founded as one of the first "Helsinki" organizations outside of the USSR, and is the first formalized human rights NGO in the country.Henry Kissinger is often credited with having coined the term détente in 1973 during the height of Cold War tensions. It was during the so-called détente phase, on 3 July 1973, that the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) was opened in Helsinki, Finland. The CSCE was created as a multilateral forum for dialogue and negotiation motivated by the political will to improve relations between East and West and contribute to peace, security, justice and cooperation in Europe.The CSCE continued again in Geneva, Switzerland from 18 September 1973 to 21 July 1975, and concluded in Helsinki on 1 August 1975. The meeting in August set up the Helsinki Final Act that contained key commitments on polito-military, economic, environmental, and human rights issues—later known as the “Helsinki process” or “Helsinki Accords”. The Helsinki Accords also established ten principles, the “Decalogue”, guiding relations between States and governing the relationship between States and their citizens.) Although the CSCE continued primarily as a series of meetings and conferences, the Paris Summit in November 1990—after the end of the Cold War—refocused the CSCE on managing the new changes in Europe. The CSCE gained permanent institutions and operational capabilities, and the name was changed to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) as part of a decision by the Budapest Summit of Heads of State or Government in December 1994.The thirty-five participating States of the CSCE signed the Helsinki Final Act, which at that time, was the only international agreement linking peace and security with an obligation for the respect of human rights. The Decalogue, specifically Principle VII, addressed “ for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief”.On May 12, 1976, at a press conference initiated by physicist and human rights activist Dr. Andrei Sakharov, Dr. Yuri F. Orlov—also a well respected physicist and member of the Armenian SSR Academy of Science—announced the formation of the Moscow Group for Assistance in Implementation of Helsinki Agreements, later known as the Moscow Helsinki Group. The watchdog organization based on Principle VII of the Decalogue, began documenting cases of humanitarian violations against USSR citizens and distributing the documents to the Supreme Soviet Presidium of the USSR, and the governments and media of the thirty-five signatories of the Helsinki Accords. Similar, Helsinki groups were established in Ukraine, Lithuania, Georgia, and Armenia respectively.As the Helsinki groups were forming inside the USSR, the Worker's Defense Committee was founded in Poland in September 1976. Quickly following, on 1 January 1977, Charter 77 was established in Czechoslovakia. Although not labeled “Helsinki”, these groups focused on human rights issues and the accountability of their respective State constitutions and signatures on the Helsinki Accords. In September 1979 the Helsinki Watch Group was formed, and other Helsinki-labeled watchdog organizations were created throughout the thirty-five signatory States of the Helsinki Accords.In 1982, after an appeal by Dr. Andrei Sakharov, in his 1978 book Alarm and Hope, for “a unified international committee to defend all Helsinki Watch Group members”, a number of Helsinki committees held an International Citizens Helsinki Watch Conference in Lake Como, Italy. Ironically, as these groups were meeting and creating a new organization, the Moscow Helsinki Group was forced to disband and almost all its members were arrested. The year before the conference, the U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee—later Human Rights Watch—traveled throughout Eastern and Western Europe seeking out groups and individuals interested in forming an International Helsinki Federation.On 9 November 1982, member groups from Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United States formed the International Helsinki Federation. A main goal was to create Helsinki Committees in all thirty-five Helsinki Accords signatory States. The establishment of the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee was announced on 11 November 1988, and predominantly organized by the founding members of Charter 77.Organizing the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee along with Charter 77 was, the Jazz Section, the Association for Friendship between the ČSSR and the US, the Independent Peace Association and the Democratic Initiative. The history of the Czech Helsinki Committee is undeniably intertwined with the legacy of other distinguished human rights organizations such as the OSCE, Charter 77, and Human Rights Watch. In fact, the first chairperson of the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee was Jiří Hájek, a former Minister of Foreign Affairs, and one of the co-founders of Charter 77.After the Velvet Revolution of November 1989 and the split of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Helsinki and Slovak Helsinki Committee were reformed as separate groups. The Czech Helsinki Committee continued working closely with other Helsinki committees and consulting with the Council of Europe. From monitoring and educating on Human Rights, to counseling centers and legal services the Czech Helsinki Committee continued to grow, and even spawned a separate Refugee Counseling Center and Citizenship Counseling Center. The mission today is similar and branching out to encompass areas such as prisoner's rights, women and children's rights, and asylum seekers.
|
[
"Václav Vlk",
"Táňa Fischerová",
"Jiří Hájek",
"Martin Palouš"
] |
|
Who was the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee in 12-Jan-200812-January-2008?
|
January 12, 2008
|
{
"text": [
"Anna Šabatová"
]
}
|
L2_Q341285_P488_2
|
Jiří Hájek is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 1988 to Jan, 1992.
Anna Šabatová is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2013.
Táňa Fischerová is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2013 to Jan, 2019.
Václav Vlk is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 2021 to Dec, 2022.
Martin Palouš is the chair of Czech Helsinki Comitee from Jan, 1994 to Jan, 1998.
|
Czech Helsinki CommitteeThe Czech Helsinki Committee is a non-governmental non-profit organization for human rights. It has operated in Czechoslovakia since 1988 and in the Czech Republic since 1993. It was founded as one of the first "Helsinki" organizations outside of the USSR, and is the first formalized human rights NGO in the country.Henry Kissinger is often credited with having coined the term détente in 1973 during the height of Cold War tensions. It was during the so-called détente phase, on 3 July 1973, that the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) was opened in Helsinki, Finland. The CSCE was created as a multilateral forum for dialogue and negotiation motivated by the political will to improve relations between East and West and contribute to peace, security, justice and cooperation in Europe.The CSCE continued again in Geneva, Switzerland from 18 September 1973 to 21 July 1975, and concluded in Helsinki on 1 August 1975. The meeting in August set up the Helsinki Final Act that contained key commitments on polito-military, economic, environmental, and human rights issues—later known as the “Helsinki process” or “Helsinki Accords”. The Helsinki Accords also established ten principles, the “Decalogue”, guiding relations between States and governing the relationship between States and their citizens.) Although the CSCE continued primarily as a series of meetings and conferences, the Paris Summit in November 1990—after the end of the Cold War—refocused the CSCE on managing the new changes in Europe. The CSCE gained permanent institutions and operational capabilities, and the name was changed to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) as part of a decision by the Budapest Summit of Heads of State or Government in December 1994.The thirty-five participating States of the CSCE signed the Helsinki Final Act, which at that time, was the only international agreement linking peace and security with an obligation for the respect of human rights. The Decalogue, specifically Principle VII, addressed “ for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the freedom of thought, conscience, religion or belief”.On May 12, 1976, at a press conference initiated by physicist and human rights activist Dr. Andrei Sakharov, Dr. Yuri F. Orlov—also a well respected physicist and member of the Armenian SSR Academy of Science—announced the formation of the Moscow Group for Assistance in Implementation of Helsinki Agreements, later known as the Moscow Helsinki Group. The watchdog organization based on Principle VII of the Decalogue, began documenting cases of humanitarian violations against USSR citizens and distributing the documents to the Supreme Soviet Presidium of the USSR, and the governments and media of the thirty-five signatories of the Helsinki Accords. Similar, Helsinki groups were established in Ukraine, Lithuania, Georgia, and Armenia respectively.As the Helsinki groups were forming inside the USSR, the Worker's Defense Committee was founded in Poland in September 1976. Quickly following, on 1 January 1977, Charter 77 was established in Czechoslovakia. Although not labeled “Helsinki”, these groups focused on human rights issues and the accountability of their respective State constitutions and signatures on the Helsinki Accords. In September 1979 the Helsinki Watch Group was formed, and other Helsinki-labeled watchdog organizations were created throughout the thirty-five signatory States of the Helsinki Accords.In 1982, after an appeal by Dr. Andrei Sakharov, in his 1978 book Alarm and Hope, for “a unified international committee to defend all Helsinki Watch Group members”, a number of Helsinki committees held an International Citizens Helsinki Watch Conference in Lake Como, Italy. Ironically, as these groups were meeting and creating a new organization, the Moscow Helsinki Group was forced to disband and almost all its members were arrested. The year before the conference, the U.S. Helsinki Watch Committee—later Human Rights Watch—traveled throughout Eastern and Western Europe seeking out groups and individuals interested in forming an International Helsinki Federation.On 9 November 1982, member groups from Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United States formed the International Helsinki Federation. A main goal was to create Helsinki Committees in all thirty-five Helsinki Accords signatory States. The establishment of the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee was announced on 11 November 1988, and predominantly organized by the founding members of Charter 77.Organizing the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee along with Charter 77 was, the Jazz Section, the Association for Friendship between the ČSSR and the US, the Independent Peace Association and the Democratic Initiative. The history of the Czech Helsinki Committee is undeniably intertwined with the legacy of other distinguished human rights organizations such as the OSCE, Charter 77, and Human Rights Watch. In fact, the first chairperson of the Czechoslovak Helsinki Committee was Jiří Hájek, a former Minister of Foreign Affairs, and one of the co-founders of Charter 77.After the Velvet Revolution of November 1989 and the split of Czechoslovakia, the Czech Helsinki and Slovak Helsinki Committee were reformed as separate groups. The Czech Helsinki Committee continued working closely with other Helsinki committees and consulting with the Council of Europe. From monitoring and educating on Human Rights, to counseling centers and legal services the Czech Helsinki Committee continued to grow, and even spawned a separate Refugee Counseling Center and Citizenship Counseling Center. The mission today is similar and branching out to encompass areas such as prisoner's rights, women and children's rights, and asylum seekers.
