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" cultural @-@ nationalist movement " linked to growing Welsh nationalism during this period ; for instance , the Welsh nationalist party Plaid Cymru was founded in 1925 . Wheeler was impatient to start excavations , and in July 1921 started a six @-@ week project to excavate at the Roman fort of Segontium ; accompanied by his wife , he used up his holiday to oversee the project . A second season of excavation at the site followed in 1922 . Greatly influenced by the writings of the archaeologist Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers , Wheeler emphasised the need for a strong , developed methodology when undertaking an archaeological excavation , believing in the need for strategic planning , or what he termed " controlled discovery " , with clear objectives in mind for a project . Further emphasising the importance of prompt publication of research results , he wrote full seasonal reports for Archaeologia Cambrensis before publishing a full report , Segontium and the Roman Occupation of Wales . Wheeler was keen on training new generations of archaeologists , and two of the most prominent students to excavate with him at Segontium were Victor Nash @-@ Williams and Ian Richmond . Over the field seasons of 1924 and 1925 , Wheeler ran excavations of the Roman fort of Y Gaer near Brecon , a project aided by his wife and two archaeological students , Nowell Myres and Christopher Hawkes . During this project , he was visited by the prominent Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie and his wife Hilda Petrie ; Wheeler greatly admired Petrie 's emphasis on strong archaeological methodologies . Wheeler published the results of his excavation in The Roman Fort Near Brecon . He then began excavations at Isca Augusta , a Roman site in Caerleon , where he focused on revealing the Roman amphitheatre . Intent on attracting press attention to both raise public awareness of archaeology and attract new sources of funding , he contacted the press and organised a sponsorship of the excavation by the middle @-@ market newspaper the Daily Mail . In doing so , he emphasised the folkloric and legendary associations that the site had with King Arthur . In 1925 , Oxford University Press published Wheeler 's first book for a general audience , Prehistoric and Roman Wales ; he later expressed the opinion that it was not a good book . In 1924 , the Director of the National Museum of Wales , William Evans Hoyle , resigned amid ill health . Wheeler applied to take on the role of his replacement , providing supportive testimonials from Charles Reed Peers , Robert Bosanquet , and H. J. Fleure . Although he had no prior museum experience , he was successful in his application and was appointed Director . He then employed a close friend , Cyril Fox , to take on the vacated position of Keeper of Archaeology . Wheeler 's proposed reforms included extending the institution 's reach and influence throughout Wales by building affiliations with regional museums , and focusing on fundraising to finance the completion of the new museum premises . He obtained a £ 21 @,@ 367 donation from the wealthy shipowner William Reardon Smith and appointed Smith to be the museum 's treasurer , and also travelled to Whitehall , London , where he successfully urged the British Treasury to provide further funding for the museum . As a result , construction on the museum 's new building was able to continue , and it was officially opened by King George V in 1927 . = = = London Museum : 1926 – 33 = = = Upon the retirement of the Keeper of the London Museum , Harmon Oates , Wheeler was invited to fill the vacancy . He had been considering a return to London for some time and eagerly agreed , taking on the post , which was based at Lancaster House in the St James 's area , in July 1926 . In Wales , many felt that Wheeler had simply taken the directorship of the National Museum to advance his own career prospects , and that he had abandoned them when a better offer came along . Wheeler himself disagreed , believing that he had left Fox at the Museum as his obvious successor , and that the reforms he had implemented would therefore continue . The position initially provided Wheeler with an annual salary of £ 600 , which resulted in a decline in living standards for his family , who moved into a flat near to Victoria Station . Tessa 's biographer L.C. Carr later commented that together , the Wheelers " professionalized the London Museum " . Wheeler expressed his opinion that the museum " had to be cleaned , expurgated , and catalogued ; in general , turned from a junk shop into a tolerably rational institution " . Focusing on reorganising the exhibits and developing a more efficient method of cataloguing the artefacts , he also authored A Short Guide to the Collections , before using the items in the museum to write three books : London and the Vikings , London and the Saxons , and London and the Romans . Upon his arrival , the Treasury allocated the museum an annual budget of £ 5 @,@ 000 , which Wheeler deemed insufficient for its needs . In 1930 , Wheeler persuaded them to
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200
increase that budget , as he highlighted increasing visitor numbers , publications , and acquisitions , as well as a rise in the number of educational projects . With this additional funding , he was able to employ more staff and increase his own annual salary to £ 900 . Soon after joining the museum , Wheeler was elected to the council of the Society of Antiquaries . Through the Society , he became involved in the debate as to who should finance archaeological supervision of building projects in Greater London ; his argument was that the City of London Corporation should provide the funding , although in 1926 it was agreed that the Society itself would employ a director of excavation based in Lancaster House to take on the position . Also involved in the largely moribund Royal Archaeological Institute , Wheeler organised its relocation to Lancaster House . In 1927 , Wheeler took on an unpaid lectureship at University College London , where he established a graduate diploma course on archaeology ; one of the first to enroll was Stuart Piggott . In 1928 , Wheeler curated an exhibit at UCL on " Recent Work in British Archaeology " , for which he attracted much press attention . Wheeler was keen to continue archaeological fieldwork outside London , undertaking excavations every year from 1926 to 1939 . After completing his excavation of the Carlaeon amphitheatre in 1928 , he began fieldwork at the Roman settlement and temple in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , having been invited to do so by the aristocratic landowner , Charles Bathurst . It was during these investigations that Wheeler personally discovered the Lydney Hoard of coinage . Wheeler and his wife jointly published their excavation report in 1932 as Report on the Excavation of the Prehistoric , Roman and Post @-@ Roman Site in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , which Piggott noted had " set the pattern " for all Wheeler 's future excavation reports . From there , Wheeler was invited to direct a Society of Antiquaries excavation at the Roman settlement of Verulamium , which existed on land recently acquired by the Corporation of St Albans . He took on this role for four seasons from 1930 to 1933 , before leaving a fifth season of excavation under the control of the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon and the architect A. W. G. Lowther . Wheeler enjoyed the opportunity to excavate at a civilian as opposed to military site , and also liked its proximity to his home in London . He was particularly interested in searching for a pre @-@ Roman Iron Age oppidum at the site , noting that the existence of a nearby Catuvellauni settlement was attested to in both classical texts and numismatic evidence . With Wheeler focusing his attention on potential Iron Age evidence , Tessa concentrated on excavating the inside of the city walls ; Wheeler had affairs with at least three assistants during the project . After Tessa wrote two interim reports , the final excavation report was finally published in 1936 as Verulamium : A Belgic and Two Roman Cities , jointly written by Wheeler and his wife . The report resulted in the first major published criticism of Wheeler , produced by the young archaeologist Nowell Myres in a review for Antiquity ; although stating that there was much to praise about the work , he critiqued Wheeler 's selective excavation , dubious dating , and guesswork . Wheeler responded with a piece in which he defended his work and launched a personal attack on both Myres and Myres 's employer , Christ Church , Oxford . = = = Institute of Archaeology : 1934 – 39 = = = Wheeler had long desired to establish an academic institution devoted to archaeology that could be based in London . He hoped that it could become a centre in which to establish the professionalisation of archaeology as a discipline , with systematic training of students in methodological techniques of excavation and conservation and recognised professional standards ; in his words , he hoped " to convert archaeology into a discipline worthy of that name in all senses " . He further described his intention that the Institute should become " a laboratory : a laboratory of archaeological science " . Many archaeologists shared his hopes , and to this end Petrie had donated much of his collection of Near Eastern artefacts to Wheeler , in the hope that it would be included in such an institution . Wheeler was later able to persuade the University of London , a federation of institutions across the capital , to support the venture , and both he and Tessa began raising funds from wealthy backers . In 1934 , the Institute of Archaeology was officially opened , albeit at this point without premises or academic staff ; the first students to enroll were Rachel Clay and Barbara Parker , who went on to have careers in the discipline . While Wheeler – who was still Keeper of the London Museum – took on the role of Honorary Director of the Institute , he installed the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon as secretary of the Management Committee , describing her as " a level @-@ headed person , with useful experience " . After ending his work at Verulamium , Wheeler turned his attention to the late Iron Age hill @-@
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fort of Maidan Castle near to Dorchester , Dorset , where he excavated for four seasons from 1934 to 1937 . Co @-@ directed by Wheeler , Tessa , and the Curator of Dorset County Museum , Charles Drew , the project was carried out under the joint auspices of the Society of Antiquaries and the Dorset Field Club . With around 100 assistants each season , the dig constituted the largest excavation that had been conducted in Britain up to that point , with Wheeler organising weekly meetings with the press to inform them about any discoveries . His excavation report was published in 1943 as Maidan Castle , Dorset . The report 's publication allowed further criticism to be voiced of Wheeler 's approach and interpretations ; in his review of the book , the archaeologist W. F. Grimes criticised the highly selective nature of the excavation , noting that Wheeler had not asked questions regarding the socio @-@ economic issues of the community at Maidan Castle , aspects of past societies that had come to be of increasing interest to British archaeology . Over coming decades , as further excavations were carried out at the site and archaeologists developed a greater knowledge of Iron Age Britain , much of Wheeler 's interpretation of the site and its development was shown to be wrong , in particular by the work of the archaeologist Niall Sharples . In 1936 , Wheeler embarked on a visit to the Near East , sailing from Marseilles to Port Said , where he visited the Old Kingdom tombs of Sakkara . From there he went via Sinai to Palestine , Lebanon , and Syria . During this trip , he visited various archaeological projects , but was dismayed by the quality of their excavations ; in particular , he noted that the American @-@ run excavation at Tel Megiddo was adopting standards that had been rejected in Britain twenty @-@ five years previously . He was away for six weeks , and upon his return to Europe discovered that his wife Tessa had died of a pulmonary embolism after a minor operation on her toe . According to Tessa 's biographer , for Wheeler this discovery was " the peak of mental misery , and marked the end of his ability to feel a certain kind of love " . That winter , his father also died . By the summer of 1937 , he had embarked on a new romance , with a young woman named Mavis de Vere Cole , who had first met Wheeler when visiting the Maidan Castle excavations with her then @-@ lover , the painter Augustus John . After she eventually