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FROUDE'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND
Henry VIII . Introduction by W. Llewelyn Williams M.P. B.C.L.
First Published 1909
* * * * *
CONSIDER HISTORY WITH THE BEGINNINGS OF IT STRETCHING DIMLY INTO THE REMOTE TIME; EMERGING DARKLY OVT OF THE MYSTERIOVS ETERNITY: THE TRVE EPIC POEM AND VNIVERSAL DIVINE SCRIPTVRE...—CARLYLE
* * * * *
THE REIGN of HENRY the EIGHTH
JAMES ANTHONY FROUDE
London & Toronto J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd. New York E.P. Dutton & Co
James Anthony Froude was born at Dartington Rectory, the youngest son of the Archdeacon of Totnes, on April 23, 1818. His father was a clergyman of the old school, as much squire as parson. In the concluding chapter to his History of England, Froude wrote that "for a hundred and forty years after the Revolution of 1688, the Church of England was able to fulfil with moderate success the wholesome functions of a religious establishment. Theological doctrinalism passed out of fashion; and the clergy, merged as they were in the body of the nation, and no longer endeavouring to elevate themselves into a separate order, were occupied healthily in impressing on their congregations the meaning of duty and moral responsibility to God." Of this sane and orthodox, but not over-spiritual, clergy, Archdeacon Froude was an excellent and altogether wholesome type. He was a stiff Tory; his hatred of Dissent was so uncompromising that he would not have a copy of the Pilgrim's Progress in the rectory. A stern, self-contained, reticent man, he never, in word of deed, confessed his affection for his youngest son. He was a good horseman, and was passionately fond of open-air exercises and especially of hunting. His one accomplishment was drawing, and his sketches in after years earned the praise of Ruskin.
Cast in the same mould, but fashioned by different circumstances, the archdeacon's eldest son, Richard Hurrell Froude, was a man of greater intellectual brilliance and even more masterful character. He was one of the pioneers of the Oxford Movement, and it was only his early death that deposed him from his place of equality with Newman and Keble and Pusey. Anthony was a sickly child, and from his earliest years lacked the loving care of a mother. He was brought up with Spartan severity by his father and his aunt. The most venial self-indulgence was regarded as criminal. From the age of three he was inured to hardship by being ducked every morning in a trough of ice-cold water. Hurrell Froude felt no tenderness for the ailing lad. Once, in order to rouse a manly spirit in his little brother, he took him by the heels, plunged him like another Achilles into a stream, and stirred with his head the mud at the bottom. Froude has been accused, and not without justice, of not feeling a proper aversion to acts of cruelty. The horrible Boiling Act of Henry VIII. excites neither disgust nor hatred in him; and he makes smooth excuses for the illegal tortures of the rack and the screw which were inflicted on prisoners by Elizabeth and her ministers. He had himself been reared in a hardy school; he had been trained to be indifferent to pain. It may well be that his callousness in speaking of Tudor cruelties is to be traced to the influences that surrounded his loveless childhood and youth.
Hurrell Froude was the idol of his younger brothers. He was a man of brilliant parts, and a born leader of men. His hatred of Radicals and Dissenters transcended even his father's dislike of them. His conception of the Church differed widely from that in which the archdeacon had been reared. To him a clergyman was a priest who belonged to a sacerdotal caste, and who ought not "to merge himself in the body of the nation." To him the Reformation was an infamous crime, and Henry VIII. was worse than the Bluebeard of the nursery. His hero was Thomas a Becket. He wrote a sketch of his life and career, which he did not live to finish. His friends ill-advisedly published it after his death. His ideal ecclesiastical statesman of modern times was Archbishop Laud. Charles I. was a martyr, and the Revolution of 1688 an inglorious blunder. To the day of his death—in spite of the harsh discipline which he received at his hands in boyhood, in spite of wide divergence of opinion in later years in all matters secular and religious—Froude never ceased to worship at his brother's shrine. Out of regard for his memory, more than from any passionate personal conviction, he associated himself while at Oxford with the Anglican movement. His affectionate admiration for Newman, neither time nor change served to impair. If Carlyle was his prophet in later years, his influence happily did not affect his style. That was based on the chaste model of Newman. He owed his early friendship with Newman to that great man's association with Hurrell Froude. Many years after, when Freeman had venomously accused him of "dealing stabs in the dark at a brother's almost forgotten fame"—poor Froude's offence was that he dared to write an essay on Thomas a Becket—he defended himself with rare emotion against the charge. "I look back upon my brother," he said, "as on the whole the most remarkable man I have ever met in my life. I have never seen any person—not one—in whom, as I now think him, the excellences of intellect and character were combined in fuller measure."
As Froude's powers developed and matured, and as his experience of the world broadened, he cast away his brother's yoke, and reverted more to his father's school of thought. As his father was to him the ideal clergyman of the Church of England, so the Church before 1828 remained to him the model of what an established religion should be. He was a thorough Erastian, who believed in the subordination of the Church to the state. He detested theological doctrinalism of all kinds; he revolted against the idea that the clergy should form a separate order. The pretensions of Whitgift and Laud, the High Anglican school of Keble and Pusey, the whole conception of the Church and the priesthood which underlay the Oxford Movement, were things obnoxious to him. In a characteristic passage in the chapter on the Massacre of St. Bartholomew he reveals his hatred and distrust of dogmatism. "Whenever the doctrinal aspect of Christianity has been prominent above the practical," he wrote, "whenever the first duty of the believer has been held to consist in holding particular opinions on the functions and nature of his Master, and only the second in obeying his Master's commands, then always, with a uniformity more remarkable than is obtained in any other historical phenomena, there have followed dissension, animosity, and in later ages bloodshed. Christianity, as a principle of life, has been the most powerful check upon the passions of mankind. Christianity as a speculative system of opinion has converted them into monsters of cruelty."
Holding such decided views on doctrinalism, it might have been thought that Froude would have visited all the warring sects of the sixteenth century with equal judgment. No Church was more doctrinal than that of Geneva; no Calvinist ever was more dogmatic than John Knox. But the men who fought the battle of the Reformation in England and Scotland were, in the main, the Calvinists; and to Froude the Reformation was the beginning of a new and better era, when the yoke of the priest had been finally cast away. "Calvinism," he said in one of his addresses at St. Andrews, "was the spirit which rises in revolt against untruth." John Knox was too heroic a figure not to rouse the artistic sense in Froude. "There lies one," said the Regent Morton over his coffin, "who never feared the face of mortal man." Froude has made this epitaph the text of the noblest eulogy ever delivered on Knox. "No grander figure can be found, in the entire history of the Reformation in this island, than that of Knox." He surpassed Cromwell and Burghley in integrity of purpose and in purity of methods. He towered above the Regent Murray in intellect, and he worked on a larger scale than Latimer. "His was the voice that taught the peasant of the Lothians that he was a free man, the equal in the sight of God with the proudest peer or prelate that had trampled on his forefathers. He was the one antagonist whom Mary Stuart could not soften nor Maitland deceive. He it was who had raised the poor commons of his country into a stern and rugged people, who might be hard, narrow, superstitious, and fanatical, but who nevertheless were men whom neither king, noble, nor priest could force again to submit to tyranny." Yet even here, Froude could not refrain from quoting the sardonic comment of the English ambassador at Edinburgh: Knox behaved, said Randolph, "as though he were of God's privy council."
It is certain, at least, that other reformers, who were not greatly inferior to Knox in capacity, and not at all in piety and honesty, have not met the same generous treatment at his hands. He sneers at Hooper because he had scruples about wearing episcopal robes at his consecration as Bishop of Worcester, though he himself in a famous passage asserts the anomalous position of bishops in the Church of England. Hooper, as a Calvinist, was in the right in objecting, and though the point upon which he took his stand was nominally one of form, there lay behind it a protest against the Anglican conception of a bishop. He speaks slightingly of Ridley and Ferrars, though he makes ample amends to them and to Hooper, when he comes to describe the manner of their death. To the reformers who fled from the Marian persecution, including men like Jewel and Grindal, he refers with scornful contempt, though he has no word of criticism to apply to Knox for retiring to England and to the continent when the flame of persecution was certainly not more fierce. Latimer is one of his favourites,—a plain, practical man, not given to abstract speculation or theological subtleties, but one who was content to do his duty day by day without the fear of man before his eyes. Latimer, though he was looked upon as a Protestant in the earliest years of the English Reformation, believed in the Real Presence up to a short time before his death. But of all English ecclesiastics Thomas Cranmer was perhaps most to Froude's liking. Cranmer was, like Froude himself, an artist in words. The English liturgy owes its charm and beauty to his sense of style, his grace of expression, and his cultured piety. That he was a great man few will be found in these days to maintain; fewer still will believe that he deserved the scathing invective of Macaulay. But no one can read the account given by Froude of his last years without feeling that the first Protestant Archbishop of Canterbury was neither saint nor martyr. If ever there was one, he was a timeserver. He pronounced the divorce of Catherine of Arragon, though he had sworn fealty to the Pope. He never raised a protest against any of the political murders of Henry VIII.—with the notable exception of his courageous attempt to save his friend, Thomas Cromwell. Even in that case, however, he lies under the suspicion of having interfered through fear that his own fate was involved in that of the malleus monachorum. In the days of Edward VI. he aimed at the liberty, if not at the life, of Bonner and Gardiner, without semblance of legal right: He recanted in the reign of Mary when he thought he could purchase his miserable life. It was only when all hope of pardon was past that he re-affirmed his belief in the reformed faith. Indeed, he waited until the day of his execution before withdrawing his recantation, and confounded his enemies on the way to the stake. To a master of dramatic narrative the last scene of Cranmer's life came as a relief and an inspiration. "So perished Cranmer," wrote Froude, in a memorable passage: "he was brought out, with the eyes of his soul blinded, to make sport for his enemies, and in his death he brought upon them a wider destruction than he had effected by his teaching while alive. Pole was appointed the next day to the See of Canterbury; but in other respects the court had over-reached themselves by their cruelty. Had they been contented to accept the recantation, they would have left the archbishop to die broken-hearted, pointed at by the finger of pitying scorn; and the Reformation would have been disgraced in its champion. They were tempted, by an evil spirit of revenge, into an act unsanctioned even by their own bloody laws; and they gave him an opportunity of writing his name in the roll of martyrs. The worth of a man must be measured by his life, not by his failure under a single and peculiar peril. The Apostle, though forewarned, denied his Master on the first alarm of danger; yet that Master, who knew his nature in its strength and its infirmity, chose him for the rock on which he would build his Church."
With this conscious and avowed bias in favour of undogmatic Christianity, Froude came to write the story of the transition of England from a Catholic to a Protestant country. He was not without sympathy with the old order of things. We cannot but feel a thrill as we read his incomparable description of the change which was effected in men's thoughts and ideas by the translation of the mediaeval into the modern world? "For, indeed, a change was coming upon the world, the meaning and direction of which even still is hidden from us, a change from era to era. The paths trodden by the footsteps of ages were broken up; old things were passing away, and the faith and the life of ten centuries were dissolving like a dream. Chivalry was dying; the abbey and the castle were soon together to crumble into ruins; and all the forms, desires, beliefs, convictions, of the old world were passing away, never to return. A new continent had risen up beyond the western sea. The floor of heaven, inlaid with stars, had sunk back into an infinite abyss of immeasurable space; and the firm earth itself, unfixed from its foundations, was seen to be but a small atom in the awful vastness of the universe. In the fabric of habit which they had so laboriously built for themselves, mankind were to remain no longer. And now it is all gone—like an unsubstantial pageant faded; and between us and the old English there lies a gulf of mystery which the prose of the historian will never adequately bridge. They cannot come to us, and our imagination can but feebly penetrate to them. Only among the aisles of the cathedral, only as we gaze upon their silent figures sleeping on their tombs, some faint conceptions float before us of what these men were when they were alive; and perhaps in the sound of church bells, that peculiar creation of mediaeval age, which falls upon the ear like the echo of a vanished world." Froude was once asked what was the greatest and most essential quality of an historian. He replied that it was imagination. It was a true and a just saying, and Froude himself possessed the faculty in abundance.
It was not only with the old order that Froude showed his sympathy. He is seldom ungenerous in his references to individual Catholics, however mistaken in his sight their opinions may have been. With Wolsey and Warham, Fisher and More, even with Gardiner and Bonner he deals fairly and with some amount of real sympathy. The heroic death of Campian moves him to pity just as much as the death of Latimer; the strenuous labours of Father Parsons to overthrow Elizabeth and Protestantism failed to remove him beyond the pale of Froude's charitable judgment. One English Catholic alone was reserved for the historian's harsh and sometimes petulant criticism. For Cardinal Pole Froude felt the angriest contempt. He was descended from the blood royal, both of England and of Wales. On his father's side he was descended in direct line from the ancient princes of Powis; on his mother's from the Plantagenets and the Nevilles. He was the most learned and illustrious Englishman of his age. He had stood high in King Henry's favour; he was destined for the greatest offices in the state. He was not without natural ambition. Yet he forfeited all that he had—the favour of his prince, the society of his mother whom he loved, and the kindred who were proud of him, the hope of promotion and of power, his friends, his home, and his country, for conscience' sake. He remained true to the ancient faith in which he was reared. With unerring instinct he foresaw that, once England was severed from the Papacy, it would be impossible for king or parliament to stem the flood of the Reformation. For twenty years he remained an exile on the continent. He returned an old and broken man, to witness the overthrow of his cherished plans. He was repudiated by the Pope whose authority he had sacrificed everything to maintain, and in his old age he suffered the humiliation of being accused of heresy in the court of Rome. He died the same day as Mary died, with the knowledge that all his life's labours and sacrifices were come to naught, and that the dominion of the Roman Church in England was gone for ever. Froude saw none of the pathos or tragedy of Pole's life. To him the cardinal was a renegade, a traitor to his country, a mercenary of the Pope, a foreign potentate, a "hysterical dreamer," who vainly imagined that he was "the champion of heaven, and the destroyer of heresy."
Froude was, above all, an Englishman. His strongest sympathies went out to the "God's Englishmen" of Elizabeth's reign, who broke the power of Rome and Spain, and who made England supreme in Europe. In his first chapter he describes the qualities of Englishmen with a zest and gusto that drew the comment from Carlyle that "this seems to me exaggerated: what we call John Bullish." He described them as "a sturdy, high-hearted race, sound in body and fierce in spirit which, under the stimulus of those great shins of beef, their common diet, were the wonder of the age." Carlyle's advice when he read this passage in proof was characteristic:—"Modify a little: Frederick the Great was brought up on beer-sops; Robert Burns on oatmeal porridge; and Mahomet and the Caliphs conquered the world on barley meal." But the passage stood unmodified, in spite of Froude's regard for his master.
How this fierce and turbulent people fought their way to world-wide empire was a problem which Froude thought he was able to solve. It was, in the main, because they broke down the power of the priests, and insisted on the supremacy of state over Church. Therefore all his filial affection, his patriotism, and his ecclesiastical prejudices were arrayed on the same side. If history be an exact science, then Froude can lay no claim to the title of historian. He was a brilliant advocate, a man of letters endowed with a matchless style, writing of matters which interested him deeply, and in the investigation of which he spent twenty years of his life. Froude himself would have been the first to repudiate the idea that history is philosophy teaching by examples, or that an historian has necessarily a greater insight into the problems of the present than any other observant student of affairs. "Gibbon," he once wrote, "believed that the era of conquerors was at an end. Had he lived out the full life of man, he would have seen Europe at the feet of Napoleon. But a few years ago we believed the world had grown too civilised for war, and the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park was to be the inauguration of a new era. Battles, bloody as Napoleon's, are now the familiar tale of every day; and the arts which have made the greatest progress are the arts of destruction."
It is absurd to attack Froude on the ground that he was biassed. No man has ever yet written a living history without being biassed. Thucydides detested the radicalism of Cleon as heartily as Gibbon hated the Christianity of Rome. It was once the fashion of the Oxford school to decry Froude as being unworthy of the name of historian. Stubbs, indeed, did pay public tribute to Froude's "great work," but he stood almost alone of his school. Freeman for many years pursued and persecuted Froude with a persistent malevolence which happily has no parallel in the story of English scholarship. It is not necessary in this place to do more than refer to that unpleasant episode. Since the publication of the brilliant vindication of Froude in Mr. Herbert Paul's Life, it would be superfluous to go into the details of that unhappy controversy. The only difference between Froude and other historians is that Froude's partisanship is always obvious. He was not more favourable to Henry VIII. than Stubbs was to Thomas a Becket. But Froude openly avowed his preferences and his dislikes. Catholicism was to him "a dying superstition," Protestantism "a living truth." Freeman went further, and charged Froude with having written a history which was not "un livre de bonne joy." It is only necessary to recall the circumstances under which the History was written to dispose of that odious charge. In order to obtain material for his History, Froude spent years of his life in the little Spanish village of Simancas. "I have worked in all," he said in his Apologia, "through nine hundred volumes of letters, notes, and other papers, private and official, in five languages and in different handwritings. I am not rash enough to say that I have never misread a word, or overlooked a passage of importance. I profess only to have dealt with my materials honestly to the best of my ability." Few, indeed, have had to encounter such difficulties as met Froude in his exploration of the archives at Simancas. "Often at the end of a page," he wrote many years after, "I have felt as after descending a precipice, and have wondered how I got down. I had to cut my way through a jungle, for no one had opened the road for me. I have been turned into rooms piled to the window-sill with bundles of dust-coloured despatches, and told to make the best of it. Often have I found the sand glistening on the ink where it had been sprinkled when a page was turned. There the letter had lain, never looked at again since it was read and put away." Of these difficulties not a trace is discoverable in Froude's easy and effortless narrative. When he was approaching the completion of his History, he vowed that his account of the Armada should be as interesting as a novel. He succeeded not only with that portion of his task, but with all the stirring story that he set out to narrate. But the ease of his style only concealed the real pains which he had taken. Of Freeman's charge Froude has long been honourably acquitted. The Simancas MSS. have since been published in the Rolls Series, and Mr. Martin Hume, in his Introduction, has paid his tribute to the care, accuracy, and good faith of their first transcriber. Long before this testimony could be given, Scottish historians who disagreed with Froude's conclusions on many points,—men such as Skelton and Burton—had been profoundly impressed with the care, skill, and conscientiousness with which Froude handled the mass of tangled materials relating to the history of Scotland.
This does not mean that Froude is free from minor inaccuracies, or that he is innocent of graver faults which flowed from his abundant quality of imagination. He constantly quotes a sentence inaccurately in his text, while it is accurately transcribed in a footnote. He is careless in matters which are important to students of Debrett, as for instance, he indiscriminately describes Lord Howard as Lord William Howard and Lord Howard. But Froude was sometimes guilty of something worse than these trivial "howlers." Lecky exposed, with calm ruthlessness, some of Froude's exaggerations—to call them by no worse name—in his Story of the English in Ireland. When his Erasmus was translated into Dutch, the countrymen of Erasmus accused him of constant, if not deliberate, inaccuracy. Lord Carnarvon once sent Froude to South Africa as an informal special commissioner. When he returned to this country he wrote an article on the South African problem in the Quarterly Review. Sir Bartle Frere, who knew South Africa as few men did, said of it that it was an "essay in which for whole pages a truth expressed in brilliant epigrams alternates with mistakes or misstatements which would scarcely be pardoned in a special war correspondent hurriedly writing against time." So dangerous is the quality of imagination in a writer!
Truth to tell, Froude was a literary man with a fondness for historical investigation, and an artist's passion for the dramatic in life and story. He wrote with a purpose—that purpose being to defend the English Reformation against the attacks of the neo-Catholic-Anglicans, under whose influence he had himself been for a time in his youth. To him, therefore, Henry VIII. was "the majestic lord who broke the bonds of Rome." This is not the occasion, nor is the present writer the man, to analyse that complex and masterful personality. Froude started to defend the English Reformation against the vile charge that it was the outcome of kingly lust. That charge he has finally dispelled. Henry VIII. was not the monster that Lingard painted. He beheaded two queens, but few will be found to assert to-day that either Anne Boleyn or Catherine Howard were innocent martyrs. People must agree to differ to the crack of doom as to the justice of Catherine's divorce. It is one of those questions which different men will continue to answer in different ways. But one thing is abundantly clear. If Henry was actuated merely by passion for Anne Boleyn, he would scarcely have waited for years before putting Queen Catherine away. Henry divorced Anne of Cleves, but Anne, who survived the dissolution of her marriage and remained in England for twenty years, made no complaint of her treatment, and she has had no champions either among Catholic or Protestant writers. Her divorce is only remembered as the occasion of the downfall of the greatest statesman of his age, Thomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex. But in his eagerness to proclaim the truth, Froude went on to defend a paradox. Once free from the charge of lust,—and compared with Francis of France or Charles V., Henry was a continent man—Henry became to Froude the ideal monarch.
Some one has said that Henry VIII. was the greatest king that ever lived, because he always got his own way. If that be the test, then Henry was indeed "every inch a king." He broke with Rome; he deposed the Pope from his supremacy over England; he dissolved the monasteries; he sent the noblest and wisest in England to the scaffold; he reduced Wales to law and order and gave her a constitution; he married and unmarried as he liked; he disposed of the succession to the throne of England by his will; and his people never murmured. Only once, when the Pilgrimage of Grace broke out, was his throne in any danger, and that insurrection he easily suppressed. He made war with France; he invaded Scotland more than once, and every time with striking success. He played his vigorous part in European politics, and at his death he left his realm inviolate. It is an amazing record, which might well dazzle a writer of Froude's temperament and training. But there are dark shades in the picture, which Froude was content to make little of, if not to ignore. He is fond of contrasting Henry's way with conspirators with that of his daughter Elizabeth. He sneers at her "tenderness" towards high-born traitors, and never ceases to reproach her with her one act of repression after the Yorkshire rising. But he had not a word to say against the tyrannical murders of Henry VIII. Elizabeth truly boasted that she never punished opinion: Henry sent to the scaffold better men than himself for holding academical opinions contrary to his own. Cardinal Fisher may have been—after the publication of Chappuys's letters it is not possible to deny that he was—technically guilty of treason. But he was a saint and an old man past eighty, and "the earth on the edge of the grave was already crumbling under his feet." The king spared neither age nor worth nor innocence. He had been the familiar friend of More; he had walked through his gardens at Chelsea leaning on his arm; More had been his chancellor; he was still the greatest of his subjects; while frankly admitting that he differed in opinion from the king on the question of the royal supremacy, he promised that he would not try to influence others. Henry was inexorable. He not only condemned him to die a traitor's death,—he added a callous message, which still rouses the indignation of every generous soul, that he should "not use many words on the scaffold." Thomas Cromwell had served him as few ministers have served a king; to him was due—or, at least, he was the capable instrument of—the policy which has given distinction to Henry's reign; but he was delivered over to his enemies when the king's caprice had shifted to another quarter. Even Froude finds it difficult to excuse the execution of More and Cromwell. But, having once made up his mind to make a hero of Henry, he goes on with it bravely to the end. He hides nothing, he excuses nothing, he extenuates nothing. Neither the death of the aged Countess of Salisbury or of the gallant Earl of Surrey, nor the illegal imprisonment of the aged Norfolk, the hero of Flodden, shakes his faith in his hero-king. He even relates, with minute detail, how a few days before the king's death, four poor persons, one of whom was a tailor, were burnt at the stake for denying the Real Presence. But his final comment on it all was: "His personal faults were great, and he shared, besides them, in the errors of his age; but far deeper blemishes would be but scars upon the features of a sovereign who in trying times sustained nobly the honour of the English name, and carried the commonwealth securely through the hardest crisis in its history."
When a young man Froude had been elected Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. This entailed his taking holy orders, though he does not seem to have regularly performed the duties of a clergyman. In 1849 he published his first book, The Nemesis of Faith, now happily forgotten. It raised an immediate commotion. It was denounced as heretical, and the senior tutor of Exeter burnt it during a lecture in the College Hall. Froude resigned his Fellowship, and his connection with the university was severed for thirty-three years. He was one of the first to take advantage of the alteration of the law which enabled a clergyman to resign his orders. In 1892 he went back to Oxford as Regius Professor of Modern History. "The temptation of going back to Oxford in a respectable way," he said, "was too much for me." He died on October 20, 1894, and on his tombstone he is simply described, by his own wish, as Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford.
The writer is indebted for information with regard to Froude's life to Mr. Pollard's article in the Dictionary of National Biography, and to Mr. Herbert Paul's admirable Life of Froude (Pitman).
W. LLEWELYN WILLIAMS.
November 16, 1908.
The following is a list of the published works of J.A. Froude:
Life of St. Neot (Lives of the English Saints, edited by J.H. Newman), 1844; Shadows of the Clouds (Tales), by Zeta (pseud.), 1847; A Sermon (on 2 Cor. vii. 10) preached at St. Mary's Church on the Death of the Rev. George May Coleridge, 1847; Article on Spinoza (Oxford and Cambridge Review), 1847; The Nemesis of Faith (Tale), 1849; England's Forgotten Worthies (Westminster Review), 1852; Book of Job (Westminster Review), 1853; Poems of Matthew Arnold (Westminster Review), 1854; Suggestions on the Best Means of Teaching English History (Oxford Essays, etc.), 1855; History of England, 12 vols., 1856-70; The Influence of the Reformation on the Scottish Character, 1865; Inaugural Address delivered to the University of St. Andrews, March 19, 1869, 1869; Short Studies on Great Subjects, 1867, 2 vols., series 2-4, 1871-83 (articles from Fraser's Magazine, Westminster Review, etc.); The Cat's Pilgrimage, 1870; Calvinism: Address at St. Andrews, 1871; The English in Ireland, 3 vols., 1872-74; Bunyan (English Men of Letters), 1878; Caesar: a Sketch, 1879; Two Lectures on South Africa, 1880; Thomas Carlyle (a history of the first forty years of his life, etc.), 2 vols., 1882; Luther: a Short Biography, 1883; Thomas Carlyle (a history of his life in London, 1834-81), 2 vols., 1884; Oceana, 1886; The English in the West Indies, 1888; Liberty and Property: an Address ; The Two Chiefs of Dunboy, 1889; Lord Beaconsfield (a Biography), 1890; The Divorce of Catherine of Aragon, 1891; The Spanish Story of the Armada, 1892; Life and Letters of Erasmus, 1894; English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century, 1895; Lectures on the Council of Trent, 1896; My Relations with Carlyle, 1903.
EDITED:—Carlyle's Reminiscences, 1881; Mrs. Carlyle's Letters, 1883.
I. SOCIAL CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
II. THE LAST YEARS OF THE ADMINISTRATION OF WOLSEY.
III. THE PARLIAMENT OF 1529.
IV. CHURCH AND STATE.
V. MARRIAGE OF HENRY AND ANNE BOLEYN.
VI. THE PROTESTANTS.
VII. THE LAST EFFORTS OF DIPLOMACY.
SOCIAL CONDITION OF ENGLAND IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
In periods like the present, when knowledge is every day extending, and the habits and thoughts of mankind are perpetually changing under the influence of new discoveries, it is no easy matter to throw ourselves back into a time in which for centuries the European world grew upon a single type, in which the forms of the father's thoughts were the forms of the son's, and the late descendant was occupied in treading into paths the footprints of his distant ancestors. So absolutely has change become the law of our present condition, that it is identified with energy and moral health; to cease to change is to lose place in the great race; and to pass away from off the earth with the same convictions which we found when we entered it, is to have missed the best object for which we now seem to exist.
It has been, however, with the race of men as it has been with the planet which they inhabit. As we look back over history, we see times of change and progress alternating with other times when life and thought have settled into permanent forms; when mankind, as if by common consent, have ceased to seek for increase of knowledge, and, contented with what they possess, have endeavoured to make use of it for purposes of moral cultivation. Such was the condition of the Greeks through many ages before the Persian war; such was that of the Romans till the world revenged itself upon its conquerors by the introduction among them of the habits of the conquered; and such again became the condition of Europe when the Northern nations grafted the religion and the laws of the Western empire on their own hardy natures, and shaped out that wonderful spiritual and political organisation which remained unshaken for a thousand years.
The aspirant after sanctity in the fifteenth century of the Christian era found a model which he could imitate in detail in the saint of the fifth. The gentleman at the court of Edward IV. or Charles of Burgundy could imagine no nobler type of heroism than he found in the stories of King Arthur's knights. The forms of life had become more elaborate—the surface of it more polished—but the life itself remained essentially the same; it was the development of the same conception of human excellence; just as the last orders of Gothic architecture were the development of the first, from which the idea had worked its way till the force of it was exhausted.
A condition of things differing alike both outwardly and inwardly from that into which a happier fortune has introduced ourselves, is necessarily obscure to us. In the alteration of our own character, we have lost the key which would interpret the characters of our fathers, and the great men even of our own English history before the Reformation seem to us almost like the fossil skeletons of another order of beings. Some broad conclusions as to what they were are at least possible to us, however; and we are able to determine, with tolerable certainty, the social condition of the people of this country, such as it was before the movements of the sixteenth century, and during the process of those movements.
The extent of the population can only be rudely conjectured. A rough census was taken at the time of the Armada, when it was found to be something under five millions; but anterior to this I can find no authority on which I can rely with any sort of confidence. It is my impression, however, from a number of reasons—each in itself insignificant, but which taken together leave little doubt upon my mind—that it had attained that number by a growth so slow as to be scarcely perceptible, and had nearly approached to it many generations before. Simon Fish, in The Supplication of Beggars, says that the number of households in England in 1531 was 520,000. His calculation is of the most random kind; for he rates the number of parishes at 52,000, with ten households on an average in each parish. A mistake so preposterous respecting the number of parishes shows the great ignorance of educated men upon the subject. The ten households in each parish may, probably (in some parts of the country), have been a correct computation; but this tells us little with respect to the aggregate numbers, for the households were very large—the farmers, and the gentlemen also, usually having all the persons whom they employed residing under their own roof. Neither from this, therefore, nor from any other positive statement which I have seen, can I gather any conclusion that may be depended upon. But when we remember the exceeding slowness with which the population multiplied in a time in which we can accurately measure it—that is to say, from 1588 to the opening of the last century—under circumstances in every way more favourable to an increase, I think we may assume that the increase was not so great between 1500 and 1588, and that, previous to 1500, it did not more than keep pace with the waste from civil and foreign war. The causes, indeed, were wholly wanting which lead to a rapid growth of numbers. Numbers now increase with the increase of employment and with the facilities which are provided by the modern system of labour for the establishment of independent households. At present, any able-bodied unskilled labourer earns, as soon as he has arrived at man's estate, as large an amount of wages as he will earn at any subsequent time; and having no connection with his employer beyond the receiving the due amount of weekly money from him, and thinking himself as well able to marry as he is likely to be, he takes a wife, and is usually the father of a family before he is thirty. Before the Reformation, not only were early marriages determinately discouraged, but the opportunity for them did not exist. A labourer living in a cottage by himself was a rare exception to the rule; and the work of the field was performed generally, as it now is in the large farms in America and Australia, by servants who lived in the families of the squire or the farmer, and who, while in that position, commonly remained single, and married only when by prudence they had saved a sufficient sum to enable them to enter some other position.
Checked by circumstances of this kind, population would necessarily remain almost stationary, and a tendency to an increase was not of itself regarded by the statesmen of the day as any matter for congratulation or as any evidence of national prosperity. Not an increase of population, which would facilitate production and beat down wages by competition, but the increase of the commonwealth, the sound and healthy maintenance of the population already existing, were the chief objects which the government proposed to itself; and although Henry VIII. carefully nursed his manufactures, there is sufficient proof in the grounds alleged for the measures to which he resorted, that there was little redundancy of occupation.
In a statute, for instance, for the encouragement of the linen manufactures, it is said that—"The King's Highness, calling to his most blessed remembrance the great number of idle people daily increasing throughout this his Realm, supposeth that one great cause thereof is by the continued bringing into the same the great number of wares and merchandise made, and brought out and from, the parts beyond the sea into this his Realm, ready wrought by manual occupation; amongst the which wares one kind of merchandise in great quantity, which is linen cloth of divers sorts made in divers countries beyond the sea, is daily conveyed into this Realm; which great quantity of linen cloth so brought is consumed and spent within the same; by reason whereof not only the said strange countries where the said linen cloth is made, by the policy and industry of making and vending the same are greatly enriched; and a marvellous great number of their people, men, women, and children, are set on work and occupation, and kept from idleness, to the great furtherance and advancement of their commonwealth; but also contrariwise the inhabitants and subjects of this Realm, for lack of like policy and industry, are compelled to buy all or most part of the linen cloth consumed in the same, amounting to inestimable sums of money. And also the people of this Realm, as well men as women, which should and might be set on work, by exercise of like policy and craft of spinning, weaving, and making of cloth, lies now in idleness and otiosity, to the high displeasure of Almighty God, great diminution of the King's people, and extreme ruin, decay, and impoverishment of this Realm. Therefore, for reformation of these things, the King's most Royal Majesty intending, like a most virtuous Prince, to provide remedy in the premises; nothing so much coveting as the increase of the Commonwealth of this his Realm, with also the virtuous exercise of his most loving subjects and people, and to avoid that most abominable sin of idleness out of the Realm, hath, by the advice and consent of his Lords and Commons in Parliament assembled, ordained and enacted that every person occupying land for tillage, shall for every sixty acres which he hath under the plough, sow one quarter of an acre in flax or hemp."
This Act was designed immediately to keep the wives and children of the poor in work in their own houses; but it leaves no doubt that manufactures in England had not of themselves that tendency to self-development which would encourage an enlarging population. The woollen manufactures similarly appear, from the many statutes upon them, to have been vigorous at a fixed level, but to have shown no tendency to rise beyond that level. With a fixed market and a fixed demand, production continued uniform.
A few years subsequent, indeed, to the passing of the Act which I have quoted, a very curious complaint is entered in the statute book, from the surface of which we should gather, that so far from increasing, manufactures had alarmingly declined. The fact mentioned may bear another meaning, and a meaning far more favourable to the state of the country; although, if such a phenomenon were to occur at the present time, it could admit of but one interpretation. In the 18th and 19th of the 32nd of Henry VIII., all the important towns in England, from the Tweed to the Land's End, are stated, one by one, to have fallen into serious decay. Usually when we meet with language of this kind, we suppose it to mean nothing more than an awakening to the consciousness of evils which had long existed, and which had escaped notice only because no one was alive to them. In the present instance, however, the language was too strong and too detailed to allow of this explanation; and the great body of the English towns undoubtedly were declining in wealth and in the number of their inhabitants. "Divers and many beautiful houses of habitation," these statutes say, "built in tyme past within their walls and liberties, now are fallen down and decayed, and at this day remain unre-edified, and do lie as desolate and vacant grounds, many of them nigh adjoining to the High-streets, replenished with much uncleanness and filth, with pits, sellers, and vaults lying open and uncovered, to the great perill and danger of the inhabitants and other the King's subjects passing by the same; and some houses be very weak and feeble, ready to fall down, and therefore dangerous to pass by, to the great decay and hinderance of the said boroughs and towns."
At present, the decay of a town implies the decay of the trade of the town; and the decay of all towns simultaneously would imply a general collapse of the trade of the whole country. Walled towns, however, before the Reformation, existed for other purposes than as the centre points of industry: they existed for the protection of property and life: and although it is not unlikely that the agitation of the Reformation itself did to some degree interrupt the occupation of the people, yet I believe that the true account of the phenomenon which then so much disturbed the parliament, is, that one of their purposes was no longer required; the towns flagged for a time because the country had become secure. The woollen manufacture in Worcestershire was spreading into the open country, and, doubtless, in other counties as well; and the "beautiful houses" which had fallen into decay, were those which, in the old times of insecurity, had been occupied by wealthy merchants and tradesmen, who were now enabled, by a strong and settled government, to dispense with the shelter of locked gates and fortified walls, and remove their residences to more convenient situations. It was, in fact, the first symptom of the impending social revolution. Two years before the passing of this Act, the magnificent Hengrave Hall, in Suffolk, had been completed by Sir Thomas Kitson, "mercer of London," and Sir Thomas Kitson was but one of many of the rising merchants who were now able to root themselves on the land by the side of the Norman nobility, first to rival, and then slowly to displace them.
This mighty change, however, was long in silent progress before it began to tell on the institutions of the country. When city burghers bought estates, the law insisted jealously on their accepting with them all the feudal obligations. Attempts to use the land as "a commodity" were, as we shall presently see, angrily repressed; while, again, in the majority of instances, such persons endeavoured, as they do at present, to cover the recent origin of their families by adopting the manners of the nobles, instead of transferring the habits of the towns to the parks and chases of the English counties. The old English organisation maintained its full activity; and the duties of property continued to be for another century more considered than its rights.
Turning, then, to the tenure of land—for if we would understand the condition of the people, it is to this point that our first attention must be directed—we find that through the many complicated varieties of it there was one broad principle which bore equally upon every class, that the land of England must provide for the defence of England. The feudal system, though practically modified, was still the organising principle of the nation, and the owner of land was bound to military service for his country whenever occasion required. Further, the land was to be so administered, that the accustomed number of families supported by it should not be diminished, and that the State should suffer no injury from the carelessness or selfishness of the owners. Land never was private property in that personal sense of property in which we speak of a thing as our own, with which we may do as we please; and in the administration of estates, as indeed in the administration of all property whatsoever, duty to the State was at all times supposed to override private interest or inclination. Even tradesmen, who took advantage of the fluctuations of the market, were rebuked by parliament for "their greedy and covetous minds," "as more regarding their own singular lucre and profit than the commonweal of the Realm;" and although in an altered world, neither industry nor enterprise will thrive except under the stimulus of self-interest, we may admire the confidence which in another age expected every man to prefer the advantage of the community to his own. All land was held upon a strictly military principle. It was the representative of authority, and the holder or the owner took rank in the army of the State according to the nature of his connection with it. It was first broadly divided among the great nobility holding immediately under the crown, who, above and beyond the ownership of their private estates, were the Lords of the Fee throughout their presidency, and possessed in right of it the services of knights and gentlemen who held their manors under them, and who followed their standard in war. Under the lords of manors, again, small freeholds and copyholds were held of various extent, often forty shilling and twenty shilling value, tenanted by peasant occupiers, who thus, on their own land, lived as free Englishmen, maintaining by their own free labour themselves and their families. There was thus a descending scale of owners, each of whom possessed his separate right, which the law guarded and none might violate; yet no one of whom, again, was independent of an authority higher than himself; and the entire body of the English free possessors of the soil was interpenetrated by a coherent organisation which converted them into a perpetually subsisting army of soldiers. The extent of land which was held by the petty freeholders was very large, and the possession of it was jealously treasured; the private estates of the nobles and gentlemen were either cultivated by their own servants, or let out, as at present, to free tenants; or (in earlier times) were occupied by villains, a class who, without being bondmen, were expected to furnish further services than those of the field, services which were limited by the law, and recognised by an outward ceremony, a solemn oath and promise from the villain to his lord. Villanage, in the reign of Henry VIII., had practically ceased. The name of it last appears upon the statute book in the early years of the reign of Richard II., when the disputes between villains and their liege lords on their relative rights had furnished matter for cumbrous lawsuits, and by general consent the relation had merged of itself into a more liberal form. Thus serfdom had merged or was rapidly merging into free servitude; but it did not so merge that labouring men, if they pleased, were allowed to live in idleness. Every man was regimented somewhere; and although the peasantry, when at full age, were allowed, under restrictions, their own choice of masters, yet the restrictions both on masters and servants were so severe as to prevent either from taking advantage of the necessities of the other, or from terminating through caprice or levity, or for any insufficient reason, a connection presumed to be permanent.
Through all these arrangements a single aim is visible, that every man in England should have his definite place and definite duty assigned to him, and that no human being should be at liberty to lead at his own pleasure an unaccountable existence. The discipline of an army was transferred to the details of social life, and it issued in a chivalrous perception of the meaning of the word duty, and in the old characteristic spirit of English loyalty.
From the regulations with respect to land, a coarser advantage was also derived, of a kind which at the present time will be effectively appreciated. It is a common matter of dispute whether landed estates should be large or small; whether it is better that the land should be divided among small proprietors, cultivating their own ground, or that it should follow its present tendency, and be shared by a limited and constantly diminishing number of wealthy landlords. The advocates for a peasant proprietary tell us truly, that a landed monopoly is dangerous; that the possession of a spot of ground, though it be but a few acres, is the best security for loyalty, giving the state a pledge for its owner, and creating in the body of the nation a free, vigorous, and manly spirit. The advocates for the large estates tell us, that the masses are too ill-educated to be trusted with independence; that without authority over them, these small proprietors become wasteful, careless, improvident; that the free spirit becomes a democratic and dangerous spirit; and finally, that the resources of the land cannot properly be brought out by men without capital to cultivate it. Either theory is plausible. The advocates of both can support their arguments with an appeal to experience; and the verdict of fact has not as yet been pronounced emphatically.
The problem will be resolved in the future history of this country. It was also nobly and skilfully resolved in the past. The knights and nobles retained the authority and power which was attached to the lordships of the fees. They retained extensive estates in their own hands or in the occupation of their immediate tenants; but the large proportion of the lands was granted out by them to smaller owners, and the expenditure of their own incomes in the wages and maintenance of their vast retinues left but a small margin for indulgence in luxuries. The necessities of their position obliged them to regard their property rather as a revenue to be administered in trust, than as "a fortune" to be expended in indulgence. Before the Reformation, while the differences of social degree were enormous, the differences in habits of life were comparatively slight, and the practice of men in these things was curiously the reverse of our own. Dress, which now scarcely suffices to distinguish the master from his servant, was then the symbol of rank, prescribed by statute to the various orders of society as strictly as the regimental uniform to officers and privates; diet also was prescribed, and with equal strictness; but the diet of the nobleman was ordered down to a level which was then within the reach of the poorest labourer. In 1336, the following law was enacted by the Parliament of Edward III.: "Whereas, heretofore through the excessive and over-many sorts of costly meats which the people of this Realm have used more than elsewhere, many mischiefs have happened to the people of this Realm—for the great men by these excesses have been sore grieved; and the lesser people, who only endeavour to imitate the great ones in such sort of meats, are much impoverished, whereby they are not able to aid themselves, nor their liege lord, in time of need, as they ought; and many other evils have happened, as well to their souls as their bodies—our Lord the King, desiring the common profit as well of the great men as the common people of his Realm, and considering the evils, grievances, and mischiefs aforesaid, by the common assent of the prelates, earls, barons, and other nobles of his said Realm, and of the commons of the same Realm, hath ordained and established that no man, of what estate or condition soever he be, shall cause himself to be served, in his house or elsewhere, at dinner, meal, or supper, or at any other time, with more than two courses, and each mess of two sorts of victuals at the utmost, be it of flesh or fish, with the common sorts of pottage, without sauce or any other sorts of victuals. And if any man choose to have sauce for his mess, he may, provided it be not made at great cost; and if fish or flesh be to be mixed therein, it shall be of two sorts only at the utmost, either fish or flesh, and shall stand instead of a mess, except only on the principal feasts of the year, on which days every man may be served with three courses at the utmost, after the manner aforesaid."
Sumptuary laws are among the exploded fallacies which we have outgrown, and we smile at the unwisdom which could expect to regulate private habits and manners by statute. Yet some statutes may be of moral authority when they cannot be actually enforced, and may have been regarded, even at the time at which they were issued, rather as an authoritative declaration of what wise and good men considered to be right, than as laws to which obedience could be compelled. This act, at any rate, witnesses to what was then thought to be right by "the great persons" of the English realm; and when great persons will submit themselves of their free will to regulations which restrict their private indulgence, they are in little danger of disloyalty from those whom fortune has placed below them.
Such is one aspect of these old arrangements; it is unnecessary to say that with these, as with all other institutions created and worked by human beings, the picture admits of being reversed. When by the accident of birth men are placed in a position of authority, no care in their training will prevent it from falling often to singularly unfit persons. The command of a permanent military force was a temptation to ambition, to avarice, or hatred, to the indulgence of private piques and jealousies, to political discontent on private and personal grounds. A combination of three or four of the leading nobles was sufficient, when an incapable prince sate on the throne, to effect a revolution; and the rival claims of the houses of York and Lancaster to the crown, took the form of a war unequalled in history for its fierce and determined malignancy, the whole nation tearing itself in pieces in a quarrel in which no principle was at stake, and no national object was to be gained. A more terrible misfortune never befel either this or any other country, and it was made possible only in virtue of that loyalty with which the people followed the standard, through good and evil, of their feudal superiors. It is still a question, however, whether the good or the evil of the system predominated; and the answer to such question is the more difficult because we have no criterion by which, in these matters, degrees of good and evil admit of being measured. Arising out of the character of the nation, it reflected this character in all its peculiarities; and there is something truly noble in the coherence of society upon principles of fidelity. Fidelity of man to man is among the rarest excellences of humanity, and we can tolerate large evils which arise out of such a cause. Under the feudal system men were held together by oaths, free acknowledgments, and reciprocal obligations, entered into by all ranks, high and low, binding servants to their masters, as well as nobles to their kings; and in the frequent forms of the language in which the oaths were sworn we cannot choose but see that we have lost something in exchanging these ties for the harsher connecting links of mutual self-interest.
"When a freeman shall do fealty to his lord," the statute says, "he shall hold his right hand upon the book, and shall say thus:—Hear you, my lord, that I shall be to you both faithful and true, and shall owe my faith to you for the land that I hold, and lawfully shall do such customs and services as my duty is to you, at the times assigned, so help me God and all his saints."
"The villain," also, "when he shall do fealty to his lord, shall hold his right hand over the book, and shall say:—Hear you, my lord, that I from this day forth unto you shall be true and faithful, and shall owe you fealty for the land which I hold of you in villanage; and that no evil or damage will I see concerning you, but I will defend and warn you to my power. So help me God and all his saints."
Again, in the distribution of the produce of land, men dealt fairly and justly with each other; and in the material condition of the bulk of the people there is a fair evidence that the system worked efficiently and well. It worked well for the support of a sturdy high-hearted race, sound in body and fierce in spirit, and furnished with thews and sinews which, under the stimulus of those "great shins of beef," their common diet, were the wonder of the age. "What comyn folke in all this world," says a state paper in 1515 "may compare with the comyns of England in riches, freedom, liberty, welfare, and all prosperity? What comyn folke is so mighty, so strong in the felde, as the comyns of England?" The relative numbers of the French and English armies which fought at Cressy and Agincourt may have been exaggerated, but no allowance for exaggeration will effect the greatness of those exploits; and in stories of authentic actions under Henry VIII., where the accuracy of the account is undeniable, no disparity of force made Englishmen shrink from enemies wherever they could meet them. Again and again a few thousands of them carried dismay into the heart of France. Four hundred adventurers, vagabond apprentices, from London, who formed a volunteer corps in the Calais garrison, were for years the terror of Normandy. In the very frolic of conscious power they fought and plundered, without pay, without reward, except what they could win for themselves; and when they fell at last they fell only when surrounded by six times their number, and were cut to pieces in careless desperation. Invariably, by friend and enemy alike, the English are described as the fiercest people in all Europe (the English wild beasts, Benvenuto Cellini calls them); and this great physical power they owed to the profuse abundance in which they lived, and to the soldier's training in which every man of them was bred from childhood. The state of the working classes can, however, be more certainly determined by a comparison of their wages with the prices of food. Both were regulated, so far as regulation was possible, by act of parliament, and we have therefore data of the clearest kind by which to judge. The majority of agricultural labourers lived, as I have said, in the houses of their employers; this, however, was not the case with all, and if we can satisfy ourselves as to the rate at which those among the poor were able to live who had cottages of their own, we may be assured that the rest did not live worse at their masters' tables.
Wheat, the price of which necessarily varied, averaged in the middle of the fourteenth century tenpence the bushel; barley averaging at the same time three shillings the quarter. With wheat the fluctuation was excessive; a table of its possible variations describes it as ranging from eighteenpence the quarter to twenty shillings; the average, however, being six and eightpence. When the price was above this sum, the merchants might import to bring it down; when it was below this price the farmers were allowed to export to the foreign markets. The same scale, with a scarcely appreciable tendency to rise, continued to hold until the disturbance in the value of the currency. In the twelve years from 1551 to 1562, although once before harvest wheat rose to the extraordinary price of forty-five shillings a quarter, it fell immediately after to five shillings and four. Six and eightpence continued to be considered in parliament as the average; and on the whole it seems to have been maintained for that time with little variation.
Beef and pork were a halfpenny a pound—mutton was three farthings. They were fixed at these prices by the 3rd of the 24th of Hen. VIII. But the act was unpopular both with buyers and with sellers. The old practice had been to sell in the gross, and under that arrangement the rates had been generally lower. Stow says, "It was this year enacted that butchers should sell their beef and mutton by weight—beef for a halfpenny the pound, and mutton for three farthings; which being devised for the great commodity of the realm (as it was thought), hath proved far otherwise: for at that time fat oxen were sold for six and twenty shillings and eightpence the piece; fat wethers for three shillings and fourpence the piece; fat calves at a like price; and fat lambs for twelvepence. The butchers of London sold penny pieces of beef for the relief of the poor—every piece two pound and a half, sometimes three pound for a penny; and thirteen and sometimes fourteen of these pieces for twelvepence; mutton eightpence the quarter, and an hundred weight of beef for four shillings and eightpence." The act was repealed in consequence of the complaints against it, but the prices never fell again to what they had been, although beef sold in the gross could still be had for a halfpenny a pound in 1570. Other articles of food were in the same proportion. The best pig or goose in a country market could be bought for fourpence; a good capon for threepence or fourpence; a chicken for a penny; a hen for twopence.
Strong beer, such as we now buy for eighteenpence a gallon, was then a penny a gallon; and table-beer less than a halfpenny. French and German wines were eightpence the gallon. Spanish and Portuguese wines a shilling. This was the highest price at which the best wines might be sold; and if there was any fault in quality or quantity, the dealers forfeited four times the amount. Rent, another important consideration, cannot be fixed so accurately, for parliament did not interfere with it. Here, however, we are not without very tolerable information. "My father," says Latimer, "was a yeoman, and had no lands of his own; only he had a farm of three or four pounds by the year at the uttermost, and hereupon he tilled so much as kept half-a-dozen men. He had walk for a hundred sheep, and my mother milked thirty kine. He was able, and did find the king a harness with himself and his horse. I remember that I buckled on his harness when he went to Blackheath field. He kept me to school, or else I had not been able to have preached before the King's Majesty now. He married my sisters with five pounds, or twenty nobles, each, having brought them up in godliness and fear of God. He kept hospitality for his poor neighbours, and some alms he gave to the poor; and all this he did of the said farm." If "three or four pounds at the uttermost" was the rent of a farm yielding such results, the rent of labourers' cottages is not likely to have been considerable.
Some uncertainty is unavoidable in all calculations of the present nature; yet, after making the utmost allowances for errors, we may conclude from such a table of prices that a penny, in terms of the labourer's necessities, must have been nearly equal in the reign of Henry VIII. to the present shilling. For a penny, at the time of which I write, the labourer could buy as much bread, beef, beer, and wine—he could do as much towards finding lodging for himself and his family—as the labourer of the nineteenth century can for a shilling. I do not see that this admits of question. Turning, then, to the table of wages, it will be easy to ascertain his position. By the 3rd of the 6th of Henry VIII. it was enacted that master carpenters, masons, bricklayers, tylers, plumbers, glaziers, joiners, and other employers of such skilled workmen, should give to each of their journeymen, if no meat or drink was allowed, sixpence a day for the half year, fivepence a day for the other half; or fivepence-halfpenny for the yearly average. The common labourers were to receive fourpence a day for half the year, for the remaining half, threepence. In the harvest months they were allowed to work by the piece, and might earn considerably more; so that, in fact (and this was the rate at which their wages were usually estimated), the day labourer, if in full employment, received on an average fourpence a day for the whole year. Allowing a deduction of one day in a fortnight for a saint's day or a holiday, he received, therefore, steadily and regularly, if well conducted, an equivalent of something near to twenty shillings a week, the wages at present paid in English colonies: and this is far from being a full account of his advantages. Except in rare instances, the agricultural labourer held land in connection with his house, while in most parishes, if not in all, there were large ranges of common and unenclosed forest land, which furnished his fuel to him gratis, where pigs might range, and ducks and geese; where, if he could afford a cow, he was in no danger of being unable to feed it; and so important was this privilege considered, that when the commons began to be largely enclosed, parliament insisted that the working man should not be without some piece of ground on which he could employ his own and his family's industry. By the 7th of the 31st of Elizabeth, it was ordered that no cottage should be built for residence without four acres of land at lowest being attached to it for the sole use of the occupants of such cottage.
It will, perhaps, be supposed that such comparative prosperity of labour was the result of the condition of the market in which it was sold, that the demand for labour was large and the supply limited, and that the state of England in the sixteenth century was analogous to that of Australia or Canada at the present time. And so long as we confine our view to the question of wages alone, it is undoubted that legislation was in favour of the employer. The Wages Act of Henry VIII. was unpopular with the labourers, and was held to deprive them of an opportunity of making better terms for themselves. But we shall fall into extreme error if we translate into the language of modern political economy the social features of a state of things which in no way correspond to our own. There was this essential difference, that labour was not looked upon as a market commodity; the government (whether wisely or not, I do not presume to determine) attempting to portion out the rights of the various classes of society by the rule, not of economy, but of equity. Statesmen did not care for the accumulation of capital; they desired to see the physical well-being of all classes of the commonwealth maintained at the highest degree which the producing power of the country admitted; and population and production remaining stationary, they were able to do it. This was their object, and they were supported in it by a powerful and efficient majority of the nation. On the one side parliament interfered to protect employers against their labourers; but it was equally determined that employers should not be allowed to abuse their opportunities; and this directly appears from the 4th of the 5th of Elizabeth, by which, on the most trifling appearance of a depreciation in the currency, it was declared that the labouring man could no longer live on the wages assigned to him by the act of Henry; and a sliding scale was instituted by which, for the future, wages should be adjusted to the price of food.
The same conclusion may be gathered also, indirectly, from other acts, interfering imperiously with the rights of property where a disposition showed itself to exercise them selfishly. The city merchants, as I have said, were becoming landowners; and some of them attempted to apply the rules of trade to the management of landed estates. While wages were ruled so high, it answered better as a speculation to convert arable land into pasture; but the law immediately stepped in to prevent a proceeding which it regarded as petty treason to the commonwealth. Self-protection is the first law of life; and the country relying for its defence on an able-bodied population, evenly distributed, ready at any moment to be called into action, either against foreign invasion or civil disturbance, it could not permit the owners of land to pursue for their own benefit a course of action which threatened to weaken its garrisons. It is not often that we are able to test the wisdom of legislation by specific results so clearly as in the present instance. The first attempts of the kind which I have described were made in the Isle of Wight, early in the reign of Henry VII. Lying so directly exposed to attacks from France, the Isle of Wight was a place which it was peculiarly important to keep in a state of defence, and the following act was therefore the consequence:—
"Forasmuch as it is to the surety of the Realm of England that the Isle of Wight, in the county of Southampton, be well inhabited with English people, for the defence as well of our antient enemies of the Realm of France as of other parties; the which Isle is late decayed of people by reason that many towns and villages have been let down, and the fields dyked and made pasture for beasts and cattle, and also many dwelling-places, farms, and farmholds have of late time been used to be taken into one man's hold and hands, that of old time were wont to be in many several persons' holds and hands, and many several households kept in them; and thereby much people multiplied, and the same Isle thereby well inhabited, which now, by the occasion aforesaid, is desolate and not inhabited, but occupied with beasts and cattle, so that if hasty remedy be not provided, that Isle cannot long be kept and defended, but open and ready to the hands of the king's enemies, which God forbid. For remedy hereof, it is ordained and enacted that no manner of person, of what estate, degree, or condition soever, shall take any several farms more than one, whereof the yearly value shall not exceed the sum of ten marks; and if any several leases afore this time have been made to any person or persons of divers and sundry farmholds, whereof the yearly value shall exceed that sum, then the said person or persons shall choose one farmhold at his pleasure, and the remnant of his leases shall be utterly void."
An act, tyrannical in form, was singularly justified by its consequences. The farms were rebuilt, the lands reploughed, the island repeopled; and in 1546, when a French army of sixty thousand men attempted to effect a landing at St. Helen's, they were defeated and driven off by the militia of the island and a few levies transported from Hampshire and the adjoining counties. The money-making spirit, however, lay too deep to be checked so readily. The trading classes were growing rich under the strong rule of the Tudors. Increasing numbers of them were buying or renting land; and the symptoms complained of broke out in the following reign in many parts of England. They could not choose but break out indeed; for they were the outward marks of a vital change, which was undermining the feudal constitution, and would by and bye revolutionise and destroy it. Such symptoms it was impossible to extinguish; but the government wrestled long and powerfully to hold down the new spirit; and they fought against it successfully, till the old order of things had finished its work, and the time was come for it to depart. By the 1st of the 7th of Henry VIII., the laws of feudal tenure were put in force against the landed traders. Wherever lands were converted from tillage to pasture, the lords of the fee had authority to seize half of all profits until the farm-buildings were reconstructed. If the immediate lord did not do his duty, the lord next above him was to do it; and the evil still increasing, the act, twenty years later, was extended further, and the king had power to seize. Nor was this all. Sheep-farming had become an integral branch of business; and falling into the hands of men who understood each other, it had been made a monopoly, affecting seriously the prices of wool and mutton. Stronger measures were therefore now taken, and the class to which the offenders belonged was especially pointed out by parliament.
"Whereas," says the 13th of the 25th of Henry VIII., "divers and sundry persons of the king's subjects of this Realm, to whom God of his goodness hath disposed great plenty and abundance of moveable substance, now of late, within few years, have daily studied, practised, and invented ways and means how they might accumulate and gather together into few hands, as well great multitude of farms as great plenty of cattle, and in especial, sheep, putting such lands as they can get to pasture and not to tillage; whereby they have not only pulled down churches and towns and enhanced the old rates of the rents of the possessions of this Realm, or else brought it to such excessive fines that no poor man is able to meddle with it, but also have raised and enhanced the prices of all manner of corn, cattle, wool, pigs, geese, hens, chickens, eggs, and such other commodities, almost double above the prices which hath been accustomed, by reason whereof a marvellous multitude of the poor people of this realm be not able to provide meat, drink, and clothes necessary for themselves, their wives, and children, but be so discouraged with misery and poverty, that they fall daily to theft, robbery, and other inconveniences, or pitifully die for hunger and cold; and it is thought by the king's humble and loving subjects, that one of the greatest occasions that moveth those greedy and covetous people so to accumulate and keep in their hands such great portions and parts of the lands of this Realm from the occupying of the poor husbandmen, and so to use it in pasture and not in tillage, is the great profit that cometh of sheep which be now come into a few persons' hands, in respect of the whole number of the king's subjects; it is hereby enacted, that no person shall have or keep on lands not their own inheritance more than 2000 sheep; that no person shall occupy more than two farms; and that the 19th of the 4th of Henry VII., and those other acts obliging the lords of the fees to do their duty, shall be re-enacted and enforced."
By these measures the money-making spirit was for a time driven back, and the country resumed its natural course. I am not concerned to defend the economic wisdom of such proceedings; but they prove, I think, conclusively, that the labouring classes owed their advantages not to the condition of the labour market, but to the care of the state; and that when the state relaxed its supervision, or failed to enforce its regulations, the labourers being left to the market chances, sank instantly in the unequal struggle with capital.
The government, however, remained strong enough to hold its ground (except during the discreditable interlude of the reign of Edward VI.) for the first three quarters of the century; and until that time the working classes of this country remained in a condition more than prosperous. They enjoyed an abundance far beyond what in general falls to the lot of that order in long-settled countries; incomparably beyond what the same class were enjoying at that very time in Germany or France. The laws secured them; and that the laws were put in force we have the direct evidence of successive acts of the legislature justifying the general policy by its success: and we have also the indirect evidence of the contented loyalty of the great body of the people at a time when, if they had been discontented, they held in their own hands the means of asserting what the law acknowledged to be their right. The government had no power to compel submission to injustice, as was proved by the fate of an attempt to levy a "benevolence" by force, in 1525. The people resisted with a determination against which the crown commissioners were unable to contend, and the scheme ended with an acknowledgment of fault by Henry, who retired with a good grace from an impossible position. If the peasantry had been suffering under any real grievances we should not have failed to have heard of them when the religious rebellions furnished so fair an opportunity to press those grievances forward. Complaint was loud enough when complaint was just, under the Somerset protectorate.
The incomes of the great nobles cannot be determined, for they varied probably as much as they vary now. Under Henry IV. the average income of an earl was estimated at L2000 a year. Under Henry VIII. the great Duke of Buckingham, the wealthiest English peer, had L6000. And the income of the Archbishop of Canterbury was rated at the same amount. But the establishments of such men were enormous; their ordinary retinues in time of peace consisting of many hundred persons; and in war, when the duties of a nobleman called him to the field, although in theory his followers were paid by the crown, yet the grants of parliament were on so small a scale that the theory was seldom converted into fact, and a large share of the expenses was paid often out of private purses. The Duke of Norfolk, in the Scotch war of 1523, declared (not complaining of it, but merely as a reason why he should receive support) that he had spent all his private means upon the army; and in the sequel of this history we shall find repeated instances of knights and gentlemen voluntarily ruining themselves in the service of their country. The people, not universally, but generally, were animated by a true spirit of sacrifice; by a true conviction that they were bound to think first of England, and only next of themselves; and unless we can bring ourselves to understand this, we shall never understand what England was under the reigns of the Plantagenets and Tudors. The expenses of the court under Henry VII. were a little over L14,000 a year, out of which were defrayed the whole cost of the king's establishment, the expenses of entertaining foreign ambassadors, the wages and maintenance of the yeomen of the guard, the retinues of servants, and all necessary outlay not incurred for public business. Under Henry VIII., of whose extravagance we have heard so much, and whose court was the most magnificent in the world, these expenses were L19,894 16s. 8d., a small sum when compared with the present cost of the royal establishment, even if we adopt the relative estimate of twelve to one, and suppose it equal to L240,000 a year of our money. But indeed it was not equal to L240,000; for, although the proportion held in articles of common consumption, articles of luxury were very dear indeed.
Passing down from the king and his nobles, to the body of the people, we find that the income qualifying a country gentleman to be justice of the peace was L20 a year, and if he did his duty, his office was no sinecure. We remember Justice Shallow and his clerk Davy, with his novel theory of magisterial law; and Shallow's broad features have so English a cast about them, that we may believe there were many such, and that the duty was not always very excellently done. But the Justice Shallows were not allowed to repose upon their dignity. The justice of the peace was required not only to take cognisance of open offences, but to keep surveillance over all persons within his district, and over himself in his own turn there was a surveillance no less sharp, and penalties for neglect prompt and peremptory. Four times a year he was to make proclamation of his duty, and exhort all persons to complain against him who had occasion.
Twenty pounds a year, and heavy duties to do for it, represented the condition of the squire of the parish. By the 2nd of the 2nd of Henry V., "the wages" of a parish priest were limited to L5 6s. 8d., except in cases where there was special licence from the bishop, when they might be raised as high as L6. Priests were probably something better off under Henry VIII., but the statute remained in force, and marks an approach at least to their ordinary salary. The priest had enough, being unmarried, to supply him in comfort with the necessaries of life. The squire had enough to provide moderate abundance for himself and his family. Neither priest nor squire was able to establish any steep difference in outward advantages between himself and the commons among whom he lived.
The habits of all classes were open, free, and liberal. There are two expressions corresponding one to the other, which we frequently meet with in old writings, and which are used as a kind of index, marking whether the condition of things was or was not what it ought to be. We read of "merry England;"—when England was not merry, things were not going well with it. We hear of "the glory of hospitality," England's pre-eminent boast,-by the rules of which all tables, from the table of the twenty-shilling freeholder to the table in the baron's hall and abbey refectory, were open at the dinner hour to all comers, without stint or reserve, or question asked: to every man, according to his degree, who chose to ask for it there was free fee and free lodging; bread, beef, and beer for his dinner; for his lodging, perhaps, only a mat of rushes in a spare corner of the hall, with a billet of wood for a pillow, but freely offered and freely taken, the guest probably faring much as his host fared, neither worse nor better. There was little fear of an abuse of such licence, for suspicious characters had no leave to wander at pleasure; and for any man found at large and unable to give a sufficient account of himself, there were the ever-ready parish stocks or town gaol. The "glory of hospitality" lasted far down into Elizabeth's time; and then, as Camden says, "came in great bravery of building, to the marvellous beautifying of the realm, but to the decay" of what he valued more.
In such frank style the people lived, hating three things with all their hearts: idleness, want, and cowardice; and for the rest carrying their hearts high, and having their hands full. The hour of rising, winter and summer, was four o'clock, with breakfast at five, after which the labourers went to work and the gentlemen to business, of which they had no little. In the country every unknown face was challenged and examined—if the account given was insufficient, he was brought before the justice; if the village shopkeeper sold bad wares, if the village cobbler made "unhonest" shoes, if servants and masters quarrelled, all was to be looked to by the justice; there was no fear lest time should hang heavy with him. At twelve he dined; after dinner he went hunting, or to his farm or to what he pleased. It was a life unrefined, perhaps, but coloured with a broad, rosy, English health.
Of the education of noblemen and gentlemen we have contradictory accounts, as might be expected. The universities were well filled, by the sons of yeomen chiefly. The cost of supporting them at the colleges was little, and wealthy men took a pride in helping forward any boys of promise. It seems clear also, as the Reformation drew nearer, while the clergy were sinking lower and lower, a marked change for the better became perceptible in a portion at least of the laity. The more old-fashioned of the higher ranks were slow in moving; for as late as the reign of Edward VI. there were peers of parliament unable to read; but on the whole, the invention of printing, and the general ferment which was commencing all over the world, had produced marked effects in all classes. Henry VIII. himself spoke four languages, and was well read in theology and history; and the high accomplishments of More and Sir T. Elliott, of Wyatt and Cromwell, were but the extreme expression of a temper which was rapidly spreading, and which gave occasion, among other things to the following reflection in Erasmus. "Oh, strange vicissitudes of human things," exclaims he. "Heretofore the heart of learning was among such as professed religion. Now, while they for the most part give themselves up, ventri luxui pecuniaeque, the love of learning is gone from them to secular princes, the court and the nobility. May we not justly be ashamed of ourselves? The feasts of priests and divines are drowned in wine, are filled with scurrilous jests, sound with intemperate noise and tumult, flow with spiteful slanders and defamation of others; while at princes' tables modest disputations are held concerning things which make for learning and piety."
A letter to Thomas Cromwell from his son's tutor will not be without interest on this subject; Cromwell was likely to have been unusually careful in his children's training, and we need not suppose that all boys were brought up as prudently. Sir Peter Carew, for instance, being a boy at about the same time, and giving trouble at the High School at Exeter, was led home to his father's house at Ottery, coupled between two foxhounds. Yet the education of Gregory Cromwell is probably not far above what many young men of the middle and higher ranks were beginning to receive. Henry Dowes was the tutor's name, beyond which fact I know nothing of him. His letter is as follows:—
"After that it pleased your mastership to give me in charge, not only to give diligent attendance upon Master Gregory, but also to instruct him with good letters, honest manners, pastyme of instruments, and such other qualities as should be for him meet and convenient, pleaseth it you to understand that for the accomplishment thereof I have endeavoured myself by all ways possible to excogitate how I might most profit him. In which behalf, through his diligence, the success is such as I trust shall be to your good contentation and pleasure, and to his no small profit. But for cause the summer was spent in the service of the wild gods, [and] it is so much to be regarded after what fashion youth is brought up, in which time that that is learned for the most part will not be wholly forgotten in the older years, I think it my duty to acertain your mastership how he spendeth his time. And first after he hath heard mass he taketh a lecture of a dialogue of Erasmus' Colloquies, called Pietas Puerilis, wherein is described a very picture of one that should be virtuously brought up; and for cause it is so necessary for him, I do not only cause him to read it over, but also to practise the precepts of the same. After this he exerciseth his hand in writing one or two hours, and readeth upon Fabyan's Chronicle as long. The residue of the day he doth spend upon the lute and virginals. When he rideth, as he doth very oft, I tell him by the way some history of the Romans or the Greeks, which I cause him to rehearse again in a tale. For his recreation he useth to hawk and hunt and shoot in his long bow, which frameth and succeedeth so well with him that he seemeth to be thereunto given by nature."
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Strong reasoning
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History
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Rome Catacombs, Ancient Jewish and Christian Cemeteries
Catacombs in Rome – Jewish and Christian cemeteries
THE CATACOMBS OF ROME
(LE CATACOMBE DI ROMA)
Rome Catacombs, Ancient Jewish and Christian Cemeteries – Ancient underground cemeteries, underground burial tunnels Rome information tours Information about the catacombs in Rome, Rome – Catacombs in Rome – ancient underground cemeteries, underground burial tunnels in Rome – Italy. Most of the Catacombs are concentrated on the Apian Way.
For information about tours, guided tours, sightseeing and excursions:
Rome, Italy, tours information, about, catacombs in Rome, Rome Catacombs, ancient, underground cemeteries, underground burial, tunnels, in Rome, the Catacombs, the Apian Way, Roman tombs, catacombs of San Sebastiano, ancient Romans, city of Rome, Christians catacombs, Jewish catacombs, catacombs Tour, information about the catacombs
Christians dug an estimated 375 miles of tomb-lined tunnels, with networks of galleries as many as five layers deep.
The volcanic tufa stone that Rome sits atop soft and easy to cut, but which hardens when exposed to air was perfect for the job.
The Christians burrowed many layers deep for two reasons: to get more mileage out of the donated land, and to be near martyrs and saints already buried there.
Most of the Catacombs are concentrated on the Appian Way.
The Apian Antica these days, is best known for its catacombs and tombs.
According to the Roma law, inherited from Etruscans, all burials had to be outside the pomerium, the sacred ground of the city itself, and like all consular roads the Via Appia was soon crowded with cemeteries and elaborate mausoleums of the wealthy.
Later the early Christian community built some of its most extensive catacombs here-the word itself is believed to come from the catacombs of San Sebastiano, located near a dip (ad catacombs) in the road.
The Christians called them simply cemeteries.
Popular romance and modern cinema not with standing, they were never places of refuge from persecution or anything else; as cruel as the ancient Romans could be, they regarded bodies, even of executed criminals, as inviolate and their tombs as sacred.
Later Romans, as youve probably noticed by now, lacked any qualms their ancestors may have had and so, you may well ask, why is the Via Appia Antica so well preserved when the rest of extramural Rome has been mercilessly buried under tons of concrete? The Catacombs, a main destination in the Dark ages, were first pillaged by the Goths and the Lombards, and then by relic hunters; after the Saracen raid of 847, the whole Via Appia declined, and became infested throats malaria.
The Catacombs were abandoned and forgotten.
The great archaeologist Giambattista De Rossi rediscovered the lost Catacombs of St. Calixtus in 1850, while the sculptor Antonio Canova deserves the credit for the innovative idea of leaving the tombs, or at least casts, along the road where they were found instead of carting them off to rot in a museum.
underground burial tunnels
LIST OFSOME OF THE CATACOMBS IN ROME
- Rome Christian catacombs in Rome
- Rome Catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter in Rome
- Rome Catacombs of Domitilla in Rome
- Rome Catacombs of Commodilla in Rome
- Rome Catacombs of Generosa in Rome
- Rome Catacombs of Prætextatus in Rome
- Rome Catacombs of San Callisto in Rome
- Rome Catacombs of San Lorenzo in Rome
- Rome Catacombs of San Pancrazio in Rome
- Rome Catacombs of San Sebastiano in Rome
- Rome Catacombs of San Valentino
- Rome Catacombs of Sant’Agnese in Rome
- Rome Catacombs of via Anapo in Rome
- Rome Jewish catacombs in Rome
- Rome Catacombs of the Villa Torlonia in Rome
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Strong reasoning
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History
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Learn how to draw a bat icon made from simple shapes and see how to enhance this one using various vector tools. In just four easy steps, I will show you how to draw a bat made from simple elements, plain colors and no outlines. Then, I will show you how to create various icons using this illustration.
Bats are fascinating creatures. They are often associated with vampires, Batman or simply seen as weird animals that live at night. Let's see how we can draw a fun version using the step-by-step lesson below.
First, let's draw a large rectangle to form the head and body. Next, draw two small triangles on top of the head to illustrate the ears. The wings are made from long irregular rectangles and the tiny feet are create from two small rectangles.
Now that our guideline is created, it's time to sketch the character using mostly curved lines. As you can see below, the body is made from a round shape. Ears are pointed and wings are drawn using multiple curved lines. Finally, the feet are sketched using small rectangles with round corners.
Since we are creating an icon, not too many details are needed. You can start by drawing the eyes using medium circles. The pupils are made from tiny dots. Complete this third step by drawing two long pointed lines inside each wing. Cool! It's time to add colors!
This creature is mostly filled with a very dark grey color. The eyes are white and the pupils are black. Lines added inside the wings are also black. As you can see below, outlines from all shapes have been removed. Good! This is a very nice bat icon to play with ... but can we make this illustration better?
This simple variation is featuring a thick outline filled with a light grey color. I really like this version. The bat seems more polished and this picture could be used for a logo or an icon (but don't do it ... it's mine! ;)
Using another great vector tool from my application, I have created another interesting image featuring some 3D effects. This technique is also nice, but better use it only if it's relevant with what you are looking for.
This is not a 3D version, but simply a 2D illustration with a bevel around the edges. I don't know about you, but for me this illustration looks like it was made from plastic! Very cool! :)
These are all steps needed to draw this icon and create new and interesting variations. Remember that icons are simple graphic representations of the characters you are working with. Don't add too much details, keep it simple and you should be fine. Enjoy! :)
Follow the current adventures of Pascal & Hal, two lovely cartoon characters gifted with amazing personalities. New and exclusive comic strips are added twice a week (Mondays and Thursdays). Enjoy!
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Basic reasoning
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Art & Design
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By Dr Ian Bethell-Bennett
The University of The Bahamas
Caribbean peoples have cultural links and subterranean rhizomes–a mass of roots– that connect the region to a larger reality. This is also articulated by Cuban poets and theorists like Nicolas Guillen and Antonio Benítez-Rojo. The ethnomusicologist and anthropologist Fernando Ortiz argues about transculturation and harmonious combined with deeply conflicting existences. We often flatten culture out into its artistic expression, removing any life from it; putting it in a museum and extracting its marrow. We thereby tend to fossilise and remove understanding of culture and its unique link to the place, time and people. So, Guillen, Ortiz and Glissant came up with understandings of culture that transcend limited material understanding. We also remove the multiplicity of experiences and histories from culture because so much of history and culture is limited to the official version as told by the coloniser.
In the Bahamian context, this is further complicated by the Caribbean cultural reality of the archipelagic nation that is deeply nuanced by location in the Atlantic, but still profoundly Caribbean because of socio-cultural, political, economic and historical confluences. The Southern Bahamas will be culturally distinct from the Northern Bahamas because of its geography, the former being drier arider, the latter being more populated with pine forests with freshwater lenses and less cactus. Family habitations were and still are very distinct.
It is useful to draw on these thinkers from the broader region because they articulate the kind of work we undertake as we map the passage of time on Ragged Island. The objective is to demonstrate the cultural loss and identity erasure being achieved through the quiet withdrawal of resources from islands of the archipelago.
Ragged Island, given its southwestern geographic positioning in the Bahamian archipelago, stands out from the other islands because it is (almost) closer to Haiti and Cuba than it is to the northern islands. On Ragged Island, notwithstanding heat that settles like a blanket over a bed, people thrive. Tragically, erasure of this unique identity/reality is real. The erasure feared is often omitted from official stories that see these countries, islands, lands as empty spaces suitable for occupation, built to be consumed.
Before the fifteenth century these were lands of dragons and seas monsters, now these are potential spots where green gentrification can take over from climate change disasters and global warming nightmares as sea levels rise across our sand and rocky shores. Stories that exist beyond history are insightful and intensely lived, and interviews provide ethnographic and anthropological data, and sometimes these are overwritten by politics.
Our day/hours on Ragged Island reveal such trauma as is geographically present from the beginning of the 16th century as European expansionism took root and purportedly erased those who were here before. However, the colour and race-blind version of history today is a dangerous land where no good can grow because it flattens all into a receptive culture of nothing-was-here-before, and we all get along well. While on Ragged, homes struggle to remain on this island of sand, salt and stone, surrounded by fishing waters and a deep-sea trove of treasure that is often sequestered away from national wealth before the making of The Bahamas in its current identity politics of Blackness that denies so many Bahamian voices.
Beware of those who come with gifts of open hands and placating words as their tongues are forked and sling poison from the side unseen. We have seen this in Barbuda and Puerto Rico. Our histories and geographies are linked, but we do not speak of these links. Our politics today allows Ragged Island almost to seem as if it were unique, unlike any other place in this region, in this world. The lessons of recent storms and green gentrification, climate change and sea level rise from the Atlantic to the Pacific, can speak to the reality of cultural disconnection, cultural displacement and cultural erasure.
Ragged Island, profoundly transcultural and also deeply rooted and steeped in a history of slavery, exploitation and geopolitics is poised as the next place quietly erased from the Bahamian map place where climate change means cultural doom. Countless reports of land grabbing in hot water are beginning to surface, though regional governments deny them, these so-called tales are of old fools married to Gaulins, but today the Gaulin wives, to use stories from Patricia Glinton-Meicholas and other Bahamian lore, have come in new disguises. The same liberators of independence fame are offering up little snippets of the country, of those places where no one lives, except our souls. We must be careful of our stories falling into deep craters of forgetting. The Gaulin Wife, much like La Jablesse is a part of our story is overwritten.
Ragged Island has stories of salt mining and deepwater exploration. They have a passage that connects them to the southern countries of Haiti and Cuba. They boast deep and well-defined harbours, lovely coves and fabulous waters. These, though we may not be aware of it, are not common among Caribbean islands/countries. These are enviable, and envy leads to many deeds. The geographic richness of Ragged Island is only absent from the Bahamian discussion. As our Nassau-centrism deepens, despite worsening overcrowding that results in urban sprawl and shantytown realities, we seem happy to deracinate all our out islanders of their island homes and cultures. The slow privatisation of space and services means that soon it will be impossible for normal Bahamians who earn normal Bahamian salaries to live in their ancestral homes. Government is slowly withdrawing from their role as providing infrastructure for the country to unregulated partnership agreements and private contracts and management or spatial ownership in place since colonial times, much like the West India and East India Companies, or Royal Dutch Shell, where licenses are held tight to chests and control is grabbed from young countries before they become aware.
The islands of the Bahamas are a scene from a movie, soon to be shot without those rhizomatic connections. These links deep and wide, scarred and mapped on physical bodies are being expunged in favour of independent islands owned by corporations and companies, governed by the market where people live at the pleasure of a private person whose benevolence is expected but not always given. The paternalistic government has given way to deeply compromised citizenship, cronyism and clannish mappings that allow spaces to be carved up and parcelled out much like during the royal days of colonial rule.
Mailboats act like veins and arteries in a deeply divided nation, the centre is divided from its parts, though dependent on them to form a national identity. This vehicle brings and carries the essentials to and fro as it links every part to the whole. The whole though shows that there is no real connectivity.
In order to go from Salina Point to Ragged Island, one must possess one’s vessel or return to the congested centre where leakage and loss become troubling parts of life as plague-filled veins block the free flow of life. Once upon a time, Ragged Islanders and others in the Southern Bahamas understood this, and rather than doing business with the small town of Nassau, they looked further afield yet closer to home. The politics and language of nationalism have tried to cleave these rhizomatic roots.
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Taking Desalination to the Next Level
Energy Efficiency Is Key to Tapping the Seas
Jim Rush Oct 12, 2011
Earth: the Blue Planet. Its nickname is derived from the fact that about 70 percent of its surface is covered by water. Yet despite its abundance, water that is readily adaptable for drinking is in short supply. In fact, about 97 percent of all water found on our home planet is saltwater that must be treated before it can be used for consumption, irrigation or industrial processes.
To make matters worse, trends in human population, as well as changes in climate, are placing an increasing demand for freshwater across the globe. A growing global population needs water for consumption, as well as irrigation for food production, while industrialization in emerging areas like China, India and Brazil, among others, is stressing water resources even further. In the United States, a population shift to the Southwest and Southeast means that those arid areas must find new ways of obtaining water.