|
[
"Václav Vlk",
"Táňa Fischerová",
"Jiří Hájek",
"Martin Palouš"
] |
|
Which team did Jero Miñarro play for in Oct, 1998?
|
October 11, 1998
|
{
"text": [
"Rayo Vallecano"
]
}
|
L2_Q6182445_P54_4
|
Jero Miñarro plays for Unión Deportiva Almería from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Jero Miñarro plays for Sangonera Atlético CF from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Jero Miñarro plays for CD Burriana from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2006.
Jero Miñarro plays for Valencia CF Mestalla from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 1998.
Jero Miñarro plays for Zamora CF from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Jero Miñarro plays for Panachaiki F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-20 football team from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1997.
Jero Miñarro plays for Ciudad de Lorca CF from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Jero Miñarro plays for CD Lumbreras from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2009.
Jero Miñarro plays for Burgos CF from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Jero Miñarro plays for Granada CF from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2005.
Jero Miñarro plays for UD San Sebastián de los Reyes from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Jero Miñarro plays for Calasparra FC from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-18 football team from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996.
Jero Miñarro plays for Lorca Deportiva CF from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010.
Jero Miñarro plays for Getafe CF from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2001.
Jero Miñarro plays for Torredonjimeno CF from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-16 football team from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1994.
Jero Miñarro plays for Rayo Vallecano from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.
|
Jero MiñarroJerónimo "Jero" Miñarro Navarro (born 19 September 1977) is a Spanish retired footballer who played as a central defender.Born in Lorca, Region of Murcia, Jero began his senior career with Valencia CF's reserves at the age of 19, never appearing officially for the first team. Subsequently, he moved to Segunda División and joined Rayo Vallecano, only playing twice during the season as the Madrid club promoted to La Liga.In July 1999, Jero joined Superleague Greece side Panachaiki FC, being first-choice during the campaign and scoring three goals as they narrowly avoided relegation. He returned to his country afterwards, appearing in only 19 second division games over the course of three seasons combined and being relegated with two of the three teams he represented in that level, Getafe CF and Burgos CF.Jero's last appearance in the second tier would be in 2002–03 with UD Almería (no games played). Until his retirement in June 2010 at nearly 33, he played exclusively in the lower leagues, captaining Lorca Deportiva CF in his final year. Subsequently, he joined the technical staff of Segunda División B's AD Cerro de Reyes.Jero played for Spain at various youth levels. He participated with the under-20s at the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship in Malaysia, featuring in one match for the eventual quarter-finalists.
|
[
"Lorca Deportiva CF",
"Getafe CF",
"Unión Deportiva Almería",
"Granada CF",
"Spain national under-16 football team",
"Spain national under-18 football team",
"Panachaiki F.C.",
"Valencia CF Mestalla",
"Zamora CF",
"Ciudad de Lorca CF",
"Sangonera Atlético CF",
"Torredonjimeno CF",
"Calasparra FC",
"UD San Sebastián de los Reyes",
"CD Burriana",
"Burgos CF",
"Spain national under-20 football team",
"CD Lumbreras"
] |
|
Which team did Jero Miñarro play for in 1998-10-11?
|
October 11, 1998
|
{
"text": [
"Rayo Vallecano"
]
}
|
L2_Q6182445_P54_4
|
Jero Miñarro plays for Unión Deportiva Almería from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Jero Miñarro plays for Sangonera Atlético CF from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Jero Miñarro plays for CD Burriana from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2006.
Jero Miñarro plays for Valencia CF Mestalla from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 1998.
Jero Miñarro plays for Zamora CF from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Jero Miñarro plays for Panachaiki F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-20 football team from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1997.
Jero Miñarro plays for Ciudad de Lorca CF from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Jero Miñarro plays for CD Lumbreras from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2009.
Jero Miñarro plays for Burgos CF from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Jero Miñarro plays for Granada CF from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2005.
Jero Miñarro plays for UD San Sebastián de los Reyes from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Jero Miñarro plays for Calasparra FC from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-18 football team from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996.
Jero Miñarro plays for Lorca Deportiva CF from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010.
Jero Miñarro plays for Getafe CF from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2001.
Jero Miñarro plays for Torredonjimeno CF from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-16 football team from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1994.
Jero Miñarro plays for Rayo Vallecano from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.
|
Jero MiñarroJerónimo "Jero" Miñarro Navarro (born 19 September 1977) is a Spanish retired footballer who played as a central defender.Born in Lorca, Region of Murcia, Jero began his senior career with Valencia CF's reserves at the age of 19, never appearing officially for the first team. Subsequently, he moved to Segunda División and joined Rayo Vallecano, only playing twice during the season as the Madrid club promoted to La Liga.In July 1999, Jero joined Superleague Greece side Panachaiki FC, being first-choice during the campaign and scoring three goals as they narrowly avoided relegation. He returned to his country afterwards, appearing in only 19 second division games over the course of three seasons combined and being relegated with two of the three teams he represented in that level, Getafe CF and Burgos CF.Jero's last appearance in the second tier would be in 2002–03 with UD Almería (no games played). Until his retirement in June 2010 at nearly 33, he played exclusively in the lower leagues, captaining Lorca Deportiva CF in his final year. Subsequently, he joined the technical staff of Segunda División B's AD Cerro de Reyes.Jero played for Spain at various youth levels. He participated with the under-20s at the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship in Malaysia, featuring in one match for the eventual quarter-finalists.
|
[
"Lorca Deportiva CF",
"Getafe CF",
"Unión Deportiva Almería",
"Granada CF",
"Spain national under-16 football team",
"Spain national under-18 football team",
"Panachaiki F.C.",
"Valencia CF Mestalla",
"Zamora CF",
"Ciudad de Lorca CF",
"Sangonera Atlético CF",
"Torredonjimeno CF",
"Calasparra FC",
"UD San Sebastián de los Reyes",
"CD Burriana",
"Burgos CF",
"Spain national under-20 football team",
"CD Lumbreras"
] |
|
Which team did Jero Miñarro play for in 11/10/1998?
|
October 11, 1998
|
{
"text": [
"Rayo Vallecano"
]
}
|
L2_Q6182445_P54_4
|
Jero Miñarro plays for Unión Deportiva Almería from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Jero Miñarro plays for Sangonera Atlético CF from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Jero Miñarro plays for CD Burriana from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2006.