agreed to his repeated requests for marriage , the two were wedded early in 1939 in a ceremony held at Caxton Hall , with a reception at Shelley House . They proceeded on a honeymoon to the Middle East . After a search that had taken several years , Wheeler was able to secure a premises for the Institute of Archaeology : St. John 's Lodge in Regent 's Park , central London . Left empty since its use as a hospital during the First World War , the building was owned by the Crown and was controlled by the First Commissioner of Works , William Ormsby @-@ Gore ; he was very sympathetic to archaeology , and leased the building to the Institute at a low rent . The St. John 's Lodge premises were officially opened on 29 April 1937 . During his speech at the ceremony , the University of London 's Vice @-@ Chancellor Charles Reed Peers made it clear that the building was only intended as a temporary home for the Institute , which it was hoped would be able to move to Bloomsbury , the city 's academic hub . In his speech , the university 's Chancellor , Alexander Cambridge , 1st Earl of Athlone , compared the new institution to both the Institute of Historical Research and the Courtauld Institute of Art . Wheeler had also become President of the Museums Association , and in a presidential address given in Belfast talked on the topic of preserving museum collections in war time , believing that Britain 's involvement in a second European conflict was imminent . In anticipation of this event , in August 1939 he arranged for the London Museum to place many of its most important collections into safe keeping . He was also awarded an honorary doctorate from Bristol University , and at the award ceremony met the Conservative Party politician Winston Churchill , who was then engaged in writing his multi @-@ volume A History of the English @-@ Speaking Peoples ; Churchill asked Wheeler to aid him in writing about late prehistoric and early medieval Britain , to which the latter agreed . After Maidan Castle , Wheeler turned his attention to France , where the archaeological investigation of Iron Age sites had lagged behind developments in Britain . There , he oversaw a series of surveys and excavations with the aid of Leslie Scott , beginning with a survey tour of Brittany in the winter of 1936 – 37 . After this , Wheeler decided to excavate the oppidum at Camp d 'Artus , near Huelgoat , Finistère . In addition to bringing many British archaeologists to work on the site , he hired six local Breton
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202
workmen to assist the project , coming to the belief that the oppidum had been erected by local Iron Age tribes to defend themselves from the Roman invasion led by Julius Caesar . Meanwhile , Scott had been placed in charge of an excavation at the smaller nearby hill fort of Kercaradec , near Quimper . In July 1939 , the project focused its attention on Normandy , with excavations beginning at the Iron Age hill forts of Camp de Canada and Duclair . They were brought to an abrupt halt in September 1939 as the Second World War broke out in Europe , and the team evacuated back to Britain . Wheeler 's excavation report , co @-@ written with Katherine Richardson , was eventually published as Hill @-@ forts of Northern France in 1957 . = = = Second World War : 1939 – 45 = = = Wheeler had been expecting and openly hoping for war with Nazi Germany for a year prior to the outbreak of hostilities ; he believed that the United Kingdom 's involvement in the conflict would remedy the shame that he thought had been brought upon the country by its signing of the Munich Agreement in September 1938 . Volunteering for the armed services , he was assigned to assemble the 48th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Battery at Enfield , where he set about recruiting volunteers , including his son . As the 48th swelled in size , it was converted into the 42nd Mobile Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment in the Royal Artillery , which consisted of four batteries and was led by Wheeler – now promoted to the rank of colonel – as Commanding Officer . Given the nickname of " Flash Alf " by those serving under him , he was recognised by colleagues as a ruthless disciplinarian and was blamed by many for the death of one of his soldiers from influenza during training . Having been appointed secretary of the Society of Antiquaries in 1939 and then director in 1940 , he travelled to London to deal with society affairs on various occasions . In 1941 Wheeler was awarded a Fellowship of the British Academy . Cole had meanwhile entered into an affair with a man named Clive Entwistle , who lambasted Wheeler as " that whiskered baboon " . When Wheeler discovered Entwistle in bed with his wife , he initiated divorce proceedings that were finalised in March 1942 . In the summer of 1941 , Wheeler and three of his batteries were assigned to fight against German and Italian forces in the North African Campaign . In September , they set sail from Glasgow aboard the RMS Empress of Russia ; because the Mediterranean was controlled largely by enemy naval forces , they were forced to travel via the Cape of Good Hope , before taking shore leave in Durban . There , Wheeler visited the local kraals to compare them with the settlements of Iron Age Britain . The ship docked in Aden , where Wheeler and his men again took shore leave . They soon reached the British @-@ controlled Suez , where they disembarked and were stationed on the shores of the Great Bitter Lake . There , Wheeler took a brief leave of absence to travel to Jerusalem , where he visited Petrie on his hospital deathbed . Back in Egypt , he gained permission to fly as a front gunner in a Wellington bomber on a bombing raid against Axis forces , to better understand what it was like for aircrew to be fired on by an anti @-@ aircraft battery . Serving with the Eighth Army , Wheeler was present in North Africa when the Axis armies pushed the Allies back to El Alamein . He was also part of the Allied counter @-@ push , taking part in the Second Battle of El Alamein and the advance on Axis @-@ held Tripoli . On the way he became concerned that the archaeological sites of North Africa were being threatened both by the fighting and the occupying forces . After the British secured control of Libya , Wheeler visited Tripoli and Leptis Magna , where he found that Roman remains had been damaged and vandalised by British troops ; he brought about reforms to prevent this , lecturing to the troops on the importance of preserving archaeology , making many monuments out @-@ of @-@ bounds , and ensuring that the Royal Air Force changed its plans to construct a radar station in the midst of a Roman settlement . Aware that the British were planning to invade and occupy the Italian island of Sicily , he insisted that measures be introduced to preserve the historic and archaeological monuments on the island . Promoted to the rank of brigadier , after the German surrender in North Africa , Wheeler was sent to Algiers where he was part of the staff committee planning the invasion of Italy . There , he learned that the India Office had requested that the army relieve him of his duties to permit him to be appointed Director General of Archaeology in India . Although he had never been to the country , he agreed that he would take the job on the condition that he be permitted to take part in the invasion of Italy first . As intended , Wheeler and his 12th Anti @-@ Aircraft Brigade then took part in the invasion of Sicily and then mainland Italy , where they were
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203
ordered to use their anti @-@ aircraft guns to protect the British 10th Corps . As the Allies advanced north through Italy , Wheeler spent time in Naples and then Capri , where he met various aristocrats who had anti @-@ fascist sympathies . Wheeler left Italy in November 1943 and returned to London . There , he resigned as the director of the London Museum and focused on organising the Institute of Archaeology , preparing it for its adoption of a new director , V. Gordon Childe , after the war . He also resigned as director of the Society of Antiquaries , but was appointed the group 's representative to the newly formed Council for British Archaeology . He developed a relationship with a woman named Kim Collingridge , and asked her to marry him . As she was a devout Roman Catholic , he officially converted to the religion , something which shocked many of his friends , who believed that he was being dishonest because he did not genuinely believe in the doctrines of the faith . He then set sail for Bombay aboard a transport ship , the City of Exeter , in February 1944 . = = = Archaeological Survey of India : 1944 – 48 = = = Wheeler arrived in Bombay in the spring of 1944 . There , he was welcomed by the city 's governor , John Colville , before heading by train to Delhi and then Simla , where the headquarters of the Archaeological Survey of India were located . Wheeler had been suggested for the job by Archibald Wavell , the Viceroy of India , who had been acting on the recommendations of the archaeologist Leonard Woolley , who had authored a report lamenting the state of the archaeological establishment in the British @-@ controlled subcontinent . Wheeler recognised this state of affairs , in a letter to a friend complaining about the lack of finances and equipment , commenting that " We 're back in 1850 " . He initially found much to dislike in India , and in his letters to friends in Britain expressed derogatory and racist sentiments toward Indians : he stated that " they feed wrongly and think wrongly and live wrongly ... I already find myself regarding them as ill @-@ made clockwork toys rather than as human beings , and I find myself bullying them most brutally . " He expelled those staff members whom he deemed too idle , and physically beat others in an attempt to motivate them . From the beginning of his tenure , he sought to distance himself from previous Director @-@ Generals and their administrations by criticising them in print and attempting to introduce new staff who had no loyalty to his predecessors . Assigned with a four @-@ year contract , Wheeler attempted to recruit two archaeologists from Britain , Glyn Daniel and Stuart Piggott , to aid him in reforming the Archaeological Survey , although they declined the offer . He then toured the subcontinent , seeking to meet all of the Survey 's staff members . He had drawn up a prospectus containing research questions that he wanted the Survey to focus on ; these included understanding the period between the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization and the Achaemenid Empire , discerning the socio @-@ cultural background to the Vedas , dating the Aryan invasion , and establishing a dating system for southern India prior to the sixth century CE . During his time in office he also achieved a 25 per cent budget increase for the Archaeological Survey , and convinced the government to agree to the construction of a National Museum of Archaeology , to be built in New Delhi . In October 1944 , he opened his six @-@ month archaeological field school in Taxila , where he instructed various students from across India in the methodologies of the discipline . Wheeler became very fond of his students , with one of them , B. B. Lal , later commenting that " behind the gruff exterior , Sir Mortimer had a very kind and sympathetic heart " . Throughout his period in India , his students were some of the only individuals to whom Wheeler warmed ; more widely , he was annoyed by what he saw as the idleness , incompetence and corruption of Indian society . Initially focusing on the northwest of the subcontinent , Wheeler was particularly fascinated by the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization . On his initial inspection of the Indus Valley sites of Mohenjo @-@ daro and Harappa , he organised a very brief excavation which revealed fortifications around both settlements . He later led a more detailed excavation at Harappa , where he exposed further fortifications and established a stratigraphy for the settlement . Turning his attention to southern India , Wheeler discovered remnants of a Roman amphora in a museum , and began excavations at Arikamedu , revealing a port from the first century CE which had traded in goods from the Roman Empire . The excavation had been plagued by severe rains and tropical heat , although it was during the excavation that World War II ended ; in celebration , Wheeler gave all his workers an extra rupee for the day . It has since been alleged that while Wheeler took credit for discovering the significance of this site , it had previously been established by A
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204