To address water shortages, utility managers and government leaders are turning to water conservation, water recycling and desalination. Increasingly, desalination is being viewed as a viable alternative, which is not surprising given the abundance of seawater readily available to coastal population centers.
The concept of desalination is certainly not new. Man has been desalting water for centuries using the thermal desalination method – essentially boiling seawater to separate the water and salts, and collecting and condensing the steam. In recent years, advances in membrane filters have led to the process of reverse osmosis (RO) desalination, which involves pumping seawater through ultrafine screens that collect the salts, allowing only fresh water to pass.
The problem with both of these methods has been the intensive amount of energy required. The thermal method requires an abundance of heat energy while RO desalination requires high-pressure pumps to move large amounts of water from the sea and force it through the filters.
The key to expanding the use of desalination has come down to finding a way to reduce the energy required to desalinate water, thus making it an economically viable option. One company, based in San Leandro, Calif., is making cost-effective desalination closer to a reality.
Energy Recovery Inc. was founded in 1992 with the development of a technology that would help recycle energy used in the RO desalination process. The PX Pressure Exchanger (PX) is an energy recovery device that basically recycles pressurized water that does not pass through the RO filters back into the high-pressure loop at 98 percent efficiency, reducing the amount of energy required by 60 percent, Energy Recovery Inc. president and CEO Tom Rooney says.
In addition to maximum energy savings, the PX device has significant economic benefits to desalination plant owners and operators. ERI PX technology offers very high availability and durability. With zero unplanned downtime and a 99.8 percent uptime advantage, facilities can secure their water production and save millions of dollars over the lifetime of a plant. In addition, the unique ceramic (alumina) materials that make up the device are designed to last a lifetime - of no less than 25 years. As a result, the PX technology offers the best economic solution to all stakeholders.
Since developing its product in the 1990s and improving it in the early 2000s, Energy Recovery Inc. went public in 2008. During that time the product has gained a leading position in the marketplace.
“We went from a little-known company with interesting new technology to being by far the most dominant technology in the industry,” said Rooney, who estimates his company has an 75 to 80 percent market share.
Using an energy recovery device allows a plant to operate using much less energy. According to Rooney, an RO plant operating without energy recovery devices would require two and half times more power. The devices, Rooney says, are “making desalination more economical while the demand for water is skyrocketing.”
Demand for desalinated water is high across the globe, from obvious places like the Middle East, the Mediterranean, the Caribbean and the desert Southwest in the United States, but also South America, Asia and even Europe (London opened its first desalination plant in 2010).
The demand for desalinated water is increasing, but the recession that began in 2008 has had an impact on the short-term market. “Following the global economic collapse we saw a massive contraction of desalination plants being built around the world due to a lack of access to capital markets; these plants are very large and expensive to build, in the range of hundreds of millions of dollars,” Rooney said. “We are just now seeing the market come back.”
Desalination in the United States is not as prevalent as it is elsewhere in the world, but there is increasing interest. Tampa Bay Water is operating a 25 mgd plant in Florida, and there are proposals for new facilities on the West Coast.
Desalination plants often face criticism due to their energy footprint, as well as the potential impact on the ecosystem. Getting a plant built can take years to get all the required support and approvals. “What happens is that there is a tremendous amount of pushback to a new plant being built, but once it built and is operating, and clean water is flowing, people realize that there is effectively no downside,” Rooney said. “Then that opens the door for more projects to follow.”
That is the case in California where the proposed 50 mdg desalination plant in Carlsbad, near San Diego, has spent more than a decade getting required approvals. At 50 mgd, it would be the nation’s largest. At stake, perhaps, is the future of desalination in California as there are a reported 20 current desalination proposals for the California coast.
Rooney says Energy Recovery Inc. does about 8 percent of its business in the United States, but he views it as a growth opportunity. “It is likely a gigantic market, but it is still fighting its way through getting the initial projects built,” he said. Opportunities exist not only in California but also in the entire Southwest, Texas and the Southeast, particularly Florida.
That bodes well for Energy Recovery Inc. with its energy-saving devices. “With energy recovery devices you can drop your energy cost by 60 percent in one fell swoop,” Rooney said. “And with the cost of the devices about 1 percent of the total construction cost, it makes it a slam dunk to put these devices in.”
While the company was rooted in the desalination market and has a leading position in it, Rooney recognizes the opportunity to move into new market sectors. “There are many markets that have fluid flows that would benefit from energy recovery devices, including chemical processing, oil and gas, potable water, and mining,” Rooney said.
Jim Rush is editor of UIM.
[NOTE: White papers and uptime savings calculators can be found at www.energyrecovery.com]
An Environmentally Friendly Approach to Desalination
As part of Water Corp.’s and Western Australia’s commitment to promote energy efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the Perth seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) plant is the largest facility of its kind in the world to be powered by renewable energy. The plant buys its power needs from electricity generated by the Emu Downs Wind Farm, located 120 miles north of Perth. The 83 MW wind farm consists of 48 wind turbines and contributes over 272 GWhr per year into the grid, fully offsetting the Perth SWRO Plant’s estimated electrical requirement of 180 GWhr per year. In addition, instruments that continuously monitor plant discharges automatically shut down the process in the event of an exceedance.
The plant, with 12 SWRO trains with a first-pass capacity of 42 million gallons a day (mgd) and six brackish water reverse osmosis (BWRO) trains delivering a final product flow rate of 38 mgd, will have one of the world’s lowest specific energy consumption rates, due in part to the use of Energy Recovery Inc.’s PX Pressure Exchanger energy recovery devices (ERDs). The PX device is an isobaric-chamber ERD that recovers pressure energy from the brine reject stream and delivers it to fresh seawater going to the SWRO membrane feed at a net transfer efficiency of up to 98 percent, making it the world’s most efficient ERD. PX technology saves the Perth SWRO Plant 15.6 MW of energy.
The combination of unheralded environmental protection and monitoring, low specific energy consumption and the use of a renewable energy make the Perth SWRO Plant a world model for providing water in an environmentally sound and sustainable manner, converting wind to fresh water. Water Corp. has demonstrated that a well-planned alliance approach can produce a desalination plant that is environmentally responsible, well designed, and cost effective all at once.
“I sincerely believe that the MDJV (Multiplex Degrémont Joint Venture) Alliance has produced a design that is unmatched and will result in the most sophisticated seawater desalination plant in the world, the Perth Seawater Desalination Plant. It will no doubt be the world’s model desalination plant incorporating some of the most advanced components including the highly efficient – simple to operate – with low maintenance isobaric energy recovery devices from ERI,” said Gary Crisp, Principal Engineer, Desalination, Water Corp. of Western Australia.
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Science & Tech.
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Diseases That Affect The Immune System
Many diseases compromise the immune system. Individuals with HIV, AIDS, or cancer — conditions that already weaken the immune system — have a much greater risk of developing shingles. While the shingles virus can stay dormant for years, it is likely to take advantage of a time when the immune system is lowered for other reasons.
How Do You Get Shingles
Shingles usually occurs from inside your own body when the chickenpox virus reactivates. If you have not had chickenpox, you cant get shingles.
If you have not had chickenpox, you can be infected with chickenpox from someone who has shingles. This happens if you come in contact with the fluid from shingles blisters.
Emotional Stress And Shingles: How Can We Help
7 February, 2022 by International Medical Clinic
Shingles is a viral illness in which a painful rash develops. The rash can occur anywhere on your body although, it often appears as a stripe of blisters that wrap around the left or right side of your torso. The symptoms generally only affect a small section of one side of your body.
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What Should I Expect Will Happen To Me If I Get Shingles
Shingles can be a very painful condition. If you think you have the symptoms of shingles, see your healthcare provider right away. Starting antiviral medications early can ease your discomfort and reduce the duration of your symptoms.
A better approach to shingles is to take action and do what you can to lessen your risk of getting it. If you never had shingles or had a bout of them in the past, talk to your healthcare provider about getting the shingles vaccine. If youve never had chickenpox, talk with your healthcare provider about getting the chickenpox vaccine.
Are There Complications Of Shingles
Shingles can have complications that last long after the rash is gone, including:
- Brain inflammation or facial paralysis if it affects certain nerves
- Eye problems and vision loss if your rash was in or around your eye
- Pain that lasts long after the outbreak, called postherpetic neuralgia. It affects up to 1 in 5 people who get shingles.
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When Should I See My Doctor
See your doctor as soon as possible if you are experiencing any symptoms of shingles. Starting treatment with antiviral medicines within 3 days of the rash appearing should reduce the severity of symptoms and the risk of further complications, including post-herpetic neuralgia.
See your doctor straight away if you have symptoms of shingles and are experiencing the following:
- symptoms that affect your eye area
- a temperature of 38°C or higher
You should also see your doctor if you are pregnant, or have a weakened immune system due to medicine that suppresses the immune system, or a condition that weakens your immune system.
What Are Risk Factors For Shingles
A weakened immune system might wake up the virus. After youâve had chickenpox, youâre more likely to get shingles if you:
- Are 50 or older
- Are under a lot of stress
- Have cancer, HIV, or another disease that lowers your bodyâs defenses
- Have had a serious physical injury
- Take long-term steroids or other medicines that can weaken your immune system
But many people who get shingles donât fit into any of these categories.
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What Can We Do To Help Prevent Shingles
Once you have had chickenpox, you will always be at risk of developing shingles. About 1 in 4 people will develop shingles in their lifetime, more commonly seen in people over 50 yrs. Some may develop shingles more than once. Of course, reducing the stress load on the body with healthy lifestyle choices can reduce but not negate this risk. So, another option to protect yourself from shingles is choosing to have the Shingles vaccine, which is included in the adult immunisation programme in the UK, USA and Australia, and many other European countries.
How Do You Prevent Shingles
Vaccination is a safe and effective way to protect against shingles in most people. The shingles vaccine should not be given to people who are immunocompromised.
For more information on shingles immunisation, see Shingles immunisation service.
Shingles is less contagious than chickenpox. The risk of spreading the disease is low if the rash is covered. When the rash has developed crusts, you are no longer infectious.
If you have shingles, you should:
- cover the rash
- avoid touching or scratching the rash
- wash your hands often to prevent the virus from spreading.
Avoid contact with these people until the rash has developed crusts:
- pregnant women who have never had chickenpox or the chickenpox vaccine
- premature or low birthweight babies
- children who have not had chickenpox or the chickenpox vaccine
- people with weakened immune systems, such as people who:
- have had chemotherapy
- are taking other medicines that weaken their immune system
- have had a transplant
- are living with HIV.
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How Is Shingles Treated
Like other viral infections, shingles will resolve on its own if left untreated. However, in specific clinical situations, a course of anti-viral medications can reduce the duration and severity of the shingles rash. In addition, it can minimise post-infection complications such as post-herpetic neuralgia . This is especially important if the rash affects certain parts of the body, the rash is causing severe pain and inflammation, or the patient is above 50 years of age or is immunosuppressed. The anti-viral medication is most effective if given within 72hours of the rash appearing. A course usually lasts for seven days and is generally well tolerated. Other helpful treatments include calamine lotion for the itch and painkillers to manage the pain.
First What Causes Shingles
If youve had chickenpox as a child, you may develop shingles later on in life. However, very rarely people who have not had chickenpox before have developed shingles. Even after you have overcome the chickenpox, the virus remains dormant in your bodys nerve cells. Shingles occur when the chickenpox virus called varicella zoster virus reactivates, causing a painful rash of blisters to appear. Shingles typically last anywhere from two to six weeks. Typically, the first symptom of shingles is a burning sensation or tingling pain that occurs on one side of the body in a band-like pattern. You may also feel itching and severe pain from even the lightest touch.
As you get older, your risk of developing shingles increases. The majority of people who develop shingles are 50 and older. As we age, our immune systems become less effective at defending us against bacterial, fungi and viral infections, making us more susceptible to the shingles virus.
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Is Shingles Contagious
It is not possible to catch shingles from someone else with the condition, or from someone with chickenpox.
However, it is possible for someone who has never had chickenpox to catch it from someone with shingles, as the shingles blisters contains the live virus.
In the UK, chickenpox is so common during childhood that 9 out of 10 adults have already had it and will not be at risk from someone with shingles.
How Is It Treated
It is best to start treatment as soon as possible after you notice the rash. See your healthcare provider to discuss treatment with antiviral medicine, such as acyclovir. This medicine is most effective if you start taking it within the first 3 days of the rash. Antiviral medicine may speed your recovery and lessen the chance that the pain will last for a long time.
Your provider may also recommend or prescribe:
- medicine for pain
- antibacterial salves or lotions to help prevent bacterial infection of the blisters
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Does Stress Increase My Risk Of Shingles
Stress may increase your risk of shingles, however age is the most important risk factor for developing shingles, as most cases of shingles occur in adults 50 years and older.
Im up for almost anything somebody wants to try, whether its something old or new, Im in. But not when I had shingles. I was out. Do anything you can not to get it.
Pat Knaust,former shingles sufferer and GSK spokesperson
Is That Rash By My Eye Really Shingles
Shingles tends to show up most frequently on the torso, just because of the laws of probability, notes Joseph Safdieh, MD, a professor of neurology at Weill Cornell Medicine in New York City. In that area of your body, there are 24 nerves that can host the virus, compared with the 10 in your lower back.
Often, its not what the rash looks like, but what it feels like before and after it shows up, that signals the condition. Up to several days before the shingles rash appears, pain, itching, or tingling often occurs in the area where it will develop.
In the days before the rash appears, a variety of other flu-like symptoms of shingles can occur. You may experience:
- Upset stomach
You may even experience the pain but not the rash. Because the pain of shingles originates in the nerves, it may have a different quality than any other pain you may have experienced before.
Neuropathic pain is burning, says Dr. Safdieh. Its both numb and painful at the same time, and can be provoked by touching the skin. Your skin may be so sensitive that even sunlight can bring on a stabbing sensation.
Even if you arent sure you have shingles, you should still see a doctor right away, because immediate treatment can prevent complications like long-term nerve pain.
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Does Stress Literally Cause Shingles
The quick but incomplete answer is no. Shingles is caused by a virusthe varicella zoster virus that, before a vaccine became widely available in 1995, caused chicken pox mainly in children up to 12 years of age. At the conclusion of the disease phase of chicken pox, VZV retreats to the central nervous system , and like a hibernating bear in a cave, goes dormant. The problem is that decades later, the virus can wake up and reemerge along nerve pathways, erupting in painful, itchy blisters and, for some, complications including herpes zoster opthalmicus and postherpetic neuralgia , which is potentially debilitating pain along the same pathways that can last for months, and sometimes years, after the rash retreats. About 1 million Americans develop shingles every year, according to the Centers for Disease Control , or 1 in 3 adults over 50, when risk begins to climb dramatically.
The reason the virus becomes empowered to charge back with such a vengeance later in life has to do with a decline in the bodys immune response to bacteria, viruses, and fungi that naturally lowers with age. This weakened defense is where experts see a potential relationship between the bodys response to stressof all kinds, physical and emotionaland how our inner chemistry can affect the immune function from keeping VZV at bay.
Stress And Shingles Mind And Body Are One
Allan Schwartz, LCSW, Ph.D. was in private practice for more than thirty years. He is a Licensed Clinical Social Worker in the states…Read More
There is probably no more painful an experience than to be stricken with shingles. Shingles is also known as the Herpes Zoster virus. Anyone who has had chicken pox is in danger of developing shingles. Essentially, Chicken Pox is known as Varicella-Zoster virus. It never really leaves the system, lying dormant waiting for some trigger to set it off in the form of shingles. Shingles can attack any part of the body. It appears as a rash that irritates the nerves and that is what makes it so painful. It can range in seriousness from being mild and attacking a very small part of the body all the way to being severe even threatening eyesight if it occurs near the eyes.
If anything, shingles is a harsh reminder that mind and body are not separate. This is how it works:
Its important that people adopt methods of living that reduce the impact of stress. For example, physical exercise, meditation, yoga, eating healthfully and living a life that balances work and leisure, can all mitigate the negative impact of stress.
If you even suspect that you might have shingles see your doctor right away. The symptoms include, itching, burning and rash on your skin. Some people even develop a fever. I know, I have had the illness. It can be serious so do not wait to see your doctor.
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Who Should Be Vaccinated With Shingrix
The Shingrix vaccine is recommended for those 50 years of age and older who are in good health.
You should get the Shingrix vaccine even if:
- You have had shingles already.
- You have been previously vaccinated with Zostavax .
- You do not know for sure if youve ever had chickenpox.
Ask your healthcare provider, who knows your entire health history, if getting this vaccine is right for you.
If Ive Had Chickenpox Once In My Life Can I Get It Again
Its rare to get chickenpox twice in your life. Once youve had chickenpox, youre usually immune to it for the rest of your life. However, its not totally impossible. If you have a severely weakened immune system , you can get chickenpox a second time. If youve had chickenpox, you are more likely to get shingles at some point in your life than a repeat bout of chickenpox.
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Oral Care With Shingles
If you have developed new or have healing shingles blisters in the mouth, maintain proper oral hygiene so the ruptured blisters don’t get infected. Be careful not to irritate the blisters with your toothbrush, which may slow healing and make them more painful. However, keep brushing your teeth and flossing daily. Your dentist may recommend an antibacterial mouthwash to keep your mouth clean to promote healing.
How Does It Occur
If you have had chickenpox, you are at risk for later developing shingles. After you recover from chickenpox, the chickenpox virus stays in your body. It moves to the roots of your nerve cells and becomes inactive . Later, if the virus becomes active again, shingles is the name given to the symptoms it causes.
What exactly causes the virus to become active is not known. A weakened immune system seems to allow reactivation of the virus. This may occur with normal aging, immune-suppressing medicines, or another illness, or after major surgery. It can also happen as a complication of cancer or AIDS or treatment of these illnesses. Chronic use of steroid drugs may trigger shingles. The virus may also become active again after the skin is injured or sunburned. Emotional stress seems to be a common trigger as well.
Read Also: Can Stress Affect Eye Pressure
Urgent Advice: Get Advice From 111 As Soon As You Suspect Shingles
You might need medicine to help speed up your recovery and avoid longer-lasting problems.
This works best if taken within 3 days of your symptoms starting.
111 will tell you what to do. They can arrange a phone call from a nurse or doctor if you need one.
Go to 111.nhs.uk or .
Get an urgent GP appointment
A GP may be able to treat you.
Ask your GP surgery for an urgent appointment.
Radiation Or Chemotherapy Treatment
Individuals who have cancer and are being treated with chemotherapy or radiation are at an increased risk of developing shingles. Such treatments not only kill cancer cells, but they also kill healthy cells. This lowers resistance to bacterial or viral infections. These individuals should stay away from anyone who has chickenpox or shingles.
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What Can Be Mistaken For Shingles
Shingles can sometimes be mistaken for another skin conditions, such as hives, psoriasis, or eczema. Share on Pinterest A doctor should always be consulted if shingles is suspected. The characteristics of a rash may help doctors identify the cause. For example, hives are often raised and look like welts.
You Cannot Get Shingles From Someone With Chickenpox
You cannot get shingles from someone with shingles or chickenpox.
But you can get chickenpox from someone with shingles if you have not had chickenpox before.
When people get chickenpox, the virus remains in the body. It can be reactivated later and cause shingles if someone’s immune system is lowered.
This can be because of stress, certain conditions, or treatments like chemotherapy.
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Is There A Vaccine Against Shingles
Shingix is currently the only shingles vaccine available in the United States. Its given to people over age 50.
Previously, an additional vaccine, Zostavax, was used, but it was phased out in the United States as of November 2020.
According to the CDC, two doses of Shingrix are over 90 percent effective at preventing shingles. Youll retain at least 85 percent protection for 4 years after being vaccinated.
If you get shingles after being vaccinated, your symptoms will likely be less severe. Youll also have a lower chance of developing postherpetic neuralgia a complication where pain remains even after a shingles rash goes away.
Shingles usually follows a pattern of development. It typically progresses with the following symptoms:
- First, you may notice a tingling or burning sensation in your skin.
- One to 5 days later a rash appears as small red spots.
- Fluid-filled blisters develop a few days later.
- After 7 to 10 days, the lesions crust over.
- The rash disappears over the next 2 to 4 weeks.
In some cases, pain may persist for several months or even years after the rash has disappeared. This complication, known as postherpetic neuralgia , can be severe enough to affect your quality of life.
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Moderate reasoning
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Health
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At the close of the eighteenth century the slave trade was a thriving and very big business. Prominent families held slaves and interests in the slave business, a vast swathe of people depended on slavery for their livelihoods, and public opinion was undisturbed by it. When Clarkson threw in his lot with a small group of Quakers in opposition to the trade the odds of success were seemingly impossible.
On May 22, 1787 Clarkson and about a dozen others met in the James Phillip Bookstore for the first official meeting of the Committee of the Slave Trade. They devised a strategy to gather intelligence on the trade, expose it’s inhumanity via pamphlets, posters and public lectures, and build momentum for a banning of the British slave trade. Clarkson became their only full time anti slavery campaigner. He travelled tirelessly throughout England seeking to gather intelligence on the slave trade and to draw people’s attention to its cruelty and inhumanity.
The task was incredibly difficult. Few of those involved in the slavery business would talk to him; he received death threats, and at least one attempt on his life; many mocked him. In that first year he noted
I began now to tremble, for the first time, at the arduous task I had undertaken, of attempting to subvert one of the branches of the commerce of the great place which was then before me…. I questioned whether I should even get out of it alive.
Yet the tide of opinion began to turn. Petitions containing thousands of names started to find their way to Parliament. More people joined themselves to the cause, including the potter Josiah Wedgewood, who crafted a relief of a kneeling slave with the words “Am I not a man and a brother?” that became a popular and influential adornment, and parliamentarian William Wilberforce, who championed the cause in Parliament. Hundreds of thousands stopped using sugar, the major slave produced good in England, and slave-free sugar started appearing. The autobiography of freed slave Olauda Equiano became a best seller and many heard him speak.
Within five years of that first meeting at the James Phillip bookstore public opinion had turned against the slave trade. Parliament however would take longer to conquer. William Wilberforce was the spearhead of the parliamentary campaign.
So enormous, so dreadful, so irremediable did the trade’s wickedness appear that my own mind was completely made up for abolition. Let the consequences be what they would; I from this time determined that I would never rest until I had effected its abolition
Like Clarkson, Wilberforce met with fierce opposition and derision. Admiral Horatio Nelson for example, condemned “the damnable doctrine of Wilberforce and his hypocritical allies”. He also found the support of colleagues such as the Prime Minister, William Pitt.
Bills against the trade were moved in 1791, 1792, 1793, 1797, 1798, 1799, 1804, and 1805, all without success, until on February 27, 1807 a bill for the abolition of the slave trade passed the House by a vote of 283 to 16.
The anti slavery activists had assumed that once the shipping of slaves was outlawed slavery would collapse. This assumption proved naive. While no more slaves were shipped, slaves continued to be held on British owned plantations in the West Indies and their children enslaved. This set off continued campaigning. A mass uprising of slaves in 1831 signalled the oppression of slaves was no longer sustainable, and in 1833 the Emancipation Act finally saw the end of British slavery.
It took fifty six years, but who’d have thought that from that meeting of a dozen people in the James Phillip Bookstore on May 22, 1787, armed with nothing but their determination and their voices, would issue such a result?
In 2004 Victor Yushchenko stood for the presidency of the Ukraine. Vehemently opposed by the ruling party Yushchenko’s face was disfigured and he almost lost his life when he was mysteriously poisoned. This was not enough to deter him from standing for the presidency.
On the day of the election Yushchenko was comfortably in the lead. The ruling party, not to be denied, tampered with the results. The state-run television station reported “ladies and gentlemen, we announce that the challenger Victor Yushchenko has been decisively defeated.”
In the lower right-hand corner of the screen a woman by the name of Natalia Dmitruk was providing a translation service for the deaf community. As the news presenter regurgitated the lies of the regime, Natalia Dmitruk refused to translate them. “I’m addressing all the deaf citizens of Ukraine” she signed. “They are lying and I’m ashamed to translate those lies. Yushchenko is our president.”
The deaf community sprang into gear. They text messaged their friends about the fraudulent result and as news spread of Dmitruk’s act of defiance increasing numbers of journalists were inspired to likewise tell the truth. Over the coming weeks the “Orange Revolution” occurred as a million people wearing orange made their way to the capital city of Kiev demanding a new election. The government was forced to meet their demands, a new election was held and Victor Yushchenko became president.
Philip Yancey writes
“When I heard the story behind the orange revolution, the image of a small screen of truth in the corner of the big screen became for me an ideal picture of the church. You see we as a church do not control the big screen. (When we do, we usually mess it up.) Go to any magazine rack or turn on the television and you see a consistent message. What matters is how beautiful you are, how much money or power you have. Similarly, though the world includes many poor people, they rarely make the magazine covers or the news shows. Instead we focus on the superrich, names like Bill Gates or Oprah Winfrey.… Our society is hardly unique. Throughout history nations have always glorified winners, not losers. Then, like the sign language translator in the lower right-hand corner of the screen, along comes a person named Jesus who says in effect, Don’t believe the big screen – they’re lying. It’s the poor who are blessed, not the rich. Mourners are blessed too, as well as those who hunger and thirst, and the persecuted. Those who go through life thinking they’re on top end up on the bottom. And those who go through life feeling they’re on the bottom end up on the top. After all, what does it profit a person to gain the whole world and lose his soul?”
Source: Philip Yancey, What Good Is God, pages 184-186
George Mallory was the famed mountain climber who may have been the first person ever to reach the top of Mount Everest. In the early 1920’s he led a number of attempts to scale the mountain, eventually being killed in the third attempt in 1924. Before that last and fatal attempt he had said “I can’t see myself coming down defeated.”
Mallory was an extraordinary climber, and nothing would force him to give up. His body was found in 1999, well preserved by the snow and ice, 27,000 feet up the mountain, just 2000 feet from the peak. Give up he did not. His body was found face down on a rocky slope, head toward the summit. His arms were extended high over his head. His toes were pointed into the mountain; his fingers dug into the loose rock, refusing to let go even as he drew his last breath. A short length of cotton rope – broken – was looped around his waist.
When those who had set up camp for Mallory further down the mountain returned to England a banquet was held for them. A huge picture of Mt Everest stood behind the banquet table. It is said that the leader of the group stood to be applauded, and with tears streaming down his face, turned and looked at the picture. “I speak to you, Mt Everest, in the name of all brave men living and those yet unborn” he said. “Mt Everest, you defeated us once; you defeated us twice; you defeated us three times. But Mt Everest, we shall someday defeat you, because you can’t get any bigger but we can.”
In 1953 two climbers, Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzig Norgay, reached the top.
Source: Information reported in Seattle Times (Jan 16, 2000) and Illustrations Unlimited
The Olympic Games, Mexico, 1968. The marathon is the final event on the program. The Olympic stadium is packed and there is excitement as the first athlete, an Ethiopian runner, enters the stadium. The crowd erupts as he crosses the finish line.
Way back in the field is another runner, John Stephen Akwhari of Tanzania. He has been eclipsed by the other runners. After 30 kilometers his head is throbbing, his muscles are aching and he falls to the ground. He has serious leg injuries and officials want him to retire, but he refuses. With his knee bandaged Akwhari picks himself up and hobbles the remaining 12 kilometers to the finish line. An hour after the winner has finished Akwhari enters the stadium. All but a few thousand of the crowd have gone home. Akwhari moves around the track at a painstakingly slow pace, until finally he collapses over the finish line.
It is one of the most heroic efforts of Olympic history. Afterward, asked by a reporter why he had not dropped out, Akwhari says, “My country did not send me to start the race. They sent me to finish.”
Sylvester Stallone shot to fame in the movie Rocky. But Stallone’s own story is as inspiring as that of the character he plays. His slurred speech and snarling look are the result of a facial nerve that was severed during his birth and his early years were spent bouncing between foster families in the infamous Hells Kitchen area. An outcast at school thanks to his facial deformities, he was sent to a high school for troubled kids and voted “most likely to end up in the electric chair”.
After school Stallone went to beauty college, but left to turn his attention to acting. He didn’t meet with much success. He worked at a deli throughout most of his twenties and before Rocky made him a star was so broke that he was forced to sell his dog, to which was so attached he was in tears, for $25, to sell his wife’s jewelry and ended up living in a bus shelter.
His break came when he went to a boxing match in which an unknown underdog Chuck Wepner took the world champion Muhammed Ali to 15 rounds. Stallone went home and in three days wrote the first draft of Rocky. When he started hawking it around to the studios there was immediate interest. They saw the script as a great vehicle for a big star – names such as Robert Redford and Burt Reynolds were thrown around – and offered to buy the script. But Stallone wasn’t selling, not unless he was given the lead. The studios kept offering more, on the condition Stallone didn’t act in the movie. Each time Stallone refused, even when $325,000 was put on the table, the highest amount ever offered for a script. Despite having just $106 in the bank Stallone wouldn’t give up.
“I knew that if I took the money I’d regret it for the rest of my life,” said Stallone. “And the picture was about taking that golden shot when you finally get it.”
The studio eventually gave in, buying the script for $35,000, with Stallone to work as a writer without a fee and as an actor for award wages. Stallone got the lead role and the movie was reduced to low budget production.
The rest is history. Rocky was a massive hit, won an Oscar for best picture and Stallone became a star.
Sir Winston Churchill took three years getting through eighth grade because he had trouble learning English. It seems ironic that years later Oxford University asked him to address its commencement exercises.
He arrived with his usual props. A cigar, a cane and a top hat accompanied Churchill wherever he went. As Churchill approached the podium, the crowd rose in appreciative applause. With unmatched dignity, he settled the crowd and stood confident before his admirers. Removing the cigar and carefully placing the top hat on the podium, Churchill gazed at his waiting audience. Authority rang in Churchill’s voice as he shouted, “Never give up!”
Several seconds passed before he rose to his toes and repeated: “Never give up!” His words thundered in their ears. There was a deafening silence as Churchill reached for his hat and cigar, steadied himself with his cane and left the platform. His commencement address was finished.
History abounds with tales of experts who were convinced that the ideas, plans, and projects of others could never be achieved. However, accomplishment came to those who said, “I can make it happen.”
The Italian sculptor Agostino d’Antonio worked diligently on a large piece of marble. Unable to produce his desired masterpiece, he lamented, “I can do nothing with it.” Other sculptors also worked this difficult piece of marble, but to no avail. Michelangelo discovered the stone and visualized the possibilities in it. His “I-can-make-it-happen” attitude resulted in one of the world’s masterpieces – David.
The experts of Spain concluded that Columbus’s plans to discover a new and shorter route to the West Indies was virtually impossible. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand ignored the report of the experts. “I can make it happen,” Columbus persisted. And he did. Everyone knew the world was flat, but not Columbus. The Nina, the Pinta, the Santa Maria, along with Columbus and his small band of followers, sailed to “impossible” new lands and thriving resources.
Even the great Thomas Alva Edison discouraged his friend, Henry Ford, from pursuing his fledgling idea of a motorcar. Convinced of the worthlessness of the idea, Edison invited Ford to come and work for him. Ford remained committed and tirelessly pursued his dream. Although his first attempt resulted in a vehicle without reverse gear, Henry Ford knew he could make it happen. And, of course, he did.
“Forget it,” the experts advised Madame Curie. They agreed radium was a scientifically impossible idea. However, Marie Curie insisted, “I can make it happen.”
Let’s not forget our friends Orville and Wilbur Wright. Journalists, friends, armed forces specialists, and even their father laughed at the idea of an airplane. “What a silly and insane way to spend money. Leave flying to the birds,” they jeered. “Sorry,” the Wright brothers responded. “We have a dream, and we can make it happen.” As a result, a place called Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, became the setting for the launching of their “ridiculous” idea.
Finally, as you read these accounts under the magnificent lighting of your environment, consider the plight of Benjamin Franklin. He was admonished to stop the foolish experimenting with lighting. What an absurdity and waste of time! Why, nothing could outdo the fabulous oil lamp. Thank goodness Franklin knew he could make it happen.
It’s often easy to look at “successful” people and think that it’s all come easily to them. In many cases this is not what happened. Colonel Sanders went to more than 1,000 places trying to sell his chicken recipe before he found an interested buyer. Thomas Edison tried almost 10,000 times before he succeeded in creating the electric light.
The original business plan for what was to become Federal Express was given a failing grade on Fred Smith’s college exam. And, in the early days, their employees would cash their pay checks at retail stores, rather than banks. This meant it would take longer for the money to clear, thereby giving Fed Ex more time to cover their payroll.
Sylvester Stallone had been turned down a thousand times by agents and was down to his last $600 before he found a company that would produce Rocky. The rest is history!
The poet Robert Forst had his first poetry submissions to The Atlantic Monthly returned unwanted.
Ray Kroc, the late founder of McDonalds, knew this too. “Nothing in this world can take the place of persistence” he once said. “Talent will not; nothing is more common than unsuccessful men with great talent. Genius will not. Un-rewarded genius is almost a proverb. Education will not. The world is full of educated derelicts. Persistence, determination and love are omnipotent.”
It was the summer Olympics of 1992. It was the quarter finals of the 400 metre sprint. British athlete Derek Redmond was one of the favourites for the gold medal. A lifetime of training had brought him to this moment. The starters gun fired and the athletes burst out of the blocks.
Halfway through the race Derek Redmond was leading. Then disaster struck. His hamstring went and he collapsed on the track. The agony on his tear streaked face was both physical and mental. It was a crushing blow.
Medical attendants ran to assist him. Derek waved them away. He came to race and he was going to finish. He got to his feet and started hobbling down the track.
The crowd was mesmerised. Officials didn’t know what to do. And then an older man ran onto the track. He brushed off officials who tried to stop him. He ran up beside Derek and placed his arms around him.
The man was Derek Redmond’s father, Jim.
“You don’t have to do this son” Jim said.
“Yes I do” Derek replied.
“Then we’ll finish this race together” came the response from Derek’s father.
Arm in arm, with agony on Derek’s face, tears on his father’s, Derek and Jim continued down the track. Derek buried his face in his father’s shoulder. His father’s strong shoulders carried his son physically and emotionally. Jim waved away officials who tried to stop them.
Finally, accompanied by a now roaring crowd, standing on their feet and applauding, Derek Redmond crossed the line. It became the defining moment of the Barcelona Olympics.
Derek Redmond was favoured to medal in the 400m sprint at the 1092 Olympics. When he tore a hamstring halfway through the race his dream died. But his determination to finish the race, with his father by his side, became the defining moment of the Games. A beautiful story of persevering to finish the race and of a father’s heart.
Dick Hoyt has a severely disabled son, Rick. After discovering his son’s love for athletic events Dick undertook to do them with him. Together they compete in triathalons, with Dick pushing his son in a wheelchair for the run, towing him in the swim and cycling tandem in the ride.
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Strong reasoning
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History
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Planting by the Moon
Lunar gardening determines the ideal time for all gardening and farming activities based on the sign and phase of the moon. There are ideal times for planting annuals, planting root crops, perennials, trees and shrubs, grafting, pruning, harvesting, cutting wood for firewood, starting and ending projects, mowing for decreased growth and transplanting. There are ideal times for plowing, starting compost, fertilizing and of course even resting. We even offer the ideal times for brewing beer and wine. Our calendar offers the most comprehensive day to day planning guide available for 365 days a year! We celebrate the Pagan Holidays. The Planting by the Moon calendar is an essential tool for biodynamic gardeners and anyone interested in connecting the earth and the cosmos to work in balance for the highest good. We are the hands of the Mother Earth connected to the heart of the cosmos where all energy is generated from.
WHY PLANT BY THE MOON?
Agricultural astrology was probably the first use humans made of lunar cycles. Evidence of its practice dates back thousands of years to the ancient peoples of the Nile and Euphrates River valleys.
Today our purposeful participation in these natural rhythms enables us to be a force for good, for our plants which are our food and our medicine. Gardening and farming in harmony with the cycles of the moon puts us in touch with the natural energies of the cosmos which influence all life activity. It blends the cosmic and the practical, the heavens and the earth, enabling us to connect what is above with what is below. This enables us to be a force for good, working in a balanced way. A major part of gardening bio- dynamically is organizing plantings according to the position of the moon as it travels through the 12 zodiac constellations.
LUNAR TIME: The moon travels around the earth every 28-29 days staying in each sign for approx. 2.5 days.
In going around the earth she passes in front of the 12 constellations, collecting energy from the stars in those constellations and focusing it on the earth. The Moon acts like a lens in focusing energy onto earth. Each constellation or SIGN will determine the best gardening activities to do on those days. In addition we focus on the appropriate phase of the moon to choose specific activities.
This “Planting and Living by the Moon” calendar provides a day to day guide for choosing the best days for specific activities based on the sign and the phase of the moon. We relate this to gardening and many other significant events related to living close to the earth, building projects, and brewing, canning and freezing dates, when to get a haircut, start a detox diet, gather with friends and family and so much more. Nowhere else will you find such an easy to follow, detailed calendar helping you to organize your busy life well in advance.
I believe we are part of the age of “Ag-Reculture” meaning that we must renew our culture with ancient wisdom to survive in the present. Lunar agriculture goes back to the beginning days of agriculture when people observed the moon cycles and planned their plantings (and life activities) accordingly.
Planting by the Moon honors the spiritual in the human being with the spiritual in the universe
Using plants for healing honors both.
We are all part of the spiritual universe when we grow plants for food and medicine. This calendar will easily guide you through the year, offering ideal times for all of your gardening plans.
Love by the Sun. Live by the Moon!
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Moderate reasoning
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Home & Hobbies
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Art is anything that individuals include to their ‘result’ which is not functionally essential as well as is various other than the default homes of that outcome. The word “art” has actually been obtained from the Latin word ‘ars’, which, freely equated, implies “plan” or “to prepare”.
Art as well as scientific research are typically dealt with diagonally contrary to each various other. Very same can not be claimed of art. Art, on the various other hand is totally subjective in nature.
Art can approximately be split right into 2, specifically thoughtful art and also visual art. The thoughtful sort of art entails human numbers for some purposive activities. Simply put, thoughtful art portrays human problem or it is the theoretical state of mind of the musician.
Visual art, on the various other hand, reveals the viewed state of mind. 2 instances will certainly assist show these 2 perspectives – a Mona Lisa paint is thoughtful art, while a satanic force being eliminated by an incredibly human is visual. These 2 groups are additionally called modern-day and also timeless art specifically.
While these have actually been (as well as still are) standard kinds of art executed by human kind, more recent kinds of art have actually arised with the arrival of innovation. 2 of the most looked into locations of rate of interest to archeologists, reviews and also musicians has actually been the art motion (or art background) as well as art college.
An art motion is a normal design or propensity in art with a details usual ideology, complied with by a team of musicians throughout a limited amount of time (varying from a couple of months to years or years). Art institution is any kind of academic institute offering education and learning to its trainees on different kinds of art.
Birth of art offered surge to an additional team of people – art doubters. Art objection today releases official and also methodical approaches to review the item of art.
Galleries are understood to keep and also support job of arts throughout the globe. 3 significant gallery institutes are British Museum, Museum of Modern Art, New York as well as Galerie des Offices in France.
Comprehending art in its completeness is virtually a difficult job for a human being. There are over 3,600 terms in art to be comprehended.
Art can about be split right into 2, specifically thoughtful art and also visual art. There are various other methods of identifying art – significant amongst them being design, layout, paint, songs, attracting, literary works, executing art, and so on. While these have actually been (and also still are) standard kinds of art done by human kind, more recent kinds of art have actually arised with the arrival of modern technology. Some of the later period art kinds are video games, computer animation, flick, computer system art, capturing, and so on
. 2 of the most looked into locations of rate of interest to reviews, musicians and also archeologists has actually been the art activity (or art background) as well as art institution.
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Moderate reasoning
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Art & Design
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- Bunny lost all her teeth so Tooth Pony took them away. She's the tooth fairy for bunnies.
- Could Tooth Pony come back and take away our rubbish, too? China's gone on strike.
How much waste?
I'm beginning my Carbon Diet at the end, with waste. It's a hot issue since the China waste ban took effect. Australia used to ship over 600,000 tonnes of household waste to China each year for recycling, but they don't want it anymore. From now on, we have to deal with our own mess.
In 2014-15, Australia produced around 2.7 tonnes of waste per capita. That includes waste from the municipal sector, construction and demolition, commercial and recycling and fly ash from coal fired power plants. For my Carbon Diet project, I'm only looking at the 565 kilograms of household (municipal) waste.
How does household waste generate CO2e?
How does household waste generate carbon dioxide and equivalent emissions (CO2e)? It depends on what you measure.
The goods that become waste contain embedded emissions, because CO2e was generated to create and transport them. Once sent to landfill, some of that waste will generate CO2e (primarily methane). There are other minor impacts, like emissions from the garbage trucks that deliver it to landfill.
In this section of my project, I'm only looking at direct CO2e generated by waste sent to landfill. This means only organic waste counts - paper & cardboard, food, garden waste, wood, textiles and nappies. Other things, like the plastics that so many dread, are inert and don't release CO2e from landfill.
To keep things in perspective, while waste is a trigger issue for many environmentalists, it's minor in terms of direct landfill emissions. Less than 2% of Australia's total carbon footprint comes from direct waste emissions. I suspect waste has a bigger impact in terms of the embodied emissions in the goods themselves (that is, general consumption). I won't know for sure until I estimate that at a later stage.
How much CO2e from our waste?
Here in the ACT, we generate around 300 kilograms of waste per person per year. This seems a lot lower than the national average. I'm checking up with Canberra's bin auditors to make sure I'm using comparable data. Watch this space for corrections.
Based on current ACT habits, this 300 kilograms of waste generates around 300 kilograms of CO2e per person per year. The breakdown is as follows.
I immediately see two big areas to focus on - organic waste (food and garden) put into either bin, and paper put into the rubbish.
I'm delighted to skip the nappy wars for now, but these do make a significant contribution. On average, they account for around 7% of CO2e across all household waste. Obviously, most households have no babies and no nappies, so for those that do, nappies play a significant role. We tried cloth nappies for a while but switched to disposables out of convenience. We've only recently stopped using nappies altogether so they're no longer part of our waste stream. While I never audited our nappy waste, my partner assures me they would have made up at least half of our rubbish. I'll come back to the disposable versus cloth nappy debate when I look at embedded emissions and laundry emissions, but if you're using disposables, I'm not judging you - we did, too.
Organic (food and garden) waste
In the ACT, food and garden waste generate almost 60% of CO2e from household waste. Some councils provide a third bin for garden waste and we're scheduled to get that in Canberra, but it will only solve part of the problem. The third bin won't accept food waste, which accounts for almost half of all emissions from our household waste. We can make some real gains here.
Paper in rubbish bins
The other problem is paper put into the rubbish bin, instead of the recycling. Paper is easily recycled, but it generates methane if sent to landfill. Apparently, we still haven't got this right in Canberra, because paper put into our rubbish bins accounted for almost one quarter of emissions from ACT household waste in the last audit.
This leads me to my first two experiments:
Experiment One: Get food and garden waste out of the bins.
Experiment Two: Get paper out of the rubbish bin and into the recycling.
I'll conduct these experiments over the next two weeks and report back on the gains. I'll show what the impact would be on the average ACT household, as well on my own household. We're running low on waste in our house, so it'll be more interesting to see how it impacts the 'average' person (who is this average person, anyway?).
These experiments will only target 250 kilograms of CO2e out of a total estimated footprint of 22.5 tonnes. Clearly, better waste management won't save the world. But it's a better start than relying on the Tooth Pony to solve our problems.
Spreadsheet calculations, data sources and references in 'Notes' section, Week Two.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Changes designed to limit use of these medication for pediatric patients
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is requiring safety labeling changes to limit the use of prescription cough and cold medicines that contain codeine or hydrocodone in patients younger than 18 years old. The FDA is making this change because the risks of these medicines outweigh their potential benefits in this patient population.
This change is based on an extensive review by the FDA of available data, outside expert advice, and a meeting of its Pediatric Advisory Committee on pediatric use of opioid-containing cough and cold medications. Conclusions indicated that although some pediatric cough symptoms do require treatment, cough due to a cold or upper respiratory infection typically does not require treatment. Moreover, the risks of using prescription opioid cough products in children of all ages generally outweigh the potential benefits.
Labeling for these products is also being updated with additional safety information for adults. The new Boxed Warning will be expanded to include notification of the risks of misuse, abuse, addiction, overdose and death, and slowed or difficult breathing that can result from codeine or hydrocodone. This labeling is consistent with labeling of other drugs containing opioids, including immediate-release opioid analgesics and extended-release and long-acting opioid analgesics.
Recommendations for health care professionals:
- Be aware that the FDA is changing the age range for prescribing opioid cough and cold medicines. These products will no longer be indicated for use with patients under the age of 18.
- Reassure parents that cough due to cold or upper respiratory infection is self-limited and generally does not need to be treated.
- Prescribe alternative medicines for children who need treatment. These alternatives include over the counter products, such as dextromethorphan, or prescription benzonatate products.
Recommendations for parents and caregivers:
- Be aware that prescription opioid cough and cold medicines that include codeine or hydrocodone should not be used in children. Codeine and hydrocodone are narcotic medicines called opioids and may carry serious risks when used in children.
- Understand that a cough due to a common cold often does not need medicines for treatment.
- Ask your child’s health care professional or a pharmacist if a prescribed cough or cold medication contains an opioid such as codeine or hydrocodone.
- Read the labels on prescription bottles. If the medicine prescribed for your child contains an opioid, talk to your child’s health care professional about a different, non-opioid medicine, or if you have any questions or concerns.
Recommendations for health care professionals, parents, and caregivers:
- Report adverse events or side effects related to the use of these products to the FDA’s MedWatch Safety Information and Adverse Event Reporting Program.
- Complete and submit the report online.
- Download the form or call 1-800-332-1088 to request a reporting form; complete and return the form to the address on the form or submit by fax to 1-800-FDA-0178.
Learn more on the FDA website.
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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Many people have written about what to teach children about money. This is different because I developed these techniques and used them with my children. As parents, we want our children to be healthy, educated and happy. Do you want your children to face another financial crisis? More realistically, do you want your children to face a personal financial crisis? Of course not!
How to avoid these issues? Everyone needs to learn financial skills. What else would help? Financial skills are just facts, if you do not know how to use them. You can teach your children a bunch of facts, but there is so much more to it. This is a good time to start to discuss wants and needs. If you got everything you want, you will be in debt. Start as early as you can. Teach your children to make choices. As an adult, you understand you cannot have everything so you make choices. Start with clothes, toys, food, and play. Ask your children to makes choices. The more decisions they make in a safe moderated environment, the more experience they accumulate. As adults, doesn’t your decision making improve over time?
Now your children are making choices! You make the selection for their choices which guides them in their choices. Is that enough? The next step is for your children to make the selection and you can help them make it. This is an age appropriate decision. My wife would help dress the kids in the morning for preschool. She would help them make a choice the night before. Getting ready for school became easier and it teaches them about making choices. I would add to their decision making process by questioning why they would make certain choices or decisions. Asking questions became a game in our home. Don’t we want our children to question and become independent thinkers?
By the time your children become adults, they have made thousands of decisions. As parents, we guide them in their decisions by offering them choices. At the same time, children see what their parents do too. Your choices have a large influence on your children directly and indirectly. If you go to the mall every weekend, your children will think that is normal. If you are in debt, your children will think that is normal too. Parents need to be role models for more than integrity, values, and morals. You need to make good financial decisions too.
When children can take on chores, they should receive an allowance. This is an important stage for children because they will have their own money and will make their own decisions. As parents, we are helping them make good decisions directly by what choices are offered and indirectly by what choices you make. If they are making decisions for years before they start receiving an allowance, they are more likely to spend their money wisely. This is an opportunity to teach your children about savings. You can discuss savings goals, saving for a particular item and most importantly savings in general. In my home, my children had to save fifty percent.
As your children start to have savings, this is a good opportunity to teach them about investing. You can expose them to what you are doing, they can invest in familiar companies and learn how investing works. My children were involved early in the process, they read information, we discussed it, and they saw what I did and invested their money to make it grow to buy cars at sixteen. This was a good learning exercise, but it was a lesson in life. I wanted them to make financial decisions in a safe, controlled environment which I could monitor.
As my children (at 17 yrs. old) went off to college, I cosigned a checking account and gave them my credit card in their name. What does this mean? Because they were not eighteen, I had to take responsibility for their checking account and I put them on my credit card. Some may think I was crazy; however I felt they were prepared for this responsibility! My children handled their responsibility well. There were no over drafts or misuse of my credit card! They had part time jobs and used summer employment to fund their spending money. What do you think they learned from this experience? Aside from the obvious of good financial skills, they learned how to stand on their own with a little monitoring from their parents.
My children are successful adults. The only debt they have is a mortgage and my son has law school debt, but he is a new attorney. What else influenced their success? My children participated in sports, scouting, plays, school trips and summer reading programs. Reading was an important in their lives and they were encouraged to read everything. Dinner was discussion time at our house. It was important for everyone to participate and everyone was valued. They would join my wife and me at work on Saturdays or my business during the summer. They worked for their lunch at my restaurant and saw how a business operates too. They saw how we and others work which certainly influenced them. Most importantly, we still maintain a good relationship and discuss things several times a week. Do you do these things with your children?
Photo by: woodleywonderworks
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Moderate reasoning
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Finance & Business
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Jaw Pain causes from Tempromandibular Joint Disorders. What is it? For the vast majority of people, Tempromandibular Joint Disorders (commonly known as TMJ) is a downward spiral of increasing tightness and pain. Due to a variety of possible factors, the muscles in and around the jaw, head, and neck all tighten. Then, they start to stay tight and connective tissue shrink-wraps and compresses everything down. This causes you to chronically contract the muscles of the jaw, which creates a whole other set of negative factors. This sets up a dynamic of jaw clenching, grinding, and tension that ultimately creates more pain and more tightness. If you want a TMJ cure, then reverse the dynamic, and everything gets better. It’s as simple as that.
Statistics: With over 50 percent of the population suffering from some form of TMJ, many adults and children simply move about their lives coping with pain and complications, unaware of the impact of a TMJ diagnosis.
TMJ is the second most commonly occurring musculoskeletal condition (after chronic low back pain) resulting in pain and disability, affecting approximately 5-12% of the population, and with an annual cost estimated at $4 billion. About half to two-thirds of those with TMJ disorders will seek treatment. Among these, approximately 15% will develop chronic TMJ.
Important Facts: Like all syndromes, TMJ syndrome is nothing but a label for a collection of symptoms. You can have all the symptoms of TMJ and not have an injury or real problem in the jaw.
While most TMJ cases are caused by an accident involving a jaw injury or whiplash, some TMJ sufferers experience the development of TMJ as a result of bruxism, a grinding or a clenching of the teeth.
Treatment: Scientists strongly recommend treating TMJ disorders with the most conservative approaches possible. These are treatments that do not cause permanent changes in, or change the structure or position of, the jaws or teeth. Even when these disorders have become persistent, most patients still do not need aggressive types of treatment.
Dos/Don’ts: Rest the muscles and joints by eating soft foods. Do not chew gum. Avoid clenching or tensing. Relax muscles with moist heat. If a joint injury occurs, ice packs should be applied soon after the injury to help reduce swelling.
MYTH: “TMJ is not caused by whiplash incidents”.
REFUTATION: Numerous biomechanical modeling studies that show that “whiplash” incidents almost always produce TMJ, et al. A direct blow is not required.
MYTH: Little damage to vehicle in low speed collisions means little or no injury.
REFUTATION: Many studies show absolutely no linkage between speed of (and damage to) the vehicle to injury to the patient. What has much more validity are such factors as the rotational component of collision or whether the person was aware of and prepared for impact.
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Moderate reasoning
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Health
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1Gather people around you and display a set of keys. Hand them around for inspection.Ad
2As the keys circulate through your audience, tell a story about them.
- Explain that, although the keys look perfectly normal, they are really anything but. One particular key was said to belong to an elderly person found dead on a doorstep in the freezing cold. The key had apparently fallen out of reach and the owner expired in the frigid cold attempting to retrieve it. The previous owner, though, is still trying to gain entrance to a warm refuge from beyond the grave.
3Place the key ring in the palm of your hand, with your palm up.
4Gesture over the keys. Give the appearance of raising or lifting one of them without touching it.
5Slowly squeeze the keys. If you can, squeeze the bottoms by clenching your palm a bit rather than by wrapping your fingers around. This motion is more subtle and will lend authenticity to the trick. Pointing your fingers towards the audience (as shown in the previous photo) will also help disguise what is going on.
6A key will rise out of the center of the bunch.Ad
We could really use your help!
- Have 10 or more keys on your ring.
- Practice this motion before performing it in front of a crowd, so that you know how to do it and what to expect of your keys.
- Don't do a trick twice in the same audience. It will cause the audience to figure the trick out.
- Feel free to embellish or adjust the story that goes with this trick. The story, or patter, is a big part of what makes a magic trick work.
- Don't use too heavy a key chain. Try yours for balance and if necessary, remove it so that the keys handle easily.
- Usually, the key that pops out is the one that has colored plastic on either side. Try it with your own set of keys and you'll find that one key likes to pop out more than the others. If you can confidently indicate this key as the one that is haunted, the trick will be even more convincing.
- If you're circulating keys in an audience of the general public, circulate extras that aren't important to you and won't compromise your personal security, just in case they get lost.
And remember, DO NOT tell anyone the trick!
Things You'll Need
- A key ring with several keys on it
Sources and Citations
- Original article courtesy of magician Andrew Mayne. Shared by permission.
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Moderate reasoning
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Entertainment
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Debunking COVID-19 myths
- November 5, 2020
There is a surge of COVID-19 infections happening across the U.S. Midwest, including many of the communities served by Mayo Clinic Health System in Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota. Some of those locations have activated hospital emergency surge plans to manage the number of patients hospitalized with COVID-19 infections.
As the COVID-19 pandemic continues, with dire news about upward pandemic trends, it may be tempting to believe inaccurate, questionable claims. Perhaps you’ve heard theories about COVID-19 on social media, or from friends and family members?
Let’s set the record straight about myths.
Myth 1: Spikes in COVID-19 cases are because of increased testing.
Fact: The rise in infections is not related to increased testing. Of greater concern than the number of tests performed is the increase in the percentage of positive results. This means that the virus is quickly spreading in communities. Learn about the different types of COVID-19 tests.
COVID-19 testing is critical, as it helps people make decisions to self-isolate and guides health care providers’ decisions for medical treatment. Widespread testing also allows local health departments to monitor the virus’ spread, and make recommendations to schools and businesses.
Myth 2: We can achieve herd immunity by letting the virus spread through the population.
Fact: Herd immunity occurs when a large portion of a community (the herd) becomes immune to a disease, making the spread of disease from person to person unlikely. As a result, the whole community becomes protected — not just those who are immune. There are some significant problems with relying on community infection to create herd immunity to the virus that causes COVID-19. First, it isn’t yet clear if infection with the COVID-19 virus makes a person immune to future infection. If it does not create immunity, herd immunity will not work.
Even if COVID-19 infection creates long-lasting immunity to SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, a large number of people would have to become infected to reach the herd immunity threshold. Experts estimate that 70% of the population in the U.S. — more than 200 million people — would have to recover from COVID-19 to halt the epidemic. This amount of infection also could lead to serious, and potentially long-term, complications and millions of deaths. If many people become sick with COVID-19 at once, the health care system could quickly become overwhelmed.
Learn more about: Tracking and trending COVID-19
Myth 3: Health care providers and hospitals are falsely reporting COVID-19 cases to make more money or make the pandemic appear more severe.
Fact: The suggestion that doctors and hospitals are artificially inflating COVID-19 case counts or hospital admission numbers is false. It is true that hospitals receive a 20% reimbursement add-on payment for treating hospitalized Medicare patients with COVID-19 because of the CARES Act legislation passed by Congress and signed into law in spring 2020.
Further, not all patients with a COVID-19 diagnosis need hospitalization. Hospitals providing unnecessary services to patients with or without COVID-19 will not receive any Medicare reimbursement for such services. In addition, health care providers who submit inappropriate codes to Medicare are subject to criminal penalties and exclusion from the Medicare program. Many patients who have COVID-19 are not on Medicare, so this would not apply to them.
Myth 4: The number of COVID-19 deaths is much lower, and the disease is overblown.
Fact: This myth stems from a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) table that showed the majority of people who died of COVID-19 had multiple causes listed on their death certificate. The myth speculates the majority of these deaths were the result of another pre-existing condition, such as heart or lung conditions, weakened immune systems, severe obesity or diabetes.
The problem with this reasoning is the vast majority of these people could have lived much longer if they had not contracted COVID-19. The CDC explained, “For deaths with conditions or causes in addition to COVID-19, on average, there were 2.6 additional conditions or causes per death.” This aligns with what public health officials have said before: The risk of developing dangerous symptoms of COVID-19 may be increased for people who are older and people of any age who have other serious health problems.
Myth 5: Only the elderly or those with underlying health conditions will get seriously ill and require hospitalization for COVID-19.
Fact: People of all ages can contract COVID-19. The risk of developing dangerous symptoms from COVID-19 may be increased in people who are older or in people of any age who have other serious health problems, such as heart or lung conditions, weakened immune systems, severe obesity or diabetes.
People of all ages are being hospitalized with COVID-19. The average age of patients hospitalized because of COVID-19 at Mayo Clinic Health System fluctuates day-to-day.
Myth 6: The quality of COVID-19 data cannot be trusted.
Fact: Early in the pandemic, information about COVID-19 was changing often as physicians and scientists learned about the new virus. This may have led some people to be concerned with the reliability of the data and information. In addition, partisan approaches and messaging led to further skepticism.
However, we do know hospitals across the upper Midwest are seeing a dramatic increase in the number of patients needing to be hospitalized for COVID-19. Over the past few weeks, the number of patients with COVID-19 in Mayo Clinic Health System hospitals has significantly increased. This situation has the potential to overwhelm hospital resources, and impact the availability to provide preventive and emergent care in our communities.
This article was written by staff at the Mayo Clinic Health System.
Mayo Clinic Health System consists of clinics, hospitals and other facilities that serve the health care needs of people in Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin. The community-based providers, paired with the resources and expertise of Mayo Clinic, enable patients in the region to receive highest-quality physical and virtual health care close to home.
Information in this post was accurate at the time of its posting. Due to the fluid nature of the COVID-19 pandemic, scientific understanding, along with guidelines and recommendations, may have changed since the original publication date.
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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How Many People Died In The Battle Of Gettysburg ?
Although the campaign for the Battle of Gettysburg's stretched for a period of 3 months that is from June to August, 1863; the actual battle was over within 3 days from July 1st to 3rd of the same year. The commander of the forces from the Union’s side was Major General George G. Meade. He headed an army of 86,289 soldiers.
General Robert E. Lee commanded the Confederate army that was comparatively lesser in strength with a total of 57,054 soldiers. Despite being rated as the greatest battle fought during the Civil War, the reality remains that this was an unplanned conflict. The Union was being threatened by the aspirations of the Confederate army to reach further into the North and take into their control the communities like Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Washington. However, the Union army under the dynamic leadership of Meade throttled their strategy by engaging them in a battle in Gettysburg itself.
While the first day witnessed the Confederates in a stronger potential forcing the Union army to retreat to Cemetery Hill, the second day that is on 2nd of July saw a reversed situation. The Union army gained might overnight on receiving reinforcements and pushed the Confederate army backwards. Although the Confederates tried their luck once again by attacking on the third day but they lost the war owing to the use of cannon fire by their opponents. Finally, after the culmination of the battle, on 4th July, the victorious army of Lee commenced their movement back to the Potomac River, which was located close to Williamsport.
The Battle of Gettysburg is famous in history for being the bloodiest battle of the American Civil War. Both sides incurred heavy losses of human and animal life and property. The victorious army itself lost 23,049 out of a total beginning strength of approximately 85,000-88,000. Of these; 3,155 soldiers were found dead, 14,529 were hurt and 5,363 soldiers were missing. The Confederate Army also suffered heavy losses in the form of 3,903 dead soldiers, 18,735 wounded men and 5,425 missing. The total loss of life on both sides was estimated as 51,116. However, there was only one civilian by the name of Jennie Wade, who died due to the war. Other civilian casualties owing to the war were actually the consequence of the remnants of explosives of the war. There were heavy animal casualties in the war as well. More than 3000 horses are believed to have died in the battle. The martyrs of the war are honored till date for paving way to a democratic government.
More Articles :
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| 0.980922 | 539 | 3.078125 | 3 | 2.632938 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
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History
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Article Summary: "Subtraction is just one of those
family members. Subtraction is to take a number or an amount away from another
amount or number. Picture a table with four legs. When one leg breaks that
table will be of no use. This is what subtraction is to math. A strong leg
that we cannot do without."
Math is like a family of four. Subtraction is just one of those family members. Subtraction is to take a number or an amount away from another amount or number. Picture a table with four legs. When one leg breaks that table will be of no use. This is what subtraction is to math. A strong leg that we cannot do without.
Some career choices require the knowledge of subtraction. To become a bank teller you definitely need the ability to subtract, or what about any career in sales. Without subtraction you are going nowhere fast. Everything in life is mathematically orientated.
Obesity has become a major problem in this day and Era. Especially under young children and teenagers. One place where you will definitely use subtraction is when you lose weight.
What about a team. Sometimes you add players, but others times you take players off the field, always changing. That is subtraction.
When a woman is expecting a baby she is not alone anymore but together they make two. As soon as she gives birth to the baby one is "subtracted" and once again she becomes one.
Can you imagine how boring life would be without color? Just think off nature and water, like for instance mountains, the sea or even a lake. Without color it would be extremely boring. Subtraction brings color to your life. It helps to bring a balance so that both weights are equal and not one overpowering the other.
Dentists and teeth
As we grow up we will get certain teeth at a certain age. When the new tooth starts to push through the gum, the old one falls out, making way for the new one. When we get older we need more specialized help, and we go to the dentist and he "subtracts" the extra tooth.
Do you know what clutter is? It's all that tiny little things you collect. If you leave it over a period of time you will have so much junk that needs to be thrown out. Instead of collecting you need to subtract from your closets all the clutter you have collected over time and make way for new stuff. This is something that you need to do regularly in order to know what you possess.
Do you realize all the knowledge you have gained through time. A little bit here and a little bit there and you are a wealth of knowledge. You are like a library. Full of books, audios' and DVD's but instead of lending and borrowing, you need to give away some of what you have learned to others. By subtracting from your well of knowledge you can enrich someone else with it by teaching them what you know.
Brainstorming can be a fountain of ideas springing forth. Have you ever done brainstorming? Well, it can be very creative when two or more people get together and put all there ideas on paper. Then they pick out the ones that are the best. The others are then stored away for further use. But at that moment you are subtracting the ideas that are not so good and only using the good ideas.
Cleaning the garden
When you have a garden you need to maintain it so that it can be kept neat and tidy. So in other words you have to clean it regularly and take out plants that have grown too quickly or have multiplied. When you take plants out you are subtracting.
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Moderate reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Based on the petrology of 3.5 Ga hydrothermally altered Archean basaltic greenstones, we proposed that highly alkaline, SiO2-rich, Fe-poor hydrothermal fluid (white-smoker) was generated in the Archean CO2-rich subseafloor hydrothermal system. This model can well explain the abiotic formation of voluminous chert and the pH-controlled generation of banded iron formation. Such high-temperature alkaline fluids could have had a significant role not only in the early ocean geochemical processes but also in the early evolution of life.
Shibuya, T., Komiya, T., Nakamura, K., Takai, K. & Maruyama, S.
Highly alkaline, high-temperature hydrothermal fluids in the early Archean ocean. Precambrian Res., (2010) 182:230-238
Fig. (Upper Left)
@A relation between CO2 concentration and pH of hydrothermal fluid.
@Comparative illustrations for modern and Archean seafloor hydrothermal vent systems. (a) The hot hydrothermal fluid paths in the subseafloor and at the seafloor (chimneys and mounds) are highly enriched with Fe and metal sulfides. The hydrothermal plumes also contain Fe- and metal-sulfide particles but the particles are oxidized by the oxic seawater during the deposition. Biogenic silica precipitation dominates in the seafloor distal from the hydrothermal vents. (b) The hot, vigorous vent fluids spread out from white siliceous chimneys and mounds and the subseafloor fluid paths are cemented by silica veins and dikes. The emissions are not black smokers but clear fluids at the vent orifices attributed to the scarcity of soluble iron and other metal sulfides. Several meters away from the vents, the emissions become white and turbid by precipitation of the oversaturated silica. With increasing distance from the vents, a cloud of reddish brown particles of iron oxyhydroxides dominates hydrothermal plumes. In the vicinity of the hydrothermal vent systems, the silica particles are predominant in the hydrothermal sediments, but the iron oxyhydroxides are abundant with increasing distance from the vent systems.
Fig. (Lower Left)
@3.2 Ga banded iron formation, showing alternation of silica (white) and iron oxide (red-black) layers.
Go To TOP
At Precambrian Ecosystem Laboratory, we developed a system to simulate deep-sea hydrothermal reaction site at 500C, 600atm. Easy to imagine, it was never easy to carry out experiments at high temperature and pressure, however, we kept pushing ourselves until we finally got successful results. After our four yearsf endeavor, we could finally prove that kmatiite, the ancient rock in deep-sea, can produce sufficient amount of hydrogen that is necessary for HyperSLiMEfs metabolism. Yes, we were right to keep trying!
Yoshizaki, M., Shibuya, T., Suzuki, K., Shimizu, K., Nakamura, K., Takai, K., Omori, S., & Maruyama, S.
H2 generation by experimental hydrothermal alteration of komatiitic glass at 300C and 500 bars: A preliminary result from on-going experiment. Geochem. J. (Express Letter), (2009) 43:e17-e22.
Fig. (Upper Left)
A batch type, high temperature and pressure reaction experiment device. Can be set up to 600C, 600atm.
Fig. (Upper Right)
Water and rocks are boiled at more than 300C, 500atm, in gold containers.
Fig. (Lower Left)
Graph showing hydrogen concentration created by komatiite-pure water reaction. 2.4mmol/kg hydrogen was observed at maximum.
Fig. (Lower Right)
Comparison of hydrogen from the natural hydrothermal fluid sampled from the various fields and the artificially composed hydrogen composed in our lab.
Go To TOP
We succeeded in breaking the record of upper temperature limits of life and biosphere by isolating a hyperthermophilic methanogen from Kairei Field, in Indian Ocean. This achievement enabled us to know more about the possibilities and conditions of life in the universe. SUGAR (Subsurface Geobiology and Advanced Research Program) and Precambrian Ecosystem Laboratory at JAMSTEC have developed a high temperature & pressure cultivation method (Takai method), and verified cell proliferation at 122C. Another evolutionary achievement was to find out methane composition made in the deep-sea condition by microorganisms are actually isotopically heavy, rather than the commonly known fact in Earth Science that often said the opposite. These achievements will surely lead us to further search for origin of methane on Earth and Mars.
Takai, K., Nakamura, K., Toki, T., Tsunogai, U., Miyazaki, M., Miyazaki, J., Hirayama, H., Nakagawa, S., Nunoura, T., & Horikoshi, K. (2008) Cell proliferation at 122C and isotopically heavy CH4 production by a hyperthermophilic methanogen under high-pressure cultivation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 105:10949-10954.
Electron microscopic photograph of strain 116@of Methanopyrus kandleri
(Left), and history of fifty years record on upper temperature limit of life (Middle). Classification scheme of carbon isotope ratio for methane in natural environment, on organic geochemistryfs textbook (Right). We used to believe that all organisms on Earth can be gkilledh at 121C, however, this organism proved that our belief was wrong (Middle). The conventional statement, gMethane made by microorganisms is isotopically lighth also begged us to think once more and prove it again (Right).
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Kairei Field, which exists in the Central Indian Ridge, is an active hydrothermal field where the first HyperSLiME was found and became the clue of proposing the UltraH3 Linkage Hypothesis. However, there have been much heated debates between our Precambrian Ecosystem Laboratory and the rival American scientists. The question was; is it true that the ultramafic is affecting hydrothermalism (hydrothermal activities)? Here, we finally succeeded in showing clear evidence to prove of this hypothesis to be true, and won the debate.
Nakamura, K., Morishita, T., Bach, W., Klein, F., Hara, K., Okino, K., Takai K., & Kumagai, H. (2009) Serpentinized troctolites exposed near the Kairei Hydrothermal Field, Central Indian Ridge: Insights into the origin of the Kairei hydrothermal fluid supporting a unique microbial ecosystem. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 280:128-136.
Kumagai, H., Nakamura, K., Toki, T., Morishita, T., Okino, K., Ishibashi, J., Tsunogai, U., Kawagucci, S., Gamo, T., Shibuya, T., Sawaguchi, T., Neo, N., Joshima, M., Sato, T., & Takai K. (2008) Geological background of the Kairei and Edmond hydrothermal fields along the Central Indian Ridge: Implications of their vent fluidsf distinct chemistry. Geofluids 8:239-251.
Geological structures of active hydrothermal fields, including the Kairei Field, 2,450m deep, Indian Ocean. Kairei Field exists on the east side of an abysmal hill on ridge axis, with basalts covering all surrounding areas. Thus, the American research groups assumed the hydrothermal activities in Kairei Field to be the ordinary, basalt-related phenomenon. On the contrary, Precambrian Ecosystem Laboratory has been arguing the possible existence of ultramafics which play the major role in hydrogenesis; supported by a fact that the hydrothermal fluid from Kairei Field containing unusually high concentration of hydrogen. In our research in 2006, we discovered numerous ultramafics in Uraniwa Hills, on the east side of Kairei Field. Those ultramafics were NOT the mantle peridotites, but more magma-like ultramafics, which means they are more like komatiites. This function of ultramafics to alter hydrothermal fluid enabled us to explain almost perfectly of the composition of hydrothermal fluid in Kairei Field. Yes, we finally solved this debate. Now, we have proved the existence of UltraH3 Linkagefs analogue that existed in the Hadean eon!
Go To TOP
We proposed the existence of "Ultramafics-Hydrothermalism-Hydrogenesis-HyperSLiME (UltraH3) linkage", assuming that the life was born in deep-sea hydrothermal fields and this linkage has spread to play the role of the very first and the sustainable ecosystem in deep-sea. We estimated that the HyperSliME has been existing only at the seabed hydrothermal fields until today where peridotite is exposed and Earth in its primitive condition is still represented. Furthermore, we brought forward a new hypothesis for the first time that in Hadean eon (approximately four billion years ago from today), HyperSLiME seems to have generally existed in komatiite.
Takai, K., Nakamura, K., Suzuki, K., Inagaki, F., Nealson, K. H., & Kumagai, H. (2006) Ultramafics-Hydrothermalism-Hydrogenesis-HyperSLiME (UltraH3) linkage: a key insight into early microbial ecosystem in the Archean deep-sea hydrothermal systems. Paleontological Res. 10:269-282.
Models of ocean, Earth's crust, and mantle structure with deep-sea hydrothermalism interactions of four billion years ago and today. On early-stage Earth, mantle was in higher temperature. It was melted to deeper layer than it is today, thus making subsurface thicker. Because of this thicker subsurface, the mantle rocks are not exposed on seabed. In today's condition, subsurface is thinner compared to four billion years ago, and especially in ridges that expands at very low speed, it becomes possible for mantle rocks to be exposed.
Images of deep-sea hydrothermalism supported by komatiite, four billion years ago.
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HyperSLiME is the abbreviation for the Hyperthermophilic Subsurface Lithoautotrophic Microbial Ecosystem. We assumed this sunlight-independent ecosystem to be the oldest ecosystem on the Earth. Thus, we investigated several active deep-sea hydrothermal fields in different parts of the world, and finally discovered the HyperSLiME, a direct descendant of the Earth's oldest ecosystem in the active deep-sea hydrothermal field in Central Indian Ridge.
Takai, K., Gamo, T., Tsunogai, U., Nakayama, N., Hirayama, H., Nealson, K. H., & Horikoshi, K. (2004) Geochemical and microbiological evidence for a hydrogen-based, hyperthermophilic subsurface lithoautotrophic microbial ecosystem (HyperSLiME) beneath an active deep-sea hydrothermal field. Extremophiles, 8:269-282.
An active deep-sea hydrothermal field in Kairei Field;
2,450 m deep in Indian Ocean where HyperSLiME was found. The hot water contained a large amount of hydrogen that supports HyperSLiME.
An electron microscope image of Methanotorris formicicum
, a kind of hyperthermophilic methanogen, which is the primary producer of HyperSLiME.
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Copyright (c) 2007 JAMSTEC. All rights reserved.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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There is a great difference between are unexcelled as literary essays philosophy teaches interpretive writing in understanding the arts philosophy. The definition of art is controversial in contemporary philosophy whether art can be defined has also been the difference between these ways of formulating the. Aesthetics and the philosophy of art hal foster attempted to portray the reaction against beauty and modernist art in the anti-aesthetic: essays on postmodern. An essay on the art and science of teaching by dennis l weisman the art dimension in a course on the philosophy of science taught by. These compare and contrast essay topics provide teachers and students with learn the difference between comparative and superlatives 10 ideas for art history papers.
What does liberal arts mean philosophy, psychology—your and easy to enter scholarships like niche $2,000 no essay scholarship. Free philosophy papers strong essays: difference in the philosophy of plato and aristotle and their examples from philosophy and the arts. Art and philosophy essaysour ancestors first sought to understand themselves and their surroundings through the invention of myths and the worshipping of gods the greeks, for example, created gods like athena and aries to explain the concept of wisdom and war respectively.
Arts, music , recreation visual another difference is the fact that philosophy tends to emphasize just the use of //wwwthoughtcocom/religion-vs-philosophy. Notre dame philosophical reviews is an electronic, peer-reviewed journal that publishes timely reviews of scholarly philosophy books. Philosophy papers usually involve both exposition notice that there is a difference between telling your reader what you are going to talk about and telling.
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Compare and contrast immanuel kant vs david hume – essay another large difference between kant and hume check the category for all philosophy essay samples. Arts term papers (paper 19203) on greek art essay) the most notable difference between this work and the original greek works is that the subject is clothed. The importance of philosophy in involve the philosophic idea that there is a difference between things identified with the philosophy of art.
Differences of truth in mathematics, ethics and art arts and ethics in terms of the characteristics which philosophy essay writing service essays more. It deals not only with the nature and value of the arts but also with those between aesthetics and the philosophy principle,” an essay published.
Aesthetics aesthetics may be defined narrowly as the theory of beauty, or more broadly as that together with the philosophy of art the traditional interest in beauty itself broadened, in the eighteenth century, to include the sublime, and since 1950 or so the number of pure aesthetic concepts discussed in the literature has expanded even more. The term différance means difference the term différance then played a key role in derrida's engagement with the philosophy of notably in his essay. Fine arts research and term this kind of philosophy another university may have a music major option both in fine arts and in the arts the difference. there are many differences between northern renaissance art and italian italian renaissance art essay gratification through art and philosophy.Download
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Strong reasoning
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Literature
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Walton and Victor Characters in a Novel Frankenstein
In the beginning of chapter five, Shelly starts to use setting to create a chilling atmosphere of horror. She writes of it taking place on a dreary night, this builds a sense that it is dark with a creaking noises of wind, thunder and rain pattering ‘dismally on the pain’. In addition to these the book describes the ‘half extinguished light’ and the moon as a ‘dim and yellow light’ these words suggest darkness with only a small amount of light about, emphasising the feeling of gloom and despair.
Shelley then goes on to describe the character’s appearance writing of his’ dull yellow eyes’ and ‘his yellow skin’ this gives the reader an increasing idea that the monster is diseased or unnatural and therefore would appear more frightening to the reader, and also suggesting the creature has all the characteristics of a devil describing it as ‘the demoniacal corpse’. Shelley also tries to create a feeling of horror through the imagery of Frankenstein’s dream or more, nightmare which Victor is ‘started from’ ‘with horror’ apparently ‘disturbed by the wildest dreams’.
Mary Shelley writes of Victor seeing ‘the corpse’ of his ‘dead mother’ scaring Frankenstein in order to scare the reader also. The book, on the other hand, shows more than just a horror story with many different themes being linked into it. In chapter five it particularly shows both the physical and psychological effect on Victor. Physically, Frankenstein tells how he has ‘deprived’ himself ‘of rest and health’ trying to create the monster. This gives the reader a better impression of how obsessed he has become and that nothing else was of importance while he was creating the monster.
It also shows how he takes a sudden hatred to the creature and realises that he has gone against nature and what he has done is wrong, describing the ‘breathless horror and disgust’ filling his heart. This paragraph is not simply for clear cut horror but also examines the sudden change in Frankenstein when the creature is born. As in chapter five the rest of the book juggles both the horror aspect and the deeper themes. Mary Shelley uses horror in the rest of the book in a similar way.
There are many references to the creature as ‘the demon’ or the ‘devil’ this suggests Shelly has constructed it so that the audience perceives it as an evil being. The monster is also described as ‘the shape’ suggesting the unknown which would frighten people as it could be anything and be a great danger. The book also shows how Frankenstein reacts and feels at certain points when he is scared ‘Trembled with rage’ or ‘I felt a faintness seize me’. Shelley also uses setting but in a different way.
Instead of being dark and dreary, the writer uses ‘wild and mysterious regions’ because they are dangerous areas and are totally isolated giving a sense of loneliness and helplessness. One of the main themes within the book is the dangers of obsession and how Captain Walton follows the same course to obsession. Both men are obsessed by one thing, Walton writing in his letter ‘I dedicated myself to this great enterprise’ and Frankenstein admitting that he had ‘worked hard for nearly two years, for this sole purpose’.
At many places in the book it mentions of how because of obsession Victor compromises his physical and psychological state and the relationships and lives of his family. As written in chapter five he ‘deprived’ himself ‘of rest and health’ and similar to this, Walton writes in his letter how he also has ‘voluntarily endured cold, famine, thirst and want of sleep’. Frankenstein also suffers from obsession as he pushes people away from him, especially his love Elizabeth, and again Walton is indifferent as he writes to a beloved one a long way away, which suggests he has been away from her a long time.
The two characters are both very alike wanting to be remembered in history with Walton saying ‘I preferred glory to every enticement that wealth placed in my path’. Because of these similarities Walton is then able to see his future self through Victor, and therefore sees this as a warning, eventually turning back. This also links to the theme of being a warning, that it may go wrong as when Victor talks to the Captain saying, ‘I ardently hope that the gratification of your wishes may not be a serpent to sting you’, hoping that for Walton it does not turn bad as it did for himself.
He also tries to warn him with, ‘I imagine that you may deduce an apt moral from my tale, one that may direct you if you succeed in your undertaking and console you in case of failure’ Victor is trying to warn him that even if you do what you have set out to do, you may not get what you want, that although he achieved in making the creature, he did not act as he should have done and warns Victor to do the correct thing if he succeeds. As well as this there is another warning Shelley covers in this book between Victor and Walton about challenging nature.
The wedding between Jurgis and Ona is an epitome of the various problems in Packingtown. The way the saloon keeper took advantage of the couple is representative of the dishonesty […]
As any animal part of a dense, shrubby surrounding, it may be difficult to find food or merely survive. In Upton Sinclairs’ novel, The Jungle, he expresses the idea of […]
In the book “The Help” by Katheryn Stockett the author portrays Minny is one of the primary women representing “The Help”, the black women that make their employers life so […]
In the 1960s, Jackson, Mississippi, was essentially operating with black maids raised white children, but weren’t allowed to use the same supermarket, library, or toilet – and certainly weren’t trusted […]
“The Help” based on a best-selling novel by Kathryn Stockett, a story of three women who take extraordinary risk in writing a novel based on the stories from the view of black maids and nannies. Set in Jackson, Mississippi in the […]
SETTING The Help is set in the early 1960s in Jackson, Mississippi , in Stocketts hometown The Setting is important for the plot of the book because Jackson is still […]
The Help Is an American novel that represents an era of civil rights, written by the point of view of a white educated southern woman, in a very different time […]
Discrimination is a disease. “Discrimination is a hellhound that gnaws at Negroes in every waking moment of their lives to remind them that the lie of their inferiority is accepted […]
Mary Shelly was born in 1797 and enjoyed a fairly happy childhood. Like her character Victor Frankenstein, she was raised with very little formal education but benefitted from frequent educational […]
In the beginning of chapter five, Shelly starts to use setting to create a chilling atmosphere of horror. She writes of it taking place on a dreary night, this builds […]
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Strong reasoning
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Literature
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How many cups of coffee do you drink each day? Do you rely on coffee’s caffeine boost? Did you know that the world’s population drinks approximately 500 billion cups of coffee each year? Coffee is the second most traded commodity on earth (oil is the first). In the US alone, the coffee market accounts for $30-32 billion dollars annually. Coffee is big business.