Jero Miñarro plays for Valencia CF Mestalla from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 1998.
Jero Miñarro plays for Zamora CF from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Jero Miñarro plays for Panachaiki F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-20 football team from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1997.
Jero Miñarro plays for Ciudad de Lorca CF from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Jero Miñarro plays for CD Lumbreras from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2009.
Jero Miñarro plays for Burgos CF from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Jero Miñarro plays for Granada CF from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2005.
Jero Miñarro plays for UD San Sebastián de los Reyes from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Jero Miñarro plays for Calasparra FC from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-18 football team from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996.
Jero Miñarro plays for Lorca Deportiva CF from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010.
Jero Miñarro plays for Getafe CF from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2001.
Jero Miñarro plays for Torredonjimeno CF from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-16 football team from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1994.
Jero Miñarro plays for Rayo Vallecano from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.
|
Jero MiñarroJerónimo "Jero" Miñarro Navarro (born 19 September 1977) is a Spanish retired footballer who played as a central defender.Born in Lorca, Region of Murcia, Jero began his senior career with Valencia CF's reserves at the age of 19, never appearing officially for the first team. Subsequently, he moved to Segunda División and joined Rayo Vallecano, only playing twice during the season as the Madrid club promoted to La Liga.In July 1999, Jero joined Superleague Greece side Panachaiki FC, being first-choice during the campaign and scoring three goals as they narrowly avoided relegation. He returned to his country afterwards, appearing in only 19 second division games over the course of three seasons combined and being relegated with two of the three teams he represented in that level, Getafe CF and Burgos CF.Jero's last appearance in the second tier would be in 2002–03 with UD Almería (no games played). Until his retirement in June 2010 at nearly 33, he played exclusively in the lower leagues, captaining Lorca Deportiva CF in his final year. Subsequently, he joined the technical staff of Segunda División B's AD Cerro de Reyes.Jero played for Spain at various youth levels. He participated with the under-20s at the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship in Malaysia, featuring in one match for the eventual quarter-finalists.
|
[
"Lorca Deportiva CF",
"Getafe CF",
"Unión Deportiva Almería",
"Granada CF",
"Spain national under-16 football team",
"Spain national under-18 football team",
"Panachaiki F.C.",
"Valencia CF Mestalla",
"Zamora CF",
"Ciudad de Lorca CF",
"Sangonera Atlético CF",
"Torredonjimeno CF",
"Calasparra FC",
"UD San Sebastián de los Reyes",
"CD Burriana",
"Burgos CF",
"Spain national under-20 football team",
"CD Lumbreras"
] |
|
Which team did Jero Miñarro play for in Oct 11, 1998?
|
October 11, 1998
|
{
"text": [
"Rayo Vallecano"
]
}
|
L2_Q6182445_P54_4
|
Jero Miñarro plays for Unión Deportiva Almería from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Jero Miñarro plays for Sangonera Atlético CF from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Jero Miñarro plays for CD Burriana from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2006.
Jero Miñarro plays for Valencia CF Mestalla from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 1998.
Jero Miñarro plays for Zamora CF from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Jero Miñarro plays for Panachaiki F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-20 football team from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1997.
Jero Miñarro plays for Ciudad de Lorca CF from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Jero Miñarro plays for CD Lumbreras from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2009.
Jero Miñarro plays for Burgos CF from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Jero Miñarro plays for Granada CF from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2005.
Jero Miñarro plays for UD San Sebastián de los Reyes from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Jero Miñarro plays for Calasparra FC from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-18 football team from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996.
Jero Miñarro plays for Lorca Deportiva CF from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010.
Jero Miñarro plays for Getafe CF from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2001.
Jero Miñarro plays for Torredonjimeno CF from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-16 football team from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1994.
Jero Miñarro plays for Rayo Vallecano from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.
|
Jero MiñarroJerónimo "Jero" Miñarro Navarro (born 19 September 1977) is a Spanish retired footballer who played as a central defender.Born in Lorca, Region of Murcia, Jero began his senior career with Valencia CF's reserves at the age of 19, never appearing officially for the first team. Subsequently, he moved to Segunda División and joined Rayo Vallecano, only playing twice during the season as the Madrid club promoted to La Liga.In July 1999, Jero joined Superleague Greece side Panachaiki FC, being first-choice during the campaign and scoring three goals as they narrowly avoided relegation. He returned to his country afterwards, appearing in only 19 second division games over the course of three seasons combined and being relegated with two of the three teams he represented in that level, Getafe CF and Burgos CF.Jero's last appearance in the second tier would be in 2002–03 with UD Almería (no games played). Until his retirement in June 2010 at nearly 33, he played exclusively in the lower leagues, captaining Lorca Deportiva CF in his final year. Subsequently, he joined the technical staff of Segunda División B's AD Cerro de Reyes.Jero played for Spain at various youth levels. He participated with the under-20s at the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship in Malaysia, featuring in one match for the eventual quarter-finalists.
|
[
"Lorca Deportiva CF",
"Getafe CF",
"Unión Deportiva Almería",
"Granada CF",
"Spain national under-16 football team",
"Spain national under-18 football team",
"Panachaiki F.C.",
"Valencia CF Mestalla",
"Zamora CF",
"Ciudad de Lorca CF",
"Sangonera Atlético CF",
"Torredonjimeno CF",
"Calasparra FC",
"UD San Sebastián de los Reyes",
"CD Burriana",
"Burgos CF",
"Spain national under-20 football team",
"CD Lumbreras"
] |
|
Which team did Jero Miñarro play for in 10/11/1998?
|
October 11, 1998
|
{
"text": [
"Rayo Vallecano"
]
}
|
L2_Q6182445_P54_4
|
Jero Miñarro plays for Unión Deportiva Almería from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Jero Miñarro plays for Sangonera Atlético CF from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Jero Miñarro plays for CD Burriana from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2006.
Jero Miñarro plays for Valencia CF Mestalla from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 1998.
Jero Miñarro plays for Zamora CF from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Jero Miñarro plays for Panachaiki F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-20 football team from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1997.
Jero Miñarro plays for Ciudad de Lorca CF from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Jero Miñarro plays for CD Lumbreras from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2009.
Jero Miñarro plays for Burgos CF from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Jero Miñarro plays for Granada CF from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2005.
Jero Miñarro plays for UD San Sebastián de los Reyes from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Jero Miñarro plays for Calasparra FC from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-18 football team from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996.
Jero Miñarro plays for Lorca Deportiva CF from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010.
Jero Miñarro plays for Getafe CF from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2001.
Jero Miñarro plays for Torredonjimeno CF from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-16 football team from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1994.
Jero Miñarro plays for Rayo Vallecano from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.
|
Jero MiñarroJerónimo "Jero" Miñarro Navarro (born 19 September 1977) is a Spanish retired footballer who played as a central defender.Born in Lorca, Region of Murcia, Jero began his senior career with Valencia CF's reserves at the age of 19, never appearing officially for the first team. Subsequently, he moved to Segunda División and joined Rayo Vallecano, only playing twice during the season as the Madrid club promoted to La Liga.In July 1999, Jero joined Superleague Greece side Panachaiki FC, being first-choice during the campaign and scoring three goals as they narrowly avoided relegation. He returned to his country afterwards, appearing in only 19 second division games over the course of three seasons combined and being relegated with two of the three teams he represented in that level, Getafe CF and Burgos CF.Jero's last appearance in the second tier would be in 2002–03 with UD Almería (no games played). Until his retirement in June 2010 at nearly 33, he played exclusively in the lower leagues, captaining Lorca Deportiva CF in his final year. Subsequently, he joined the technical staff of Segunda División B's AD Cerro de Reyes.Jero played for Spain at various youth levels. He participated with the under-20s at the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship in Malaysia, featuring in one match for the eventual quarter-finalists.
|
[
"Lorca Deportiva CF",
"Getafe CF",
"Unión Deportiva Almería",
"Granada CF",
"Spain national under-16 football team",
"Spain national under-18 football team",
"Panachaiki F.C.",
"Valencia CF Mestalla",
"Zamora CF",
"Ciudad de Lorca CF",
"Sangonera Atlético CF",
"Torredonjimeno CF",
"Calasparra FC",
"UD San Sebastián de los Reyes",
"CD Burriana",
"Burgos CF",
"Spain national under-20 football team",
"CD Lumbreras"
] |
|
Which team did Jero Miñarro play for in 11-Oct-199811-October-1998?
|
October 11, 1998
|
{
"text": [
"Rayo Vallecano"
]
}
|
L2_Q6182445_P54_4
|
Jero Miñarro plays for Unión Deportiva Almería from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Jero Miñarro plays for Sangonera Atlético CF from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2004.