. Aiyappan , the Superintendent of the Government Museum in Madras , and the French archaeologist Jouveau Dubreuil , with Wheeler intentionally ignoring their contribution . He later undertook excavations of six megalithic tombs in Brahmagiri , Mysore , which enabled him to gain a chronology for the archaeology of much of southern India . Wheeler established a new archaeological journal , Ancient India , planning for it to be published twice a year . He had trouble securing printing paper and faced various delays ; the first issue was released in January 1946 , and he would release three further volumes during his stay . Wheeler married Kim Collingridge in Simla , before he and his wife took part in an Indian Cultural Mission to Iran . The Indian government had deemed Wheeler ideal to lead the group , which departed via train to Zahidan before visiting Persepolis , Tehran , Isfahan , Shiraz , Pasargadae , and Kashan . Wheeler enjoyed the trip , and was envious of Tehran 's archaeological museum and library , which was far in advance of anything then found in India . Crossing into Iraq , in Baghdad the team caught a flight back to Delhi . In 1946 , he was involved in a second cultural mission , this time to Afghanistan , where he expressed a particular interest in the kingdom of ancient Bactria and visited the archaeology of Balkh . Wheeler was present during the 1947 Partition of India into the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India and the accompanying ethnic violence between Hindu and Muslim communities . He was unhappy with how these events had affected the Archaeological Survey , complaining that some of his finest students and staff were now citizens of Pakistan and no longer able to work for him . He was based in New Delhi when the city was rocked by sectarian violence , and attempted to help many of his Muslim staff members escape from the Hindu @-@ majority city unharmed . He further helped smuggle Muslim families out of the city hospital , where they had taken refuge from a violent Hindu mob . As India neared independence from the British Empire , the political situation had changed significantly ; by October 1947 he was one of the last British individuals in a high @-@ up position within the country 's governing establishment , and recognised that many Indian nationalists wanted him to also leave . As their relationship had become increasingly strained , his wife had left and returned to Britain . Although hoping to leave his post in India several months early , he was concerned for his economic prospects , and desperately searched for a new job position . Through friends in the British archaeological community , he was offered a job as the Secretary of the Royal Commission on Ancient Monuments for Wales , although he was upset that this would mean a drop in his professional status and income and decided to turn it down . Instead , he agreed to take up a chair in the Archaeology of the Roman Provinces at the Institute of Archaeology . In addition , the Pakistani Minister of Education invited him to become the Archaeological Adviser to the Pakistani government ; he agreed to also take up this position , on the condition that he would only spend several months in the country each year over the next three . = = Later life = = = = = Between Britain and Pakistan : 1948 – 52 = = = Returning to London , Wheeler moved into the Hallam Street flat where his son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law were living . Wheeler and the latter disliked each other , and so in summer 1950 he moved out and began renting an apartment in Mount Street . A year later he moved into his wife 's house in Mallord Street , in an unsuccessful hope of reigniting their relationship . Taking up his part @-@ time professorship at the Institute of Archaeology , he began to lecture to students almost every day . There , he found that he developed a relationship of mutual respect with the director , Childe , despite their strong personal and professional differences . In April 1949 , after the retirement of Cyril Fox , Wheeler was nominated for the Presidency of the Society of Antiquaries , but lost to James Mann ; many archaeologists , including Childe and O. G. S. Crawford , resigned from the Society in protest , deeming Wheeler to have been a far more appropriate candidate for the position . Wheeler was nevertheless elected director of the Society . In 1950 he was awarded the Petrie Medal , and in 1952 was knighted . That same year he was invited to give the Norton lectures for the Archaeological Institute of America , and while in the United States was also awarded the Lucy Wharton Drexel medal at Pennsylvania . He nevertheless disliked the country , and in later life exhibited anti @-@ Americanism . Wheeler spent three months in Pakistan during early 1949 , where he was engaged in organising the fledgling Pakistani Archaeological Department with the aid of former members of the Archaeological Survey and new students whom he recruited . The Minister of Education , Fazlur Rahman , was sympathetic to Wheeler 's plans , and the government agreed to establish a National Museum
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205
of Pakistan in Karachi , which opened in April 1950 . Wheeler himself was appointed the first President of the Pakistani Museums Association , and found himself as a mediator in the arguments between India and Pakistan over the redistribution of archaeological and historic artefacts following the partition . He also wrote a work of archaeological propaganda for the newly formed state , Five Thousand Years of Pakistan ( 1950 ) . To instruct new Pakistani students in the methods of archaeology , in early 1950 Wheeler ran a training excavation at Mohenjo @-@ daro ; there , he was joined by the British student Leslie Alcock , who spoke both Punjabi and Urdu and who was appointed a site supervisor by Wheeler . This excavation proved to be the only one for which Wheeler would not write and publish a full excavation report . Instead , he made reference to its findings in his book The Indus Civilization , published as part of the series The Cambridge History of India . His relationship with the Pakistani government had become strained , and so he declined to return to work for them for a third year . Wheeler had been keen to return to excavation in Britain . Based on the one he had organised in India , Wheeler developed an archaeological training course , which he ran at Verulamium in the summer of 1949 to instruct British students in the methodologies of excavation . In summer 1950 , he was invited by the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments to direct a trial excavation at Bindon Hill in Dorset . It was a leisurely project which he treated as a seaside holiday . He was invited by the Ancient Monuments Department of the Ministry of Works to excavate the Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications in North Riding , Yorkshire , which he proceeded to do over the summers of 1951 and 1952 . Aided by many old friends and colleagues from within the British archaeological scene , he was joined by Alcock and Alcock 's wife , among others . Wheeler published his report on the site in 1954 . In 1949 Wheeler was appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy after Frederic G. Kenyon stepped down from the position . According to Piggott , the institution had " unhappily drifted into senility without the excuse of being venerable " , and Wheeler devoted much time attempting to revitalise the organisation and ensured that Charles Webster was appointed President . Together , Wheeler and Webster sought to increase the number of younger members of the Academy , increasing the number of Fellows who were permitted to join and proposing that those over 75 years of age not be permitted to serve on the organisation 's council ; this latter measure was highly controversial , and though defeated in 1951 , Wheeler and Webster were able to push it through in 1952 . In doing so , Piggott stated , Wheeler helped rid the society of its " self @-@ perpetuating gerontocracy " . To aid him in these projects , Wheeler employed a personal assistant , Molly Myers , who remained with him for the rest of his life . = = = Popular fame : 1952 – 69 = = = In 1956 , Wheeler retired from his part @-@ time professorship at the Institute of Archaeology . Childe was also retiring from his position of director that year , and Wheeler involved himself in the arguments surrounding who should replace him . Wheeler vocally opposed the nomination of W.F. Grimes , deeming his career undistinguished ; instead , he championed Glyn Daniel as a candidate , although ultimately Grimes was selected . That year , Wheeler 's marriage broke down , and he moved from his wife 's house to a former brothel at 27 Whitcomb Street in central London . From 1954 to 1959 , he served as the President of the Society of Antiquaries , and after resigning supported Ian Richmond as his replacement ; however , Joan Evans was selected . From 1964 to 1966 he served as Chairman of the Ancient Monuments Board , stepping down when he concluded that he was too old for the role . In December 1963 , Wheeler underwent a prostate operation that went wrong , and was hospitalised for over a month . In November 1967 , Wheeler became a Companion of Honour , and in 1968 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society . = = = = Media fame and public archaeology = = = = Wheeler became famous in Britain as " the embodiment of popular archaeology through the medium of television " . In 1952 , Wheeler was invited to be a panelist on the new BBC television series , Animal , Vegetable , Mineral ? . Based on the American quiz programme What in the World ? , the show was hosted by Glyn Daniel and featured three experts in archaeology , anthropology , and natural history being asked to identify artefacts which had been selected from various museums . However , Wheeler is alleged to have prepared for the show by checking beforehand which objects had been temporarily removed from display . The show proved popular with British audiences , and would air for six more years . It brought Wheeler to public attention , resulting in a Television Personality of the Year award for him in 1954 . He also appeared in an episode of Buried Treasure , an archaeology show
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206
also hosted by Daniel , in which the pair travelled to Denmark to discuss Tollund Man . In 1957 , he appeared in a second episode of Buried Treasure , for which he travelled to Pakistan to discuss that nation 's archaeology , and in 1958 again appeared in an episode , this time on the site of Great Zimbabwe in Southern Rhodesia . In 1959 he presented his own three @-@ part series on The Grandeur That Was Rome , for which he travelled to Hadrian 's Wall , Pompeii , and Leptis Magna ; the show failed to secure high ratings , and was Wheeler 's last major foray into television . Meanwhile , he also made appearances on BBC radio , initially featuring on the John Irving series The Archaeologist , but later presenting his own eight @-@ part series on Roman Britain and also appearing on the series Asian Club , which was aimed primarily at newly arrived migrants from the Indian subcontinent . From 1954 onward , Wheeler began to devote an increasing amount of his time to encouraging greater public interest in archaeology , and it was in that year that he obtained an agent . Oxford University Press also published two of his books in 1954 . The first was a book on archaeological methodologies , Archaeology from the Earth , which was translated into various languages . The second was Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontier , discussing evidence for Roman activity at sites like Arikamedu and Segontium . In 1955 Wheeler released his episodic autobiography , Still Digging , which had sold over 70 @,@ 000 copies by the end of the year . In 1959 , Wheeler wrote Early India and Pakistan , which was published as part as Daniel 's " Ancient Peoples and Places " series for Thames and Hudson ; as with many earlier books , he was criticised for rushing to conclusions . He authored the section entitled " Ancient India " for Piggott 's edited volume The Dawn of Civilisation , which was published by Thames and Hudson in 1961 , before writing an introduction for Roger Wood 's photography book Roman Africa in Colour , which was also published by Thames and Hudson . He then agreed to edit a series for the publisher , known as " New Aspects of Antiquity " , through which they released a variety of archaeological works . The rival publisher Weidenfeld & Nicolson had also persuaded Wheeler to work for them , securing him to write many sections of their book , Splendours of the East . They also published his 1968 book Flames Over Persopolis , in which Wheeler discussed Persopolis and the Persian Empire in the year that it was conquered by Alexander the Great . In 1954 , the tour company R.K. Swan invited Wheeler to provide lectures on the archaeology of ancient