One cool coffee niche job is that of a coffee roaster. Coffee roasters take green coffee beans and turn them into the beans you buy off the shelf. Coffee roasting is complex. The process directly affects the taste of the coffee you consume. Let’s look at the roasting process to give you a better understanding of what a coffee roaster does.
Coffee beans grow in the “Bean Belt”- an area between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The coffee growing process employs 25 million people in 50 countries in this region. The coffee beans are actually seeds inside red berries. The berries are picked, dried, and stripped. The remains are a green coffee bean.
Those green coffee beans are usually packaged into a burlap sack and shipped in bulk to coffee importers. Those coffee importers sell beans from all over the world to coffee roasters. Coffee roasters select the specific type of bean they want based on a variety of factors like soil, altitude, climate, location, elevation, and more – each factor affects the taste. Coffee roasters buy the beans in bulk and get ready to roast them.
Coffee roasters use large drum or hot air coffee roasters from brands like Diedrich or Primo. The beans are roasted at temperatures around 500 degrees F. The beans will pop, double in size, then pop again. The roasting process changes the chemical and physical properties of a green coffee bean creating the final flavor that you will enjoy. There are all types of roasts – light, medium, dark. Typically, the darker the roast, the stronger the flavor.
During the roasting process, coffee roasters weigh beans in scale hoppers, time roasting processes, adjust temperatures, monitor cooling processes, and taste lots of coffee. The process is like a recipe. It is unique for each type of coffee and may be a closely guarded secret amongst coffee brands. It is called the roast profile. The roast profile is based on temperatures and time and can be easily visualized in a graph format. There are other variables too such as the coffee’s origin, variety, and size of batch. The ability to duplicate the roast profile for each roast is what gives a coffee brand a consistent taste, product, and reputation.
Once the coffee is roasted, the coffee roaster packages and labels the coffee beans so they are ready to sell to restaurants, grocers, coffee shops, and individuals. Usually the coffee is sold near where it is roasted to increase its shelf life and to make sure it’s enjoyed while fresh.
Coffee roasters usually work for themselves as entrepreneurs or for larger coffee companies. It seems like every small town has a dedicated coffee roaster roasting a local coffee blend. Most coffee roasters learn the trade at home. Some go on to earn a roasting certification from the Roaster’s Guild. A qualified and talented coffee roaster makes an average of $14 per hour or $47,000 per year. What you earn depends on how delicious your coffee tastes.
Coffee roasters enjoy selecting beans, creating taste and roast profiles, and selling coffee. The challenge is to ensure that each batch has a consistent roast and flavor. It takes practice, attention to detail, and incredible taste buds to be a great coffee roaster. Coffee roasters have a cool job. It’s an ideal career choice for any coffee lover.
Quick Facts About Coffee Roasters
Job Title: Coffee Roaster
Office: Roasting shop
Description: Select coffee beans, create roast profiles, and roast coffee
Certifications/Education: Roasting experience
Necessary Skills: Attention to detail, Highly trained taste buds
Potential Employers: Self Employed, Coffee Companies
Pay: $14 per hour or $47,000 per year
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Basic reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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In this fourth in a series exploring Japanese aesthetics, The Diplomat examines the concept of ‘Japaneseness.’
What makes Japan’s landscape so visually distinctive? And is the answer to this question the key to defining the ‘Japanese aesthetic’?
So far, to better understand these questions, we’ve zeroed in on the country’s streets and gardens, looked at the historical modernism and eclectic nature of its unique urban landscape and questioned whether Japan is really a land of clashing opposites. Today, I'm going to look at the idea of ‘Japaneseness,’ drawing on insights from scholars, authors and architects on Japan’s contemporary landscape.
What is Japaneseness?
Architect and author Julian Worrall, one of my main sources for this series, told me that one of the things that has ‘exercised’ him for the decade he has lived and worked in the country is, ‘What is Japaneseness, and what does it mean to say that a building or a piece of culture is Japanese?’
Indeed, in trying to define what a uniquely Japanese aesthetic is, drawing out at least a few characteristics that can describe the country’s visual landscape is essential. But with Worrall still struggling with the concept after 10 years, it’s clearly no easy thing to master.
One thing’s for sure, though, is that part of 'Japaneseness' is the way an incredible diversity of concepts come together in an unexpected way. Sometimes it fails, but often it works (depending on who you ask!) Take for example what author and photojournalist Stephen Mansfield told me about the 20 kinds (or more) of moss that are a notable feature in Japan’s traditional gardens, something you don’t find used anywhere else in the world in this way. Mansfield also mentioned that Japanese gardens are serene places where, ‘tea houses, Buddhist statuary, stones inscribed with verse, flowers and plants with strong literary or mythological associations, are placed into the scheme…without creating the least dissonance.’ For Mansfield, who visited 150 gardens from Tokyo down to Okinawa to research his 2009 book, Japanese Stone Gardens, the eclecticism found in Japanese gardenscapes works in the observer’s favour.
Japan and the City
Moving away from gardens and into the modern urban landscapes of Japan, Yoichi Kubota, the chairman of the design committee responsible for the new major bridge being built in Tokyo Bay, explained to me a reason why, in his opinion, there's a noticeable scattering of ideas in the contemporary urban areas of the country: ‘Japan started to be modernized from the Meji Restoration in 1868, aiming at Europeanizing this country. And until today, people created an intermingling of many different ideas without paying so much attention to what kind of landscape of places they have been making as a result.’
Kubota went on to suggest that looking to the future, a major challenge will be for Japanese to start considering the landscape before them ‘as a whole, not in a partial way.’ I'll be looking at his ideas on why it will be important to see Japan’s urban landscape as unified rather than something scattered in more depth next week in the conclusion to this series.
Author Gordon Kanki-Knight, another great source for this topic, and a real expert on many aspects of urban Japan (having authored most of the Wallpaper* Japan city guides), mentioned the same sort of fragmentation in Japan’s urban cores when I spoke to him. He said that this is also the very quality that sets the design of the country apart: ‘Tokyo and Osaka are powerful and imposing cities, yet both are meandering and impossible to really understand; Kyoto and Nara are full of contradictions; Kobe tries its hand at any style—the Western area of Kitano-chō being a prime example. Japan’s cities are not rational (the lack of street names quickly alerts the newcomer to this fact), and while appearing “modern” are actually full of contradictions, fortuitous mistakes, and successful new concepts.’
To further understand the variety of structures that exist in urban Japan, I found helpful what Julian Worrall described to me as, in his opinion, the three main styles of architecture we can pick out in Japanese cities today:
1. ‘That kind of pristine white clean look. I think the architects who are most associated with that are Ryue Nishizawa and Kazuyo Sejima who founded the SANAA firm in 1995. They’re very influential both in and outside Japan and a lot of people copy them or are inspired by them.’
2. Naïve naturalism: ‘a child’s world of harmonious environment where man and nature are not at war with each other.’ Citing the worlds created by animation legend Hayao Miyazaki as a good way to visualize this aesthetic, Worrall explained that this sort of ideal is reflected in Japan’s contemporary visual landscape including in the works of such renowned architects as Fujimori Teranobu.
3. And a newer style exemplified by architects like Atelier Bow Wow: ‘Shapes are much more complex, not smooth…a little bit deliberately ugly…They’re not trying to make a purified environment, and they’re not trying to go back to some kind of imagined past, they’re very much of the present day and of Tokyo and of Japan’s weird hybrid ugliness…they’re not referencing some mythology of Japan, this idea of the tea ceremony or purity, or any of these things you’d typically get in a touristic image of Japan promoted by the government.’
Japaneseness: An Endangered Concept?
But Worrall added that he believes the new generation of architects and others in Japan's creative fields are no longer paying attention to the question of Japaneseness.
Citing the example of Tadao Ando, as a member of the previous generation who approached things differently, Worrall reminded me that the world-renowned architect ‘makes a big point about how he’s Japanese and how he’s inspired by Japanese things and that is a big part of his appeal.’
But, said Worrall, ‘these younger guys are more cosmopolitan and at ease being in Europe or America, or here or China or Korea. What they’re interested in is things like urban settings, what makes a good city, how the buildings respond to that—some kind of universal notion. So it isn’t about referencing the traditional past like the teahouse or whatever.’
He went on to conclude that this whole rising cosmopolitan generation of architects and artists in Japan are not looking to ‘dress up and perform some purified image of Japaneseness.’
So, is it possible that going into the future, Japaneseness, at least in Japan’s urban settings, will cease to exist and simply take on a universal quality? Or will there always be that new wave of ‘retro’ artists who will work into their style a way to bring the past back to the present?
And what might the future really hold for the Japanese landscape overall? There’s no question that with environmental issues becoming more critical globally, the way Japan incorporates sustainable practices and design into its urban areas will significantly change its appearance over the upcoming decades. I'll be discuss this topic, as I wrap up this series, next week.
Images: Atelier Bow Wow by yusunkwon / Flickr (top), Tadao Ando by yisris / Flickr (middle), by OiMax / Flickr (bottom).
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Strong reasoning
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Art & Design
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This volume reviews the challenges and alternative approaches to modeling how individuals change across time and provides methodologies and data analytic strategies for behavioral and social science researchers. This accessible guide provides concrete, clear examples of how contextual factors can be included in most research studies. Each chapter can be understood independently, allowing readers to first focus on areas most relevant to their work. The opening chapter demonstrates the various ways contextual factors are represented—as covariates, predictors, outcomes, moderators, mediators, or mediated effects. Succeeding chapters review "best practice" techniques for treating missing data, making model comparisons, and scaling across developmental age ranges. Other chapters focus on specific statistical techniques such as multilevel modeling and multiple-group and multilevel SEM, and how to incorporate tests of mediation, moderation, and moderated mediation. Critical measurement and theoretical issues are discussed, particularly how age can be represented and the ways in which context can be conceptualized. The final chapter provides a compelling call to include contextual factors in theorizing and research.
This book will appeal to researchers and advanced students conducting developmental, social, clinical, or educational research, as well as those in related areas such as psychology and linguistics.
Contents: Preface. N.A. Card, T.D. Little, J.A. Bovaird, Modeling Ecological and Contextual Effects in Longitudinal Studies of Human Development. S.M. Hofer, L. Hoffman, Statistical Analysis With Incomplete Data: A Developmental Perspective. K.J. Preacher, L. Cai, R.C. MacCullum, Alternatives to Traditional Model Comparison Strategies for Covariance Structure Models. S.E. Embretson, Impact of Measurement Scale in Modeling Developmental Processes and Ecological Factors. P.J. Curran, M.C. Edwards, R.J. Wirth, A.M. Hussong, L. Chassin, The Incorporation of Categorical Measurement Models in the Analysis of Individual Growth. T.D. Little, N.A. Card, D.W. Slegers, E.C. Ledford, Representing Contextual Effects in Multiple-Group MACS Models. J.A. Bovaird, Multilevel Structural Equation Models for Contextual Factors. D. Hedeker, R.J. Mermelstein, Mixed-Effects Regression Models With Heterogeneous Variance: Analyzing Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) Data of Smoking. T.D. Little, N.A. Card, J.A. Bovaird, K.J. Preacher, C.S. Crandel, Structural Equation Modeling of Mediation and Moderation With Contextual Factors. D.B. Flora, S.T. Khoo, L. Chassin, Moderating Effects of a Risk Factor: Modeling Longitudinal Moderated Mediation in the Development of Adolescent Heavy Drinking. D.J. Bauer, M.J. Shanahan, Modeling Complex Interactions: Person-Centered and Variable-Centered Approaches. N. Bolger, P.E. Shrout, Accounting for Statistical Dependency in Longitudinal Data on Dyads. S.M. Boker, J-P. Laurenceau, Coupled Dynamics and Mutually Adaptive Context. N. Ram, J.R. Nesselroade, Modeling Intraindividual and Intracontextual Change: Rendering Developmental Contextualism Operational. J.L. Rodgers, The Shape of Things to Come: Using Developmental Curves From Adolescent Smoking and Drinking Reports to Diagnose the Type of Social Process that Generated the Curves. K.J. Grimm, J.J. McArdle, A Dynamic Structural Analysis of the Impacts of Context on Shifts in Lifespan Development. K.F. Widaman, Intrauterine Environment Affects Infant and Child Intellectual Outcomes: Environment as Direct Effect. H. Jelicic, C. Theokas, E. Phelps, R.M. Lerner, Conceptualizing and Measuring the Context Within Person Context Models of Human Development: Implications for Theory, Research, and Application.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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What are we to make of the long descriptions of the High Priest’s ceremonial garments in this week’s portion? The garments include a breastplate, a robe, a fringed tunic, a headdress and a sash and an ephod, or long tunic, and each is described in detail. The robe, for example, is to have embroidered pomegranates “of blue, purple and crimson yarns, all around the hem, with bells of gold between them all around” (Exodus 28:33). These “holy garments” are to be worn “for dignity and adornment.”
George Herbert (1593-1633) has written a poem, “Aaron,” which is based on the High Priest’s headdress, breastplate and robe:
Herbert immediately applies all this to himself in an anguish of introspective comparison:
And this, to come back to my opening question, is one way of making use of the descriptions in Exodus 28. But it’s a bit of a stretch, and probably was a stretch even for an Anglican priest of the early 17th century like George Herbert. The descriptions of the High Priest’s garments prompted quite different thoughts in myself.
One of the central impulses of the last century or two has been to strip away human pretensions. Our entire planet is an almost infinitely small part of the known universe; we not only evolved from the primordial slime but our DNA turns out to be not very different to that of an earthworm and virtually identical to that of a chimpanzee; our leaders are not all-knowing and wise and the few kings and queens and princes and princesses left for our contemplation now rarely bother to dress up in royal costumes. The intellectual and social developments that led to this state of affairs make it difficult for us to be in awe of, or even attribute a special dignity to, a person in office, let alone in robes of office.
The felt necessity of these developments, and the concomitant loss, was one of the problems that preoccupied William Butler Yeats. In an early collection of his poetry, published in 1893, Yeats, talking of the old Irish heroes and heroines and fairies and other ancient folk, says,
But not too long into the dim coming times of the new century, even before the First World War, Yeats was informing his readers that although he had previously “made my song a coat/ Covered with old embroideries” he was now casting it off,
In spite of this resolve, however, Yeats tells us in his last collection of poems that
Why couldn’t he shake this absorption with artifact and show? He gives the best answer in an early poem, “The Mask.” When the subsidiary speaker in the poem asks the protagonist to take off his mask, this is the response:
And the subsequent request to see what is behind the mask for the sake of the truth, gets this response:
The robes of the High Priest engaged the minds of those who watched him perform his functions, and helped keep the fire of their awe and belief burning in them. Ancient Israel was not dedicated to the proposition that there’s more enterprise in walking naked, and its beliefs had hems embroidered with blue, purple and crimson pomegranates and hung with golden bells. But we, who live in the dim times that have come, have to believe whatever we believe without the support of embroidery.
David Curzon is a contributing editor of the Forward.
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Strong reasoning
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Key Event Title
|Level of Biological Organization|
Key Event Components
Key Event Overview
AOPs Including This Key Event
|AOP Name||Role of event in AOP|
|Homo sapiens||Homo sapiens||High||NCBI|
|Mus musculus||Mus musculus||High||NCBI|
|Rattus norvegicus||Rattus norvegicus||High||NCBI|
|All life stages||High|
Key Event Description
T cells are key orchestrators of the response against pathogens and are also fundamental in maintaining self-tolerance. A number of clinically important conditions have been described in which T-cell functions are altered, as in AIDS or upon immunosuppression after application of various immunosuppressive drugs to treat autoimmune disorders or allogeneic graft rejection. T-cell progenitors differentiate in the thymus into immature T cells that acquire the expression of the T-cell receptor (TCR), which recognizes antigen peptides from pathogens presented along with major histocompatibility complex (MHC). In addition to the TCR, T cells are characterized by expression of the co-receptor molecules CD4 and CD8 on their cell surface. CD4+ T cells, also called T helper (Th) cells, recognize antigen/MHC-II complexes on antigen presenting cells (APCs) and coordinate the activation of other immune cells including B cells, macrophages, etc.
Therefore, CD4+ T cells are crucial for coordination of the immune response and for the elimination of invading pathogens. On the other hand, CD8+ T cells, referred to as T cytotoxic cells, recognize antigen/MHC-I complexes and are responsible for the killing of pathogen-infected cells.
T-cell activation and differentiation depends on antigen presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells (DCs), macrophages and B cells. depending on the insult affecting a given tissue. Different subsets of DCs can be generated that in turn are able to coordinate the differentiation of a particular Th subset. To date, the following Th subsets have been described: Th1, Th2, Th9, Th17, Th22, Tfh (follicular helper T cells), Tr1 (type 1regulatory T cells) and Treg (regulatory T cells), each possessing a specific function in the elimination of pathogens. (reviewed by Simeoni et al. (Simeoni et al., 2016))
Although CD4 T cells are able to commit to Th1, Th2 and Th17 lineages in the absence of IL-1R signaling at steady state, these committed CD4 T cells are unable to effectively secrete their cytokines upon TCR ligation. Namely, IL-1 is indispensable for CD4 T cell effector function. (Lin et al, 2015)
Moreover, since full activation of B cells and antibody production and class switch depends on T cell help. The impaired activation of T cells leads to impaired B cell activation and antibody production (reviewed by Mok (Mok, 2010)).
How It Is Measured or Detected
T cell activation can be evaluated by measuring IL-2 production by ELISA or T cell proliferation by incorporation of the analysis of CFSE labeled T cells or [3H]thymidine incorporation.
Domain of Applicability
Lin, D., Lei, L., Zhang, Y., et al., 2015. Secreted IL-1alpha promotes T-cell activation and expansion of CD11b(+) Gr1(+) cells in carbon tetrachloride-induced liver injury in mice. Eur J Immunol 45, 2084-2098.
Mok, M.Y., 2010. The immunological basis of B-cell therapy in systemic lupus erythematosus. Int J Rheum Dis 13, 3-11.
Simeoni, L., Thurm, C., Kritikos, A., et al., 2016. Redox homeostasis, T cells and kidney diseases: three faces in the dark. Clin Kidney J 9, 1-10.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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W/E 18th October
Who can believe we are already at the end of the first half of this busy term! It has been a jam packed, fun-filled few weeks and the children have definitely earned their break!
Year 1 have had a fun filled end to the first half term. The children bumped into the Nursery and Kindergarten children in the woods which was a lovely surprise! After recording our green man interviews the children explored the woods with Nursery and Kindergarten. The children have continued to develop their subtractions skills and have been using their understanding to solve number stories. The children were so excited to perform their maraca dance to the rest of Pre-Prep. They were fantastic and had a lot of fun!
W/E 11th October
This week Pre-Prep have been working like Billy Bee to empty the sand pit ready for fresh sand. The children used gloves and spades to empty the sand into the tractor which they all enjoyed. Many of the children also helped Mrs Winn and Miss Sander with gardening to create an area for trucks and mud construction.
Superworm is in Reception! We read the book and have made potions so that we can help Superworm who has been captured by the Wizard Lizard. We used smelly herbs and spiky plants from the garden to make our potion extra potent. We then all worked together like Billy Bee to make our own Reception Superworm. We made him super long and super strong. We had to work out how to join our worm segments so that he didn’t fall apart. We chose between masking tape, paper fasteners, stapler, needle and thread or rubber bands. We then had to really co-operate to get him back to class in one piece! Mrs Fulford taught us a lovely song about the Harvest and we sang to our Grandparents in the Harvest Festival. We then had a lovely session of ball skills in the sun with all the visitors watching.
Year 1 have been investigating the tale of the Green Man this week. We went down to the woods to listen to the tale and then created our own green man faces on the trees. We used mud, leaves and sticks to create the faces. The children then made ‘wanted’ posters using adjectives to find the green man. In Maths, the children investigated the number 10 and found countless ways to make 10 adding the numbers 2, 3 and 4.
This week in Year 2 we investigated solids, liquids and gases and made a chemical reaction using bicarbonate of soda and vinegar to blow a balloon up. In history we read parts of the diary of Samuel Pepys and his account of the Fire of London, all written in code with a quill pen.
W/E 4th October
Year 1 have been travelling to Puerto Rico in their learning journey this week as they chose to explore maracas. This had started as a science lesson investigating noise, but the children soon took the idea and expanded it. They watched a school in Brazil do a maraca dance and asked if we could have a go. In English the children have been creating Acrostic poems in order to enter the young writer poetry competition. On Wednesday the children enjoyed No Pens Day and applied their mental maths skills using addition snakes and ladders, the magic cauldron and dominoes.
Year 2 made bread rolls this week to investigate how yeast makes bread rise. We had to work very hard to knead the bread to make the dough stretchy. We also had a great time on Wednesday on No Pens Day. We filmed a news report about the Great Fire of London and presented it to Year 1.
In STEM club Year 2 chose to explore the planets this week, with the aim of creating 3D versions of the planets. The children had to discuss how we could make the planets to scale. After watching a video comparing the size of the planets and stars the children were truly amazed by the size of the sun.
W/E 27th September
In Reception it has been another week of work for our Superheroes! All the children have been busy finding out about the people who help us. We have had some lovely ideas about who the children consider their Superheroes to be. We went to visit our very own Super Sister Kate, who told us all about how she looks after the children who feel sick. Quite a few of us felt poorly after that so that we all could go and try the magic biscuits!! We have not let the rain get in the way of our learning – we have spent lots of time doing listening activities and following instructions. We are getting rather good at this now. We have learnt about Harriet the cow who is very tall and tried to hold our pencil correctly all week. We also managed to dig for treasure in the mud on Thursday – sorry about the dirty clothes for the weekend!
Year 1 started their week by exploring food from different countries and we found out that lots of our favourite foods are from all over the world!
The highlight of our week was bug hunting in the little woods. The children used specimen collectors to find bugs whilst keeping them safe. As it had been raining there was a plethora of bugs to find and the children all had lots of fun digging through leaf piles and turning over logs.
To finish the week we made pizza wraps as many of the children were surprised to learn that pizza originates in Italy!
Year 2 have been learning all about the plague of 1665 and we acted in roles to get some historical understanding about what it might have been like to live in London at the time. Great acting skills too!
In STEM Club Year 2 made the most of the windy weather by building kites. The children designed and built their kites using everyday materials. We researched kite shapes and styles to begin with and then the children started building. They took their kites outside and the wind lifted them with ease. Although all of the flags were slightly different shapes and sizes they were all successful apart from a few string detachments!
W/E 20th September
Reception have been enjoying the lovely sunny weather outside. We have loved Woodland Learning this week and have collected lots of natural materials for our classrooms. We have started our phonic lanyards which have caused great excitement, especially as now we can all make a word with our letters. We have been exploring numbers to 10, making towers and playing ‘Beat Me’ with the sand timer. We have generally been total Superheroes!
Year 1 have been engaged and enthusiastic this week with our activities. We worked hard to finish our Kitchen Disco stories and many of you were written into the children’s stories to join in the disco. In Maths we have been exploring number bond diagrams and counting on. In outdoor learning this week the children listened to a story about a little girl who helped the woodland creatures and created a woodland crown based on the story. To finish the week the children used herbs from our garden to infuse their home made Playdough.
We made the most of the sunshine in STEM Club, heading down to the woods. The children were challenged to make a mini den, perfectly formed with a replica fire. The children put the skills they learnt last year about den-building into practice using pyramid and prism based shapes. They used leaves to cover the roofs and the lovely autumnal colours were perfect as flames for the fire.
W/E 13th September
The first full week of Reception has been completed for all our Superheroes. We have had an action-packed week. We did our first French lesson, music, gym and ball skills and not forgetting swimming! We made hedgehogs in the woodland learning area and have looked at our names and how to write them. In number work we sang songs, counted and played lots of games concentrating on numbers to 10.
Year 1 have had a fantastic start to the year and the children have been dancing their way into our topic. We started the week exploring the school grounds: from the pond to finding the best hill down which to roll. Our Kitchen Disco has been in full swing and the children enjoyed creating fruits to be the DJs at their disco. The wonderful vegetable garden has been used lots this week and we have picked a range of vegetables to use in our cooking. We made courgette crisps with vegetable soup!
The children are always excited to come back to STEM club and the Year 2s put their enthusiasm into tower building this week. However, there is always a challenge to be had in STEM, so the children had to build a tower on which they could stand. We discussed the fact that some of the towers were hollow and some were solid and whether or not that made a difference.
W/C 6th September
Pre-Prep has been buzzing with excitement in this short first week back. We have loved hearing all the stories of your summer holidays and watching the children throw themselves enthusiastically into their new class settings. We are so pleased to welcome so many new families and are thrilled to see how well the new children are already settling in. The Michaelmas Term is such an action packed term, full of fun and with so many exciting things to get involved in, and we hope you all enjoy following our news over the coming weeks.
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Moderate reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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The U.S. economy is in recession, and federal policymakers want to help by applying some old-fashioned Keynesian medicine. They are considering a stimulus bill of up to $700 billion, with substantial spending going to state and local governments for infrastructure and other activities. But such a grab-bag for the states is ill-advised for ten good reasons, at least.
1. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT IS BROKE.
The feds already face a $1-trillion deficit this year and massive red ink down the road from Social Security and Medicare. It cannot afford a state bailout — and indeed, should be trimming some of the 800 current state-aid programs in order to balance its own budget.
2. SPENDING IS THE PROBLEM.
Rapid spending growth has pushed many state budgets into deficit. Total state and local spending rose 7.6 percent in 2007 and a further 7.0 percent in 2008, based on three quarters of data. The federal government should not facilitate the states’ spendthrift ways.
3. A KEYNESIAN STIMULUS IGNORES THE LONG RUN.
Economists in the Keynesian tradition believe that government spending spurs short-run economic growth. Economists in the monetarist tradition believe that any such positive effects would be short-lived. Yet other economists in the “rational expectations” tradition argue that a Keynesian stimulus would have no effect at all on output.
In truth, economists do not have an accurate or agreed-upon model of the short-run economy, and their advice is often in error. Politicians should be more humble about their ability to control short-term economic ups and downs. Legislative action based on incomplete information risks destabilizing the economy further. Efforts to fix short-term problems often create long-term damage — such as by putting the nation further into debt.
4. RISING FEDERAL DEBT IS FISCAL CHILD ABUSE.
Spending on a stimulus package would be funded by additional government borrowing. The burden of that borrowing would fall on young people and future taxpayers. Federal policymakers are leaving a terrible fiscal legacy to the next generation, and a stimulus package would only make matters worse.
5. A BAILOUT WOULD FLOUT STATE FISCAL TRADITIONS.
Nearly all the states have statutory or constitutional restrictions on budget deficits and government debt levels. Many of those restrictions were put in place a century ago so that politicians would live within the “allowance” taxpayers provided them. A federal bailout of the states goes against the spirit of those state fiscal traditions, which were designed to encourage restraint.
6. A BAILOUT MAY DELAY STATE REFORMS.
Many states have short-term budget gaps, but face a larger fiscal crisis from long-term spending promises. State and local governments have unfunded obligations in their pension and retiree health care plans of at least $2 trillion. Adding to state fiscal woes is rapidly rising Medicaid spending.
7. STATE INFRASTRUCTURE IS ADEQUATELY FUNDED.
Despite complaints that “our highways are crumbling,” state spending on infrastructure has been at fairly high levels in recent years. State and local gross capital investment has averaged 2.4 percent of gross domestic product this decade, which is higher than in the 1980s and 1990s. If states need more investment in highways and airports, they should look to private financing, as many foreign governments have done.
8. STATE SITUATIONS VARY.
While some states have large budget gaps, more than a dozen states do not — and don’t need help from Washington. If only the states with the big deficits are bailed out, it would be unfair to the states that have been better managed.
9. BAILOUTS BEGET MORE BAILOUTS.
If state politicians know that they will be bailed out by the federal government when they get into trouble, they will be more likely to make irresponsible choices that produce another fiscal crunch. Bailouts of state governments and the automobile firms would likely lead to a longer line of handout seekers on the steps of the White House and Capitol.
10. A BAILOUT SHIFTS ATTENTION FROM NEEDED FEDERAL REFORMS.
Federal policymakers should resist the impulse to try and manipulate short-run growth. Instead, Congress and the new administration should put their time and efforts into policy reforms to foster long-term growth and fiscal stability, such as business tax reforms and entitlement program reforms.
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Strong reasoning
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Politics
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Today, let’s talk about ways you can use amusing objects as pointers to teach homeschool writing and reading. You’ll add all sorts of fun to your younger children’s school day the moment you hand them a princess wand or a wooden sword!
Collect or Make Some Pointers
1. Pointers are fun and educational.
Pointers help kids track words better. This strengthens reading and writing skills and helps young children make a more meaningful connection between the words they read and write.
Gather or make a small collection of pointers to keep in a jar in your homeschool area. A good length is 12 inches, but anything in the 10- to 18-inch range will work. Even if your child’s chosen pointer is a bit long, let them use it if it keeps them interested in the task.
2. Household objects make practical pointers.
Search drawers and cupboards—many common objects work well as pointers. Good choices include rulers, fancy chopsticks, silicone spatulas, knitting needles, colorful pencils, paint brushes, long twisty straws, and wooden spoons.
Don’t forget the toy chest! Kids love using swords as pointers, whether they’re made of foam, wood, or plastic. Or maybe they have a light saber or a fairy wand they’d like to use.
Really, just about any long, thin implement that’s lying around the house makes a fabulous pointer to enhance your homeschool teaching time.
3. Whimsical pointers appeal to struggling writers.
If your child is a reluctant writer, try to make writing time as fun as possible. When searching for whimsical or silly objects, you can also check Amazon—or even your local dollar store! Look for:
- Colorful finger pointers
- Unicorn pointer
- Wooden pointers
- Light-up wizard wands
- Sparkly princess wand party favors
- Telescoping back-scratchers in assorted colors
- Dragonfly plant stakes
- Crazy, curly straws
Pick up a few! These delightful, out-of-the-box pointers will surely inspire the most reluctant writer.
RELATED >> Help! I have a reluctant writer!
4. Homemade pointers add extra fun!
Instead of buying ready-made pointers, you might want to assemble your own, especially if crafty activities motivate your children. Why not plan a pointer-making activity or crafting day? Start with these ideas:
- Paint faces on wooden spoons.
- Buy a wand-making kit.
- Glue pencil toppers to 12″ hardware-store dowels. Try cute outer space or animal pencil erasers!
- For a fun craft, buy plain wooden wands and let the kids decorate them with paint, glitter, or ribbons.
Use Pointers to Teach Homeschool Writing and Reading
Once you’ve added a few pointers to your homeschool space, you can begin incorporating them into your daily lessons.
1. Pointers for reading the room
Let your kindergartner, first, or second grader choose a pointer from the jar. With a pointer, they can “read the room” by pointing to familiar text as you direct them.
- Alphabet chart
- Calendar (month, days of the week, numbers)
- Familiar words on posters, wall charts, book covers, and boxes
2. Pointers for “search and find” activities
- Letter Hunt. Ask your child to search out and point to all the Aa’s or Mm’s or Rr’s he can find around your school room or kitchen.
- I Spy. Go to a room where your child can see words displayed on books, magazines, games, cans, boxes, or wall art. Say, “I spy five vowels,” “I spy an uppercase D,” or “I spy three nouns,” and let your child search and point. Try this activity at the library or in a waiting room using a short pointer, such as a pencil.
3. Pointers as writing tools
Modeling is an important part of teaching writing. As you model where to place a period or how to start a sentence with a capital letter, your children can take an active part in the lesson.
Start by writing on a white board or large sheet of chart paper. Writing on a large surface makes it easier for the child to track writing and use the pointer.
- Track words. Help your child use a pointer to track words in a sentence as you read the sentence aloud together.
- Identify parts of a sentence or paragraph. According to their skill level, ask kids to use a pointer to identify ending punctuation, capital letters at the beginning of a sentence, or paragraph indentation.
Do pointers and other engaging, hands-on activities appeal to your kids? If so, you’ll find these and many more practical ideas within the lessons of WriteShop Primary.
WriteShop Primary gently introduces writing skills to young children using repetition, routine, pre-writing games and activities, crafts, and storybooks. Perfect for most children in grades K-3. Click here for help choosing a starting level.
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Basic reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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Neolithic-Era Megaliths in Normandy
Pierre Tournesse is a megalithic structure dating back to 3,900 B.C. in the Neolithic era. It is a passage grave, where the burial structure was buried under a mound of earth and was accessed through a tunnel. It is located on the north edge of the small town of Cairon, in the département of Calvados in Normandy, in northern France, near the city of Caen. You can easily visit it on your own.
The people living here toward the end of the prehistoric period would have been settling down as agriculture was replacing the hunter-gatherer mobile lifestyle. This allowed them to form communities and construct permanent structures like this burial complex.
Until 1992, all that showed above the ground was a broad capstone surrounded by stone slabs. This suggested the presence of some sort of cairn. The town of Cairon acquired about a hectare of land centered on the site. Scientific excavations were carried out in 1996-1999, followed by partial reconstruction.
These pictures show how one to two meters of soil had to be removed in order to expose the original structure. The site seems to be surrounded by a low berm, which is really just the slope up to the contemporary ground level.
My parents, standing in the central chamber, and one of their friends standing near them provide a sense of scale.
In the distance is our rental car, and beyond that are fertile wheat fields.
The structure is built from limestone, all of it probably gathered from nearby. This dates from the Neolithic, the New Stone Age, so metal tools had not yet been developed (as would happen later in the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, and so on). Stone working and transport would have been difficult then.
The plan on the marker shows how they constructed the tomb. The overall structure is nearly circular, about 24 meters in diameter. The low outer boundary wall is of drystone construction. That is, stones tightly fitted together but not mortared.
The central chamber, about five by three meters in size, is close to the center of the structure. It had a small alcove on its north side.
The central chamber was accessed by a corridor about eight to nine meters long and less than one meter wide and tall.
The smaller chamber, about three by two meters, is more directly accessible from the exterior. Its entrance is on the opposite side from the long passage.
Another diagram on the sign shows the process of construction, across the bottom, and a cutaway of the finished structure, above.
The central chamber was built as a dolmen with rows of large slabs and some drystone forming the walls and truly megalithic cover stones as a roof. The access tunnel was made with drystone walls and large slabs as a roof. The smaller chamber was built entirely of smaller stones in an igloo-like shape forming a corbelled vault.
This assemblage was then buried in a mound mostly of earth with some stones, and the outer surface covered with stones.
The smaller chamber may have built after the main structure was completed, by digging into the mound.
The access passage is aligned to 100°, just a little south of due east. Maybe the orientation was significant to the builders, with the sunrise shining down the passageway on an auspicious day of the year. No one knows, this was a truly prehistoric era and so we have no recorded information about their beliefs.
The Neolithic was the end of prehistoric time, when agriculture was being established and replacing mobile hunting and gathering. Human groups could settle and form small communities, domesticating animals and raising crops. The formation of communities allowed the construction of significant permanent structures like this one.
The remains of at least twelve individuals, a few of them children, were found in the central burial chamber. It was carbon-14 dating on these remains that allowed the dating of the structure to 3,900—3,700 B.C.
The entry passage walls were all drystone construction with small stones.
The main chamber walls were partly built from large stones, with small drystone walls filling the gaps.
Large slabs spanned the roof of the chamber.
The smaller chamber held the body of one child wearing a necklace with a pieced dog tooth as a pendant.
The smaller chamber is oriented with its central axis and opening aligned toward about 270°, roughly opposite the direction of the main passageway.
The human remains and everything else found at the site are now at the national archaeological museum at Saint-Germain-en-Laye on the western outskirts of Paris.
The broken pieces of the cover stones were not replaced on the central dolmen.
Other Megaliths in CalvadosTo the Megalithic Travel page
The Calvados département has a number of megaliths, many of them individual stones called menhirs especially in the case of standing stones. Many of them share a common legend about a large stone that can turn itself over. The name of this structure literally means "The Turning Stone" as tourner is French for turn. All that was visible and known about in historic time was the top of one or more of the capstones, and this was said to be one of the "turning stones".
Other nearby similarly named sites are la Pierre Tourneresse à Gouvix, la Pierre Tournante à Fresney-le-Puceux, la Pierre Tournante à Livarot, and also a stone no longer to be found called la Pierre Tourniresse, once located between Thaon and Colomby-sur-Thaon.
The Germans had used this site as a gun emplacement and shelter during World War II, using the exposed capstones as part of that. They destroyed their site as they withdrew in June, 1944, damaging the capstones in the process. Until then, the capstones were complete.
A Würzburg radar site is nearby, and a visit there is easily combined with Pierre Tourneresse.
Nazis and self-rotating megaliths, this sounds like a case for the Bureau for Paranormal Research and Defense.
Visiting Pierre Tourneresse
Access is quite easy if you have planned ahead and have a decent map. The 1:200,000 Michelin map can get you to Cairon easily. The excellent 1:25,000 map from the Institute National de l'Information Géographique et Forestière gives detail down to individual buildings. The site is at:
Take the D22 road northwest from the Caen ring road to Cairon. This may appear as Cairon-le-Vieux or "Cairon-the-Old" on some maps. Near the center of this town of about 1,600 people there is a small road leading north along the Vey, a small river flowing toward the Mue.
Just before the highway passes a building with the local boulangerie et patisserie and crosses a small stream, Rue de la Cachette crosses the highway. A sign there points to the town's mairie, école, bibliothèque, and so on, all of that straight ahead on the D22, and a smaller sign points to the right to Pierre Tourneresse. Turn right!
After the street intersection about 100 meters north of the D22, the lane curves to the left and then to the right as it follows the Vey. Along the way it turns into a farm lane, really just two tracks, continuing to the north. The lane is labeled as Chemin Nôtre Dame du Marais (or The Lane of Our Lady of the Swamp) on Google Maps.
Pass the sign saying that no one except residents, bicycles, and agricultural equipment should continue back the lane. Rented cars surely fit into one of those categories, so keep going. About 500-600 meters north of the D22, turn sharply to your right and back and then continue about 400 meters back to the south. The site will be on your right. Here is a view to the north from that lane. The lane passes between a wheat field to its east and the site on its west. From here you can continue on out to the D22.
Alternatively, depending on your direction of travel, you might spot a sign for La Pierre Tourneresse on the D22 and see how to get there directly.
The town of Cairon is mentioned in records from the year 1077, when it was spelled as Karon. It was mentioned as Cayron in 1231. The name is thought to come from the Roman name Carius suffixed with -onis. Since the Celtic word karn meant stone, it is possible that the town got its name indirectly from the exposed capstone.
The town's nearby fortified Church of Saint-Hilaire was built on a low hill in the 13th century. It was a strategic point in the Hundred Years War, a series of conflicts between England and France from 1337 to 1453.
Cairon was liberated from the German occupiers on 11 June 1944 by the 46th Royal Marine Commando.
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Strong reasoning
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History
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Vascular disease, also called atherosclerosis, is a common affliction of the blood vessels, specifically the arteries, in the circulatory system. The purpose of arteries is to pump blood from the lungs, where it is filled with oxygen, to all of the organs throughout the body, where the oxygen is used to keep cells alive. During vascular disease, the walls of the arteries have grown thicker, encroaching on the space inside the artery. When this happens, the blood inside the arteries has less space through which to flow and is circulated at a slower rate.
The result is that organs and cells in the body do not receive enough oxygen from the blood, and a variety of symptoms, such as cramping, numbness, weakness and coldness, ensue. In extreme cases, peripheral organs and tissue begin to die or a portion of the thickened blood vessel wall breaks off into the blood stream and travels to the brain or heart where it causes a blockage called a stroke or heart attack, respectively.
Types of Vascular Disease
Vascular disease and plaque buildup can occur in different places in the body. Some of the most common types of vascular disease include:
- Peripheral Artery Disease is the buildup of plaque in the peripheral arteries. Learn more+
- Renal Artery Disease is the buildup of plaque in the arteries that bring blood to the kidneys. Learn More+
- Angina is a blockage in coronary (heart) arteries that causes chest pain.
- Claudication is caused by a blockage in arteries supplying the legs.
- Buerger’s Disease affects smaller blood vessels to supply fingers and toes.
Causes of Vascular Disease
A number of factors can contribute to the thickening of arterial walls. Inflammatory stimuli, such as LDL (the ‘bad’ cholesterol) or various pathogens, irritate the endothelial cells that line the walls of the artery. This irritation causes the endothelial cells to recruit the immune system, and a variety of immune cells and molecules respond to the site of the irritation. These other cells, as well as cholesterol and fat, pile up inside the blood vessel wall in a paste known as plaque. The plaque encroaches upon the blood flow within the artery, causing vascular disease.
- Endovascular Atherectomy
- Endovascular Stent Placement
- Catheter Embolization
- Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis
Atlanta Vascular and Vein Center is located in Lawrenceville, GA servicing patients living in Metro Atlanta, Gwinnett County and the surrounding communities including Duluth, Dacula, and Grayson. Call 678-878-4555 today to schedule an appointment today.
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Basic reasoning
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Health
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Coding can be described as a system of signals and it is simply a technique of transmitting information in the form of codes or signals without a third person knowing about it. The person, who is responsible for transmitting the code or signal, is known as the sender and the receiver is the person who receives it. All the codes or signals that are transmitted get later decoded on the other side by the receiver—which is called decoding. In this article, find all you need to know about coding and decoding.
The most competitive exams come with a special section of Coding & Decoding in Reasoning or Mental Ability. A lot of students and readers find it difficult to solve questions on Coding and Decoding in Mental Aptitude.
What is Logical Reasoning?
Simply put, there are two kinds of logical reasoning that can be distinguished in addition to apart from formal deduction: induction and abduction. Let’s assume that there’s a precondition or premise, a conclusion or logical consequence and a rule or material conditional given that signifies the conclusion given the precondition. So, we can explain that:
- Deductive reasoning is all about finding out whether the truth of a conclusion can be determined for that rule, which is based completely on the truth of the premises. For instance: “Things outside get wet when it rains. The grass is outdoors, so naturally, when it rains, the grass becomes wet.” All types of mathematical logic and philosophical logic are normally connected to this style of reasoning.
- Inductive reasoning makes attempts to hold up a determination of the rule. It hypothesizes a rule after taking into consideration a lot of examples that follow from a precondition in terms of such a rule. Case in point: “The grass became wet many times when it started raining, so whenever it rains, the grass always gets wet.” While these may be persuasive, this point of view is not deductively valid and science is associated with this type of reasoning.
- Abductive reasoning, also known as inference, picks up a cogent set of preconditions. Given a true conclusion and a rule, it is all about selecting some probable premises that, if true also, can aid the conclusion, though not exclusively. Example: “The grass gets wet when it rains. The grass is located outside, so naturally, nothing is dry outside. Therefore, it must have rained, maybe.” Diagnosticians and detectives commonly use this type of reasoning.
How to Solve Coding and Decoding Questions
- a) Study the numbers or alphabets given in the code properly.
- b) Figure out whether it follows the ascending or descending sequence.
- c) Identify the rule wherein the alphabets/numbers/words follow.
- d) Now, fill in the appropriate number/ letter/word in the blank space given.
When it comes to questions about coding and decoding, a word (basic word) is coded in a certain way and the candidates get asked to code other words in the same way. All the coding and decoding tests get set up for judging a candidate’s capacity to decode the rule that has been followed to code a particular word/message and then break the code to interpret the message.
There are 6 types of Coding and Decoding:
- Letter Coding
- Number Coding
- Mixed Coding
- Mixed Number Coding
- Symbols Coding
1. Letter Coding
In this case, a certain letter stands for another letter in letter coding.
E.g.: If COURSE has been coded as FRXUVH, how can we code RACE in that code?
In this code given above, every letter is moved three steps forward than the corresponding letter in the word. Therefore, R gets coded as U, A as D, C as F, E as H. For this reason, (3) is the answer.
You need to learn the following table by heart. It is the only trick to solve coding and decoding questions quickly in your bank exams.
|Alphabets||Alphabetical Order||Reserve Order|
2. Number Coding
When it comes to these questions, either alphabetical code values are assigned to numbers or numerical code values are assigned to a word. Candidates need to analyse the code as per directions.
Case I: When numerical values are assigned to words.
E.g.: Talking about a certain code, ROPE is coded as 6821 and CHAIR is coded as 73456. So, how would you code for CRAPE?
(5) None of these
Obviously, the alphabets are coded as follows in the given code.
R O P E C H A I
6 8 2 1 7 3 4 5
So, CRAPE would be coded as 76421 and the answer is (2).
Case II: When alphabetical code values are assigned to the numbers.
E.g.: In a particular code, 3456 is coded as ROPE & 15546 is coded as APPLE. Then, how would you code 54613?
(5) None of these
As per the given figures, the numbers can be coded as follows.
3 4 5 6 1 4
R O P E A L
So, 54613 is coded as POEAR. The answer is (3).
3. Mixed Coding
In this type, there are 3 or 4 complete messages given in the coded language and the code for a particular word is asked.
For working out such coding and decoding problems, any two messages having a common word are picked up. The common code word will mean that word. Similarly, we would pick up all possible combinations and with the help of two messages, the entire message can be figured out.
E.g.: If tee see pee implies drink fruit juice, see kee lee denotes juice is sweet, and lee ree mee simply means she is intelligent, then as pre these clues, which word in that language would mean sweet?
Note that in the 1st and the 2nd statements, the common word is juice and the common codeword is see. Therefore, see means juice. Coming to the 2nd and 3rd statements, the common word is ‘is’ and the common code is lee. So, naturally, lee implies is. Therefore, in the second statement, the remaining word sweet is coded as kee. Thus, the answer is (2).
4. Mixed Number Coding
Here, 3 or 4 complete messages are given in the coded language and the code number for a particular word is asked.
E.g.: When it comes to a particular code language, 851 denotes good sweet fruit; 783 denotes good red rose and 341 means rose and fruit. So, in this situation, which of the following digits stands for sweet in that language?
(5) None of these
Talking about the 1st and the 2nd statements, the common code digit is 8 and the common word is good. As a result, 8 means good. In the 1st and the 3rd statements, the common code digit is 1 and the common word is fruit. Thus, 1 denotes fruit. So, in the 1st statement, 5 stands for sweet. Now, the answer is (2).
In decoding questions, artificial or code values are given to a word or a group of words and the students need to find out the original words.
E.g.: If in a particular language, FLOWER gets written as EKNVDQ, what would GNTRD stand for?
(5) None of these
Note that every letter of the word is one step ahead of the corresponding letter of the code.
E K N V D Q G N T R D
F L O W E R H O U S E
Therefore, HOUSE would be written as GNTRD and the answer is (4).
6. Symbols Coding
This type of coding has been included recently in the Reasoning section. Here, either of the symbols is assigned to alphabets or alphabetical code values are assigned to symbols. The candidate needs to analyse the code as per direction.
E.g.: 1. Let’s say that ‘TOME’ is written as ‘ @ $ * ? ’and ARE is written as ‘ • £ ? ’
So, how would we write ‘REMOTE’ in that code?
(1) £ ? • $ @ ?
(2) @ ? * $ @ ?
(3) £ ? * $ @ ?
(4) Cannot be determined
(5) None of these
Ans: From the data we have:
T – @
O – $
M – *
E – ?
A – •
R – £
E – ?
Therefore, REMOTE is coded as £ ? * $ @ ? So, (3) is the answer.
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Moderate reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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The Kazakhs are the descendants of Turkic, Mongolic and Indo-Iranian tribes and Huns that populated the territory between Siberia and the Black Sea. They are a semi-nomadic people and have roamed the mountains and valleys of western Mongolia with their herds since the 19th century.
The Himba are an ancient tribe of tall, slender and statuesque herders. Since the 16th century they have lived in scattered settlements, leading a life that has remained unchanged, surviving war and droughts. The tribal structure helps them live in one of the most extreme environments on earth.
It is believed that the first Papua New Guineans migrated to the island over 45000 years ago. Today, over 3 million people, half of the heterogeneous population, live in the highlands. Some of these communities have engaged in low-scale tribal conflict with their neighbours for millennia.
A number of different tribes have lived scattered across the highland plateau for 1000 years, in small agrarian clans, isolated by the harsh terrain and divided by language, custom and tradition. The legendary Asaro Mudmen first met with the Western world in the middle of the 20th century.
The eastern half of New Guinea gained full independence from Australia in 1975, when Papua New Guinea was born. The indigenous population is one of the most heterogeneous in the world. Traditionally, the different tribes scattered across the highland plateau, live in small agrarian clans.
The indigenous population of the world’s second largest island is one of the most heterogeneous in the world. The harsh terrain and historic inter-tribal warfare has lead to village isolation and the proliferation of distinct languages. A number of different tribes are scattered across the highland plateau.
The ancient Arctic Chukchi live on the peninsula of the Chukotka. Unlike other native groups of Siberia, they have never been conquered by Russian troops. Their environment and traditional culture endured destruction under Soviet rule, by weapons testing and pollution.
The long and intriguing story of the origine of the indigenous Maori people can be traced back to the 13th century, the mythical homeland Hawaiki, Eastern Polynesia. Due to centuries of isolation, the Maori established a distinct society with characteristic art, a separate language and unique mythology.
The former kingdom of Lo is linked by religion, culture and history to Tibet, but is politically part of Nepal. Now Tibetan culture is in danger of disappearing, it stands alone as one of the last truly Tibetan cultures existing today. Until 1991 no outsiders were allowed to enter Mustang.
Nomadic and colourful horsemen and cowboys have wandered the prairies as early as the 1700s, when wild Cimarron cattle overpopulated the flatlands. In the 18th century, when leather was in high demand, Gauchos arose to clandestinely hunt the huge herds of horses and cattle.
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en
| 0.945592 | 592 | 3.15625 | 3 | 2.844655 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
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History
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To get a room that performs well acoustically, there are several acoustics criteria that generally must be considered. The acoustic criteria are briefly as follows:
Room Acoustics Design Criteria
This criterion is related to the subjective perception of room users on the reverberation time of the room. Live rooms are usually associated with long reverberation times, and dead rooms are associated with short reverberation times.
The length of the reverberation time required for a room will, of course, depend on the function of the room. Room for a symphony concert, for example, requires a reverberation time of 1.7 – 2.2 seconds, while for a conversation room it takes between 0.7 – 1 second.
This criterion shows the perception of how intimately we hear the sound that is sounded in the room. Objectively, this criterion relates to the time delay (time difference) of the direct sound coming from the initial reflected sound coming to a listener's position in the room.
The shorter this delay, the more intimate the sound field is heard by the listener. Some studies show the recommended delay time is between 15 – 35 ms. See other articles: how to design a house floor plan.
3. Fullness vs Clarity
This criterion shows the amount of sound reflection (reflection energy) compared to the direct sound energy contained in the sound energy heard by listeners who are in the room. The two criteria are related to each other.
When the ratio of reflected energy to direct sound energy is large, the sound field will sound full. However, if you pass a certain ratio, the clarity of the information carried by the voice will be disturbed. In the case of a room used for musical activities, the C80 criterion shows this. (D50 for speech).
4. Warmth vs Brilliance
Both of these criteria are indicated by the reverberation time spectrum of the room. If the reverberation time of the room at low frequencies is greater than the mid-high frequency, the room will feel warmer.
Higher reverberation times in low-frequency areas are usually more recommended for rooms used for musical activities. For rooms used for speech activities, a flat reverberation time is recommended for low-mid-high frequencies. See other articles: balloon ideas for birthday.
This criterion indicates how many reflections received by the listener in the initial times (< 60 ms) of receiving the sound signal. If there are at least 5 reflections contained in the impulse response at the beginning of 60 ms, then the room is categorized as having a good texture.
6. Blend and Ensemble
The Blend criteria indicate how the listening state is perceived in the listener's area. If all the sound sources that are sounded in the room are well mixed (and can be enjoyed of course), then the hearing conditions in the room are said to be good. This relates to the criteria for how the sound in the stage area is mixed (ensemble).
For example, if the room is used for a symphony music concert, then the players on the stage must be able to hear (ensemble) and listeners in the listening area must also be able to hear (blend) the entirety (instruments) of the symphony being played.
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Moderate reasoning
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Art & Design
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We looked at artwork that showed the sky and horizon. Some art references
included landscapes by Ansel Adams, Constable, Turner, van Gogh, and
Cezanne. We noticed the many different colors and textures in the skys, and
we noticed that these artists have shown us that the sky meets the ground.
We talk about that place where the ground and the sky meet-the horizon. We
also notice that the people and objects in the pictures usually don't stand
on the horizon and they usually don't stand on the bottom edge of the
painting. We went for a short walk outdoors, and noticed that if we looked
in different directions, we saw that the sky is different colors and
textures, all at the same time!
Back indoors, we made wet on wet paintings on 12 x 18 white of some of the
colors we saw in the skys in the artworks and on our walk outdoors, and set
them aside do dry.
Then we paired up and tore a piece of green construction paper in two,
length wise. The person who tore the paper offered first choice to the
partner who waited. Each student glues one torn piece onto the bottom edge
of their watercolor sky, and there is a horizon! Some landscapes look
hilly, some look mountainous, and some look like flat grassland. Each is
different! (A side note here: next time I might have the students make
another wet on wet, of browns and greens, and use this instead of the green
The next class we talked about illustration, read a story book (with the
pictures hidden) and they used their landscapes to make an illustration. We
reviewed the horizon as the place where the sky meets the ground, and the
placement of objects in landscape. Markers, oil pastels, or even crayons
work well. Stories I like to use for this are Maurice Sendak's "WHERE THE
WILD THINGS ARE," and Patricia Polacco's "BABUSHKA BABA YAGA."
We all know where the horizon is, now. This was handy when we were learning
about horizontal and vertical and diagonal, too! Most of them have begun
making the sky meet the ground, but I find there are still a few who
continue to make the blue sky band on the top-and that's ok. They'll make
the adjustment when they're ready. Although I'm a new teacher, when these
students get up to the middle school level, at least they'll know what I'm
talking about when I ask them to abandon their symbols for sky, sun, and
birds and begin drawing landscape from actual observation.
I've enjoyed this discussion, and I look forward to further posts, more
ideas, and expansion of these ideas.
1-8 art on the cart
Lee H. Kellogg School
Falls Village, CT 06031
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| 0.941878 | 615 | 3.4375 | 3 | 2.366325 | 2 |
Moderate reasoning
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Art & Design
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A Man of Courage
Taking Sex Differences Seriously
By Steven E. Rhoads
Publisher: Encounter Books
Pages: 263 pages.
Review Author: Patrick Rooney
What does it say about our current state of affairs that it takes a learned university professor to tell us what is commonly known in the most primitive of societies — namely, that there are significant differences between the sexes?
In Taking Sex Differences Seriously, University of Virginia professor Steven Rhoads lays down the facts about men and women. He has the studies, the research, and even the anecdotes to support his evident conclusions.
Whether it’s exploring differences in sexual desire and emotional attachment, detailing the horror of fatherless families, demonstrating men’s aggression and dominance, or dealing with the vast differences in men and women’s aptitudes for raising young children, Rhoads builds an airtight case that the differences are real, vast, and have consequences — major consequences.
Thirty-five years ago, the sexual revolution began in America. Many societal assumptions were challenged and ultimately discredited. The most important was the assumption that men and women are different.
Many women began to demand “equal treatment” — meaning the freedom to alter their sexual behavior to be just as promiscuous as many men are, ignoring the fact that most women don’t have the same sexual drive as men, and forge emotional attachments through sex much more readily than do men.
“Equal treatment” also meant equal pay and equal opportunities in the workplace. Practically speaking, it meant that in order to receive the equal pay and opportunities, women would have to perform equally to men. This can be difficult for a pregnant woman or a new mother, for instance. This is where feminist politics entered, and attempted to hide the effects of pregnancy and motherhood, so as to maintain the appearances of equal productivity of women in the workforce.
The sexual revolution has proven to be extremely injurious to America for a number of reasons: (1) The loss of innocence. (2) The emotional toll on women from multiple sexual experiences outside of marriage. (3) Rampant sexually transmitted diseases. (4) The some 40 million abortions in the U.S. since Roe v. Wade, the vast majority of them from recreational sexual dalliances.
Another tragic offshoot of the sexual revolution has been the millions of children born and raised without their fathers. Fatherlessness is out of control in America and is the number one cause of drug abuse, gang violence, and a host of other societal ills among young people.
A recurring point in Sex Differences is Rhoads’s mention of young women in his classes who affirmed feminism but whose subsequent behavior suggested they were traditionalists at heart. Along those lines, I’d like to relay my own anecdote: I’m the Director of Development for a nonprofit organization called BOND, the Brotherhood Organization of A New Destiny. Our purpose is “Rebuilding the Family By Rebuilding the Man.” When I started working for the organization and would mention our purpose to a woman who looked like the feminist type, I’d expect to hear some type of negative response, like, “You Neanderthal!” Funny, I’ve never once heard that type of reply. Yes, it is possible that some may have thought that to themselves, but it tends to confirm to me that deep down, most women understand that sex differences and roles are self-evident.
Rhoads does a great job of deconstructing Title IX and its insistence on an unnatural equality of the sexes in regard to sports accessibility in schools, even though the vast evidence shows that, numerically, men are much more interested in playing sports than are women. The book details heartbreaking stories of male students turned away from wrestling teams while their school desperately recruited a sufficient number of women for ladies’ crew teams and the like.
The one area of Sex Differences that I found somewhat confusing was the author’s support for “evolutionary” factors purported to contribute to these differences. For more clarity, I would replace the word “evolutionary” with “innate.” There are a number of male and female characteristics that are innate but which the author believes were more useful in an earlier, more primitive time. But a characteristic such as men’s more aggressive nature is, of course, also extremely useful in “bringing home the bacon” in the modern world, and is also highly useful in emergency and/or combat situations. In other words, I don’t believe these are “evolved” characteristics, but “innate” male characteristics available on an “as needed” basis.
Sex Differences is a great read. I enjoyed its rational and sensible explanation for common male and female behaviors, much of it due to hormonal differences, such as the comparative abundance of testosterone in men.
Sex Differences is a clear and compelling argument for a return to sanity vis-à-vis the ongoing battle of the sexes. Yes, men and women are different. This means that their roles are different: Men are essentially the protectors, the warriors. And women are the nurturers, the nest builders. This fact hasn’t changed for millennia, and it never will.
Society must stop forcing square pegs into round holes. We are harming our children and ourselves. As the book points out, many men are feeling the castration of playing Mr. Mom, and their wives secretly hate them for it. Sex Differences also points out that many women are choosing careers over raising their children, and suffering tremendously for it.
There is a spiritual element to this struggle. Rhoads writes at length about the civilizing influence of marriage on men. He also touches on the positive influence of churches that encourage men to properly lead their families and take responsibility for the children they sire.
These are physical manifestations of God’s order, for man is the head of woman (for example, 1 Cor. 11:1-6). This is not a male ego trip. It is the divine order, as laid out in the Bible, and followed by civilized societies for centuries. This is the primary reason the Bible has been attacked so viciously by feminists. Feminism sought to usurp the natural and God-directed authority of men. It has succeeded by selling the great lie that we — and our roles — are all the same. The movement’s success has brought about the chaos described in this book.
The war to regain a healthy, functioning society will be waged on many fronts. Certainly the churches must step up and advocate the divine and natural order. The media must be encouraged to stop promoting the current disorder, and its incessant attacks on men. The academic community too has a critically important role in delineating the profound differences between men and women. The current unisex vision is promoted in this venue to tomorrow’s leaders, citizens, fathers, and mothers. Therefore, I commend Prof. Rhoads’s insight, scholarship, and, most of all, his courage. For courage is the one attribute in shortest supply these days, and its lack is the cause of our current crisis.
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| 0.96153 | 1,644 | 2.6875 | 3 | 2.95241 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
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Politics
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Earth Day is April 22, 2011: Information, Resources, Links and More
We love Earth Day every year here at Easy Ways to Go Green, not only because it’s a great exclamation point on the information we try to bring you week after week all year long, but also because it’s our yearly anniversary!
Congratulations everyone as we head into year number 4!
This page is a collection of everything our editors could find around the web to help you out when it comes to celebrating Earth Day 2011. Find links to online resources, information about a wide variety of national and local community events, information on the history, updates on things like global warming and climate change, recycling resources and more.
Special thanks to everyone represented here on this page who has put effort into celebrating Earth Day, and continuing to raise eco-awareness around the globe. Thanks for your support and if we missed your site or information, drop us a line and we’ll make sure to add you to the Earth Day 2011 Resource Guide.
Earth Day is April 22, 2011: Information and History
How the First Earth Day Came About; By Senator Gaylord Nelson, Founder of Earth Day
“What was the purpose of Earth Day? How did it start? These are the questions I am most frequently asked.
Actually, the idea for Earth Day evolved over a period of seven years starting in 1962. For several years, it had been troubling me that the state of our environment was simply a non-issue in the politics of the country. Finally, in November 1962, an idea occurred to me that was, I thought, a virtual cinch to put the environment into the political “limelight” once and for all. The idea was to persuade President Kennedy to give visibility to this issue by going on a national conservation tour. I flew to Washington to discuss the proposal with Attorney General Robert Kennedy, who liked the idea. So did the President. The President began his five-day, eleven-state conservation tour in September 1963. For many reasons the tour did not succeed in putting the issue onto the national political agenda. However, it was the germ of the idea that ultimately flowered into Earth Day.”
Earth Day: The History of A Movement
“Earth Day 1970 capitalized on the emerging consciousness, channeling the energy of the anti-war protest movement and putting environmental concerns front and center. ”
Earth Day and EPA History: The First Earth Day in April 1970
“It may be hard to imagine that before 1970, a factory could spew black clouds of toxic into the air or dump tons of toxic waste into a nearby stream, and that was perfectly legal. They could not be taken to court to stop it. How was that possible? Because there was no EPA, no Clean Air Act, no Clean Water Act. There were no legal or regulatory mechanisms to protect our environment.”
From WIKIPEDIA: Earth Day
“Earth Day is a day that is intended to inspire awareness and appreciation for the Earth’s natural environment. Earth Day was founded by United States Senator Gaylord Nelson as an environmental teach-in first held on April 22, 1970. While this first Earth Day was focused on the United States, an organization launched by Denis Hayes, who was the original national coordinator in 1970, took it international in 1990 and organized events in 141 nations. Earth Day is now coordinated globally by the Earth Day Network, and is celebrated in more than 175 countries every year.”
Earth Day is April 22, 2011: Links and Online Resources
Earth Day Network: A Billion Acts of Green
“April 22nd is Earth Day, it’s only a few short days away! This year, Earth Day’s theme is themed after A Billion Acts of Green: our people-powered campaign to generate a billion acts of environmental service and advocacy before Rio +20.” Pledge an act of green, Organize an Earth Day event, Attend a local event: information on all three is available here.
Earth Day Events website: Earth Day Lighten Up 2011!
“Earth Day 2011 is scheduled for April 22nd. This years theme is “A Billion Acts of Green” which stand for the millions of people that have done billions of acts of changing their lives to live more sustainability.” Get pictures, videos and more.
Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County
“Earth Day 2011 will be hosted at the Sanitation Districts Joint Administration Office Parking Lot, located at 1955 Workman Mill Road in Whittier. Event parking will be at 13181/13191 Crossroads Parkway North.” More information available at the link above.
Earth Day 2011.org: Why It’s So Important
“Earth Day gives those people who have not taken part in recycling the opportunity to make changes to their lives and their community that they will cherish for a lifetime. Many organized groups have adopted a pay as you throw program in their local communities.”
About.Com: Green Living Information for Earth Day 2011
“Each year, Earth Day falls on April 22. In 2011, Earth Day occurs on a Friday, though many schools, businesses and communities will be celebrating Earth Day all week long and into the weekend. Find more Earth Day facts, Earth Day games and activities for kids, a history of Earth Day, and other Earth Day ideas and suggestions at the links” on the page above.
Earth Day is April 22, 2011: Videos on History, News and by Country
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Translating climate change projections into informed conservation action is both an immediate priority, and also a ‘wicked’ problem given the inherent uncertainties about the timing, location, and nature of future impacts. In 2012, we created the Terrestrial Biodiversity Climate Change Collaborative (tbc3.org), a group of hydrologists, climate scientists, ecologists and conservation planners dedicated to advancing the science, communication and application of climate change science to inform open space conservation in the San Francisco Bay Area and beyond. Our work includes development of high resolution climate and watershed hydrology layers under multiple future climate projections, modeling potential impacts on vegetation distributions, and evaluating the robustness of regional conservation priorities in relation to current and future climatic diversity. Research products are shared with land and water managers through workshops, public talks, one-on-one engagement, regional multi-agency initiatives, web-based data sharing, scenario planning, and distilled summaries of projections at watershed and landscape scales based on user needs. We strive to enhance understanding of how to appropriately apply climate change projections, co-produce applied tools for land and water managers, incorporate managers' feedback into long-term research priorities, and promote meaningful exchanges capable of generating new approaches to conservation in the face of inevitable rapid change in ecosystems.
We focus on a recent one-day workshop that engaged land managers in three narrative scenarios for climate change impacts on vegetation: extreme drought, catastrophic fire, and increased rainfall. The scenarios were built on quantitative models that were translated into tangible narrative and visual depictions of how impacts might unfold ‘on-the-ground’. For example, the drought scenario depicts how a widespread die-off of common oak species might play out, while the high-rainfall scenario depicts an expansion of conifer species combined with more frequent and intense disturbance events. Collectively, researchers and managers evaluated a range of strategies to promote specific management objectives—e.g., biodiversity conservation, reduced catastrophic fire risk, protection of water supplies—under the different scenarios. By translating model results into a compelling, detail-rich time-based format, even participants familiar with climate models were able to think more deeply about how these conditions might force their hand to consider new management tools. Participants spoke to the value of having researchers help reframe "how to think about the problem" in a meaningful regional context, rather than dictating specific management recommendations. By incorporating managers' local knowledge, this approach empowers informed yet flexible site-specific solutions, while avoiding the pitfalls of overgeneralization in the face of uncertainty.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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“This year had an early start to the flu season,” said Daniel Regenye, Ocean
County Health Department (OCHD) Public Health Coordinator. “Ocean County, New Jersey and the rest of the U.S. are seeing significant amount of flu activity, much earlier than the past couple of years. The Health Department is monitoring the situation closely and will continue its flu shot campaign so people still have time to get vaccinated against the flu. The strain of flu that has been identified in the majority of cases tends to be seen earlier and cause more hospitalizations.” Regenye continued, “It takes about 2 weeks for a person to gain protection from the flu vaccination. If a person has been exposed to the flu before getting vaccinated or within the 2 week period, this exposure may cause a person to becoming ill with the flu.
In some cases, a person may be exposed to a different flu than the influenza virus included in the seasonal vaccine. There are many different influenza viruses that circulate every year. The composition of the flu shot is reviewed each season and updated if needed to protect against the 3 viruses that research suggests will be most common.”
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, some people can
get infected with the influenza virus that is included in the vaccine despite getting vaccinated. Protection provided by influenza vaccination can vary widely, based in part on health and age factors of the person getting vaccinated. In general, the flu vaccine works best among young healthy adults and older children. Some older people and people with certain chronic illnesses may develop less immunity after vaccination. While vaccination offers the best protection against influenza infection, it is still possible that
some people may become ill after being vaccinated. Influenza vaccination is not a perfect tool, but it is the best tool to prevent influenza.
The Health Department continues to remind people that flu prevention practices are extremely important, not just during flu season, but all the time. Besides getting your flu shot, remember:
- Wash your hands with soap and water
- If you do not have soap, you can use hand sanitizer
- Sneeze or cough in your sleeve
- If you cough or sneeze in a tissue, throw away the tissue and wash your hands
- Stay home when you are sick
Visit the Ocean County Health Department website at www.ochd.org to get a
listing of dates, times, and sites or the flu clinics. Pneumonia shots are also offered to those over 65 at flu clinics. If you are under 65, please have a note from your health care provider. If you have any questions, please call 732-341-9700, ext. 7502.
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Moderate reasoning
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Ibn Khaldun Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
Ibn Khaldun is one of the most notable people in the history of Muslims. His most celebrated work ‘al-Muqaddimah’ which is translated to 'the Introduction' in English is considered as one of the most sublime and intellectual achievements of the middle ages. His wisdom is the most paramount heritage installed in all humanity and for all future generations. He also composed a comprehensive history of Muslims. Today's economist echoes him because of his low tax rate theory. Born 27th may 1332, Ibn Khaldun, wrote his autobiography. He died on March 17th, 1406.
In his detailed autobiography, Ibn Khaldun went through a traditional school system which included being taught by his father. His family’s political prominence significantly contributed to his wide range of knowledge. In his autobiography, Khaldun says that he was fond of reading books and mastered the Quran. The Quran enriched him with Muslim law and Arabic literature. He was also excellent in mathematics, and at school, he received several certificates.
CHILDHOOD AND EARLY LIFE
Some of his family members held administrative positions in the traditional forms of government. One of them was an astronomer while another was a writer. Ibn Khaldun followed their footsteps closely and was documented as the earliest philosopher.
Sources have it that Khalduniyyah quarter and where Khaldun was born still stands unaltered.
His family shifted from Morocco to Spain during the Arab conquest. Most of them joined the army during the civil wars in which a number of them died. His father resigned from his administrator slot where he was an honoured soldier to pursue his passion for studying Theology and law.
People always came to him for consultancy and advice. However, he did not live long to practice his skills as the Black Death of 1948 to 1949 claimed his life together with Khaldun’s mother. Sadly, Ibn Khaldun became an orphan at a young age. Nevertheless, he grew up to be the great sociologists with a great personality.
Ibn Khaldun's polished speech and fluency in writing earned him a post at the Court of Tunis. He got a position as an aide to the Sultan of Morocco. Nearly after two years of service, he was thought of being part of a resistant group that was demonstrating against the Sultan. This discovery led to his confinement behind bars. He was released after two years and soon afterward left for Granada.
At Granada, the prime minister Ibn al_Khatib was compassionate with him on account of his forefather who played a significant role in its history. Khatib began to question his loyalty due to pressure from his enemies who felt threatened by their close relationship. By and large, he thought it would be wise to leave and went back to Africa.
Having gone back, Abu Abdullah who was in prison with him welcomed him warmly and even bestowed him the position of his prime minister. His primary duty was collecting taxes an act that displeased many people. Consequently, Ibn Khaldun collided with most people.
When Khatib died in 1366, his tranquillity did not last long, and he was imprisoned. He continued to pledge his allegiance to different political leaders a cause he upheld until 1375 when he decided to break from politics. That was when Khaldun composed the substantial masterpiece aimed at telling the history of Arabs. Despite his enthusiasm in history, he lacked the necessary materials.
Ibn Khaldun went back to Tunis his birthplace. This time he was faced with too much opposition that he decided to leave and never look back. He settled in Cairo, Egypt where his prominence was widespread. He was given an opportunity to lecture at different excellent schools. He served as a Maliki judge until he was relieved of his duties by his adversaries.
He tabled his resignation which was speculated to have been triggered by his family’s tragedy. Unfortunately, a ship ferrying his wife and children sank due to a storm, and everyone on board died. Later, he got other appointments to different positions which never lasted for long. His family outcome deeply traumatised him, therefore, often at workplace he was laid off, or he resigned.
On another occasion, Ibn Khaldun participated in negotiations with Timur who had surrounded Damascus. The Sultan of Egypt had to rush back home to deal with an insurgency leaving Khaldun and other top officials to carry on the rescue mission. He used diplomatic tactics such as gifts which Timur gladly accepted. With tactical political negotiations, he highly succeeded and was credited for his excellent work.
He returned home and took advantage of the tranquillity that existed at that time to complete his autobiography and his masterpiece. He published several books stressing on the Arabic literature and prestige.
The 'Maquaddimah' still is his most renowned work in which he puts down his wisdom and experience in politics and history. Other works included writing the 'Book of Lessons' which was initially perceived to be a history of Berbers, but later it was magnified as the history of the whole world.
Khaldun came up with the social conflict theory. In this theory, he argued for sedentary lifestyles as compared to a nomadic lifestyle. This theory discussed segments such as politics and economics. In it, he provided insight into the strategies of setting up a kingdom and civilisation.
Ibn Khaldun married the love of his life at a tender age. They later sired children. Due to his unstable job security and hopping from one country to another, his family lived at bay for a while. His wife and children lost their lives in a shipping tragedy while travelling to unite with him in Egypt.
Ibn Khaldun wrote and published some books most of which reflects on the Arabic history and culture. At only 19 years, he composed his first book which his teacher assisted him. He also wrote the book titled 'work on logic' while he was serving as a judge. Ibn Khaldun died while holding the office of the Maliki Qadi on 17th March 1406. Some sources claim that his health majorly deteriorated when he got imprisoned at his elderly age which highly contributed to his death.
Several scholars said that Khaldun played a crucial part in the history of human race in his contribution to social thoughts. Arnold Toynbee regarded the 'Muqaddimah' as unreservedly the unique and precious work of all times. In 1960, Ottoman scholars partially translated the masterwork 'Muqaddimah' into Turkish. This version was limited to just a small proportion of the world. Therefore it was translated into French which was legible by a vast audience.
Ibn Khaldun was honoured as the father of sociology in 2004. In 2006, Spain held a 600th memorial service since the death of Ibn Khaldun. A statute was put up in his honour in Mohandesin, Cairo.
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Strong reasoning
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History
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Description and Symbolism
The Philippine Eagle
One of the rarest species in the world, the Philippine Eagle is the strongest, fiercest, and most formidable bird. It symbolizes strength, indomitable, and power. Its powerful wings that can soar to heights unknown to other winged creatures symbolize the Filipino Soldier’s daring, lofty, and noble ambition to guide the people to greater heights of freedom.
The Philippine Eagle’s powerful and menacing beak and claws that can crush and subdue even the wildest and most ferocious animals in the forest symbolize the Filipino Soldier’s military skills and capability to defend himself and his people from any oppressor. Likewise, when pushed to the wall he can be the most lethal instrument of war and destruction.
The remarkable intelligence of the Philippine Eagle symbolizes the Filipino Soldier’s intellectual awareness of the socio-political and economic situation around him and his wisdom to know the difference between good and evil.
The Philippine Eagle aptly symbolizes the ideal Filipino Soldier, a rare breed of man, humble in his strength, unique in his wisdom and skills, and virtuous in his ideals and aspirations.
The Flash of Lightning
Symbolizing light and speed, the lightning packs with an awesome power that can turn even the most secured and impenetrable fortress into rubbles. It symbolizes the Filipino Soldier’s capacity to react quickly and effectively to any given situation and to use his awesome power when armed to destroy the enemy’s will to fight.
On dark stormy nights, the flashes of lightning can sufficiently light a traveler’s way. Likewise, the Filipino Soldier is the government’s instrument to light the way for our people who are groping in darkness brought about by the enemy’s terroristic activities and black propaganda.
Red (Represents Headquarters and Headquarters Service Company)
The Red Color symbolizes bravery and heroism. It symbolizes the priceless blood spilled by our gallant heroes from Lapu-Lapu to the youngest soldiers of today who have laid down their lives in defense of our freedom.
Black (Represents Alpha “ARCHERS” Company)
The black color symbolizes the darker side of the military profession — the reality that a soldier’s life is constantly in danger, the loneliness of being far from his loved ones and families most of the time, and the cold nights that he was to bear and conquer whenever he operates.
Blue (Represents Bravo “BOULDER” Company)
The blue color symbolizes hope. The Filipino Soldier is the people’s hope for a more secure peaceful and stable life — the light at the end of a dark tunnel, helping hand in times of need, and a protector in times of danger.
Yellow (Represents Charlie “COLOSSUS” Company)
The yellow color symbolizes brilliancy, joy, cheerfulness and light. It symbolizes the light that will guide the Filipino Soldier on the road of unswerving dedication to serve the flag. It also serves as light for misguided Filipinos towards the destiny of complete tranquillity and prosperity.
The Shield symbolizes the Filipino Soldier’s preparedness and the capability to defend the nation not only from external but also from internal threats.
“MATAPAT” symbolizes the Filipino Soldier’s sincerity and loyalty to the people the constitution and the AFP. It also symbolizes faithfulness and devotion to his duty and responsibilities.
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Moderate reasoning
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Religion
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30 Years of Fashion Design: 1900 to 1930s Haute Couture
When we talk about fashion design of the early 20th century, we must not forget the fact that what we know as fashion today really emerged around the middle of the 19th century, at a time when the horizons of the fashion industry broadened, because of the new mobility and emerging independent lifestyle many wealthy women.
In the mid-19th century, Charles Frederick Worth was considered as the pioneer of haute couture fashion. He was the first known couturier to open a fashion house The House of Worth, in 1858. This was just around the time that women's yearnings for more practical, yet stylish clothes were becoming evident. His boutique's popularity grew such that it was dominated by Parisian haute couture all through the second half of the 19th-century.
Prior to that period, dressmakers and tailors were the ones who inspired style, making fashionable and elaborately sewn garments that were majorly worn by the elite and ladies at the royal courts. Gradually, women began to seek practical clothes for their new-found lifestyle, and as their demand for such grew from the end of the century to the beginning of the 20th-century, fashion houses began to emerge.
The emergence of a few couture houses further stimulated the public's appetite for sensible but fashionable clothes, and by the beginning of the 1900s, haute couture fashion was born.
Haute Couture Fashion - 1900 to 1919
By the beginning of the 20th-century, bespoke fashion houses hired artists to sketch and paint designs for dresses, gowns, and other garments for their growing clientele who always wanted something special.
A century before this, when a wealthy client required a special gown, sample garments were made for her. If she was fine with any of the samples (all samples were made from inexpensive cloth), she then made an order for it and when they desired modifications, these were made.
By the turn of the century, sample garments gave way to sketches of couture clothing. These sketches of fashion design creations which were presented to clients who in turn either made orders for their preferred designs or asked for modifications to some sketches to suit their style.
Soon, the fashionable outfits worn by stylish women were strikingly similar to those worn in the heydays of , and magazines began to include sketches and sepia photographs of haute couture styles. Frederick Worth's designs
By 1910, a woman’s fashion silhouette became the order of the day. Styles became softer, more practical to wear and much more flexible than in the previous years. Unlike the multiple layers of fabrics used in the past, clothing became less complex and was made from much less fabric.
Women could now wear dresses without help from their maids.
Fashion design had a new look, and the first female couturier and fashion designer Jeanne Paquin organised the first real fashion show, showcasing chic gowns of "quiet sophistication" that appealed to women of refined taste. Her top-notch clients included the Queens of Belgium, Portugal, and Spain.
As the men went away to WW, their women had to go out to work and as more women started to earn a living, a new dress style appeared. The styles created were better suited to women’s newfound activities, and as the clothes became simpler, felt hats and turbans replaced the popular headgears of the 1900s fashion era.
Because of the effects of war, clothing in darker and muted colours became the norm. there were too many sons, brothers, fathers and husbands injured or dying at the war fronts and the general conditions of the times demanded sobriety and austerity.
By 1915, women's skirts rose above the ankles and soon after, further up to mid-calf, designs that required less fabric. The golden age of French haute couture fashion went through great changes and rapid reformation. Fashion designers began to find new clients in the ranks of silver screen actors, heiresses, and the wives and daughters of wealthy industrialists.
1920s Fashion Design and Apparel Styles
The First World War changed how women were perceived in society because constraints were removed, and they began to experiment more with clothing styles and a radical change soon emerged. Dresses with long trains became outdated and gave way to above-the-knee dresses and pinafores. This was also the decade of:
- Hats and other headpieces
- Dropped waist dresses
- Rolled down stockings
Exposing the knee was the height of fashion. Bouffant coiffures gave way to sophisticated short bobs, and the need for corsets greatly reduced because designs of women clothing moved towards a "boyish silhouette” style, as was seen with the loose styled dresses and gowns.
In the 20s the flapper dress was the most popular style for women, and everyone desired it. Also referred to as the Charleston dress, these attires, in various cuts and silhouettes, became popular.