Jero Miñarro plays for CD Burriana from Jan, 2005 to Jan, 2006.
Jero Miñarro plays for Valencia CF Mestalla from Jan, 1996 to Jan, 1998.
Jero Miñarro plays for Zamora CF from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2002.
Jero Miñarro plays for Panachaiki F.C. from Jan, 1999 to Jan, 2000.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-20 football team from Jan, 1997 to Jan, 1997.
Jero Miñarro plays for Ciudad de Lorca CF from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2007.
Jero Miñarro plays for CD Lumbreras from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2009.
Jero Miñarro plays for Burgos CF from Jan, 2001 to Jan, 2001.
Jero Miñarro plays for Granada CF from Jan, 2004 to Jan, 2005.
Jero Miñarro plays for UD San Sebastián de los Reyes from Jan, 2008 to Jan, 2008.
Jero Miñarro plays for Calasparra FC from Jan, 2006 to Jan, 2007.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-18 football team from Jan, 1995 to Jan, 1996.
Jero Miñarro plays for Lorca Deportiva CF from Jan, 2009 to Jan, 2010.
Jero Miñarro plays for Getafe CF from Jan, 2000 to Jan, 2001.
Jero Miñarro plays for Torredonjimeno CF from Jan, 2002 to Jan, 2003.
Jero Miñarro plays for Spain national under-16 football team from Jan, 1992 to Jan, 1994.
Jero Miñarro plays for Rayo Vallecano from Jan, 1998 to Jan, 1999.
|
Jero MiñarroJerónimo "Jero" Miñarro Navarro (born 19 September 1977) is a Spanish retired footballer who played as a central defender.Born in Lorca, Region of Murcia, Jero began his senior career with Valencia CF's reserves at the age of 19, never appearing officially for the first team. Subsequently, he moved to Segunda División and joined Rayo Vallecano, only playing twice during the season as the Madrid club promoted to La Liga.In July 1999, Jero joined Superleague Greece side Panachaiki FC, being first-choice during the campaign and scoring three goals as they narrowly avoided relegation. He returned to his country afterwards, appearing in only 19 second division games over the course of three seasons combined and being relegated with two of the three teams he represented in that level, Getafe CF and Burgos CF.Jero's last appearance in the second tier would be in 2002–03 with UD Almería (no games played). Until his retirement in June 2010 at nearly 33, he played exclusively in the lower leagues, captaining Lorca Deportiva CF in his final year. Subsequently, he joined the technical staff of Segunda División B's AD Cerro de Reyes.Jero played for Spain at various youth levels. He participated with the under-20s at the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship in Malaysia, featuring in one match for the eventual quarter-finalists.
|
[
"Lorca Deportiva CF",
"Getafe CF",
"Unión Deportiva Almería",
"Granada CF",
"Spain national under-16 football team",
"Spain national under-18 football team",
"Panachaiki F.C.",
"Valencia CF Mestalla",
"Zamora CF",
"Ciudad de Lorca CF",
"Sangonera Atlético CF",
"Torredonjimeno CF",
"Calasparra FC",
"UD San Sebastián de los Reyes",
"CD Burriana",
"Burgos CF",
"Spain national under-20 football team",
"CD Lumbreras"
] |
|
Who was the head of Prats de Lluçanès in Aug, 2021?
|
August 19, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Jordi Bruch i Franch"
]
}
|
L2_Q13814_P6_4
|
Isaac Peraire Soler is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2019.
Lluís Vila i Vilalta is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2015.
Ramon Vall i Ciuró is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 1979 to Jan, 2003.
Ramon Besora i Torradeflot is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Jordi Bruch i Franch is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
|
Prats de LluçanèsPrats de Lluçanès ((Officially and in Catalan, ; ) is a municipality in the "comarca" of Osona in Catalonia, Spain. It is situated in the west of the "comarca", on a plain between the Lluçanès and Merlès rivers, and is served by the C-154 road between Vic and Gironella.In 2015, the municipality voted to join a proposed new comarca of Lluçanès, of which it would be the capital, but the plan was put on hold due to insufficient support.
|
[
"Ramon Vall i Ciuró",
"Ramon Besora i Torradeflot",
"Isaac Peraire Soler",
"Lluís Vila i Vilalta"
] |
|
Who was the head of Prats de Lluçanès in 2021-08-19?
|
August 19, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Jordi Bruch i Franch"
]
}
|
L2_Q13814_P6_4
|
Isaac Peraire Soler is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2019.
Lluís Vila i Vilalta is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2015.
Ramon Vall i Ciuró is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 1979 to Jan, 2003.
Ramon Besora i Torradeflot is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Jordi Bruch i Franch is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
|
Prats de LluçanèsPrats de Lluçanès ((Officially and in Catalan, ; ) is a municipality in the "comarca" of Osona in Catalonia, Spain. It is situated in the west of the "comarca", on a plain between the Lluçanès and Merlès rivers, and is served by the C-154 road between Vic and Gironella.In 2015, the municipality voted to join a proposed new comarca of Lluçanès, of which it would be the capital, but the plan was put on hold due to insufficient support.
|
[
"Ramon Vall i Ciuró",
"Ramon Besora i Torradeflot",
"Isaac Peraire Soler",
"Lluís Vila i Vilalta"
] |
|
Who was the head of Prats de Lluçanès in 19/08/2021?
|
August 19, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Jordi Bruch i Franch"
]
}
|
L2_Q13814_P6_4
|
Isaac Peraire Soler is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2019.
Lluís Vila i Vilalta is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2015.
Ramon Vall i Ciuró is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 1979 to Jan, 2003.
Ramon Besora i Torradeflot is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Jordi Bruch i Franch is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
|
Prats de LluçanèsPrats de Lluçanès ((Officially and in Catalan, ; ) is a municipality in the "comarca" of Osona in Catalonia, Spain. It is situated in the west of the "comarca", on a plain between the Lluçanès and Merlès rivers, and is served by the C-154 road between Vic and Gironella.In 2015, the municipality voted to join a proposed new comarca of Lluçanès, of which it would be the capital, but the plan was put on hold due to insufficient support.
|
[
"Ramon Vall i Ciuró",
"Ramon Besora i Torradeflot",
"Isaac Peraire Soler",
"Lluís Vila i Vilalta"
] |
|
Who was the head of Prats de Lluçanès in Aug 19, 2021?
|
August 19, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Jordi Bruch i Franch"
]
}
|
L2_Q13814_P6_4
|
Isaac Peraire Soler is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2019.
Lluís Vila i Vilalta is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2015.
Ramon Vall i Ciuró is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 1979 to Jan, 2003.
Ramon Besora i Torradeflot is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Jordi Bruch i Franch is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
|
Prats de LluçanèsPrats de Lluçanès ((Officially and in Catalan, ; ) is a municipality in the "comarca" of Osona in Catalonia, Spain. It is situated in the west of the "comarca", on a plain between the Lluçanès and Merlès rivers, and is served by the C-154 road between Vic and Gironella.In 2015, the municipality voted to join a proposed new comarca of Lluçanès, of which it would be the capital, but the plan was put on hold due to insufficient support.
|
[
"Ramon Vall i Ciuró",
"Ramon Besora i Torradeflot",
"Isaac Peraire Soler",
"Lluís Vila i Vilalta"
] |
|
Who was the head of Prats de Lluçanès in 08/19/2021?
|
August 19, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Jordi Bruch i Franch"
]
}
|
L2_Q13814_P6_4
|
Isaac Peraire Soler is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2019.