Greece aboard their Hellenic cruise line , which he did in 1955 . In 1957 , he then gave a guided tour of the archaeology of the Indian subcontinent for the rival tour company Fairways and Swinford . After Swans appointed him to the position of chairman of their Hellenic Cruise division , he made two fortnight tours a year , in spring and summer . In late 1969 he conducted the Swans tour to the Indian subcontinent , visiting the south and east of the republic as well as Ceylon . During this period , Wheeler had kept in contact with many of his friends and colleagues in India and Pakistan , helping to secure them work and funding where possible . Wheeler had continued his archaeological investigations , and in 1954 led an expedition to the Somme and Pas de Calais where he sought to obtain more information on the French Iron Age to supplement that gathered in the late 1930s . Pakistan 's Ministry of Education invited Wheeler to return to their country in October 1956 . Here , he undertook test excavations at Charsada to determine a chronology of the site . In 1965 , he agreed to take on the position of President of the Camelot Research Committee , which had been established to promote the findings of excavations at Cadbury Castle in Somerset run by his friends Ralegh Radford and Alcock ; the project ended in 1970 . He also agreed to sit as Chairman of the Archaeological Committee overseeing excavations at York Minster , work which occupied him into the 1970s . Wheeler had also continued his work with museums , campaigning for greater state funding for them . While he had become a trustee of the institution in 1963 , he achieved publicity for vocally criticising the British Museum as " a mountainous corpse " , lambasting it as being poorly managed and overcrowded with artefacts . The BBC staged a public debate with the museum director Frank Francis . = = = = British Academy and UNESCO = = = = As Honorary Secretary of the British Academy , Wheeler focused on increasing the organisation 's revenues , thus enabling it to expand its remit . He developed personal relationships with various employees at the British Treasury , and offered the Academy 's services as an intermediary in dealing with the Egypt Exploration Society , the British School at Athens , the British School at Rome , the British School at Ankara , the British School in Iraq , and the British School at
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207
Jerusalem , all of which were then directly funded independently by the Treasury . Accepting this offer , the Treasury agreed to double its funding of the Academy to £ 5 @,@ 000 a year . Approaching various charitable foundations , from 1955 Wheeler also secured funding from both the Pilgrim Trust and the Nuffield Foundation , and in 1957 then secured additional funding from the Rockefeller Foundation . With this additional money , the Academy was able to organise a survey of the state of the humanities and social sciences in the United Kingdom , authoring a report that was published by Oxford University Press in 1961 as Research in the Humanities and the Social Sciences . On the basis of this report , Wheeler was able to secure a dramatic rise in funding from the British Treasury ; they increased their annual grant to £ 25 @,@ 000 , and promised that this would increase to £ 50 @,@ 000 shortly after . According to his later biographer Jacquetta Hawkes , in doing so Wheeler raised the position of the Academy to that of " the main source of official patronage for the humanities " within the United Kingdom , while Piggott stated that he set the organisation upon its " modern course " . To improve Britain 's cultural influence abroad , Wheeler had been urging the establishment of a British Institute of History and Archaeology in East Africa , touring East Africa itself in August 1955 . In 1956 the Academy requested £ 6 @,@ 000 from the Treasury to fund this new institution , to which they eventually agreed in 1959 . The Institute was initially established in Dar es Salaam in 1961 , although later relocated to Nairobi . Meanwhile , Wheeler had also been campaigning for the establishment of a British Institute of Persian Studies , a project which was supported by the British Embassy in Tehran ; they hoped that it would rival the successful French Institute in the city . In 1960 , the Treasury agreed , with the new institution being housed on the premises of the University of Tehran . He further campaigned for the establishment of a British Institute in Japan , although these ideas were scrapped amid the British financial crisis of 1967 . Wheeler retained an active interest in the running of these British institutions abroad ; in 1967 he visited the British School in Jerusalem amid the Six @-@ Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbours , and in January 1968 visited the Persian institute with the archaeologist Max Mallowan and Mallowan 's wife Agatha Christie , there inspecting the excavations at Siraf . In 1969 he proceeded to the Italian city of Rome to inspect the British School there . That year , he resigned as Honorary Secretary of the Academy . The position became a salaried , professional one , with the numismatist Derek Allen taking on the position . Recognising his stature within the archaeological establishment , the government appointed Wheeler as the British representative on a UNESCO project to undertake a programme of rescue archaeology in the Nile Valley ahead of the construction of the Aswan Dam , which was going to flood large areas of Egypt and Sudan . Personally securing UK funding for the project , he deemed it an issue of national and personal shame when he was unable to persuade the British government to supply additional funding for the relocation of the Abu Simbel temples . In October 1968 , he took part in a UNESCO visit to Pakistan to assess the state of Mohenjo @-@ daro , writing the project 's report on how the archaeological site could best be preserved . His involvement with UNESCO continued for the rest of his life , and in March 1973 he was invited to the organisation 's conference in Paris . = = = Final years : 1970 – 76 = = = During his final years , Wheeler remained involved in various activities , for instance sitting on the advisory panel of the Antiquity journal and the Management Committee of the Royal Archaeological Institute . In March 1971 , the archaeologist Barry Cunliffe and a number of his undergraduate students at the University of Southampton organised a conference on the subject of " The Iron Age and its Hillforts " to celebrate Wheeler 's eightieth birthday . Wheeler attended the event , whose conference proceedings were published as a festschrift for the octogenarian . In spring 1973 , Wheeler returned to BBC television for two episodes of the archaeology @-@ themed series Chronicle in which he discussed his life and career . The episodes were well received , and Wheeler became a close friend of the show 's producer , David Collison . In the 1970s , Wheeler became increasingly forgetful and came to rely largely on his assistant , Molly Myres , to organise his affairs . Amid increasing ill health , in September 1973 he moved full @-@ time into Myres 's house in Leatherhead , Surrey , although he continued to use his central London flat during day @-@ trips to the city . There , he authored a final book , My Archaeological Mission to India and Pakistan , although much of the text was culled from his previous publications ; it was published by Thames and Hudson in 1976 . After suffering a stroke , Wheeler died at Myers ' home on 22 July 1976 . In
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208
memoriam , the British Academy , Royal Academy , and Royal Society flew their flags at half @-@ mast . Wheeler 's funeral was held with military trappings at a local crematorium , while a larger memorial service was held in St James 's Church , Piccadilly in November . = = Personal life = = Wheeler was known as " Rik " among friends . He divided opinion among those who knew him , with some loving and others despising him , and during his lifetime he was often criticised on both scholarly and moral grounds . The archaeologist Max Mallowan asserted that he " was a delightful , light @-@ hearted and amusing companion , but those close to him knew that he could be a dangerous opponent if threatened with frustration " . His charm offensives were often condemned as being insincere . During excavations , he was known as an authoritarian leader , but favoured those whom he thought exhibited bravery by standing up to his authority . Hence , he has been termed " a benevolent dictator " . He was meticulous in his writings , and would repeatedly revise and rewrite both pieces for publication and personal letters . Throughout his life , he was a heavy smoker . Wheeler expressed the view that he was " the least political of mortals " . Despite not taking a strong interest in politics , Wheeler was described by his biographer as " a natural conservative " ; for instance , during his youth he was strongly critical of the Suffragettes and their cause of greater legal rights for women . Nevertheless , he was " usually happy to advance young women professionally " , something that may have been based largely on his sexual attraction toward them . He expressed little interest in his relatives ; in later life he saw no reason to have a social relationship with people purely on the basis of family ties . Wheeler was married three times . In May 1914 , Wheeler married Tessa Verney . Tessa became an accomplished archaeologist , and they collaborated until she died in 1936 . Their only child , a son Michael , was born in January 1915 ; he became a barrister . Following Tessa 's death , in 1939 , Wheeler married Mavis de Vere Cole , although their relationship was strained ; Cole 's diaries revealed that Wheeler physically hit her when she annoyed him . In 1945 Mortimer Wheeler married his third wife , Margaret " Kim " Collingridge , although they became estranged in 1956 ; they never divorced as a result of her devout Catholicism . Meanwhile , Wheeler was well known for his conspicuous promiscuity , favouring young women for one night stands , many of whom were his students . He was further known for having casual sex in public places . This behaviour led to much emotional suffering among his various wives and mistresses , of which he was aware . As a result of this behaviour , later archaeologist Gabriel Moshenska informed a reporter from the Daily Mail that Wheeler had developed a reputation as " a bit of a groper and a sex pest and an incredible bully as well " . = = Reception and legacy = = Wheeler has been termed " the most famous British archaeologist of the twentieth century " by archaeologists Gabriel Moshenska and Tim Schadla @-@ Hall . Highlighting his key role in encouraging interest in archaeology throughout British society , they stated that his " mastery of public archaeology was founded on his keen eye for value and a showman 's willingness to package and sell the past " . This was an issue about which Wheeler felt very strongly ; writing his obituary for the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society , the English archaeologist Stuart Piggott noted that Wheeler placed " great importance to the archaeologist 's obligation to the public , on whose support the prosecution of his subject ultimately depended . " Piggott believed that Wheeler 's greatest impact was as " the great innovator in field techniques " , comparing him in this respect to Pitt @-@ Rivers . Piggott stated that the " importance of Wheeler 's contribution to archaeological technique , enormous and far @-@ reaching , lies in the fact that in the early 1920s he not only appreciated and understood what Pitt @-@ Rivers had done , but saw that his work could be used as a basis for adaptation , development and improvement . " L. C. Carr stated that it was for his methodological developments , oft termed " the Wheeler Method " , that Wheeler was best known ; in this she contrasted him with those archaeologists who were best known for their associations with a specific archaeological site , such as Arthur Evans and Knossos or Leonard Woolley and Ur . Wheeler was well known for his publications on archaeological matters ; Carr stated that both Wheeler and his first wife emphasised " technical rigour and a full presentation of materials unearthed , as well as a literary discussion of their meaning calculated to appeal to a larger audience . " Focusing on Wheeler 's publications regarding South Asian archaeology , Sudeshna Guha noted that he " produced an assemblage of image @-@ objects that