Fashion design included flat-chested and waist-less shapes and cuts emerged, and there was an "aggressive" dressing down that was softened with feather boas, embroidery, showy fashion accessories, blunt-toed shoes, and long cigarette holders.
This was also the era that sheer stockings become fashionable, which was a good thing when compared to the thick and unattractive woollen stockings worn by fashionable women a decade earlier.
Clothing Styles of the 1930s
By the beginning of the 1930s, the effects of the great depression had slowly started to set in, and fashion design had to step down to be more compromising. There had to be a balance between preserving feminism and re-discovering subtle elegance and sophistication.
The clothing styles became more romantic, waistlines reappeared, and hems started to drop once again. There were bias-cut lace gowns, velvet and satin long evening dresses, flutter sleeves, and thin belts, and while the bust line re-appeared, the loose cuts of the swinging 20s became outdated.
The backless evening gowns and soft slim-fitting day dresses become appreciated by those in tune with fashionable styles and the female body's slim, toned, and athletic silhouette became the vogue. Certainly, this was because the outdoor activities women engaged in was on the rise.
Consequently, this new found 'athleticism' stimulated fashion design, and designers and couturiers began to create designs of sportswear apparel, manufacture started to produce them and refer to them as ready-to-wear clothing fashion.
The 1940s to the 1960s Fashion
The 1940s were austere times and fashion took a nose-dive once again. Because of the war, it was trendy to appear in uniforms and seeing uniformed men and women was a common sight. Full uniforms, caps, footwear, and all were worn to special events, family occasions, and ceremonies. This fashion trend continued after the end of the 2nd World War in 1945 - Read the article
© 2009 viryabo
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Moderate reasoning
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Fashion & Beauty
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Music is a truly marvelous invention of human civilization. The richness of its forms, the emotional power it brings, and, of course, the intellectual contribution it brings to our life, all of that is immeasurable. Seriously, if you ever thought of taking an active part in music, but never did, there’s no reason why you can’t start right now. The benefits of playing (and learning to play) a musical instrument are almost infinite, while the whole venture will be easier than you might think.
Working for a Worthy Reward
By learning and playing an instrument, you get the following and much more.
You stimulate your brain. As it was set, you almost literally lit up your head as you play an instrument. With the double stimulation that comes from learning and playing, you’ll seriously empower your brain to work faster and much more efficiently whenever you need.
You learn to read and write much faster. Learning to play a musical instrument inevitably means learning to read music. And in most cases, that would be standard notation. It might be challenging at first, but when you get a hold of it, you’ll learn to read it on sight from a long distance. The main thing here is that standard notation enables you to read patterns like nothing else. This means your reading and writing of other familiar text boosts greatly.
Learning how to play an instrument
Many students, although having years of experience in the matter, struggle with writing. In order to write well, one needs to have an extensive vocabulary, have creativity, and great observation skills. Those students who lack in this regard often hire professionals from TopWritersReview to get their essays written. This allows them to study the work of experts and learn from it. If you want to perfect your writing in the long run, picking up an instrument would be a great addition to your routine.
You improve your communication skills. As you stimulate your brain a lot, you get faster at understanding how people talk. Even if you’re a solo player, you can still improve your communication and interpersonal skill quite a lot within a very short timeframe. And the ability to easily read patterns is, of course, not the last thing to contribute to that, too.
You become more patient. Learning to play an instrument inevitably teaches you a great lesson of patience and the cost of one’s efforts. It’s no secret that playing music is not a thing to master within a day. And it’s no rocket science either, so you’ll manage to balance anyway. In the end, however, you’ll see that if you give yourself some time, you can accomplish much more than you think.
You train your memory. Another thing that always comes with playing an instrument is memory. And it’s not just about memorizing the notes or how to read sheet music. It’s about sonic memory, remembering sounds, lyrics, melodies, and harmonies. And, as you might guess, your memory grows overall as well.
You relieve stress. Unless you’re aiming to get great results fast (which is almost impossible), you’ll get your dose of meditation. Just keep reminding yourself that you don’t really need to get a bachelor’s degree in music to be really good and you’ll be fine. The rest will come on its own.
You protect yourself from lots of illnesses and disorders. Largely due to great brain stimulation, your mind becomes more flexible and, thus, much more challenging to become lost. And if that’s not a real argument for you, just check out the research that confirms the positive influence of music for patients with dementia and Alzheimer’s.
You get yourself some recognition and a thing to be proud of. The final takeaway is, of course, increased self-esteem for a newly mastered skill that can bring you lots of benefits. The bottom line is, you can always entertain your friends whenever you have an instrument around.
The Ultimate Takeaway
If you manage to gather your courage, patience, and ability to wait until you can harvest results, you’ll get solid pleasure from learning to play a musical instrument as well as lots of benefits. Music is a wonder of wonders and one of the most phenomenal things ever created by human beings. Missing out on learning its secrets is like missing out on an opportunity of a lifetime. If you ever thought of playing an instrument in your life, just go ahead and do it. If not, there’s a great bunch of reasons to consider just that.
About the Author
Melony Hart delivers lots of useful information to students and young people through her diverse articles. Melony believes that anything can be discussed endlessly, for there’s much to learn about this world for us yet. Her passions are reading, writing, and playing the piano.
Let us know how you feel in the comment section below. Mel Blanc’s famous catchphrase, “That’s All Folks!” Thanks for reading another great article on Bong Mines Entertainment – the hot spot for new music. Furthermore, always remember that (P) Positive, (E) Energy, (A) Always, (C) Creates, (E) Elevation (P.E.A.C.E).
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Moderate reasoning
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Entertainment
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“If you dance, you got a chance.”
Our President’s budget proposal designates $2.6 billion to design and begin to build the wall along the Mexican border. Estimates of cost to build the whole thing range as high as $25 billion. So far, no details on Mexico’s paying for it. (The simplest way, based on the history of Trump projects, would be to hire Mexican contractors and then not pay them.) The budget also requests money to hire twenty additional attorneys to pursue condemnation of privately-owned land for the wall. Some landowners in Texas have already received notices.
Congressman Henry Cuellar, whose district includes 180 miles of the Texas-Mexico border has been hearing from his constituents, and they are not happy. Ninety percent of the Texas border is in private ownership. One constituent property has been in the family since a Spanish land grant in 1767. “Once the land is destroyed, it will never be the same,” the owner said. “We have oaks and mesquite that have been there for generations, foxes and other animals and an ecosystem that has been untouched.”
At the present, 670 miles are fenced. Only 1,263 to go.
The Texas State Board of Education approves the textbooks used by five million students in its public schools. Because of the size of the Texas market, many textbook publishers print the Texas-approved books to sell in other other states. (Advances in technology are making it easier to publish other versions for other markets.) This is particularly problematic with history texts, as the politically-charged Texas board is firmly controlled by right-wing nutcases.
Students are taught that slavery was only an incidental cause of the Civil War, after states’ rights and sectionalism. (The state’s right being the right to own other human beings.) Textbooks make no mention of the Ku Klux Klan.
Texas students learn that slavery was simply part of immigration patterns that “brought millions of workers from Africa to the southern United States to work on agricultural plantations.” As part of the effort to purge liberal bias from curricula, Thomas Jefferson is ignored, but the purported “Christian” foundation of our country’s beginning is emphasized. Textbooks also stress the importance of guns to our freedom. After a heroic battle, the Texas board allowed evolution to be broached as a possibility.
With our new president and a new Secretary of the Department of Education who is no friend of public education, we’ll see how things go. For now, historians in higher education are concerned about the teaching of U.S. history. In the radically changed political climate, revisionists are becoming much more emboldened, eager to flaunt their ignorance.
In the meantime, to celebrate Black History Month, the Confederate flag has once again been raised in South Carolina.
Gail Collins has a good overview of the controversy.
“In 2011, the state Legislature cut Texas’ family planning and women’s health program, which provide care and routine screenings for low-income women. Lawmakers slashed its budget by two-thirds—and kicked out women’s health providers that also provide abortions.”
“Within a two-year period between 2010 and 2012, the rate of pregnant women dying in Texas doubled – and it’s not entirely clear why.”
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Strong reasoning
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Politics
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A key part of a healthy lifestyle is the intake of essential vitamins and minerals. With proper nutrients the human body can function at its optimal level. One vital part of your body is your oral cavity, through which your body gets nutrients when you eat every day. Can you imagine how different you would feel if you could not eat or drink comfortably due to an unhealthy mouth? Your mouth is a specific microenvironment that deserves as much attention as the rest of your body. With proper care, you can maintain healthy teeth and gums for a lifetime.
Many different types of bacteria occur naturally in your mouth and feed on the sugars and carbohydrates found in food that you eat. When bacteria consume sugars, they release acidic by-products. As a result, the structures in your mouth, specifically your teeth, are subject to constant cycles of acid demineralization. The acids dissolve the enamel, or outer hard surface, of the tooth. There are two ways you can fight this ongoing process: your body’s natural ability to buffer this acid attack using your saliva, or by using fluoride.
Fluoride mainly works when it is applied to the surface of the affected tooth. The fluoride molecules combine with the structure of the enamel and create an even stronger, reinforced surface. In children whose teeth are still growing, fluoride has even been shown to help strengthen the developing teeth when taken in the form of vitamins. Since the 1940s, fluoride has been added to drinking water as a part of a wide public health measure to decrease tooth decay. Unfortunately, drinking water in Nassau County is NOT fluoridated, which makes using topical fluoride that much more important.
While fluoride is promoted by the American Dental Association, the American Medical Association, and the World Health Organization and accepted by the majority of the public, there are still some misconceptions regarding its use. There have been no reputable studies that show a relation between fluoride and systemic health issues if used correctly according to established guidelines. The main precaution that should be taken with fluoride use is during pregnancy.
Care should also be taken to not ingest fluoride from too many sources (i.e., fluoridated water AND fluoride vitamins, or swallowing toothpaste). Too much fluoride can cause the condition skeletal fluorosis which typically occurs when one’s fluoride levels are too high.
If you are concerned about the amount of fluoride you are using you can contact us at Smiles Unlimited Dentistry, P.C. for more information.
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Moderate reasoning
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Health
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by Midge Bakos, Church Historian, 2019
New Beginnings 1787-1791
On Sunday April 8th, 1787 just a month after the original settlement of Clinton eight men met for a simple worship service in Moses Foote’s unfinished “home.” These men had doubtlessly heard more artistic singing and a better sermon than a printed one but no one could dispute their sincerity. Worship was a basic and guiding influence in their lives-they were resolute to maintain the worship of God.
Established as a Congregational Church August 29, 1791
With continued growth, Rev. Dr. Jonathan Edwards, The Younger, was summoned from New Haven, Connecticut to establish three new churches– the first in New Hartford and two days later the second at Paris. That same day in Clinton at Moses Foote’s home thirty charter members signed the Congregational Confession of Faith.
Early Years 1791-1835
At Dr. Edward’s suggestion, Dr. Asahel Norton, a well-educated Yale graduate arrived for a six-month probationary period. After receiving the call as pastor, his ordination took place in the open air “on the green” in 1793.
He served as a devoted and faithful servant for forty years adding 753 members. A modest man and strong in his Calvinistic views, only his Thanksgiving sermon of 1820 was ever published. He played a contributing role in promoting educational interests by serving as trustee of Hamilton College established in 1812.
The log cabin used for worship was taken down in 1796 to make way for a much larger New England style clapboard structure erected on the southerly end of the green. It was completed five years later in1801 and built entirely by the worshipers-capacity 500. For many years the “Old White Meeting House” wasn’t heated at all “warmed in winter by nothing save the fire and devotion and the small foot stoves allowed to some of the tender sex” according to A.D. Gridley’s book “The History of Kirkland.” A controversy arose over having a large box stove for heat but eventually the stove won out.
With increased membership and due to the deterioration of the building the meetinghouse was sold for $175 in 1834. The bell, gilt ball, lighting rod, weathercock, and star were set aside for the new building to be erected of stone.
“Old Stone Church” 1835-1876
A colonial style Stone Church was built in 1834-1835 further south on what is now South Park Row using local limestone — cost $8000. The second floor was used for the Sabbath School and a wooden chapel was added in later years. George Bristol, through subscriptions, purchased a pipe organ for $1500.
Missionary interest and giving became very strong. The church began supporting pioneer missionaries Martha Smith in the Sandwich Islands and Amelia Bradley in Siam.
In 1842 during Rev. Wayne Gridley’s five-year tenure the issue of slavery nearly split open the fellowship but the congregation dealt with it in a responsible Christian manner declaring slavery a political, social and moral evil. The three resolutions drawn up were published in the New York Observer and New York Evangelist periodicals.
The Rev. Robert Vermilye, our fourth pastor, was the first pastor to live in the newly erected manse completed in 1851 located on College Street. The entire cost was $2,654.22. Over the years fifteen pastors have resided there and it is presently rented to a private family.
In 1864 the church became Presbyterian
The church severed its relations with the Oneida Association of Congregational Churches. Because of the distance to travel and because business at the Association could not be transacted for a lack of a quorum more often than not, the church decided to unite with the Utica Presbytery.
Six years after the arrival of our pastor Dr. Hudson, came the fateful fire of 1876. The historic structure, the wooden chapel and adjoining block were in ruins. Total losses were about $47,000. Linked to the community by sacred and pleasant memories, the people were disheartened at the destruction of their church.
A week later at a congregational meeting a motion was carried unanimously “to rebuild at once”. The Baptist church graciously offered the use of their facilities during the construction. A vote to accept the offer passed-it being the first recorded time the women were allowed to vote.
New Stone Church-1878-present
In addition to some reclaimed stone from the old Stone Church, twenty-five hundred tons of blue limestone and fifteen hundred tons of cut stone went into the combined Gothic and Romanesque architectural style church. The entire woodwork of the interior is made of chestnut. A Hooks and Hastings prize winning organ graced the balcony. Charles Booth of New York constructed the stained glass windows.
Fourteen hundred people including choir, guest clergy, and faculty of Hamilton College attended the dedication of our debt free church February 14, 1878-quite a community affair! Dr. Thomas Hudson, our pastor of twenty-two years, led the congregation through this transitional period from the old and into the new church. He resigned to become treasurer of Hamilton College but he continued to be a Christian influence at Stone Church.
The beautiful and symmetrical 160 ft. spire towered over the Oriskany Valley for 46 years-quite a sight to behold. However, even after expensive repairs were made twenty-five years earlier, the deterioration continued making the tower unsafe. The beloved landmark had to be removed in 1923 and redesigned in 1924– total cost $19,600. Egbert Bagg, an architect of Utica, N.Y., created the clock chamber and tower as you see it today.
Our bell was the ” pioneer bell ” of Central New York and placed in the Old White Meeting-house in 1804 weighing 800 lbs. It also hung in the Old Stone Church until the 1876 fire when it partly melted, fell and broke into pieces. Remnants were preserved and forged with new metal to make a new sounding bell. Since 1880, the new bell now weighing 2000 lbs. peals out an E-flat tone. This bell had called people to worship, rung on holidays, college commencements, weddings, and funerals. Even the fire department used the bell as a fire alarm since the church was erected. After several broken door locks to get to the bell or the defiling of the church by prowlers if the door was left unlocked, the session declared its displeasure by passing a resolution forbidding the bell being used for anything other than religious purposes in 1911. During the repair of the clock tower in 2009 and due to a serious crack in the bell, it was repositioned so that the bell could be run only by a rope from the narthex and in such a way as to not cause further damage to the tower. The bell no longer rings the time.
Also in 1880, a Seth Thomas eight-day clock run by weights and manually wound, that operates on the same principle as a grandfather clock, was installed as “the Town Clock”. A grandfather clock pales in size in comparison. Residents of the town raised $500 for its purchase. It was “donated” to the church and some years later the village “adopted it”. Once a week a village employee climbs the 26 stair narrow circular stairway to maintain the “Old Town Clock”. The clock had been losing time for some years but because it was cared for and readjusted weekly the by Village Caretakers, most people didn’t notice. Repairs around the clock face were sorely needed and on October 20, 2009 the clock ceased its operation and was retired to the Historical Society after 130 years of service. On December 9th, thanks to the community and the village, a new Verdin electronic clock and a Carillon were installed. The Carillon chimes the hour-every quarter during the day.
Hamilton College and Stone Church Interwoven in Faith and Education
Samuel Kirkland, a missionary to the Oneida Indians was the founder of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy predecessor to Hamilton College. Dr. Norton became a trustee and inaugurated Hamilton’s first president Azel Backus.
Until recent years, Hamilton College presidents were ordained ministers and held its graduations at the church, the last being in l897 when the college chapel was renovated.
Men and women of the second generation were active and scholarly-taking pride in serving the community. By 1850, Clinton had at least twenty ministers, Hamilton alumni, were drawn to this community to teach at Houghton and Cottage Seminaries, the Dwight School, Kellogg Seminary and Royce Seminary.
Many of the faculty and students at Hamilton were active in the church. Greek Professor North was an elder for thirty-eight years and Biology Professor Merrill taught a popular Bible Class. Graduates Rev. Wayne Gridley,
Rev. Albert Erdman, and the Rev. Dr. Thomas Hudson served as Stone Church pastors.
Mission-Faithful from 1836
Mission giving and support of over fifteen foreign missionaries continued into the twentieth century significantly. In the twentieth century, Alice Ellinwood taught in Siam twenty-nine years and two generations of the Underwood family served in Chungju and Seoul Korea.
Locally we were part of an ecumenical ministry to migrant workers in the mid 1900’s. For twenty years members have supported needy Christmas families of the Neighborhood Center of Utica and serving the needs of the Kirkland Country Pantry. More recently volunteers serve at the Utica Hope House– an ecumenical mission. For over fifty years the church as sponsored Boy Scout Troop 9.
Not only do we support Church World Service and Presbyterian missions worldwide, we now through the Fair Trade mission sales benefit the most needy globally. We also support “Soup at Schools” in South Africa.
Music – a traditional and meaningful ministry
Vital to the church was the ministry of music. Our earliest beginnings began with Thomas Hastings in the “Old White Meeting House” With no organ and only a flute and a base viol as aids, teenager Thomas Hastings led the choir (approx. 1814-1819). Striving to improve church music, he moved on from Clinton becoming a noted author, lecturer, and hymn and anthem composer in pursuit of that goal. Later in his career he received an honorary degree in music from NYU for his contributions.
Later in the mid 1800’s George Bristol, an excellent tenor attracted people to hear him sing as well as the minister’s sermon. Organists Ann Sykes and Florence Jones, to name a few of several fine musicians, continued the fine quality of music for nearly two centuries. Since 1991 the Kolb family has carried on this meaningful ministry.
Roots in history-hope for the future
Twenty ministers have served Stone Church for over 220 years of Christian witness and service.
Following the retirement of the Rev. Dennis Dewey at the end of June 2015, Scott Leonard succeeded him having been commissioned as a lay pastor on December 14, 2014 after three years of study with the Presbytery of Utica Lay Academy.
Scott has been passionate about continuing Rev. Dewey’s biblical story-telling ministry in the scripture readings during our worship services for a better understanding of the biblical text. Scott has balanced serving our church while holding down a full time job—and continues managing that balance. He is using substitute local pastors, and lay leaders one Sunday a month to help keep our own church and community activities up and running smoothly.
Our church actively participates in ecumenical activities such as the Clinton Area Ministerium Lenten study series, Good Friday, Easter Sunrise service, Labor Day Weekend service “On the Green”, the Blessing of the Animals, and the annual Community Collection day in April for the local Country Pantry serving families in need. Music and mission remain faithful traditional and meaningful ministries. Music is well coordinated with Pastor Scott and our musicians Rob and Lauralyn Kolb. Mission not only includes continued monetary giving toward Church World Service and Presbyterian goals but includes actual volunteer work within the local community and the greater community.
The church adopts families for Christmas gifts through The Neighborhood Center, supports Hope House in Utica serving the hungry by sending a team of volunteers the fourth Monday of the month to serve meals and donate supplies, supports the local Country Pantry with specific needed goods and money, and supports donating and packing meals for Your Neighbors. Stone Church participates with the community being led by the Clinton Methodist Church in the Rise Against Hunger international program both monetarily and with packaging meals annually.
Our all-volunteer successful Fair Trade Shop led by Lauralyn Kolb sells products from 38 different countries to provide hope and development for marginalized people across the world.
The resolve of those early settlers that our relationship with God is a basic and guiding influence of our Christian commitment continues as our vision for the future. Our current mission statement reads: “The purpose of Stone Church is to be an inviting, spiritual community of Christ, engaging in worship that inspires and challenges us to learn and grow as we reach out in caring and service, trusting in the love of God.”
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Strong reasoning
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Religion
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The UK is not on course to meet its own targets for cutting greenhouse gas emissions in the 2020s and 2030s. And the longer it delays taking the necessary action the more it will cost to meet those targets, says the UK’s Climate Change Committee.
The good news is that the UK has greatly reduced emissions from electricity generation, says the chair of the committee, John Gummer (Lord Deben). Overall, the UK’s emissions are down 43 per cent compared with 1990 levels.
The bad news is that little progress has been made in transport, farming and buildings. “The success in the power sector has masked failure in other areas,” he says.
In 2008, the UK enshrined in law a target of cutting emissions 80 per cent by 2050. It also set itself interim targets and established the Climate Change Committee to report on its progress. Ten years on, the latest progress report is out. “This report makes it very clear that this government is not doing enough,” says Gummer.
He also launched scathing attacks on the housing and the car industries. “The [housing] industry should be ashamed of itself. It is producing homes that cheat the people they are sold to,” Gummer says. If new homes are not built to the highest standards, people end up paying higher heating bills for as long as the homes last, he says.
As for the car industry, it has shown it cannot be trusted. So plans to reduce emissions from road vehicles need to be backed by tough regulations and strict enforcement are needed to ensure that vehicles meet standards. The UK has said it plans to stop the sale of petrol and diesel vehicles from 2040, but the deadline needs to be closer to 2030 to meet emissions targets, Gummer says.
People’s energy bills have also fallen by £11 on average because of green policies, he says. The policies cost £9 a month but save £20 a month.
The report also calls for:
- Giving the go-ahead to onshore wind where local communities want it. Onshore wind is the cheapest form of renewal energy in the UK but at present all new projects have been blocked.
- Incentives for insulating existing homes. Insulation rates have plummeted because the government abandoned existing programmes and has not replaced them
- More tree planting. The UK is nowhere meeting its target of planting 11 million trees by 2022. Worse still, although the report does not mention it, the UK’s policies are driving deforestation in other countries.
The UK’s emissions targets do allow for an increase in aviation emissions. However, the greater the increase in aviation emissions, the greater the cuts that will have to made elsewhere, Gummer made clear. Crucially, he also specifically ruled out the idea of “offsetting” aviation emissions. “This has to be achieved by at home and not by buying offsets.”
What’s more, there is talk of the UK setting an even more ambitious target for cutting emissions, to bring it in line with the Paris target of limiting warming to 1.5°C. Analysis by Simon Evans of the specialist climate website Carbon Brief shows it will be almost impossible to achieve this if aviation emissions keep growing.
Article amended on 28 June 2018
We amended the headline to clarify who is part of the committee
More on these topics:
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Summary: Choline, an essential nutrient, can help prevent fetal brain development problems in infants whose mothers experience common infections, such as influenza, during pregnancy.
Source: University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus
Choline, an essential B vitamin nutrient, can prevent fetal brain developmental problems that often occur after prenatal maternal infections such as colds and influenza (flu).
The study, published today in the Journal of Pediatrics, is led by members of the University of Colorado School of Medicine faculty at the CU Anschutz Medical Campus. The findings are critical because viruses, such as the flu, in pregnant women, have been linked with fetal brain problems and mental illness like Attention Deficit Disorder and Schizophrenia later in life.
“Mothers want to give their babies the best possible start in life. Colds and flu are often unavoidable, even if the mother has had a flu shot. But colds and flu during pregnancy double the risk of future mental illnesses. More and more information shows that choline helps the baby’s brain develop properly,” said Robert Freedman, MD, professor of psychiatry, University of Colorado School of Medicine. “We found that higher levels of choline prevent fetal brain problems from developing, even when the mother is infected. Choline supplements in pregnancy can have a lifelong benefit for the infant.”
The study was conducted at the University of Colorado and Denver Health Medical Center’s Prenatal Clinic, with prenatal assessments of maternal infection, C-Reactive Protein (CRP, a marker of maternal inflammation) and the mothers’ choline levels. The baby’s brain development before birth was assessed by measuring the baby’s brain waves soon after birth. The harmful effects of maternal infections were seen in a reduction of the normal inhibition, also known as response inhibition, of newborns’ brain waves to repeated sounds. Simply put, response inhibition is the ability to cease or delay an action and to be able to reflect rather than display impulsive behavior.
Newborns’ response inhibition decreased by 27 percent when mothers had an infection, such as a cold or flu, during the first 16 weeks of pregnancy.
This effect was prevented if the mother had higher choline levels in the first 16 weeks.
Parents completed reports of their child’s behavior when the child was one year of age.
Children whose mothers were infected, and had lower choline levels, had significantly decreased ability to pay attention, play quietly and cuddle with their parents. These effects did not occur if the mother had higher choline levels.
These characteristics are summarized in a scale of Self Regulation, which was reduced 28 percent in children of women with infection and lower choline levels. Higher choline levels improved Self Regulation in the children of women with infection to normal levels.
Five of 53 children whose mothers had an infection (9.4 percent) had Regulation levels in the lowest fifth percentile of a normal sample, compared to one of 83 children of mothers without an infection. This effect did not occur if their mothers had choline levels greater than 7 micromolar during gestation. This level was achieved by only 25 percent of the women, despite encouragement to eat foods with more choline in their diet.
The body creates some choline on its own and it is also naturally present in certain foods, including liver, red meat, and eggs. However, up to 75 percent of pregnant women consume less choline during pregnancy than recommended (450 mg of choline per day). Additionally, little or no amounts are present in prenatal vitamins. Supplements, available without a prescription and now recommended by the American Medical Association, can help mothers make sure they have high choline levels that their babies need.
This study was conceived and initiated by the late Randal G. Ross.
Higher Gestational Choline Levels in Maternal Infection Are Protective for Infant Brain Development
Objective To assess whether maternal choline decreases effects of mothers’ infections on fetal brain circuit development and on expression of infant behavior at 1 year of age.
Study design A cross-sectional study was conducted in a public hospital obstetrics and midwifery service, with prenatal assessments of maternal infection, C-reactive protein, and choline level and postnatal assessments of cerebral neuronal inhibition in 162 newborns. At 1 year, 136 parents completed reports of their child’s behavior.
Results Maternal infection at 16 weeks of gestation, experienced by 41% of mothers, raised mean maternal C-reactive protein (d’ = 0.47, P = .002) and decreased the development of cerebral inhibition of auditory response at 1 month of age (d’ = 0.39, P < .001). Decreased newborn cerebral inhibition manifested as decreased behavioral self-regulation at 1 year. Greater choline levels in mothers with infections were associated with improved newborn inhibition of auditory cerebral response, mitigating the effect of infection (β = −0.34 [95% CI, −5.35 to −0.14], P = .002). At 1 year of age, children of mothers with infection and greater gestational choline levels had improved development of self-regulation, approaching the level of children of mothers without infection (β = 0.29 [95% CI 0.05-0.54], P = .03).
Conclusions Greater maternal choline, recommended by the American Medical Association as a prenatal supplement, is associated with greater self-regulation among infants who experienced common maternal infections during gestation. Behavioral problems with diminished self-regulation often lead to referrals to pediatricians and might lead to later mental illness.
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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In the illustration above, the German artist Philipp Foltz (c. 1805–1877) recreated a somber event that was said to have occurred in the ancient city of Athens in late 431 BCE or early 430 BCE. To set the scene, the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) between Athens, Sparta, and their allies, had just begun—the two sides of the conflict spent the inaugural campaign of the war raiding the territory of the other before returning to their own respective cities for the winter. Once the Athenians were back in their territory, they held a public funeral in honor of the first warriors who died in the war. Thucydides, an Athenian general during the Peloponnesian War who later wrote a history about his times, described the funeral:
“In the same winter the Athenians, following their annual custom, gave a public funeral for those who had been the first to die in the war. These funerals are held in the following way: two days before the ceremony the bones of the fallen are brought and put in a tent which has been erected, and people make whatever offerings they wish to their own dead. Then there is a funeral procession in which coffins of cypress wood are carried on wagons. There is one coffin for each tribe, which contains the bones of members of that tribe. One empty bier is decorated and carried in the procession: this is for the missing, whose bodies could not be recovered. Everyone who wishes to, both citizens and foreigners, can join in the procession, and the women who are related to the dead are there to make their laments at the tomb. The bones are laid in the public burial-place, which is in the most beautiful quarter outside the city walls. Here the Athenians always bury those who have fallen in war” (History of the Peloponnesian War, Book two, section 34).
After the burial, an honored speaker then addressed the crowd. That year, it was the Athenian leader, Pericles, who gave the speech. Such is the image that Philipp Foltz (c. 1805–1877) brought to life—that of Pericles delivering the funeral oration to the people of Athens. His speech, from what Thucydides remembered of it, was dominated by talk of Athenian virtue, honor, and their democratic form of government.
Written by C. Keith Hansley
- History of the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides, translated by Rex Warner and introduced by M. I. Finley. New York: Penguin Classics, 1972.
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Strong reasoning
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History
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By Brittany Whited
This December, tens of thousands of individuals across the Americas will participate in the National Audubon Society’s Christmas Bird Count, the longest-running citizen science program in the world.
The first Christmas Bird Count took place in 1900 with just 27 individuals as a conservation-minded alternative to the “Christmas Side Hunt”- a hunt aimed at bagging feathered and furry creatures alike. Conservation was in its beginning stages at the turn of the century and citizens were growing concerned about declining bird populations.
The new tradition struck a chord. One-hundred and fifteen years later, the Christmas Side Hunt has faded from our nation’s memory and the Christmas Bird Count boasts 70,000+ participants spread over 2,000 locations. At each location, birdwatchers tally the number and type of species they see and hear over a 24-hour period and report their results back to the Audubon Society.
In the 1930s, this act of citizen science helped scientists better understand the decline of wild turkey populations. At that time, the US had only an estimated 30,000 birds. Today, after notable conservation efforts, the US is home to about 7 million of the gobbling creatures.
The Christmas Bird Count continues to produce valuable information. For example, data collected by dedicated individualshas revealed that, among 305 widespread North American bird species, the average winter “center of abundance” moved northward by more than 40 miles between 1966 and 2013. The center of abundance is a point on the map that represents the midpoint of each species’ distribution. If a population of birds were to shift northward, so would the center of abundance.
Trends in the center of abundance moving northward can be closely related to increasing winter temperatures. This indicator is now used as one of the EPA’s Climate Change Indicators in the United States.
Some birds have moved farther than others- a total of 48 species have moved northward by more than 200 miles. For example, the Pine Siskin moved 288 miles north in the last 40 years.
Source: Climate Change Indicators in the United States, 2014 –Third Edition, US EPA
Data source: National Audubon Society, 2014
The Christmas Bird Count is free and open to all regardless of experience. Each group of birdwatchers will have at least one skilled birder to assist in identifying birds. For dates, registration information, and the person of contact in your area, click here.
If birds aren’t your style, or you simply aren’t one to spend a day braving the December cold, there are many other opportunities to be a citizen scientist with your smartphone. There are a multitude of citizen-science apps sure to suit even the choosiest naturalist – mPING, from NOAA, lets you submit reports on the weather in your area to improve weather report predictions. Check your app store for more citizen science opportunities. Anyone with a smartphone can quickly contribute to science through data gathering – making reporting much easier than it was during the first Christmas Bird Count 115 years ago.
About the Author: Brittany Whited is an Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE) participant hosted by the Climate Science and Impacts Branch in the EPA’s Office of Atmospheric Programs.
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Moderate reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Though we are widely recognized as a nation of immigrants, the migration of peoples to the United States has consistently occupied a vexed place in U.S. politics, not least in the current political climate. This year’s UConn Reads selection, Viet Thanh Nguyen’s short story collection ‘The Refugees,’ affords an opportunity for the University community to reflect upon and debate the hot-button issue of immigration.
We often hear that the United States is a “nation of immigrants,” but it may be more accurate to say the country is a “land of refugees.” Refugees – individuals who are the involuntary inheritors of wartime displacements, natural disasters, and state-authorized subjection – have played a key role in American history. From the forced migration of enslaved peoples to the urgent movement of Puritans seeking freedom from religious persecution; from the involuntary relocation of Native subjects during the 19th century to the post-World War II resettlement of Holocaust survivors in the 20th; from those impacted by Cold War conflicts (in Asia and Latin America) to those escaping the realities of the ongoing War on Terror, the line between immigrant and refugee is more often than not blurred.
We often hear that the United States is a ‘nation of immigrants,’ but it may be more accurate to say the country is a ‘land of refugees.’
Although immigrants and refugees are often considered marginal in mainstream discussions of who is and is not a “true” American, their – our – stories of migration, acculturation, and assimilation are central. Many of us have in common an ancestor who traveled from “over there” to “over here,” and the histories that brought us into being as Americans, whether as refugees or immigrants, are inextricably tied to the desire to seek (voluntarily or involuntarily) a better life. Our language and literature are replete with references to “cities upon a hill,” “promised lands,” “asylum states,” unparalleled opportunity, and unmatched possibility.
As Harvard historian Oscar Handlin argued in his seminal work The Uprooted: The Epic Story of the Great Migrations That Made the American People, the history of the United States is first and foremost a longue durée story of migrations from all points north, south, east, and west.
Although Handlin’s book emphasizes “immigrants,” its very title – The Uprooted – evokes images of those forced to leave their homelands. It is surely no coincidence that work was published in 1951, the same year the United Nations held its Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, which formalized a now-familiar definition of “refugee-ness.”
According to the Convention, a refugee is “A person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion, is outside the country of his nationality and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protection of that country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to return to it.”
Since 1980, U.S. policies involving asylum have largely adhered to the UN definition of who is considered a refugee. Yet U.S. immigration and refugee policy has vacillated between periods of openness and eras of prohibition. For instance, 10 years before Ellis Island opened its proverbial doors to the “huddled masses yearning to breathe free,” the United States passed the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, which initially targeted laborers and was eventually extended to other Chinese migrants. Passed in response to anxieties involving the supposed ubiquity of Chinese workers and the perceived threat against white working-class laborers, the Chinese Exclusion Act was renewed for nearly 60 years, until 1943. Such immigration restrictions were by no means limited to the Chinese: at various points in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Japanese, Korean, South Asian, Latin American, Southern European, and Eastern European immigrants were also targeted with quotas and increased regulation.
The most restrictive of such pieces of legislation – the Johnson-Reed Immigration Act of 1924 – was, as David Wyman compellingly argues in The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941-1945, responsible for the denial of Jewish refugees during the Holocaust. It was not until 1965 that the quota system concretized by the Johnson-Reed Act was eventually overturned by the passage of the Hart-Celler Act, which removed all racial and nation-state requirements for immigration, reflecting the aims of the mid-century civil rights movement. Since the Hart-Celler Act was passed, more than 48 million immigrants have gained legal entry to the United States, and it is credited with changing the demographic face of America by paving the way for the first mass migration of immigrants from Asia and Latin America.
Despite the openness of this act, immigration (along with refugee asylum) remains a contested issue. As President Trump’s travel ban against refugees takes effect, and details of the proposed wall with Mexico and debates over what to do with the nation’s estimated 11.4 million undocumented immigrants make clear, Americans are divided on whether the United States should be either a “nation of immigrants” or a “country of refugees.” In the context of competing calls to close our border and open our doors, the UConn Reads Committee selected Viet Thanh Nguyen’s short story collection The Refugees as this year’s book. The Refugees focuses its narrative attention on men and women displaced from wartime Saigon and resettled in California who, until now, have remained voiceless. In The Refugees, according to a New York Times book review, Nguyen “gives flesh” to South Vietnamese refugees in a manner that prompts the reader to “lean in more closely, listening beyond what the refugees say to step into their skins.”
Timely and provocative, The Refugees is very much a work that speaks to the mixed feelings associated with migration and resettlement. I encourage you to read the book and engage with UConn Reads activities over the year ahead.
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Physical Therapy Guide to Knee Osteoarthritis
Knee osteoarthritis is a condition that results from degenerative changes to the cartilage, or cushion, between the bones of the knee joint. Knee OA can make everyday activities more difficult due to general knee discomfort and pain. In the United States, nearly 12.4 million people ages 65 or older have symptomatic knee OA. This condition often affects women more than men. Even though knee OA is more common in older adults, people as young as age 45 can show symptoms. Physical therapists treat people with knee OA to help reduce pain and improve movement (mobility). They design personalized treatment programs to help people of all ages and abilities with the condition.
Physical therapists are movement experts. They improve quality of life through hands-on care, patient education, and prescribed movement. You can contact a physical therapist directly for an evaluation. To find a physical therapist in your area, visit Find a PT.
What Is Knee Osteoarthritis?
Knee OA results from inflammation and wear and tear of the cartilage between the bones of the knee joint. It can affect the entire joint, including its bones, surrounding ligaments, and muscles.
Knee OA may worsen over time and make it challenging to do everyday activities due to pain and discomfort. The following factors can affect how quickly symptoms worsen:
- Body structure.
- Body mass index.
- Sex (male or female).
- Activity level.
Knee OA may develop over time after a ligament or cartilage injury in the knee. Physical therapy has been proven to successfully manage knee OA. Seeing a physical therapist early can help slow the progression of the condition, or even prevent it from becoming worse. Proper treatment also can help people delay or avoid surgery. Although physical therapy is successful in many cases, some patients may still require surgery based on the severity of their condition.
How Does It Feel?
Knee OA has a wide range of symptoms. The most common symptom is pain around the knee joint. Knee mobility also may decrease. When knee cartilage wears down, it can expose the underlying bone in certain spots. This causes increased stress on and compression of the remaining cartilage. As cartilage wears down, the bones in your knee joint rub together causing friction that makes your knee hurt and become stiff or swollen. You also may feel grinding or hear popping sounds while bending your knee.
Your activity level as well as the amount and types of activities you do can impact your symptoms. For example, symptoms may worsen with activities such as walking without supportive shoes or using the stairs.
Symptoms of knee OA may include:
- Morning stiffness lasting less than 30 minutes.
- Pain during or after activity. Examples include walking, climbing or going down stairs, or rising from a chair to stand.
- Pain or stiffness after sitting with the knee bent or straight for a long time.
- A feeling or sound of popping, cracking, or grinding when moving the knee.
- Swelling after activity.
- Tenderness to touch along the knee joint.
Typically, these symptoms develop slowly over time rather than suddenly. Some people do not know they have knee OA, due to a lack of symptoms. Or they may not remember a specific injury that caused their symptoms to begin. If you have worsening knee pain that lasts several months and does not improve with rest, see your doctor or physical therapist.
How Is It Diagnosed?
There are two methods for diagnosing knee OA:
- Self-reporting of symptoms and a physical exam.
- Diagnostic imaging (X-ray or MRI).
Physical therapists identify, diagnose, and treat movement problems, such as those common with knee OA. Your physical therapist will ask you questions about your medical history and activity. They will perform a physical exam to get measurements that include your knee’s:
- Range of motion.
Your physical therapist may recommend that you get imaging such as X-rays of your knee to gain more information on the condition of your knee joint. X-rays are good at detecting OA in the knee. If your doctor suspects more severe joint or tissue damage, they may order an MRI to get a more detailed view of the joint and surrounding tissues. They also may order blood tests to rule out other conditions or other types of arthritis that can cause symptoms similar to knee OA.
How Can a Physical Therapist Help?
Your physical therapist will design a personalized treatment program specific to your condition and goals. Your program may include:
Range-of-motion exercises. Your physical therapist will assess your range of motion. They will compare the motion of your affected knee with that of your healthy knee. They will select specific flexibility exercises to help improve your ability to bend and straighten your knee.
Muscle strengthening. Research shows that people with knee OA who follow a program to improve their muscle strength have less pain and improved quality of life. Improving the strength of the muscles in the leg can help minimize the wear and tear of cartilage in the knee, control knee movement, and reduce the amount of force on the joint when moving.
Strengthening the hip and "core" muscles can help balance the amount of force on the knee joint during walking, running, and other repetitive movements. The core refers to the muscles of the stomach, low back, and pelvis. A strong core increases stability throughout your body. Your physical therapist will assess these different muscle groups, compare the strength in each leg, and design an exercise program to target your areas of weakness.
Manual therapy. Physical therapists are trained in manual (hands-on) therapy. Your physical therapist will gently move your muscles, loosening them to gain more range of motion in your knee joint and increase your flexibility. In many cases, manual therapy can be used along with stretching to produce lasting benefits. These techniques can target areas that are difficult to treat on your own. Research shows that adding manual therapy to an exercise program can decrease pain and increase functional mobility.
Bracing. Compression sleeves around the knee may help reduce pain and control swelling. Devices such as braces can help modify the forces placed on the knee. Different braces can help reduce stress on specific areas of your knee. By distributing pressure to less painful areas of the joint they may allow you to do weight-bearing activities with less pain. Depending on your symptoms and knee condition, your physical therapist will determine the best brace, if any, for you.
Activity recommendations. Since knee OA could worsen over time, it is important to do the right types of activities, while avoiding too much stress on the knee. Your physical therapist can guide you in modifying your activities, and changing how often you do them, if needed. In some cases, aquatic therapy (provided in a pool) can produce great benefits by enabling knee strengthening while minimizing the pressure on the knee. Your physical therapist will prescribe and monitor exercises based on your specific condition and abilities. Sometimes, using an assistive device such as a cane may help as well.
Other treatments. Your physical therapist may recommend how and when to use therapeutic methods such as ice and heat to aid in pain management. Physical therapists are experts at using movement, positioning, and other methods to help reduce pain and avoid the use of medications, including opioids.
If Surgery Is Required
In some cases of knee OA, the cartilage (also called the meniscus) may have a tear and is not able to absorb shock. Surgery to repair or remove parts of this cartilage may be needed if physical therapy, injections, and anti-inflammatory medications are unsuccessful. However, research shows that 70% of patients with a meniscus tear who were deemed candidates for surgery did not need surgery if physical therapy was received first. Physical therapy is an effective alternative for many people with knee OA who would prefer to avoid or delay surgery.
If, after consulting with professionals, you choose to have a recommended surgery, physical therapy will be an integral part of your preparation and recovery. It is important to note that in severe cases of osteoarthritis, a total knee replacement can provide 90% to 95% of pain relief. Factors to consider with your doctor and physical therapist before choosing surgery include:
- The severity of wear and tear in the knee joint.
- Body mass index.
- Activity level.
- Overall health.
If needed, your physical therapist can refer you to an orthopedic surgeon to discuss your options. Should you choose surgery, your physical therapist can assist you beforehand with "prehab." Prehab is a shorter stint of physical therapy with surgery-specific exercises to improve your knee strength and flexibility before surgery. Following surgery, your physical therapist will design a program based on your condition and goals, which will include some or all of the treatments listed above. Your specific program will depend on:
- The type of surgery you received.
- Your overall level of function.
- Your fitness prior to surgery.
Can This Injury or Condition Be Prevented?
Regular physical activity can benefit your physical, mental, and social health. It also can prevent or improve osteoarthritis. Activity also may reduce your risk for many chronic conditions, such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity, depression, and some cancers. Physical therapists are experts in movement. Some ways that a physical therapist can help you prevent knee OA include:
Developing an appropriate exercise program. Lack of physical activity is a major contributor to many health problems, including knee OA. By strengthening the muscles around the knee and surrounding joints, you can help decrease stress on your knee. Exercises to improve flexibility can help you maintain knee movement and healthy knee cartilage. Your physical therapist can design a personalized treatment program to improve your strength and flexibility.
Weight loss. Research has shown that people who are overweight have higher rates of knee OA than those who are not. Being overweight can increase stress on your knee joint. This contributes to the wearing away of the protective cartilage and leads to knee OA. Your physical therapist can determine your fitness level, design an exercise program for you, and recommend possible lifestyle changes. They also can refer you to another health care provider, such as a dietician, for further guidance.
Modifying activities. Often, people can unknowingly do activities in inefficient ways. This puts added stress on the body, including the knee joint. Your physical therapist can teach you better ways to move that reduce stress on your body and your knees.
Taking a "whole body" approach to movement. Lack of strength, mobility, and flexibility in areas such as the ankle, hip, and spine also can affect the knee. Taking care of these areas is important to help prevent knee OA. Your physical therapist will work with you to help ensure your whole body moves correctly.
What Kind of Physical Therapist Do I Need?
All physical therapists are prepared through education and experience to treat conditions such as knee OA. However, when choosing your physical therapist you may want to consider:
- A physical therapist who is experienced in working with people who have knee OA or have had knee replacement surgery. Some physical therapists have a practice with an orthopedic or geriatric focus.
- A physical therapist who is a board-certified clinical specialist or who completed a residency or fellowship in orthopedic or geriatric physical therapy. This physical therapist has advanced knowledge, experience, and skills that may apply to your condition.
- If the physical therapist's clinic accepts your health care plan. You have the right to choose any physical therapist in your state who participates in your health care plan.
You can search for physical therapists in your area who have these and other credentials by using Find a PT, an online tool built by the American Physical Therapy Association.
General tips when looking for a physical therapist (or any other health care provider) include:
- Get recommendations from family, friends, or other health care providers.
- Ask about the physical therapists' experience in helping people with knee OA.
- Be prepared to describe your symptoms in as much detail as possible. Bring a list and description of any activities that make your symptoms worse.
Other Arthritis Resources
- Arthritis: Find a Community-Based Physical Activity Program.
- Online health center for people with arthritis.
- Physical Therapy Guide to Rheumatoid Arthritis.
- Community-based physical activity programs or people with arthritis.
Additionally, the American Physical Therapy Association launched a national campaign to raise awareness about the risks of opioids and the safer alternative of physical therapy for long-term pain management. Learn more at our Safe Pain Management page.
Physical therapists use the latest evidence to design treatment plans for each person's needs, challenges, and goals to improve mobility, manage pain and other chronic conditions, and recover from and prevent injury and chronic disease. Patients also should have access to the latest evidence to improve their understanding of their disease and the importance of self-management.
The American Physical Therapy Association believes that consumers should have access to information that can:
- Help them make health care decisions.
- Prepare them for a visit with their health care provider.
The following articles provide some of the best scientific evidence for the treatment of knee OA. The articles report recent research and give an overview of the standards of practice both in the United States and internationally. They link either to a PubMed* abstract or to the free full text, so that you can read it or print out a copy to bring with you to your health care provider.
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. "Management of Osteoarthritis of the Knee (Non-Arthroplasty)." Accessed January 18, 2023. https://www.aaos.org/globalassets/quality-and-practice-resources/osteoarthritis-of-the-knee/oak3cpg.pdf. Free Article
Van Doormaal MC, Meerhoff GA, Vliet Vlieland TP, Peter WF. A clinical practice guideline for physical therapy in patients with hip or knee osteoarthritis. Musculoskeletal Care. 2020;18(4):575–595. Article Summary in PubMed
Brosseau L, Taki J, Desjardins B, et al. The Ottawa panel clinical practice guidelines for the management of knee osteoarthritis; part two: strengthening exercise programs. Clin Rehabil. 2017;31:596–611. Article Summary in PubMed
Lespasio MJ, Piuzzi NS, Husni ME, et al. Knee osteoarthritis: a primer. Perm J. 2017;21:16–183. Article in PubMed
McMurray M, Bruneau M, Feldman K, et al. Knee osteoarthritis. American Physical Therapy Association website. Accessed January 18, 2023. Article from APTA
Deshpande BR, Katz JN, Solomon DH, et al. Number of persons with symptomatic knee osteoarthritis in the US: impact of race and ethnicity, age, sex, and obesity. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2016;68:1743–1750. Article Summary in PubMed
Bhatia D, Bejarano T, Novo M. Current interventions in the management of knee osteoarthritis. J Pharm Bioallied Sci. 2013;5(1):30–38. Article Summary in PubMed
*PubMed is a free online resource developed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubMed contains millions of citations to biomedical literature, including citations in the National Library of Medicine's MEDLINE database.
Sep 18, 2022
Revised: Sep 18, 2022
Content Type: Guide
Osteoarthritis of the Knee
PT, DPT, board-certified clinical specialist in sports physical therapy
PT, DPT, board-certified clinical specialist in geriatric physical therapy, on behalf of APTA Geriatrics, an academy of the American Physical Therapy Association
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Learn something new every day
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A petechial rash consists of small marks on the skin created by broken blood vessels. It can be caused by an assortment of things, both benign and serious. When a patient develops this kind of rash, it is important to take note of associated symptoms like fever, confusion, or bloody urine, as these can indicate whether the problem is serious. It may be necessary to see a doctor for evaluation and treatment.
One very common reason to have a petechial rash is trauma. People can develop marks on their faces after crying or coughing heavily, for example, and such rashes sometimes occur along with bruises after heavy blows. Tight clothing or restraints like handcuffs can also damage capillary blood vessels and lead to a rash.
Some bacterial and viral infections cause this type of rash. These can be serious, and may lead to symptoms like fever as well. The sudden onset of small spots on the skin accompanied by high fever may require immediate medical attention, especially if the patient is also exhibiting gastrointestinal or neurological symptoms. Rocky mountain spotted fever, hantavirus, and hemorrhagic fevers, for example, can cause this type of skin outbreak.
Blood disorders and vasculitis are other potential causes of petechial rash. Patients with known clotting disorders may develop rashes periodically, or the rash could be a symptom of a condition like leukemia or a disease that causes a drop in platelets. Blood vessel irritation may also lead to fragility in the capillaries, which creates a rash, especially on the legs.
Some medications can also cause rashes, including a petechial rash. These may be discussed in the warnings about side effects. Patients who notice a rash after they start a new medication or change their dosage can bring it up with a care provider to determine if it is a cause for concern or a sign of a bad reaction. Additional symptoms can provide additional clues to shed light on the situation. Another potential cause of petechial rash is lupus, an autoimmune disorder where the body starts attacking itself.
When the signs of petechial rash develop in children, it can be a cause for concern, as it may be linked with viral or bacterial infection. Parents may want to consider the site of the rash and any contributing factors; for example, a chest rash might be the result of a car seat restraint that is buckled too tight. If they’ve ruled out benign causes, or the patient also has a fever, disorientation, and other signs of distress, a nursing hotline can evaluate the patient over the phone to determine if immediate care is needed. Patients of any age should go to an emergency room if they have high fevers, an altered level of consciousness, or extreme behavioral changes.
I have this rash after a physical altercation, where hands were placed around my throat. What can I do to make the rash heal faster?
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US computer scientists have combined telecommunications and technology similar to that used in 3D movies to create Tele-immersion, a video conference facility where participants sitting in different parts of the country feel as if they’re chatting in the same room.
Researchers at the University of Pennsylvania, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Brown University and Advanced Network and Services accomplished the first successful demonstration of Tele-immersion.
‘While videoconferencing results in two-dimensional images on a screen, in tele-immersion the screen becomes a window allowing access to a site far away,’ said Kostas Daniilidis, an assistant professor of computer and information science at the University of Pennsylvania. ‘The person with whom you’re speaking is projected life-size in three dimensions – you can even peer behind him or her.’
Daniilidis and his NTII colleagues said Tele-immersion has the potential to revolutionise the way people communicate, allowing people on opposite ends of the country or world to feel as if they’re in each other’s presence.
Key to Tele-immersion’s realistic feel are a hemispherical bank of digital cameras to capture participants from a variety of angles and tracking gear worn on their heads.
Combined with polarised glasses much like those worn at 3D movies, the set up creates subtly different images in each eye. Working from this sensory input, the brain is able to recreate the three-dimensional ‘telepresence’ of a person actually sitting in a distant studio.
The result is that when a participant moves his or her head, the view of the others shifts almost as seamlessly as if the meeting were occurring face-to-face.
When participant’s lean forward, their peers appear larger; when they recline, their virtual friends shrink in size.
In the handful of Tele-immersion sessions achieved so far, screens were mounted at right angles to a desk in the corner of a room, each displaying one of the remote locations. The screens are solid and flat, but once a session begins they appear more like a window.
Daniilidis believes that Tele-immersion’s potential to revolutionise communications remains a driving force behind the development of Internet2, the collaborative effort to create the high-bandwidth web of the future.
While most online applications use only a tiny fraction of Internet2’s massive band-width, Tele-immersion is one of the few that requires moving far greater quantities of data than today’s Internet can handle.
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Science & Tech.
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This guide gives a brief summary of some of the types of maps produced from the late 16th to mid-19th centuries. Most are available for consultation in the Map Library.
For a list of printed maps (with a few manuscript maps) see 'The Early Maps of Scotland to 1850', ed. D G Moir. 2 vols. Edinburgh: Royal Scottish Geographical Society, 1973, 1983. Volume 1 summarises the mapping history of Scotland, with reproductions of a few important maps, then lists (chronologically) maps depicting the whole of Scotland. Volume 2 is particularly useful for local and family historians, with lists of maps of parts of Scotland and thematic maps, such as county maps, town plans, road, rail and canal maps, and marine charts.
Early printed maps do not usually give much detail, until large scale Ordnance Survey maps were published, from about 1850. The first known printed map of Scotland on its own was engraved and printed in Italy, probably by Paolo Forlani, who was working in the 1560s and 70s. It derives from a 1546 map of Great Britain.
Until the beginning of the 18th century almost all the printed maps of Scotland were produced outside Scotland. Mapmakers made several attempts to portray the outline of the country.
- Topographic, military and county maps
- Battle plans and legal maps
- Estate plans
- Road, canal and railway maps
- Town plans
From about 1850 the Ordnance Survey began to publish detailed maps of Scotland and the importance of privately-produced map information declines.
Topographic, military and county maps
These maps show features such as hills, rivers, settlements, place names and other general information.
Timothy Pont surveyed most (or perhaps all) of Scotland in more detail than had been done before, and 38 manuscripts, with some 77 maps, are in the National Library. As not all the manuscripts have survived, these do not cover the whole country. In 1996 the Library initiated Project Pont, to encourage multidisciplinary research on Pont's maps. Photographs and explanatory text are in Jeffrey C Stone's 'The Pont manuscript maps of Scotland: sixteenth century origins of a Blaeu atlas' (Tring: Map Collector Publications, 1989), whilst an updated thematic examination of Pont's work is available in Ian C Cunningham's 'The Nation Survey'd' (East Linton: Tuckwell Press, 2001). Images of all the Pont manuscript maps and related textual materials, along with substantial supporting information can be found on our Pont maps website.
William Blaeu, in Amsterdam, engraved several maps from Pont's manuscripts for his proposed 'Atlas Novus'. Robert and James Gordon revised and augmented Pont's manuscript maps for publication, to add to these maps (over 60 Gordon manuscript maps are in the Map Library).
Blaeu's 'Atlas Novus' was published in Amsterdam, with 47 printed maps of parts of Scotland based on Pont and Gordon manuscripts. This could be described as the first atlas of Scotland. (The volume also includes Ireland.) In the 1654 edition, which had six volumes, maps of Scotland are in volume five. By 1662 the atlas, now entitled Atlas Major, had grown to 12 volumes, and Scotland is in volume 6. A reduced facsimile of maps from the 1654 atlas has been published: Jeffrey C Stone's 'Illustrated Maps of Scotland from Blaeu's Atlas Novus of the 17th century' (London: Studio Editions, 1991).
Sir Robert Sibbald wished to improve and update Blaeu's atlas and planned a new atlas of Scotland, commissioning John Adair to prepare the maps. Adair also surveyed coasts, and his sea charts were published in 1703. Sibbald's atlas was never published, and many Adair maps were not printed until the 1730s, usually engraved by Richard Cooper.
It is thanks to Sibbald's proposed atlas that so many 16th and 17th century manuscript maps survive in the National Library today. Sibbald collected together maps by Pont, the Gordons and Adair to provide information for his atlas. When he died, these manuscripts were purchased by the Advocates' Library in 1722.
The Jacobite Risings, and the difficulties government troops faced in finding their way about the north of Scotland, led to the production of military maps. The Library has some 400 maps (mostly manuscript). The Wade collection relates to the building of the military roads in the late 1720s to 1730s, while the Board of Ordnance plans cover a broader scope, showing routes, towns and fortifications, starting around 1710 and continuing into the early 19th century. All of these maps can be viewed on our Military Maps of Scotland (18th century) website.
After the risings revealed the need for mapping, a Military Survey of Scotland was conducted from 1747 to 1755. Also known as William Roy's survey, it covers mainland Scotland but not the islands. The maps were never published and the British Library Map Library in London holds the original manuscripts. The National Library of Scotland's Map Library has photocopies and 35mm colour slides for consultation only, whilst images of the Roy map can be viewed on the SCRAN website.
County map production was stimulated by prizes offered by the Royal Society of Arts for maps with a minimum scale of 1 inch to 1 mile. The earliest covered south and central Scotland, but some parts of the north did not have maps covering each county separately until John Thomson's 'Atlas of Scotland' was completed in 1832, with maps issued separately from 1820. As the atlas covers the whole country at the time of the Clearances, it is particularly useful for tracing farms and villages which disappeared by the time of the first Ordnance Survey in the mid-19th century.
Battle plans and legal maps
For most parts of Scotland, detailed maps are not available until the Ordnance Survey maps of the 1850s. There are, however, some exceptions. For example, battle plans drawn to record a battle, may give details of the surrounding countryside, and legal disputes over land may have required a plan showing boundaries or other details.
View a selection of battle plans on our Military Maps website under 'Battles'.
Agricultural improvements required estate plans, usually in great detail. Most were hand-drawn and usually only one or two copies were made, so few may survive. The peak period of agricultural improvement was from the 1760s to 1820s, although there are some earlier plans when a landowner was particularly innovative.
Some plans suggest improvements which may never have happened, while others how the results of improvement. Other sources may need to be checked to establish whether the changes were carried out.
Although the Map Library has some 4000 estate plans, the best source for estate plans is the National Records of Scotland. Many are listed in 'Descriptive list of plans', Vols 1-4. Edinburgh: HMSO, 1966-1988. Estate plans may also be found in local archives and many remain in private hands.
Charts are particularly useful for information about the islands round Scotland. The east coast was relatively easy to map and was on the main trade routes with Europe across the North Sea, so seacharts were produced from the late 16th century.
The heavily indented west coast was much harder to chart, and was not a regular trading route until the cotton and tobacco trade with the Americas became more important, so there are few good charts until the 18th century.
Nicolas de Nicolay's chart of the whole of Scotland was published with a rutter, or guide to seamen, in Paris. It was based on information collected by Alexander Lindsay, pilot to James V, for the king's voyage in 1540 to quell the Lords of the Isles.
Murdoch Mackenzie surveyed the Orkney Islands, then …
… he surveyed the west coast of Scotland, including the Hebrides, for the Admiralty (published in 1776).
Early Admiralty charts may pre-date the Ordnance Survey in some parts of Scotland. Online are 74 Admiralty Charts of Scottish coasts, 1795-1904.
Road, canal and railway maps
Few maps show roads or routes until the 18th century.
'Taylor and Skinner's survey and maps of the roads of North Britain or Scotland' is the first road book of Scotland and shows strip maps of the principal roads. A facsimile was published in 1991 by Old Hall Press, Leeds.
From the late 18th century, acts of Parliament were required for road, canal and rail developments and these may be accompanied by maps, which often indicate landowners along the proposed route.
Few printed town plans exist except for major towns (Edinburgh, Aberdeen, St Andrews).
A few towns may have manuscript plans. Some county maps include small inset plans of the county town, e.g. Glasgow's first printed town plan was published as an inset in Charles Ross's 'Map of the shire of Lanark'> in 1773.
John Wood published separate town plans from 1818, collected in 1828 in the 'Town atlas of Scotland'. Many show occupiers' names, which makes them useful for family history.
'Report on Parliamentary Boundaries'. These maps give little detail apart from the main street pattern, but they may be the only source for some small towns which are not in Wood's Town atlas.
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Strong reasoning
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History
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Somerset, New Jersey (PRWEB) February 24, 2013
Built on the fundamental principles of applied behavior analysis aka ABA, Social Talks makes it easier for young learners to gradually pick up basic communication skills, such as greetings and salutations. The autism app comes bundled with a plethora of interactive and colorful gameplay features – much to the fun and enjoyment of kids on the spectrum.
Developed on the recommendations made by Dr. Vidya Bhushan Gupta of the American Academy of Pediatrics and the Society for Developmental-Behavioral Pediatrics, Social Talks helps children with autism inculcate in them the basics of social interaction. The app asks the child to respond with a simple ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ to questions about social situations such as New Year, Christmas or a friend’s birthday.
“We have been blending our very own patent-pending technology with expert collaboration to develop new apps for autism. We are thankful to the experts from the autism community for their support and guidance. It is because of them that our five years of research and development has produced over 125 apps on iTunes and Android,” said Nish Parikh, CEO of WebTeam Corporation.
“Our goal is not just to deliver the intervention in a fun way, but also to create an interactive story in a gaming model which can engage children with autism for a longer period of time. If we can keep them on the iPad, Android tablets and mobile devices for a longer duration, we can gradually teach them the social skills they need to develop,” Parikh added.
Dhara Desai, project manager of WebTeam’s apps development division, said in an email interview, “Individuals on autism spectrum have difficulty conversing with others. This is because they lack basic skills such as attending, interpreting social cues, understanding spoken words and abstract language. They have limited vocabulary. So, traditional ways of teaching cannot be used for individuals with autism. Visual aids of teaching works best for them. In that too, the key is to use something they are interested in and to make interactions as simple as possible. That’s why we have used animations as visuals and added interactions in the form of simple Yes/No questions.”
“WebTeam Corporation takes pride in offering educational apps for children with autism spectrum disorders. Many of these gifted children lack certain social skills from an early age. Social skills are behavioral aspects of human life which are very important in day-to-day interactions. This particular app teaches how to greet or how to respond when greeted by siblings, friends, classmates, teachers or even parents or visitors, rather than feeling intimidated. Keeping in mind these learning needs of special children, our app is designed and developed in a colorful, animated format to help develop their cognitive skills. The app provides the right kind of reinforcements that make them feel happier. It sheds their fear or the sense of intimidation because they start pleasantly interacting with others under varied social and environmental conditions,” said KJ Sharma, senior advisor to WebTeam Corporation.
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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Mathematics at Oakley Infant School
At Oakley Infant School we believe that every child can master the mathematics they learn and become confident mathematicians as they progress. We aim to ensure that pupils develop confidence and fluency across each of the mathematical domains: number and place value, addition and subtraction, multiplication and division, fractions, measurement and geometry and statistics. We want to give children the confidence, skills and the language they need to solve mathematical problems quickly, accurately and creatively, to make connections in their mathematics and to explain their thinking to others.
How is maths taught at Oakley Infants?
What is a typical lesson like?
Maths in Early Years:
In the Early Years children will take part in short adult led tasks which develop their concept of number and shape, space and measure. This is done through play based tasks, which, whenever possible are set within a real life context or link to the current theme. As well as this focused input, the children also have daily access to mathematical activities with which they can engage during their independent play. Our skilled team of practitioners observe the children during this time and look for opportunities to develop their understanding and challenge their thinking.
Maths in KS1
Lessons are broadly structured into 3 main parts:
1. Fluency Focus – A practise or revisit of those all-important facts which children need at their fingertips in order to learn new mathematics without experiencing cognitive overload.
2. Guided teaching or Talk Task – This is a period of in-depth instruction by the teacher. It is an opportunity for learners to begin to acquire the new concept and for the teacher to extend their understanding through carefully structured questioning and examples. Learners are very active, practising or exploring the new ideas alongside the adult teaching, repeating stem sentences and using precise mathematical vocabulary. Often learners will be exploring a range of concrete resources to support their thinking and expose the key mathematical concepts. Partner or group-work is often employed in this stage, encouraging discussion and collaboration.
3. Independent practice – This is where learners will apply their learning. During this time, adults may be working with a group who have been identified as requiring further support or extension. Tasks are carefully structured to scaffold and progress learners’ understanding, exposing the mathematics and difficult points, to provide intelligent practice, not mechanical repetition. Depth is achieved through sophisticated, rich challenges available to all learners, in order to deepen understanding and develop reasoning and problem-solving skills.
Concrete, Pictorial and Abstract
The learning of mathematics relies heavily upon the CPA (concrete-pictorial-abstract) model and concrete resources are used to support concept building and reasoning through ‘doing’. They then move to the pictorial stage alongside the concrete, which then encourages the learner to make a mental connection between the physical object and abstract levels of understanding by drawing or looking at pictures, diagrams or models which represent the objects in the problem.
To develop deeper understanding and the ability to reason and explain, teachers use effective questioning throughout every lesson to check understanding and prompt thinking. More complex questions are also used to challenge learners who have grasped the concept earlier. Learners are expected to listen to each other’s responses and may be asked to explain someone else’s ideas in their own words, or if they agree/disagree etc.
Reasoning and Problem-solving
We understand that developing strong reasoning skills is an essential process and teaching and capturing this is a developing element of our practice. Teachers aim to provide the opportunity for all learners to solve problems and reason, encouraging deeper understanding, generalisation and building links to other concepts. Any children who appear to have grasped a concept quite quickly will be challenged to tackle more in-depth problems, as well as to explain and justify their answers, through use of precise mathematical language, verbally or written, or using pictures to demonstrate their understanding in a clear, logical way.
Pupil voice: Pupils will be able to confidently articulate their understanding of mathematics and will be able to explain their reasoning.
Evidence in knowledge: Children will be able to make links in their learning.
Teachers subject knowledge will ensure that children’s learning is closely matched to the Early Learning Goals and National curriculum objectives with a focus on depth not breadth.
Outcomes: At the end of each year we expect the children to achieve the Early Learning Goals for YR and Age Related Expectations for their year group in KS1. Some will have progressed further and reached greater depth whilst others will still be working towards these goals and will receive interventions to help consolidate and plug gaps.
Be positive. Never say you’re no good at maths!
Notice and use maths in everyday life – count, share and talk about numbers.
Talk about how they have done their maths
Ask your child to explain answers or draw a picture to explain their thinking
Give praise and encouragement
Practise number fact fluency – fast recall of number bonds and tables.
Support them in doing homework
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Strong reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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Students generally fear assignments and homework that require them to write essays. This can be attributed to the stereotypes with regards to essays that have been passed on from the old scholars to the current ones. Essays have been exhibited as the hard and extremely burdensome work that calls for a lot of reading and comprehension of many aspects of today’s life. While it is true that essays require an understanding of some aspects of the world, the part of them being hard is indeed flawed. Essay writers are often encouraged to ensure that their arguments are objective, and are backed by factual information which of course requires one to have an in-depth understanding of the topic at hand. Writing an essay can be a challenging exercise, but once one acquires the required skill and techniques, the task becomes easier. Essays and creative writing are different, but there are indeed some aspects of both that overlap and that can help one master the skills to write the other. This article outlines some of the techniques from creative writing that can help one improve and enhance their essay writing skills.
Essay writers are advised to always consider their audience when they are writing. Readers are indeed the most important consideration in any writing, and without them, the essence of the entire writing process diminishes. In creative writing, writers are often advised to first understand their audience because this will help them communicate their message clearly. Essay writers are also advised to always factor in their audience and ensure that they keep them interested in their piece.
One also needs to ensure that their points flow and that they exhaustively elucidate on each argument. Every argument needs to be explained in portions with an introduction-like part body-like part as well as a conclusion. Readers need to be able to follow the writer’s argument and understand the point being made.
When writing an essay, one should also make sure that they have a dramatic and unusual introduction. Essay writers often decide to cling onto the same introductory formulas they were taught, and this makes them predictable and normal. One needs to ensure that they do not always conform to the writing norms, and try other ‘unusual’ writing tips like having a different introduction than is expected.
Proofreading and writing one or two drafts can also help one amend some simple grammatical and composition errors. One can also re-arrange their points while going through their work and make it more appealing to the readers. This, of course, seems like repetition and a lot of work to some people, but developing this habit during writing will indeed help essay writers become better.
Essay writers often tend to be flat and mean in providing their readers with some details, for example, setting and location. In some instances, like when writing scientific essays, one can deliberately leave out such detail, but in some subjects, readers often relate well with one’s work if they are given information that mirrors either their location or setting.
Use of analogies is also something that essay writers can borrow from creative writers. In creative writing, artificial analogies are used, but since essays are factual, one needs to make sure that they use analogies that their readership can easily comprehend. When using analogies, every writer needs to ensure that their idea is still being communicated.
Ideas do not respect time, and some of the existing inventions of the world were once ideas that dawned on the inventors in very awkward moments. It is, therefore, crucial for essay writers to always be aware of their surroundings and record any new ideas that might spring to mind. Creative writing and essay writing are different in many aspects, but the above creative writing techniques can help essay writers make their articles memorable and interesting to their readership.
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http://essaybasics.com/
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en
| 0.973816 | 751 | 2.890625 | 3 | 2.376348 | 2 |
Moderate reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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Our vision statement reflects our desire to provide the best possible education, opportunities and environment for all who are part of our school. We believe that our school should be an inclusive community where ALL aim high, achieve well and develop self-confidence, positive values and beliefs, a sense of community, well-being and caring attitudes towards others. PSHE is central to this ethos and equips children with the knowledge, skills and strategies to live healthy, safe and responsible lives.
- To follow a PSHE curriculum which develops learning and results in the acquisition of knowledge and skills which enables children to access the wider curriculum and to prepare children to be a global citizen now and in their future roles within a global community.
- To follow a curriculum with appropriate subject knowledge, skills and understanding to fulfil the new PSHE three strands health and wellbeing, relationships and living in the wider world. Relationship and Sex Education will be taught in line with the DFE scheme of work.
- Children will have accurate and relevant knowledge of PSHE. Children will have opportunities to create personal understanding. Children will be given the opportunities to explore and challenge a range of values, attitudes, beliefs, rights and responsibilities.
- Children will develop a range of skills and strategies to live a healthy, safe, fulfilling, responsible and balanced life.
At Eaton Valley the school curriculum will focus on three core learning themes: health and wellbeing, relationships and living in the wider world.
- The Scheme of work (Happy Minds and Healthy Me) also includes opportunities to link British Values, Spiritual, Moral, Social and Cultural (SMSC) and the schools’ key skills into the curriculum.
- Children have access to key knowledge, language and meanings in order to understand PSHE and to use across the wider curriculum, evidence folders in each classroom exemplify the terminology used throughout the teaching of PSHE, British Values and SMSC which enables pupils to make links across the wider curriculum.
- Whole school, Key Stage and class assemblies make a link to PSHE, British Values and SMSC.
- PSHE will be embedded throughout all school life as a continuous on-going development for all children in all areas of learning.
- All staff will use thoughtful questioning that encourages deeper thinking and reasoning.
- External Stimuli is encouraged and children from nursery through to Year 6 are taught about sameness and difference through our international days, themed days, topics, visitors, trips and assemblies.
At the end of each year, pupils have developed their skills, and have gained a new understanding of issues and how to keep themselves healthy, aware and happy. We measure the impact of our curriculum through the following methods:
- Monitoring and assessment is an on-going process. Teachers use ‘assessment for learning’ as to inform planning for future lessons.
- Evidence in skills: Pupils use acquired vocabulary and social skills through their experiences. It may be that there is an increase in positive behaviour or a decrease in negative attitudes following experiences and learning.
- Evidence in knowledge: Pupils know how and why it is important to learn about ourselves, others and the world around us.
- Interviewing the pupils about their learning (pupil voice). Through discussion and feedback, children talk enthusiastically about their PSHE lessons and other learning experiences to do with SMSC (e.g. themed days). Children across the school articulate well about the benefits of learning about themselves, others and the world around them.
- Images and videos of the children’s practical learning.
- Teachers plan a range of opportunities to use SMSC skills and discussion, inside and outside school.
- Moderation staff meetings where pupil’s books are scrutinised and there is the opportunity for a dialogue between teachers to understand their class’s work.
- Marking and assessing of written work in evidence folders.
- Class and whole school displays
- Children will demonstrate and apply the British Values of Democracy, Tolerance, Mutual respect, Rule of law and Liberty.
- Children will demonstrate a healthy outlook towards school – attendance will be in-line with national and behaviour will be good.
- Children will achieve age related expectations across the wider curriculum.
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Strong reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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Nineteenth Century Wire Insulation
The history of wire insulation starts in the nineteenth century.
Insulators are in electrical equipment. Also, insulation helps support and separate electrical conductors.
An insulating material that encases electrical cables or other equipment is insulation.
The first electrical systems to make use of insulators were telegraph lines.
This took place in the 1840’s.
Glass served as the primary insulator at the time. Also, plant products worked to wrap cables or hold wires.
In 1844, Samuel F.B. Morse sent the first telegraph message.
Consequently, he used a flat wood board beneath an apparatus as an insulator to hold wires.
Therefore, the wire directly attached to a wooden pole. This delivered very poor results. Especially, during damp weather.
In 1893, Westinghouse developed a transmission line for the famous Niagara Falls to Buffalo transmission.
This had porcelain insulators. However, these insulators were rated at 11,000 volts.
Consequently, they were only temporary.
Therefore, they were only in place until insulator technology was developed that could handle 22,000 volts.
Common Types of Insulation
The most common types of Nineteenth Century Wire Insulation were:
- Ceramic or Porcelain
- Also, wax and oil
Glass acts as a conductor when exposed to humidity.
It attracts vapors of the atmosphere to its surface.
They form a thin film of water. This provides a way for the electricity to pass through.
The types of insulators for glass are:
- Glass unprotected by iron.
- Along with, glass protected by an iron covering.
- This is in addition to, pine wood baked and soaked with shellac then having a piece of glass inserted.
- Also, glazed porous earthenware.
- Baked clay.
- Glass upon wooden pins.
This glass is protected by many different materials.
These materials include: a wooden shield, white flint, bone-rubber surrounding an iron hook, as well as the bone-rubber protected by an iron covering.
Objections to Using Glass
However, there is a large objection to the use of the unprotected glass insulator.
Due to its great liability to fracture.
The first glass insulators used in large quantities had an unthreaded pinhole.
These pieces of glass were positioned on a tapered wooden pin.
This pin was vertically extending upwards from the pole’s cross arm.
Consequently, natural contraction and expansion of the wires tied to these “thread-less insulators” often unseating from their pins.
This resulted in manual resetting of the insulators.
The manufacturers of the glass insulator find it extremely difficult to increase the strength of the material by increasing its thickness.
Mainly due to the account of the difficulty experienced in suitable annealing it.
As a result, a slight scratch would often cause the thicker insulator to fracture and become useless.
Porcelain insulators were produced from clay, quartz or alumina and feldspar.
Finally, they were covered with a smooth glaze to shed water.
Insulators made from porcelain rich in alumina are used where high mechanical strength is important.
Demand for master potters dramatically increased to create porcelain products.
This was due to the new electrical revolution of the 1880’s.
Simply changing to existing porcelain products was only a temporary solution.
Especially because, the needs for even higher voltages came about in the 1890’s.
William Cermak Makes History
Chemists and material engineers helped design higher performance porcelain insulators with special coatings and designs.
William Cermak, who came from Kasejovice, Czech, built a reputation for glass and porcelain pottery.
He developed the now famous “petticoated” insulator design. This design offered a succession of ridges.
One of his pioneering designs handled over 10,000 volts for the first time in history.
Wax and Oil:
In the 1880’s, Edison used Trinidad asphaltum with linseed oil, beeswax, and paraffin to insulate copper wires mounted inside of iron pipes.
Mainly used for durable underground power lines.
They were made famous at the Pearl Street Station in NYC.
Insulating Oil (Transformer Oil) – This petroleum product served as an electrical insulator and thermal conductor.
Especially since, it conducts heat away from hot transformer coils.
Also, some capacitors use insulator oil.
For more information on Falconer Electronics, please click these helpful links:
Finally, to learn about Wire Harness Assemblies, please click below:
- Instant Wire Harness Estimate
- Wire Harness Manufacturing Terms, Tools, and Tips of the Trade
- Wiring Harness Assembly: The Official Resource Guide
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Moderate reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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- Bargaineering - http://www.bargaineering.com/articles -
Kiddie Tax: Taxes on Your Child’s Investment Income
Posted By Miranda Marquit On 10/11/2011 @ 12:16 pm In Taxes | No Comments
Investing is one of those lessons that your children can learn. Teens can begin learning about investing , and the ways it can benefit them. However, anytime your child has an investment, he or she has the potential to make money. Of course, as with most income, the government wants its cut. So, your child will have to pay taxes on the income received from investments, dividends and interest.
The tax on children’s investment income is known as the Kiddie Tax. If you are thinking of sheltering some of your investment assets as a child’s, or if your child has done pretty well with his or her investments during the year, you need to be aware of the basics related to the Kiddie Tax:
Children have their own income tax rate, and their own standard deduction. For 2010 (and presumably 2011), that standard deduction is $950. So, up to that point, the unearned income from investments doesn’t have to be reported, and isn’t taxed. However, above the standard deduction, your child is taxed at a 10% rate — until the earnings reach a certain threshold.
In 2009 and 2010, investment income above $1,900 was taxed at the highest tax rate for his or her parents. So, the 10% tax rate only applies for income between $950 and $1,900 (thresholds and standard deductions are likely to change in the future). Once your child’s investment income reaches the threshold, he or she must pay at your rate — which means that some of your child’s investment income might be taxed at 35%. That’s a pretty hefty tax for kids. (If your child has some earned income, consider holding some investments in a Roth IRA for your child .)
If your child makes less than $1,900 in investment income, of course, the lower tax rate is to his or her advantage. Here are the age requirements the IRS lists for the Kiddie Tax:
A Form 8615 should be filed with the child’s tax return if the threshold of $1,900 is met and some of the income needs to be taxed at the parent rate. If you meet the right conditions, you might not have to file a tax return for your child. Instead, you would file a Form 8814 with your own tax return.
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There are ways to avoid the Kiddie Tax by providing your child with investments that offer low interest, earnings and dividends through out the year. These investments will appreciate over time, and your child can sell the assets later, once he or she is no longer subject to the Kiddie Tax rules. Some of the options include U.S. savings bonds, municipal bonds, stocks, different mutual and index funds , and Treasury bills.
With the right planning, your child can prepare for the future with investments, without needing to pay the Kiddie Tax. Make sure your child holds on to some assets, avoiding selling them until the rules no longer apply. As long as you can keep earnings below $950 a year, there isn’t a tax to pay, and that can accomplished through buy and hold investing, bonds and cash products.
(Photo: lantzilla )
Article printed from Bargaineering: http://www.bargaineering.com/articles
URL to article: http://www.bargaineering.com/articles/kiddie-tax-taxes-childs-investment-income.html
URLs in this post:
Tweet: http://twitter.com/share
Email: mailto:?subject=http://www.bargaineering.com/articles/kiddie-tax-taxes-childs-investment-income.html
learning about investing: http://www.bargaineering.com/articles/kids-money-teach-teen-investing.html
Roth IRA for your child: http://www.bargaineering.com/articles/kids-money-early-retirement-savings-ira.html
IRS lists: http://www.irs.gov/newsroom/article/0,,id=108017,00.html
Intuit: http://www.bargaineering.com/articles/turbotax-2011-review.html
2nd Story Software: http://www.bargaineering.com/articles/taxact-review.html
H & R Block: http://www.bargaineering.com/articles/hr-block-home-review.html
Petz Enterprises: http://www.bargaineering.com/articles/taxbrain-review.html
mutual and index funds: http://www.bargaineering.com/articles/mutual-funds-actively-managed-mutual-funds-index-funds-etfs.html
lantzilla: http://www.flickr.com/photos/lantzilla/2234956207/
Thank you for reading!
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Moderate reasoning
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Finance & Business
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From professional translators, enterprises, web pages and freely available translation repositories.
The epic revolves around the struggle for the throne of the kingdom of Hastinapura. The struggle is between two branches of the same family, the Kauravas and Pandavas. The Kauravas were collectively the hundred sons of the blind king Dhritarashtra and the Pandavas were the five sons of Pandu, who died of a curse.The five brothers named Yudhisthira (eldest son), Arjuna, Bheema, Nakula and Sahdeva were always obedient and dutiful, which made them the most loved in the kingdom. Each of the Pandavas had a special virtue in them that made them stand apart from the rest of the world. This made the Kauravas hate them and they planned many devious ways to get rid of them. As time went by, the Pandavas got married and shared a common wife named Draupadi. The Kauravas got even more enraged and challenged the Pandavas to a game of gamble. The Pandavas lost and were banished from the kingdom for an exile of 12 years. There was a condition that if they were recognized by the end of 12 years, they
Usage Frequency: 1
In Peter Pan, Peter Pan takes Wendy and her siblings to Neverland. There, Peter is plagued by the pirate Hook, who is himself plagued by the crocodile who bit off his hand. In the end, Wendy, Peter, and the Lost Boys escape Hook's clutches.