Lluís Vila i Vilalta is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2015.
Ramon Vall i Ciuró is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 1979 to Jan, 2003.
Ramon Besora i Torradeflot is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Jordi Bruch i Franch is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
|
Prats de LluçanèsPrats de Lluçanès ((Officially and in Catalan, ; ) is a municipality in the "comarca" of Osona in Catalonia, Spain. It is situated in the west of the "comarca", on a plain between the Lluçanès and Merlès rivers, and is served by the C-154 road between Vic and Gironella.In 2015, the municipality voted to join a proposed new comarca of Lluçanès, of which it would be the capital, but the plan was put on hold due to insufficient support.
|
[
"Ramon Vall i Ciuró",
"Ramon Besora i Torradeflot",
"Isaac Peraire Soler",
"Lluís Vila i Vilalta"
] |
|
Who was the head of Prats de Lluçanès in 19-Aug-202119-August-2021?
|
August 19, 2021
|
{
"text": [
"Jordi Bruch i Franch"
]
}
|
L2_Q13814_P6_4
|
Isaac Peraire Soler is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2015 to Jan, 2019.
Lluís Vila i Vilalta is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2007 to Jan, 2015.
Ramon Vall i Ciuró is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 1979 to Jan, 2003.
Ramon Besora i Torradeflot is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2003 to Jan, 2007.
Jordi Bruch i Franch is the head of the government of Prats de Lluçanès from Jan, 2019 to Dec, 2022.
|
Prats de LluçanèsPrats de Lluçanès ((Officially and in Catalan, ; ) is a municipality in the "comarca" of Osona in Catalonia, Spain. It is situated in the west of the "comarca", on a plain between the Lluçanès and Merlès rivers, and is served by the C-154 road between Vic and Gironella.In 2015, the municipality voted to join a proposed new comarca of Lluçanès, of which it would be the capital, but the plan was put on hold due to insufficient support.
|
[
"Ramon Vall i Ciuró",
"Ramon Besora i Torradeflot",
"Isaac Peraire Soler",
"Lluís Vila i Vilalta"
] |
|
Which political party did Jacqui Lambie belong to in Jul, 2017?
|
July 04, 2017
|
{
"text": [
"Jacqui Lambie Network"
]
}
|
L2_Q16731201_P102_2
|
Jacqui Lambie is a member of the Clive Palmer's United Australia Party from Jan, 2013 to Nov, 2014.
Jacqui Lambie is a member of the Jacqui Lambie Network from May, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Jacqui Lambie is a member of the Liberal Party of Australia from Nov, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
|
Jacqui LambieJacquiline Louise Lambie (born 26 February 1971) is an Australian politician who is the leader and founder of the Jacqui Lambie Network (JLN). She was a Senator for Tasmania from 2014 to 2017, and was re-elected in 2019.First elected as a member of the Palmer United Party (PUP), she received national prominence for her intense grassroots campaign and subsequently her display of aggressive and vociferous parliamentary behaviour, championing issues concerning foreign affairs, veterans' affairs, youth unemployment and the criticism of Islam. After persistent internal divisions, Lambie resigned from the PUP and sat as an independent before forming her own political party.Attempting to seek Liberal preselection after joining the party in 2011, and previously working as a staff member of Labor senator Nick Sherry, Lambie joined the Palmer United Party (PUP), led by Australian billionaire Clive Palmer. She was elected to the Senate at the 2013 federal election. Her term began in July 2014. In November 2014, Lambie resigned from the Palmer United Party to sit in the Senate as an independent.In May 2015, Lambie formed the Jacqui Lambie Network political party with herself leader. She was elected to a six-year term in her own right at the 2016 federal election (a double dissolution). In November 2017, she was revealed to hold Australian-British dual citizenship, having inherited the British one from her Scottish-born father. As part of the parliamentary eligibility crisis, she announced her resignation on 14 November 2017. After a recount, she was expected to be replaced by Devonport Mayor Steve Martin, who had been second on the JLN ticket in the 2016 federal election. He survived a challenge to his own eligibility, on a different constitutional ground, but refused to step down so as to create a casual Senate vacancy to which Lambie could be appointed. She expelled him from the party for disloyalty.Lambie was born in the town of Ulverstone in north-western Tasmania. Her parents separated when she was 13, and she was raised in a public housing estate in Devonport, attending Devonport High School until she left at Year 11. Lambie enlisted in the Australian Army in 1989. She completed her recruit training while unknowingly pregnant with her first child, a fact the army took four months to recognise.After basic training, she was assigned to the Royal Australian Corps of Transport in 1990. She remained with the Transport Corps for five years before being transferred to the Royal Australian Corps of Military Police, where she worked for another five years, achieving the rank of Corporal. During a field exercise in July 1997, Lambie sustained a back injury resulting in long-term detriments to her spine. After physiotherapy and medical interventions, she was unable to regain operational fitness and was discharged on medical grounds (thoracic pain) in 2000. This prompted her to pursue a claim for a military pension from the Department of Veterans' Affairs (DVA). She has since been an advocate for veterans with the Returned and Services League of Australia and involved in fundraising with the Burnie Chamber of Commerce, the Country Women's Association and Rotary.The Department of Veterans' Affairs (DVA) initially rejected her application for compensation, but subsequently approved it and put her on a military disability pension. She later applied for compensation for depression related to her back pain, which was also initially rejected. The DVA hired a private investigation firm to conduct five hours of surveillance on her activities within her home. On the basis of this surveillance, the department concluded that she was a malingerer, cancelling her military pension and coverage of her medical care.Lambie fought the department's conclusion for five years, during which time she was accepted for a Centrelink disability pension. In 2006, the Administrative Appeals Tribunal was about to rule on whether the video evidence was admissible in her case when DVA abandoned its use of the video and accepted that Lambie was entitled to compensation. The tribunal's Deputy President, Justice Christopher Wright, concluded that "it is likely that even greater improvement would have been achieved a long time ago if her medical treatments, which were initially funded by the respondent, had not been terminated in 2001".Lambie's political involvement began in 2008 when she began working for Tasmanian Labor senator Nick Sherry.In November 2011, she joined the Liberal Party of Australia and later decided to run for preselection for the Division of Braddon. However she subsequently left the Liberal Party, saying that the Liberals are a "boys' club", and she joined to "infiltrate" them to see what she could learn about politics.In 2012, Lambie sold her house to help fund her run as an independent, before turning to the newly formed Palmer United Party founded by billionaire Clive Palmer as she said "I just didn't have the money like the big players did for advertising."In the 2013 federal election, Lambie won Tasmania's sixth Senate seat as a candidate for the Palmer United Party, receiving 6.58% of first preference votes. She has credited the final result of her win to "the big man upstairs" – referring not to Palmer, but to God: "Once it gets to that point, it's up to God upstairs. There's not much else I can do about it."On 24 November 2014, Lambie resigned from the Palmer United Party, announcing that she would remain in the Senate as an independent. Lambie's resignation followed several weeks of disagreements with party leader Clive Palmer.In April 2015, Lambie applied to register a political party called the Jacqui Lambie Network. In May 2015, the party was registered with the Australian Electoral Commission, with Lambie as its leader. She was re-elected to the Senate in the 2016 Australian federal election under the banner of her own party, the Jacqui Lambie Network.On 14 November 2017, Lambie announced her resignation from the Senate, after revealing she held both British and Australian nationality, prohibited under Section 44 of the Australian Constitution. She stated in her resignation that she wished to return to federal politics, and that if Justine Keay was forced to resign from her seat of Braddon over her citizenship status, that she would consider running, but did not nominate for the 2018 Braddon by-election.In 2018, the High Court ruled that Devonport Mayor Steve Martin would replace Lambie as Senator of Tasmania. Lambie expected Martin to immediately resign, which would have cleared the way for her to be appointed to fill the resulting casual vacancy and return to the Senate. She claimed that "personal morality" and loyalty dictated that Martin stand down. A party spokesman contended that Tasmanians intended for Lambie to hold the seat, and there was "an opportunity for that vote to be restored" if Martin resigned. When Martin refused to do so, Lambie expelled him from the party. In a letter to Martin, Lambie accused him of failing to uphold the JLN's values of "mateship, respect and integrity".She was re-elected to the Senate in the 2019 Australian federal election. In the midst of the debate of the government bill "Ensuring Integrity Bill" in Parliament, Lambie threatened to vote for the bill if John Setka, the