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embodied the precision he demanded from excavation photography . " Mallowan noted that " Immediate and swift presentation of results was more important to him than profound scholarship , although his critical sense made him conscious that it was necessary to maintain high standards and he would approve of nothing that was slipshod . " Jacquetta Hawkes commented that he made errors in his interpretation of the archaeological evidence because he was " sometimes too sure of being right , too ready to accept his own authority " . She asserted that while Wheeler was not an original thinker , he had " a vision of human history that enabled him to see each discovery of its traces , however small , in its widest significance . " Piggott claimed that Wheeler 's appointment as Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India represented " the most remarkable archaeological achievement of his career , an enormous challenge accepted and surmounted in the autocratic and authoritarian terms within which he could best deploy his powers as administrator and excavator . No other archaeologist of the time , it seems fair to remark , could have come near to attaining his command of incisive strategy and often ruthless tactics which won him the bewildered admiration and touching devotion of his Indian staff . " The Indian archaeologist Dilip K. Chakrabarti later stated that Wheeler 's accomplishments while in India were " considerable " , particularly given the socio @-@ political turmoil of independence and partition . Chakrabarti stated that Wheeler had contributed to South Asian archaeology in various ways : by establishing a " total view " of the region 's development from the Palaeolithic onward , by introducing new archaeological techniques and methodologies to the subcontinent , and by encouraging Indian universities to begin archaeological research . Ultimately , Chakrabarti was of the opinion that Wheeler had " prepared the archaeology of the subcontinent for its transition to modernity in the post @-@ Partition period . " Similarly , Peter Johansen praised Wheeler for systematising and professionalising Indian archaeology and for " instituting a clearly defined body of techniques and methods for field and laboratory work and training . " On Wheeler 's death , H.D. Sankalia of Deccan College , Pune , described him as " well known among Old World archaeologists in the United States " , particularly for his book Archaeology from the Earth and his studies of the Indus Valley Civilisation . In its 2013 obituary of the English archaeologist Mick Aston , British Archaeology magazine – the publication of the Council for British Archaeology – described Aston as " the Mortimer Wheeler of our times " because despite the strong differences between their personalities , both had done much to bring archaeology to the British public . However , writing in 2011 , Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall asserted that Wheeler 's reputation has not undergone significant revision among archaeologists , but that instead he had come to be remembered as " a cartoonish and slightly eccentric figure " whom they termed " Naughty Morty " . Carr described the Institute of Archaeology as " one of the [ Wheeler ] couple 's most permanent memorials . " = = = Biographies and studies = = = In 1960 , Ronald William Clark published a biography titled Sir Mortimer Wheeler . FitzRoy Somerset , 4th Baron Raglan reviewed the volume for the journal Man , describing " this very readable little book " as being " adulatory " in tone , " but hardly more so than its subject deserves . " In 1982 , the archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes published a second biography , Mortimer Wheeler : Adventurer in Archaeology . Hawkes admitted she had developed " a very great liking " for Wheeler , having first met him when she was an archaeology student at the University of Cambridge . She believed that he had " a daemonic energy " , with his accomplishments in India being " almost superhuman " . Ultimately , she thought of him as being " an epic hero in an anti @-@ heroic age " in which growing social egalitarianism had stifled and condemned aspects of his greatness . In the 2000 film Hey Ram , the lead character , Saket Ram ( played by Kamal Haasan ) and his friend , Amjad Khan ( played by Shah Rukh Khan ) are shown as employees of Wheeler , who was portrayed by Lewis K. Elbinger , before the 1947 Hindu @-@ Muslim riots . In a 2003 volume of the South Asian Studies journal , Sudeshna Gusha published a research article examining Wheeler 's use of photography in his excavations and publications in the Indian subcontinent . In 2011 , the academic journal Public Archaeology published a research paper by Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall that analysed Wheeler 's role in presenting archaeology to the British public . Two years later , the Papers from the Institute of Archaeology issued a short comic strip by Moshenska and Alex Salamunovich depicting Wheeler 's activities in studying the archaeology of Libya during World War II . = Species of Allosaurus =
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210
There have been a number of potential species assigned to the carnosaurian dinosaur genus Allosaurus since its description in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh , but only a handful are still regarded as valid . Allosaurus was originally described from material from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of the western United States of America ; the type species A. fragilis became one of the best @-@ known species of dinosaur . The genus Allosaurus was part of the Marsh / Cope " Bone Wars " of the late 19th century , and its taxonomy became increasingly confused due to the competition , with several genera and species named by Cope and Marsh now regarded as synonyms of Allosaurus or A. fragilis . Since the description of Allosaurus , scientists have proposed additional species from such far @-@ flung locales as Portugal , Siberia , and Tanzania . = = Query about type specimen = = The issue of synonyms is complicated by the type specimen of Allosaurus fragillis ( catalogue number YPM 1930 ) being extremely fragmentary , consisting of a few incomplete vertebrae , limb bone fragments , rib fragments , and a tooth . Because of this , several scientists have noted that the type specimen , and thus the genus Allosaurus itself or at least the species A. fragillis , is technically a nomen dubium ( " dubious name " , based on a specimen too incomplete to compare to other specimens or to classify ) . In an attempt to fix this situation , Gregory S. Paul and Kenneth Carpenter ( 2010 ) submitted a petition to the ICZN to have the name A. fragillis officially transferred to the more complete specimen USNM4734 ( as a neotype ) . This request is currently pending review . = = Potentially valid species = = It is unclear how many species of Allosaurus there were . Eight species have been considered potentially valid since 1988 ( A. amplexus , A. atrox , A. europaeus , the type species A. fragilis , the as @-@ yet not formally described " A. jimmadseni " , A. lucasi , A. maximus , and A. tendagurensis ) , although only about half are usually considered valid at any given time . There are also at least ten dubious or undescribed species that have been assigned to Allosaurus over the years , along with the species belonging to genera now sunk into Allosaurus . In the most recent review of basal tetanuran theropods , only A. fragilis ( including A. amplexus and A. atrox ) , " A. jimmadseni " ( as an unnamed species ) , and A. tendagurensis were accepted as potentially valid species , with A. europaeus not yet proposed and A. maximus assigned to Saurophaganax . A. fragilis is the type species and was named by Marsh in 1877 . It is known from the remains of at least sixty individuals , all found in the Kimmeridgian – Tithonian Upper Jurassic @-@ age Morrison Formation of the United States , spread across the states of Colorado , Montana , New Mexico , Oklahoma , South Dakota , Utah , and Wyoming . Details of the humerus ( upper arm ) of A. fragilis have been used as diagnostic among Morrison theropods , but the discovery of " A. jimmadseni " indicates that this will no longer be the case at the species level . A. amplexus was named by Gregory S. Paul for giant Morrison allosaur remains , and included in his conception Saurophagus maximus ( later Saurophaganax ) . A. amplexus was originally coined by Cope in 1878 as the type species of his new genus Epanterias , and is based on what is now AMNH 5767 , parts of three vertebrae , a coracoid , and a metatarsal . Following Paul 's work , this species has been accepted as a synonym of A. fragilis . Allosaurus material from Portugal was first reported in 1999 on the basis of MHNUL / AND.001 , a partial skeleton including a quadrate , vertebrae , ribs , gastralia , chevrons , part of the hips , and hindlimbs . This specimen was assigned to A. fragilis , but the subsequent discovery of a partial skull and neck ( ML 415 ) near Lourinhã , in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age Porto Novo Member of the Lourinhã Formation , spurred the naming of the new species A. europaeus . It differs from other species of Allosaurus in cranial details . However , more material may show it to be A. fragilis , as originally described . Daniel Chure 's work on Morrison allosaurid remains has been responsible , directly or indirectly , for
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211
" A. jimmadseni " and A. maximus . " A. jimmadseni " is the proposed name for a new species of Morrison allosaur , based on a nearly complete skeleton and skull . A. sp . 2 , as it is also known , differs from A. fragilis in several anatomical details including a jugal or cheekbone with a straight lower margin , and is also found only in the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison Formation , with A. fragilis only present in the higher Brushy Basin Member . A. maximus was coined by David K. Smith for Chure 's Saurophaganax maximus , a taxon created by Chure in 1995 for giant allosaurid remains from the Morrison of Oklahoma . These remains had been known as Saurophagus , but that name was already in use , leading Chure to propose a substitute . Smith , in his 1998 analysis of variation , concluded that S. maximus was not different enough from Allosaurus to be a separate genus , but did warrant its own species , A. maximus . This reassignment was rejected in the most recent review of basal tetanurans . = = Biological variation , A. atrox , and A. fragilis = = The perception that there were two common Allosaurus species in the Morrison Formation was popularized in Gregory S. Paul 's 1988 book Predatory Dinosaurs of the World . Paul proposed that A. fragilis had tall pointed horns and a slender build compared to a postulated second species A. atrox , and was not a different gender due to rarity . Allosaurus atrox was originally named by Marsh in 1878 as the type species of its own genus , Creosaurus , and is based on YPM 1890 , an assortment of bones including a couple of pieces of the skull , portions of nine tail vertebrae , two hip vertebrae , an illium , and ankle and foot bones . Although the idea of two common Morrison allosaur species has had support in semi @-@ technical and popular works , it has generally been rejected in the technical literature . David K. Smith , examining Allosaurus fossils by quarry , found that the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry ( Utah ) specimens are generally smaller than those from Como Bluff ( Wyoming ) or Brigham Young University 's Dry Mesa Quarry ( Colorado ) , but the shapes of the bones themselves did not vary between the sites . A later study by Smith incorporating Garden Park ( Colorado ) and Dinosaur National Monument ( Utah ) specimens found no justification for multiple species based on skeletal variation ; skull variation was most common and was gradational , suggesting individual variation was responsible . Further work on size @-@ related variation again found no consistent differences , although the Dry Mesa material tended to clump together on the basis of the astragalus , an ankle bone . Kenneth Carpenter , using skull elements from the Cleveland Lloyd site , found wide variation between individuals , calling into question previous species @-@ level distinctions based such features as the shape of the horns , and the proposed differentiation of " A. jimmadseni " based on the shape of the jugal . = = Invalid and synonymous species = = A number of species assigned to Allosaurus are no longer recognized as valid , for one reason or another . Species " A. agilis " , seen in Zittel , 1887 , and Osborn , 1912 , is a typographical error for A. fragilis . Marsh 's A. ferox ( 1896 ; not to be confused with his 1884 Labrosaurus ferox , also part of Allosaurus taxonomy ) was coined for a partial skull in a footnote , and has been recognized as a specimen of A fragilis . A. lucaris , another Marsh name , was given to a partial skeleton in 1878 . He later decided it warranted its own genus , Labrosaurus , but this has not been accepted , and A. lucaris is also regarded as another specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus lucaris , is known mostly from vertebrae , sharing characters with Allosaurus . Paul and Carpenter stated that the type specimen of this species , YPM 1931 , was from a younger age than Allosaurus , and might represent a different genus . However , they found that the specimen was undiagnostic , and thus A. lucaris was a nomen dubium . " A. whitei " , an informally described species coined by Pickering in 1996 , is a recasting of the A. atrox versus A. fragilis debate using a better specimen to represent the A. atrox form , and has not been recognized . Several species coined in genera other than Allosaurus are also now thought to be synonymous with A. fragilis . Labrosaurus ferox was named in 1884 by Marsh for an oddly formed partial lower jaw , with a prominent gap in the tooth row at the tip of the jaw , and