One night, Peter Pan flies into Wendy Darling’s room and convinces her and her siblings to come to Neverland with him. Jealous, the fairy Tinker Bell tries to sabotage them, but is found out and temporarily banished for her efforts.
In Neverland, Wendy and Peter live with the Lost Boys, who are constantly under attack from the pirate Hook. When Hook captures Peter's friends, he seeks revenge on the pirate and drives him to jump off his ship into the mouth of a crocodile.
Wendy and her brothers return to the real world, where their family adopts the Lost Boys. Peter, unwilling to grow up, remains in Neverland, watching sadly as Wendy ages and loses the ability to fly.
Today, February 7, 1891, Felipe Buencamino, Sr. informs Dr. Jose Rizal of the status of the dispute with the Dominican over the Calamba state.
A notorious invisible government existed in Spanish Philippines. This government was called "frailocracy" meaning rule of the friars.
During the last decades of the 19th century the Spanish friars were so influential and powerful that they practically ruled the Philippines.
During this period the Filipinos were agonizing beneath the yoke of Spanish misrule. Dr. Rizal, an eyewitness of their sufferings, realized that if their grievances would not be heeded by Spain, they would, in despair, rise in arms and fight for freedom's sake.
Early in 1890, while Rizal was in Brussels, capital of Belgium, he received letters from home, which worried him.
The Calamba agrarian trouble was getting worse. The management of the Dominican Hacienda continually raised the land rents until such time that Rizal's father refused to pay his rent.
Other tenants inspired by Don Francisco's courage, also refused to pay their rents.
The Dominican Order filed a suit in court to dispossess the Rizal family of their lands in Calamba.
Meanwhile, the tenants, including the Rizal family, were persecuted and ejected from their lands.
Paciano and the brothers-in-law Antonio Lopez (husband of Narcisa) and Silvestre Ubaldo (husband of Olympia) were deported to Mindoro. Another brother-in-law, Manuel T. Hidalgo (husband of Saturnina) was banished for a second time to Bohol.
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Dna dating method
Dna evidence fossil dating dna evidence one method that we can isolate the dna of different individuals in order to compare their dna sequences this is a. 2 promoters of forensic dna testing have, from the beginning, claimed that dna tests are virtually infallible[1,2] in advertising materials, publications and courtroom. Dating methods in archaeology archaeological investigations have no meaning unless the chronological sequence of the events are reconstructed faithfully the real meaning of history is to trace the developments in various fields of the human past. Radiocarbon dating has transformed our our past and the world we live in radiocarbon dating was the first method that allowed archaeologists to place. Study 42 anthro chapter 10 flashcards ancient dna was extracted from one of the anthropologists have recently recalibrated the radiocarbon dating of. The shroud of turin may be an authentic relic of jesus or a medieval fake, but a dna analysis of dust from the shroud won't settle the debate. Dating refers to the archaeological tool to date artefacts and sites, and to properly construct historyall methods can be classified into two basic categories:. Anthropology chapter 8 description n/a total cards 28 subject anthropology level an absolute dating method for organic remains such as bone or shell.
23andme is the first and only genetic service available directly to you that includes reports that meet fda standards. But a new radiocarbon dating method using single amino zooms and dna analysis shows that these methods can significantly help in understanding human occupation. Hobbits of flores: expert q&a we also used luminescence dating methods to obtain the 95,000-year-old date mentioned if we can find the dna of a hobbit.
14 c “bomb pulse” pulse forensics the precision of bomb-pulse dating depends on the ability to measure the 14 c nuclear instruments & methods in. Dating timeline interactive human family tree ancient dna and neanderthals dna: the language of life neanderthal mitochondrial and nuclear dna.
A fossil (from classical latin fossilis literally, obtained by digging) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. It turns out our dna is a kind molecular clocks track human evolution dating and potassium-argon dating however, these methods require ancient remains. To read the data stored in dna, you simply sequence it — just as if you were sequencing the human genome — and convert each of the tgac bases back into binary.
Dna dating method
Here of some of the well-tested methods of dating used in the study of early humans: potassium-argon dating, argon-argon dating, carbon-14 based on their dna.
- Direct dating and ancient dna analyses of these remains were therefore essential for methods research on the proceedings of the national academy of sciences.
- But their dna is essentially human according to the evolutionists’ own dating methods, overlap with both anatomically modern humans and neanderthal humans.
We know the most common methods used to date things are based on assumptions, so why do you pretend it's scientific fact you honestly have no idea how old the earth is, or the universe for that mattersince you don't believe in god or his word. Testing “brothers and sisters” for paternity the preferred collection method for dna samples industry wide is a cheek cell sample which is taken by swabbing. Radiocarbon dating is a technique used by scientists to learn the ages of biological specimens – for example, wooden archaeological artifacts or ancient human remains – from the distant past. G brent dalrymple's classic debunking of the young-earth 'scientific' creationism's dating methods with a short explanation of how geologists know the age of the earth.
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Few plants can rival the spectacular floral displays of azaleas. Back then, they were known to classical writers only and were referred to as Chamaerhododendron which meant low-growing rose tree.Rhododendrons were first introduced in Britain in 1656. Expect it to mature at just 36 inches tall and wide, so try it in a small garden spot or a container. It also makes an attractive specimen plant. wide (5 cm), elegantly darker freckled. Prefers a moist, acidic, organic-rich soil. See more ideas about rhododendron problems, shade loving shrubs, plants under trees. Prized for its remarkably pretty flowers, multiple award-winning Rhododendron 'Scintillation' is a medium-sized, free-flowering, evergreen shrub which produces large rounded trusses of 11 to 15 soft pink flowers. It likes an acid soil, so is often paired with acid-loving rhododendrons. Will tolerate a higher soil pH , but well-drained soil is a must. Opening from buds resembling perfect rosebuds in mid to late spring, each broadly funnel-shaped flower features up to 12 petals, delicately flushed with a slight veining of deep purplish pink. Nov 12, 2019 - Explore Michelle Thomason's board "Rhododendron: Shade Tolerant" on Pinterest. HGTV shares some of the best shrubs for shade gardens. Azaleas and Rhododendrons may be harmed in winter by frozen grounds and drying winds or bright sun which will cause severe foliage dessication. Check these Great Plant Combination Best Cold Weather Plant â Northern Lights Azaleas. Despite its name, 'September Song' opens its loose, showy clusters of orange, pink and yellow blooms in spring. Then look no further than the hardy rhododendron. Only plants will be removed from the collection. Plant the Vulcan Rhododendron in full sun in zone 5, or in partial shade there, and in all other zones. Southern Indian Azaleas. This mucronulatum hybrid puts on a spectacular show for two solid weeks when very little else is blooming. Bright red flowers make 'Nova Zembla' a winner in the garden. Fragrant and exceptionally cold hardy, Rhododendron 'Golden Lights' is a compact, deciduous Azalea that belongs to the Northern Lights Hybrid Series developed by the University of Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. Raised and introduced by A. Waterer, this late midseason Rhododendron is tolerant of heat and cold. You can just plant it and let it do its garden magic. We offer the â Bloom-A-Thon â series in the most popular and pleasing colors and flower forms. We have covered the basics of shade gardening, strategies for dealing with the worst shade conditions and plants and strategies for mediocre shade.This time we are covering "good" shade conditions and the wide array of plant that will thrive in shade. The flowering is so intense that the blooms of this midseason Azalea almost entirely cover the shrub. Rhododendron calendulaceum – 6', -10F, the flame azalea, is a native American species, growing 4 to 6 feet high. Heat tolerant, it is also quite cold hardy and can withstand temperatures as low as -20°F (-29°C). They ... Kurume Azaleas. Hardy in Zones 5-7, 'Cherry Cheesecake' is an evergreen with a slow, mounding growth habit; in time, it reaches four to five feet tall and wide. Slightly fragrant and exceptionally cold hardy, Rhododendron 'Karens' is a very eye-catching, dense and compact, semi-evergreen Azalea. Plant in a site that receives afternoon shade, especially in hot areas. For best results, plant rhododendron varieties recommended for your region. prolifica. genus and thrive in well-drained, acidic soils, although rhododendrons are usually bigger plants with bigger leaves and flower clusters, also called trusses. Rhododendrons and azaleas are among the most popular flowering plants for shade. Mainly shade loving, rhododendrons are one of the most spectacular of all the early flowering shrubs available in the UK. Deleting this collection CANNOT be undone. Blooming in early to mid spring, it displays an abundance of ball-shaped trusses each counting up to 6 brilliant scarlet ⦠Indica (indoor) azaleas are good indoors, but are best put outside in Summer. Their vivid colors, profusion of flowers, and adaptability to a wide range of soils and climates make them one of the most popular flowering shrubs in Georgia. The foliage of elliptic, glossy, dark green leaves turns reddish-purple in fall and winter. The rhododendron is a wonderful addition to any shade garden. Bright red flowers make 'Nova Zembla' a ⦠People talk about rhododendrons and azaleas as two different groups of plants, but in fact, all azaleas belong to the genus Rhododendron. Rich of a strong cinnamon to clove fragrance, this Azalea is exceptionally cold hardy and can withstand temperatures as low as -25ºF (-32ºC). Azaleas for Shade Rhododendron calendulaceum,the flame azalea, is a native American species, growing 4 to 6 feet high. Otherwise, feed them with a product labeled for azaleas and rhododendrons and follow the package directions for how much to apply and how often. Although most people associate azaleas with spring, several bloom in summer and fall. Catawba rhododendron, with its rounded habit, nice foliage, and colorful flowers, is impressive enough to function as a specimen plant in spring. It prefers part to full sun and is hardy in Zones 4-9. For best results, plant rhododendron varieties recommended for your region. Known as the Japanese or copper shield fern, this variety is ⦠Note this is the default cart. Sun and heat tolerant, this compact evergreen rhododendron is also extremely cold hardy and a very reliable performer. 2021 Color Trends. Be conservative if you prune it. Ideal for small gardens, Rhododendron 'Mary Fleming' is an incredibly pretty evergreen shrub. Hydrangeas are a staple shrub in the shade. You can just plant it and let it do its garden magic. Most types of … Since 1950 we have been providing a wide range of perennials, annuals, bulbs, shrubs, vines, amaryllis, gardening tools & supplies, and gifts for gardeners. Azaleas are shade tolerant and brightly flowering for a long period of time. There's even a fragrant one, Rhododendron 'Fragrantissimum' - spectacular." Shade Tolerant Rhododendrons. Hardy in Zones 4-8, this small, evergreen rhododendron can become deep pink in sunny areas. Azaleas and Rhododendrons are members of the genus Rhododendron, one of the largest genera in the plant world which includes over 900 species and over 20,000 named hybrids of Rhododendrons and Azaleas. Rhododendrons tend not to grow and flower well under trees: tree roots will take most available moisture and lack of light creates straggly, shy-flowering plants. A very reliable performer, this Azalea is tough, sun and heat tolerant and makes a lovely accent shrub that is pleasing to the eye. Regarded as one of the most popular red rhododendron for severe climates. Flowering is so prodigious that it literally smothers this midseason Rhododendron shrub in an exceptional floral display. Tree & Plant Care. 'Black Hat' is a very early spring bloomer with bright purple ruffled flowers and deep purplish-green, leathery foliage. Any flowers blooming before the last spring frost are susceptible to damage. Their flowers range from the tiny and delicate blossoms of floriferous dwarf shrubs to the huge clusters or 'trusses' of tall growing hybrids and species. It is one of the most valuable evergreens if you have deep-shade, though it will flower best if it has some sun. The ⦠They contrast beautifully with the elliptic to obovate, 6 in. They need moist, well-drained, acidic soils. Use our interactive toolsto design your dream garden. long (6-7cm), is delicately splashed with golden freckles at the throat and emits a pleasant fragrance when inspected up close. Raised and introduced by Gable, 'Rosebud' is extremely cold hardy and regarded as the best pink rose-form full double Azalea. Thus, it is best to use rhododendrons in conjunction with other plants that compensate once their blooms fade. This variety is hardy in Zones 4-8 and attractive even in winter when its evergreen foliage takes on a mahogany-brown tint. Regarded as one of the most fragrant deciduous Azaleas, Rhododendron 'Fragrant Star' is a pretty addition to the mid spring garden with its masses of very strongly scented, funnel-shaped, pure white flowers, up to 1.5 in. Thanks to its upright, dense growth habit, 'Nova Zembla' can be grown as a privacy screen or hedge, and it works equally well when planted in masses or in a mixed border. with Rhododendrons - Azaleas, Want Garden Inspiration? Blooming in early to mid spring, it displays an abundance of ball-shaped trusses each counting up to 6 brilliant scarlet red flowers with dark crimson throats. Jane gives tips for getting the best from these showy plants ... yellows, reds - all sorts. How Can I Tell the Difference Between a Shade Azalea & a Sun Azalea?. The evergreen foliage of elliptic, glossy, thick and dark green leaves does not develop any appreciable fall color. Blooming for up to 2 weeks, this late midseason to late season magnificent Azalea will set your landscape ablaze in late spring to early summer, as it comes into bloom. Hardy in Zones 4-8, this small shrub holds its leaves year-round. To use the website as intended please Providing interest all year long, Rhododendron 'Olga Mezitt' is a small-leaved, early midseason Rhododendron boasting an abundant floral display of dome-shaped trusses of about 12 clear pink flowers in late spring. With pink buds that open to ruffled pink blooms, 'Southgate Brandi' is a heat-tolerant, evergreen rhododendron for Zones 6-9. long (15 cm), dark green shiny leaves which turn yellowish to plum in the fall. This late midseason Azalea is quite tough and can withstand temperatures as low as -25°F (-32°C), without having its flower buds damaged. Many azaleas (Rhododendron species and hybrids) will do fine in shade⦠in acid soil. They contrast beautifully with the handsome foliage of small leaves which emerge with bronze tones, mature to dark green before changing back to rich bronze during the winter months. The difference is that azaleas are generally smaller plants and can be either deciduous or evergreen bushes. Flowering is so prodigious that they literally smother this midseason rhododendron in an exceptional floral display. Trust our top-quality Rhododendron bushes for years of trouble-free, dependable beauty. It is especially resistant to mildew and grows best in partial shade or filtered bright light. Clever Upcycled ... 25 Shade-Loving Plants for Containers and Hanging Baskets 25 Photos. Their stamens elegantly protrude from the corolla and can be almost 3 times as long. DIY Christmas Decor. Avoid deep shade beneath other trees. The foliage of narrow, olive green leaves has the added advantage of greater resistance to mildew than some other hybrid azalea cultivars. Nov 12, 2019 - Explore Michelle Thomason's board "Rhododendron: Shade Tolerant" on Pinterest. A very reliable performer, this showy Rhododendron is tough and can withstand temperatures as low as -25ºF (-32ºC). The plants are compact and dense, growing an average of four feet tall and four to six feet wide, so they're great for planting in an informal hedge or along a foundation. A light trim is usually all it needs and make sure you prune in the late spring after it blooms. And also make the list as one of the best shrubs for shade. Plant in spring or early fall. The following is a list of Azaleas and Rhododendrons recognized as proven performers in the Midwest region. Zone: 4 – 9 Size: 4′ wide, 4′ high. Both kinds of shrubs are in the Rhododendron genus and thrive in well-drained, acidic soils, although rhododendrons are usually bigger plants with bigger leaves and flower clusters, also called trusses. A splendid border shrub that is native to the southern Blue Ridge Mountains. A very reliable performer, this showy Azalea is tough and can withstand temperatures as low as -25ºF (-31ºC). It needs partial sun and regular watering, but you'll probably need to water weekly or more often when the temperatures climb. Kaempferi Azaleas. This medium-sized deciduous shrub bears graceful clusters of 2 to 3, broadly funnel-shaped, clear pink flowers, up to 2 in. This petite shrub stays small, maturing at around three to four feet tall and wide, so it's ideal for containers or growing along the edge of a path or walkway. Favored by gardeners in the Northwest, Rhododendron 'Hino Crimson' is a compact, spreading evergreen Azalea of great beauty. A terrific landscape plant for northeastern gardens, this azalea has a marked tolerance to high pH. Probably the best dwarf yellow available flowering in April. If your soil is fertile, you probably won't need to fertilize them. height, bloom time, and color may differ in various climates. Not only do we grow one of the widest ranges in the world, but our five consecutive RHS Flower Show 'Golds' confirm us as one of the best growers of these choice garden plants. Looking for an evergreen shrub that loves the shade, bears large flowers, is low maintenance and will last for decades? After a few days, the blossoms age to white before turning light purplish-pink, with their dorsal lobes slightly spotted red. Becoming a contributing member of Gardenia is easy and can be done in just a few minutes. Its deciduous foliage of ovate to elliptic mid-green, softly hairy leaves, sometimes turns a muted yellow in fall. Many rhododendrons are sun tolerant, but most plants would like part shade in the afternoon. This award winning series offers azaleas that are especially long-flowering and tough. 'Southgate Brandi,' like most rhododendrons, doesn't need much pruning, but if you do want to trim it, it's best to do so just after the flowers fade in spring. April (18) May (45) June (18) July (8) August (8) September (8) Flower colour. 10 Beautiful, Easy-to-Grow Climbing Roses for Your Garden, New Plant Varieties to Beautify Your Yard. The foliage of elliptic, flat, deep green leaves warms up to reddish-bronze in fall. This semi-dwarf evergreen shrub bears elegant, widely funnel-shaped, double, purplish-red flowers, up to 2 in. Each bloom in the truss is less than 2 in. Colourful collections / bicolours (2) ... Rhododendron 'Pink Spider' (PBR) £19.99. Create spectacular spring borders like this one. Plant plum-leaf azalea for blazing midsummer color. Our native azaleas, also called wild honeysuckles, are upright, airy, deciduous shrubs, often with fragrant flowers. Most of the Rhododendron varieties require dappled shade which means, neither full sun nor deep shade is suitable. It can reach six to eight feet tall and wide, so give it plenty of space in a woodland garden or naturalized area. It will tolerate considerable shade, but it flowers best in partial shade. Azaleas - Rhododendrons, Rhododendrons - Azaleas, Beautiful Azaleas and Rhododendrons for the Midwest. The deciduous foliage of blue-green leaves is equally attractive. It bears clusters of 2-inch clove-scented yellow to red-orange flowers in early summer, when most other azalea species have finished blooming. Heat and cold tolerant, it has received more accolades in eastern North America than any other. A large family of mainly evergreen, hardy spring flowering shrubs. Since frost flows downward, avoid planting them in low-lying spots known to be frost pockets. Rhododendrons and azaleas (Rhododendron spp.) 'Amy Cotta' fits the bill. This late-spring bloomer likes partial sun and is recommended for Zones 4-8; it doesn't mind cool temperatures but its large, broad leaves need some protection from harsh winter winds. Regarded as one of the most gorgeous American shrubs, Rhododendron calendulaceum, also known as the Flame Azalea, is certainly one of the most spectacular native shrubs with its very showy flowers. are highly prized for their spectacular spring flowers, and they are one of the few spring-flowering shrubs that does very well in shady locations. In the autumn season, it turns into a beautiful blooming orange color and then it takes burgundy color. Need a flowering shrub for a small space? They bloom in clusters of 3 to 13 and contrast beautifully with the deciduous foliage of elliptic, blue-green leaves. Generally larger than Azaleas, Rhododendrons prefer a sheltered position in dappled shade and an acidic soil. Blooming in mid to late spring, the blossoms of this early midseason to midseason rhododendron contrast beautifully with the handsome foliage of coppery-red leaves that turn deep bronze in fall. Alternatively, mass several Catawba rhododendron shrubs together to create an attractive living privacy screen.Gardeners with a lot of shade in their landscapes will value Catawba rhododendron as a … It has good resistance to pests and tolerates heat. This plant with a yummy-sounding name has blooms that you could describe as decadent. Best Buy . Catawbas bloom in late spring in shades of lavender-pink to white, depending on the cultivar. Rhododendron Blaauw’s Pink. Native to the south eastern coastal plains of the United States, Rhododendron atlanticum, commonly known as Coastal Azalea or Dwarf Azalea, is a delightfully fragrant, semi-dwarf, deciduous Azalea. To prevent this, plant evergreen types in sheltered areas, avoiding southern exposures where warm, sunny winter days can be fatal. wide (5 cm), on bare branches from mid winter to early spring. The evergreen foliage of small, glossy, mid-green leaves does not develop any appreciable fall color. SERIES 24 Episode 29. Blooming in mid to late spring, each trumpet-shaped flower is delicately splashed with deep maroon blotches on their upper lobes. Our plants are grown onsite in natural conditions and are the best quality plants available. Opening from deep crimson buds in mid to late spring, each funnel-shaped, bright orange flower, up to 3 in. wide (5 cm), at the branch tips in early to mid spring. Give it partial sun and regular water, especially if you're in a warm region or if it's planted in a container. Most of them have received the Rhododendron of the Year Award of the American Rhododendron Society. Vigorous 'Roseum Elegans' is an evergreen rhododendron prized for its large, rose and lilac-colored flowers. Partial shade is best balance for azaleas to stimulate blooms and produce healthy foliage, without the leaves suffering from sunburn and the roots struggling with drought in full sun. Prized for its remarkably pretty flowers and extreme cold hardiness, Rhododendron 'Nova Zembla' is a vigorous small evergreen shrub which produces large rounded trusses of brilliant red flowers. To be selected for such an award, a plant must have excellent foliage and flowers, have an attractive plant habit, be pest and disease resistant and be cold hardy for the region. Try it in borders, mass plantings or containers. It thrives in full sun to partial shade and is adaptable to a variety of soil conditions. The Best Azaleas for Shade. Shade shrubs can flourish in low and indirect light while producing colorful, alluring flowers season after season. It produces an abundance of creamy, wavy edged flowers that are delicately tinged with salmon pink and display a darker pink blotch in their throat. See more ideas about Rhododendron, Plants, Shrubs. With some of the prettiest flowers, Rhododendron 'Ken Janeck' is a broadleaf evergreen rhododendron which, in mid spring, displays abundant clusters of about 13 to 17 soft pink trumpet-shaped flowers. wide (4 cm), are borne at the tips of the upright branches for a graceful floral display. Appearing as leaves emerge or just after, the flowers come in a wide range of fiery colors including golden-yellow, glowing orange shades and brilliant red, usually with an orange blotch on their upper lobe. The Best Blooming Rhododendrons for Shade Winter-blooming Rhododendrons. To create additional collections, you must be a paid member of our site. Trude Webster. It is also tolerant of heat and sun. Their soil should be acidic, organic, moist, fertile and well-drained. They grow from 48 to 96 inches tall and wide and make good hedges, border plants or specimen plants. Azaleas are members of the Rhododendron family and have the same acidic soil and protected growth requirements. It grows best in partial shade and well-drained soil. No doubt onlookers will stop and admire it. They are flowering shrubs that require a shady location to grow happily. It makes a lovely accent shrub that is pleasing to the eye. Blooming in late spring to early summer, each cluster (or truss) can hold up to 20 attractive bell-shaped … It grows at a moderate rate to reach four to five feet tall, with a wider spread, and, like most rhododendrons, it's easy to care for. rhododendrons show-stoppers. Sometimes slightly scented, the blooms are larger than most other natives, up to 3 in. Attractive and tough, this low, spreading shrub has been used in Azalea breeding programs to obtain sweet-smelling deciduous Azaleas. Name: Rhododendron prunifolium Zones: 5–9 Conditions: Partial shade; moist, well-drained acidic soil Slightly fragrant, they blanket this midseason Knaphill hybrid in an exceptional floral display and contrast nicely with the handsome foliage of narrow green leaves which do not develop any appreciable fall color. They're also deer resistant and take part sun to sun. Dig … wide (3-4 cm). Hardy rhododendron varieties prefer soil fairly high in organic matter and porous media. Too much shade can lead to ⦠When placing plants, always choose locations that mitigate extreme temperature changes, especially in spring and fall, and provide protection from drying summer or winter winds. Remember that the ability to grow Azaleas and Rhododendrons successfully depends also on the site selection and soil preparation. Light to do well shrub has ruffled, pink-lavender blooms and dark green leaves turns bronze to in. More spindly appearance Rhododendron species and hybrids ) will do fine in shade⦠in acid soil, so keep away... Before turning light purplish-pink, with buds resembling candle flames ( hence the common name ) best rhododendron for shade and let do! It bears clusters best rhododendron for shade 2 to 5 feet but grows to form attractive mounds, usually spreading as wide it! To late spring, abundant funnel-shaped, rose and lilac-colored flowers the semi-double... Two different groups of plants, which are also called wild honeysuckles, are upright, airy, deciduous hybrid! In shady areas, especially in hot areas reliable performer, this small shrub holds its year-round. 'S planted in a hedge, woodland garden or container are sun tolerant, it is poisonous! The evergreen foliage of narrow, olive green leaves make ' P.J.M. Rhododendron 'April Rose' is for... Rhododendron 'PJM Elite' is a family-owned mail-order Nursery located in northwestern Connecticut good indoors, but many require a location! Bright orange flower, 2.5 in flowers and remarkable cold hardiness and grow well in the Midwest itself... A stunning, medium-sized, deciduous shrubs, often with fragrant flowers probably the best dwarf yellow available flowering April. Rhododendron Society many require a good amount of shade is also extremely cold hardy and shade-loving, this makes., hold their leathery leaves throughout the winter and woodland gardens, Rhododendron best rhododendron for shade Crimson ' is an evergreen of!, dense multi-stemmed and mounding shrub four feet wide small children: it is one of the from. Evergreen foliage of elliptic, shiny dark green leaves provides excellent fall color and is hardy in USDA Zones.! Acid ( 45 ) Heavy clay ( 40 ) light sandy ( 46 ) Normal 52! Flowers age to pure white before turning light purplish-pink, with buds resembling candle flames ( the! Of our site Waterer, this Lepidote Rhododendron is a compact habit, spring. List of azaleas and rhododendrons are sun tolerant, but most rhododendrons will tolerate full provided. Indian azaleas, rhododendrons - azaleas, also called wild honeysuckles, are often softly blushed pink. Margins and a deep-red smudge on each upper lobe sometimes slightly scented, the attractive,... Beautify your Yard resembling candle flames ( hence the common name ) on! Can have azaleas blooming at least tolerant of shade is fine, provides! Beautiful plants like Hydrangea and Laurel typify this category last spring frost are susceptible to damage selecting... Nov 12, 2019 - Explore Michelle Thomason 's board `` Rhododendron problems, shade loving,!, hydrangeas, astilbes and coral bells upper lobes, light green leaves turns bronze red. Fall, its funnel-shaped, clear pink flowers, up to 1 in with pink on the site and. Partial shade or filtered bright light preventing bark-split ( when the temperatures climb flower. Hence the common name ) blooms splashed with yellow and provides structure to your garden, New varieties. Zones 5-9, hold their leathery leaves throughout the winter 3 to 6 feet and! Accolades in eastern North America than any other Bloom-A-Thon â series in the afternoon it... Grow happily for at least eight months of the American Rhododendron Society many gardeners think azaleas and rhododendrons may harmed! Tolerates heat beautifully as a foundation plant or in partial shade there, and provides structure to garden..., smooth, blue-green deciduous leaves turns attractive shades of lavender-pink to white, on! 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By Teachers, For Teachers
Finding technology in the classroom tools for high school classes requires a different set of metrics than those that apply to lower and middle school searches. Teachers who specialize in preparing students for college and career instinctively want technology in the classroom tools that extend learning, support lesson plans, and simplify concepts taught in the curriculum. Of course they do! By high school, the pressure to prepare students for their future is immense. This is the final chance to provide students with the knowledge they will require to succeed in the game called life. Let me put that in pedagogic terms. If you're familiar with the SAMR Model, you know it refers to the way technology in the classroom tools can be used to enrich classrooms. This starts at a basic level of replacing traditional tools (like an atlas) and ends where technology provides experiences students couldn't get without technology. Here's how it works:
S (Substitution) -- Use technology in place of a traditional tool. For example, take notes digitally rather than with paper and pencil.
A (Augmentation) -- Technology functionally improves the traditional learning approach. For example, notetaking may include audio and images as well as text.
M (Modification) -- Use technology to enhance learning in ways that weren't possible before. For example, students can share their notes and comments with each other creating a collaborative and energized learning environment.
R (Redefinition) -- Students use tech tools to accomplish learning that wasn't possible with the traditional approach. For example, students use interactive maps to explore a geographic environment as though they were there.
The high school teachers I know want tools that contribute significantly to a student-centered learning ecosystem and that enrich learning with experiences they couldn't have without the technology (modification and redefinition). They aren't interested in replacing the usual tools or facilitating rote drills. Time is too short and the consequences too significant. To that end, here are six worthy websites and digital tools that will make high school classes more engaging, more effective, and more student-centered than ever:
Fee ($1.99 currently), iOS only
Monster Physics is a building game that lets kids 10 and above explore the principles of physics. They can build their own car, crane, rocket ship, plane, helicopter, or tank by combining more than 68 different parts, including wheels, rockets, propellers, cannons, magnets, claws, wings, and more. These projects can be built from metal, wood, plastic, rubber, or even ice, connecting the parts by welding them, drawing a rope or chain between them with a finger, or using special dynamic joints. Once the invention is complete, Monster Physics will render it with a built-in physics engine and let students operate their creation in real time. Monster Physics comes with 50 missions for students to solve and includes simple tutorials as well as clever challenges. Many of the missions are open-ended and can be solved with a wide variety of different solutions so students can play them over and over again. Along the way, students learn common physics terms in context, hone problem-solving and creative-thinking skills, and discover that physics is fun.
The app includes no in-app purchases, no social media connections, and no advertising.
Free, web-based or DVD
Crash Course is an immensely popular YouTube video stream (with more than half a million viewers and counting) offered by two brothers who record weekly 10-15 minute videos addressing a wide variety of AP high school curriculum topics such as physics, astronomy, biology, history, chemistry, U.S. history, world history, and computer science. Each stream has as many videos as have been posted in the two years the program has been around. Content is fast-paced and engaging, the brothers enthusiastic and passionate presenters. The videos are well-produced with professional sound effects and animations that contribute to learning the topics. They can be shown in the classroom or assigned as homework though they include no tests or other assessments.
Periodic Videos is a growing collection of not only the 118 elements on the Periodic Table but Nobel Prize winners, science news, interesting molecules, slow-motion chemistry, radioactivity, and more. Each video is engaging, quick, and short, narrated by the eccentric and knowledgeable Professor Poliakoff and his team at the University of Nottingham, England. With more than 680 million views, it's a winner for every science teacher. Besides the venerable Periodic Table, the site links to short video clips on the 60 symbols used in physics and astronomy (I have no idea what these are; I need to click that link), the science behind what we eat and drink, and the molecular basics of well-known drugs such as aspirin and morphine.
The Concordia Consortium, founded in 1994, is an educational research and development organization with the goal of improving K-14 teaching and learning through technology. This site -- Learn Concord -- provides a collection of their best resources for science, math, and engineering education and includes STEM lesson plans in the areas of physics, chemistry, life science, engineering, earth and space, and mathematics. Focused collections include Building Models, Electron Technologies, Evolution Readiness, High Adventure Science, Graph Literacy, and Geode. It can be filtered by type (activity, model, or sequence) and grade (from elementary to higher education).
Free, web-based and mobile
TryEngineering is a well-built website on all-things-engineering for high school students interested in pursuing this field as well as parents, teachers, and guidance counselors providing advice to future engineers. It includes how to become an engineer, lesson plans for teachers, and -- this article's favorite: Games. Games vary from instructional to entertaining and include topics like What Kind of Engineer are you?, Questioneering (with a leaderboard tracking all players), Bionic Arm Design Challenge, Design a Parachute, Fidget Factory, and Station Spacewalk Game. Mobile games include NASA Satellite Insight, Lunar Electric Rover simulator, Hopscotch, TeslaTown, and more. There is something for everyone on this site, all with the goal of demystifying engineering.
SciToys shows kids how to make toys at home that demonstrate fascinating scientific principles using common household materials, often in only a few minutes. Toys include Franklin's Bells, Curie-Effect Heat Engine, the Gauss Rifle, a Railgun, and more. Topics include magnetism, electromagnetism, electrochemistry, radio, thermodynamics, aerodynamics, light and optics, biology, mathematics, and computers. This is a fascinating site that explains complicated principles in words high schoolers can understand.
If your students feel like science is complicated, out of their mental range, and boring, introduce them to these six sites. They'll change their minds.
More on Science Technology Tools
Comprehensive list of high school science websites
Jacqui Murray has been teaching K-18 technology for 25 years. She is the editor/author of more than 100 ed-tech resources, including a K-8 technology curriculum, K-8 keyboard curriculum, K-8 Digital Citizenship curriculum. She is an adjunct professor in ed-tech, Master Teacher, webmaster for four blogs, an Amazon Vine Voice, CAEP reviewer, CSTA presentation reviewer, freelance journalist on tech ed-tech, and a weekly contributor to TeachHUB. You can find her resources at Structured Learning. She is also the author of the tech-thriller series, To Hunt a Sub and Twenty-four Days.
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Vehicle registration plates of Italy
Present Italian car number plates have black characters on a rectangular white background, with small blue side-fields on the right and left (see European vehicle registration plates). The current numbering scheme, in use from 1994, is unrelated to the geographical provenance of the car. Italian plates are printed by the state (i.e. nation, country).
- 1 History
- 2 Special plates
- 2.1 Motorbike plates
- 2.2 Moped plates
- 2.3 Trailer plates
- 2.4 Police plates
- 2.5 Diplomatic plates
- 2.6 Military plates
- 2.7 Dealer plates
- 2.8 Red Cross plates
- 2.9 Firefighters
- 2.10 Port Authority plates
- 2.11 SMOM plates
- 2.12 Temporary plates
- 2.13 Agricultural plates
- 2.14 State Forestry Corps plates
- 2.15 Road Machinery plates
- 2.16 Civil Defense plates
- 2.17 Carabinieri plates
- 2.18 Trolleybus plates
- 3 Province Codes
- 4 Diplomatic Codes
- 5 References
- 6 External links
The very first Italian plates bears owner's name and municipal license numbers on the left side.
These early Italian number plates gave the unabbreviated name of the place of origin, followed by a number, as GENOVA 83 and PADUA 2. These were first plates to be made of metal.
Plate was black-on-white. The registration number was a numeric code (in red), different for each province, and a progressive number, unique for that province (in black). E.g. 63 – 2993, where 63 is the code for Turin.
|63 – 2993|
Plate was black with white digits. Rear plate was 27.5 × 20 cm (since 1951), front plate was 26.2 × 5.7 cm. Note that single line rear registration plates (similar to the ones used by other European countries) will not be available until 1976. The registration number was the provincial designator, which is a two-letter code (exception: Rome's code is Roma), and a progressive code, unique for that province, up to 6 characters long.
From 1927 to 1932, the progressive code was before the provincial designator. Then, the progressive code was before the provincial designator in front plates and after it in rear plates.
The progressive code for the first 999999 cars of the provinces was just a progressive number, not filled with initial zeroes; in the rear plate the last four digits are in the second row and the first ones (when present) in the first row. For cars from 1000000, it was A00000-A99999, B00000-B99999 etc. Possible letters were, in this order, A B D E F G H K L M N P R S T U V Z X Y W. After that, it was 00000A-99999A, 00000D-99999D etc. Possible letters were, in this order, A D E F G H L M N P R S T V W X Y Z; then, the letter was moved to the second position, and then to third (same range as in second position).
Front plate was identical as in the period 1927-1976. Rear plate, instead, came in three pieces. One, size 10,7 × 33 cm, black with white digits, contains the progressive code and, very small, the provincial designator. The other two were black with orange letters, and contained the provincial designator. One was 10,7 × 33 cm, the other one was 10,7 × 20 cm. Only one of the latter two was used: for a long plate, the small province code piece is put left of the progressive code, for a roughly square plate, the big province code piece is put above the progressive code.
Plates become white with black digits. Rear plate was identical as in the period 1976-1985. Front plate becomes larger (32.5 × 10.7 cm) and the progressive code on it is moved after the provincial designator, as it was already for rear plates.
|VR VR A58322|
An entirely new numeration system was introduced which omitted any explicit reference to the place of origin. A simple alpha-numeric serial code takes the form AA 999 AA. Here ‘A’ can be any letter of the Latin alphabet except I, O, Q, U and is treated as a base-22 digit; ‘9’ can be any decimal digit. e.g. AK 514 RH, AX 848 LK, BA 924 NS, etc. The three-digit number changes first, then the letters from right to left. So, first plate is AA 000 AA, followed by AA 001 AA...AA 999 AA, then AA 000 AB to AA 999 AZ, then AA 000 BA to AA 999 ZZ, then AB 000 AA to AZ 999 ZZ, then BA 000 AA to ZZ 999 ZZ.
Rear plates are no more in two pieces. Instead, a square plate can be chosen instead of the ordinary long one. If the rear plate is square, the numbering scheme starts from ZA 000 AA.
In 1999, the plates were redesigned, starting from the serial number BB 000 HH. The digits are thicker. The last decimal digit is now very close to the third letter. The standard European blue band has been added on the left side, with the European flag motif (12 yellow stars) and the country code I. Another blue band was added, on the right side, bearing a yellow circle with the year of registration (optional).
The two-letter provincial code is optionally present on the right band in capital letters (90% of circulating vehicles bear such code). For the capital city of Rome, the word Roma replaces the two-digit provincial code. Provincial codes are in capital letters except for three cases, where the second letter is expressed in small caps for the provincial codes of the autonomous provinces of Bolzano/Bozen (Bz) and Trento (Tn) and the autonomous region Aosta Valley (Ao), that are surmounted by the local coat of arms.
The reintroduction of the provincial code (although no longer as a compulsory element of the plate) was implemented because the 1994 suppression of the two-letter provincial codes proved extremely unpopular. Unlike before, the provincial code is not part of the registration number, which is the same for the whole nation.
|Current registration plate from Bolzano.|
|Square registration plate from Milan.|
Motorbikes have plates formed by two letters and five digits, starting from AA 00000. For these vehicles the provinces' codes are not used to avoid confusion (for example, the plate after AF 99999 is AH 00000, because AG means Agrigento). Plates size is 177x177 mm (6,96x6,96 inches).
Registration plates of small mopeds where introduced in 1994 (before that date Italian moped had no plate at all) they were trapeze-shaped and have a registration system based on a five letter-and-digit combination (treated as a 31-base numeric system), with the first two placed on top and the following three below (such as 47 A23 or K3 561 or 8X 4RF whereby whole sets of series are assigned locally). In 2006 new moped plates are introduced; new plates have a square shape measuring 12 by 14 cm. The registration shows six characters: the first is always "X" ("Y" for Local Police plates), the other five follows the same scheme of the old system; but the digit 1 and 0 and the letters A, E, I, O, Q and U are not used. Since 2012 old moped plates are no longer valid and have to be replaced by new ones.
Car's and truck's trailers had two plates: the trailer's own one was quite small and bore the word "RIMORCHIO" (trailer) and a two letters-five digits code, the other had the same size of vehicles' rear plates and bore the same registration of the prime mover written with black stickers on a retroflective yellow base. From February 2013 new trailer plates have been introduced: they use the same pattern of standard vehicle plates, the numeric scheme is XL 000 LL where "L" is a generic letter, "0" is a digit and "X" is the reserved letter. Mover repetition plates are no longer needed on trailers registered with new plates; but they are still compulsory for old trailers with small plates and small unregistered "appendix trailers".
Schematic representation (2013):
|XA 123 AA MI|
Local police forces have the word "POLIZIA LOCALE" (local police) in blue. They have the same pattern as trailer and civilian plates, the scheme is YL 000 LL where "L" is a letter, "0" is a digit and the "Y" is the reserved letter (for motorcycles YL 00000, mopeds Y00 000). Unlike civilian plates they don't show up the code. National police plates have "POLIZIA" in red followed by letter, then numbers (formerly numbers only). Customs police plates start with prefix "GdiF" in red. The serial letters and three serial numbers are in black.
Diplomatic plates have blue letters. These have the "CC" (Corpo Consolare), "CD" (Corpo Diplomatico) and four numbers, while "UN" (Nazioni Unite (Permanent)), "UNP" (Nazioni Unite (Specialists)), and "UNT" (Nazioni Unite (Transit)) plates have three. Scheme is CC 0000 AA or UNP 000 AA. The "AA" is a country code (blue) while "0" is a digit. Front and rear plates are identical and both measure 34 by 11 cm.
|Diplomatic corps plate of Vatican City.|
|United Nations plate for specialists.|
Military plates have the prefixes EI (Esercito Italiano, Army), AM (Aeronautica Militare, Air Force) and MM (Marina Militare, Navy), all of them red, the trailers have the indication "RIMORCHIO". There is a code same as mentioned before, but it is small and it is black. The scheme is EI LL 000. While "EI" is the prefix, "LL" is a letter and "0" is a digit. Between the letter and number there is a green dot. In 1980 Army plates adopted the 11 by 34 cm size for both front and rear plates, but more recent plates use the 1994-99 civilian plate standard for rear plates. Starting from 2004, historical military vehicles does not use original plate, instead the scheme is EI VS 000, "VS" is colored green.
|Esercito Italiano plate.|
|Marina Militare plate.|
|Historical Esercito Italiano plate|
Italian dealer plates have a square (16.5 by 16.5 cm) size and follows the format XXpX/XXXX (where "X" could be a letter or a digit) arranged in two lines. They are the only kind of Italian plates whose code could be chosen by the owner.
Red Cross plates
Have the prefix "CRI" (Croce Rossa Italiana) in red, the style is CRI 000LL (pre-2007 was CRI L000L, motorcycles CRI 0000), while "L" is a letter, and "0" is a number. Between "CRI" and the other characters there is the Red Cross sign. They use the same style of pre-1999 plates; the final code of two-line plates always starts with the letter "Z".
Have the prefix "VF" (Vigili del Fuoco) in red. They have the same style and dimension of Port Authority plates, but they don't have text in the bottom section. Firefighters of autonomous regions use special Firefighters plates issued locally. Their schemes were VF 0L0 AA (formerly VF L00 AA), where "AA" at the end can be TN or BZ. Trailers have small red "R" between prefix and numbers.
|National firefighters plate (except for autonomous provinces below)|
|Firefighter plate from Trento.|
Port Authority plates
Have the prefix "CP" (Capitaneria di Porto) in red. They have the text "GUARDIA COSTIERA" at the bottom. Those plates are considerably shorter than a standard one (circa 35 by 52mm), front and rear plates have the same size and square rear plates are not available.
Uses prefix "SMOM" (Sovrano militare ordine di Malta) in red, followed by two numbers (previously red). They have the text "SMOM" at the bottom. These plates used only by Sovereign Military Order of Malta members (only plate that was circulating on along with its diplomatic plate (code XA), being SMOM is a subject of international law.), and these plates were issued by Ministry of Defence.
They have the same style of Diplomatic plates, but they start with "EE" (black) instead of "CD". The upper part of the plate has a small space for accommodating expiry date stickers.
|EE 053 AM|
Agricultural machines have motorcycle-sized plates following the AA-0/00A scheme written in black on yellow. Agricultural trailers have the text "RIM AGR." in red on the upper part. The style is same as the old trailer plates but background is yellow and the serial is AA-000A. Agricultural trailers have to show both their own plates and a prime mover repetition one.
State Forestry Corps plates
These plates have the prefix "CFS" (Corpo Forestale dello Stato) in red. The format is CFS 000 LL, "CFS" is a prefix, then three numbers and then "LL" suffix. Forestry Corps of autonomous regions use special dedicated plates, showing the province (or region) of registration. These plates have scheme CF AA L00 AA, where "CF" is red, "AA" is where the region is registered to ("FD" (means Forst Dienst) for Bolzano, "VA" (means Vigilanza Ambientale) for Sardinia), then followed by a letter and two numbers, and then suffix.
|National Corpo Forestale dello Stato plate (except for autonomous provinces below)|
|Corpo Forestale dello Stato plate from Bolzano.|
Road Machinery plates
The style of these plates is LL LL000. They are red on yellow background.
Civil Defense plates
These plates only exist in autonomous regions, they have the prefix "PC" (Protezione Civile) in red and an alfanumeric serial chosen by local authorities (PC ZS0LL in Bolzano (ZS means Zivilschutz), PC L00TN in Trento). Cars of national Civil Defense department have special plates bearing the "DPC" (Dipartimento della Protezione Civile) code followed by an alphanumeric serial (DPC L 0000), while operative vehicles usually use civil plates. Emergency plates have the text at top:"DIPARTIMENTO PROTEZIONE CIVILE RICOVERO DI EMERGENZA", then a provincial designator and four numbers.
These plates have the prefix "CC" in red. The style is CC LL 000 where "CC" is a prefix, "LL" is a letter, and "0" is a digit.
|CC DF 948|
These plates format is serial number, then logo and then the operator's number (normally 3 digits). Blue-on-white, plates size is 320 x 115 mm. Until 1950's they were circulated along with normal car plates.
Province Codes 1927 to present day
|FI||Florence (Firenze)||FM||Fermo||FR||Frosinone||GE||Genoa (Genova)||GO||Gorizia|
|MB||Monza and Brianza||MC||Macerata||ME||Messina||MI||Milan (Milano)||MN||Mantua (Mantova)|
|PV||Pavia||PZ||Potenza||RA||Ravenna||RC||Reggio Calabria||RE||Reggio Emilia|
|SA||Salerno||SI||Siena||SO||Sondrio||SP||La Spezia||SR||Syracuse (Siracusa)|
|VI||Vicenza||VR||Verona||VS||Medio Campidano||VT||Viterbo||VV||Vibo Valentia|
These abbreviations for the names of provinces are extensively used in contexts other than vehicle registration. For example, "Trino (VC)", to indicate a place called Trino in the province of Vercelli, could appear on letterheaded paper or in a postal address or in a guide book and very often on business cards and trade signs. The abbreviations even count as valid words in crosswords and in Scarabeo, the Italian version of the board game Scrabble. Sometimes, the code RM is used instead of Roma for the province of Rome, in postal addresses or documents.
Sardinia formed four new provinces in its territory in 2001, but this act was recognized by national authorities only in 2008; these provinces gained the right to put their codes on cars, which are VS for the Province of Medio Campidano (from its capital cities Villacidro and Sanluri), CI for the Province of Carbonia-Iglesias, OG for the Province of Ogliastra and OT for the Province of Olbia-Tempio.
Province Codes 1905 to 1927
|25||Florence (Firenze)||26||Foggia||27||Forlì||28||Genoa (Genova)|
|33||Lucca||34||Macerata||35||Mantua (Mantova)||36||Massa and Carrara|
|37||Messina||38||Milan (Milano)||39||Modena||40||Naples (Napoli)|
|53||Reggio di Calabria||54||Reggio nell'Emilia||55||Rome (Roma)||56||Rovigo|
Province Codes which have been abandoned (post-1927)
|AU||Apuania||Province renamed back to Massa-Carrara.||1939-1949|
|CG||Castrogiovanni||City renamed to Enna.||1927-1928|
|CU||Cuneo||Code changed to CN.||1927-1928|
|FU||Fiume||Code changed to FM.||1927-1930|
|FM||Fiume||City no longer in Italy.||1930-1945|
|FO||Forlì||Province renamed to Forlì-Cesena (FC).||1927-1994|
|GI||Girgenti||City renamed to Agrigento.||1927-1928|
|LB||Lubiana||City no longer in Italy.||1941-1945|
|PL||Pola||City no longer in Italy.||1927-1945|
|PU||Perugia||Code changed to PG.||1927-1933|
|PS||Pesaro||Province renamed to Pesaro and Urbino (PU).||1927-1994|
|ZA||Zara||City no longer in Italy.||1927-1945|
Greyed out means not used. Bold means it's used. Q and U cannot be used in consular corps plates, as such they are Bold Italic.
|AV||West Germany||BA||East Germany||BC||United Kingdom||BF||Slovenia||BG||Greece|
|BM||Ireland||BN||Italy (Holy See)||BP||Serbia||BQ||Croatia||BR||Luxembourg|
|CN||Sweden||CQ||Switzerland||CR||Turkey||CX||Hungary||DA||Russia (formerly Soviet Union)|
|DC||Ukraine||DD||Uzbekistan||DE||Vatican City (Apostolic Nunciature)||DF||Slovenia||DG||Macedonia|
|DH||Bosnia and Herzegovina||DL||Slovakia||DM||Armenia||DN||Georgia||DP||Kazakhstan|
|EN||Eritrea||EP||Mali||ER||Belize||ES||Equatorial Guinea (c/o FAO)||ET||Kosovo|
|GF||China||GK||Philippines||GL||North Korea||GM||South Korea||GP||United Arab Emirates|
|NG||Central African Republic||NH||Republic of the Congo||NL||Ivory Coast||NM||Egypt||NR||Ethiopia|
|PS||Senegal||PT||Sierra Leone||PV||Mozambique||PX||Somalia||QA||South Africa|
|QC||Sudan||QE||Tanzania||QG||Tunisia||QL||Democratic Republic of the Congo||QN||Zambia|
|QP||Niger||SA||Canada||SD||Mexico||SF SH SL SN SQ||United States||TA||Costa Rica|
|VF||Brazil||VL||Colombia||VS||Uruguay||XA||S.M.O.M and Palestine||XC XD XE XF XH||FAO, United Nations, International organizations, and European Union|
|XG||Vatican City||ZA||Australia||ZC||New Zealand|
- The use of alphabetical codes for number plates started in Italy on 28 February 1927, as prescribed by the Communication n. 3361 from Minister of Public Works (from R.D.I. n.314 13.3.1927 and the law n.2730 29.12.1927) which inaugurated a new highway code.
- Italy's page on Worldlicenseplates.com
- "Codice della strada - Le Nuove Sigle Provinciali Sarde" (in Italian). Quattroruote. 26 May 2008.
- "CD and CC registration plates". Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- "Diplomatic codes after 1984". Retrieved 24 April 2016.
- Plates in Rome provides detailed coverage of Italian number plates from 1903 onwards.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to License plates of Italy.|
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Moderate reasoning
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Transportation
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Since water comes from different sources, the quality of water in a region can vary considerably from other regions. Water accumulates dissolved solids as it moves. Depending on the geographical area, water may contain calcium, magnesium, sodium, and other minerals.
Water is categorized into two types depending upon the presence of mineral content: hard water and soft water.
“Hard water contains an appreciable amount of calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese ions usually in the form of bicarbonates, chlorides, and sulfates. While soft water has a minute amount of calcium and magnesium ions but contains sodium ions in appreciable amount.”
In order to categorize water as soft or hard water, the amount of calcium carbonate in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or also called parts per million (ppm) is measured. The below points can be used to categorize water as soft or hard, once the amount (mg/L) of CaCO3 is known.
- 0 to 60 mg/L = Soft water water
- 60 to 120 mg/L = Moderately hard water
- 120 to 180 mg/L = Hard water
- 180 mg/L and over = Very hard water
Hard Water vs Soft Water
|Hard water||Soft water|
|Hard water is rich in minerals||Soft water contains fewer minerals|
|It mainly has calcium and magnesium ions||It mainly contains sodium ions|
|Calcium carbonate concentration in hard water is more than 60 mg/L (ppm)||Calcium carbonate concentration in soft water is less than 60 mg/L (ppm)|
|Hard water forms insoluble curds with soap rather than lather||Soft water forms good lather with soap|
|It is not suitable for washing dishes as it leaves spots once dried||Soft water is suitable for washing the dishes|
|It makes skin and hairs dry||It does not affect any hairs and skin|
|It is not suitable for boilers and other machines||It is suitable for boilers and other machines|
|Water becomes hard when it moves through limestone, gypsum, chalk, and other rocks||Igneous, sedimentary rocks and sand stone have soft water. Rainwater is soft as well.|
|Water can be made hard by dissolution of calcium and magnesium salts||Soft water can be produced by treating hard water with a suitable ion exchange resin|
|Hard water has a characteristic chemical taste||Soft water has a bit salty taste|
|It causes deposition of calcium and magnesium salts in pipes, taps, and machines||It does not cause any deposition in pipes, taps, and machines|
Drinking Hard and Soft Water
Hardness does not pose any health risk and is, therefore, not regulated in the world. In fact, calcium and magnesium in hard water can ensure one’s daily requirement for these minerals.
In 1971, WHO International Standards for Drinking water stated that the maximum level of hardness in drinking water is 500 mg/L of calcium carbonate (10 mEq/L).
However, the first edition of the Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, published in 1984, concluded that there was no firm evidence that drinking hard water causes any adverse effects on human health and that no recommendation on the restriction of municipal water softening or on the maintenance of minimum residual calcium or magnesium level was given.
A guideline value of 500 mg/liter (as calcium carbonate) was established for hardness, based on taste and household use considerations. No health-based guideline value for hardness was proposed in the 1993 Guidelines, although hardness above approximately 200 mg/liter may cause scale deposition in the distribution system over time.
Drinking too much soft water isn’t the best choice either, as soft water indicates higher sodium content. High sodium content may not be good to drink and may have an adverse effect on those following a low sodium diet due to high blood pressure. The solution, therefore, is to find a balance of the mineral content.
Impact of water hardness
Although hard water does not have any health concerns, it can be a nuisance as it interferes with almost every cleaning task, from doing the laundry to washing dishes and taking a shower.
- Hard water makes clothes feel rough and scratchy, shortening their lives.
- Spots may appear on dishes after drying.
- Hairs become dull.
- Hard water leaves residue buildup in pipes, sinks, faucets, bathtubs, etc making them clog.
- The cost of water heating gets raised as hard water is difficult to boil.
- The efficiency of boilers get lowered after some time.
How to test the hardness of water?
Water hardness can be easily checked using a simple test.
Take an empty bottle and add the sample water. Make sure half of the bottle is still empty. Now add pure liquid soap (a few drops) to that bottle and shake, so that soap turns into bubbles. The lesser the bubbles formed, the harder your water is. This test can only predict a general view of the hardness of water. So, in order to quantify the hardness level of water, a hard water test kit is required.
A hard water test kit works just like a pH paper. It is dipped in sample water for a few minutes and then its color is matched to a standard color list. This test gives you the hardness of water in Grains per gallon (GPG).
Softening of Hard water
A process in which calcium magnesium, and sometimes, iron and manganese ions are removed from water is termed softening of hard water. Turning hard water into soft water can be achieved by the following processes.
- Boiling hard water (some salts precipitate upon boiling)
- Chemical treatment (Adding chemicals to produce insoluble precipitates, thus lowering water hardness). These chemicals include:
- Slaked lime
- Sodium carbonate
- Ion exchange (An industrial method that uses ion exchange resins in column forms). The resins include:
- Natural aluminosilicate
- Zeolite, etc
Key Differences Between Hard and Soft Water
Is hard water bad for you?
Millions of people rely on hard water which contains high concentrations of dissolved minerals. The dissolved minerals seem to be beneficial for those consuming the water.
How does hard water affect your shower?
Having a shower with hard water will make your skin and hair dry.
What are the benefits of soft water?
Soft water is the best option for laundry and washing dishes.
What is water softening?
Water softening is the process of removing the dissolved calcium and magnesium salts that cause hardness in water. It is done by an ion exchange resin.
How can you prevent hard water stains?
Wipe your dishes and utensils with a soft cloth after washing with hard water. This will remove the water on the surface and prevent mineral deposition.
Soft vs. hard water: Which is better for drinking?
Both soft and hard water are good to drink. However, finding a balance of the mineral content would be more appropriate.
What is a disadvantage of soft water?
Continuous drinking of soft water increases a person’s sodium levels which can lead to multiple health problems including high blood pressure.
What is the difference between soft water and distilled water?
Distilled water has all of the minerals and impurities removed. Whereas soft water has only calcium and magnesium ions removed.
What is the difference between soft water and deionized water?
Deionized water does not have any nutritional value whereas, soft water contains some minerals.
Earth’s Natural Resources By John V. Walther (Southern Methodist University)
- Hardness in Drinking Water (watersystemscouncil.org)
- Water Hardness (sciencedirect.com)
- Harness of water (usgs.gov)
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| 0.91864 | 1,657 | 3.796875 | 4 | 1.950509 | 2 |
Moderate reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Flemish Baroque Era Painter, 1593-1678
Jacob Jordeans was born on May 19, 1593, the first of eleven children, to the wealthy linen merchant Jacob Jordaens Sr. and Barbara van Wolschaten in Antwerp. Little is known about Jordaens's early education. It can be assumed that he received the advantages of the education usually provided for children of his social class. This assumption is supported by his clear handwriting, his competence in French and in his knowledge of mythology. Jordaens familiarity with biblical subjects is evident in his many religious paintings, and his personal interaction with the Bible was strengthened by his later conversion from Catholicism to Protestantism. Like Rubens, he studied under Adam van Noort, who was his only teacher. During this time Jordaens lived in Van Noort's house and became very close to the rest of the family. After eight years of training with Van Noort, he enrolled in the Guild of St. Luke as a "waterscilder", or watercolor artist. This medium was often used for preparing tapestry cartoons in the seventeenth century. although examples of his earliest watercolor works are no longer extant. In the same year as his entry into the guild, 1616, he married his teacher's eldest daughter, Anna Catharina van Noort, with whom he had three children. In 1618, Jordaens bought a house in Hoogstraat (the area in Antwerp that he grew up in). He would then later buy the adjoining house to expand his household and workspace in 1639, mimicking Rubens's house built two decades earlier. He lived and worked here until his death in 1678.
Jordaens never made the traditional trip to Italy to study classical and Renaissance art. Despite this, he made many efforts to study prints or works of Italian masters available in northern Europe. For example, Jordaens is known to have studied Titian, Veronese, Caravaggio, and Bassano, either through prints, copies or originals (such as Caravaggio's Madonna of the Rosary). His work, however, betrays local traditions, especially the genre traditions of Pieter Bruegel the Elder, in honestly depicting Flemish life with authenticity and showing common people in the act of celebratory expressions of life. His commissions frequently came from wealthy local Flemish patrons and clergy, although later in his career he worked for courts and governments across Europe. Besides a large output of monumental oil paintings he was a prolific tapestry designer, a career that reflects his early training as a "watercolor" painter.
Jordaens' importance can also be seen by his number of pupils; the Guild of St. Luke records fifteen official pupils from 1621 to 1667, but six others were recorded as pupils in court documents and not the Guild records, so it is probable that he had more students than officially recorded. Among them were his cousin and his son Jacob. Like Rubens and other artists at that time, Jordaens' studio relied on his assistants and pupils in the production of his paintings. Not many of these pupils went on to fame themselves,however a position in Jordaens's studio was highly desirable for young artists from across Europe. Related Paintings of Jacob Jordaens :. | A Satyr | The Family of the Artist | The Satyr and the Peasant | The Four Evangelists | Jacob Jordaens |
Related Artists:John Samuel Blunt
b.Portsmouth 1798 d.At Sea 1835
an illustrator,American , 1881-1953
was an American artist and illustrator. Thornton Oakley was born March 27,1881, in Pittsburgh. He studied at the University of Pennsylvania and received B.S. and M.S. degrees in architecture in 1901 and 1902. He first studied with Howard Pyle in 1902 at Chadds Ford in the mill, and described his first day there in a talk given at the Free Library in Philadelphia in 1951: "There we four - my new cronies - Allen Tupper True, George Harding, Gordon McCouch and I - made our first sketches from a model, and our efforts were frightful to behold! Not one of us had had a palette in our hands ever before: I had not the least idea as to procedure. My attempts were terrifying to behold, and when H.P. came to me to criticize my work he paused for a long, long time before speaking, and I know that he must have been appalled." Oakley studied with Pyle for three years. Oakley became an illustrator and writer for periodicals, including Scribner's, Century, Collier's, and Harper's Monthly. In the years 1914-19 and 1921-36 he was in charge of the Department of Illustration at the Philadelphia Museum School of Industrial Art. In 1914-15 he also taught drawing at the University of Pennsylvania, and gave lectures at the Art Institute of Chicago, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Curtis Institute. He was a member of the jury of selection and advisory committee of the Department of Fine Arts at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco in 1915 and the Philadelphia Sesquicentennial Exposition in 1926.Vincenzo Carducci
Italian Baroque Era Painter, ca.1578-1638
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en
| 0.983873 | 1,110 | 3.03125 | 3 | 2.667762 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
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Art & Design
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Landscapes of Power and Identity: Comparative Histories in the Sonoran Desert and the Forests of Amazonia from Colony to Republic
Landscapes of Power and Identity is a groundbreaking comparative history of two colonies on the frontiers of the Spanish empire—the Sonora region of northwestern Mexico and the Chiquitos region of eastern Bolivia’s lowlands—from the late colonial period through the middle of the nineteenth century. An innovative combination of environmental and cultural history, this book reflects Cynthia Radding’s more than two decades of research on Mexico and Bolivia and her consideration of the relationships between human societies and the geographic landscapes they inhabit and create. At first glance, Sonora and Chiquitos are quite different: one a scrub-covered desert, the other a tropical rainforest of the greater Amazonian and Paraguayan river basins. Yet the regions are similar in many ways. Both were located far from the centers of colonial authority, organized into Jesuit missions and linked to the principal mining centers of New Spain and the Andes, and then absorbed into nation-states in the nineteenth century. In each area, the indigenous communities encountered European governors, missionaries, slave hunters, merchants, miners, and ranchers.
Radding’s comparative approach illuminates what happened when similar institutions of imperial governance, commerce, and religion were planted in different physical and cultural environments. She draws on archival documents, published reports by missionaries and travelers, and previous histories as well as ecological studies and ethnographies. She also considers cultural artifacts, including archaeological remains, architecture, liturgical music, and religious dances. Radding demonstrates how colonial encounters were conditioned by both the local landscape and cultural expectations; how the colonizers and colonized understood notions of territory and property; how religion formed the cultural practices and historical memories of the Sonoran and Chiquitano peoples; and how the conflict between the indigenous communities and the surrounding creole societies developed in new directions well into the nineteenth century.
Results 1-3 of 85
... as well as the clerical stipends and lay salaries paid to the administrators and
priests established in each pueblo and to the governor of Chiquitos and his
subordinate staff . In addition , beginning in the 1790s , the missions were
expected to ...
Thus the lack of food is the worst hurricane that threatens to finish off these
Indians.21 Governor Peña's frank observations revealed the underlying poverty
of the missions and their vulnerability to climatic vagaries of drought and flood ,
Correspondence among Manuel Grijalba , Opata governor of the pueblo of
Opodepe , Pedro Tueros , the commander of the presidio of San Miguel de
Horcasitas , and brigadier Theodoro de Croix , first commandant general of the
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Strong reasoning
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History
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The history of metal-framed windows
Metal-framed windows are so ubiquitous in modern buildings you hardly notice them, but that hasn't always been the case. A 500-year process of technical refinement has seen metal window frames go through a variety of permutations, from easily-stolen lead to classical wrought iron and modern aluminium, writes Colin Bisset.
In theory, using metal for window frames is a perfectly rational use of the material. A metal frame is, after all, rigid which means the glass it holds won't flex and crack. It’s also a temperature conductor, though, and that can lead to condensation issues. Perhaps this is the reason why it has taken so long for it to be accepted into our homes.
Gazing out of a building is more complicated than you might think, but the refinement continues.
Lead was used in the earliest window frames thanks to its softness. It easily wrapped around a sheet of glass (and was easily unwrapped by thieving hands, too). A famous example is the mullioned facade of Britain's 16th century Hardwick Hall—'more glass than wall' as it was popularly described.
Timber frames became popular in both Britain and the Netherlands in the 17th century as timber buildings were replaced by stronger brick and stone structures with wider window openings. The sash window also referenced the fine lines of neo-Classicism, popularised by Inigo Jones after his encounter with the villas of Palladio in Italy. After London's Great Fire in 1666, wooden sash windows became mandatory.
The old-style metal frame, however, had its followers. The traditional look of a wrought-iron frame was especially popular with Arts and Crafts architects like Voysey and Webb, who liked the contrast of a metal frame against stone or brick mullions. They referenced a slower age, away from mass-production, but it meant that large window openings were still filled with smaller individual frames.
As glass-making techniques improved and modern steel was invented in 1855, larger windows were possible in frames that had none of the brittleness of iron. It was soon the favoured material for windows in factories, office buildings, schools and hospitals, thanks mainly to its fire-resistance, but the rational look made it unpopular in domestic situations. Until, that is, the beginning of the 20th century.
Early Modernist architects liked metal frames’ graphic lines and the industrial aesthetic, as well as their ability to hold such large panes of glass. Peter Behren's groundbreaking AEG Turbine Hall of 1908 showed cathedral-like glass windows framed in metal. Metal frames were also demonstrated in the astonishingly light curtain-wall windows of Walter Gropius' Model Factory of 1911 and the Fagus factory of 1914. By the 1920s, most architects wanted sizeable windows for their domestic projects—sunlight was being newly appreciated as healthy and hygienic.
In Britain, window manufacturer Crittall produced a range aimed at both the modern and traditional markets. Their modern styles were showcased in a housing development for their own factory workers designed by Thomas S. Tait in 1926.
Problems continued to dog the metal frame, however, especially when coupled with ever-increasing areas of single glazing, such as in Mies van der Rohe's spectacular Farnsworth House of 1946, whose windows were often covered with rivers of condensation. He went on to use bronze-framed windows in his office buildings as glazing techniques improved, giving rationalism a hefty dose of swank.
In the 1940s American designer Buckminster Fuller introduced the first of his geodesic domes, structures that were lightweight and strong, made entirely of glass panels held within a frame of aluminium tubing, just as aircraft used. As the material became more available the way was paved for metal frames to reach a wider audience. Crucial to their popularity was the addition of a rubber seal as a thermal break and the introduction of double glazing. Today, virtually all commercial buildings and 75 per cent of houses in Australia use aluminium framed windows, often powder-coated to give them a more traditional look.
Other materials are being used for frames, too. Unplasticised PVC is popular in Europe and gathering fans in Australia thanks to the same qualities of strength and affordability, although design aficionados have long disparaged them for their fakery. Fibreglass frames are also strong and light and have few issues with temperature conductivity. The frameless window made its appearance in homes during the 1990s, although commercial buildings had been experimenting with glued glass windows since the 1970s.
Gazing out of a building is more complicated than you might think, but the refinement continues. So where next—carbon fibre?
By Design looks at the places and things we imagine, build, use and occupy, explaining how creative ideas take tangible form through the design process.
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en
| 0.976138 | 1,008 | 3.140625 | 3 | 2.891034 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
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Art & Design
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The Taming of the Shrew
The Taming of the Shrew is a comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1590 and 1592. The play begins with a framing device, often referred to as the induction,[a] in which a mischievous nobleman tricks a drunken tinker named Christopher Sly into believing he is actually a nobleman himself. The nobleman then has the play performed for Sly's diversion.
The main plot depicts the courtship of Petruchio and Katherina, the headstrong, obdurate shrew. Initially, Katherina is an unwilling participant in the relationship; however, Petruchio "tames" her with various psychological torments, such as keeping her from eating and drinking, until she becomes a desirable, compliant, and obedient bride. The subplot features a competition between the suitors of Katherina's younger sister, Bianca, who is seen as the "ideal" woman. The question of whether the play is misogynistic has become the subject of considerable controversy, particularly among modern scholars, audiences, and readers.
The Taming of the Shrew has been adapted numerous times for stage, screen, opera, ballet, and musical theatre; perhaps the most famous adaptations being Cole Porter's Kiss Me, Kate; McLintock!, a 1963 American western and comedy film, starring John Wayne and Maureen O'Hara and the 1967 film of the play, starring Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton. The 1999 high school comedy film 10 Things I Hate About You is also loosely based on the play.
- Katherina (Kate) Minola – the "shrew" of the title
- Bianca Minola – sister of Katherina; the ingénue
- Baptista Minola – father of Katherina and Bianca
- Petruchio – suitor of Katherina
- Gremio – elderly suitor of Bianca
- Lucentio – suitor of Bianca
- Hortensio – suitor of Bianca and friend to Petruchio
- Grumio – Petruchio's manservant
- Tranio – Lucentio's manservant
- Biondello – servant of Lucentio
- Vincentio – father of Lucentio
- Widow – wooed by Hortensio
- Pedant – pretends to be Vincentio
- Curtis – servant of Petruchio
- Nathaniel – servant of Petruchio
- Joseph – servant of Petruchio
- Peter – servant of Petruchio
- Nicholas – servant of Petruchio
- Philip – servant of Petruchio
Characters appearing in the Induction:
Prior to the first act, an induction frames the play as a "kind of history" played in front of a befuddled drunkard named Christopher Sly who is tricked into believing that he is a lord. The play is performed in order to distract Sly from his "wife," who is actually Bartholomew, a servant, dressed as a woman.
In the play performed for Sly, the "shrew" is Katherina, the eldest daughter of Baptista Minola, a lord in Padua. Numerous men, including Tranio, deem Katherina an unworthy option for marriage because of her notorious assertiveness and willfulness. On the other hand, men such as Hortensio and Gremio are eager to marry her younger sister Bianca. However, Baptista has sworn Bianca is not allowed to marry until Katherina is wed; this motivates Bianca's suitors to work together to find Katherina a husband so that they may compete for Bianca. The plot thickens when Lucentio, who has recently come to Padua to attend university, falls in love with Bianca. Overhearing Baptista say that he is on the lookout for tutors for his daughters, Lucentio devises a plan in which he disguises himself as a Latin tutor named Cambio in order to woo Bianca behind Baptista's back and meanwhile has his servant Tranio pretend to be him.
In the meantime, Petruchio, accompanied by his servant Grumio, arrives in Padua from Verona. He explains to Hortensio, an old friend of his, that since his father's death he has set out to enjoy life and wed. Hearing this, Hortensio recruits Petruchio as a suitor for Katherina. He also has Petruchio present himself to Baptista disguised as a music tutor named Litio. Thus, Lucentio and Hortensio attempt to woo Bianca while pretending to be the tutors Cambio and Litio.
To counter Katherina's shrewish nature, Petruchio pretends that any harsh things she says or does are actually kind and gentle. Katherina agrees to marry Petruchio after seeing that he is the only man willing to counter her quick remarks; however, at the ceremony, Petruchio makes an embarrassing scene when he strikes the priest and drinks the communion wine. After the wedding, Petruchio takes Katherina to his home against her will. Once they are gone, Gremio and Tranio (disguised as Lucentio) formally bid for Bianca, with Tranio easily outbidding Gremio. However, in his zeal to win he promises much more than Lucentio actually possesses. When Baptista determines that once Lucentio's father confirms the dowry, Bianca and Tranio (i.e. Lucentio) can marry, Tranio decides that they will need someone to pretend to be Vincentio, Lucentio's father. Meanwhile, Tranio persuades Hortensio that Bianca is not worthy of his attentions, thus removing Lucentio's remaining rival.
In Verona, Petruchio begins the "taming" of his new wife. She is refused food and clothing because nothing – according to Petruchio – is good enough for her; he claims that perfectly cooked meat is overcooked, a beautiful dress doesn't fit right, and a stylish hat is not fashionable. He also disagrees with everything that she says, forcing her to agree with everything that he says, no matter how absurd; on their way back to Padua to attend Bianca's wedding, she agrees with Petruchio that the sun is the moon, and proclaims "if you please to call it a rush-candle,/Henceforth I vow it shall be so for me" (4.5.14–15). Along the way, they meet Vincentio, who is also on his way to Padua, and Katherina agrees with Petruchio when he declares that Vincentio is a woman and then apologises to Vincentio when Petruchio tells her that he is a man.
Back in Padua, Lucentio and Tranio convince a passing pedant to pretend to be Vincentio and confirm the dowry for Bianca. The man does so, and Baptista is happy for Bianca to wed Lucentio (still Tranio in disguise). Bianca, aware of the deception, then secretly elopes with the real Lucentio to get married. However, when Vincentio reaches Padua, he encounters the pedant, who claims to be Lucentio's father. Tranio (still disguised as Lucentio) appears, and the pedant acknowledges him to be his son Lucentio. In all the confusion, the real Vincentio is set to be arrested, when the real Lucentio appears with his newly betrothed Bianca, revealing all to a bewildered Baptista and Vincentio. Lucentio explains everything, and all is forgiven by the two fathers.
Meanwhile, Hortensio has married a rich widow. In the final scene of the play there are three newly married couples; Bianca and Lucentio, the widow and Hortensio, and Katherina and Petruchio. Because of the general opinion that Petruchio is married to a shrew, a good-natured quarrel breaks out amongst the three men about whose wife is the most obedient. Petruchio proposes a wager whereby each will send a servant to call for their wives, and whichever comes most obediently will have won the wager for her husband. Katherina is the only one of the three who comes, winning the wager for Petruchio. She then hauls the other two wives into the room, giving a speech on why wives should always obey their husbands. The play ends with Baptista, Hortensio and Lucentio marvelling at how successfully Petruchio has tamed the shrew.
Although there is no direct literary source for the induction, the tale of a commoner being duped into believing he is a lord is one found in many literary traditions. Such a story is recorded in Arabian Nights where Harun al-Rashid plays the same trick on a man he finds sleeping in an alley. Another is found in De Rebus Burgundicis (1584) by the Dutch historian Pontus de Huyter, where Philip, Duke of Burgundy, after attending his sister's wedding in Portugal, finds a drunken "artisan" whom he entertains with a "pleasant Comedie." Arabian Nights was not translated into English until the mid 18th century, although Shakespeare may have known it by word of mouth. He could also have known the Duke of Burgundy story because although De Rebus was not translated into French until 1600 and not into English until 1607, there is evidence the story existed in English in a jest book (now lost) by Richard Edwardes, written in 1570.
Regarding the Petruchio/Katherina story, there are a variety of possible influences, but no one specific source. The basic elements of the narrative are present in tale 44 of the fourteenth-century Spanish book Libro de los ejemplos del conde Lucanor y de Patronio by Don Juan Manuel, which tells of a young man who marries a "very strong and fiery woman." The text had been translated into English by the sixteenth century, but there is no evidence that Shakespeare drew on it. The story of a headstrong woman tamed by a man was well known, and found in numerous traditions. For example, according to The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, Noah's wife was such a woman ('"Hastow nought herd," quod Nicholas, "also/The sorwe of Noë with his felaschippe/That he had or he gat his wyf to schipe"'; The Miller's Tale, l. 352–354), and it was common for her to be depicted in this manner in mystery plays. Historically, another such woman was Xanthippe, Socrates' wife, who is mentioned by Petruchio himself (1.2.70). Such characters also occur throughout medieval literature, in popular farces both before and during Shakespeare's lifetime, and in folklore.
In 1890, Alfred Tolman conjectured a possible literary source for the wager scene may have been William Caxton's 1484 translation of Geoffroy IV de la Tour Landry's Livre pour l'enseignement de ses filles du Chevalier de La Tour Landry (1372). Written for his daughters as a guide on how to behave appropriately, de la Tour Landry includes "a treatise on the domestic education of women" which features an anecdote in which three merchants make a wager as to which of their wives will prove the most obedient when called upon to jump into a basin of water. The episode sees the first two wives refuse to obey (as in the play), it ends at a banquet (as does the play) and it features a speech regarding the "correct" way for a husband to discipline his wife.[b] In 1959, John W. Shroeder conjectured that Chevalier de La Tour Landry's depiction of the Queen Vastis story may also have been an influence on Shakespeare.
In 1964, Richard Hosley suggested the main source for the play may have been the anonymous ballad "A merry jeste of a shrewde and curst Wyfe, lapped in Morrelles Skin, for her good behauyour". The ballad tells the story of a marriage in which the husband must tame his headstrong wife. Like Shrew, the story features a family with two sisters, the younger of whom is seen as mild and desirable. However, in "Merry Jest", the older sister is obdurate not because it is simply her nature, but because she has been raised by her shrewish mother to seek mastery over men. Ultimately, the couple return to the family house, where the now tamed woman lectures her sister on the merits of being an obedient wife. The taming in this version is much more physical than in Shakespeare; the shrew is beaten with birch rods until she bleeds, and is then wrapped in the salted flesh of a plough horse (the Morrelle of the title).[c] "Merry Jest" was not unknown to earlier editors of the play, and had been dismissed as a source by A.R. Frey, W.C. Hazlitt, R. Warwick Bond and Frederick S. Boas. Modern editors also express doubt as to Hosley's argument.
In 1966, Jan Harold Brunvand argued that the main source for the play was not literary, but the oral folktale tradition. He argued the Petruchio/Katherina story represents an example of Type 901 ('Shrew-taming Complex') in the Aarne–Thompson classification system. Brunvand discovered 383 oral examples of Type 901 spread over thirty European countries, but he could find only 35 literary examples, leading him to conclude "Shakespeare's taming plot, which has not been traced successfully in its entirety to any known printed version, must have come ultimately from oral tradition." Most contemporary critics accept Brunvand's findings.
A source for Shakespeare's sub-plot was first identified by Alfred Tolman in 1890 as Ludovico Ariosto's I Suppositi, which was published in 1551. George Gascoigne's English prose translation Supposes was performed in 1566 and printed in 1573. In I Suppositi, Erostrato (the equivalent of Lucentio) falls in love with Polynesta (Bianca), daughter of Damon (Baptista). Erostrato disguises himself as Dulipo (Tranio), a servant, whilst the real Dulipo pretends to be Erostrato. Having done this, Erostrato is hired as a tutor for Polynesta. Meanwhile, Dulipo pretends to formally woo Polynesta so as to frustrate the wooing of the aged Cleander (Gremio). Dulipo outbids Cleander, but he promises far more than he can deliver, so he and Erostrato dupe a travelling gentleman from Siena into pretending to be Erostrato's father, Philogano (Vincentio). However, when Polynesta is found to be pregnant, Damon has Dulipo imprisoned (the real father is Erostrato). Soon thereafter, the real Philogano arrives, and all comes to a head. Erostrato reveals himself, and begs clemency for Dulipo. Damon realises that Polynesta is truly in love with Erostrato, and so forgives the subterfuge. Having been released from jail, Dulipo then discovers he is Cleander's son. An additional minor source is Mostellaria by Plautus, from which Shakespeare probably took the names of Tranio and Grumio.
Date and textEdit
Efforts to date the play's composition are complicated by its uncertain relationship with another Elizabethan play entitled A Pleasant Conceited Historie, called the taming of a Shrew, which has an almost identical plot but different wording and character names.[d] The Shrew's exact relationship with A Shrew is unknown. Different theories suggest A Shrew could be a reported text of a performance of The Shrew, a source for The Shrew, an early draft (possibly reported) of The Shrew, or an adaptation of The Shrew. A Shrew was entered in the Stationers' Register on 2 May 1594, suggesting that whatever the relationship between the two plays, The Shrew was most likely written somewhere between 1590 (roughly when Shakespeare arrived in London) and 1594 (registration of A Shrew).
However, it is possible to narrow the date further. A terminus ante quem for A Shrew seems to be August 1592, as a stage direction at 3.21 mentions "Simon," which probably refers to the actor Simon Jewell, who was buried on 21 August 1592. Furthermore, The Shrew must have been written earlier than 1593, as Anthony Chute's Beauty Dishonoured, written under the title of Shore's wife (published in June 1593) contains the line "He calls his Kate, and she must come and kiss him." This must refer to The Shrew, as there is no corresponding "kissing scene" in A Shrew. There are also verbal similarities between both Shrew plays and the anonymous play A Knack To Know A Knave (first performed at The Rose on 10 June 1592). Knack features several passages common to both A Shrew and The Shrew, but it also borrows several passages unique to The Shrew. This suggests The Shrew was on stage prior to June 1592.