secretary of the Victorian branch of Construction, Forestry, Maritime, Mining and Energy Union (CFMEU), did not resign as head of the branch. She even invited Setka over to her Tasmanian home for Sunday roast, in a bid to convince Setka to resign. She eventually voted against the bill after her amendments were rejected by the government.In 2020, Lambie opposed the Liberal Party's university reform bill due to her belief it would harm the mental health and economic opportunities of low-income students. She made her position clear in when addressing the Senate, saying she would "refuse to be the vote that tells poor kids out there … no matter how gifted, no matter how determined you are, you might as well dream a little cheaper, because you're never going to make it, because you can't afford it".In August 2014, Lambie expressed her belief that China could invade Australia: "If anybody thinks that we should have a national security and defence policy which ignores the threat of a Chinese Communist invasion – you're delusional and got rocks in your head ... The Communist Chinese military capacity and level of threat to the western world democracies is at an unprecedented and historical high." Her comments incurred a rebuke from the Premier of Tasmania Will Hodgman. She later added Indonesia as a potential military threat. Lambie has made comments suggesting her support for potential reintroduction of national service, stating "It's time to teach [our youth] some respect, loyalty and honour."In October 2015 she declared her opposition to the China–Australia Free Trade Agreement, saying she considers the Chinese government to be "push[ing] totalitarian ideologies", "anti-democratic" and "a bully, thief, liar and international human rights abuser".In October 2014, Lambie stated in a radio interview with ABC Radio National that she liked Vladimir Putin, saying: "I think he has very strong leadership. He has great values. He's certainly doing his bit to stamp out terrorism and I guess you've got to pay the man for that." In February 2015, Lambie called for the reintroduction of the death penalty for Australian citizens who leave the country to become foreign fighters.In October 2016, she called for a pre-emptive pardon for any defence personnel accused of war crimes against the Taliban or Islamic State, on the grounds that Taliban and Islamic State fighters were not entitled to the protection of the rules of war or international human rights because of their "subhuman behaviour and vile, disgusting culture and ideology".In September 2014, Lambie announced plans to introduce a private member's bill aimed at banning the burqa in Australia. However, constitutional expert Professor George Williams described the law as "unworkable, it would frankly be a bit silly". She also attacked supporters of Islamic sharia law, describing them as "maniacs and depraved humans" who will not stop committing "cold-blooded butchery and rapes until every woman in Australia wears a burka". However, when asked to explain her understanding of sharia law in an interview, she was unable to and instead said "it obviously involves terrorism". According to ABC political reporter Andrew Greene, some commentators described the interview as a "train wreck". In February 2017, she introduced a private member's bill which would amend the Criminal Code Act 1995 to make it illegal to wear full face coverings in public places when a terrorism threat declaration is in force, unless it was necessary for certain purposes.In January 2017, she said that Australia should follow Donald Trump's lead in his order to restrict entry of citizens of certain Muslim-majority countries to the USA. She called for deporting from Australia all Muslims who supported Sharia law, as well as deporting everyone on the ASIO terror watch list, or at least charging them with treason or sedition.In an interview with "ABC News" in 2018 Lambie distanced herself from her previous views on Sharia law, stating they were "divisive" and influenced by "a previous advisor that was really driving that in". Following her involvement in the TV show "Go Back to Where You Came From" in 2018 where she was placed in a Syrian warzone, Lambie shifted towards a pro-refugee stance, stating that "the discussion [about accepting more refugees] needs to be on the political table".In October 2013 she criticised the Australian Greens, accusing them of having "destroyed all hope in Tasmania" and saying that the party should be subject to a Senate inquiry over the state's high unemployment rate. In July 2015 she likened The Greens to Islamic State in that "both those groups would like us to go back and live in the dark ages ... They'd like us to go live back in caves with candles and eat tofu."In 2020, Lambie worked alongside the Greens in criticising a bill that would 'weaken' political donation laws.In February 2016, Lambie raised the matter of former soldiers who claim to have suffered abuse, calling for an inquiry into cover-ups and Lieutenant General David Morrison's involvement.In response to a Change.org petition organised by Julie-Ann Finney, whose son David Finney took his own life after a crippling battle with Post-Traumatic Stress injury, Lambie called for a Royal Commission into Veteran Suicide. the petition had over 400,000 signatures. On 5 February 2020, the Morrison Government announced their intention to appoint a National Commissioner for Defence and Veteran Suicide Prevention to inquire into the deaths by suicide of serving and former ADF members.Lambie criticised the Government's plan in a Dissenting Report, noting that "The families of veterans who have taken their own lives support a Royal Commission. The institutions who are being blamed for those suicides support a National Commissioner." Two bills related to the Commissioner were introduced into Parliament by the Attorney-General on 27 August 2020, the "National Commissioner for Defence and Veteran Suicide Prevention Bill 2020", and the "National Commissioner for Defence and Veteran Suicide Prevention (Consequential Amendments) Bill 2020". Magistrate Bernadette Boss was appointed as the first (interim) National Commissioner for Defence and Veteran Suicide Prevention on 1 October 2020.On 22 March 2021 both chambers of Parliament passed motions in support of the royal commission. On 19 April 2021 a Royal Commission into Defence and Veterans Suicide in Australia was established.Jacqui Lambie introduced a Bill to the Australian Senate in February 2020 that proposes to tighten political donations laws. The bill seeks to amend current laws that permit political donations under $14,300 to not be disclosed. Lambie has proposed lowering this threshold to $2,500.The bill also proposes to introduce electoral expenditure accounts for organisations that run political campaigns. This will compel parties and others to disclose the source of any money they spend on their electoral campaigns.In early 2020, Lambie started a campaign to support Australian manufacturing with concerns about Australia's reliance on foreign imported products, she believes these concerns are a threat to Australia's economic sovereignty; magnified with the advent of COVID19.Lambie has said on her website "It’s about time that the people in Parliament woke up to China’s attempts to infiltrate our economy and our democracy." Her concerns are echoed by Duncan Lewis, formerly the Director-General of Security at ASIO. There is ongoing debate over whether Liberal MP Gladys Liu's ties to the Chinese Communist Party are appropriate, with the Labor party arguing she may not be 'fit and proper' to sit as an MP.Lambie is single, with two children. She gave birth to her first son Brentyn at age 18 in 1989, the product of her relationship with a high school boyfriend, after her enlistment for the Army. She met John Milverton while working in the Royal Australian Corps of Transport. They began a de facto marriage, where Milverton formally adopted Brentyn, and also went on to have another son, Dylan, born in 1992. Milverton and Lambie separated shortly before her discharge from the Army in 2000. In August 2015, she went public with her 21-year-old son's battle with methamphetamine addiction. She has also stated that she was addicted to pain medication and attempted suicide once.Lambie lives in the city of Burnie, on the North Coast of Tasmania. She has jokingly described her perfect man as having "heaps of cash" and "a package between their legs". Her comments were met with much ire, and she later declared it to be her most embarrassing moment.In 2014, Lambie described herself as "Catholic; I'm religious" — citing it as a reason for rejecting an invitation to visit a Sydney mosque.In her first speech to Parliament in 2014, Lambie stated that, through her mother's family, she shares "blood, culture, and history" with Aboriginal Australians, as a descendant of Mannalargenna, an Aboriginal Tasmanian leader. She later provided a family tree to "Australian Story" claiming descent from Margaret Briggs, a granddaughter of Mannalargenna who married into the Hite family. In 2002, the Administrative Appeals Tribunal had ruled that descent from Margaret Briggs was sufficient to meet the Aboriginal ancestry requirements for ATSIC elections. However, Lambie's claims of Indigenous descent have been questioned by several sources including "Australian Story", the Tasmanian Pioneer Index, and members of the Aboriginal community in Tasmania. Clyde Mansell, chairman of the Aboriginal Land Council of Tasmania, stated they were "absolutely outrageous and scandalous". Another Tasmanian elder, Roy Maynard, said that "she's identified as Aboriginal, she’s got that right as far as I’m concerned", and criticised Mansell for doubting her claims. The Parliamentary Library of Australia includes Lambie on its list of Indigenous parliamentarians.