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212
a rear section greatly expanded and turned down . Later researchers suggested that the bone was pathologic , showing an injury to the living animal , and that part of the unusual form of the rear of the bone was due to plaster reconstruction . It is recognized as most likely a specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus valens is a typo for Antrodemus valens accidentally used by Friedrich von Huene in 1932 ; Antrodemus valens itself may also pertain to Allosaurus fragilis , as Gilmore suggested in 1920 . Apatodon mirus , based on a scrap of vertebra Marsh first thought to be a mammalian jaw , may or may not be the same as Allosaurus . = = Misassigned species = = Several species initially classified within or referred to Allosaurus do not belong within the genus . A. medius was named by Marsh in 1888 for " various specimens " from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland , although most of the remains were removed by Richard Swann Lull to the new ornithopod species Dryosaurus grandis , except for a tooth . Gilmore considered the tooth nondiagnostic but transferred it to a new species , Dryptosaurus medius . The referral was not accepted in the most recent review , and Allosaurus medius was simply listed as a dubious species of theropod . Allosaurus sibiricus was described in 1914 by A. N. Riabinin on the basis of a bone , later identified as a partial fourth metatarsal , from the Early Cretaceous of Buryatia , Russia . It was transferred to Chilantaisaurus in 1990 . Allosaurus meriani was described in 1870 by Greppin as a species of Megalosaurus , based on a tooth from the Late Jurassic of Switzerland . It has occasionally been referred to Allosaurus , but recent reviews have listed it as dubious theropod species Megalosaurus meriani , or included it in Ceratosaurus sp . Allosaurus stechowi was described in 1920 by Janensch as Labrosaurus stechowi for isolated Ceratosaurus @-@ like teeth from the Tendaguru beds of Tanzania . With the synonymization of Labrosaurus and Allosaurus , Donald F. Glut listed it as a species of Allosaurus , but it is now either assigned to Ceratosaurus sp. or considered a dubious ceratosaurian . There are also several species left over from the synonymizations of Creosaurus and Labrosaurus with Allosaurus . Creosaurus potens was named by Lull in 1911 for a vertebra from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland . It is now regarded as a dubious theropod . Labrosaurus fragilis is a typographical error by Marsh ( 1896 ) for Labrosaurus ferox . L. sulcatus , named by Marsh in 1896 for a Morrison theropod tooth , which like L. stechowi is now regarded as either Ceratosaurus sp. or a dubious ceratosaurian . A. tendagurensis was named in 1925 by Werner Janensch for a partial shin ( HM 67 ) found in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age rocks of Tendaguru , in Mtwara , Tanzania . This species has not had strong support in recent years , with opinions on its identity ranging from a tentatively valid species of Allosaurus , to a basal tetanuran . The most recent analysis has placed it in Carcharodontosauridae . Although obscure , it was a large theropod , possibly around 10 meters long ( 33 ft ) and 2 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 8 short tons ) in weight . = = Specimens misassigned to Allosaurus though not described as new species = = Kurzanov and colleagues in 2003 designated six teeth from Siberia as Allosaurus sp . ( meaning the authors found the specimens to be most like those of Allosaurus , but did not or could not assign a species ) . Also , reports of Allosaurus in Shanxi , China go back to at least 1982 . An astragalus ( ankle bone ) thought to belong to a species of Allosaurus was found at Cape Paterson , Victoria in Early Cretaceous beds in southeastern Australia . It was thought to provide evidence that Australia was a refugium for animals that had gone extinct elsewhere . This identification was challenged by Samuel Welles , who thought it more resembled that of an ornithomimid , but the original authors defended their identification . With fifteen years of new specimens and research to look at , Daniel Chure reexamined the bone and found that it was not Allosaurus , but could represent an allosauroid . Similarly , Yoichi Azuma and Phil Currie , in their description of Fukuiraptor , noted that the bone closely resembled that of their new genus . This specimen is sometimes referred to as " Allosaurus robustus " ,
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213
an informal museum name . It may have belonged to something similar to , or the same as , Australovenator , or it may represent an abelisaur . A speculative " polar " or " dwarf allosaur " was used for the " Spirits of the Ice Forest " episode of Walking with Dinosaurs . = Astraeus hygrometricus = Astraeus hygrometricus , commonly known as the hygroscopic earthstar , the barometer earthstar , or the false earthstar , is a species of fungus in the Diplocystaceae family . Young specimens resemble a puffball when young and unopened . In maturity , the mushroom displays the characteristic earthstar shape that is a result of the outer layer of fruit body tissue splitting open in a star @-@ like manner . The false earthstar is an ectomycorrhizal species that grows in association with various trees , especially in sandy soils . A. hygrometricus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and is common in temperate and tropical regions . Its common names refer to the fact that it is hygroscopic ( water @-@ absorbing ) , and can open up its rays to expose the spore sac in response to increased humidity , and close them up again in drier conditions . The rays have an irregularly cracked surface , while the spore case is pale brown and smooth with an irregular slit or tear at the top . The gleba is white initially , but turns brown and powdery when the spores mature . The spores are reddish @-@ brown , roughly spherical with minute warts , measuring 7 @.@ 5 – 11 micrometers in diameter . Despite a similar overall appearance , A. hygrometricus is not related to the true earthstars of genus Geastrum , although historically , they have been taxonomically confused . The species was first described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801 as Geastrum hygrometricus . In 1885 , Andrew P. Morgan proposed that differences in microscopic characteristics warranted the creation of a new genus Astraeus distinct from Geastrum ; this opinion was not universally accepted by later authorities . Several Asian populations formerly thought to be A. hygrometricus were renamed in the 2000s once phylogenetic analyses revealed they were unique Astraeus species , including A. asiaticus and A. odoratus . Research has revealed the presence of several bioactive chemical compounds in the fruit bodies . North American field guides typically rate A. hygrometricus as inedible . = = Taxonomy , naming , and phylogeny = = Because this species resembles the earthstar fungi of Geastrum , it was placed in that genus by early authors , starting with Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801 ( as Geaster , an alternate spelling of Geastrum ) . According to the American botanist Andrew P. Morgan , however , the species differed from those of Geastrum in not having open chambers in the young gleba , having larger and branched capillitium threads , not having a true hymenium , and having larger spores . Accordingly , Morgan set Persoon 's Geaster hygrometricum as the type species of his new genus Astraeus in 1889 . Despite Morgan 's publication , some authorities in the following decades continued to classify the species in Geastrum . The New @-@ Zealand based mycologist Gordon Herriot Cunningham explicitly transferred the species back to the genus Geastrum in 1944 , explaining : The treatment of this species by certain taxonomists well illustrates the pitfalls that lie in wait for those who worship at the shrine of ontogenic classification ... The only feature of those outlined in which the species differs from others of Geastrum is the somewhat primitive hymenium . In the developing plant the glebal cavities are separated by tramal plates so tenuous as to be overlooked by the uncritical worker . Each cavity is filled with basidia somewhat irregularly arranged in clusters ( like those of Scleroderma ) and not in the definite palisade of the species which have been studied . This difference disappears as maturity is reached , when plants resemble closely the fructification of any other member of the genus . The taxonomist is then unable to indicate any point of difference by which " Astraeus " may be separated from Geastrum , which indicates that the name should be discarded . Cunningham 's treatment was not followed by later authorities , who largely considered Astraeus a distinct genus . According to the taxonomical authority MycoBank , synonyms of Astraeus hygrometricus include Lycoperdon stellatus Scop . ( 1772 ) ; Geastrum fibrillosum Schwein . ( 1822 ) ; Geastrum stellatum ( Scop . ) Wettst . ( 1885 ) ; and Astraeus stellatus E
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214
.Fisch. ( 1900 ) . Astraeus hygrometricus has been given a number of colloquial names that allude to its hygroscopic behavior , including the " hygrometer earthstar " , the " hygroscopic earthstar " , the " barometer earthstar " , and the " water @-@ measure earthstar " . The resemblance to Geastrum species ( also known as true earthstars ) accounts for the common name " false earthstar " . The specific name is derived from the Greek words ὑγρός ( hygros ) " wet " and μέτρον ( metron ) " measure " . The German Mycological Society selected the species as their " Mushroom of the Year " in 2005 . Studies in the 2000s showed that several species from Asian collection sites labelled under the specific epithet hygrometricus were actually considerably variable in a number of macroscopic and microscopic characteristics . Molecular studies of the DNA sequences of the ITS region of the ribosomal DNA from a number of Astraeus specimens from around the world have helped to clarify phylogenetic relationships within the genus . Based on these results , two Asian " hygrometricus " populations have been described as new species : A. asiaticus and A. odoratus ( synonymous with Petcharat 's A. thailandicus described in 2003 ) . Preliminary DNA analyses suggests that the European A. hygrometricus described by Persoon is a different species than the North American version described by Morgan , and that the European population may be divided into two distinct phylotypes , from France and from the Mediterranean . A 2010 study identified a Japanese species , previously identified as A. hygrometricus , as genetically distinct ; it has yet to be officially named . A form of the species found in Korea and Japan , A. hygrometricus var. koreanus , was named by V.J. Stanĕk in 1958 ; it was later ( 1976 ) published as a distinct species — A. koreanus — by Hanns Kreisel . As pointed out by Fangfuk and colleagues , clarification of the proper name for this taxon must await analysis of A. hygrometricus var. koreanus specimens from the type locality in North Korea . = = Description = = Young specimens of A. hygrometricus have roughly spherical fruit bodies that typically start their development partially embedded in the substrate . A smooth whitish mycelial layer covers the fruit body , and may be partially encrusted with debris . As the fruit body matures , the mycelial layer tears away , and the outer tissue layer , the exoperidium , breaks open in a star @-@ shaped ( stellate ) pattern to form 4 – 20 irregular " rays " . This simultaneously pushes the fruit body above ground to reveal a round spore case enclosed in a thin papery endoperidium . The rays open and close in response to levels of moisture in the environment , opening up in high humidity , and closing when the air is dry . This is possible because the exoperidium is made of several different layers of tissue ; the innermost , fibrous layer is hygroscopic , and curls or uncurls the entire ray as it loses or gains moisture from its surroundings . This adaptation enables the fruit body to disperse spores at times of optimum moisture , and reduce evaporation during dry periods . Further , dry fruit bodies with the rays curled up may be readily blown about by the wind , allowing them to scatter spores from the pore as they roll . The fruit body is 1 – 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter from tip to tip when expanded . The exoperidium is thick , and the rays are typically areolate ( divided into small areas by cracks and crevices ) on the upper surface , and are dark grey to black . The spore case is sessile ( lacking a stalk ) , light gray to tan color and 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) broad with a felt @-@ like or scurfy ( coated with loose scaly crust ) surface ; the top of the spore case is opened by an irregular slit , tear or pore . The interior of the spore case , the gleba , is white and solid when young , and divided into oval locules — a characteristic that helps to distinguish it from Geastrum . The gleba becomes brown and powdery as the specimen matures . Small dark hairlike threads ( rhizomorphs ) extend from the base of the fruit body into the substrate . The rhizomorphs are fragile , and often break off after maturity . The spores are spherical or nearly so , reddish @-@ brown , thick @-@ walled and ver