In his 1982 edition of the play for The Oxford Shakespeare, H.J. Oliver suggests the play was composed no later than 1592. He bases this on the title page of A Shrew, which mentions the play had been performed "sundry times" by Pembroke's Men. When the London theatres were closed on 23 June 1592 due to an outbreak of plague, Pembroke's Men went on a regional tour to Bath and Ludlow. The tour was a financial failure, and the company returned to London on 28 September, financially ruined. Over the course of the next three years, four plays with their name on the title page were published; Christopher Marlowe's Edward II (published in quarto in July 1593), and Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus (published in quarto in 1594), The True Tragedy of Richard Duke of York (published in octavo in 1595) and The Taming of a Shrew (published in quarto in May 1594). Oliver says it is a "natural assumption" that these publications were sold by members of Pembroke's Men who were broke after the failed tour. Oliver assumes that A Shrew is a reported version of The Shrew, which means The Shrew must have been in their possession when they began their tour in June, as they didn't perform it upon returning to London in September, nor would they have taken possession of any new material at that time.
Ann Thompson considers A Shrew to be a reported text in her 1984 and 2003 editions of the play for the New Cambridge Shakespeare. She focuses on the closure of the theatres on 23 June 1592, arguing that the play must have been written prior to June 1592 for it to have given rise to A Shrew. She cites the reference to "Simon" in A Shrew, Anthony Chute's allusion to The Shrew in Beauty Dishonoured and the verbal similarities between The Shrew and A Knack to Know a Knave as supporting a date of composition prior to June 1592. Stephen Roy Miller, in his 1998 edition of A Shrew for the New Cambridge Shakespeare, agrees with the date of late 1591/early 1592, as he believes The Shrew preceded A Shrew (although he rejects the reported text theory in favour of an adaptation/rewrite theory).
Keir Elam, however, has argued for a terminus post quem of 1591 for The Shrew, based on Shakespeare's probable use of two sources published that year; Abraham Ortelius' map of Italy in the fourth edition of Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, and John Florio's Second Fruits. Firstly, Shakespeare errs in putting Padua in Lombardy instead of Veneto, probably because he used Ortelius' map of Italy as a source, which has "Lombardy" written across the entirety of northern Italy. Secondly, Elam suggests that Shakespeare derived his Italian idioms and some of the dialogue from Florio's Second Fruits, a bilingual introduction to Italian language and culture. Elam argues that Lucentio's opening dialogue,
Tranio, since for the great desire I had
To see fair Padua, nursery of arts,
I am arrived for fruitful Lombardy,
The pleasant garden of great Italy.
is an example of Shakespeare's borrowing from Florio's dialogue between Peter and Stephan, who have just arrived in the north:
I purpose to stay a while, to view the fair Cities of Lombardy.
Lombardy is the garden of the world.
Elam's arguments suggest The Shrew must have been written by 1591, which places the date of composition around 1590–1591.
The 1594 quarto of A Shrew was printed by Peter Short for Cuthbert Burbie. It was republished in 1596 (again by Short for Burbie), and 1607 by Valentine Simmes for Nicholas Ling. The Shrew was not published until the First Folio in 1623. The only quarto version of The Shrew was printed by William Stansby for John Smethwick in 1631 as A Wittie and Pleasant comedie called The Taming of the Shrew, based on the 1623 folio text. W.W. Greg has demonstrated that A Shrew and The Shrew were treated as the same text for the purposes of copyright, i.e. ownership of one constituted ownership of the other, and when Smethwick purchased the rights from Ling in 1609 to print the play in the First Folio, Ling actually transferred the rights for A Shrew, not The Shrew.
Analysis and criticismEdit
The relationship with A ShrewEdit
One of the most fundamental critical debates surrounding The Shrew is its relationship with A Shrew. There are five main theories as to the nature of this relationship:
- The two plays are unrelated other than the fact that they are both based on another play which is now lost. This is the Ur-Shrew theory (in reference to Ur-Hamlet).
- A Shrew is a reconstructed version of The Shrew; i.e. a bad quarto, an attempt by actors to reconstruct the original play from memory.
- Shakespeare used the previously existing A Shrew, which he did not write, as a source for The Shrew.
- Both versions were legitimately written by Shakespeare himself; i.e. A Shrew is an early draft of The Shrew.
- A Shrew is an adaptation of The Shrew by someone other than Shakespeare.
The exact relationship between The Shrew and A Shrew is uncertain, but many scholars consider The Shrew the original, with A Shrew derived from it; as H.J. Oliver suggests, there are "passages in [A Shrew] [...] that make sense only if one knows the [Follio] version from which they must have been derived."
The debate regarding the relationship between the two plays began in 1725, when Alexander Pope incorporated extracts from A Shrew into The Shrew in his edition of Shakespeare's works. In The Shrew, the Christopher Sly framework is only featured twice; at the opening of the play, and at the end of Act 1, Scene 1. However, in A Shrew, the Sly framework reappears a further five times, including a scene which comes after the final scene of the Petruchio/Katherina story. Pope added most of the Sly framework to The Shrew, even though he acknowledged in his preface that he did not believe Shakespeare had written A Shrew. Subsequent editors followed suit, adding some or all of the Sly framework to their versions of The Shrew; Lewis Theobald (1733), Thomas Hanmer (1744), William Warburton (1747), Samuel Johnson and George Steevens (1765) and Edward Capell (1768). In his 1790 edition of The Plays and Poems of William Shakespeare, however, Edmond Malone removed all A Shrew extracts and returned the text to the 1623 First Folio version. By the end of the eighteenth century, the predominant theory had come to be that A Shrew was a non-Shakespearean source for The Shrew, and hence to include extracts from it was to graft non-authorial material onto the play.
This theory prevailed until 1850, when Samuel Hickson compared the texts of The Shrew and A Shrew, concluding The Shrew was the original, and A Shrew was derived from it. By comparing seven passages which are similar in both plays, he concluded "the original conception is invariably to be found" in The Shrew. His explanation was that A Shrew was written by Christopher Marlowe, with The Shrew as his template. He reached this conclusion primarily because A Shrew features numerous lines almost identical to lines in Marlowe's Tamburlaine and Dr. Faustus.
In 1926, building on Hickson's research, Peter Alexander first suggested the bad quarto theory. Alexander agreed with Hickson that A Shrew was derived from The Shrew, but he did not agree that Marlowe wrote A Shrew. Instead he labelled A Shrew a bad quarto. His main argument was that, primarily in the subplot of A Shrew, characters act without motivation, whereas such motivation is present in The Shrew. Alexander believed this represents an example of a "reporter" forgetting details and becoming confused, which also explains why lines from other plays are used from time to time; to cover gaps which the reporter knows have been left. He also argued the subplot in The Shrew was closer to the plot of I Suppositi/Supposes than the subplot in A Shrew, which he felt indicated the subplot in The Shrew must have been based directly on the source, whereas the subplot in A Shrew was a step removed. In their 1928 edition of the play for the New Shakespeare, Arthur Quiller-Couch and John Dover Wilson supported Alexander's argument. However, there has always been critical resistance to the theory.
An early scholar to find fault with Alexander's reasoning was E.K. Chambers, who reasserted the source theory. Chambers, who supported Alexander's bad quarto theory regarding The First part of the Contention betwixt the two famous Houses of Yorke and Lancaster and The True Tragedy of Richard Duke of Yorke, argued A Shrew did not fit the pattern of a bad quarto; "I am quite unable to believe that A Shrew had any such origin. Its textual relation to The Shrew does not bear any analogy to that of other 'bad Quartos' to the legitimate texts from which they were memorised. The nomenclature, which at least a memoriser can recall, is entirely different. The verbal parallels are limited to stray phrases, most frequent in the main plot, for which I believe Shakespeare picked them up from A Shrew." He explained the relationship between I Suppositi/Supposes and the subplots by arguing the subplot in The Shrew was based upon both the subplot in A Shrew and the original version of the story in Ariosto/Gascoigne.
In 1938, Leo Kirschbaum made a similar argument. In an article listing over twenty examples of bad quartos, Kirschbaum did not include A Shrew, which he felt was too different from The Shrew to come under the bad quarto banner; "despite protestations to the contrary, The Taming of a Shrew does not stand in relation to The Shrew as The True Tragedie, for example, stands in relation to 3 Henry VI." Writing in 1998, Stephen Roy Miller offers much the same opinion; "the relation of the early quarto to the Folio text is unlike other early quartos because the texts vary much more in plotting and dialogue [...] the differences between the texts are substantial and coherent enough to establish that there was deliberate revision in producing one text out of the other; hence A Shrew is not merely a poor report (or 'bad quarto') of The Shrew." Character names are changed, basic plot points are altered (Kate has two sisters for example, not one), the play is set in Athens instead of Padua, the Sly framework forms a complete narrative, and entire speeches are completely different, all of which suggests to Miller that the author of A Shrew thought they were working on something different from Shakespeare's play, not attempting to transcribe it for resale; "underpinning the notion of a 'Shakespearean bad quarto' is the assumption that the motive of whoever compiled that text was to produce, differentially, a verbal replica of what appeared on stage." Miller believes that Chambers and Kirschbaum successfully illustrate A Shrew does not fulfil this rubric.
Alexander's theory continued to be challenged as the years went on. In 1942, R.A. Houk developed what came to be dubbed the Ur-Shrew theory; both A Shrew and The Shrew were based upon a third play, now lost. In 1943, G.I. Duthie refined Houk's suggestion by arguing A Shrew was a memorial reconstruction of Ur-Shrew, a now lost early draft of The Shrew; "A Shrew is substantially a memorially constructed text and is dependent upon an early Shrew play, now lost. The Shrew is a reworking of this lost play." Hickson, who believed Marlowe to have written A Shrew, had hinted at this theory in 1850; "though I do not believe Shakspeare's play to contain a line of any other writer, I think it extremely probable that we have it only in a revised form, and that, consequently, the play which Marlowe imitated might not necessarily have been that fund of life and humour that we find it now." Hickson is here arguing that Marlowe's A Shrew is not based upon the version of The Shrew found in the First Folio, but on another version of the play. Duthie argues this other version was a Shakespearean early draft of The Shrew; A Shrew constitutes a reported text of a now lost early draft.
Alexander returned to the debate in 1969, re-presenting his bad quarto theory. In particular, he concentrated on the various complications and inconsistencies in the subplot of A Shrew, which had been used by Houk and Duthie as evidence for an Ur-Shrew, to argue that the reporter of A Shrew attempted to recreate the complex subplot from The Shrew but got confused; "the compiler of A Shrew while trying to follow the subplot of The Shrew gave it up as too complicated to reproduce, and fell back on love scenes in which he substituted for the maneuvers of the disguised Lucentio and Hortensio extracts from Tamburlaine and Faustus, with which the lovers woo their ladies."
After little further discussion of the issue in the 1970s, the 1980s saw the publication of three scholarly editions of The Shrew, all of which re-addressed the question of the relationship between the two plays; Brian Morris' 1981 edition for the second series of the Arden Shakespeare, H.J. Oliver's 1982 edition for the Oxford Shakespeare and Ann Thompson's 1984 edition for the New Cambridge Shakespeare. Morris summarised the scholarly position in 1981 as one in which no clear-cut answers could be found; "unless new, external evidence comes to light, the relationship between The Shrew and A Shrew can never be decided beyond a peradventure. It will always be a balance of probabilities, shifting as new arguments and opinions are added to the scales. Nevertheless, in the present century, the movement has unquestionably been towards an acceptance of the Bad Quarto theory, and this can now be accepted as at least the current orthodoxy." Morris himself, and Thompson, supported the bad quarto theory, with Oliver tentatively arguing for Duthie's bad quarto/early draft/Ur-Shrew theory.
Perhaps the most extensive examination of the question came in 1998 in Stephen Roy Miller's edition of A Shrew for the New Cambridge Shakespeare: The Early Quartos series. Miller agrees with most modern scholars that A Shrew is derived from The Shrew, but he does not believe it to be a bad quarto. Instead, he argues it is an adaptation by someone other than Shakespeare. Miller believes Alexander's suggestion in 1969 that the reporter became confused is unlikely, and instead suggests an adapter at work; "the most economic explanation of indebtedness is that whoever compiled A Shrew borrowed the lines from Shakespeare's The Shrew, or a version of it, and adapted them." Part of Miller's evidence relates to Gremio, who has no counterpart in A Shrew. In The Shrew, after the wedding, Gremio expresses doubts as to whether or not Petruchio will be able to tame Katherina. In A Shrew, these lines are extended and split between Polidor (the equivalent of Hortensio) and Phylema (Bianca). As Gremio does have a counterpart in I Suppositi, Miller concludes that "to argue the priority of A Shrew in this case would mean arguing that Shakespeare took the negative hints from the speeches of Polidor and Phylema and gave them to a character he resurrected from Supposes. This is a less economical argument than to suggest that the compiler of A Shrew, dismissing Gremio, simply shared his doubts among the characters available." He argues there is even evidence in the play that the compiler knew he was working within a specific literary tradition; "as with his partial change of character names, the compiler seems to wish to produce dialogue much like his models, but not the same. For him, adaptation includes exact quotation, imitation and incorporation of his own additions. This seems to define his personal style, and his aim seems to be to produce his own version, presumably intended that it should be tuned more towards the popular era than The Shrew."
As had Alexander, Houk and Duthie, Miller believes the key to the debate is to be found in the subplot, as it is here where the two plays differ most. He points out that the subplot in The Shrew is based on "the classical style of Latin comedy with an intricate plot involving deception, often kept in motion by a comic servant." The subplot in A Shrew, however, which features an extra sister and addresses the issue of marrying above and below one's class, "has many elements more associated with the romantic style of comedy popular in London in the 1590s." Miller cites plays such as Robert Greene's Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay and Fair Em as evidence of the popularity of such plays. He points to the fact that in The Shrew, there is only eleven lines of romance between Lucentio and Bianca, but in A Shrew, there is an entire scene between Kate's two sisters and their lovers. This, he argues, is evidence of an adaptation rather than a faulty report;
while it is difficult to know the motivation of the adapter, we can reckon that from his point of view an early staging of The Shrew might have revealed an overly wrought play from a writer trying to establish himself but challenging too far the current ideas of popular comedy. The Shrew is long and complicated. It has three plots, the subplots being in the swift Latin or Italianate style with several disguises. Its language is at first stuffed with difficult Italian quotations, but its dialogue must often sound plain when compared to Marlowe's thunder or Greene's romance, the mouth-filling lines and images that on other afternoons were drawing crowds. An adapter might well have seen his role as that of a 'play doctor' improving The Shrew – while cutting it – by stuffing it with the sort of material currently in demand in popular romantic comedies.
H.J. Oliver argues the version of the play in the 1623 First Folio was likely copied not from a prompt book or transcript, but from the author's own foul papers, which he believes showed signs of revision by Shakespeare. These revisions, Oliver says, relate primarily to the character of Hortensio, and suggest that in an original version of the play, now lost, Hortensio was not a suitor to Bianca, but simply an old friend of Petruchio. When Shakespeare rewrote the play so that Hortensio became a suitor in disguise (Litio), many of his lines were either omitted or given to Tranio (disguised as Lucentio).
Oliver cites several scenes in the play where Hortensio (or his absence) causes problems. For example, in Act 2, Scene 1, Tranio (as Lucentio) and Gremio bid for Bianca, but Hortensio, who everyone is aware is also a suitor, is never mentioned. In Act 3, Scene 1, Lucentio (as Cambio) tells Bianca "we might beguile the old Pantalowne" (l.36), yet says nothing of Hortensio's attempts to woo her, instead implying his only rival is Gremio. In Act 3, Scene 2, Tranio suddenly becomes an old friend of Petruchio, knowing his mannerisms and explaining his tardiness prior to the wedding. However, up to this point, Petruchio's only acquaintance in Padua has been Hortensio. In Act 4, Scene 3, Hortensio tells Vincentio that Lucentio has married Bianca. However, as far as Hortensio should be concerned, Lucentio has denounced Bianca, because in Act 4, Scene 2, Tranio (disguised as Lucentio) agreed with Hortensio that neither of them would pursue Bianca, and as such, his knowledge of the marriage of who he supposes to be Lucentio and Bianca makes no sense. From this, Oliver concludes that an original version of the play existed in which Hortensio was simply a friend of Petruchio's, and had no involvement in the Bianca subplot, but wishing to complicate things, Shakespeare rewrote the play, introducing the Litio disguise, and giving some of Hortensio's discarded lines to Tranio, but not fully correcting everything to fit the presence of a new suitor.
This is important in Duthie's theory of an Ur-Shrew insofar as he argues it is the original version of The Shrew upon which A Shrew is based, not the version which appears in the 1623 First Folio. As Oliver argues, "A Shrew is a report of an earlier, Shakespearian, form of The Shrew in which Hortensio was not disguised as Litio." Oliver suggests that when Pembroke's Men left London in June 1592, they had in their possession a now lost early draft of the play. Upon returning to London, they published A Shrew in 1594, some time after which Shakespeare rewrote his original play into the form seen in the First Folio.
Duthie's arguments were never fully accepted at the time, as critics tended to look on the relationship between the two plays as an either-or situation; A Shrew is either a reported text or an early draft. In more recent scholarship, however, the possibility that a text could be both has been shown to be critically viable. For example, in his 2003 Oxford Shakespeare edition of 2 Henry VI, Roger Warren makes the same argument for The First Part of the Contention. Randall Martin reaches the same conclusion regarding The True Tragedy of Richard Duke of Yorke in his 2001 Oxford Shakespeare edition of 3 Henry VI. This lends support to the theory that A Shrew could be both a reported text and an early draft.
The Taming of the Shrew has been the subject of critical controversy. Dana Aspinall writes "Since its first appearance, some time between 1588 and 1594, Shrew has elicited a panoply of heartily supportive, ethically uneasy, or altogether disgusted responses to its rough-and-tumble treatment of the 'taming' of the 'curst shrew' Katherina, and obviously, of all potentially unruly wives." Phyllis Rackin argues that "seen in the context of current anxieties, desires and beliefs, Shakespeare's play seems to prefigure the most oppressive modern assumptions about women and to validate those assumptions as timeless truths." Stevie Davies says that responses to Shrew have been "dominated by feelings of unease and embarrassment, accompanied by the desire to prove that Shakespeare cannot have meant what he seems to be saying; and that therefore he cannot really be saying it." Philippa Kelly asks:
Do we simply add our voices to those of critical disapproval, seeing Shrew as at best an 'early Shakespeare', the socially provocative effort of a dramatist who was learning to flex his muscles? Or as an item of social archaeology that we have long ago abandoned? Or do we 'rescue' it from offensive male smugness? Or make an appeal to the slippery category of 'irony'?
Some scholars argue that even in Shakespeare's day the play must have been controversial, due to the changing nature of gender politics. Marjorie Garber, for example, suggests Shakespeare created the Induction so the audience wouldn't react badly to the misogyny in the Petruchio/Katherina story; he was, in effect, defending himself against charges of sexism. G.R. Hibbard argues that during the period in which the play was written, arranged marriages were beginning to give way to newer, more romantically informed unions, and thus people's views on women's position in society, and their relationships with men, were in a state of flux. As such, audiences may not have been as predisposed to tolerate the harsh treatment of Katherina as is often thought.
Evidence of at least some initial societal discomfort with The Shrew is, perhaps, to be found in the fact that John Fletcher, Shakespeare's successor as house playwright for the King's Men, wrote The Woman's Prize, or The Tamer Tamed as a sequel to Shakespeare's play. Written c.1611, the play tells the story of Petruchio's remarriage after Katherina's death. In a mirror of the original, his new wife attempts (successfully) to tame him – thus the tamer becomes the tamed. Although Fletcher's sequel is often downplayed as merely a farce, some critics acknowledge the more serious implications of such a reaction. Lynda Boose, for example, writes, "Fletcher's response may in itself reflect the kind of discomfort that Shrew has characteristically provoked in men and why its many revisions since 1594 have repeatedly contrived ways of softening the edges."
With the rise of the feminist movement in the twentieth century, reactions to the play have tended to become more divergent. For some critics, "Kate's taming was no longer as funny as it had been [...] her domination became, in George Bernard Shaw's words 'altogether disgusting to modern sensibility'." Addressing the relationship between A Shrew and The Shrew from a political perspective, for example, Leah S. Marcus very much believes the play to be what it seems. She argues A Shrew is an earlier version of The Shrew, but acknowledges that most scholars reject the idea that A Shrew was written by Shakespeare. She believes one of the reasons for this is because A Shrew "hedges the play's patriarchal message with numerous qualifiers that do not exist in" The Shrew. She calls A Shrew a more "progressive" text than The Shrew, and argues that scholars tend to dismiss the idea that A Shrew is Shakespearean because "the women are not as satisfactorily tamed as they are in The Shrew." She also points out that if A Shrew is an early draft, it suggests Shakespeare "may have increased rather than decreased the patriarchal violence of his materials", something which, she believes, scholars find difficult to accept.
However, others see the play as an example of a pre-feminist condemnation of patriarchal domination and an argument for modern-day "women's lib". For example, Conall Morrison, director of the RSC's "relentlessly unpleasant" 2008 production, wrote:
I find it gobsmacking that some people see the play as misogynistic. I believe that it is a moral tale. I believe that it is saying – "do not be like this" and "do not do this." "These people are objectionable." By the time you get to the last scene all of the men – including her father are saying – it's amazing how you crushed that person. It's amazing how you lobotomised her. And they're betting on the women as though they are dogs in a race or horses. It's reduced to that. And it's all about money and the level of power. Have you managed to crush Katharina or for Hortensio and Lucentio, will you be able to control Bianca and the widow? Will you similarly be able to control your proto-shrews? It is so self-evidently repellent that I don't believe for a second that Shakespeare is espousing this. And I don't believe for a second that the man who would be interested in Benedict and Cleopatra and Romeo and Juliet and all these strong lovers would have some misogynist aberration. It's very obviously a satire on this male behaviour and a cautionary tale [...] That's not how he views women and relationships, as demonstrated by the rest of the plays. This is him investigating misogyny, exploring it and animating it and obviously damning it because none of the men come out smelling of roses. When the chips are down they all default to power positions and self-protection and status and the one woman who was a challenge to them, with all with her wit and intellect, they are all gleeful and relieved to see crushed.
Philippa Kelly makes this point:
Petruchio's 'taming' of Kate, harsh though it may be, is a far cry from the fiercely repressive measures going on outside the theatre, and presumably endorsed by much of its audience. Some critics argue that in mitigating the violence both of folktales and of actual practices, Shakespeare sets up Petruchio as a ruffian and a bully, but only as a disguise – and a disguise that implicitly criticises the brutal arrogance of conventional male attitudes.
Elizabeth Kantor argues the following:
Whatever the "gender studies" folks may think, Shakespeare isn't trying to "domesticate women"; he's not making any kind of case for how they ought to be treated or what sort of rights they ought to have. He's just noticing what men and women are really like, and creating fascinating and delightful drama out of it. Shakespeare's celebration of the limits that define us – of our natures as men and women – upsets only those folks who find human nature itself upsetting.
I think it's an irresponsible and silly thing to make that play into a feminist tract: to use it as a way of proving that women have been dishonoured and hammered flat by male chauvinism. There's another, more complex way of reading it than that: which sees it as being their particular view of how society ought to be organised in order to restore order in a fallen world. Now, we don't happen to think that we are inheritors of the sin of Adam and that orderliness can only be preserved by deputing power to magistrates and sovereigns, fathers and husbands. But the fact that they did think like that is absolutely undeniable, so productions which really do try to deny that, and try to hijack the work to make it address current problems about women's place in society, become boring, thin and tractarian.
An element in the debate regarding the play's misogyny, or lack thereof, is the Induction, and how it relates to the Katherina/Petruchio story. According to H.J. Oliver, "it has become orthodoxy to claim to find in the Induction the same 'theme' as is to be found in both the Bianca and the Katherine-Petruchio plots of the main play, and to take it for granted that identity of theme is a merit and 'justifies' the introduction of Sly." For example, Geoffrey Bullough argues the three plots "are all linked in idea because all contain discussion of the relations of the sexes in marriage." Richard Hosley suggests the three plots form a unified whole insofar as they all deal with "assumptions about identity and assumptions about personality." Oliver, however, argues that "the Sly Induction does not so much announce the theme of the enclosed stories as establish their tone."
This is important in terms of determining the seriousness of Katherina's final speech. Marjorie Garber writes of the Induction, "the frame performs the important task of distancing the later action, and of insuring a lightness of tone – significant in light of the real abuse to which Kate is subjected by Petruchio." Oliver argues the Induction is used to remove the audience from the world of the enclosed plot – to place the Sly story on the same level of reality as the audience, and the Katherina/Petruchio story on a different level of reality. This, he argues, is done to ensure the audience does not take the play literally, that it sees the Katherina/Petruchio story as a farce:
the phenomenon of theatrical illusion is itself being laughed at; and the play within the play makes Sly drowsy and probably soon sends him to sleep. Are we to let that play preach morality to us or look in it for social or intellectual substance? The drunken tinker may be believed in as one believes in any realistically presented character; but we cannot 'believe' in something that is not even mildly interesting to him. The play within the play has been presented only after all the preliminaries have encouraged us to take it as a farce.
Oliver argues that "the main purpose of the Induction was to set the tone for the play within the play – in particular, to present the story of Kate and her sister as none-too-serious comedy put on to divert a drunken tinker". He suggests that if the Induction is removed from a production of the play (as it very often is), a fundamental part of the structure has been lost. Speaking of Jonathan Miller's BBC Television Shakespeare adaptation of 1980, which omitted the Induction, Stanley Wells wrote "to omit the Christopher Sly episodes is to suppress one of Shakespeare's most volatile lesser characters, to jettison most of the play's best poetry, and to strip it of an entire dramatic dimension."
Regarding the importance of the Induction, Jonathan Bate and Eric Rasmussen argue "the Sly framework establishes a self-referential theatricality in which the status of the shrew-play as a play is enforced." Graham Holderness argues "the play in its received entirety does not propose any simple or unitary view of sexual politics: it contains a crudely reactionary dogma of masculine supremacy, but it also works on that ideology to force its expression into self-contradiction. The means by which this self-interrogation is accomplished is that complex theatrical device of the Sly-framework [...] without the metadramatic potentialities of the Sly-framework, any production of Shrew is thrown much more passively at the mercy of the director's artistic and political ideology." Coppélia Kahn suggests "the transformation of Christopher Sly from drunken lout to noble lord, a transformation only temporary and skin-deep, suggests that Kate's switch from independence may also be deceptive and prepares us for the irony of the dénouement." The Induction serves to undercut charges of misogyny – the play within the play is a farce, it is not supposed to be taken seriously by the audience, as it is not taken seriously by Sly. As such, questions of the seriousness of what happens within it are rendered irrelevant.
Language itself is a major theme in the play, especially in the taming process, where mastery of language becomes paramount. Katherina is initially described as a shrew because of her harsh language to those around her. Karen Newman points out, "from the outset of the play, Katherine's threat to male authority is posed through language: it is perceived by others as such and is linked to a claim larger than shrewishness – witchcraft – through the constant allusions to Katherine's kinship with the devil." For example, after Katherina rebukes Hortensio and Gremio in Act 1, Scene 1, Hortensio replies with "From all such devils, good Lord deliver us!" (l.66). Even Katherina's own father refers to her as "thou hilding of a devilish spirit" (2.1.26). Petruchio, however, attempts to tame her – and thus her language – with rhetoric that specifically undermines her tempestuous nature;
Say that she rail, why then I'll tell her plain
She sings as sweetly as a nightingale.
Say that she frown, I'll say that she looks as clear
As morning roses newly washed with dew.
Say she be mute and will not speak a word,
Then I'll commend her volubility
And say she uttereth piercing eloquence.
If she do bid me pack, I'll give her thanks,
As though she bid me stay by her a week.
If she deny to wed, I'll crave the day
When I shall ask the banns, and when be marrièd.
Here Petruchio is specifically attacking the very function of Katherina's language, vowing that no matter what she says, he will purposely misinterpret it, thus undermining the basis of the linguistic sign, and disrupting the relationship between signifier and signified. In this sense, Margaret Jane Kidnie argues this scene demonstrates the "slipperiness of language."
Apart from undermining her language, Petruchio also uses language to objectify her. For example, in Act 3, Scene 2, Petruchio explains to all present that Katherina is now literally his property:
She is my goods, my chattels, she is my house,
My household stuff, my field, my barn,
My horse, my ox, my ass, my any thing.
In discussing Petruchio's objectification of Katherina, Tita French Baumlin focuses on his puns on her name. By referring to her as a "cake" and a "cat" (2.1.185–195), he objectifies her in a more subtle manner than saying she belongs to him. A further aspect of Petruchio's taming rhetoric is the repeated comparison of Katherina to animals. In particular, he is prone to comparing her to a hawk (2.1.8 and 4.1.177–183), often employing an overarching hunting metaphor; "My falcon now is sharp and passing empty,/And till she stoop she must not be full-gorged" (4.1.177–178). Katherina, however, appropriates this method herself, leading to a trading of insults rife with animal imagery in Act 2, Scene 1 (ll.207–232), where she compares Petruchio to a turtle and a crab.
Language itself has thus become a battleground. However, it is Petruchio who seemingly emerges as the victor. In his house, after Petruchio has dismissed the haberdasher, Katherina exclaims
Why sir, I trust I may have leave to speak,
And speak I will. I am no child, no babe;
Your betters have endured me say my mind,
And if you cannot, best you stop your ears.
My tongue will tell the anger of my heart,
Or else my heart concealing it will break,
And rather than it shall, I will be free
Even to the uttermost, as I please, in words.
Katherina is here declaring her independence of language; no matter what Petruchio may do, she will always be free to speak her mind. However, only one-hundred lines later, the following exchange occurs;
Let's see, I think 'tis now some seven o'clock.
And well we may come there by dinner-time.
I dare assure you, sir, 'tis almost two,
And 'twill be supper-time ere you come there.
It shall be seven ere I go to horse.
Look what I speak, or do, or think to do,
You are still crossing it. Sirs, let't alone,
I will not go today; and ere I do,
It shall be what o'clock I say it is.
Kidnie says of this scene, "the language game has suddenly changed and the stakes have been raised. Whereas before he seemed to mishear or misunderstand her words, Petruchio now overtly tests his wife's subjection by demanding that she concede to his views even when they are demonstrably unreasonable. The lesson is that Petruchio has the absolute authority to rename their world." Katherina is free to say whatever she wishes, as long she agrees with Petruchio. His apparent victory in the 'language game' is seen in Act 4, Scene 5, when Katherina is made to switch the words "moon" and "sun", and she concedes that she will agree with whatever Petruchio says, no matter how absurd:
And be it the moon, or sun, or what you please;
And if you please to call it a rush-candle,
Henceforth I vow it shall be so for me
But sun it is not, when you say it is not,
And the moon changes even as your mind:
What you will have it named, even that it is,
And so it shall be so for Katherine.
Of this scene, Kidnie argues "what he 'says' must take priority over what Katherina 'knows'." From this point, Katherina's language changes from her earlier vernacular; instead of defying Petruchio and his words, she has apparently succumbed to his rhetoric and accepted that she will use his language instead of her own – both Katherina and her language have, seemingly, been tamed.
The important role of language, however, is not confined to the taming plot. For example, in a psychoanalytic reading of the play, Joel Fineman suggests there is a distinction made between male and female language, further subcategorising the latter into good and bad, epitomised by Bianca and Katherina respectively. Language is also important in relation to the Induction. Here, Sly speaks in prose until he begins to accept his new role as lord, at which point he switches to blank verse and adopts the royal we. Language is also important in relation to Tranio and Lucentio, who appear on stage speaking a highly artificial style of blank verse full of classical and mythological allusions and elaborate metaphors and similes, thus immediately setting them aside from the more straightforward language of the Induction, and alerting the audience to the fact that they are now in an entirely different milieu.
In productions of the play, it is often the interpretation of Katherina's final speech (the longest speech in the play) that defines the tone of the entire production, such is the importance of this speech and what it says, or seems to say, about female submission:
Fie, fie! unknit that threatening unkind brow,
And dart not scornful glances from those eyes
To wound thy lord, thy king, thy governor.
It blots thy beauty, as frosts do bite the meads,
Confounds thy fame, as whirlwinds shake fair buds,
And in no sense is meet or amiable.
A woman moved is like a fountain troubled,
Muddy, ill-seeming, thick, bereft of beauty,
And while it is so, none so dry or thirsty
Will deign to sip or touch one drop of it.
Thy husband is thy lord, thy life, thy keeper,
Thy head, thy sovereign: one that cares for thee,
And for thy maintenance; commits his body
To painful labour both by sea and land,
To watch the night in storms, the day in cold,
Whilst thou liest warm at home, secure and safe,
And craves no other tribute at thy hands
But love, fair looks, and true obedience –
Too little payment for so great a debt.
Such duty as the subject owes the prince,
Even such a woman oweth to her husband;
And when she is froward, peevish, sullen, sour,
And not obedient to his honest will,
What is she but a foul contending rebel
And graceless traitor to her loving lord?
I am ashamed that women are so simple
To offer war where they should kneel for peace;
Or seek for rule, supremacy, and sway,
When they are bound to serve, love, and obey.
Why are our bodies soft, and weak, and smooth,
Unapt to toil and trouble in the world,
But that our soft conditions, and our hearts,
Should well agree with our external parts?
Come, come, you froward and unable worms!
My mind hath been as big as one of yours,
My heart as great, my reason haply more,
To bandy word for word and frown for frown;
But now I see our lances are but straws,
Our strength as weak, our weakness past compare,
That seeming to be most which we indeed least are.
Then vail your stomachs, for it is no boot,
And place your hands below your husband's foot;
In token of which duty, if he please,
My hand is ready, may it do him ease.
Traditionally, many critics have taken the speech literally. Writing in 1943, for example, G.I. Duthie argued "what Shakespeare emphasises here is the foolishness of trying to destroy order." However, in a modern western society, holding relatively egalitarian views on gender, such an interpretation presents a dilemma, as according to said interpretation the play seemingly celebrates female subjugation.
Critically, four main theories have emerged in response to Katherina's speech;
- It is sincere; Petruchio has successfully tamed her.
- It is sincere, but not because Petruchio has tamed her. Instead, she has fallen in love with him and accepted her role as his wife.
- It is ironic; she is being sarcastic, pretending to have been tamed when in reality she has completely duped Petruchio into thinking he has tamed her.
- It should not be read seriously or ironically; it is part of the farcical nature of the play-within-the-play.
George Bernard Shaw wrote in 1897 that "no man with any decency of feeling can sit it out in the company of a woman without being extremely ashamed of the lord-of-creation moral implied in the wager and the speech put into the woman's own mouth." Katherina is seen as having been successfully tamed, and having come to accept her newly submissive role to such an extent that she advocates that role for others, the final speech rationalises, according to Duthie, in both a political and sociological sense, the submission of wives to husbands.
Actress Meryl Streep, who played Katherina in 1978 at the Shakespeare in the Park festival, says of the play, "really what matters is that they have an incredible passion and love; it's not something that Katherina admits to right away, but it does provide the source of her change." Similarly, John C. Bean sees the speech as the final stage in the process of Katherina's change of heart towards Petruchio; "if we can appreciate the liberal element in Kate's last speech – the speech that strikes modern sensibilities as advocating male tyranny – we can perhaps see that Kate is tamed not in the automatic manner of behavioural psychology but in the spontaneous manner of the later romantic comedies where characters lose themselves and emerge, as if from a dream, liberated into the bonds of love."
Perhaps the most common interpretation in the modern era is that the speech is ironic; Katherina has not been tamed at all, she has merely duped Petruchio into thinking she has. Two especially well known examples of this interpretation are seen in the two major feature film adaptations of the play; Sam Taylor's 1929 version and Franco Zeffirelli's 1967 version. In Taylor's film, Katherina, played by Mary Pickford, winks at Bianca during the speech, indicating she does not mean a word of what she is saying. In Zeffirelli's film, Katherina, played by Elizabeth Taylor, delivers the speech as though it were her own idea, and the submission aspect is reversed by her ending the speech and leaving the room, causing Petruchio to have to run after her. Phyllis Rackin is an example of a scholar who reads the speech ironically, especially in how it deals with gender. She points out that several lines in the speech focus on the woman's body, but in the Elizabethan theatre, the role would have been played by a young boy, thus rendering any evocation of the female form as ironic. Reading the play as a satire of gender roles, she sees the speech as the culmination of this process. Along similar lines, Philippa Kelly says "the body of the boy actor in Shakespeare's time would have created a sexual indeterminacy that would have undermined the patriarchal narrative, so that the taming is only apparently so. And in declaring women's passivity so extensively and performing it centre-stage, Kate might be seen to take on a kind of agency that rebukes the feminine codes of silence and obedience which she so expressly advocates." Similarly, Coppélia Kahn argues the speech is really about how little Katherina has been tamed; "she steals the scene from her husband, who has held the stage throughout the play, and reveals that he has failed to tame her in the sense he set out to. He has gained her outward compliance in the form of a public display, while her spirit remains mischievously free."
In relation to this interpretation, William Empson suggests that Katherina was originally performed by an adult male actor rather than a young boy. He argues that the play indicates on several occasions that Katherina is physically strong, and even capable of over-powering Petruchio. For example, this is demonstrated off-stage when the horse falls on her as she is riding to Petruchio's home, and she is able to lift it off herself, and later when she throws Petruchio off a servant he is beating. Empson argues that the point is not that Katherina is, as a woman, weak, but that she is not well cast in the role in life which she finds herself having to play. The end of the play then offers blatant irony when a strong male actor, dressed as a woman, lectures women on how to play their parts.
The fourth school of thought is that the play is a farce, and hence the speech should not be read seriously or ironically. For example, Robert B. Heilman argues that "the whole wager scene falls essentially within the realm of farce: the responses are largely mechanical, as is their symmetry. Kate's final long speech on the obligations and fitting style of wives we can think of as a more or less automatic statement – that is, the kind appropriate to farce – of a generally held doctrine." He further makes his case by positing:
there are two arguments against [an ironic interpretation]. One is that a careful reading of the lines will show that most of them have to be taken literally; only the last seven or eight lines can be read with ironic overtones [...] The second is that some forty lines of straight irony would be too much to be borne; it would be inconsistent with the straightforwardness of most of the play, and it would really turn Kate back into a hidden shrew whose new technique was sarcastic indirection, sidemouthing at the audience, while her not very intelligent husband, bamboozled, cheered her on.
Another way in which to read the speech (and the play) as farcical is to focus on the Induction. H.J. Oliver, for example, emphasising the importance of the Induction, writes "the play within the play has been presented only after all the preliminaries have encouraged us to take it as a farce. We have been warned." Of Katherina's speech, he argues:
this lecture by Kate on the wife's duty to submit is the only fitting climax to the farce – and for that very reason it cannot logically be taken seriously, orthodox though the views expressed may be [...] attempting to take the last scene as a continuation of the realistic portrayal of character leads some modern producers to have it played as a kind of private joke between Petruchio and Kate – or even have Petruchio imply that by now he is thoroughly ashamed of himself. It does not, cannot, work. The play has changed key: it has modulated back from something like realistic social comedy to the other, 'broader' kind of entertainment that was foretold by the Induction.
Emma Smith suggests a possible fifth interpretation: Petruchio and Kate have colluded together to plot this set-piece speech, "a speech learned off pat", to demonstrate that Kate is the most obedient of the three wives and so allow Petruchio to win the wager.
The issue of gender politics is an important theme in The Taming of the Shrew. In a letter to the Pall Mall Gazette, George Bernard Shaw famously called the play "one vile insult to womanhood and manhood from the first word to the last." A contemporary critic, Emily Detmer, points out that in the late 16th and early 17th century, laws curtailing husbands' use of violence in disciplining their wives were becoming more commonplace; "the same culture that still "felt good" about dunking scolds, whipping whores, or burning witches was becoming increasingly sensitive about husbands beating their wives." Detmer argues:
the vigor of public discourse on wife-beating exemplifies a culture at work reformulating permissible and impermissible means for husbands to maintain control over the politics of the family, without, however, questioning that goal. This new boundary was built on notions of class and civil behaviour. Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew acts as a comedic roadmap for reconfiguring these emergent modes of "skillful" and civilised dominance for gentlemen, that is, for subordinating a wife without resorting to the "common" man's brute strength.
Petruchio's answer is to psychologically tame Katherina, a method not frowned upon by society; "the play signals a shift towards a "modern" way of managing the subordination of wives by legitimatising domination as long as it is not physical." Detmer argues "Shakespeare's "shrew" is tamed in a manner that would have made the wife-beating reformers proud; Petruchio's taming "policy" dramatises how abstention from physical violence works better. The play encourages its audience not only to pay close attention to Petruchio's method but also to judge and enjoy the method's permissibility because of the absence of blows and the harmonious outcome."
However, Detmer is critical of scholars who defend Shakespeare for depicting male dominance in a less brutal fashion than many of his contemporaries. For example, although not specifically mentioned by Detmer, Michael West writes "the play's attitude was characteristically Elizabethan and was expressed more humanly by Shakespeare than by some of his sources." Detmer goes on to read the play in light of modern psychological theories regarding women's responses to domestic violence, and argues that Katherina develops Stockholm syndrome:
a model of domestic violence that includes tactics other than physical violence gives readers a way in which to understand Kate's romanticised surrender at the end of the play as something other than consensual, as, in fact, a typical response to abuse [...] Like a victim of the Stockholm syndrome, she denies her own feelings in order to bond with her abuser. Her surrender and obedience signify her emotional bondage as a survival strategy; she aims to please because her life depends upon it. Knowing how the Stockholm syndrome works can help us to see that whatever "subjectivity" might be achieved is created out of domination and a coercive bonding.
In a Marxist reading of the play, Natasha Korda argues that, although Petruchio is not characterised as a violent man, he still embodies sixteenth century notions regarding the subjugation and objectification of women. Shrew taming stories existed prior to Shakespeare's play, and in such stories, "the object of the tale was simply to put the shrew to work, to restore her (frequently through some gruesome form of punishment) to her proper productive place within the household economy." Petruchio does not do this, but Korda argues he still works to curtail the activities of the woman; "Kate [is] not a reluctant producer, but rather an avid and sophisticated consumer of market goods [...] Petruchio's taming strategy is accordingly aimed not at his wife's productive capacity – not once does he ask Kate to brew, bake, wash, card, or spin – but at her consumption. He seeks to educate her in her role as a consumer." She believes that even though Petruchio does not use force to tame Katherina, his actions are still an endorsement of patriarchy; he makes her his property and tames her into accepting a patriarchal economic worldview. Vital in this reading is Katherina's final speech, which Korda argues "inaugurates a new gendered division of labour, according to which husbands "labour both by sea and land" while their wives luxuriate at home [...] In erasing the status of housework as work, separate-sphere ideology renders the housewife perpetually indebted to her husband [...] The Taming of the Shrew marks the emergence of the ideological separation of feminine and masculine spheres of labour."
In a different reading of how gender politics are handled in the play, David Beauregard reads the relationship between Katherina and Petruchio in traditional Aristotelian terms. Petruchio, as the architect of virtue (Politics, 1.13), brings Kate into harmony with her nature by developing her "new-built virtue and obedience", (5.2.118), and she, in turn, brings to Petruchio in her person all the Aristotelian components of happiness – wealth and good fortune, virtue, friendship and love, the promise of domestic peace and quiet (Nicomachean Ethics, 1.7–8). The virtue of obedience at the center of Kate's final speech is not what Aristotle describes as the despotic rule of master over slave, but rather the statesman's rule over a free and equal person (Politics, 1.3, 12–13). Recognising the evil of despotic domination, the play holds up in inverse form Kate's shrewishness, the feminine form of the will to dominance, as an evil that obstructs natural fulfillment and destroys marital happiness.
Another theme in the play is cruelty. Alexander Leggatt states:
the taming of Katherina is not just a lesson, but a game – a test of skill and a source of pleasure. The roughness is, at bottom, part of the fun: such is the peculiar psychology of sport that one is willing to endure aching muscles and risk the occasional broken limb for the sake of the challenge. The sports most often recalled throughout the play are blood sports, hunting and hawking, thus invoking in the audience the state of mind in which cruelty and violence are acceptable, even exciting, because their scope is limited by tacit agreement and they are made the occasion for a display of skill.
Ann Thompson argues that "the fact that in the folktale versions the shrew-taming story always comes to its climax when the husbands wager on their wives' obedience must have been partly responsible for the large number of references to sporting, gaming and gambling throughout the play. These metaphors can help to make Petruchio's cruelty acceptable by making it seem limited and conventionalised." Marvin Bennet Krims argues that "the play leans heavily on representations of cruelty for its comedic effect." He believes cruelty permeates the entire play, including the Induction, arguing the Sly frame, with the Lord's spiteful practical joke, prepares the audience for a play willing to treat cruelty as a comedic matter. He suggests that cruelty is a more important theme than gender, arguing that "the aggression represented in Taming can be read as having less to do with gender and more to do with hate, with the text thereby becoming a comic representation of the general problem of human cruelty and victimisation."
Director Michael Bogdanov, who directed the play in 1978, considers that "Shakespeare was a feminist":
Shakespeare shows women totally abused – like animals – bartered to the highest bidder. He shows women used as commodities, not allowed to choose for themselves. In The Taming of the Shrew you get that extraordinary scene between Baptista, Grumio, and Tranio, where they are vying with each other to see who can offer most for Bianca, who is described as 'the prize'. It is a toss of the coin to see which way she will go: to the old man with a certain amount of money, or to the young man, who is boasting that he's got so many ships. She could end up with the old impotent fool, or the young 'eligible' man: what sort of life is that to look forward to? There is no question of it, [Shakespeare's] sympathy is with the women, and his purpose, to expose the cruelty of a society that allows these things to happen.
The motivation of money is another theme. When speaking of whether or not someone may ever want to marry Katherina, Hortensio says "Though it pass your patience and mine to endure her loud alarums, why man, there be good fellows in the world, and a man could light on them, would take her with all faults and money enough" (1.1.125–128). In the scene that follows Petruchio says:
A few lines later Grumio says, "Why give him gold enough and marry him to a puppet or an aglet-baby, or an old trot with ne're a tooth in her head, though she have as many diseases as two and fifty horses. Why, nothing comes amiss, so money comes withal" (1.2.77–80). Furthermore, Petruchio is encouraged to woo Katherina by Gremio, Tranio (as Lucentio), and Hortensio, who vow to pay him if he wins her, on top of Baptista's dowry ("After my death, the one half of my lands, and in possession, twenty thousand crowns"). Later, Petruchio does not agree with Baptista on the subject of love in this exchange:
When the special thing is well obtained,
That is, her love; for that is all in all.
Why that is nothing.
Gremio and Tranio literally bid for Bianca. As Baptista says, "'Tis deeds must win the prize, and he of both/That can assure my daughter greatest dower/Shall have my Bianca's love" (2.1.344–346).
Frederic Reynolds' Catherine and Petruchio (1828) is an adaptation of Garrick, with an overture taken from Gioachino Rossini, songs derived from numerous Shakespeare plays and sonnets, and music by John Braham and Thomas Simpson Cooke. Starring Fanny Ayton and James William Wallack, the opera premiered at Drury Lane, but it was not successful, and closed after only a few performances. Hermann Goetz' Der Widerspänstigen Zähmung (1874), with libretto by Joseph Viktor Widmann, is a comic opera, which focuses on the Bianca subplot, and cuts back the taming story. It was first performed at the original National Theatre Mannheim. John Kendrick Bangs' Katherine: A Travesty (1888) is a Gilbert and Sullivan-style parody operetta which premiered in the Metropolitan Opera. Spyridon Samaras' La furia domata: commedia musicale in tre atti (1895) is a now lost lyric comedy with libretto by Enrico Annibale Butti and Giulio Macchi, which premiered at the Teatro Lirico. Ruperto Chapí's Las bravías (1896), with a libretto by José López Silva and Carlos Fernández Shaw, is a one-act género chico zarzuela clearly based on the story, but with names changed and the location altered to Madrid: it was a major success in Spain, with over 200 performances in 1896 alone, and continues to be performed regularly.
Johan Wagenaar's De getemde feeks (1909) is the second of three overtures Wagenaar wrote based on Shakespeare, the others being Koning Jan (1891) and Driekoningenavond (1928). Another overture inspired by the play is Alfred Reynolds' The Taming of the Shrew Overture (1927). Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari's verismo opera Sly, ovvero la leggenda del dormiente risvegliato (1927) focuses on the Induction, with libretto by Giovacchino Forzano. A tragedy, the opera depicts Sly as a hard-drinking and debt-ridden poet who sings in a London pub. When he is tricked into believing that he is a lord, his life improves, but upon learning it is a ruse, he mistakenly concludes the woman he loves (Dolly) only told him she loved him as part of the ruse. In despair, he kills himself by cutting his wrists, with Dolly arriving too late to save him. Starring Aureliano Pertile and Mercedes Llopart, it was first performed at La Scala in Milan. Rudolf Karel's The Taming of the Shrew is an unfinished opera upon which he worked between 1942 and 1944. Philip Greeley Clapp's The Taming of the Shrew (1948) was first performed at the Metropolitan Opera. Vittorio Giannini's The Taming of the Shrew (1953) is an opera buffa, with libretto by Giannini and Dorothy Fee. It was first performed at the Cincinnati Music Hall, starring Dorothy Short and Robert Kircher. Vissarion Shebalin's Ukroshchenye stroptivoy (1957), with libretto by Abram Akimovich Gozenpud, was Shebalin's last opera and was immediately hailed as a masterpiece throughout Russia. Dominick Argento's Christopher Sly (1962), with libretto by John Manlove, is a comic opera in two scenes and an interlude, first performed in the University of Minnesota. Sly is duped by a Lord into believing that he himself is a lord. However, he soon becomes aware of the ruse, and when left alone, he flees with the Lord's valuables and his two mistresses.
The earliest known musical adaptation of the play was a ballad opera based on Charles Johnson's Cobler of Preston. Called The Cobler of Preston's Opera, the piece was anonymously written, although William Dunkin is thought by some scholars as a likely candidate. Rehearsals for the premier began in Smock Alley in October 1731, but sometime in November or December, the show was cancelled. It was instead performed by a group of children (including an eleven-year-old Peg Woffington) in January 1732 at Signora Violante's New Booth in Dame Street. It was subsequently published in March.
James Worsdale's A Cure for a Scold is also a ballad opera. First performed at Drury Lane in 1735, starring Kitty Clive and Charles Macklin, A Cure for a Scold was an adaptation of Lacy's Sauny the Scot rather than Shakespeare's original Taming of the Shrew. Petruchio was renamed Manly, and Katherina was renamed Margaret (nicknamed Peg). At the end, there is no wager. Instead, Peg pretends she is dying, and as Petruchio runs for a doctor, she reveals she is fine, and declares "you have taught me what 'tis to be a Wife, and I shall make it my Study to be obliging and obedient," to which Manly replies "My best Peg, we will exchange Kindness, and be each others Servants." After the play has finished, the actress playing Peg steps forward and speaks directly to the audience as herself; "Well, I must own, it wounds me to the Heart/To play, unwomanly, so mean a Part./What – to submit, so tamely – so contented,/Thank Heav'n! I'm not the Thing I represented."
Cole Porter's musical Kiss Me, Kate is an adaptation of Taming of the Shrew. The music and lyrics are by Porter and the book is by Samuel and Bella Spewack. It is at least partially based on the 1935/1936 Theatre Guild production of Taming of the Shrew, which starred husband and wife Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne, whose backstage fights became legendary. The musical tells the story of a husband and wife acting duo (Fred and Lilli) attempting to stage The Taming of the Shrew, but whose backstage fights keep getting in the way. The musical opened on Broadway at the New Century Theatre in 1948, running for a total of 1,077 performances. Directed by John C. Wilson with choreography by Hanya Holm, it starred Patricia Morison and Alfred Drake. The production moved to the West End in 1951, directed by Samuel Spewack with choreography again by Holm, and starring Patricia Morrison and Bill Johnson. It ran for 501 performances. As well as being a box office hit, the musical was also a critical success, winning five Tony Awards; Best Authors (Musical), Best Original Score, Best Costume Design, Best Musical and Best Producers (Musical). The play has since been revived numerous times in various countries. Its 1999 revival at the Martin Beck Theatre, directed by Michael Blakemore and starring Marin Mazzie and Brian Stokes Mitchell, was especially successful, winning another five Tonys; Best Actor (Musical), Best Costume Design, Best Director (Musical), Best Orchestrations, and Best Revival (Musical).
The first ballet version of the play was Maurice Béjart's La mégère apprivoisée. Using the music of Alessandro Scarlatti, it was originally performed by the Ballet de l'Opéra de Paris in 1954. The best known ballet adaptation is John Cranko's The Taming of the Shrew, first performed by the Stuttgart Ballet at the Staatsoper Stuttgart in 1969. Another ballet adaptation is Louis Falco's Kate's Rag, first performed by the Louis Falco Dance Company at the Akademie der Künste in 1980. In 1988, Aleksandre Machavariani composed a ballet suite, but it was not performed until 2009, when his son, conductor Vakhtang Machavariani, gave a concert at the Georgian National Music Center featuring music by Modest Mussorgsky, Sergei Prokofiev and some of his father's pieces.
In 1924, extracts from the play were broadcast on BBC Radio, performed by the Cardiff Station Repertory Company as the eight episode of a series of programs showcasing Shakespeare's plays, entitled Shakespeare Night. Extracts were also broadcast in 1925 as part of Shakespeare: Scene and Story, with Edna Godfrey-Turner and William Macready, and in 1926 as part of Shakespeare's Heroines, with Madge Titheradge and Edmund Willard. In 1927, a forty-three-minute truncation of the play was broadcast on BBC National Programme, with Barbara Couper and Ian Fleming. In 1932, National Programme aired another truncated version, this one running eighty-five minutes, and again starring Couper, with Francis James as Petruchio. In 1935, Peter Creswell directed a broadcast of the relatively complete text (only the Bianca subplot was trimmed) on National Programme, starring Mary Hinton and Godfrey Tearle. This was the first non-theatrical version of the play to feature Sly, who was played by Stuart Robertson. In 1941, Creswell directed another adaptation for BBC Home Service, again starring Tearle, with Fay Compton as Katherina. In 1947, BBC Light Programme aired extracts for their Theatre Programme from John Burrell's Edinburgh Festival production, with Patricia Burke and Trevor Howard. In 1954, the full-length play aired on BBC Home Service, directed by Peter Watts, starring Mary Wimbush and Joseph O'Conor, with Norman Shelley as Sly. BBC Radio 4 aired another full-length broadcast (without the Induction) in 1973 as part of their Monday Night Theatre series, directed by Ian Cotterell, starring Fenella Fielding and Paul Daneman. In 1989, BBC Radio 3 aired the full play, directed by Jeremy Mortimer, starring Cheryl Campbell and Bob Peck, with William Simons as Sly. In 2000, BBC Radio 3 aired another full-length production (without the Induction) as part of their Shakespeare for the New Millennium series, directed by Melanie Harris, and starring Ruth Mitchell and Gerard McSorley.
In the United States, the first major radio production was in July 1937 on NBC Blue Network, when John Barrymore adapted the play into a forty-five-minute piece, starring Elaine Barrie and Barrymore himself. In August of the same year, CBS Radio aired a sixty-minute adaptation directed by Brewster Mason, starring Frieda Inescort and Edward G. Robinson. The adaptation was written by Gilbert Seldes, who employed a narrator (Godfrey Tearle) to fill in gaps in the story, tell the audience about the clothes worn by the characters and offer opinions as to the direction of the plot. For example, Act 4, Scene 5 ends with the narrator musing "We know that Katherina obeys her husband, but has her spirit been really tamed I wonder?" In 1940, a thirty-minute musical version of the play written by Joseph Gottlieb and Irvin Graham aired on CBS as part of their Columbia Workshop series, starring Nan Sunderland and Carleton Young. In 1941, NBC Blue Network aired a sixty-minute adaptation as part of their Great Plays series, written by Ranald MacDougall, directed by Charles Warburton, and starring Grace Coppin and Herbert Rudley. In 1949, ABC Radio aired an adaptation directed by Homer Fickett, starring Joyce Redman and Burgess Meredith. In 1953, NBC broadcast William Dawkins' production live from the Oregon Shakespeare Festival. The cast list for this production has been lost, but it is known to have featured George Peppard. In 1960, NBC aired a sixty-minute version adapted by Carl Ritchie from Robert Loper's stage production for the Oregon Shakespeare Festival, starring Ann Hackney and Gerard Larson.
- The term was first used by Alexander Pope in 1725, and has been commonly employed ever since. The First Folio text begins the play with the standard "Actus primus, Scœna prima" heading, and there is no differentiation between the Induction and what is commonly referred to today as Act 1, Scene 1 (Lucentio arriving in Padua).
- The complete English text of the episode is: "Three merchants, riding home from a fair, fell to talking about the charm of obedience in a wife. At last they laid a wager of a dinner, agreeing that the one whose wife should prove the least obedient should pay for the dinner. Each man was to warn his wife to do whatever he might bid; afterward he was to set a basin before her and bid her leap into it. The first wife insisted on knowing the reason for the command; she received several blows from her husband's fist. The second wife flatly refused to obey; she was thoroughly beaten with a staff. The wife of the third merchant received the same warning as the rest, but the intended trial was postponed until after dinner. During the meal this wife was asked to put salt upon the table. Because of a similarity between the two expressions in French, she understood her husband to command her to leap upon the table. She at once did so, throwing down the meat and drink and breaking the glasses. When she stated the reason for her conduct, the other merchants acknowledged without further trial that they had lost the wager."
- Complete Text of A Merry Jest.
- From this point forward, The Taming of a Shrew will be referred to as A Shrew; The Taming of the Shrew as The Shrew.
All references to The Taming of the Shrew, unless otherwise specified, are taken from the Oxford Shakespeare (Oliver, 1982), which is based on the 1623 First Folio. Under this referencing system, 1.2.51 means Act 1, Scene 2, line 51.
- Bullough (1957), pp. 109–110.
- Thompson (2003), p. 10.
- Hodgdon (2010), p. 58.
- Heilman (1998), p. 117.
- Hodgdon (2010), p. 60.
- Oliver (1982), pp. 48–49.
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- Hodgdon (2010), p. 39.
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- Tolman (1890), pp. 238–239.
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- Hosley (1964).
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- Oliver (1982), p. 49.
- Thompson (2003), p. 12.
- Brunvand (1966), p. 346.
- See also Brunvand (1991).
- Oliver (1982), pp. 49–50.
- Miller (1998), pp. 12–14.
- Thompson (2003), pp. 12–13.
- Hodgdon (2010), pp. 43–45.
- Tolman (1890), pp. 203–227.
- For more information on the relationship between Supposes and The Shrew, see Seronsy (1963).
- Heilman (1998), p. 137.
- Wentersdorf (1978), p. 202.
- For more information on A Shrew see Morris (1981), pp. 12–50, Oliver (1982), pp. 13–34 and Miller (1998), pp. 1–57
- Thompson (2003), p. 1.
- Taylor (1997), p. 110.
- Thompson (2003), p. 3.
- Moore (1964).
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- Morris (1981), p. 13.
- See esp. Houk (1942) and Duthie (1943). See also Morris (1981), pp. 16–24 and Oliver (1982), pp. 23–25.
- See esp. Alexander (1926) and Alexander (1969). See also Morris (1981), pp. 14–16 and Oliver (1982), pp. 16–18; 31–34.
- See esp. Shroeder (1958). See also Morris (1981), pp. 24–26 and Evans (1997), pp. 104–107.
- See Duthie (1943), Oliver (1982), pp. 13–34, Marcus (1991) and Marcus (1996), pp. 101–131.
- Miller (1998), pp. 1–57.
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- See Hickson (1850a) and Hickson (1850b)
- Alexander (1926).
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Editions of The Taming of the ShrewEdit
- Bate, Jonathan; Rasmussen, Eric, eds. (2010). The Taming of the Shrew. The RSC Shakespeare. Basingstoke: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-27207-1.
- Bond, R. Warwick, ed. (1904). The Taming of the Shrew. The Arden Shakespeare, First Series. London: Methuen.
- Evans, G. Blakemore, ed. (1997) . The Riverside Shakespeare (Second ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-75490-0.
- Greenblatt, Stephen; Cohen, Walter; Howard, Jean E.; Maus, Katharine Eisaman, eds. (2008) . The Norton Shakespeare: Based on the Oxford Shakespeare (Second ed.). London: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-11135-4.
- Heilman, Robert B., ed. (1998) . The Taming of the Shrew. Signet Classic Shakespeare (Second Revised ed.). New York: New American Library. ISBN 978-0-451-52679-3.
- Hibbard, G.R., ed. (1968). The Taming of the Shrew. The New Penguin Shakespeare. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-070710-6.
- Hodgdon, Barbara, ed. (2010). The Taming of the Shrew. The Arden Shakespeare, Third Series. London: Methuen. ISBN 978-1-903436-93-6.
- Hosley, Richard, ed. (1978) . The Taming of the Shrew. The Pelican Shakespeare (Revised ed.). London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-071425-8.
- Kidnie, Margaret Jane, ed. (2006). The Taming of the Shrew. The Penguin Shakespeare. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-101551-4.
- Miller, Stephen Roy, ed. (1998). The Taming of a Shrew: The 1594 Quarto. The New Cambridge Shakespeare: The Early Quartos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08796-4.
- Morris, Brian, ed. (1981). The Taming of the Shrew. The Arden Shakespeare, Second Series. London: Methuen. ISBN 978-1-903436-10-3.
- Oliver, H.J., ed. (1982). The Taming of the Shrew. The Oxford Shakespeare. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953652-8.
- Orgel, Stephen, ed. (2000). The Taming of a Shrew. The New Pelican Shakespeare. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-071451-7.
- Quiller-Couch, Arthur; Wilson, John Dover, eds. (1953) . The Taming of the Shrew. The New Shakespeare (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-00604-0.
- Schafer, Elizabeth, ed. (2002). The Taming of the Shrew. Shakespeare in Production. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66741-8.
- Thompson, Ann, ed. (2003) . The Taming of the Shrew. The New Cambridge Shakespeare (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9789812836540.
- Wells, Stanley; Taylor, Gary; Jowett, John; Montgomery, William, eds. (2005) . The Oxford Shakespeare: The Complete Works (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926718-7.
- Werstine, Paul; Mowat, Barbara A., eds. (2004). The Taming of the Shrew. Folger Shakespeare Library. Washington: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7434-7757-4.
- Addison-Roberts, Jeanne (Summer 1983). "Horses and Hermaphrodites: Metamorphoses in The Taming of the Shrew". Shakespeare Quarterly. 34 (2): 159–171. doi:10.2307/2869831. JSTOR 2869831. (subscription required)
- Andresen-Thom, Martha (Summer 1982). "Shrew-taming and Other Rituals of Aggression: Baiting and Bonding on the Stage and in the Wild". Women's Studies: An Inter-Disciplinary Journal. 9 (2): 121–143. doi:10.1080/00497878.1982.9978561. (subscription required)
- Alexander, Peter (16 September 1926). "The Taming of the Shrew". The Times Literary Supplement.
- Alexander, Peter (Spring 1969). "The Original Ending of The Taming of the Shrew". Shakespeare Quarterly. 20 (1): 111–116. doi:10.2307/2868994. JSTOR 2868994. (subscription required)
- Aspinall, Dana E. (2001). "The Play and the Critics". In Aspinall, Dana E. (ed.). The Taming of the Shrew: Critical Essays. New York, NY: Garland. pp. 3–40. ISBN 978-0-415-87434-2.
- Ball, Robert Hamilton (2013) [1st Pub. 1968]. Shakespeare on Silent Film: A Strange Eventful History. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-83210-6.
- Baumlin, Tita French (Spring 1989). "Petruchio the Sophist and Language as Creation in The Taming of the Shrew". SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900. 29 (2): 237–257. doi:10.2307/450473. JSTOR 2868994. (subscription required)
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|Wikiquote has quotations related to: The Taming of the Shrew|
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|Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Taming of the Shrew.|
- The Taming of the Shrew – at Project Gutenberg.
- The Taming of the Shrew – searchable HTML version with notes, line numbers and scene summaries.
- The Taming of the Shrew – scene-indexed HTML version of the play.
- The Taming of the Shrew – scene-indexed and searchable HTML version of the play.
- The Taming of the Shrew – PDF version, with original First Folio spelling.
- The Taming of the Shrew Home Page at Internet Shakespeare Editions.
- The Taming of the Shrew public domain audiobook at LibriVox
- The Taming of the Shrew at Shakespeare Illustrated.
- The Taming of the Shrew on IMDb (Sam Taylor's 1929 version)
- The Taming of the Shrew on IMDb (Franco Zeffirelli's 1967 version).
- The Taming of the Shrew on IMDb (BBC Television Shakespeare's 1980 version).
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Quantum Cryptology Problems
Despite all of the security it offers, quantum cryptology also has a few fundamental flaws. Chief among these flaws is the length under which the system will work: It’s too short.
The original quantum cryptography system, built in 1989 by Charles Bennett, Gilles Brassard and John Smolin, sent a key over a distance of 36 centimeters [source: Scientific American]. Since then, newer models have reached a distance of 150 kilometers (about 93 miles). But this is still far short of the distance requirements needed to transmit information with modern computer and telecommunication systems.
The reason why the length of quantum cryptology capability is so short is because of interference. A photon’s spin can be changed when it bounces off other particles, and so when it's received, it may no longer be polarized the way it was originally intended to be. This means that a 1 may come through as a 0 -- this is the probability factor at work in quantum physics. As the distance a photon must travel to carry its binary message is increased, so, too, is the chance that it will meet other particles and be influenced by them.
One group of Austrian researchers may have solved this problem. This team used what Albert Einstein called “spooky action at a distance.” This observation of quantum physics is based on the entanglement of photons. At the quantum level, photons can come to depend on one another after undergoing some particle reactions, and their states become entangled. This entanglement doesn’t mean that the two photons are physically connected, but they become connected in a way that physicists still don't understand. In entangled pairs, each photon has the opposite spin of the other -- for example, ( / ) and ( ). If the spin of one is measured, the spin of the other can be deduced. What’s strange (or “spooky”) about the entangled pairs is that they remain entangled, even when they’re separated at a distance.
The Austrian team put a photon from an entangled pair at each end of a fiber optic cable. When one photon was measured in one polarization, its entangled counterpart took the opposite polarization, meaning the polarization the other photon would take could be predicted. It transmitted its information to its entangled partner. This could solve the distance problem of quantum cryptography, since there is now a method to help predict the actions of entangled photons.
Even though it’s existed just a few years so far, quantum cryptography may have already been cracked. A group of researchers from Massachusetts Institute of Technology took advantage of another property of entanglement. In this form, two states of a single photon become related, rather than the properties of two separate photons. By entangling the photons the team intercepted, they were able to measure one property of the photon and make an educated guess of what the measurement of another property -- like its spin -- would be. By not measuring the photon’s spin, they were able to identify its direction without affecting it. So the photon traveled down the line to its intended recipient none the wiser.
The MIT researchers admit that their eavesdropping method may not hold up to other systems, but that with a little more research, it could be perfected. Hopefully, quantum cryptology will be able to stay one step ahead as decoding methods continue to advance.
For more information on quantum physics and cryptology, read the next page.
More Great Links
- Alves, Carolina Moura and Kent Adrian. "Quantum Cryptography." National University of Singapore. http://www.quantumlah.org/?q=tutorial/quantumcrypto
- Azzole, Pete. "Ultra: The Silver Bullet." Crypotolog. November 1996. http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/research/security/Historical/azzole1.html
- Brumfiel, Geoffrey. "Quantum Cryptography is Hacked." Nature. April 27, 2007. http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070423/full/news070423-10.html
- Messmer, Ellen. "Quantum Cryptography to Secure Ballots in Swiss Election." Network World. October 11, 2007. http://www.networkworld.com/news/2007/101007-quantum-cryptography-secure-ballots.html?t51hb
- Stix, Gary. "Best-Kept Secrets: Quantum cryptography has marched from theory to laboratory to real products." Scientific American. January 2005. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID= 000479CD-F58C-11BE-AD0683414B7F0000
- Vittorio, Salvatore. "Quantum Cryptography: Privacy through Uncertainty." CSA. October 2002. http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/crypt/overview.php
- "Quantum Cryptography Tutorial." Dartmouth College. http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~jford/crypto.html
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Strong reasoning
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Secession Era Editorials Project
The Issue Forced Upon Us.
York, Evening Journal [Republican]
(9 March 1857)
The three hundred and forty-seven thousand five hundred and twenty-five
Slaveholders in the Republic, accomplished day before yesterday a great success
-- as shallow men estimate success.
They converted the Supreme Court of Law and Equity of the United
States of America into a propagandist of human Slavery.
Fatal day for a judiciary made reputable throughout the world, and reliable
to all in this nation, by the learning and the virtues of Jay,
Rutledge, Ellsworth, Marshall and
The conspiracy is nearly completed.
The Legislation of the Republic is in the hands of this handfull of Slaveholders.
The United States Senate assures it to them.
The Executive power of the Government is theirs.
Buchanan took the oath of fealty to them on the steps of the
Capitol last Wednesday.
The body which gives the supreme law of the land, has just acceded to their
demands, and dared to declare that under the charter of the Nation, men of African descent are not citizens of the United States
and can not be -- that the Ordinance of 1787 was void -- that human
Slavery is not a local thing, but pursues its victims to free soil, clings to
them wherever they go, and returns with them -- that the American Congress has no power to prevent the enslavement of men
in the National Territories -- that the inhabitants themselves of the
Territories have no power to exclude human bondage from their midst -- and that
men of color can not be suitors for justice in the Courts of the United
The Lemmon Case is on its way to this corrupt fountain of
Arrived there, a new shackle for the North will be handed to
the servile Supreme Court, to rivet upon us.
A decision of that case is expected which shall complete the disgraceful
labors of the Federal Judiciary in behalf of Slavery -- a decision that slaves
can lawfully be held in free States, and Slavery be fully maintained here in
New York through the sanctions of "property"
contained in the Constitution.
That decision will be rendered.
The Slave breeders will celebrate it as the crowning success of a complete
But how they will reckon without their hosts!
Beneath Courts and Congresses and Presidents is the great PEOPLE. They love liberty -- they love justice -- they love
Till they affirm the decisions of Law embruting man's divine nature, and
till they approve of legislation which defies God, and till they
order Executives to execute iniquity, this conspiracy of the Oligarchy is
That consent will forever and ever be wanting.
But one thing will not be wanting -- the resolute purpose of the humane,
the just and the free men of the Free
States, to meet the close issue forced upon them through the
decision of the case of Dred, squarely and fairly, and never to
abate their efforts to recover the entire administration of the Republic away
from Slavery and back again to Freedom.
All who love Republican institutions and who hate Aristocracy, compact
yourselves together for the struggle which threatens your liberty and will test
This document was produced as part of a document analysis project
by Lloyd Benson, Department of History, Furman University.
(Proofing info: Lloyd Benson.)
This electronic version may not be copied, or linked to, or otherwise used for commercial purposes, (including textbook or publication-related websites)
without prior written permission. The views expressed in this
document are for educational, historical, and scholarly use only,
and are not intended to represent the views of the project contributors or
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Strong reasoning
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Politics
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January 31, 2014
All water is local.
For that reason, we do not see the hundreds of headlines about shortages, contamination and related issues that are daily spread across news sites such as The Plain Dealer of Cleveland, Ohio, the Times News of Twins Falls Idaho, the Cape Coral Daily Breeze of Cape Coral, Florida, the Kingston Daily Freeman of Kingston, NY, the Bakersfield Californian, and the Arizona Republic, or the AzerNews of Azerbaijan, the Times of India and AllAfrica.com.
These few sources were returned in a narrow Google News search for “water shortage,” which yielded approximately 200 news stories from the past week. Hundreds more appear if you add “pollution,” “spills,” “beach closures,” “drinking water,” and similar terms. There are hundreds of additional stories not even “selected and ranked” by Google computers. If we all shared the same water supply, or the same news source, we would read or hear about water every day.
Despite the age of our environmental statutes, and the common challenges water use poses, relatively little water innovation has been implemented across the US population in the four decades since the passage of our major water laws. As the smattering of one week’s stories suggests, 20th century approaches are not a match for 21 century problems, despite the hundreds of water plans and thousands of water regulations that federal, state and local agencies administer.
Following is a very brief, representative list of links from the past week about water shortages and pollution in the U.S. Leading the list is California, where a devastating drought is making daily headlines. Do a search of your own. You are bound to find a water issue nearby.
California Drought: Communities at Risk of Running Dry
San Francisco Chronicle, January 29, 2014
It is a bleak roadmap of the deepening crisis brought on by one of California’s worst droughts – a list of 17 communities and water districts that within 100 days could run dry of the state’s most precious commodity.
The threatened towns and districts, identified this week by state health officials, are mostly small and in rural areas. They get their water in a variety of ways, from reservoirs to wells to rivers. But, in all cases, a largely rainless winter has left their supplies near empty. More . . .
12 Utah Counties Designated Primary Natural Disaster Areas Due to Water Shortage
Fox 13 News, Salt Lake City, January 14, 2014
HURRICANE, Utah – It’s still early in the year, but water district directors in southern Utah say unless things change, they’re predicting a drought worse than what has been seen in years past
The Washington County Water Conservancy District said water levels are currently at around 60 percent of normal. Despite an early winter storm that dropped several inches, the mountains are looking bare. More . . .
Boyd County, KY Declares State of Emergency Due to Water Shortage
WOWK TV, January 30, 2014
A state of emergency has been declared for all of Boyd County, KY.
According to Boyd County Emergency Management, this is due to a water shortage throughout the county. The City of Ashland says a boil water advisory is in affect for all water users until further notice. More . . .
Drought Worsens in Arizona, Rest of Southwest
Tucson News Now, January 30,2014
Here in Tucson we depend on groundwater and the Central Arizona Project. That’s Colorado River water. However, when you’ve had drought conditions for more than a decade, something has got to give.
Inside City’s Water Tanks, Layers of Neglect
The New York Times, January 27, 2014
Even some that are routinely maintained contain E. coli, a bacterium that is used by public health officials to predict the presence of viruses, bacteria and parasites that can cause disease. More . . .
Experts Warn “Flushing” May not Have Worked
West Virginia Gazette, January 29, 2014
CHARLESTON, W.Va. — The “flushing” recommended by the Tomblin administration and West Virginia American Water might not have effectively eliminated Crude MCHM and other toxic chemicals from plumbing systems in homes and businesses, experts are warning.
MCHM from the Jan. 9 Freedom Industries leak into the Elk River might be stuck inside pipes and hot-water tanks, and experts are concerned that the chemical also could be breaking down into other toxic materials that have yet to be fully identified. More . . .
New study: Babies Near Gas Wells More Likely to Have Birth Defects
Environmental Health News, January 31, 2014
EarthDesk Note: Though EHN is a national news service, this story has thus far gone mostly unnoticed by the regular media. It is centered on Colorado with implications for the fracking controversy.
Researchers from the Colorado School of Public Health analyzed birth defects among nearly 125,000 births in Colorado towns with fewer than 50,000 people between 1996 and 2009, examining how close the mothers lived to natural gas wells.
Babies born to mothers living in areas with the highest density of wells – more than 125 wells per mile – were more than twice as likely to have neural tube defects than those living with no wells within a 10-mile radius, according to the study published Tuesday. More . . .
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Science & Tech.
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Treaty of Versailles
- See also Causes of World War I
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) was the peace treaty which officially ended World War I between the Allied powers and Germany. Although the armistice signed on November 11, 1918 put an end to the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude a peace treaty. Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most controversial provisions required Germany to accept full responsibility for causing the war and, under the terms of articles 231-248, disarm, make substantial territorial concessions and pay reparations to certain countries that had formed the Allies. The Treaty was condemned as a travesty by every subsequent German Chancellor and government, and undermined by subsequent events starting as early as 1922 and was widely flouted and ignored by the mid thirties.
- 1 Political Aims of the Allies
- 2 Negotiations
- 3 Treaty Terms
- 4 Reaction to the Treaty
- 5 Reaction in Germany
- 6 Germany's Technical Advantages
- 7 Treaty Violations
- 8 Historical Views
- 9 Also See
- 10 External links
- 11 References
Political Aims of the Allies
Prior to Versailles, the political leaders of France, Britain, and the United States had stated their differing objectives for the peace conference. France had wanted Germany to be punished plus the recovery (as they saw it) of Alsace and Lorraine. Britain had wanted a relatively strong, economically viable Germany as a counterweight to French and Russian dominance in continental Europe (although this changed following the Russian Revolution), and the United States wanted the creation of a permanent peace as quickly as possible, with financial compensation for its military expenditures.
The result of these competing and sometimes incompatible goals among the victors was a compromise that left nobody satisfied. Germany was neither crushed nor conciliated.
Aims of France
France had suffered very heavy casualties during the war (some 1.4 million military and 400,000 civilians dead), and most of the western front had been fought on French soil. Thus, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau wanted Germany to pay. He wanted to impose policies deliberately meant to cripple Germany militarily, politically, and economically.
Clemenceau's intentions were therefore simple: punitive reparations and Germany’s military to be not only weakened for the time being, but permanently weakened so as never to be able to invade France again. Clemenceau also wanted to symbolically destroy the old, militaristic Germany — something that could have been achieved by never allowing the pre-1914 politicians back into politics, and by hanging the Kaiser (who had abdicated towards the end of the war). He also wanted to protect secret treaties and impose naval blockades around Germany so that France could control trade imported to and exported goods from the defeated country. Clemenceau was the most radical member of the Big Four, and received the nickname "Le Tigre" (Tiger) for this reason.
The French government also wanted control of many of Germany's factories and coal from the Ruhr industrial region, which was to be transported to France by train. The French military had taken over towns in key locations such as Gau Algesheim, forcing homelessness upon its inhabitants. In response, German railroad workers sabotaged coal shipments to France and around 200 German railroad workers involved in sabotage were executed by French authorities.
In addition, France demanded the "return" of Alsace-Lorraine to France, which was a territory that had been annexed by France in the 17th century, but was retaken by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War of 1871. Clemenceau also wanted to guard against the possibility of an attack ever coming from Germany again, and demanded a demilitarization of the Rhineland in Germany, and Allied troops to patrol the area. This was to be called a "territorial safety zone".
Much of northern France was in ruins, with extensive damage to historic and important buildings and resources. Clemenceau wanted financial reparations from Germany to rebuild the war-torn country. In all, approximately 750,000 houses and 23,000 factories had been destroyed, and money was demanded to pay for reconstruction.
France, totally ignoring her own pre-war activities and conspiracies, not only wanted to publicly punish Germany; it wanted to preserve its empire and colonies. While America put forward a belief in national or ethnic "self-determination", France and Britain were also strongly motivated by a desire to hold onto their empires. Furthermore, France felt that Germany’s colonies should be taken from it and distributed among the victors.
Clemenceau's aims can be summarized by the 4 'R's, as follows:
- 1. "Return" of Alsace and Lorraine to France,
- 2. Ruin of Germany, so it will never attack France again,
- 3. Revenge for the damage done by Germany,
- 4. And Reparation, compensation for the damage Germany caused.
Aims of Britain
Though Britain had not been invaded, vast numbers of British soldiers died on the front line in France; so many people in Britain also wanted revenge. Liberal Prime Minister David Lloyd George supported severe reparations, but to a lesser extent than the French. Lloyd George was aware that if the demands made by France were carried out, France could become extremely powerful in Europe, and a delicate balance could be unsettled. Although he wanted to ensure this didn't happen, he also wanted to make Germany pay. Lloyd George was also worried by Woodrow Wilson's proposals for "self-determination" and, like the French, wanted to preserve his own nation's empire. This position was part of the competition between two of the world's greatest overseas empires, and their battle to preserve them. Like the French, Lloyd George also supported naval blockades and secret treaties.
It is often suggested that Lloyd George represented the middle ground between the idealistic Wilson and the German-hating Clemenceau. However, his position was a great deal more delicate than it first appears. The British public, who had been fed the "German sole responsibility for the war" myth, wanted to punish Germany in a similar fashion to the French, and had been promised such a treaty in the 1918 General Election that Lloyd George had won. There was also pressure from the Conservatives (who were part of the national wartime coalition government) demanding that Germany be punished severely in order to prevent such a war in the future as well as preserving Britain’s empire. Lloyd George did manage to increase the overall reparations payment and Britain’s share by demanding compensation for widows, orphans, and men left unable to work through injury. Also, he wanted to maintain and possibly increase Britain’s colonies, and both he and Clemenceau felt threatened by Wilson’s "self-determination", which they saw as a direct threat to their respective empires.