|
[
"Clive Palmer's United Australia Party",
"Liberal Party of Australia"
] |
|
Which political party did Jacqui Lambie belong to in 2017-07-04?
|
July 04, 2017
|
{
"text": [
"Jacqui Lambie Network"
]
}
|
L2_Q16731201_P102_2
|
Jacqui Lambie is a member of the Clive Palmer's United Australia Party from Jan, 2013 to Nov, 2014.
Jacqui Lambie is a member of the Jacqui Lambie Network from May, 2015 to Dec, 2022.
Jacqui Lambie is a member of the Liberal Party of Australia from Nov, 2011 to Jan, 2012.
|
Jacqui LambieJacquiline Louise Lambie (born 26 February 1971) is an Australian politician who is the leader and founder of the Jacqui Lambie Network (JLN). She was a Senator for Tasmania from 2014 to 2017, and was re-elected in 2019.First elected as a member of the Palmer United Party (PUP), she received national prominence for her intense grassroots campaign and subsequently her display of aggressive and vociferous parliamentary behaviour, championing issues concerning foreign affairs, veterans' affairs, youth unemployment and the criticism of Islam. After persistent internal divisions, Lambie resigned from the PUP and sat as an independent before forming her own political party.Attempting to seek Liberal preselection after joining the party in 2011, and previously working as a staff member of Labor senator Nick Sherry, Lambie joined the Palmer United Party (PUP), led by Australian billionaire Clive Palmer. She was elected to the Senate at the 2013 federal election. Her term began in July 2014. In November 2014, Lambie resigned from the Palmer United Party to sit in the Senate as an independent.In May 2015, Lambie formed the Jacqui Lambie Network political party with herself leader. She was elected to a six-year term in her own right at the 2016 federal election (a double dissolution). In November 2017, she was revealed to hold Australian-British dual citizenship, having inherited the British one from her Scottish-born father. As part of the parliamentary eligibility crisis, she announced her resignation on 14 November 2017. After a recount, she was expected to be replaced by Devonport Mayor Steve Martin, who had been second on the JLN ticket in the 2016 federal election. He survived a challenge to his own eligibility, on a different constitutional ground, but refused to step down so as to create a casual Senate vacancy to which Lambie could be appointed. She expelled him from the party for disloyalty.Lambie was born in the town of Ulverstone in north-western Tasmania. Her parents separated when she was 13, and she was raised in a public housing estate in Devonport, attending Devonport High School until she left at Year 11. Lambie enlisted in the Australian Army in 1989. She completed her recruit training while unknowingly pregnant with her first child, a fact the army took four months to recognise.After basic training, she was assigned to the Royal Australian Corps of Transport in 1990. She remained with the Transport Corps for five years before being transferred to the Royal Australian Corps of Military Police, where she worked for another five years, achieving the rank of Corporal. During a field exercise in July 1997, Lambie sustained a back injury resulting in long-term detriments to her spine. After physiotherapy and medical interventions, she was unable to regain operational fitness and was discharged on medical grounds (thoracic pain) in 2000. This prompted her to pursue a claim for a military pension from the Department of Veterans' Affairs (DVA). She has since been an advocate for veterans with the Returned and Services League of Australia and involved in fundraising with the Burnie Chamber of Commerce, the Country Women's Association and Rotary.The Department of Veterans' Affairs (DVA) initially rejected her application for compensation, but subsequently approved it and put her on a military disability pension. She later applied for compensation for depression related to her back pain, which was also initially rejected. The DVA hired a private investigation firm to conduct five hours of surveillance on her activities within her home. On the basis of this surveillance, the department concluded that she was a malingerer, cancelling her military pension and coverage of her medical care.Lambie fought the department's conclusion for five years, during which time she was accepted for a Centrelink disability pension. In 2006, the Administrative Appeals Tribunal was about to rule on whether the video evidence was admissible in her case when DVA abandoned its use of the video and accepted that Lambie was entitled to compensation. The tribunal's Deputy President, Justice Christopher Wright, concluded that "it is likely that even greater improvement would have been achieved a long time ago if her medical treatments, which were initially funded by the respondent, had not been terminated in 2001".Lambie's political involvement began in 2008 when she began working for Tasmanian Labor senator Nick Sherry.In November 2011, she joined the Liberal Party of Australia and later decided to run for preselection for the Division of Braddon. However she subsequently left the Liberal Party, saying that the Liberals are a "boys' club", and she joined to "infiltrate" them to see what she could learn about politics.In 2012, Lambie sold her house to help fund her run as an independent, before turning to the newly formed Palmer United Party founded by billionaire Clive Palmer as she said "I just didn't have the money like the big players did for advertising."In the 2013 federal election, Lambie won Tasmania's sixth Senate seat as a candidate for the Palmer United Party, receiving 6.58% of first preference votes. She has credited the final result of her win to "the big man upstairs" – referring not to Palmer, but to God: "Once it gets to that point, it's up to God upstairs. There's not much else I can do about it."On 24 November 2014, Lambie resigned from the Palmer United Party, announcing that she would remain in the Senate as an independent. Lambie's resignation followed several weeks of disagreements with party leader Clive Palmer.In April 2015, Lambie applied to register a political party called the Jacqui Lambie Network. In May 2015, the party was registered with the Australian Electoral Commission, with Lambie as its leader. She was re-elected to the Senate in the 2016 Australian federal election under the banner of her own party, the Jacqui Lambie Network.On 14 November 2017, Lambie announced her resignation from the Senate, after revealing she held both British and Australian nationality, prohibited under Section 44 of the Australian Constitution. She stated in her resignation that she wished to return to federal politics, and that if Justine Keay was forced to resign from her seat of Braddon over her citizenship status, that she would consider running, but did not nominate for the 2018 Braddon by-election.In 2018, the High Court ruled that Devonport Mayor Steve Martin would replace Lambie as Senator of Tasmania. Lambie expected Martin to immediately resign, which would have cleared the way for her to be appointed to fill the resulting casual vacancy and return to the Senate. She claimed that "personal morality" and loyalty dictated that Martin stand down. A party spokesman contended that Tasmanians intended for Lambie to hold the seat, and there was "an opportunity for that vote to be restored" if Martin resigned. When Martin refused to do so, Lambie expelled him from the party. In a letter to Martin, Lambie accused him of failing to uphold the JLN's values of "mateship, respect and integrity".She was re-elected to the Senate in the 2019 Australian federal election. In the midst of the debate of the government bill "Ensuring Integrity Bill" in Parliament, Lambie threatened to vote for the bill if John Setka, the secretary of the Victorian branch of Construction, Forestry, Maritime, Mining and Energy Union (CFMEU), did not resign as head of the branch. She even invited Setka over to her Tasmanian home for Sunday roast, in a bid to convince Setka to resign. She eventually voted against the bill after her amendments were rejected by the government.In 2020, Lambie opposed the Liberal Party's university reform bill due to her belief it would harm the mental health and economic opportunities of low-income students. She made her position clear in when addressing the Senate, saying she would "refuse to be the vote that tells poor kids out there … no matter how gifted, no matter how determined you are, you might as well dream a little cheaper, because you're never going to make it, because you can't afford it".In August 2014, Lambie expressed her belief that China could invade Australia: "If anybody thinks that we should have a national security and defence policy which ignores the threat of a Chinese Communist invasion – you're delusional and got rocks in your head ... The Communist Chinese military