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215
rucose ( covered with warts and spines ) . The spores ' dimensions are 7 – 11 µm ; the warts are about 1 µm long . The spores are non @-@ amyloid , and will not stain with iodine from Melzer 's reagent . The use of scanning electron microscopy has shown that the spines are 0 @.@ 90 – 1 @.@ 45 µm long , rounded at the tip , narrow , tapered , and sometime joined together at the top . The capillitia ( masses of thread @-@ like sterile fibers dispersed among the spores ) are branched , 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm in diameter , and hyaline ( translucent ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four- to eight @-@ spored , with very short sterigmata . The basidia are arranged in long strings of clusters ; individual basidia measure 11 – 15 by 18 – 24 µm . The threads of the capillitia arise from the inner surface of the peridium , and are thick @-@ walled , long , interwoven , and branched , measuring 3 – 5 @.@ 5 µm thick . The exoperidium ( the outer layer of tissue , comprising the rays ) is made of four distinct layers of tissue : the mycelial layer contains branched hyphae that are 4 – 6 μm in diameter ; the hyphae of the fibrous layer are 6 – 8 μm diameter and branched ; the collenchyma @-@ type layer has branched hyphae of 3 – 4 μm diameter ; the soft layer contains hyphae that are 3 – 6 μm in diameter . = = = Edibility = = = North American sources describe A. hygrometricus as being of either unknown edibility , or too tough to be edible . However , they are regularly consumed in Asia , including Nepal and South Bengal , where " local people consume them as delicious food " . They are collected from the wild and sold in the markets of India . A study of a closely related southeast Asian Astraeus species concluded that the fungus contained an abundance of volatile eight @-@ carbon compounds ( including 1 @-@ octanol , 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ ol , and 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ one ) that imparted a " mushroom @-@ like , earthy , and pungent odor that was evident as an oily and moss @-@ like smell upon opening the caps " . The study 's authors further noted that the fruit bodies after cooking have a " roasted , maillard , herbal , and oily flavor " . Volatile compounds detected after cooking the mushroom samples included furfural , benzaldehyde , cyclohexenone , and furanyl compounds . The regional differences in opinions on edibility are from sources published before it was known that North American and Asian versions of A. hygrometricus were not always the same ; in some cases Asian specimens have been identified as new species , such as A. asiaticus and A. odoratus . = = Similar species = = Although A. hygrometricus bears a superficial resemblance to member of the " true earthstars " Geastrum , it may be readily differentiated from most by the hygroscopic nature of its rays . Hygroscopic earthstars include G. arenarium , G. corollinum , G. floriforme , G. recolligens , and G. kotlabae . Unlike Geastrum , the young fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus do not have a columella ( sterile tissue in the gleba , at the base of the spore sac ) . Geastrum tends to have its spore sac opening surrounded by a peristome or a disc , in contrast with the single lacerate slit of A. hygrometricus . There are also several microscopic differences : in A. hygrometricus , the basidia are not arranged in parallel columns , the spores are larger , and the threads of the capillitia are branched and continuous with the hyphae of the peridium . Despite these differences , older specimens can be difficult to distinguish from Geastrum in the field . One species of Geastrum , G. mammosum , does have thick and brittle rays that are moderately hygroscopic , and could be confused with A. hygrometricus ; however , its spores are smaller than A. hygrometricus , typically about 4 µm in diameter . Astraeus pteridis is larger , 5 to 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) or more when expanded , and often has a more pronounced areolate pattern
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216
on the inner surface of the rays . It is found in North America and the Canary Islands . A. asiaticus and A. odoratus are two similar species known from throughout Asia and Southeast Asia , respectively . A. odoratus is distinguished from A. hygrometricus by a smooth outer mycelial layer with few adhering soil particles , 3 – 9 broad rays , and a fresh odor similar to moist soil . The spore ornamentation of A. odoratus is also distinct from A. hygrometricus , with longer and narrower spines that often joined together . A. asiaticus has an outer peridial surface covered with small granules , and a gleba that is purplish @-@ chestnut in color , compared to the smooth peridial surface and brownish gleba of A. hygrometricus . The upper limit of the spore size of A. asiaticus is larger than that of its more common relative , ranging from 8 @.@ 75 – 15 @.@ 2 μm . A. koreanus ( sometimes named as the variety A. hygrometricus var. koreanus ; see Taxonomy ) differs from the more common form in its smaller size , paler fruit body , and greater number of rays ; microscopically , it has smaller spores ( between 6 @.@ 8 and 9 μm in diameter ) , and the spines on the spores differ in length and morphology . It is known from Korea and Japan . = = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = = Astraeus hygrometricus is an ectomycorrhizal fungus and grows in association with a broad range of tree species . The mutualistic association between tree roots and the mycelium of the fungus helps the trees extract nutrients ( particularly phosphorus ) from the earth ; in exchange , the fungus receives carbohydrates from photosynthesis . In North America , associations with oak and pine are usual , while in India , it has been noted to grow commonly with chir pine ( Pinus roxburghii ) and sal ( Shorea robusta ) . The false earthstar is found on the ground in open fields , often scattered or in groups , especially in nutrient @-@ poor , sandy or loamy soils . It has also been reported to grow on rocks , preferring acid substrates like slate and granite , while avoiding substrates rich in lime . In Nepal , fruit bodies have been collected at elevations of 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . Fruit bodies typically appear in autumn , although the dry fruit bodies are persistent and may last up to several years . Gelatinipulvinella astraeicola is a leotiaceous fungus with minute , gelatinous , pulvinate ( cushion @-@ shaped ) apothecia , known to grow only on the inner surface of the rays of dead Astraeus species , including A. hygrometricus . The species has a cosmopolitan distribution except for arctic , alpine and cold temperate regions ; it is common in temperate and tropical regions of the world . It has been collected in Africa , Asia , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America . = = Bioactive compounds = = Mushroom polysaccharides from a number of species have attracted research interest for their immunomodulatory and antitumor properties . Extracts from A. hygrometricus containing the polysaccharide named AE2 were found to inhibit the growth of several tumor cell lines in laboratory tests , and stimulated the growth of splenocytes , thymocytes , and bone marrow cells from mice . The extract also stimulated mouse cells associated with the immune system ; specifically , it enhanced the activity of mouse natural killer cells , stimulated macrophages to produce nitric oxide , and enhanced production of cytokines . The activation of macrophages by AE2 might be mediated by a mitogen @-@ activated protein kinase pathway of signal transduction . AE2 is made of the simple sugars mannose , glucose , and fucose in a 1 : 2 : 1 ratio . In addition to the previously known steroid compounds ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ diene @-@ 3 @-@ ol acetate and ergosta @-@ 4,6,8- ( 14 ) , 22 @-@ tetraene @-@ 3 @-@ one , three unique triterpenes — derivatives of 3 @-@ hydroxy @-@ lanostane — have been isolated from fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus . The compounds , named astrahygrol , 3 @-@ epi @-@ astrahygrol , and astrahygrone ( 3 @-@ oxo @-@ 25S @-@ lanost @-@ 8 @-@ eno @-@ 26 @,@
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217
22 @-@ lactone ) , have δ @-@ lactone ( a six @-@ membered ring ) in the side chain — a chemical feature previously unknown in the Basidiomycetes . A previously unknown steryl ester ( 3β , 5α @-@ dihydroxy- ( 22E , 24R ) -ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ dien @-@ 6α @-@ yl palmitate ) has been isolated from mycelia grown in liquid culture . The compound has a polyhydroxylated ergostane @-@ type nucleus . Ethanol extracts of the fruit body are high in antioxidant activity , and have been shown in laboratory tests to have anti @-@ inflammatory activity comparable to the drug diclofenac . Studies with mouse models have also demonstrated hepatoprotective ( liver @-@ protecting ) ability , possibly by restoring diminished levels of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase caused by experimental exposure to the liver @-@ damaging chemical carbon tetrachloride . = = Traditional beliefs = = This earthstar has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as a hemostatic agent ; the spore dust is applied externally to stop wound bleeding and reduce chilblains . Two Indian forest tribes , the Baiga and the Bharia of Madhya Pradesh , have been reported to use the fruit bodies medicinally . The spore mass is blended with mustard seed oil , and used as a salve against burns . The Blackfoot of North America called the fungus " fallen stars " , considering them to be stars fallen to the earth during supernatural events . = Paul Thomas Anderson = Paul Thomas Anderson ( born June 26 , 1970 ) also known as P.T. Anderson , is an American film director , screenwriter and producer . Interested in film @-@ making at a young age , Anderson was encouraged by his father Ernie Anderson ( a disc jockey , and television and radio announcer / voiceover artist ) to become a filmmaker . In 1993 , he wrote and directed a short film titled Cigarettes & Coffee on a budget of $ 20 @,@ 000 . After he attended the Sundance Institute , Anderson had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature film , a neo @-@ noir crime thriller titled Hard Eight , in 1996 . Anderson received critical and commercial success for his film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , set during the Golden Age of Porn in the 1970s and 1980s . His third feature , Magnolia ( 1999 ) , received wide acclaim despite struggling at the box office . In 2002 , the romantic comedy @-@ drama Punch @-@ Drunk Love , Anderson 's fourth feature , was released to generally favorable reviews . After a five @-@ year absence , the epic drama There Will Be Blood was released to critical acclaim in 2007 . In 2012 , Anderson 's sixth film , the drama The Master , was released to critical acclaim . His seventh film , the crime comedy @-@ drama Inherent Vice , based on the novel of the same name by Thomas Pynchon , was released in 2014 , to general acclaim . Anderson has been nominated for six Academy Awards over the course of his career , while his films have earned a further fourteen Academy Award nominations for cast and crew . = = Early life = = Anderson was born June 26 , 1970 , in Studio City , California , to Edwina ( née Gough ) and Ernie Anderson . Ernie was an actor who was the voice of ABC and a Cleveland television late @-@ night horror movie host known as " Ghoulardi " ( after whom Anderson later named his production company ) . Anderson grew up in the San Fernando Valley . He is third youngest of nine children , and had a troubled relationship with his mother but was close with his father , who encouraged him to become a writer or director . Anderson attended a number of schools , including Buckley in Sherman Oaks , John Thomas Dye School , Campbell Hall School , Cushing Academy and Montclair Prep . Anderson was involved in filmmaking at a young age and never really had an alternative plan to directing films . He made his first movie when he was eight years old and started making movies on a Betamax video camera which his dad bought in 1982 when he was twelve years old . He later started using 8 mm film but realized that video was easier . He began writing in adolescence , and at 17 years old he began experimenting with a Bolex sixteen millimeter camera . After years of experimenting with " standard fare " , he wrote and filmed his first real production as a senior in high school at Montclair Prep using money he earned cleaning cages at a pet store . The film was a thirty @-@ minute mockumentary shot on video called The Dirk Diggler Story ( 1988 ) , about a pornography star ; the story was inspired by John Holmes