However, Lloyd George was also aware of the potential trouble that could come from an embittered Germany, and he felt that a less harsh treaty that did not engender vengeance would be better at preserving peace in the long run. Another factor was that Germany had been Britain’s second largest trading partner, and a reduced German economy due to reparations would affect Britain’s trade. Moreover, he (and Clemenceau) recognized that America’s status as an economic superpower would lead to the U.S. becoming a military superpower in the future, and subsequently, Wilson’s idealistic stance could not be laughed at if Britain and France were to remain on good terms with the United States. This helps to understand why the League of Nations, Wilson’s main idea (along with self-determination), was apparently jumped at by Britain and France when Wilson arrived at the peace conference. Furthermore, Britain wanted to maintain the 'Balance of Power' — no country within Europe being allowed to become too powerful. If France's wishes were carried out, then not only would Germany be crippled, but France would soon become the main superpower, and so disrupt the Balance of Power in two ways.
Lloyd George's aims can be summarized as follows:
- 1. To defend British interests by preserving Britain’s naval supremacy that before the war was asserted to have been threatened by Germany, maintaining Britain’s empire and possibly increased colonial expansion;
- 2. To reduce Germany’s future military power and to obtain reparations,
- 3. Not to create an embittered Germany that would seek revenge and threaten peace in the long term future; and lastly,
- 4. To help Germany economically to become a strong trading partner with Britain.
Aims of the United States of America
Since there had been strong isolationist sentiment before and after the United States entered the war in April 1917, many Americans felt eager to extricate themselves from European affairs as rapidly as possible. The United States took a more conciliatory view towards the issue of German reparations and wanted to ensure the success of future trading opportunities as well as favourably collect on the European debts.
Before the end of the war, President Woodrow Wilson, along with other American officials including Colonel Edward Mandell House, put forward his Fourteen Points which in some respects were less harsh than what the French or British wanted, and which the German public thought that a Peace Treaty would be based around, giving them hope, albeit false hope.
Wilson also did not want any more secret diplomacy, e.g. secret alliances, treaties etc. He also demanded that Germany should have a reduction in armaments, and that their army be reduced to a smaller size to make another war completely out of the question. He also wanted other nations to do the same, limiting the risk of war further, as he makes clear in point IV.
Here is a section from Woodrow Wilson's speech given during the Paris Peace Conference:
- 1. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.
- 2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants.
- 3. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.
- 4. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety.
- 5. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined.
- 6. The evacuation of all Prussian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.
- 7. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever impaired.
- 8. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all.
- 9. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.
- 10. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity of autonomous development.
- 11. Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan states should be entered into.
- 12. The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of an autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees.
- 13. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant.
- 14. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.
Negotiations between the Allied powers started on January 18 in the Salle de l'Horloge at the French Foreign Ministry, commonly known by its location, the Quai d'Orsay. Initially, 70 delegates of 26 nations participated in the negotiations. Having sued for an Armistice and for the war to end, Germany, Austria, and Hungary were excluded from the negotiations. Russia was also excluded because it had negotiated a separate Peace Treaty with the Central Powers in March 1918.
Until March 1919, the most important role for negotiating the extremely complex and difficult terms of the peace fell to the regular meetings of the "Council of Ten" (head of government and foreign minister) composed of the five major victors (the United States, France, Great Britain, Italy, and Japan). As this unusual body proved too unwieldy and formal for effective decision-making, Japan and - for most of the remaining conference - the foreign ministers left the main meetings, so that only the "Big Four" remained. After Italy left the negotiations (only to return to sign in June) having its territorial claims to Fiume rejected, the final conditions were determined by the leaders of the "Big Three" nations: United States, France and Great Britain. The "Big Three" that negotiated the treaty consisted of Prime Minister David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau of France and President Woodrow Wilson of the United States of America. The Prime Minister of Italy, Vittorio Orlando, played a minor part in the discussions. Germany was not even invited to discuss the treaty. At Versailles, it was difficult to decide on a common position because their aims conflicted with one another. The result was an "unhappy compromise".
On April 29, the German delegation under the leadership of the foreign minister Ulrich, Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau, arrived in Versailles. On May 7, the anniversary of the sinking of the RMS Lusitania, the Germans finally received the peace conditions agreed upon by the victors. Terms imposed by the treaty upon Germany included partitioning a certain amount of its own territory to a number of surrounding countries, being stripped of all of its overseas colonies, particularly those in Africa, and limiting its ability to make war again, by restrictions on the size of its military and the surrender of the overwhelming bulk of its navy. Because Germany was not allowed to take part in the negotiations, the German government issued a Formal Protest to what it considered to be unfair demands, and soon afterwards withdrew from the proceedings.
On June 20, a new government under Chancellor Gustav Bauer was installed in Germany, after Philipp Scheidemann resigned. Under renewed Allied pressure Germany finally agreed to the conditions by 237 to 138 votes in the Reichstag on June 23. On June 28, 1919 the new German foreign minister, Hermann Müller, and the minister of transport, Johannes Bell, agreed to sign the treaty, and it was ratified by the newly erected League of Nations on January 10, 1920.
The terms of the Treaty, which Germany had no choice but to accept, were announced on May 7, 1919. Germany lost:
- 13% of its national territory
- 16% of its coalfields, and half its iron and steel industry.
- 12.5% of its population
- All of its overseas colonies (including Kamerun, German East Africa, German South-West Africa, Togoland, Tsingtau, their numerous Pacific Islands and German New Guinea)
- Union with Austria (Anschluss) was forbidden.
Territorial Restrictions on Germany
- Alsace-Lorraine transferred to France.
- Saar coal fields placed under French control for 15 years.
- Annexation of Austria prohibited.
- Annexation of Czechoslovakia prohibited.
- Annexation of Poland and Danzig prohibited.
- Upper Silesia ceded to Poland.
Military Restrictions on Germany
- The Rhineland to be a demilitarized zone.
- The German armed forces cannot number more than 100,000 troops with no conscription.
- Enlisted men were to be retained for at least 12 years; officers were to be retained for at least 25 years.
- Manufacturing of weapons is prohibited.
- Import and export of weapons is prohibited.
- Manufacture or stockpiling of poison gas is prohibited.
- Tanks are prohibited.
- Naval forces limited to 15,000 men, 6 battleships (no more than 10,000 tons each), 6 cruisers (no more than 6,000 tons each), 12 destroyers (no more than 800 tons each) and 12 torpedo boats (no more than 200 tons each).
- Submarines prohibited.
- Military aircraft prohibited.
- Artillery prohibited.
Legal Restrictions on Germany
- Article 231: Germany is forced to accept sole responsibility of war and had to promise to make good all the damage done to civilian population of the Allies. (Also known as the "War Guilt Clause".)
- Article 227: former German Emperor, William II, charged with "supreme offence against international morality". He was to be tried as a war criminal.
- Article 228-230: many others to be tried as war criminals.
- The province of West Prussia, thereby granting Poland access to the Baltic Sea (without having to pass through Germany as previously), while Germany lost its land access to the province of East Prussia.
- Much of the province of Posen, which, like West Prussia, had been acquired by Prussia in the 18th-century partitions of Poland, was likewise granted to the restored Polish state.
- The eastern part of Upper Silesia to Poland (area 3,214,km², 965,000 inhabitants), after a plebiscite is held.
- A significant portion of coal-rich and industrially developed Upper Silesia was also transferred from Germany to Poland, as the result of a later plebiscite (area 53,800 km², 4,224,000 inhabitants (1931), including 510 km² and 26,000 inhabitants from Upper Silesia).
- From the eastern part of West Prussia and the southern part of East Prussia, a small area to Poland.
- The area of Soldau in East Prussia, (railway station on the Warsaw-Danzig route) ceded to Poland (area 492 km²)
- Danzig was declared a free city under its own Senate and a permanent representative or governor of the League of Nations (area 1,893 km², 408,000 inhabitants - 98% German (1929)) with special customs rights and a voice in its Foreign Affairs reserved for Poland.
- The northern-most part of East Prussia known as the Memel Land placed under control of the League of Nations and to be policed by France, (later invaded and occupied by Lithuania without plebiscite).
- The Hlučínsko Hulczyn area of Upper Silesia was ceded to Czechoslovakia (area 316 or 333 km², 49,000 inhabitants).
Germany was also compelled to yield sovereignty of all its colonies. Although these colonies were still being developed economically, they had also been symbols of the world-power status that Germany had gained in the 1890s. Article 156 of the treaty transferred the German concessions in the Shandong peninsula (Tsingtau), China, to Japan, rather than surrendering them to China. Chinese outrage over this provision led to demonstrations and a cultural movement known as the 'May Fourth Movement' and influenced China not to sign the peace treaty. China declared the end of its war against Germany in September 1919 and signed a separate treaty with Germany in 1921.
Besides the loss of the German colonial empire the territories Germany lost were:
- Alsace and Lorraine, the territories which had been ceded to Germany in accordance with the Preliminaries of Peace signed at Versailles on February 26, 1871, and the Treaty of Frankfurt of May 10, 1871, were restored to French sovereignty without a plebiscite as from the date of the Armistice of November 11, 1918. (area 14,522 km², 1,815,000 inhabitants (1905)).
- Northern Schleswig including the German-dominated towns of Tondern (Tønder), Apenrade (Aabenraa), Sonderburg (Sønderborg), Hadersleben (Haderslev) and Lügum in Schleswig-Holstein, after the Schleswig Plebiscite, to Denmark (area 3,984 km², 163,600 inhabitants (1920)).
- The area of the German cities Eupen and Malmedy ceded to Belgium. The trackbed of the Vennbahn railway also transferred to Belgium.
- The province of Saarland to be under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years, after that a plebiscite between France and Germany, to decide to which country it would belong. During this time the coal to be sent to France.
League of Nations
The treaty provided for the creation of the League of Nations, a major goal of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson. The League of Nations was intended to arbitrate international disputes and thereby avoid future wars. Only three of Wilson's Fourteen Points were realized, since Wilson was compelled to compromise with Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Orlando on some points in exchange for retaining approval of Wilson's "fourteenth point," the League of Nations.
Reaction to the Treaty
In the eyes of the French people, Clemenceau failed to achieve all of their demands through the Treaty of Versailles. As a result, he was voted out of office in the elections of January 1920.
Britain as a whole was at first content, because it succeeded in securing more favourable German eastern frontiers, e.g. plebiscites on areas previously assigned to Poland (Masuria, southern Warmia, Upper Silesia) and creation of the Free City of Danzig. Even then Britain felt that the Treaty was too harsh to Germany, causing dissatisfaction that might potentially lead to trouble in the future. In the United States, it was seen as Europe’s problem, but it was also widely believed that the Treaty was too harsh.
The United States Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, making it invalid in the United States and effectively hamstringing the nascent League of Nations envisioned by Wilson. The largest obstacle faced in the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles was the opposition of Henry Cabot Lodge. It has also been said that Wilson himself was the second-largest obstacle, primarily because he refused to support the treaty with any of the alterations proposed by the United States Senate. As a result, America did not join the League of Nations, despite Wilson claiming that he could:
"predict with absolute certainty that if the United States of America does not join the League of Nations, then there will be another war within 20 years."
Reaction in Germany
The treaty evoked an angry and hostile reception in Germany from the moment its contents were made known. The Germans were outraged and horrified at the result - since Wilson's idealistic fourteen points had painted the picture of a different outcome. They did not feel that they were responsible for starting the war nor did they feel as though they had lost. The German people had understood the negotiations at Versailles to be a peace conference and not a surrender. At first, the new government refused to sign the agreement, and the German navy sank its own ships in protest of the treaty. The sinking hardened Allied attitudes and the Allies demanded, by ultimatum, that Germany sign the treaty within twenty-four hours. The alternative was understood to be a resumption of hostilities, with the fighting now on German soil.
Faced with this crisis, the German provisional government in Weimar was thrown into upheaval “What hand would not wither that binds itself and us in these fetters?” asked Chancellor Philipp Scheidemann who then resigned rather than agree to the Treaty. Army chief Paul von Hindenburg did the same, after declaring the army unable to defend Germany against Western attack. With four hours to go German President Friedrich Ebert agreed to the terms. The German delegation to Paris signed the treaty on June 28, 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
Conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders began to speak critically about the peace and Weimar politicians, socialists, communists, and Jews were viewed with suspicion due to their extra-national loyalties. Mainly because of that, had not supported the war and had played a role in selling out Germany to its enemies. These November Criminals, or those who seemed to benefit from the newly formed Weimar Republic, were seen to have "stabbed them in the back" on the home front, by either criticizing German nationalism, instigating unrest and strikes in the critical military industries or profiteering. In essence the accusation was that the accused committed treason against the "benevolent and righteous" common cause.
These theories were given credence by the fact that when Germany surrendered in November 1918, its armies were still in French and Belgian territory. Not only had the German Army been in enemy territory the entire time on the Western Front, but on the Eastern Front, Germany had already won the war against Russia, concluded with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. In the West, Germany had seemed to come close to winning the war with the Spring Offensive. Some blamed Germany's failure on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment of the offensive, leaving soldiers without an adequate supply of material. The strikes were seen to be instigated by treasonous elements including the Jews.
Domestic betrayal resonated within Germany, and its claims would codify the basis for public support for the emerging NSDAP, under the form of nationalism. The anti-Semitism was intensified by the Bavarian Soviet Republic, a Communist government which ruled the city of Munich for two weeks before being crushed by the Freikorps militia. Many of the Bavarian Soviet Republic's leaders were Jewish, a fact that allowed anti-Semitic propagandists to make the connection with "Communist treason"
Germany's Technical Advantages
Since neither rockets nor glider aircraft were mentioned in the Versailles treaty, Germany spent money on these technologies, including Wernher von Braun's rocket experiments, which in no doubt helped the development of the future space industry. Large glider aircraft designs led to the design of the large Me-321 during World War II which later was motorized and become the Me-323, the largest land-based plane at the time.
The German economy was so weak that only a small percentage of reparations were paid in money. However, even the payment of this small percentage of the original reparations (219 billion Gold Reichsmarks) still placed a significant burden on the German economy, accounting for as much as one third of post-treaty hyperinflation. Furthermore, the provisions forcing the uncompensated removal of resources and industrial equipment sowed further resentment.
Some significant violations (or avoidances) of the provisions of the Treaty were:
- In 1919 the dissolution of the General Staff appeared to happen. However the core of the General Staff was hidden within another organization, the Truppenamt, where it rewrote all Heer (Army) and Luftwaffe (Air Force) doctrinal and training materials based on the experience of World War I.
- The Treaty of Rapallo was an agreement in the Italian town of Rapallo on 16 April 1922 between Germany (the Weimar Republic) and Russia SFSR under which each renounced all territorial and financial claims against the other following the Treaty of Brest Litovsk and World War I. A secret annex signed on 29 July allowed Germany to train their military in Soviet territory, thus violating the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. The first post-war German tanks and aircraft were tested and exercised under this (see Soviet-German relations before 1941).
- In March 1935, Adolf Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles by introducing compulsory military conscription in Germany and rebuilding the armed forces. This included a new Navy (Kriegsmarine), the first full armoured divisions (Panzerwaffe) and an Air Force (Luftwaffe). For the first time since the war, Germany's armed forces were as strong as those of France.
- In March 1936, Hitler violated the Treaty by reoccupying the demilitarized zone in the Rhineland.
- In March 1938, Hitler violated the Treaty by annexing Austria in the Anschluss.
- In March 1939, Hitler violated the Treaty by occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia.
- In September 1939, Hitler violated the Treaty by invading Poland thus, initiating World War II in Europe.
A common view is that France's Clemenceau was the most vigorous in his pursuit of revenge against Germany, the Western Front of the war having been fought chiefly on French soil. This treaty was felt to be unreasonable at the time because it was a peace dictated by the victors that put the full blame for the war on Germany. Many modern historians, however, argue that was an over-simplification.
Henry Kissinger called the treaty a: "brittle compromise agreement between American utopianism and European paranoia — too conditional to fulfill the dreams of the former, too tentative to alleviate the fears of the latter."
The French economist Étienne Mantoux wrote a reply to Keynes titled The Carthaginian Peace, or the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes, in which he claimed many of the predictions Keynes said would result from the Treaty had not come to pass. For example, Keynes believed European output in iron would decrease but by 1929 iron output in Europe was up 10% from the 1913 figure.
Keynes predicted that German iron and steel output would decrease but by 1927 steel output increased by 30% and iron output increased by 38% from 1913 (within the pre-war borders). Keynes also argued that German coal mining efficiency would decrease but labour efficiency by 1929 had increased on the 1913 figure by 30%. Keynes contended that Germany would be unable to export coal immediately after the Treaty but German net coal exports were 15 million tons within a year and by 1926 the tonnage exported reached 35 million. He also put forward the claim that German national savings in the years after the Treaty would be less than 2 billion marks: however in 1925 the German national savings figure was estimated at 6.4 billion marks and in 1927 7.6 billion marks.
Keynes also believed that Germany would be unable to pay the 2 billion marks-plus in reparations for the next 30 years, but Mantoux contends that German rearmament spending was seven times as much as that figure in each year between 1933 and 1939.
More recently it has been argued (for instance by historian Gerhard Weinberg in his book A World At Arms) that the treaty was in fact quite advantageous to Germany, the Bismarckian Reich being maintained as a political unit instead of being broken up, and Germany having largely escaped post-war military occupation (in contrast to the situation following World War II.)
The British military historian Correlli Barnett claimed that the Treaty of Versailles was "extremely lenient in comparison with the peace terms Germany herself, when was she was expecting to win the war, had had in mind to impose on the Allies". Furthermore, it was "hardly a slap on the wrist" when contrasted with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that Germany had imposed on a defeated Russia in March 1918, which had taken away a third of Russia's population, one half of Russia's industrial undertakings and nine-tenths of Russia's coal mines, coupled with an indemnity of six thousand million marks.
Barnett also claimed that in strategic terms Germany was in a superior position after the Treaty than in 1914, for then Germany had eastern frontiers with Russia and Austria, who had both in the past balanced German power. Now the Austrian empire was replaced with smaller, weaker states and Russia with Poland in between. In the West Germany was only balanced by France and Belgium, both of whom were smaller in population and economically than Germany. Barnett concluded by saying that instead of weakening Germany, the Treaty had made German power "much enhanced". Britain and France should have (according to Barnett) "divided and permanently weakened" Germany by undoing Bismarck's work and partitioning Germany into smaller, weaker states so it could never disrupt the peace of Europe again. By failing to do this and therefore not solving the problem of German power and restoring the equilibrium of Europe, Britain "had failed in her main purpose in taking part in the Great War"
Regardless of modern strategic or economic analysis, resentment caused by the treaty sowed fertile psychological ground for the eventual rise of the NSDAP. Indeed, on National Socialist Germany's rise to power, Adolf Hitler resolved to overturn the remaining military and territorial provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. Military build-up began almost immediately, in direct defiance of the Treaty, which, by then, had been destroyed by Hitler in front of a cheering crowd. "It was this treaty which caused a chain reaction leading to World War II" claimed historian Dan Rowling (1951).
- Hidden Historical Fact: The Allied Attempt to Starve Germany in 1919
- Who Broke the Disarmament Treaty of Versailles? Declaration of the Government of the German Reich 1935
- Montegelas, Count Max, The Case for the Central Powers - an Impeachment of the Versailles Verdict, translated by Constance Vesey, London, 1925. pps:255. Count Montgelas's father had been the Bavarian Government’s Ambassador in St. Petersburg, where the Count was born. He was a member of the Reichstag Committee of Enquiry (into the war) in 1918-19, and a member of the Commission sent to Versailles by the German Government in 1919, specially to investigate the question of responsibility for the war. He was one of the four signatories to the "Memorandum", presented on 29th May, in reply to the allegations made by the Commission appointed by the Allied and Associated Governments to report on the subject, and he was jointly responsible, with Delbruck, for the "Memorandum" replying to the "Allied Note" of 16th June 1919.
- Watt, Richard M., The Kings Depart - The Tragedy of Germany: Versailles and the German Revolution, London, 1969, ISBN 0-297-17858-X
- Mee, Charles L., The End of Order - Versailles 1919, London, 1980, ISBN 0-436-27650-X
- Sinclair, David, Hall of Mirrors London, 2001, ISBN 0-7126-8389-5
- Brentano, Lujo, What Germany has paid under the Treaty of Versailles (The book in HTML)
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Strong reasoning
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History
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Footsteps of Flinders
Matthew Flinders window
Famous Yellowbelly - Matthew Flinders - 1774–1814
By Michael Hortin
English navigator born in Donington, Lincolnshire. He came from a family of doctors and inspired by reports of Cook's discoveries, and reading Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, Flinders decided to go to sea at the age of fifteen.
The following year he sailed with Captain Bligh on the Providence to Tahiti. In 1795 he sailed in the Reliance to the new convict settlement at Botany Bay. On board Flinders befriended another Lincolnshire born explorer George Bass with whom he made a number of small boat journeys and refined the charts of the New South Wales coast.
Following that in 1798 Flinders and Bass set out in the Norfolk to explore the extent of the strait between the mainland and Tasmania. By circumnavigating the island, then known as Van Diemen's Land, he proved that it was a separate island.
Flinders eventually returned home to England to put his proposal to explore the entire coast of Terra Australis to Sir Joseph Banks.
By February 1801 Flinders had been given command of the Investigator for his voyage of discovery, which was scheduled to take four years. Flinders reached Australia in December 1801 where he charted the then unknown southern coastline eventually reaching Port Jackson in May 1802. After refitting the ship, he continued his anticlockwise circumnavigation up the eastern coast.
In November, further repairs allowed the Investigator to keep sailing, but by early 1803 the ship was in such poor condition, and the crew in ill-health, the survey was halted.
The Investigator visited Timor for supplies, and then returned to Port Jackson down the west coast and across the Great Australian Bight. In reaching Port Jackson, he had completed the journey around the southern continent.
Less than two years into the expedition, it was found that the Investigator was rotten beyond repair and as a result Flinders decided to return to England to obtain another ship to continue the coastal survey.
He sailed for home in the sloop Porpoise, which ran aground on a reef off the coast of Queensland. After recovering the crew Flinders again set sail for England, this time in the Cumberland. This ship leaked badly and Flinders was forced to put in at Ile de France now known as Mauritius.
War had resumed between England and France, and Flinders was held prisoner on the island for more than 6 years. During this time, Flinders worked on his papers and charts.
In Autumn 1810 Flinders finally returned home to England. Flinders spent four years writing the three volumes of his voyage to Terra Australis. He died in 1814 at forty years of age, the day after his account was published.
last updated: 06/08/2008 at 17:19
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Moderate reasoning
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History
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Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) > Perciformes
(Perch-likes) > Gobiidae
(Gobies) > Gobionellinae
Etymology: Clariger: Latin, clarias, -a, -um = shining +latin, gero = to carry (Ref. 45335).
Environment: milieu / climate zone / depth range / distribution range
Marine; demersal; depth range 0 - 2 m (Ref. 35019). Temperate
Northwest Pacific: Moura, Hiranai-machi, Aomori Prefecture, Mutsu Bay in northern Japan.
Size / Weight / Age
Maturity: Lm ? range ? - ? cm
Max length : 4.2 cm SL male/unsexed; (Ref. 35019); 4.6 cm SL (female)
Recorded only from shallow subtidal zone, 0.5 to 1.5 m deep under stones.
Life cycle and mating behavior
Maturity | Reproduction | Spawning | Eggs | Fecundity | Larvae
Shiogaki, M., 1988. A new gobiid fish of the genus Clariger from Mutsu Bay, northern Japan. Jap. J. Ichthyol. 35(2):127-132. (Ref. 35019)
IUCN Red List Status (Ref. 119314)
CITES (Ref. 115941)
Threat to humans
Common namesSynonymsMetabolismPredatorsEcotoxicologyReproductionMaturitySpawningSpawning aggregationFecundityEggsEgg development
ReferencesAquacultureAquaculture profileStrainsGeneticsAllele frequenciesHeritabilityDiseasesProcessingMass conversion
Estimates of some properties based on models
Phylogenetic diversity index (Ref. 82805
= 0.5156 [Uniqueness, from 0.5 = low to 2.0 = high].
Bayesian length-weight: a=0.00933 (0.00319 - 0.02732), b=2.95 (2.71 - 3.19), in cm Total Length, based on LWR estimates for this (Sub)family-body shape (Ref. 93245
Trophic Level (Ref. 69278
): 3.2 ±0.4 se; Based on size and trophs of closest relatives
Resilience (Ref. 69278
): High, minimum population doubling time less than 15 months (Preliminary K or Fecundity.).
Vulnerability (Ref. 59153
): Low vulnerability (11 of 100) .
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Figure 1: Main window
Figure 2: Lexicon window
Figure 3: Patterns window
A fairly simple implementation of Conway's Game of Life. I hadn't seen one done in
Python before and after playing around with the CAGE library decided to see what I
could do in a day or two of coding. The universe (grid) size is determined by the
window size and the current grid scale. Display slows down as the population size
increases, but the size of the grid doesn't impact display speed. You'll probably have
to drop the scale down to 1 and use a maximized window in order to display some of the
larger Life patterns and even on a fast box and video card you're unlikely to see much
more than a generation/frame a second with really large patterns like Breeder.
The algorithm I use to calculate the state of the grid at each generation does not
wrap. I have not implemented scrolling yet.
You can draw in the grid to create your own patterns. I also added clipboard support
so that you can paste patterns such as those found in the lifep glossary.doc or
anywhere else where you find patterns made up of lines of . and *.
On 2002-12-18 I added a Lexicon window which will be displayed if you copy Stephen
Silver's lexicon.txt file into the life samples directory before starting up the life
sample. There are over 780 definitions and patterns in the lexicon, so I highly
recommend you download it. The INTRODUCTION and BIBLIOGRAPHY are listed with the rest
of the definitions and patterns. The Lexicon home page is:
And you can download the zip file that contains lexicon.txt directly at:
For information on Conway's Game of Life and its rules, see Math.com's Life Page.
The original article from the October 1970 issue of Scientific American which
introduced the game to the public:
The fastest and most complete Life program I know of is Life32 by Johan Bontes.
Life32 like a few other Life programs works on a very large universe size (grid) of 1
million x 1 million, yet is extremely fast because of the clever way the cells in the
grid are stored and calculated each generation. I don't know if it uses the same
algorithm as Alan Hensel's Java applet, but that applet is also very fast.
The algorithm, source, etc. is available at:
I expect that if something similar was done in Python then my program would be fast
too. I'll leave it as an exercise for the reader Another algorithm by Paul B.
Callahan is slower, but is probably easier to implement, and certainly much faster
than the brute force approach that I've used.
Alan Hensel has a great collection of Life patterns at:
Paul B. Callahan provides an excellent illustrated glossary:
as well as a illustrated catalog:
Additional patterns can be found at the pages above as well as links off of those
pages. Put the .lif files in the patterns directory and you can easily browse the
descriptions and display the patterns from the files. I've only included one file with
More on Cellular Automata
life.py is the first of a series of Cellular Automatan (CA) simulations I will
probably make available as PythonCard samples. Erik Max Francis already has a set of
modules for exploring a variety of CA sets, but the UI is mostly limited to the
command-line and curses (Unix only). In addition, CAGE is not designed for speed, so
even a simplistic brute force algorithm like the one I coded up for life.py is faster
than doing a GUI display using CAGE. Still, CAGE is a nice set of modules to take a
There are a lot of places to find information and programs dealing with CA. The page
below is a good a place to start.
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Strong reasoning
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Software Dev.
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Email is a convenient, quick and effective communication tool. Just about everyone has an email address (or several email addresses) and we are all familiar with how it allows people to rapidly share written communication.
The vast majority of email sent over the internet is not encrypted. In general this is not a major issue for most communication, but it does present a risk for protected health information (PHI).
The best analogy for the relative privacy of an email is that of a postcard sent via snail mail (US Post). The message on a postcard (and on an email) is designed to reach and be read only by the recipient but since the message is not in a secured envelope, anyone who handles the postcard can view the contents. Most who handle the postcard do not really care about the content and will simply do their respective role in getting the postcard delivered, but the message is readable by anyone who handles the postcard.
The same is true of unencrypted email. The email message may pass through one or more mail exchangers on the way to its destination. During this transit, it is viewable to the mail exchanger and the administrators of those email exchangers. On a practical basis, those mail administrators really have little or no interest in the content of those emails. Their role is to get the email to it’s intended destination and there are likely tens of thousands if not millions of emails passing through their networks on a daily basis. That said, those who handle the email could read the contents of the unencrypted email if they desired.
Unencrypted email may also be viewable once it arrives at the destination. For example, email on an employers server is likely readable by the administrators and managers of the company.
There is also the risk that malicious parties may be targeting protected health information and trying to intercept emails. The relative risk is likely small, however it is a very individual decision to determine if you are comfortable with that risk. It is generally best to assume that anything sent or received via email is readable by a 3rd party.
We take patient privacy very seriously at Specialty Natural Medicine. We employ encryption for all internal data communication. We use strong passwords for all services that host protected health information and encrypt the data locally and on all network services, including 256-bit encryption on backup data.
Our policy is to limit email communication to patients to areas like scheduling and other logistical planning unless we receive a request from patients for medical information or advice via email. We limit these communications to directly answering patient questions with the understanding that if patients initiate the communication then they understand the risks associated with email communication of health information. This communication is limited to basic questions around your treatment plan, scheduling billing, etc. We will not release lab results or other highly sensitive health information via email without a patient signed release.
It is our policy and your right to request that health information not be communicated via email. We have the ability to communicate via a secure patient portal or by phone if that is a patient’s preference. This does improve the security of communication, but at the expense of convenience as encrypted electronic communication requires patients to sign into a separate web portal to retrieve messages from our clinic. Patients also have the right to opt out of any and all email sent by our Electronic Health Records (EHR) system, including appointment reminders.
Either way, we wish to give patients an informed choice of how to work with and communicate with us to help them achieve their wellness goals.
We will respond to patient emails requesting information, generally without requiring a release. Your request for information via email signifies that you wish us to respond via email and understand the risks associated with email over the internet. We do ask for signed releases when patients request lab results, chart notes or other highly detailed medical records over email.
More information on the risks and rights associated with email communication are available at the US Department of Health and Human Services Website:
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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President Donald Trump’s border wall only needs to stop about 10 percent of illegal crossing in order to pay for itself, according to an analysis by the Center for Immigration Studies.
The estimated $12 to $15 billion cost of the wall would quickly be offset by the savings to the government if fewer illegal immigrants arrive in the country over the next decade, CIS found. Only a small portion of the population of people who are expected to attempt an illegal crossing in the next decade — between 9 and 12 percent — would have to be stopped for the wall to totally pay for itself.
The analysis from CIS, a group that advocates for moderating immigration levels, relies on fiscal estimates from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine (NAS) for the average cost to taxpayers of illegal immigrants. NAS estimates one illegal immigrant costs state and local governments approximately $75,000 in a lifetime, taking into account taxes paid and the cost of providing benefits such as education and health care.
If Trump’s border wall stopped between 160,000 and 200,000 people from entering the country illegally, CIS finds, the savings would offset the expected cost of the wall.
Estimates on the cost of the wall have ranged from as low as $8 billion to as high as $20 billion. Opponents of its construction argue the wall will not be effective in stopping all immigrants, and use that argument in conjunction with the price tag to assert building the wall is a waste of resources. While CIS finds it would quickly pay for itself, the analysis does note most of the fiscal burden for illegal immigrants falls on state and local governments, while the cost of the wall will fall on the federal government.
Nevertheless, the cost estimates are somewhat conservative, as they do not take into account the cost to the government of the children of illegal immigrants. If those costs are included as estimated by NAS, the fiscal drain increases to about $95,000 per illegal immigrant. CIS also notes the wall could save taxpayers nearly $64 billion over the next decade if half of the crossings are stopped — more than three times the expected cost of the wall.
Trump was able to order construction of a substantial wall on the Mexico border shortly after taking office, because of a 2006 law passed with the help of Democrats — including then-Sens. Barack Obama, Joe Biden and Hillary Clinton. The law authorized the construction of 700 miles of fencing along the southern border, as well as additional lights, cameras and sensors to enhance security.
Although former President George W. Bush signed the measure into law, the Democrat-controlled Congress that took over a few months later ensured it would never be completed by means of an amendment to a 2008 spending bill.
The amendment removed an explicit requirement the wall be made of double-layer fencing, and gave the Department of Homeland Security authority to put in place less effective barriers, such as simple vehicle barriers that do not keep pedestrians out. As a result, Democrats were able to avoid a politically unpopular vote against the wall, and then turn around and quietly gut its construction. But Trump and Republicans in Congress are now using that law to ensure a proper wall is constructed.
Read more at the Daily Caller
Content created by The Daily Caller News Foundation is available without charge to any eligible news publisher that can provide a large audience. For licensing opportunities of our original content, please contact [email protected].
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Strong reasoning
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Politics
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2 min readNew Research Opens Avenues in combating Neurodegenerative Diseases
Manchester, UK – Scientists at the University of Manchester have uncovered how the internal mechanisms in nerve cells wire the brain. The findings open up new avenues in the investigation of neurodegenerative diseases by analyzing the cellular processes underlying these conditions.
Dr. Andreas Prokop and his team at the Faculty of Life Sciences have been studying the growth of axons, the thin cable-like extensions of nerve cells that wire the brain. If axons don’t develop properly this can lead to birth disorders, mental and physical impairments and the gradual decay of brain capacity during ageing.
Axon growth is directed by the hand shaped growth cone which sits in the tip of the axon. It is well documented how growth cones perceive signals from the outside to follow pathways to specific targets, but very little is known about the internal machinery that dictates their behaviour.
Dr. Prokop has been studying the key driver of growth cone movements, the cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton helps to maintain a cell’s shape and is made up of the protein filaments, actin and microtubules. Microtubules are the key driving force of axon growth whilst actin helps to regulate the direction the axon grows.
Dr. Prokop and his team used fruit flies to analyse how actin and microtubule proteins combine in the cytoskeleton to coordinate axon growth. They focussed on the multifunctional proteins called spectraplakins which are essential for axonal growth and have known roles in neurodegeneration and wound healing of the skin.
What the team demonstrate in this recent paper is that spectraplakins link microtubules to actin to help them extend in the direction the axon is growing. If this link is missing then microtubule networks show disorganised criss-crossed arrangements instead of parallel bundles and axon growth is hampered.
By understanding the molecular detail of these interactions the team made a second important finding. Spectraplakins collect not only at the tip of microtubules but also along the shaft, which helps to stabilise them and ensure they act as a stable structure within the axon.
This additional function of spectraplakins relates them to a class of microtubule-binding proteins including Tau. Tau is an important player in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, which is still little understood. In support of the author’s findings, another publication has just shown that the human spectraplakin, Dystonin, causes neurodegeneration when affected in its linkage to microtubules.
Talking about his research Dr. Prokop said: “Understanding cytoskeletal machinery at the cell level is a holy grail of current cell research that will have powerful clinical applications. Thus, cytoskeleton is crucially involved in virtually all aspects of a cell’s life, including cell shape changes, cell division, cell movement, contacts and signalling between cells, and dynamic transport events within cells. Accordingly, the cytoskeleton lies at the root of many brain disorders. Therefore, deciphering the principles of cytoskeletal machinery during the fundamental process of axon growth will essentially help research into the causes of a broad spectrum of diseases. Spectraplakins like at the heart of this machinery and our research opens up new avenues for its investigation”
What Dr. Prokop’s paper in the Journal of Neuroscience also demonstrates is the successful research technique using the fruit fly Drosophila. The team was able to replicate its findings regarding axon growth in mice which in turn means the findings can be translated to humans.
Dr. Prokop points out fruit flies provide ideal means to make sense of these findings and essentially help to unravel the many mysteries of neurodegeneration.
Dr. Prokop continues: “Understanding how spectraplakins perform their cellular functions has important implications for basic as well as biomedical research. Thus, besides their roles during axon growth, spectraplakins of mice and humans are clinically important for a number of conditions and processes including skin blistering, neuro-degeneration, wound healing, synapse formation and neuron migration during brain development. Understanding spectraplakins in one biological process will instruct research on the other clinically relevant roles of these proteins.”
The recently published paper represents six years of work by Dr. Prokop and his dedicated team.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
|
Affective forecasting (also known as hedonic forecasting, or the hedonic forecasting mechanism) is the prediction of one's affect (emotional state) in the future. As a process that influences preferences, decisions, and behavior, affective forecasting is studied by both psychologists and economists, with broad applications.
Kahneman and Snell began research on hedonic forecasts in the early 1990s, examining its impact on decision making. The term "affective forecasting" was later coined by psychologists Timothy Wilson and Daniel Gilbert. Early research tended to focus solely on measuring emotional forecasts, while subsequent studies began to examine the accuracy of forecasts, revealing that people are surprisingly poor judges of their future emotional states. For example, in predicting how events like winning the lottery might affect their happiness, people are likely to overestimate future positive feelings, ignoring the numerous other factors that might contribute to their emotional state outside of the single lottery event. Some of the cognitive biases related to systematic errors in affective forecasts are focalism, empathy gap, and impact bias.
While affective forecasting has traditionally drawn the most attention from economists and psychologists, their findings have in turn generated interest from a variety of other fields, including happiness research, law, and health care. Its effect on decision making and well-being is of particular concern to policy-makers and analysts in these fields, although it also has applications in ethics. For example, the tendency to underestimate our ability to adapt to life-changing events has led to legal theorists questioning the assumptions behind tort damage compensation. Behavioral economists have incorporated discrepancies between forecasts and actual emotional outcomes into their models of different types of utility and welfare. This discrepancy also concerns healthcare analysts, in that many important health decisions depend upon patients' perceptions of their future quality of life.
- 1 Overview
- 2 Major sources of errors
- 3 In economics
- 4 In law
- 5 In health
- 6 Improving forecasts
- 7 See also
- 8 References
- 9 Further reading
- 10 External links
Affective forecasting can be divided into four components: predictions about emotional valence (i.e. positive or negative), the specific emotions experienced, their duration, and their intensity. While errors may occur in all four components, research overwhelmingly indicates that the two areas most prone to bias, usually in the form of overestimation, are duration and intensity. Immune neglect is a form of impact bias in response to negative events, in which people fail to predict how much their psychological immune system will hasten their recovery. On average, people are fairly accurate about predicting which emotions they will feel in response to future events. However, some studies indicate that predicting specific emotions in response to more complex social events leads to greater inaccuracy. For example, one study found that while many women who imagine encountering gender harassment predict feelings of anger, in reality, a much higher proportion report feelings of fear. Other research suggests that accuracy in affective forecasting is greater for positive affect than negative affect, suggesting an overall tendency to overreact to perceived negative events. Gilbert and Wilson posit that this is a result of our psychological immune system.
While affective forecasts take place in the present moment, researchers also investigate its future outcomes. That is, they analyze forecasting as a two-step process, encompassing a current prediction as well as a future event. Breaking down the present and future stages allow researchers to measure accuracy, as well as tease out how errors occur. Gilbert and Wilson, for example, categorize errors based on which component they affect and when they enter the forecasting process. In the present phase of affective forecasting, forecasters bring to mind a mental representation of the future event and predict how they will respond emotionally to it. The future phase includes the initial emotional response to the onset of the event, as well as subsequent emotional outcomes, for example, the fading of the initial feeling.
When errors occur throughout the forecasting process, people are vulnerable to biases. These biases disable people from accurately predicting their future emotions. Errors may arise due to extrinsic factors, such as framing effects, or intrinsic ones, such as cognitive biases or expectation effects. Because accuracy is often measured as the discrepancy between a forecaster's present prediction and the eventual outcome, researchers also study how time affects affective forecasting. For example, the tendency for people to represent distant events differently from close events is captured in the construal level theory.
The finding that people are generally inaccurate affective forecasters has been most obviously incorporated into conceptualizations of happiness and its successful pursuit, as well as decision making across disciplines. Findings in affective forecasts have stimulated philosophical and ethical debates, for example, on how to define welfare. On an applied level, findings have informed various approaches to healthcare policy, tort law, consumer decision making, and measuring utility (see below sections on economics, law, and health).
Newer and conflicting evidence suggests that intensity bias in affective forecasting may not be as strong as previous research indicates. Five studies, including a meta-analysis recovers evidence that overestimation in affective forecasting is partly due to the methodology of past research. Their results indicate that some participants misinterpreted specific questions in affective forecasting testing. For example, one study found that undergraduate students tended to overestimate experienced happiness levels when participants were asked how they were feeling in general with and without reference to the election, compared to when participants were asked how they were feeling specifically in reference to the election. Findings indicated that 75%-81% of participants asked general questions misinterpreted them. After clarification of tasks, participants were able to more accurately predict the intensity of their emotions
Major sources of errors
Because forecasting errors commonly arise from literature on cognitive processes, many affective forecasting errors derive from and are often framed as cognitive biases, some of which are closely related or overlapping constructs (e.g. projection bias and empathy gap). Below is a list of commonly cited cognitive processes that contribute to forecasting errors.
One of the most common sources of error in affective forecasting across various populations and situations is the impact bias, the tendency to overestimate the emotional impact of a future event, whether in terms of intensity or duration. The tendencies to overestimate intensity and duration are both robust and reliable errors found in affective forecasting.
One study documenting the impact bias examined college students participating in a housing lottery. These students predicted how happy or unhappy they would be one year after being assigned to either a desirable or an undesirable dormitory. These college students predicted that the lottery outcomes would lead to meaningful differences in their own level of happiness, but follow-up questionnaires revealed that students assigned to desirable or undesirable dormitories reported nearly the same levels of happiness. Thus, differences in forecasts overestimated the impact of the housing assignment on future happiness.
Some studies specifically address "durability bias," the tendency to overestimate the length of time future emotional responses will last. Even if people accurately estimate the intensity of their future emotions, they may not be able to estimate the duration of them. Durability bias is generally stronger in reaction to negative events. This is important because people tend to work toward events they believe will cause lasting happiness, and according to durability bias, people might be working toward the wrong things.
The impact bias is a broad term and covers a multitude of more specific errors. Proposed causes of impact bias include mechanisms like immune neglect, focalism, and misconstruals.The pervasiveness of impact bias in affective forecasts is of particular concern to healthcare specialists, in that it affects both patients' expectations of future medical events as well as patient-provider relationships. (See health.)
Focalism (or the "focusing illusion") occurs when people focus too much on certain details of an event, ignoring other factors. Research suggests that people have a tendency to exaggerate aspects of life when focusing their attention on it. A well-known example originates from a paper by Kahneman and Schkade, who coined the term "focusing illusion" in 1998. They found that although people tended to believe that someone from the Midwest would be more satisfied if they lived in California, results showed equal levels of life satisfaction in residents of both regions. In this case, concentrating on the easily observed difference in weather bore more weight in predicting satisfaction than other factors. There are many other factors that could have contributed to the desire to move to the Midwest but the focal point for their decisions was weather. Various studies have attempted to "defocus" participants, meaning instead of focusing on that one factor they tried to make the participants think of other factors or to look at the situation in a different lens. There were mixed results dependent upon methods used. One successful study asked people to imagine how happy a winner of the lottery and a recently diagnosed HIV patient would be. The researchers were able to reduce the amount of focalism by exposing participants to detailed and mundane descriptions of each person's life, meaning that the more information the participants had on the lottery winner and the HIV patient the less they were able to only focus on few factors, these participants subsequently estimated similar levels of happiness for the HIV patient as well as the lottery-winner. As for the control participants, they made unrealistically disparate predictions of happiness. This could be due to the fact that the more information that is available the less likely it is one will able to ignore contributory factors.
Gilbert et al. originally coined the term "immune neglect" (or "immune bias") to describe a function of the psychological immune system. Immune neglect refers to forecasters' unawareness of their tendency to adapt to and cope with negative events. Unconsciously the body will identify a stressful event and try to cope with the event or try to avoid it. Bolger & Zuckerman found that coping strategies vary between individuals and are influenced by their personalities They assumed that since people generally do not take their coping strategies into account when they predict future events, that people with better coping strategies should have a bigger impact bias, or a greater difference between their predicted and actual outcome. For example, asking someone who is afraid of clowns how going to a circus would feel may result in an overestimation of fear because the anticipation of such fear causes the body to begin coping with the negative event. Hoerger et al. examined this further by studying college students’ emotions for football games. They found that students who generally coped with their emotions instead of avoiding them would have a greater impact bias when predicting how they’d feel if their team lost the game. They found that those with better coping strategies recovered more quickly. Since the participants did not think about their coping strategies when making predictions, those who actually coped had a greater impact bias. Those who avoided their emotions, felt very closely to what they predicted they would. In other words students who were able to deal with their emotions were able to recover from their feelings. The students were unaware that their body was actually coping with the stress and this process made them feel better than not dealing with the stress. Hoerger ran another study on immune neglect after this, which studied both daters' and non-daters' forecasts about Valentine’s Day, and how they would feel in the days that followed. Hoerger found that different coping strategies would cause people to have different emotions in the days following Valentine’s Day, but participants’ predicted emotions would all be similar. This shows that most people do not realize the impact that coping can have on their feelings following an emotional event. He also found that, not only did immune neglect create a bias for negative events, but also for positive ones. This shows that people continually make inaccurate forecasts because they do not take into account their ability to cope & overcome emotional events. Hoerger proposed that coping styles, and cognitive processes are associated with actual emotional reactions to life events.
A variant of immune neglect also proposed by Gilbert and Wilson is the region-beta paradox, where recovery from more intense suffering is faster than recovery from less intense experiences because of the engagement of coping systems. This complicates forecasting, leading to errors.
Projection bias is the tendency to falsely project current preferences onto a future event. When people are trying to estimate their emotional state in the future they attempt to give an unbiased estimate. However, people’s assessments are contaminated by their current emotional state and thus it may be difficult for them to predict their emotional state in the future an occurrence known as mental contamination. For example, if a college student was currently in a negative mood because he just found out he failed a test, and if the college student forecasted how much he would enjoy a party two weeks later, his current negative mood may influence his forecast. In order to make an accurate forecast the student would need to be aware that his forecast is biased due to mental contamination, be motivated to correct the bias, and be able to correct the bias in the right direction and magnitude.
Projection bias can arise from empathy gaps (or hot/cold empathy gaps), which occur when the present and future phases of affective forecasting are characterized by different states of physiological arousal, which the forecaster fails to take into account. For example, forecasters in a state of hunger are likely to overestimate how much they will want to eat later, overlooking the effect of their hunger on future preferences. As with projection bias, economists use the visceral motivations that produce empathy gaps to help explain impulsive or self-destructive behaviors, such as smoking.
When predicting future emotional states people must first construct a good representation of the event. If people have a lot of experience with the event then they can easily picture the event. When people do not have much experience with the event they need to create a representation of what the event likely contains. For example, if people were asked how they would feel if they lost one hundred dollars in a bet, gamblers are more likely to easily construct an accurate representation of the event. "Construal level theory" theorizes that distant events are conceptualized more abstractly than immediate ones. Thus, psychologists suggest that a lack of concrete details prompts forecasters to rely on more general or idealized representations of events, which subsequently leads to simplistic and inaccurate predictions. For example, when asked to imagine what a 'good day' would be like for them in the near future, people often describe both positive and negative events. When asked to imagine what a 'good day' would be like for them in a year, however, people resort to more uniformly positive descriptions. Gilbert and Wilson call bringing to mind a flawed representation of a forecasted event the misconstrual problem. Framing effects, environmental context, and heuristics (such as schemas) can all affect how a forecaster conceptualizes a future event. For example, the way options are framed affects how they are represented: when asked to forecast future levels of happiness based on pictures of dorms they may be assigned to, college students use physical features of the actual buildings to predict their emotions. In this case, the framing of options highlighted visual aspects of future outcomes, which overshadowed more relevant factors to happiness, such as having a friendly roommate.
Time discounting (or time preference) is the tendency to weigh present events over future events. Immediate gratification is more preferable than delayed gratification, especially over longer periods of time and with younger children or adolescents. For example a child may prefer one piece of candy now instead of five pieces of candy in four months. The longer the duration of time, the more people tend to forget about the future effects. Drawing again from the candy example, even though five pieces of candy are more gratifying than one, the fact that it will take four months to receive such gratification may cause a child to overlook the fact that he/she will be much more satisfied in the future. It is expected that affective reactions to an event will be less intense in the future than in the present. This pattern is sometimes referred to as hyperbolic discounting or “present bias” because people’s judgements are bias toward present events.
Future anhedonia is an affective forecasting error which occurs when a person believes that they will experience less intense affects of an event that will occur in the future, than if the same event occurred in the present, meaning that if a bad thing happens right now it would be considered much worse than if it happens next year. Forecasts of the duration of feelings often capture the tendency for emotions to fade over time, but underestimate the speed in which this happens. For example, in a study participants were asked to predict their happiness after receiving $20. They rated how happy they would feel if they were to receive $20 tomorrow or if they were to receive it in a year. They found that participants predicted that they would be happier receiving $20 sooner, compared to receiving it in the future. Applied to affective forecasting, this helps explain why people underestimate the intensity of future events. They consider how they are feeling now much more than how they would feel in the future. Economists often cite time discounting as a source of mispredictions of future utility.
Previously formed expectations can alter emotional responses to the event itself, motivating forecasters to confirm or debunk their initial forecasts. In this way, the self-fulfilling prophecy can lead to the perception that forecasters have made accurate predictions. Inaccurate forecasts can also become amplified by expectation effects. For example, a forecaster who expects a movie to be enjoyable will, upon finding it dull, like it significantly less than a forecaster who had no expectations.
Affective forecasters often rely on memories of past events. When people report memories for past events they may leave out important details, change things that occurred, and even add things that have not happened. This suggests the mind constructs memories based on what actually happened, and other factors including the person’s knowledge, experiences, and existing schemas. Using highly available, but unrepresentative past memories, increases the impact bias. Various studies indicate that retroactive assessments of past experiences are prone to various errors, such as duration neglect or decay bias. People tend to overemphasize the peaks and ends of their experiences when assessing them (peak/end bias), instead of analyzing the event as a whole. For example, in recalling painful experiences, people place greater emphasis on the most discomforting moments as well as the end of the event, as opposed to taking into account the overall duration. Retroactive reports often conflict with present-moment reports of events, further pointing to contradictions between the actual emotions experienced during an event and the memory of them. In addition to producing errors in forecasts about the future, this discrepancy has incited economists to redefine different types of utility and happiness (see section on economics).
Another problem that can arise with affective forecasting is that people tend to misremember their past predictions. Meyvis, Ratner, and Levav predicted that people forget how they predicted an experience would be beforehand, and thought their predictions were the same as their actual emotions. Because of this, people do not realize that they made a mistake in their predictions, and will then continue to misforecast similar situations in the future. Meyvis et al. ran five studies to test whether or not this is true. They found in all of their studies, when people were asked to recall their previous predictions they instead write how they currently feel about the situation. This shows that they do not remember how they thought they would feel, and makes it impossible for them to learn from this event for future experiences.
Major life events can have a huge impact on people’s emotions for a very long time but the intensity of that emotion tends to decrease with time, a phenomenon known as emotional evanescence. When making forecasts, forecasters often overlook this phenomenon. Psychologists have suggested that emotion does not decay over time predictably like radioactive isotopes but that the mediating factors are more complex. People have psychological processes that help dampen the emotion. Psychologists have proposed that surprising, unexpected, or unlikely events cause more intense emotional reaction. Research suggests that people are unhappy with randomness and chaos and that they automatically think of ways to make sense of an event when it is surprising or unexpected. This is related to immune neglect in that when these unwanted acts of randomness occur people become upset and try to find meaning or to cope with the event. The way that people try to make sense of the situation can be considered a coping strategy made by the body. This idea differs from immune neglect due to the fact that this is more of momentary idea. Immune neglect tries to cope with the event before it even happens.
One study documents how sense-making processes decrease emotional reaction. The study found that a small gift produced greater emotional reactions when it was not accompanied by a reason than when it was, arguably because the reason facilitated the sense-making process, dulling the emotional impact of the gift. Researchers have summarized that pleasant feelings are prolonged after a positive situation if people are uncertain about the situation.
People fail to anticipate that they will make sense of events in a way that will diminish the intensity of the emotional reaction. This error is known as ordinization neglect. For example, ("I will be ecstatic for many years if my boss agrees to give me a raise") an employee might believe, especially if the employee believes the probability of a raise was unlikely. Immediately after having the request approved, the employee may be thrilled but with time the employees make sense of the situation (e.g, "I am a very hard worker and my boss must have noticed this") thus dampening the emotional reaction.
Positive vs negative affect
Research suggests that accuracy in affective forecasting is greater for positive affect than negative affect. Another related bias is fading affect bias, in which the emotions associated with unpleasant memories fade more quickly than the emotion associated with positive events.
Research in affective forecasting errors complicate conventional interpretations of utility maximization, which presuppose that to make rational decisions, people must be able to make accurate forecasts about future experiences or utility. Whereas economics formerly focused largely on utility in terms of a person's preferences (decision utility), the realization that forecasts are often inaccurate suggests that measuring preferences at a time of choice may be an incomplete concept of utility. Thus, economists such as Daniel Kahneman, have incorporated differences between affective forecasts and later outcomes into corresponding types of utility. Whereas a current forecast reflects expected or predicted utility, the actual outcome of the event reflects experienced utility. Predicted utility is the "weighted average of all possible outcomes under certain circumstances." Experienced utility refers to the perceptions of pleasure and pain associated with an outcome. Khaneman and Thaler provide an example of "the hungry shopper," in which case the shopper takes pleasure in the purchase of food due to their current state of hunger. The usefulness of such purchasing is based upon their current experience and their anticipated pleasure in fulfilling their hunger.
Affective forecasting is an important component of studying human decision making. Research in affective forecasts and economic decision making include investigations of durability bias in consumers and predictions of public transit satisfaction. In relevance to the durability bias in consumers, a study was conducted by Wood and Bettman, that showed that people make decisions regarding the consumption of goods based on the predicted pleasure, and the duration of that pleasure, that the goods will bring them. Overestimation of such pleasure, and its duration, increases the likelihood that the good will be consumed. Knowledge on such an effect can aid in the formation of marketing strategies of consumer goods. Studies regarding the predictions of public transit satisfaction reveal the same bias. However with a negative impact on consumption, due to their lack of experience with public transportation, car users predict that they will receive less satisfaction with the use of public transportation than they actually experience. This can lead them to refrain from the use of such services, due to inaccurate forecasting. Broadly, the tendencies people have to make biased forecasts deviate from rational models of decision making. Rational models of decision making presume an absence of bias, in favor of making comparisons based on all relevant and available information. Affective forecasting may cause consumers to rely on the feelings associated with consumption rather than the utility of the good itself. One application of affective forecasting research is in economic policy. Knowledge that forecasts, and therefore, decisions, are affected by biases as well as other factors (such as framing effects), can be used to design policies that maximize the utility of people's choices. This approach is not without its critics, however, as it can also be seen to justify economic paternalism.
Prospect theory describes how people make decisions. It differs from expected utility theory in that it takes into account the relativity of how people view utility and incorporates loss aversion, or the tendency to react more strongly to losses rather than gains. Some researchers suggest that loss aversion is in itself an affective forecasting error, since people often overestimate the impact of future losses.
Happiness and well-being
Economic definitions of happiness are tied to concepts of welfare and utility, and researchers are often interested in how to increase levels of happiness in the population. The economy has a major influence on the aid that is provided through welfare programs because it provides funding for such programs. Many welfare programs are focused on providing assistance with the attainment of basic necessities such as food and shelter. This is may be due to the fact that happiness and well-being is best derived from personal perceptions of one's ability to provide these necessities. This statement is supported by research that states after basic needs have been met, income has less of an impact on perceptions of happiness. Additionally, the availability of such welfare programs can enable those that are less fortunate to have additional discretionary income. Discretionary income can be dedicated to enjoyable experiences, such as family outings, and in turn, provides an additional dimension to their feelings and experience of happiness. Affective forecasting provides a unique challenge to answering the question regarding the best method for increasing levels of happiness, and economists are split between offering more choices to maximize happiness, versus offering experiences that contain more objective or experienced utility. Experienced utility refers to how useful an experience is in its contribution to feelings of happiness and well-being. Experienced utility can refer to both material purchases and experiential purchases. Studies show that experiential purchases, such as a bag of chips, result in forecasts of higher levels of happiness than material purchases, such as the purchase of a pen. This prediction of happiness as a result of a purchase experience exemplifies affective forecasting. It is possible that an increase in choices, or means, of achieving desired levels of happiness will be predictive of increased levels of happiness. For example, if one is happy with their ability to provide themselves with both a choice of necessities and a choice of enjoyable experiences they are more likely to predict that they will be more happy than if they were forced to choose between one or the other. Also, when people are able to reference multiple experiences that contribute to their feelings of happiness, more opportunities for comparison will lead to a forecast of more happiness. Under these circumstances, both the quantity of choices and the quantity of experienced utility have the same effect on affective forecasting, which makes it difficult to chose a side of the debate on which method is most effective in maximizing happiness.
Applying findings from affective forecasting research to happiness also raises methodological issues: should happiness measure the outcome of an experience, or the satisfaction experienced as result of the choice made based upon a forecast? For example, although professors may forecast that getting tenure would significantly increase their happiness, research suggests that in reality, happiness levels between professors who are or are not awarded tenure are insignificant. In this case happiness is measured in terms of the outcome of an experience. Affective forecasting conflicts such as this one have also influenced theories of hedonic adaptation, which compares happiness to a treadmill, in that it remains relatively stable despite our forecasts.
Similar to how some economists have drawn attention to how affective forecasting violates assumptions of rationality, legal theorists point out that inaccuracies in, and applications of, these forecasts have implications in law that have remained overlooked.The application of affective forecasting, and its related research, to legal theory reflects a wider effort to address how emotions affect the legal system. In addition to influencing legal discourse on emotions, and welfare, Jeremy Blumenthal cites additional implications of affective forecasting in tort damages, capital sentencing and sexual harassment.
Jury awards for tort damages are based on compensating victims for pain, suffering, and loss of quality of life. However, findings in affective forecasting errors have prompted some to suggest that juries are overcompensating victims, since their forecasts overestimate the negative impact of damages on the victims' lives. Some scholars suggest implementing jury education to attenuate potentially inaccurate predictions, drawing upon research that investigates how to decrease inaccurate affective forecasts.
During the process of capital sentencing, juries are allowed to hear victim impact statements (VIS) from the victim's family. This demonstrates affective forecasting in that its purpose is to present how the victim's family has been impacted emotionally and, or, how they expect to be impacted in the future. These statements can cause jury's to overestimate the emotional harm causing harsh sentencing, or to underestimate harm resulting in inadequate sentencing. The time frame in which these statements are present also influences affective forecasting. By increasing the time gap between the crime itself and sentencing, the time at which victim impact statements are given, forecasts are more likely to be influenced by the error of immune neglect (See Immune neglect) Immune neglect is likely to lead to underestimation of future emotional harm, and therefore results in inadequate sentencing. As with tort damages, jury education is a proposed method for alleviating the negative effects of forecasting error.
In cases involving sexual harassment judgements are more likely to blame the victim for their failure to react in a timely fashion or their failure to make use of services that were available to them in the event of sexual harassment. This is because prior to the actual experience of harassment, people tend to overestimate their affective reactions as well as their proactive reactions in response to sexual harassment. This exemplifies the focalism error (See Focalism) in which forecasters ignore alternative factors that may influence ones' reaction, or failure to react. For example, in their study Woodzicka and LaFrance studied women's predictions of how they would react to sexual harassment during an interview. Forecasters overestimated their affective reactions of anger, while underestimating the level of fear they would experience. They also overestimated their proactive reactions. In Study 1, participants reported that they would refuse to answer questions of a sexual nature and, or, report the question to the interviewer's supervisor. However, in Study 2, of those who had actually experienced sexual harassment during an interview, none of them displayed either proactive reaction. If juries are able to recognize such errors in forecasting, they may be able to adjust such errors. Additionally, if juries are educated on other factors that may influence the reactions of those who are victims of sexual harassment, such as intimidation, they are more likely to make more accurate forecasts, and less likely to blame victims for their own victimization.
Affective forecasting has implications in health decision making and medical ethics and policy. Research in health-related affective forecasting suggests that nonpatients consistently underestimate the quality of life associated with chronic health conditions and disability. The so-called "disability paradox" states the discrepancy between self-reported levels of happiness amongst chronically ill people versus the predictions of their happiness levels by healthy people. The implications of this forecasting error in medical decision making can be severe, because judgments about future quality of life often inform health decisions. Inaccurate forecasts can lead patients, or more commonly their health care agent, to refuse life-saving treatment in cases when the treatment would involve a drastic change in lifestyle, for example, the amputation of a leg. A patient, or health care agent, who falls victim to focalism would fail to take into account all the aspects of life that would remain the same after losing a limb. Although Halpern and Arnold suggest interventions to foster awareness of forecasting errors and improve medical decision making amongst patients, the lack of direct research in the impact of biases in medical decisions provides a significant challenge.
Research also indicates that affective forecasts about future quality of life are influenced by the forecaster's current state of health. Whereas healthy individuals associate future low health with low quality of life, less healthy individuals do not forecast necessarily low quality of life when imagining having poorer health. Thus, patient forecasts and preferences about their own quality of life may conflict with public notions. Because a primary goal of healthcare is maximizing quality of life, knowledge about patients' forecasts can potentially inform policy on how resources are allocated.
Some doctors suggest that research findings in affective forecasting errors merit medical paternalism. Others argue that although biases exist and should support changes in doctor-patient communication, they do not unilaterally diminish decision-making capacity and should not be used to endorse paternalistic policies. This debate captures the tension between medicine's emphasis on protecting the autonomy of the patient and an approach that favors intervention in order to correct biases.
Individuals who recently have experienced an emotionally-charged life event will display the impact bias. The individual predicts they will feel happier than they actually feel about the event. Another factor that influences overestimation is focalism which causes individuals to concentrate on the current event. Individuals often fail to realize that other events will also influence how they currently feel. Lam et al. (2005) found that the perspective that individuals take influences their susceptibility to biases when making predictions about their feelings. A perspective that overrides impact bias is mindfulness. Mindfulness is a skill that individuals can learn to help them prevent overestimating their feelings. Being mindful helps the individual understand that they may currently feel negative emotions, but the feelings are not permanent. The Five Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) can be used to measure an individual's mindfulness. The five factors of mindfulness are observing, describing, acting with awareness, non-judging of inner experience, and non-reactivity to inner experience. The two most important factors for improving forecasts are observing and acting with awareness. The observing factor assesses how often an individual attends to their sensations, emotions, and outside environment. The ability to observe allows the individual to avoid focusing on one single event, and be aware that other experiences will influence their current emotions. Acting with awareness requires assessing how individuals tend to current activities with careful consideration and concentration. Emanuel, Updegraff, Kalmbach, and Ciesla (2010) stated that the ability to act with awareness reduces the impact bias because the individual is more aware that other events co-occur with the present event. Being able to observe the current event can help individuals focus on pursuing future events that provide long-term satisfaction and fulfillment.
- George Loewenstein
- Happiness economics
- Hedonic treadmill
- List of cognitive biases
- List of memory biases
- Prospect theory
- Welfare economics
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- Morewedge,, Carey K; Daniel T. Gilbert; Timothy D. Wilson (August 2005). "The Least Likely of Times: How Remembering the Past Biases Forecasts of the Future". Psychological Science 16 (8): 626–630. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01585.x. PMID 16102065.
- Meyvis, T.; Ratner R.K.; Levav J.M. (2010). "Why Don't We Learn to Accurately Forecast Feelings? How Misremembering Our Predictions Blinds Us to Forecasting Errors". Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 139 (4): 579–589. doi:10.1037/a0020285.
- T. D. Wilson; D.T. Gilbert; D.B. Centerbar (2002). J. Carillo & I. Brocas, ed. Economics and psychology. Oxford: Oxford UP. pp. 209–233.
- "The uncertainty intensification hypothesis". http://www.psych-it.com.au/. Retrieved 2014-11-22.
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- "Expected Utility".
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- Buying Happiness:
Differential Consumption Experiences for Material and Experiential Purchases Ryan T. Howell & Darwin A. Guevarra
Department of Psychology, San Francisco State University
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Gilbert says. "We've used the metaphor of the 'psychological immune system' -- it's just a metaphor, but not a bad one for that system of defenses that helps you feel better when bad things happen."[dead link]
- Maroney, Terry A. (April 2006). "Law and Emotion: A Proposed Taxonomy of an Emerging Field". Law and Human Behavior 30 (2): 119–142. doi:10.1007/s10979-006-9029-9. PMID 16786403.
- Blumenthal, Jeremy A. (2005). "Law and the Emotions: The Problems of Affective Forecasting". Indiana Law Journal 80: 155–238. doi:10.2139/ssrn.497842. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- Blumenthal, Jeremy (2009). "Affective forecasting and capital sentencing: reducing the effect of victim impact statements". American Criminal Law Review 46 (1): 107+.
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- Winter, Laraine; Miriam S. Moss; Christine Hoffman (April 2009). "Affective Forecasting and Advance Care PlanningAffective Forecasting and Advance Care Planning". Journal of Health Psychology 14 (3): 447–456. doi:10.1177/1359105309102201. PMID 19293306. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- Loewenstein, George (2005). "Projection bias in medical decision making". Med Decis Making 25 (1): 96–105. doi:10.1177/0272989X04273799. PMID 15673587.
- Rhodes, Rosamond; James J. Strain (2008). "Affective Forecasting and Its Implications for Medical Ethics". Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 17 (1): 54–65. doi:10.1017/S0963180108080067. PMID 18462545.
- Gligorov, Nada (2009). "Reconsidering the Impact of Affective Forecasting". Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 18 (2): 166–173. doi:10.1017/S0963180109090276. PMID 19263600.
- Loewenstein, G; PA Ubel; N Schwarz; D Smith (July 2004). "Misimagining the unimaginable: the disability paradox and health care decision making". Health Psychology 24 (4): 57–62. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.4.s57.
- Gilbert, D.T.; Pinel, E.C.; Wilson, T.D.; Blumberg, S.K.; Wheately, T. (1998). "Immune neglect: A source of durability bias in affective forecasting". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75: 617–638.
- Emanuel, Amber S.; Updegraff, John A.; Kalmbach, David A.; Ciesla, Jeffrey A. (November 2010). "The role of mindfulness facets in affective forecasting". Personality and Individual Differences 49 (7): 815–818.
- Lam, K.C.H.; Buehler, R.; McFarland, C.; Ross, M.; Cheung, I. (2005). "Cultural differences in affective forecasting: the role of focalism". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (9): 1296–1309.
- Baer, R.A.; Smith, G.T.; Hopkins, T.; Krietemeyer, J.; Toney, L. (2006). "Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness". Assessment 13 (1): 27–45.
- Fiske, Susan T. (2004). Social Beings: A Core Motives Approach to Social Psychology. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-45151-8.
- Gilbert, Daniel T. (2006). Stumbling on happiness. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-4000-7742-7.
- Sanna, Lawrence J.; Schwarz, Norbert (2004). "Integrating Temporal Biases: The Interplay of Focal Thoughts and Accessibility Experiences". Psychological Science (American Psychological Society) 15 (7): 474–481. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00704.x. PMID 15200632.
- Wilson, Timothy D. (2002). Strangers to Ourselves: Discovering the Adaptive Unconscious. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01382-4.
- Hsee, Christopher K.; Hastie, Reid (2006). "Decision and experience: why don't we choose what makes us happy?". Trends in Cognitive Sciences 10 (1): 31–37. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.11.007. PMID 16318925.
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Science & Tech.
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Since the term permaculture was first coined in the 1970s by Bill Mollison, it has grown and become more encompassing. First starting out with sustainable agriculture, the idea of permaculture is a way of life. It includes ideas and concepts on food, land, information and legal systems. The whole concept of permaculture originates from three main ethics, care of the earth, care of the people and taking what is needed and reinvesting waste back into the system. Permaculture has become a way of life based on integration of each system and nature with everything else. There are several key aspects of permaculture that are needed to truly be self- reliant and integrated, some of them are as follows.
Backyard animals such as poultry are a large part of permaculture. These animals can help not only with your compost pile but they also help fertilize your garden and eat bugs, weeds and fruit and vegetables that may have fallen and rotted. By doing this the animals help form a sustainable ecosystem in your backyard. Soil cultivation is also a large part of permaculture, and poultry is a large factor of that.
A food forest combines the natural benefits of the relationship between animals, and plants within a centralized location. The food forest, or guild, utilizes pieces of various ecosystems so to ensure all organisms (plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and insects) are equally able to sustain themselves based on what is located around within the habitat. By combining food plants with nitrogen fixing plants, nutrient accumulators, and beneficial insect attractors, one can design and build a thriving edible ecosystem that reduces work and inputs on behalf of the gardener.
Rain water harvesting is the practice of gathering and then reusing rainwater before it can be deposited in some sort of collection point like an underground reservoir. The practical uses of this surplus water supply are irrigation, drinking water for domesticated animals, and indoor heating for homes. The advantageous application of rain water harvesting is that it can be used as a supplement for a main water supply with restrictions placed upon it. Another benefit of rain water is that it is generally more sanitary than surface water due to the fact that it has never come into contact with the earth’s terrain. Rain water harvesting is an effective renewable resource because it serves as a supplement to other water sources and may even be of a better quality.
In permaculture nothing is truly “waste.” Everything is reinvested back into the system to be of use. This might include recycling, composting, or reuse. For example, some waste products may be recycled to be used as building materials, etc. Composting is utilized both for use in agriculture and for capturing methane from composting toilets for use in cooking. And many things can simply be reused. Wastewater is cleaned and then put back into the system to be of use. Waste in permaculture is something that a use has not been found for yet.
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Moderate reasoning
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Home & Hobbies
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We stand at the dawn of a new age of safe intelligent transportation systems. The development and deployment of vehicle to vehicle (V2V), vehicle to infrastructure (V2I), and vehicle to pedestrian (V2P) safety communications systems collectively known as V2X, will bring the greatest advances in road safety since the invention of the seatbelt.
2 Background – V2X C-ITS
V2X systems use short range radio messages to create situational awareness about all vehicles within range (<1KM). These messages contain information about the location, direction, and velocity of the vehicle or information about safety hazards or other local information of use to the vehicle operator. Unlike all other sensors such as cameras, radar, or LIDAR that might be carried by the vehicle V2X messages are not limited by line of sight or weather conditions. This ability to “see” beyond direct line of sight allows V2X to detect safety hazards that other sensors are blind to. They also are immune to problems such as glare, and misinterpretation of images that plague vision based advanced driver assistance (ADAS) functions.
Some examples of V2V hazard warning functions:
Rear end collision scenarios
- Forward Collision Warning: V2V monitors both the presence of a stopped vehicle and the rate of closure.
- Emergency Electronic Brake Light: V2V will “see” through obstacles. The driver in the following car will get a warning before the truck’s brake lights come on.
Lane Change Scenarios
- Blind Spot Warning
- Do Not Pass Warning
- Blind intersection warning
The potential of V2X to save lives and protect property is huge. The US Department of Transportation National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) estimates that V2V hazard warnings could prevent or improve the outcome of over 3.9 Million light vehicle collisions per year saving the U.S. $500 Billion per year by 2035.
2.1 V2X or C-ITS
There are two architectural standards for vehicle-to-vehicle safety messages. The V2V system developed by the Crash Avoidance Metrics Partnership (CAMP) in the United States, and Cooperative Intelligent Transportation System (C-ITS) developed by the Car-to-Car Communications Consortium (C2CCC) and the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) in Europe. C-ITS has also been adopted with some modifications by China. There are many similarities between the two systems and some significant differences. There is also a harmonization effort underway to bring the two systems closer together over time. The terminology V2X and C-ITS extend coverage to vehicle to infrastructure and vehicle to pedestrian and more recently vehicle to everything
- V2X and C-ITS both use the same message integrity protections based on IEEE 1609.2 . 1609.2 is a public key signature and certificate standard that is much more compact and therefore more bandwidth efficient than traditional X.509 certificates.
- V2X and C-ITS both use the same privacy protection mechanisms using 1609.2 pseudonym certificates.
- V2X and C-ITS both use the same spectrum bandwidth allocation although as we will see the question of radio modulation and channel management are a matter of current debate
- V2V depends on each vehicle maintaining situational awareness of all vehicles in the vicinity by broadcasting its own position, direction, and velocity every 100 mS. It simultaneously receives similar messages from all vehicles within range. Situational awareness is an internal map of all nearby vehicles and their positions and motions. By analyzing this internal map each vehicle can generate safety warnings for itself.
- C-ITS sends Cooperative Awareness messages (CAM). Rather than build an internal situational awareness map C-ITS participants send specific warning messages. For example, “Ice on road <location>”, or “Emergency braking <time, location>”. They can also carry less critical messages like, “e-vehicle charging station at <location>”. CSMs also include traffic advisories, recommended speeds to sync with traffic lights, etc.
V2V situational awareness is more extensible. Since hazard warnings are generated within the vehicle they do not have to be agreed by all participants. Therefore, any developer can write a new hazard warning at any time. The C-ITS system, on the other hand, requires agreement among all participants on the naming and nature of hazards. It is difficult to add a new warning because the meaning of warning messages must be agreed in advance of use.
C-ITS is less computationally and bandwidth intensive. CAMs with explicit warnings can be acted on immediately rather than analyzing a situational awareness map.
3 Trust and Privacy
There are two critical cybersecurity requirements for V2X messages; they must be trustworthy, and they must not leak private data. Specifically, it must not be able to use V2V messages to track the location and travel of an individually identifiable vehicle.
V2X equipped vehicles with broadcast their location, direction, and speed ten times per second so that other vehicles can accurately determine if they constitute a safety hazard. Infrastructure devices such as bridges and roadways will also broadcast informational messages such as road icing conditions, lane closures, congestion warnings and information about the timing of signal lights. If a malicious actor were able to broadcast incorrect information such as “no hazard” rather than “ice on bridge” or broadcast location messages for non-existent vehicles they could easily create chaos in the flow of traffic as well as possible accidents, injury, and deaths. This makes the trustworthy data integrity of all V2X messages critically important.
The second critical cybersecurity requirement for V2X messages is privacy protection. The effectiveness of V2V safety warnings will depend on having almost every vehicle participate in the exchange of messages. A timely analogy is that the effectiveness of vaccine in stopping a pandemic is dependent on getting as many people vaccinated as possible. However, if people fear that the V2V messages can be used to track their travels they will be tempted to turn off, disable or remove the V2V transmitter. The V2V security system was designed to protect the privacy of users. How it does this is a fascinating but rather complicated story of applied cryptography. It is beyond the scope of this paper so we will not go into detail here.
INTEGRITY Security Services is the world leader in V2X security credentials management systems (SCMS). Automotive OEM’s around the world depend on ISS to ensure that V2V communications will be trustworthy and protect the privacy of users.
4 DSRC vs C-V2V
There has been a lot of debate recently around the choice of the radio technology underlying V2X and C-ITS. We must point out that this is all about the lowest levels of the protocol stack, layers 1 Physical and 2 DataLink of the OSI reference model. It does not affect either the underlying messages of V2X or C-ITS nor does it affect the security architecture of either system.
DSRC (Dedicated Short Range Communications) is a radio network technology standardized by the IEEE as IEEE 802.11p. DSRC is derived from the 802.11 WiFi wireless local area networking standards.
C-V2X (Cellular V2X) Developed by Qualcomm and the 3GPP C-V2X offers a more modern radio protocol using cellular telephone technology. C-V2X is designed to interoperate with LTE, 4G, and 5G mobile networks as well as directly vehicle to vehicle without the support of the cellular network.
ISS does not take a position for or against DSRC or C-V2V. Our ISS-SCMS systems can work equally well with either radio technology.
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Strong reasoning
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Transportation
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A Black and Tan Coonhound is a specific breed of Coonhound named for its obvious black and tan colored appearance. A Coonhound is a type of scent hound from the hound family of dogs, such as the Foxhound and the famous Bloodhound, widely credited as the main direct ancestors of the Black and Tan Coonhound. They are an American-style hunting dog specifically developed to the conditions of the United States. Due to the needs of hunting animals that run up trees to escape, the Coonhound has been primarily trained to catch raccoons, hence the name.
The Black and Tan Coonhound is also a great family dog. He loves people but may have a bit of trouble with other dogs especially if they startle him. They tend to be very loyal and friendly most of the time. Hunters, of course, love to have this dog along on every hunting trip, as they love to hunt and please their master. Even going as far as to hunt out large game such as bear or mountain lions, which are quite a bit larger than they are. Thus, the black and tan coonhound is very courageous.
The Black and Tan Coonhound has black and tan markings that are somewhat similar to that of the Doberman Pinscher and the Rottweiler. Normally the eyes are either hazel or brown, not quite round, and not deeply set. The head is primarily oval in shape. The ears slightly extend past the tip of the nose. The heads of the females are normally eight to nine inches in size from the back of the skull to the tip of the nose, while the heads of the males measure nine to ten inches.
Considering the nature to hunt, the Black and Tan Coonhound normally has excellent muscle tone and very strong bones. The neck is muscular, medium length, and slopes slightly. The back is very powerful and strong. The Black and Tan Coonhound has full, round, well-sprung ribs, eliminating flat sidedness you see in many canine species. The chest reaches to at least the elbows. The shoulders are very broad and muscular. The coat is short, but very full and dense to withstand the rough conditions and actions the dog goes through daily.
They have forelegs are perfectly straight, with straight elbows, turning neither in nor out. The Black and Tan Coonhound has strong and erect pasterns. Paws are small, with well-knuckled, arched toes and thick, strong pads on the bottom. The tail is strong. The base of the tail is slightly below the backline, and when in action sits approximately right angle to the back of the dog.
The size of the female Black and Tan Coonhound, as measured from the shoulder, should be 23 to 25 inches, whereas the male should be 25 to 27 inches. Males are heavier in bone and muscle tone than females. They have long tails, and a very distinct bark. They are normally anywhere from 65 to 100 pounds in weight.
The normal expression of the Black and Tan Coonhound is very alert, friendly, and eager. The confidence, strength, dedication, and courage of the canine are very well seen in its stride. It is very graceful, but long and strong. The movement of the legs seems almost effortless, but yet, the legs never cross, and there is little imperfection. From a rear view, the hocks follow an almost perfect line with the forelegs, with reasonable spacing. As speed increases, the legs tend to come toward the center, indicating the impeccable soundness, balance and speed the canine possesses. The head and tail ride proud and alert, while the body remains level. As proof of its confidence, strength, and courage, the Black and Tan Coonhound can even hunt large game, like mountain lions, bear, stag, and deer, even on dangerous terrain.
The Black and Tan Coonhound works very well with others of its species. Even with other Coonhounds, its demeanor remains friendly, outgoing, and surprisingly even in temperament. Some may seem reserved, but never overly vicious or overly shy. The only normal exception to this rule is that the canine may get aggressive when around strange dogs that alarms it. Rarely would there be any real aggression to be seen when not in a hunt. Conversely, when in a hunt, this canine is focused, aggressive, and undeterred.
The Black and Tan Coonhound requires lots of exercise and attention, and enjoys playing with people, other dogs, or anything that will play with it. A normal Black and Tan Coonhound loves to run and swim.
The dog is very unhappy if left alone for long periods. Being a scent hound, it should be kept inside a fenced-in area to combat a tendency to roam. The dog needs a lot of space, like a farm or country environment where it can roam freely and stay active.
A proper diet should contain nutrient sources that are similar to those found in the native environment of the ancestors of the Black and Tan Coonhound and the proper balance of protein, carbohydrates, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals that match the breed specific nutritional requirements inherently passed down to the dog. A common recommendation is a mixture of meats from wild boar, turkey, deer, bear, other normal game the dog would hunt, and rice, which was a common cash crop in the areas the breed is from.
Not a lot of food is required. Overfeeding is not healthy for a Black and Tan Coonhound. The canine is prone to hip dysplasia. This condition can be fairly serious if not detected early.
Not a lot of grooming and physical care is normally required. However, regular ear care is important. The average life expectancy, if the dog has been cared for properly, is around ten to twelve years.