capacity and level of threat to the western world democracies is at an unprecedented and historical high." Her comments incurred a rebuke from the Premier of Tasmania Will Hodgman. She later added Indonesia as a potential military threat. Lambie has made comments suggesting her support for potential reintroduction of national service, stating "It's time to teach [our youth] some respect, loyalty and honour."In October 2015 she declared her opposition to the China–Australia Free Trade Agreement, saying she considers the Chinese government to be "push[ing] totalitarian ideologies", "anti-democratic" and "a bully, thief, liar and international human rights abuser".In October 2014, Lambie stated in a radio interview with ABC Radio National that she liked Vladimir Putin, saying: "I think he has very strong leadership. He has great values. He's certainly doing his bit to stamp out terrorism and I guess you've got to pay the man for that." In February 2015, Lambie called for the reintroduction of the death penalty for Australian citizens who leave the country to become foreign fighters.In October 2016, she called for a pre-emptive pardon for any defence personnel accused of war crimes against the Taliban or Islamic State, on the grounds that Taliban and Islamic State fighters were not entitled to the protection of the rules of war or international human rights because of their "subhuman behaviour and vile, disgusting culture and ideology".In September 2014, Lambie announced plans to introduce a private member's bill aimed at banning the burqa in Australia. However, constitutional expert Professor George Williams described the law as "unworkable, it would frankly be a bit silly". She also attacked supporters of Islamic sharia law, describing them as "maniacs and depraved humans" who will not stop committing "cold-blooded butchery and rapes until every woman in Australia wears a burka". However, when asked to explain her understanding of sharia law in an interview, she was unable to and instead said "it obviously involves terrorism". According to ABC political reporter Andrew Greene, some commentators described the interview as a "train wreck". In February 2017, she introduced a private member's bill which would amend the Criminal Code Act 1995 to make it illegal to wear full face coverings in public places when a terrorism threat declaration is in force, unless it was necessary for certain purposes.In January 2017, she said that Australia should follow Donald Trump's lead in his order to restrict entry of citizens of certain Muslim-majority countries to the USA. She called for deporting from Australia all Muslims who supported Sharia law, as well as deporting everyone on the ASIO terror watch list, or at least charging them with treason or sedition.In an interview with "ABC News" in 2018 Lambie distanced herself from her previous views on Sharia law, stating they were "divisive" and influenced by "a previous advisor that was really driving that in". Following her involvement in the TV show "Go Back to Where You Came From" in 2018 where she was placed in a Syrian warzone, Lambie shifted towards a pro-refugee stance, stating that "the discussion [about accepting more refugees] needs to be on the political table".In October 2013 she criticised the Australian Greens, accusing them of having "destroyed all hope in Tasmania" and saying that the party should be subject to a Senate inquiry over the state's high unemployment rate. In July 2015 she likened The Greens to Islamic State in that "both those groups would like us to go back and live in the dark ages ... They'd like us to go live back in caves with candles and eat tofu."In 2020, Lambie worked alongside the Greens in criticising a bill that would 'weaken' political donation laws.In February 2016, Lambie raised the matter of former soldiers who claim to have suffered abuse, calling for an inquiry into cover-ups and Lieutenant General David Morrison's involvement.In response to a Change.org petition organised by Julie-Ann Finney, whose son David Finney took his own life after a crippling battle with Post-Traumatic Stress injury, Lambie called for a Royal Commission into Veteran Suicide. the petition had over 400,000 signatures. On 5 February 2020, the Morrison Government announced their intention to appoint a National Commissioner for Defence and Veteran Suicide Prevention to inquire into the deaths by suicide of serving and former ADF members.Lambie criticised the Government's plan in a Dissenting Report, noting that "The families of veterans who have taken their own lives support a Royal Commission. The institutions who are being blamed for those suicides support a National Commissioner." Two bills related to the Commissioner were introduced into Parliament by the Attorney-General on 27 August 2020, the "National Commissioner for Defence and Veteran Suicide Prevention Bill 2020", and the "National Commissioner for Defence and Veteran Suicide Prevention (Consequential Amendments) Bill 2020". Magistrate Bernadette Boss was appointed as the first (interim) National Commissioner for Defence and Veteran Suicide Prevention on 1 October 2020.On 22 March 2021 both chambers of Parliament passed motions in support of the royal commission. On 19 April 2021 a Royal Commission into Defence and Veterans Suicide in Australia was established.Jacqui Lambie introduced a Bill to the Australian Senate in February 2020 that proposes to tighten political donations laws. The bill seeks to amend current laws that permit political donations under $14,300 to not be disclosed. Lambie has proposed lowering this threshold to $2,500.The bill also proposes to introduce electoral expenditure accounts for organisations that run political campaigns. This will compel parties and others to disclose the source of any money they spend on their electoral campaigns.In early 2020, Lambie started a campaign to support Australian manufacturing with concerns about Australia's reliance on foreign imported products, she believes these concerns are a threat to Australia's economic sovereignty; magnified with the advent of COVID19.Lambie has said on her website "It’s about time that the people in Parliament woke up to China’s attempts to infiltrate our economy and our democracy." Her concerns are echoed by Duncan Lewis, formerly the Director-General of Security at ASIO. There is ongoing debate over whether Liberal MP Gladys Liu's ties to the Chinese Communist Party are appropriate, with the Labor party arguing she may not be 'fit and proper' to sit as an MP.Lambie is single, with two children. She gave birth to her first son Brentyn at age 18 in 1989, the product of her relationship with a high school boyfriend, after her enlistment for the Army. She met John Milverton while working in the Royal Australian Corps of Transport. They began a de facto marriage, where Milverton formally adopted Brentyn, and also went on to have another son, Dylan, born in 1992. Milverton and Lambie separated shortly before her discharge from the Army in 2000. In August 2015, she went public with her 21-year-old son's battle with methamphetamine addiction. She has also stated that she was addicted to pain medication and attempted suicide once.Lambie lives in the city of Burnie, on the North Coast of Tasmania. She has jokingly described her perfect man as having "heaps of cash" and "a package between their legs". Her comments were met with much ire, and she later declared it to be her most embarrassing moment.In 2014, Lambie described herself as "Catholic; I'm religious" — citing it as a reason for rejecting an invitation to visit a Sydney mosque.In her first speech to Parliament in 2014, Lambie stated that, through her mother's family, she shares "blood, culture, and history" with Aboriginal Australians, as a descendant of Mannalargenna, an Aboriginal Tasmanian leader. She later provided a family tree to "Australian Story" claiming descent from Margaret Briggs, a granddaughter of Mannalargenna who married into the Hite family. In 2002, the Administrative Appeals Tribunal had ruled that descent from Margaret Briggs was sufficient to meet the Aboriginal ancestry requirements for ATSIC elections. However, Lambie's claims of Indigenous descent have been questioned by several sources including "Australian Story", the Tasmanian Pioneer Index, and members of the Aboriginal community in Tasmania. Clyde Mansell, chairman of the Aboriginal Land Council of Tasmania, stated they were "absolutely outrageous and scandalous". Another Tasmanian elder, Roy Maynard, said that "she's identified as Aboriginal, she’s got that right as far as I’m concerned", and criticised Mansell for doubting her claims. The Parliamentary Library of Australia includes Lambie on its list of Indigenous parliamentarians.
|
[
"Clive Palmer's United Australia Party",
"Liberal Party of Australia"
] |
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