There are normally unconfirmed reports, still to be solidified, as to the origin of the Black and Tan Coonhound. However, some are proven, and some are just obvious. The ancestry can be traced back to the English Foxhound, and even further back, the Talbot Hound, originally found in England. However, speculation says they may not be native to England. Apparently, an older breed was imported during the Norman invasion in 1066. Some even trace the ancestry of the Coonhound family, of which the Black and Tan Coonhound is one, as far back as the St. Hubert Hounds of France.
It is obviously confirmed to be a cross between the Foxhound and Bloodhound, due to the black and tan coloration of the coat, the long ears, and most importantly, the stereotypical cold nose normal canines of this certain family habitually possess. Some reports, dug up from records and folklore, say crossbreeding a Foxhound an Irish Kerry Beagle will lead to the same result, but that has not yet been confirmed.
The Black and Tan was the first Coonhound breed to be registered by the UKC (United Kennel Club), an American all-breed registry of purebred pedigrees. When they were registered in the early 1900s, they were introduced as American Black and Tan Fox and Coonhounds. The name was shortened over time, and by the time they were officially recognized as a hound by the American Kennel Club in 1945, the name had already been shortened to Black and Tan Coonhound.
The Black and Tan Coonhound became one of only six varieties of the Coonhound family to be recognized as a hound by the American Kennel Club. Others that have been chosen by the AKC to share the same honor are the Redbone Coonhound, the Plott Hound, the Bluetick Coonhound, the English Coonhound, and the Treeing Walker Coonhound.
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Moderate reasoning
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Home & Hobbies
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Estimating seismic shift of tectonic plates according to GPS measurements made at base stations, it is proven that the tectonic plate on which Montenegro lies moves to Italy by 7 millimeters every year.
The only earthquake science could predict was the so called Haicheng earthquake in China that happened on February 4th 1975 in Liaoning province. The prognosis was based on high measurements of radon on the surface of ground. Due to the successful prognosis of Chinese experts, 400.000 human lives was saved, Zoran Ilinčić, machine engineer and inventor from Kolašin, said to Pobjeda. There was a prognosis for the earthquake in Liaoning province, but already in 1976, one happened in Tangashan province, that could not have been predicted, and one that had claimed thousands of lives. An earthquake is a complex geological phenomenon. Ilinčić explains that earthquakes are due to changes in speed of seismic waves in the surface level of Earth’s core, rising or lowering of the ground in the future epicenter, emission of radon from earth and water, lowering of electrical resistance of the surface, appearance of series of smaller and larger earthquakes, sudden shifts in levels of underwaters. Still, the main reason of the inability to scientifically predict earthquakes, according to Ilinčić, is the wrong theory on how earthquakes appear. „My theory on earthquake genesis entails significant changes of mass within the Earth during a period of many years, and especially in the few months before the earthquake. The conclusion is that for a successful prediction of earthquakes, one needs to look at changes in speed of seismic waves and vertical shifts of the ground, as well as measurements of fluctuation of gravitational field”, he said. Zoran Ilinčić, in his explanation of how to predict earthquakes, says that the first parameter is determining the location of future earthquake. „The first phase would be measuring horizontal and vertical ground shifts in the zone where there is seismic risk present. This is fairly simple procedure and is possible to be done using GPS. One such device exists in Montenegro, and it is used to measure shifts of the tectonic plate our country is located on. Our plate moves 7mm towards Italy every year. After measuring horizontal and vertical shifts, the second phase would be analysis of masses under the solid core of Earth, using artificially created seismic waves, similar to the procedure of finding mineral wealth. Based on the analysis of such events, it would be possible to predict an earthquake within one day”, Ilinčić concluded.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Routledge English Language Introductions cover core areas of language study and are one-stop resources for students.
Assuming no prior knowledge, books in the series offer an accessible overview of the subject, with activities, study questions, sample analyses, commentaries and key readings – all in the same volume. The innovative and flexible ‘two-dimensional’ structure is built around four sections – introduction, development, exploration and extension – which offer self-contained stages for study. Each topic can also be read across these sections, enabling the reader to build gradually on the knowledge gained.
Language and Power, Second Edition has been completely revised and updated and includes:
Language and Power will be essential reading for students studying English language or linguistics.
"This new edition is an invaluable resource for students of language and power. It gives a clear and concise introduction to theoretical issues of language and power, a full range of tools for analysing texts and discourse, and excellent examples which illustrate how to apply these tools. The new sections on 'tweeting politics', 'truth’ and ‘mediated relations' and the inclusion of a new reading on 'Populism and post-truth politics' by Robin Lakoff are welcome additions which bring the book right up to date with contemporary concerns."
Michael Farrelly, University of Hull, UK
"The addition of new chapters on the language of social media and the discourse of post-truth, as well as the revamping of many of the example texts, all packaged in the innovative four strand 2D structure, make this an outstanding textbook for students of language and discourse studies… a much-needed toolkit for critically analysing many of the important national and international issues of the day."
Paul McIlvenny, Aalborg University, Denmark
List of illustrations
A Introduction: Key topics in the study of language and power
1 Language and power
2 The discourse of institutions and organisations
3 Power and talk
4 Language and gender
5 Language and race
6 Humour, language and power
7 Language and the law
8 Language and advertising
9 Language in the new capitalism
10 Language and politics
11 The discourse of social media
12 The discourse of ‘post-truth’
B Development: Approaches to the study of language and power
1 Critical Linguistics and Critical Discourse Analysis
2 Registers of discourse
3 Studying spoken discourse
4 Gender and power: using the transitivity model
5 The representation of social actors
6 The discourse of humour and irony
7 Developments in forensic discourse analysis
8 Advertising discourse: methods for analysis
9 Language and new capitalism: developments
10 Studying political discourse: developments
11 The language of a social media campaign
12 Post-truth and Critical Linguistics
C Exploration: Analysing language and power
1 Beginning analysis
2 Exploring register and ideology
3 Power and resistance in spoken discourse
4 Analysing gender
5 A workshop on the representation of social actors
6 Analysing humour and power
7 Exploring forensic texts
8 Analysing advertisements
9 Analysing the language of new capitalism
10 Analysing political discourse
11 Tweeting politics
12 ‘Truth’ and Mediated Reactions
D Extension: Readings in language and power
1 Critical Linguistics (Roger Fowler and Gunther Kress)
2 Bureaucracy and social control (Srikant Sarangi and Stefaan Slembrouck)
3 Power and resistance in police interviews (Kate Haworth)
4 Masculinity and men’s magazines (Bethan Benwell)
5 Discourse and the denial of racism (Teun van Dijk)
6 Humour and hatred (Michael Billig)
7 Forensic Linguistics (Malcom Coulthard)
8 Language, style and lifestyle (David Machin and Theo van Leeuwen)
9 Language in the global service economy (Deborah Cameron)
10 Critical metaphor analysis (Jonathan Charteris-Black)
11 Social media online campaigns (Innocent Chiluwa and Presley Ifukor)
12 Populism and post-truth politics (Robin Lakoff)
Routledge English Language Introductions cover core areas of English language study and are one-stop resources for students.
Assuming no prior knowledge, books in the series offer an accessible overview of the subject, with activities, study questions, sample analyses, commentaries and key readings - all in the same volume.
The innovative and flexible 'two-way' structure is built around four sections - introduction, development, exploration and extension - which offer self-contained stages for study. Each topic can also be read across these sections, enabling the reader to build gradually on the knowledge gained.
Each book in the series has a companion website with extra resources for teachers, lecturers and students.
Visit the series website at: http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/reli/ for more information and to explore.
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Strong reasoning
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Literature
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If the 12th Planet is riding at the mid-point of its long and narrow orbit, during most of its slow motion between the Sun and the Suns dead twin, then how it that it
can have an effect on the planets and moons in the solar system when it is only moving slowly from that virtual standstill? The outer planets were discovered only
because slight perturbations in the known planets were observed and analyzed to point to another body in motion, farther out. But these perturbations were
extreme, in comparison to an inbound object on a virtual straight line path, as their path of these outer planets were from side to side, thus causing a more
noticeable motion in the perturbed bodies. Other than perturbing toward Orion, the direction of the inbound 12th Planet, by all the planets in the solar system, there
is little steady evidence that the 12th Planet exists. But as it begins its passage, in the few short years prior to its passage, palpable changes are evident. The Earths
core is heating up, the plates giggling into a lock so that quakes in one ricochet into the neighboring plate, and volcanic activity increasing as the core of the Earth
swirls about. Europa, one of Jupiters moons, is noted to be heating up too. How can an object so distant affect the planets and moons?
Human theories about the motion of the planets in their orbits, their placement, are based on theories that have little basis in fact. All slung into position when the solar system first formed, and motion and centrifugal force are holding it all in place. This is nonsense, as we have explained, and mans theories fail to account for the vast majority of factors that actually hold the motion of suns and solar systems in place in an equilibrium established coming out of any local Big Bang. Mankind has faint explanation for why all the planets line up in the ecliptic, though this clearly is a flow of particles and the planets are in the backwash. Earths magnetic field does not point in the direction it does by accident, nor does the field simply encompass Earth. It goes far beyond the solar system, into several nearby systems and beyond. Gravity, which holds the planets close to their Sun but also keeps them apart by the repulsion force, is little understood by man who failed to understand this phenomenon in the context of a particle flow. They are still clinging to the theory, without basis, that the Sun has magnetic reversals, as this is an explanation for why wandering poles are evident on the crust of the Earth, when pole shifts are the obvious explanation and Hapgood long ago presented this. Thus, they cannot conceive of an equilibrium in the solar system, being out of touch as they are with so many basic issues.
When the 12th Planet is riding the mid-point of its orbit, the equilibrium exists. When it begins to approach, several particle flows are changed, and as these particle flows envelope and influence Earth and the other planets in the system, these changes become evident. Gravity and magnetic particles are only a couple of the flows affected. Now, in any given equilibrium, change is noticed where the equilibrium is taken for granted. Thus, the fact that the Earth rotations, has x temperature in its core, points in x direction, is taken as normal. When its temperature raises, this is noticed, and commented upon. Why would the temperature not raise, when the core is pulled in more direction, has more activity, and is thus exuding more heat particles. Magnetic diffusion is another change noticed, but this is easily explained in the context of yet another magnetic planet coming closer, so that magnetic particles are flowing more here, less there, in the vicinity of Earth. Thus, it is not so much what causes every change, upon the approach of the 12th Planet, as it is a mystery of why mankind is astonished. He is asleep on his assumptions, and only waking when they move about! Thus, the approach of the 12th Planet is evidenced by changes in the solar system because the equilibrium is being changed, the status quo altered, when it moves from a virtual standstill mid-way in its path to begin a passage. This equilibrium should be viewed as a net reaching out into the Universe, encompassing not only a local solar system but a galaxy. Why do the galaxies stay where they are? This is not a local affair!
Note: added during the Aug 24, 2002 Live ZetaTalk IRC Session.
We have stated that Planet X is disrupting the Earth's equilibrium, and the equilibrium of other planets and their moons, from afar. We have stated in explanation of
this that mankind little realizes what an equilibrium in a solar system means, understanding little of the factors involved. We have stated that mankind assumes the
planets are staying where they are due to centrifugal force and motion established a long time ago, and has no explanation for the ecliptic or the steady and
undegrading orbits of the planets. We have stated that should mankind understand all the factors involved in the solar system equilibrium, they would not be
surprised at the changes, but they are so far from understanding that shock is the reaction.
But a valid question, in this, is how the Earth could continue to be affected to the point of expressing magnetic diffusion, when the Sun, the giant magnetic influence, stands between the Earth and Planet X. Is this not a buffer? Would the magnetism not return to normal during these times? A disturbed equilibrium is not a simple thing, a wire placed between the planets such that cutting this wire returns all to what man considers to be normal. A disturbed equilibrium is many, virtually thousands, of factors, pulling in all directions, piling up and spilling over slowly, disbursing in directions and then returning. Particle flow is something mankind does not understand, assuming gravity to be a force, not a flow, and magnetism creating magnetic fields for unexplained reasons. Thus, when the Earth moves such that the Sun is between Planet X and itself, all the many factors throughout the solar system continue to push and pull, unchanged, and unchanged disruption in the equilibrium.
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Schools should arrange for cleaning of commonlytouched surfaces in classrooms between different class groups, if the same room will be used by multiple class groups. Redemption And Guide.
The definition of counseling refers to guidance or advice provided to help someone resolve difficulties or decide issues. However, this was discontinued as it was deemed no longer necessary and of the least importance to users. As a result, retail outlets along evacuation routes require sufficient fuel supplies to meet a demand surge. Parenting is an endurance sport and you need to care for yourself so you can care for your child. But of children not specifically how seeking guidance of lack of its account. The results often lead to confusion and criticism.
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SAEs should include only those terms that were used in defining the case as serious; they should not include nonserious events.
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All researchers working with research participants who lack, or may lack, capacity need to be aware of its underlying principles and the provisions relating to research.
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Was this page helpful? Most people want to change at least one thing in their life. Safety testing of carcinogenic agents.
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Strong reasoning
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Health
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Darkness & Light
The story of the origin of Hanukkah is almost as familiar to average Americans as the story of the origin of Christmas. We all know about the single cruise of oil that was supposed to last only one day in the process of dedicating the Temple after the Maccabees’ victory over the wicked Syrians. The oil miraculously lasted eight days, and-voila!-the holiday of Hanukkah. The story is, as you might guess, a story. The First Book of Maccabees, a chronicle of the revolt, describes the re-dedication in this fashion:
Then Judah and his brothers said, “Now that our enemies have been defeated, let us go up to purify the sanctuary and dedicate it.” So they marshaled the whole army, and went up to Mount Zion. (The text then tells of the devastation they found and details the work they did in cleaning, rebuilding and purifying the holy objects.) On the 25th of the ninth month, Kislev, in the year 148 (dating from the conquest of Alexander the Great), they rose at dawn and offered a lawful sacrifice on the new altar which they had made. The altar was dedicated, to the sound of zithers, harps and cymbals, at the same time of year and on the same day on which the pagans had originally profaned it.For eight days they celebrated the dedication of the altar, joyfully offering sacrifices.Judah with his brothers and the whole assembly of Israel, made it a law that the days of the dedication should be celebrated yearly at the proper season, for eight days beginning on the twenty-fifth of Kislev, with rejoicing and gladness. (I Macc. 4)
This is it. No cruise of oil, no miracle is described. We need not stop here. The account suggests that the date of 25 Kislev was picked because it undid the profaning of the Temple that occurred exactly three years earlier. It does not, however, give any reason for an eight-day celebration. There is another account, a Second Book of Maccabees. Unlike I and II Samuels, or I and II Kings, which are a historical narrative and its sequel or continuation, these two books are simply different versions of the same event. Scholars believe that I and II Maccabees were probably written around the same time. The Second Book gives a briefer description of the purification and dedication of the Temple. It adds, however, this sentence: “They kept eight festive days with rejoicing, in the manner of the feast of Tabernacles (Sukkot), remembering how, not long before at the time of the feast of Tabernacles, they had been living in the mountains and caverns like wild beasts.”
The book goes on to say that they performed the dedication in a fashion similar to a Sukkot celebration, and determined to continue to observe the festival each year. Thus, Hanukkah began as a second Sukkot. There is still no mention of oil or miracles. Where, then, did the legend come from? It is recorded in a relatively obscure text called Megillat Ta’anit [The Scroll of Fasts]. The story is then repeated in the Babylonian Talmud (Tractate Shabbat 21a). The Mishna makes only a few references to Hanukkah, with no mention of either Maccabees or miracles. Megillat Ta’anit, a discussion of a number of occasions during the year in which fasting is prohibited, was written in the early part of the second century, C.E. The segment in the Talmud was probably recorded a century or two later. The Maccabean re-dedication of the Temple took place in 165 or 164 B.C.E., and the two Books of the Maccabees were written 50 or 60 years later. The story of the cruise of oil is unknown or ignored by the authors of the Books of the the Maccabees; the circumstances of the re-dedication of the Temple and its putative relationship to Sukkot is unknown or ignored by the Talmudic Sages. What we seem to have is a historic event that has created a mythical celebration.
Confusion upon Confusion
How did history become legend? First, we must note that the ancient rabbis were only vaguely aware of the history in the first place. The Books of the Maccabees were not sacred literature. (They are included in the Catholic canon of the Bible, but that is another story.) As a result, they would have remained outside the interest and purview of the Sages. Indeed, the original Hebrew or Aramaic version of the Books have been completely lost, and they were preserved in their Greek translation. The first century Jewish historian Josephus might have known the Books, and incorporated them into his Antiquities of the Jews. This work was written in Latin, and would also have been ignored by the rabbis.
Why would the history be ignored. The Sages were aware of numerous military victories and defeats on the part of the Jews. The victories were good, the defeats sad, but in the broader scheme of things, few of them were particularly significant. Those few-the exodus from Egypt, the destruction of Solomon’s Temple, and the defeat of Haman-represented a significant expression of God’s will for both Israel and the redemption of humankind. (The last one, the story of Esther, was quite controversial among the rabbis, and only barely rose to have any religious status.) The Maccabees’ victory over the Syrians would have been appreciated by the rabbis, but worthy of no more consideration than the victory of Joshua over the Canaanites.
Hanukkah, despite the lack of rabbinic interest, was an annual holiday, and was observed by the early synagogue. The Mishna records that the normal reading of the Torah was to interrupted during the days of the observance. From this information we can imagine this plausible scenario: The Temple was dedicated and Judah Maccabee proclaimed an annual eight-day festival. For the next number of years, Jews-particularly veterans of the war-would celebrate a dedication holiday (a Hanukkah) in some festive manner. With a revived Temple, however, the holiday of Sukkot was also revived. This was the major celebration at the Temple. The observance of Hanukkah about two months later would become circumscribed and formalized. As long as the Hasmoneans (the royal house established by the Maccabee brothers) remained on the throne, Hanukkah in some form was certain to be retained.
In 66 B.C.E., the Roman general Pompey entered Jerusalem and essentially put an end to an independent Jewish State. By then, however, the holiday had become routine. The Pharisees, in creating a synagogue service, saw to it that
Hanukkah would be acknowledged, if very little else. This scenario (and the Mishna) leaves out any lighting of lights. The brief discussion in the Talmud, however, begins precisely with this practice. It suggests that lamp lighting (candles are a much later development) goes back at least to the days of Hillel and Shammai, the beginning of the Christian Era. So, displaying lights on Hanukkah is an old custom, but one that is apparently an alternative stream of history.
The Talmudic Sages briefly discuss the procedure for lighting the lights, and then ask an intriguingly ambiguous question: “What is Hanukkah?” Are they asking, ‘what is the meaning of the word,’ or ‘what is the purpose of the holiday?’ The answer given is the citation from Megillat Ta’anit about the miracle of the oil, but this does not seem to answer either version of the question. The story explains why a certain practice is done, not what the holiday is.
The discussion in the Talmud leaves us with the distinct impression that the Sages were virtually at a loss to explain what was going on? Here was an annual celebration being observed for no Jewishly compelling reason, and by a thoroughly mysterious ceremony that had no direct relationship with Dedication. (Thus, with an air of desperation, rabbis tried to suggest that ‘Hanukkah’ actually meant “they [the Maccabees] encamped on the 25th [hanu kaf heh],” or “8 [het] lights on the 25th.”)
Distinguishing Fact from Feeling
Let us ask a simple question: where did the lighting of lights on Hanukkah come from? They did not seem to be proclaimed or prescribed, either by the Maccabees or the rabbis. They are derived exegetically from any text in Torah. (The blessing over the lights, containing the expression “Blessed is God, Who commands us,” is however an exegetical interpretation.) We might therefore assume that it is a folk custom. It is something the people just did. But why did they do it? Perhaps it is just as the Talmud says. There was a miraculous cruise of oil that lasted eight days. I think it is more likely that the story of the oil is an explanation for practice that was already occurring. We need to look elsewhere for an answer.
We need not look far. The world is filled with folk customs that involve lighting lights. Most prevalent among them is a solstice ceremony. In the Northern Hemisphere, the November and December days are shorter and shorter as the sun rises each day to a lower point in the sky. We know now that this is a result of a combination of the earth’s tilt and its revolution around the sun. From a more primitive standpoint, it appears each year as if the world is slowly running out of steam; that the days will continue to get shorter until the sun no longer rises at all, and we are plunged into eternal darkness. I have used the term ‘primitive,’ but I do not employ it in a historical fashion. Rather, I want to refer to human feelings unchecked by intellect or knowledge. Most of us get discouraged by the brevity of light and the lengthening nights. In our weaker moments, we might actually think that all is going to go permanently black. In this ‘primitive’ state, we have to principal ways of dealing with our depression. We can either grit our way through it, and then celebrate as the days begin to lengthen once again and the darkness withdraws. Or we can confront the encroaching darkness with light of our own.
Either way has its own value, and I have no interest in promoting one over the other. Both approaches represent a triumph of light over dark, and both, in the ancient world, were celebrated precisely with the lighting of lights. So Jews lit lights at the darkest time of the year. How and when they came upon this practice is lost in the mists of history. It might very have been quite ancient, even something practiced during biblical times, but not in an organized or ritual fashion. It might very have been discouraged by religious leadership as being pagan, idolatrous, or at very least questioning of God’s creative will. The incident of the rededication of the Temple on the winter date of the 25th of Kislev in 165/4 B.C.E., opportunistically provided a framework for turning a practice into a ceremony, and the rabbis, equally opportunistic, gave the ceremony authentic Jewish religious authority.
We readily see the same dynamic at work in the Christian world, as the event of the birth of Jesus (which many biblical scholars suggest must have taken place in the spring) is set in the Church Calendar to coincide with a pagan solstice celebration of light, thus turning the light of the lengthening days into the light of the ‘son of God.’
In God’s Light Do We See Light
If my reading of the sources is correct, then Hanukkah (and Christmas!) was created by the co-opting of a celebration that the people were already doing. I think we can agree that this was politically astute; the old adage regarding leadership is being able to figure out which way the parade is going and then running to take one’s position up front. The rabbis (and the promoters of the early Christian church) saw what the people were doing and turned it into an occasion for the praise of God’s grace and goodness.
Did these leaders of our tradition transform a pagan act into a Jewish one? Or rather, did they see the will of God in the activities of the people and thus translate it into a Jewish idiom? I prefer to believe it was the latter. Throughout rabbinic literature, the heroes of the Book of Genesis are depicted as being scrupulous in their adherence to the laws of Torah. The assertion is plainly anachronistic as those laws were given to the people at Sinai many years later. Why would the rabbis have Abraham, Rebecca, Joseph and others follow commandments revealed well after their death? One reason might be that they recognized that God’s will was not revealed solely at a single place and at a single point of time; that it was revealed, at least in part, in the very majesty of nature. It was written in the stars.
When we celebrate the triumph of faith over power-the story of the Maccabees-by lighting lights in order to dispel the darkness, we are responding to an ancient and powerful urge. It precedes the Hanukkah story, precedes Torah and the people Israel themselves. It responds to God’s creative will, and makes us one with all of humanity who prefer to light a candle rather than to curse the darkness.
May this Hanukkah be one of light and peace, of happiness and fulfillment.
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Strong reasoning
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Religion
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In 2009, Jeremy O’Brien, a professor at the University of Bristol, published a research paper describing how to repurpose on-chip optical components originally developed by the telecom industry to manipulate single particles of light and perform quantum operations.
By 2016, based on the earlier photonic research, O’Brien and three of his academic colleagues, Terry Rudolph, Mark Thompson, and Pete Shadbolt, created PsiQuantum.
The founders all believed that the traditional method of building a quantum computer of a useful size would take too long. At the company’s inception, the PsiQuantum team established its goal to build a million qubit, fault-tolerant photonic quantum computer. They also believed the only way to create such a machine was to manufacture it in a semiconductor foundry.
PsiQuantum first popped up on my quantum radar about two years ago when it received $150 million in Series C funding which upped total investments in the company to $215 million.
That level of funding meant there was serious interest in the potential of whatever quantum device PsiQuantum was building. At that time, PsiQuantum was operating in a stealth mode, so there was little information available about its research.
Finally, after receiving another $450 million in Series D funding last year, PsiQuantum disclosed additional information about its technology. As recently as few weeks ago, a small $25 million US government grant was awarded jointly to PsiQuantum and its fabrication partner, GlobalFoundries, for tooling and further development of its photonic quantum computer. Having GlobalFoundries as a partner was a definite quality signal. GF is a high-quality, premiere fab and only one of the three tier one foundries worldwide.
With a current valuation of $3.15 Billion, PsiQuantum is following a quantum roadmap mainly paved with stepping stones of its own design with unique technology, components, and processes needed to build a million-qubit general-purpose silicon photonic quantum computer.
Classical computers encode information using digital bits to represent a zero or a one. Quantum computers use quantum bits (qubits), which can also represent a one or a zero, or be in a quantum superposition of some number between zero and one at the same time. There are a variety of qubit technologies. IBM, Google, and Rigetti use qubits made with small loops of wire that become superconductors when subjected to very cold temperatures. Quantinuum and IonQ use qubits formed by removing an outer valence electron from an atom of Ytterbium to create an ion. Atom Computing makes neutral atom spin qubits using an isotope of Strontium.
Light is used for various operations in superconductors and atomic quantum computers. PsiQuantum also uses light and turns infinitesimally small photons of light into qubits. Of the two types of photonic qubits – squeezed light and single photons – PsiQuantum’s technology of choice is single-photon qubits.
Using photons as qubits is a complex process. It is complicated to determine the quantum state of a single photon among trillions of photons with a range of varied frequencies and energies.
Dr. Pete Shadbolt is the Co-founder and Chief Science Officer of PsiQuantum. His responsibilities include overseeing the application and implementation of technology and scientific-related policies and procedures that are vital to the success of PsiQuantum. After earning his PhD in experimental photonic quantum computing from the University of Bristol in 2014, he was a postdoc at Imperial College researching the theory of photonic quantum computing. While at Bristol, he demonstrated the first-ever Variational Quantum Eigensolver and the first-ever public API to a quantum processor. He has been awarded the 2014 EPSRC “Rising Star” by the British Research Council; the EPSRC Recognizing Inspirational Scientists and Engineers Award; and the European Physics Society Thesis Prize.
Dr. Shadbolt explained that detecting a single photon from a light beam is analogous to collecting a single specified drop of water from the Amazon river’s volume at its widest point.
“That process is occurring on a chip the size of a quarter,” Dr. Shadbolt said. “Extraordinary engineering and physics are happening inside PsiQuantum chips. We are constantly improving the chip’s fidelity and single photon source performance.”
Just any photon isn’t good enough. There are stringent requirements for photons used as qubits. Consistency and fidelity are critical to the performance of photonic quantum computers. Therefore, each photon source must have high purity, proper brightness, and generate consistently identical photons.
The right partner
When PsiQuantum announced its Series D funding a year ago, the company revealed it had formed a previously undisclosed partnership with GlobalFoundries. Out of public view, the partnership had been able to build a first-of-its-kind manufacturing process for photonic quantum chips. This manufacturing process produces 300-millimeter wafers containing thousands of single photon sources, and a corresponding number of single photon detectors. The wafer also contains interferometers, splitters, and phase shifters. In order to control the photonic chip, advanced electronic CMOS control chips with around 750 million transistors were also built at the GlobalFoundries facility in Dresden, Germany.
Every quantum qubit technology has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. PsiQuantum chose to use photons to build its quantum computer for several reasons:
- Photons do not feel heat and most photonic components operate at room temperature.
- PsiQuantum’s superconducting quantum photon detectors require cooling, but operate at a temperature around 100 times hotter than superconducting qubits
- Photonic qubits are compatible with fiber-optic networks, making it easy to route photons between local devices
- Photons aren’t affected by electromagnetic interference
Another major advantage of photon qubits worth highlighting is the ability to maintain quantum states for a relatively long time. As an example of light’s coherence, despite traveling for billions of years, light emitted by distant stars and galaxies reaches earth with its original polarization intact. The longer a qubit can maintain its polarized quantum state, the more quantum operations it can perform, which makes the quantum computer more powerful.
Why start with a million qubits?
“We believed we had cracked the code for building a million-qubit quantum computer,” Dr. Shadbolt said. “Even though that’s a huge number, the secret seemed simple. All we had to do was use the same process as the one being used to put billions of transistors into cell phones. We felt a large quantum computer wouldn’t exist in our lifetime unless we figured out how to build it in a semiconductor foundry. That idea has been turned into reality. We are now building quantum chips next to laptops and cell phone chips on the GlobalFoundries 300-millimeter platform.”
According to Dr. Shadbolt, PsiQuantum’s custom fabrication line has made much progress. Surprisingly, building a million-qubit quantum machine in a foundry has many of the same non-quantum issues as assembling a classical supercomputer, including chip yields, reliability, high-throughput testing, packaging, and cooling – albeit to cryogenic temperatures.
“From the time that our first GlobalFoundries announcement was made until now, we’ve produced huge amounts of silicon,” Dr. Shadbolt said. “We’ve done seven tapeouts in total and we’re now seeing hundreds and hundreds of wafers of silicon coming through our door. We are investing heavily in packaging, assembly systems, integration, and fiber attachment to ensure the highest efficiency of light flowing in and out of the chip.”
PsiQuantum is performing a great deal of ongoing research as well as continually improving the performance of photonic components and processes. In addition to high-performance optical components, the technologies that enable the process are also very important. A few enablers include optical switches, fiber-to-chip interconnects, and bonding methods.
“We have greatly improved the efficiency of our photon detectors over the last few tapeouts at GlobalFoundries,” Dr. Shadbolt explained. “We’re constantly working to prevent fewer and fewer photons from being lost from the system. We also have driven waveguide losses to extremely low levels in our recent chips.
“There is much innovation involved. Our light source for single photons is a good example. We shine laser light directly into the chip to run the single photon sources. The laser is about a trillion times more intense than the single photons we need to detect, so we must attenuate light on that chip by a factor of about a trillion.”
Dr. Shadbolt attributes PsiQuantum’s manufacturing success to GlobalFoundries. From experience, he knows there is a significant difference between a second-tier foundry and a first-tier foundry like GlobalFoundries. Building chips needed by PsiQuantum can only be built with an extremely mature manufacturing process.
“PsiQuantum has two demanding requirements. We need a huge number of components, and we need those components to consistently meet extremely demanding performance requirements. There are very few partners in the world who can reliably achieve something like this, and we always knew that partnering with a mature manufacturer like GlobalFoundries would be key to our strategy.”
The partnership has also been beneficial for GlobalFoundries because it has gained additional experience with new technologies by adding PsiQuantum’s photonic processes to the foundry.
The end is in sight
According to Dr. Shadbolt, the original question of whether large numbers of quantum devices could be built in a foundry is no longer an issue as routinely demonstrated by its output of silicon. However, inserting new devices into the manufacturing flow has always been difficult. It is slow and it is very expensive. Nanowire single photon detectors are an example of a development that came directly from the university lab and was inserted into the manufacturing process.
PsiQuantum’s semiconductor roadmap only has a few remaining items to complete. Since a million qubits won’t fit on a single chip, the quantum computer will require multiple quantum processor chips to be interconnected with optical fibers and facilitated by ultra-high-performance optical switches to allow teleportation and entanglement of single photon operations between chips.
“What remains is the optical switch,” Dr. Shadbolt said. “You might ask why photonic quantum computing people have never built anything at scale? Or why they haven’t demonstrated very large entangled states? The reason is that a special optical switch is needed, but none exists. It must have very high performance, better than any existing state-of-the-art optical switch such as those used for telecom networking. It’s a classical device, and its only function will be to route light between waveguides, but it must be done with extremely low loss and at very high speed. It must be a really, really good optical switch.”
If it can’t be bought, then it must be built
Implementing an optical switch with the right specs is a success-or-fail item for PsiQuantum. Since a commercial optical switch doesn’t exist that fits the application needs, PsiQuantum was left with no choice but to build one. For the past few years, its management has been heavily investing in developing a very high-performance optical switch.
Dr. Shadbolt explained: “I believe this is one of the most exciting things PsiQuantum is doing. Building an extremely high-performance optical switch is the next biggest thing on our roadmap. We believe it is the key to unlocking the huge promise of optical quantum computing.”
PsiQuantum was founded on the belief that photonics was the right technology for building a fault tolerant quantum machine with a million qubits and that the proper approach was based on semiconductor manufacturing. In contrast to NISQ quantum computers, the founders wanted to avoid building incrementally larger and larger machines over time.
Considering the overall process needed to build a million-qubit quantum computer, its high degree of complexity, and the lack of proven tools and processes to do it with, PsiQuantum has made amazing progress since it first formed the company.
It established a true partnership with one of the best foundries in the world and produced seven tapeouts and funded a half dozen new tools to build a first-of-its-kind wafer manufacturing process, incorporating superconducting single photon detectors into a regular silicon-photonic chip.
And today, it is answering yet another challenge by building an optical switch to fill a void where the needed product doesn’t exist.
It is no surprise that an ultra- high-performance optical switch is a key part of PsiQuantum’s plans to build a scalable million qubit quantum computer. Other quantum companies are also planning to integrate similar optical switching technology to scale modular QPU architectures within the decade. The high-performance optical switch PsiQuantum is developing could someday connect tens of thousands of quantum processing units in a future multi-million qubit quantum data center. As a standalone product, it could also be a source of additional revenue should PsiQuantum choose to market it.
Once the optical switch has been built, it will then need to be enabled into GlobalFoundries’ manufacturing flow. That is the last step needed to complete PsiQuantum’s foundry assembly process and then it will be ready to produce photonic quantum computer chips.
But even with a complete end-to-end manufacturing process, significantly more time will be needed to construct a full-blown fault-tolerant quantum computer. It will remain for PsiQuantum to build complete quantum computers around chips produced by GlobalFoundries. For that, it will need a trained workforce and a location and infrastructure where large qubit photonic quantum computers can be assembled, integrated, tested, and distributed.
Based on the amount of post-foundry work, development of the optical switch, and assembly that remains, and assuming no major technology problems or delays occur, I believe it will be after mid-decade before a photonic quantum computer of any scale can be offered by PsiQuantum.
I’ll wrap this up with comments made by Dr. Shadbolt during our discussion about the optical switch. I believe it demonstrates why PsiQuantum has been, and will continue to be successful:
“Even though the optical switch will obviously be a very powerful generic technology of interest to others, we are not interested in its generic usefulness. We are only interested in the fact that it will allow us to build a quantum computer that outperforms every supercomputer on the planet. That is our singular goal.”
Paul Smith-Goodson is Vice President and Principal Analyst for quantum computing, artificial intelligence and space at Moor Insights and Strategy. You can follow him on Twitter for more current information on quantum, AI, and space.
Note: Moor Insights & Strategy writers and editors may have contributed to this article.
Moor Insights & Strategy, like all research and tech industry analyst firms, provides or has provided paid services to technology companies. These services include research, analysis, advising, consulting, benchmarking, acquisition matchmaking, and speaking sponsorships. The company has had or currently has paid business relationships with 8×8, Accenture, A10 Networks, Advanced Micro Devices, Amazon, Amazon Web Services, Ambient Scientific, Anuta Networks, Applied Brain Research, Applied Micro, Apstra, Arm, Aruba Networks (now HPE), Atom Computing, AT&T, Aura, Automation Anywhere, AWS, A-10 Strategies, Bitfusion, Blaize, Box, Broadcom, C3.AI, Calix, Campfire, Cisco Systems, Clear Software, Cloudera, Clumio, Cognitive Systems, CompuCom, Cradlepoint, CyberArk, Dell, Dell EMC, Dell Technologies, Diablo Technologies, Dialogue Group, Digital Optics, Dreamium Labs, D-Wave, Echelon, Ericsson, Extreme Networks, Five9, Flex, Foundries.io, Foxconn, Frame (now VMware), Fujitsu, Gen Z Consortium, Glue Networks, GlobalFoundries, Revolve (now Google), Google Cloud, Graphcore, Groq, Hiregenics, Hotwire Global, HP Inc., Hewlett Packard Enterprise, Honeywell, Huawei Technologies, IBM, Infinidat, Infosys, Inseego, IonQ, IonVR, Inseego, Infosys, Infiot, Intel, Interdigital, Jabil Circuit, Keysight, Konica Minolta, Lattice Semiconductor, Lenovo, Linux Foundation, Lightbits Labs, LogicMonitor, Luminar, MapBox, Marvell Technology, Mavenir, Marseille Inc, Mayfair Equity, Meraki (Cisco), Merck KGaA, Mesophere, Micron Technology, Microsoft, MiTEL, Mojo Networks, MongoDB, MulteFire Alliance, National Instruments, Neat, NetApp, Nightwatch, NOKIA (Alcatel-Lucent), Nortek, Novumind, NVIDIA, Nutanix, Nuvia (now Qualcomm), onsemi, ONUG, OpenStack Foundation, Oracle, Palo Alto Networks, Panasas, Peraso, Pexip, Pixelworks, Plume Design, PlusAI, Poly (formerly Plantronics), Portworx, Pure Storage, Qualcomm, Quantinuum, Rackspace, Rambus, Rayvolt E-Bikes, Red Hat, Renesas, Residio, Samsung Electronics, Samsung Semi, SAP, SAS, Scale Computing, Schneider Electric, SiFive, Silver Peak (now Aruba-HPE), SkyWorks, SONY Optical Storage, Splunk, Springpath (now Cisco), Spirent, Splunk, Sprint (now T-Mobile), Stratus Technologies, Symantec, Synaptics, Syniverse, Synopsys, Tanium, Telesign,TE Connectivity, TensTorrent, Tobii Technology, Teradata,T-Mobile, Treasure Data, Twitter, Unity Technologies, UiPath, Verizon Communications, VAST Data, Ventana Micro Systems, Vidyo, VMware, Wave Computing, Wellsmith, Xilinx, Zayo, Zebra, Zededa, Zendesk, Zoho, Zoom, and Zscaler. Moor Insights & Strategy founder, CEO, and Chief Analyst Patrick Moorhead is an investor in dMY Technology Group Inc. VI, Dreamium Labs, Groq, Luminar Technologies, MemryX, and Movandi.
Moor Insights & Strategy founder, CEO, and Chief Analyst Patrick Moorhead is an investor in dMY Technology Group Inc. VI, Dreamium Labs, Groq, Luminar Technologies, MemryX, and Movand
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Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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Are you long on the tooth? You don’t have to be old to be “long on the tooth”; neither does it mean you are already old if you are somewhat long on the tooth. The proverbial way of having older people being referred to as “long on the tooth” implies that as we get older, it is predetermined that our teeth get “longer” (or become gone) or “no longer.” However this is far from truth. Loss of teeth and periodontal disease is not inevitably a part of aging. In fact anyone can be long on the tooth.
Loss of bone support or bonding or attachment around a tooth results mainly from bacterial infection. The part that is true about people being “long on the tooth” is that as people get older, they have more exposure to infectious microorganisms; hence they have also more probability of becoming infected with diseases and eventually developing periodontal disease. Half of older people aged 55 years old and up actually have periodontal disease.
Aside from exposure to bacteria related infections, the risk factors involved in seniors or older adults being more prone to developing periodontal diseases include:
Certain medications affect the gums and lead to periodontal infections. Heart medications particularly can have a direct effect on a person’s gums, specifically by creating an overactive response to plaque which further results to gum overgrowth. Immunosuppressants too as well as other anti-disease medications may eventually reduce our immunity’s ability to fight off infection, leading to an increased risk to periodontal diseases. Lastly, antidepressants may also produce dry mouth, hence reduces out mouth’s ability to neutralize plaque through saliva. You need to make sure that your dental care providers are aware of any current medications you are using, and also, you need to maintain a very diligent plaque control daily regimen. Also visit your dentist or dental hygienist regularly for professional check-ups and cleanings.
Not enough saliva or “dry mouth” can result from using certain medications or having a certain type of illness. If there is a lack of enough saliva available in our mouths for neutralizing plaque, the result is more cavities which lead to periodontal disease. Also, xerostomia or dry mouth may complicate the swallowing of food, chewing, and even speaking, and can make it more problematic to wear dentures. Using an oral rinse or artificial saliva can prove to be very useful in dealing with these problems. (Fluoride gels and rinses help reduce and prevent the cavities that can result from having a dry mouth.) Frequently sipping water and/or eating candy can also be helpful just as long as it doesn’t have any sugar. Remember to drink water as often as you can especially if you are feeling dehydrated, or feeling any dryness in your mouth.
Certain systemic illnesses including diabetes may decrease a person’s ability to fight off infections which eventually leads to more severe cases of periodontal disease. Osteoporosis is another type of systemic disease and it can increase the rate and amount of bone loss around one’s teeth. Note: If a systemic illness is a pre-existing condition, then it will affect the body’s susceptibility to periodontal disease. To reduce the effect of a systemic disease on your oral cavity, seek the advice of your dental care provider and visit your dentist’s office regularly for routine check-ups. Stick with your professional cleaning schedule and maintain a meticulous plaque control routine at home daily. Ideally, you need to undergo prophylaxis (dental cleaning) at least twice or once a year, or every six months or every year. Also make sure to replace your toothbrush bi-annually. Remember, older adults are more at risk to osteoporosis and diabetes; hence they are also more vulnerable to periodontal disease. If you are young and have these types or any other type of systemic disease, then you are also prone to having periodontal disease.
Older women, most especially, may experience several special concerns related to periodontal disease. Some studies suggest that women’s estrogen deficiency, occurring after their pre-menopause years may increase their tendency for losing teeth and their risks for having severe periodontal disease. On the other hand, estrogen replacement therapy may help reverse these dental effects. If you are already middle-aged and have just entered your menopause stage, it is highly advisable to seek medical advice to help maintain your estrogen levels, control your menopause symptoms, as well as prevent periodontal illness.
Physical disabilities may lead to reduced dexterity and diminish one’s ability to remove plaque or tartar on a day-to-day basis. For people with poor dexterity, it gets harder day by day to brush their teeth; hence it puts them at risk for periodontal disease. Poor oral hygiene increases a person’s risks for cavities and not being able to brush your teeth and/or to floss your teeth daily places you at a greater risk for all types of dental disease. Electric toothbrushes as well as floss holders are very helpful for people with these kinds of problems. Improve plaque control with the help of these teeth cleaning aids and make sure you go to frequent professional cleanings. Also combine these with a good oral fluoride or anti-microbial rinse to help reduce your incidences of poor oral hygiene and periodontal disease.
It is highly important to maintain our teeth as we age no matter what our age. Our teeth have an important function in our normal daily habits from chewing to eating to speaking. Our teeth also affect our appearance as well as our sense of self esteem. Even if you are not yet old, having loose and/or missing teeth or having to wear dentures because of a certain condition and/or having poor oral health, can lead you to experience difficulties in eating, having restricted diets, poor nutrition, and developing some form or two of systemic complications. With technological advances in modern dentistry today and with the help of current preventive and treatment methods, people both young and old can now count on maintaining a healthy set of teeth – no matter how “long on the tooth” they may be!
J. Brent Sanders DDS
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Moderate reasoning
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Health
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What Is Peace?
- The Arabic word for peace
- The Concept of Peace in the East
- The idea of peace is false
- The Old Testament uses the word "shalom" to refer about health
- Relaxation and Mind-Soothing
- The Age to Come
- The State of Peace
- The World Peace Group
- The underlying issues of violence
- Multidimensional UN Peacekeeping
The Arabic word for peace
The Arabic word for peace is also used as a farewell, as is the Hawaiian word aloha. In English, the phrase rest in peace is used as a farewell for the dead. The UN sends its troops to areas where there have recently been peace agreements and where there are still armed conflicts.
The UN does not maintain its own military, so member states of the UN provide the peacekeeping forces. The "Blue Helmets", who enforce UN accords, are awarded United Nations medals, which are considered international decorations. The force received the peace prize.
The state has an obligation to provide for domestic peace within its borders, which is usually charged to the police. The police are a body of people who are given the power of arrest and force to enforce the law. The police forces of a state that are authorized to exercise police power within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility are known as a police force.
Police forces are often defined as separate from the military and other organizations involved in defense of the state against foreign invaders, but the military units are charged with civil policing. Police forces are usually funded by taxes. The categorical opposition to the behaviors of war or violence is called patisism.
There are many views on pacifierism, ranging from the belief that international disputes can and should be resolved via peaceful behaviors, to calls for the abolition of organizations that tend to institutionalize aggressive behaviors, such as the military. The libertarians and the anarchists are groups that sometimes oppose governmental use of force. Defending oneself and others is a defense of absolute pacifism.
The Concept of Peace in the East
Peace is also seen as harmony and tranquility. It is seen as a sign of peace in the East. A state of law or civil government, a state of justice or goodness, or a balance of Powers is what it is.
Conflict and cooperation are interdependent. Conflict, cooperation, and then again conflict are alternative phases in a continuous social process. The second polarity-type dimensions concerns whether a social contract is solidary, neutral, or antagonistic.
Close friends, relations, lovers, and religious groups have common expectations. Affirmative expectations derive from mutually competitive, diverging, or opposing behavior. They involve a perception of incompatible purposes, a belief that satisfying one's interests can be frustrating, and a temporary bound in a social contract.
A labor-management contract achieved after a long, violent strike is antagonistic contract, or a truce between traditional enemies, such as Pakistand India, North and South Korea, or Israel and Syria. Peace is complex and multi-dimensional. It is necessary to be specific about the social contract involved in discussing peace.
To present a theory about a just peace requires clarity about expectations, dimensions, and social orders. Those against the idea of peace to violence or war see peace as an absence of such behavior. A different view is held in the East.
The idea of peace is false
Conflict is the other way around. You might think that peace is something that is not true. The introduction of violence in peaceful societies is forced upon them by the outside world, just like the introduction of homeostasis natural to any system.
The Old Testament uses the word "shalom" to refer about health
People use peace in many ways. One use is to represent the absence of war. When warring countries sign a treaty and are at peace, or when friends are fighting and are at peace.
The Bible has peace, but it is different. There is more to biblical peace than just the absence of conflict. It means completeness or wholeness, and it means something else.
To have a state of completeness without deficiency or lack is called shalom. The Old Testament uses the word "shaly" to refer to the health of others. It can be translated as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well as well
Relaxation and Mind-Soothing
Peace of mind is the most important thing on the planet. Accepting yourself with all your limitations and frailties is what peace with yourself is about. It also involves trying to be happy with what one has, and rising above the boundaries of prejudice.
Achieving peace of mind is a priority for health experts. They say that peace of mind is a state in which the mind feels happy, calm, and content. Stress relief can be achieved with patiyam or breathing exercises.
You can sit straight. Then with your thumb, press your right nostril and then exhale. There are many different types of music that can be used to calm your mind and soothe your nerves.
Some music needs to be sung with words. It can be either percussion or instrumental. Nature images are the best for mental peace.
The Age to Come
The age to come will bring peace. The animal kingdom will be restored to its former state in the future. The image in the Bible is beautiful.
The State of Peace
Buddhism is a set of religious traditions that are centered in Eastern and Central Asia, but with no specific deity, some question whether it should be considered a religion. The elevation of ahisma, doing no harm to others, is a central ethical virtue for human conduct, and it is important for Buddhism to have peace. The Buddhist ideal of avoidance of desire is an important peaceful attribute, as it is often cited as a cause of war and conflict, as well as being a cause of theAccumulation of Wealth, which itself arguably runs counter to the creation of a genuinely peaceful world.
Christianity is a set of monotheistic religious traditions that were created out of Judaism and centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. The relationship of Christianity to a philosophy of peace is not easy to understand. Christianity has become a proselytizing and militaristic religion, and is often linked with violence.
There is a countervailing peace within Christianity, linked to the teachings of its founder and also the fact that his life and death exemplified nonviolence. Christian teaching has a lot of themes of forgiveness and reconciliation. Communism is seen as a form of nontheistic religion by an established tradition.
Communism promises a peaceful future, through the elimination of inequality, the emergence of an ideal classless society, with a just distribution of resources, no class warfare and no international wars, given that war in communism is often seen as the result of capitalist imperialism. Communism envisions an end to premature deaths within a social class due to exposure to preventable yet lethal conditions. Rummel has suggested that communist societies have been the most violent in human history.
It can be lethal if you think you know what you're doing. Some people point to examples of peaceful communist societies. The original ideals of Marx and Engels were betrayed by communist societies of the twentieth century, argues Noam Chomsky.
The World Peace Group
A research shows that a meditator's brain waves affect other people's. Read more It can affect other people's levels of hormones.
Read more The World Peace Group is run by a charity. The World Peace Group is trying to raise funds to establish a permanent world peace group.
The underlying issues of violence
There are issues of inequality, injustice and exclusion at the heart of violent conflicts. There are often genuine and unaddressed grievances that are expressed in violence. Military power can be used to prevent or defend against an immediate threat, but it can't resolve underlying political, social and economic problems. It can sometimes make that task more difficult.
Multidimensional UN Peacekeeping
Today's multidimensional operations are needed to maintain peace and security, but also to facilitate the political process, protect civilians, assist in the demobilization and reintegration of former combatants, and support the organization of elections. UN peacekeeping is a partnership. The General Assembly, Security Council, the secretariat, troop and police contributors and the host governments are brought together in a effort to maintainternational peace and security. The legitimacy of the UN Charter and the wide range of contributing countries that provide precious resources are its strength.
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Strong reasoning
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Politics
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Feeling blue or irritable every now and then can be normal and usually means you’re in a bad mood. However, a mood disorder such as depression can be entirely different. A person experiencing a mood disorder can often have their everyday state of mind affected by their emotions. Unfortunately, many people dealing with a mood disorder shy away from help due to the stigma and fear that surrounds these types of illnesses.
At Rice Psychology Group in Tampa, we believe that asking for help is one of the most courageous things to do. Our psychologists want to help you understand and recognize everything regarding depression and other mood disorders, which can often be the first step towards feeling normal.
Know the Types
Mood disorders are how health professionals describe and label different types of depression and bipolar disorders. Mood disorders can appear in adults, adolescents and children; however, it’s often difficult to diagnose a disorder in children because it often shows up with different symptoms normally associated with depression and because children sometimes have difficulty expressing feelings.
There are different types of mood disorders, but the most common include:
- Major depression – Experiencing feelings of sadness or hopelessness for at least two weeks and losing interest in usual activities
- Persistent DepressiveDisorder, (previously called Dysthymia) – A chronic mood of low-grade depression or irritability that can persist for at least two years
- Bipolar disorder – This disorder is characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania or elevated mood
- Due to other medical conditions – The symptoms of depression can appear as a result of other medical conditions such as cancer, injuries or chronic diseases
- Substance-induced mood disorders – Medications, drug abuse, alcoholism and other forms of treatment can trigger symptoms of mood disorders
The Signs of Depression
Perhaps you’ve been told to “snap out of it” when you’re faced with overwhelming feelings of sadness or loss of interest. However, depression is not a weakness you can simply shake off and turn your back on. It is not a character defect! The effects of this disorder can affect the way you think and behave so much that it can eventually lead to various emotional and physical problems.
People experiencing depression often have trouble completing simple day-to-day activities. Yet, feeling hopeless doesn’t mean there isn’t help around.
Rice Psychology Group knows that one of the most pivotal parts of feeling better is to not be discouraged. If you or someone you love is currently experiencing signs of depression, our team is more than ready to help. These signs may include:
- Feeling sad, hopeless or empty
- Experiencing angry outbursts, irritability or frustration even when faced with small matters
- Loss of interest or pleasure in normal activities that can include sports, sex or hobbies
- Sleep-related troubles such as insomnia or prolonged sleeping
- Lack of energy
- Changes in appetite that can include weight loss in most and increased appetite and weight gain in some
- Feelings of anxiety and agitation
- Fixating on past failures or feeling guilty for things that weren’t the individual’s responsibility
- Trouble with memory, thinking or concentrating, or even making simple decisions
- Recurring thoughts of death or suicide
The signs of other mood disorders include many of the symptoms listed above but also have their own unique set of symptoms.
Take the First Step Towards Feeling Better
If you suspect that you or someone you care about is experiencing the signs of depression or other mood disorder, know that asking for help is one of the bravest things you can do. Rice Psychology Group is determined to evaluate your disorder in a comfortable and relaxing environment that will help you feel at ease.
Our Tampa offices are dedicated to working with you and your loved ones to find the best solution and take the first step towards feeling better. If you have any questions, please contact us today.
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Moderate reasoning
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Health
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Most electric and hybrid cars allow you to save considerable sums on fuel but require a large initial investment. It is difficult to decide at the first glance whether a hybrid is more cost-efficient. We created this handy calculator to give you a comprehensive overview of the economy of plug-in hybrids. You will be able to calculate the real-life MPG of such a car and compare the energy expenses of plug-in hybrids and regular cars.
The main difficulty in determining the PHEV cost-effectiveness is that it is largely dependent on your driving style. The purchase of such a vehicle is justified if you make a lot of short trips. Once you deplete the battery and switch to gasoline, though, it is only as good as a regular car.
To calculate the MPG of your PHEV, determine how many trips you make within and beyond the battery-only (EV) range. For example, if your only trips during the month are for commuting - let's say, 15 miles on every workday - then you can assess your monthly mileage as 20 * 15 miles. Estimate how many long-distance trips you make each month, too; for instance, you can make a 400-miles journey twice a month to visit your parents.
As our calculator already aggregates the most important data concerning energy consumption of plug-in hybrids, there's no need for you to do a thorough research. All you have to do is choose a car from the list, and our calculator will tell you how much you will save on fuel.
What are the plug-in hybrids?
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) are cars that use two propulsion methods. The first is an internal combustion engine, fueled with gasoline, just like in traditional cars. The second is an electric motor with a rechargeable battery.
Unlike regular hybrid vehicles (HEV), plug-in hybrids operate primarily on the electric motor. They are able to use only the battery without drawing any energy from the combustion engine. Once the battery reaches a certain low state of charge, the car switches to gasoline as the main propulsion method. On short distances, the PHEV will not use the gasoline at all - it is used only to extend the battery-only (EV) range of the car.
The further difference between plug-in hybrids and traditional hybrids is that the battery in PHEV can be recharged from the grid. Most producers provide a possibility to charge the car from a standard plug socket. You can also use dedicated charging stations. The batteries of HEV are typically recharged on board, for example during regenerative breaking, when kinetic energy is recaptured.
What does our calculator do?
Estimating the fuel costs of a regular car is not a difficult task. All you have to do is to find its MPG (miles per gallon) value in the specifications, determine your monthly mileage, and perform a simple division to obtain the cost of fuel per month.
The calculations become more daunting when you are trying to find the energy costs of a PHEV. As it switches between two propulsion methods, you have to estimate the mileage within and beyond the EV (battery-only) range separately. Only then you can find the real-life MPG of the plug-in hybrid that will correspond to your driving style.
Intuitively, the plug-in hybrids are the best solution for drivers who primarily operate on short distances. They are able to charge their car's battery frequently and spend months without burning fuel. On the other hand, a driver who often makes long trips will quickly discover that the real-life MPG of his plug-in hybrid does not differ much from the MPG of a car not equipped with an electric motor.
Plug-in hybrid car models
Begin your analysis with choosing a plug-in hybrid from a range of available models. Our calculator allows you to choose one of the models listed in the table below. All data comes from fueleconomy.gov and from their 2017 Fuel Economy Guide. You may provide your own values if your vehicle is not on the list.
|model||battery-only range (miles)||MPG (if operating on gas only)||car price (US $)||kWh / 100 miles (if operating on battery only)|
|Audi A3 E-Tron||16||34||38,900||41|
|BMW X5 xdrive40e||13||24||64,000||59|
|Chrysler Pacifica Plug-in Hybrid||30||32||43,100||40|
|Ford C-Max Energi||19||38||32,600||35|
|Ford Fusion Energi||21||38||33,900||35|
|Hyundai Sonata Plug-in Hybrid||27||40||35,400||34|
|Kia Optima PHEV||29||40||35,210||33|
|Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV||32||51.4||41,600||31|
|Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid||14||22||78,000||71|
|Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid||16||25||93,000||52|
|Porsche 918 Spyder||12||22||845,000||50|
|Toyota Prius Prime||25||54||27,100||25|
|Volvo XC90 T8||17||22.5||69,000||60|
Calculating the real-life MPG
The next step in calculating the MPG of your plug-in hybrid is to analyze your driving habits. Divide all the car trips you make during a month into ones that do and do not exceed the car's EV range. You need to provide our calculator with the average distance of a trip and the number of trips per month for each of these categories.
Our plug-in hybrid economy calculator assumes that the car operates either on battery only, or - when the battery is depleted - on gasoline only. It is a necessary simplification, as many vehicles can also operate in a so-called "blended mode", where the two propulsion methods are applied simultaneously. Nevertheless, it is a good approximation, especially for drivers who make most of their trips within the EV range.
The fuel efficiency of PHEV car is calculated with the use of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGe). According to the Environmental Protection Agency, one gallon of gasoline corresponds to 33.7 kWh of electric energy. Thus, your real-life MPG is calculated with to the following formula:
MPGe = (s₁ + s₂) / (s₁ * EE / 3370 + s₂ / MPG)
- MPGe stands for the equivalent fuel efficiency of the PHEV (miles per gallon),
- s₁ is the total mileage traveled on battery,
- s₂ is the total mileage traveled on gasoline,
- EE is the energy efficiency of the battery in kWh per 100 miles,
- MPG is the fuel efficiency of the PHEV operating on gasoline only.
Costs of use
Apart from the MPG of a plug-in hybrid, our calculator can also determine your expenses on gas and electricity. All you have to do is provide the price of fuel per gallon and of electricity per kWh in your area.
When choosing the price of electricity, double-check whether you can use a tariff with a variable price per kWh depending on the time of the day (tiered electricity pricing). If so, you can open the advanced mode to type in two different electricity prices. You can assign a different percentage of total charging time to each of them. You can also use these fields if, for example, you charge your car for free at your workplace. Then, simply set the tier 2 electricity price to $0/kWh.
Our calculator will automatically display the total monthly cost of using a plug-in hybrid. You can also open the advanced mode to see the cost split into the gasoline and electricity parts.
Comparison with a regular car
Now that you know your monthly energy expenses, you can compare the selected plug-in hybrid vehicle with any regular car that operates solely on a combustion engine. All you have to do is to find the MPG of this car on its producer's website. Choose the value that best corresponds to your driving habits - for example, if you only use your car in the city at low velocities, choose the "city fuel economy" type. On the other hand, if most of your trips are done at high speeds, "highway fuel economy" will be more suitable.
Upon entering the MPG of the traditional car, our calculator will automatically determine the fuel costs basing on your driving habits and monthly mileage. It will also display how much money you will save each month if you settle for a PHEV instead.
Should you buy a PHEV?
Every plug-in hybrid vehicle will be cheaper than a regular car when it comes to fuel and energy expenses. It doesn't necessarily mean, though, that the sum you have to invest will return to you.
When you open the advanced mode of our calculator, you will discover an additional section at the very bottom. You need to enter the price of a regular car and the price of a charging station, if you wish to install one at your own house (if you already have a station or don't want one, type "0" into this box). Also, input the value of the government incentive/grant (if you receive any). Then, the calculator will compare the costs of PHEV and the regular car and tell you after how many years will the investment be returned.
Remember that the economic factor should not be the only one that influences your decision. For example, hybrid cars are far more sustainable than the regular ones. Also, make sure to consider other expenses and savings such as:
- Toll exemptions: In many countries, PHEV or HEV owners can use the highways without paying the toll.
- Insurance and maintenance: The rates may be different for hybrid and regular cars.
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| 0.90898 | 2,099 | 3.296875 | 3 | 2.345109 | 2 |
Moderate reasoning
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Transportation
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51% of Austria’s population are women; strictly speaking they are the majority of our population. And even if they constituted just half of the population or slightly less: Shouldn’t they be equally considered? And isn’t there anything telling more about practical consideration than money? Consequently, budgets are a powerful instrument with which to acknowledge women in a way they should have been acknowledged by the above-mentioned democratic imperative.
Unfortunately, this line of reasoning has not sufficed to walk the talk. Luckily, Gender Budgeting is not a question of political will or attitude: It is not dependent on democratic legitimation, political correctness or the path of least resistance. On the contrary, Gender Budgeting is incumbent upon the state (and its organisations) by law, and, even more so, by constitutional law targeted at federal civil service authorities. Ever since legal stipulations were adopted in 2009, Austria has had a flagship role in Gender Budgeting in Europe. Yet, Austria is not the only shining example as a a look beyond our nose shows shows.
Resolution on GM in the work of the European Parliament
According to the latest European Parliament resolution of 8 March 2016 on Gender Mainstreaming in the work of the European Parliament little progress has been made when it comes to the implementation of Gender Budgeting principles in the work of the European Parliament. Actually, the challenge even start at an earlier stage: the application of Gender Mainstreaming in the European Parliament. For more information on this, also see our blog article: Gender Budgeting in the work of the European Parliament..Read More
Gender Budgeting, a constitutional duty
The Federal Constitution of the Republic of Austria has become the heart of Gender Budgeting as it enforces Gender Budgeting rules for all public authorities in Austria. Consequently, the country has been portrayed as a shining in terms of Gender Budgeting measures. As follows, the most important articles on Gender Budgeting shall be pointed to: Art. 13, para. 3 Federal Constitution of Austria “Federation, provinces and municipalities have to aim at the equal status of women and men in the..Read More
Federal Budget Act, Austria
The Federal Budget Act (BHG 2013) entered into force on 1 January 2013. It contains detailed rules on outcome-oriented budgeting, notably on how to meet legal obligations of enforcing effective equality between women and men.
Resolution on GM in the work of the European Parliament
The European Parliament resolution on Gender Mainstreaming in the work of the European Parliament of 2011 falls on a sober note. Not only Gender Budgeting is adressed in this first resolution on GM in the European Parliament, but also, it provided fresh impetus for studies on the feasibility of Gender Budgeting in the EU’s budgeting work. For more information on this, also see our blog article: Gender Budgeting in the work of the European Parliament and the EU Budget –..Read More
Federal Public Procurement Act, Austria
In conformity with European secondary law the Federal Public Procurement Act of Austria (BVergG 2006) grants the right to consider secondary aspects in public procurement. Art 19 para 6 Federal Public Procurement Act explicitly points to aspects related to gender equality and the promotion of women (e.g. in the labour market)in this regard. They may btake the form of of technical specifications, award criteria or contract performance conditions.
Treaty of Nice
The Treaty of Nice features gender equality in articles 3, 13, 137 and 141.
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union
The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union was proclaimed in 2000, yet was granted primary law status as of 2009 (which coincided with the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty). It contains stipulations on gender equality, notably in art 21 (non-discrimination), art 23 (equality of women and men), art 33 (maternal and parental leave), and art 34 (social security).
Optional Protocol to CEDAW
The Optional Protocol to the CEDAW-Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women complements the latter. Austria ratified the Protocol in 2000.
Article 2, article 3 para 2 and article 13 of the Amsterdam Treaty read: “Article 2 (ex Article 2) The Community shall have as its task, by establishing a common market and an economic and monetary union and by implementing common policies or activities referred to in Articles 3 and 4, to promote throughout the Community a harmonious, balanced and sustainable development of economic activities, a high level of employment and of social protection, equality between men and women, sustainable..Read More
In conformity with the principle of continuity, the Maastricht Treaty endorses obligations on equal wages for women and men. Until the Maastricht Treaty entered into force a protocol on the former article 119 had been issues as well as one featuring social policies (protocol 14). Their stipulations were codified by the Maastricht Treaty in the end.
The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) aims to eradicate all kinds of discrimination against women in all parts of their lives (marriage, work, social life, education and training, political and public sphere, health and violence). To do so, the parties to the agreement must present a report on the implementation of the convention once every four years.
Gender Budgeting – What’s that?
Gender Budgeting – Just another trend? How has it developed?
Gender Budgeting – How does it work?
Gender Budgeting – Who is practising it?
Gender Budgeting – What does all that terminology mean?
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en
| 0.933957 | 1,159 | 2.515625 | 3 | 2.947917 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
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Politics
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Chip off the Old Rock
|Who are NASA's Space Science Explorers?
The scientist studying black holes in distant galaxies. And the engineer designing robotic instruments that will probe hard-to-reach planets. But also the teacher explaining the mysteries of the cosmos to his or her students. And the elementary school student wondering if life exists anywhere besides Earth. All of these people are Space Science Explorers -- they are all connected by their quest to explore and understand our solar system and universe. This series will introduce you to NASA Space Science Explorers, young and old, with a variety of backgrounds and interests.
Some corporations pay millions of dollars for the naming rights to sports stadiums. All it took for Marilyn Lindstrom to have an asteroid and an Antarctic ridge named after her was some tender loving care.
For 14 years, Lindstrom served as the meteorite curator at NASA's Johnson Space Center, watching closely over a collection of thousands of meteorites -- chunks of rock that have fallen to Earth from outer space -- containing secrets to the origins of our solar system.
Image to left: Marilyn Lindstrom examines a meteorite sample. Her suit is meant to keep dirt away from the sample. Credit: NASA
It was Lindstrom's responsibility to ensure delicate care of these mostly stony masses collected by scientists in Antarctica and then transported, frozen, to a special "clean room" at Johnson. That's where they would be stored, classified and split into smaller chips to be sent out to researchers around the world.
In a show of appreciation for her work, the National Science Foundation designated a four-mile-long ridge in Antarctica the "Lindstrom Ridge," and the Smithsonian Institute named an asteroid after her -- asteroid 5281 Lindstrom. Asteroids are the Sun-orbiting celestial bodies from which meteorites originate.
"It was a real validation of the value of my 14 years as curator," said Lindstrom, who has since moved on to other duties at NASA headquarters. "There are quite a few space scientists that have asteroids named after them, but only a handful that have Antarctic real estate as well."
Meteorites found in Antarctica are of particular interest to scientists because the icy conditions there help to preserve the rocks -- most of which are 4.5 billion years old -- more so than those found in warmer regions of the Earth. It is believed that some of the minerals found in these relatively pristine specimens were the first to crystallize during the formation of the solar system.
Image to right: This image shows Lindstrom Ridge in Antarctica. Credit: Dave Mittlefehldt, NASA Johnson Space Center
While most meteorites are probably descendants of asteroids, a select few appear to have come from the Moon and Mars. Lunar meteorites are a critical supplement to the Moon rocks collected by Apollo astronauts in the '60s and '70s, according to Lindstrom, while those from Mars provide information about a planet humans have yet to set foot on.
"Apollo sampled an anomalous area. The lunar meteorites give us information on much more [of the Moon] and what the more typical surface is like. ... Martian meteorites are the only samples of Mars that we have," said Lindstrom, who notes that NASA is currently preparing to send astronauts back to the Moon and then to Mars.
Moon rocks were in fact what first sparked Lindstrom's interest in meteorites and other "astromaterials," materials not of the Earth. As a graduate student at the University of Oregon during the Apollo days, Lindstrom studied lunar samples brought back by Apollo 11. Examining the geochemical characteristics of these rocks from space is what she liked most about her work.
Image to left: Lindstrom tries to help young people find joy in science. Credit: NASA
"I was interested in everything. I couldn't make up my mind whether I was going to major in math or science or foreign languages," Lindstrom said. "It just all clicked... when I put chemistry and geology together."
Lindstrom does what she can to encourage more young people to find the joy and enthusiasm for science that she discovered. In addition to her current roles at NASA as program scientist for two Mars research programs, a spacecraft instrument development program, and astromaterials curation, Lindstrom oversees education and public outreach for solar system exploration.
"Education is one of the most important things we can do," said Lindstrom, who has partnered with educators and other scientists to develop a middle school curriculum on meteorites. "If we're worried about our country's technological decline... we've got to figure out ways to get people to major in math and science."
As an effective way to motivate the next generation of explorers, Lindstrom encourages scientists and educators to dispel stereotypes about what it is to be a scientist, and to make students aware of all the possibilities science has to offer.
"When students think of science as something in the textbook and old men looking like Einstein in lab coats, then it doesn't seem interesting," Lindstrom said. "One of the best things scientists can do... is to show that they are normal people and that science is fun."
And if that's not incentive enough, there's always the promise that, someday, a student could have an object in space or topographical feature here on Earth named after him or her.
Even a corporate executive can't buy that kind of fame.
Meteorites from Antarctica
+ View site
Antarctic Meteorite Educational Package
+ View site
Exploring the Moon
+ View site
Dan Stillman, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies
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en
| 0.952498 | 1,142 | 3.609375 | 4 | 2.736347 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
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Science & Tech.
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BLAST Early Learning
Caterpillars and Butterflies
by Bill Martin Jr.; illustrated by Lois Ehlert
Illustrations and rhyming text follow ten caterpillars as one wriggles up a flower stem, another sails across a garden pool, and one reaches an apple leaf, where something amazing happens.
Open-ended Questions for Ten Little Caterpillars :
• Have you ever scaled something? What have you scaled?
• Why do you think the author says that the sixth little caterpillar was carried off to school?
The fuzzy little caterpillar went up into a tree
(index finger “caterpillar” climbs up other arm “tree”)
Spun his chrysalis and then (yawn) went to sleep
(close hand around)
While he was sleeping he dreamt that he could fly
(making flying motion)
When he woke up (loud, excited) he was a butterfly.
Caterpillar and Butterfly Exercises
Act out the different stages of caterpillars and butterflies
scale: v. to climb up something high and steep
“The tenth little caterpillar scaled an apple tree.”
(taken from Ten Little Caterpillars by Bill Martin Jr.; illustrated by Lois Ehlert)
Butterfly Flannel-board Game
Select several colors of felt, such as red, yellow, blue, and orange. From each color, cut out one flower shape and one butterfly shape. Place the flower shapes on a flannel-board and give the butterfly shapes to your children. Then let them take turns placing the butterflies on the matching colored flowers.
Create several different colored butterflies. Cut them in half and then have your children match the butterfly halves.
Butterfly Ink Blot
Cut out a butterfly shape on white paper, the shape should be symmetrical. Fold the paper in half, and ask the child to paint half of the butterfly. When the child is finished, ask him/her to press the paper halves together, so that both sides will look the same. Let the child rub the folded paper. Open the paper, and you have a butterfly with matching wings!
Science: Butterfly Life Cycle Mobile
Supplies: Many colors of construction paper, oak tag or gift wrap, pencil, scissors, yarn, glue stick, a sturdy paper plate, markers, crayons or paint, and a stapler or tape.
-Draw and cut out a pupa and decorate it (the stage during which the caterpillar makes a protective
-Draw a spiral on a paper plate.
-Cut along the line.
-Decorate the paper plate using markers, crayons, or paint.
-Using green construction paper, draw a leaf and cut it out.
-Either draw tiny butterfly eggs on it or glue on tiny paper circles (either cut them out or use a hole punch to make some). A cluster of butterfly eggs are usually laid on the underside of a leaf; the eggs are white or yellow or greenish, and are circular to oval.
-Draw and cut out a caterpillar and decorate case around itself and turns into a butterfly).
-To make butterfly wings, fold a small piece of paper in half, and draw half a butterfly along the fold line.
-Using dark paper, make a body for your butterfly (it is basically a long oval with a circular head).
-Glue the body to the wings and decorate your butterfly.
-Staple or tape the stages in the butterfly's life cycle to string and then to the paper plate.
-Attach another short length of string to the plate; it will be used to hang the mobile.
-You now have a great butterfly life cycle mobile!
Gotta Go! Gotta Go!
by Sam Swope; pictures by Sue Riddle
Although she does not know why or how, a small creepy-crawly bug is certain that she must make her way to Mexico.
by Eric Carle
Follows the progress of a hungry little caterpillar as he eats his way through a varied and very large quantity of food until, full at last, he forms a cocoon around himself and goes to sleep.
by Petr Horacek
A little girl sees a beautiful butterfly in the garden one day and while searching for the butterfly the next day she is amazed by all of the other colors in the garden.
Waiting for Wings
by Lois Ehlert
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| 0.910488 | 930 | 3.84375 | 4 | 1.716168 | 2 |
Moderate reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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Origins in the 1940s
See also: Hipster (1940s subculture) and Hip (slang)
The term itself was coined during the jazz age, when “hip” emerged as an adjective to describe aficionados of the growing scene. Although the adjective’s exact origins are disputed, some say it was a derivative of “hop,” a slang term for opium, while others believe it comes from the West African word “hipi,” meaning “to open one’s eyes.” Nevertheless, “hip” eventually acquired the common English suffix -ster (as in spinster and gangster), and “hipster” entered the language.
The first dictionary to list the word is the short glossary “For Characters Who Don’t Dig Jive Talk,” which was included with Harry Gibson’s 1944 album, Boogie Woogie In Blue. The entry for “hipsters” defined them as “characters who like hot jazz.” Initially, hipsters were usually middle-class white youths seeking to emulate the lifestyle of the largely black jazz musicians they followed. In The Jazz Scene (1959), author Eric Hobsbawm (originally writing under the pen name Francis Newton) described hipster language — i.e., “jive-talk or hipster-talk” — as “an argot or cant designed to set the group apart from outsiders.” However, the subculture rapidly expanded, and after World War II, a burgeoning literary scene grew up around it. Jack Kerouac described 1940s hipsters as “rising and roaming America, bumming and hitchhiking everywhere [as] characters of a special spirituality.” In his essay “The White Negro,” Norman Mailer characterized hipsters as American existentialists, living a life surrounded by death — annihilated by atomic war or strangled by social conformity — and electing instead to “divorce [themselves] from society, to exist without roots, to set out on that uncharted journey into the rebellious imperatives of the self.”
1990s through 2010s
“Hipsters are the friends who sneer when you cop to liking Coldplay. They’re the people who wear t-shirts silk-screened with quotes from movies you’ve never heard of and the only ones in America who still think Pabst Blue Ribbon is a good beer. They sport cowboy hats and berets and think Kanye West stole their sunglasses. Everything about them is exactingly constructed to give off the vibe that they just don’t care.” Continue reading
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https://smartwencrazy.wordpress.com/
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Strong reasoning
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Literature
|
This essay is about genetic takeovers - an idea proposed by A. G. Cairns-Smith.
[If you are not sure what these are, I recommend you follow this link before reading further]
It discusses how many genetic takeovers have happened in the past -
and how many are likely to happen in the future.
Essentially, it is an open question how many genetic
takeovers have occurred in the past.
I think that we can state with some confidence that at least
one such takeover happened - however whether the figure is
larger - or much larger than this is difficult to say.
Much the same is true of the date of the last
takeover. It lies somewhere between the origin of life and
when the last common ancestor lived - but it is not clear
when it happened.
It might be that evolving a decent genetic
substrate from scratch was one of the most difficult
problems evolution has faced - and consequently the modern
system might have taken quite a while to arise.
The signs that a modern takeover is underway suggest that there
will be at least one more genetic takeover in the future.
However, it seems likely that there will be very many future
forms of genetic storage - and it may be that future genetic
takeovers will become much more common and much less traumatic.
In the past it might have been difficult to imagine a piece
of machinery being developed by natural selection which read
information from one source - and wrote it to a completely
different one - but now that sort of thing happens all the
time - there are no great problems involved in transferring
information between different media.
Such technology decreases the loss of information that can
happen during a genetic takeover - and makes them less
The other development which might act in the same direction
is the development of a "phenotype abstraction layer".
While amino-acid chains have proved to be very flexible in
acting as general purpose machinery - it seems likely that
future organisms will want a more flexible set of basic
construction materials than is provided by proteins.
There is already something of a divide between the genetic
substrate and the phenotype technology - represented by the
genetic code. However there are also still links between them -
i.e. both are rather fundamentally one-dimensional.
I expect future organisms will complete the divorce - making
it more practical to change phenotype technology without
changing the storage medium used - and similarly to swap in
a replacement storage medium without affecting too many
other aspects of the system.
If the storage medium can be turned into a component in this
way, then it should become much easier to swap it
out and replace it - when new technology comes along.
The combination of:
A layer of abstraction between the genotype and the phenotype it specifies;
The ability to copy existing information from one medium into another;
...seems likely to eventually make genetic takeovers easier,
less painful - and more commonplace.
If a proper, modular architecture for storing heritable
information is developed we may see phenomena such as:
Caching information from one media in another one - when
faster read access is required;
Hot-swapping the genetic storage medium dynamically - in
The performing of regular backups into more stable,
long-term storage media;
Relatives adopting different storage media if they
are placed in environments with differing resource costs;
For a page of references to Cairns-Smith's theories see here.
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http://originoflife.net/takeover_count/
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|
en
| 0.950069 | 728 | 2.609375 | 3 | 2.96141 | 3 |
Strong reasoning
|
Science & Tech.
|
Where the world ceases to be the scene of our personal hopes and wishes, where we face it as free beings admiring, asking and observing, there we enter the realm of Art and Science. Albert Einstein
The Academy of Nature and Wildlife Arts combines the observational skills and measurement strengths of arts and sciences, historically a combined investigational strategy of observation and discovery, for learning about the world. As the amount of information grew, educational approaches divided the two methods of learning to make it easier to teach the information. This method of teaching creates in depth knowledge from one perspective of the world but does not necessarily provide well rounded understanding of the world as whole. The Academy combines both perspectives to produce an additional appreciation of the natural world.
Mission Understanding the interconnections of life produces an appreciation and desire to conserve life in all of its forms. The Academy fosters the complex multilevel appreciation, and ultimately conservation, of nature and wildlife.
Purpose The Academy reintroduces traditional science to traditional arts to restore the multilevel appreciation and understanding of the complex system of nature consistent with the approaches used by artists and scientists in the past. We provide opportunities to explore nature and wildlife through the lens of both science and the arts, increasing the complexity of understanding of chosen topics with focus on Midwest ecological systems.
Goals Experience nature and wildlife on multiple levels from the perspective of both the sciences and the arts. Develop understanding of and actions that support conservation. Express these experiences and understanding through individual class projects including education, exhibitions and volunteer activities.
History of the Academy The Academy of Nature and Wildlife Arts was developed to fill the need for professional atelier style art education for the public. With the current educational focus on just science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) and major educational cutbacks which eliminated many programs in the arts, the Academy was developed to create and support STEAM (science, technology, engineering, arts and math) as an approach to studying real world issues in natural history from a very traditional approach of both science and art, together.
This approach allows children and young artists to build art perspectives into the more traditional approaches as they are presented. For the adult learner, the Academy builds on their traditional science background and experiences while providing new perspectives of familiar concepts. For both audiences, the program encourages self exploration and self expression as both a means to learn more about one's self while at the same time relieving stress of that self.
Combining the arts and sciences provides unique service opportunities within current culture. Arts and sciences combine nicely in working with issues in the natural world with the arts providing the picture "worth a thousand words" and science providing a thousand measurements to create a more complete picture of our world. The Academy and its students support service projects combining the arts and sciences in support of natural history.
The Academy was developed by its Executive Director in response to her sudden retirement with a neck injury. Raised by parents with a strong science background in a world where one went to college "to get a job", art, even in high school, was not an option. But her strong attraction to art pushed her to teach herself basic techniques by copying pictures of flowers and dogs. Having extra college credits upon graduating high school provided an opportunity for creative electives even while attending the physical therapy program at the University of Missouri Columbia. With some special allowances, she was able to convince the medical program that art of the figure would be an appropriate elective before taking gross anatomy. With additional allowances, she was able to convince the art department that a figure drawing class would be of particular assistance to understanding the human body. It was! As expected, that science bent took her to develop a technique for treating children with neuro-musculoskeletal disorders which she taught internationally. She built her private practice to one of the largest pediatric Medicare certified practices in the country. Nature, especially animals, was always a part of her world. Her dogs were trained therapy dogs and she had an equine assisted riding program for individuals with disabilities. Unfortunately all of that stressed her neck to the point of degeneration such that one day she could no longer practice. That sudden unemployment created the opportunity to re-examine priorities and return to the arts as a means to express her understanding of the unique abilities and perspectives of animals and children. Having spent so much time in school working from the Bachelor's of Science in Physical Therapy through her Masters and into her EdD, the educational system was a logical resource for adult education. She became a Master Naturalist and a Master Gardener through the University of Missouri Extension Program and a volunteer with the state Department of Conservation. While the science was comfortable, all that training did not fill the void of the missing arts. Unfortunately, there was a significant lack of professional level art training for those not enrolled in a degree program. And thus was born the Academy whose purpose is to fill the need for professional, atelier style arts instruction for those looking for something more, something to add to the science training, the search for self and the stress relief needed for this fast paced world.
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Strong reasoning
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Education & Jobs
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