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218
, who also served as a major inspiration for Boogie Nights . = = Career = = = = = Early career = = = Anderson spent two semesters as an English major at Emerson College , and only two days at New York University before he began his career as a production assistant on television films , music videos and game shows in Los Angeles and New York City . Feeling that the material shown to him at film school turned the experience into " homework or a chore " , Anderson decided to make a twenty @-@ minute film that would be his " college " . For $ 20 @,@ 000 , made up of gambling winnings , his girlfriend 's credit card , and money his father set aside for him for college , Anderson made Cigarettes & Coffee ( 1993 ) , a short film connecting multiple story lines with a twenty @-@ dollar bill . The film was screened at the 1993 Sundance Festival Shorts Program . He decided to expand the film into a feature @-@ length film and was subsequently invited to the 1994 Sundance Feature Film Program . At the Sundance Feature Film Program , Michael Caton @-@ Jones served as Anderson 's mentor ; he saw Anderson as someone with " talent and a fully formed creative voice but not much hands @-@ on experience " and gave him some hard and practical lessons . = = = 1990s = = = = = = = Hard Eight = = = = While at the Sundance Feature Film Program , Anderson already had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature . In 1996 , Anderson made his first full @-@ length feature , Sydney , which was retitled Hard Eight ( 1996 ) . Upon completion of the film , Rysher re @-@ edited it . Anderson , who still had the workprint of his original cut , submitted the film , which was accepted and screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival . Anderson was able to get his version released but only after he retitled the film and raised the $ 200 @,@ 000 necessary to finish it - he , Philip Baker Hall , Gwyneth Paltrow and John C. Reilly contributed the funding . The version that was released was Anderson 's and the acclaim from the film launched his career . = = = = Boogie Nights = = = = Anderson began working on the script for his next feature film during his troubles with Hard Eight , completing the script in 1995 . The result was Anderson 's breakout for the drama film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , which is based on his short The Dirk Diggler Story . The script was noticed by New Line Cinema 's president , Michael De Luca , who felt " totally gaga " reading it . It was released on October 10 , 1997 and was a critical and commercial success . The film revived the career of Burt Reynolds , and provided breakout roles for Mark Wahlberg and Julianne Moore . At the 70th Academy Awards ceremony , the film received three Academy Award nominations , including for Best Supporting Actor ( Burt Reynolds ) , Best Supporting Actress ( Julianne Moore ) and Best Original Screenplay . = = = = Magnolia = = = = After the success of Boogie Nights , New Line told Anderson that he could do whatever he wanted for his next film and granted him creative control . Though Anderson initially wanted to make a film that was " intimate and small @-@ scale " , the script " kept blossoming " . The resulting film was the ensemble piece Magnolia ( 1999 ) , which tells the story of the peculiar interaction of several individuals in the San Fernando Valley . Anderson used the music of Aimee Mann as a basis and inspiration for the film , commissioning her to write eight new songs . At the 72nd Academy Awards , Magnolia received three nominations , for Best Actor in a Supporting Role ( Tom Cruise ) , Best Original Song for " Save Me " by Aimee Mann and Best Original Screenplay . Anderson stated after the film 's release that " what I really feel is that Magnolia is , for better or worse , the best movie I 'll ever make . " = = = 2000s = = = = = = = Punch @-@ Drunk Love = = = = After the release of Magnolia , Anderson stated that he would like to work with comedic actor Adam Sandler in the future and that he was determined to make his next film 90 minutes long . His next feature was the romantic comedy @-@ drama film Punch @-@ Drunk Love ( 2002 ) , starring Sandler , with Emily Watson portraying his love interest . The story centers on a beleaguered small @-@ business owner ( Sandler ) with anger issues and seven emasculating sisters . A subplot in the film was partly based on David Phillips ( also called The Pudding Guy ) . Sandler received critical praise for his role in his first major departure from the mainstream
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219
comedies that had made him a star . At the 2002 Cannes Film Festival , Anderson won the Best Director Award and was nominated for the Palme d 'Or . = = = = There Will Be Blood = = = = There Will Be Blood ( 2007 ) was loosely based on the Upton Sinclair novel Oil ! . The budget of the film was $ 25 million , and it earned $ 76 @.@ 1 million worldwide . Daniel Day @-@ Lewis starred and won an Oscar for Best Leading Actor for his role . The film received eight nominations overall at the 80th Academy Awards . Paul Dano received a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actor . Anderson was nominated for Best Director from the Directors Guild of America . The film also received eight Academy Award nominations , tying with No Country for Old Men for the most nominations . Anderson received nominations for Best Picture , Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay , losing all three to the Coen Brothers for No Country for Old Men . There Will Be Blood was regarded by some critics as one of the greatest films of the decade , some parties further declaring it one of the most accomplished American films of the modern era ; David Denby of The New Yorker wrote " the young writer @-@ director Paul Thomas Anderson has now done work that bears comparison to the greatest achievements of Griffith and Ford " , while Richard Schickel proclaimed it " one of the most wholly original American movies ever made " . = = = 2010s = = = = = = = The Master = = = = In December 2009 , Anderson was working on a new script tentatively titled The Master , about a " charismatic intellectual " who starts a new religion in the 1950s . An associate of Anderson stated that the idea for the film had been in Anderson 's head for about twelve years . Though the film makes no reference to the movement , it has " long been widely assumed to be based on Scientology . " The Master was released on September 14 , 2012 by The Weinstein Company in the United States and Canada to critical acclaim . The film received three nominations at the 85th Academy Awards : Joaquin Phoenix for Best Leading Actor , Philip Seymour Hoffman for Best Supporting Actor and Amy Adams for Best Supporting Actress . = = = = Inherent Vice = = = = Production of Anderson 's adaptation of Thomas Pynchon 's 2009 novel Inherent Vice began in May 2013 and ended in August of the same year . The film marked the first time that Pynchon allowed his work to be adapted for the screen and saw Anderson work with Phoenix for a second time . The supporting cast includes Owen Wilson , Reese Witherspoon , Jena Malone , Martin Short , Benicio Del Toro , Katherine Waterston , Josh Brolin , Peter McRobbie , Michael K. Williams and Eric Roberts . The film received two nominations at the 87th Academy Awards : Anderson for Best Adapted Screenplay and Mark Bridges for Best Costume Design . = = = = Junun = = = = In 2015 , Anderson directed a 54 @-@ minute documentary , Junun , about the making of an album of the same name by Jonny Greenwood , Israeli composer Shye Ben Tzur and a group of Indian musicians . Most of the performances were recorded at the 15th @-@ century Mehrangarh Fort in the Indian state of Rajasthan . Junun premiered at the 2015 New York Film Festival . = = = = Future projects = = = = Anderson is currently working on a drama about the New York fashion industry in the 1950s , which is expected to star Daniel Day @-@ Lewis in his first acting role since Lincoln in 2012 . = = = Other work = = = Anderson was a standby director during the 2005 filming of Robert Altman 's A Prairie Home Companion for insurance purposes , as Altman was 80 years old at the time . In addition to films , Anderson has directed several music videos , including several for musician Fiona Apple . In 2008 , Anderson co @-@ wrote and directed a 70 @-@ minute play at the Largo Theatre , comprising a series of vignettes starring Maya Rudolph and Fred Armisen , with a live musical score by Jon Brion . = = Influences and style = = = = = Influences = = = Anderson only attended film school for two days , preferring to learn the craft by watching films by the filmmakers he liked , as well as watching films accompanied by director 's audio commentary . Anderson has cited Martin Scorsese , Robert Altman , Jonathan Demme , Stanley Kubrick , Orson Welles and Max Ophüls , as his main influences as a filmmaker . = = = Themes and style = = = Anderson is known for films set in the San Fernando Valley with realistically flawed and desperate characters . Among the themes dealt with in Anderson 's films are dysfunctional familial relationships , alienation , surrogate families , regret , loneliness , destiny
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220
, the power of forgiveness , and ghosts of the past . Anderson makes frequent use of repetition to build emphasis and thematic consistency . In Boogie Nights , Magnolia , Punch Drunk Love and The Master , the phrase " I didn 't do anything " is used at least once , developing themes of responsibility and denial . Anderson 's films are known for their bold visual style which includes stylistic trademarks such as constantly moving camera , steadicam @-@ based long takes , memorable use of music , and multilayered audiovisual imagery . Anderson also tends to reference the Book of Exodus , either explicitly or subtly , such as in recurring references to Exodus 8 : 2 in Magnolia , which chronicles the plague of frogs , culminating with the literal raining of frogs in the film 's climax , or the title and themes in There Will Be Blood , a phrase that can be found in Exodus 7 : 19 , which details the plague of blood . Within his first three films , Hard Eight , Boogie Nights and Magnolia , Anderson explored themes of dysfunctional families , alienation and loneliness . Boogie Nights and Magnolia were noted for their large ensemble casts , which Anderson returned to in Inherent Vice . In Punch @-@ Drunk Love , Anderson explored similar themes but expressed a different visual style , shedding the influences and references of his earlier films , being more surreal and having a heightened sense of reality . It was also short , compared to his previous two films , at 90 minutes . There Will Be Blood stood apart from his first four films but shared similar themes and style such as flawed characters , moving camera , memorable music , and a lengthy running time . The film was more overtly engaged with politics than his previous films had been , examining capitalism and themes such as savagery , optimism , and obsession . The Master dealt with " ideas about American personality , success , rootlessness , master @-@ disciple dynamics , and father @-@ son mutually assured destruction . " All of his films deal with American themes with business versus art in Boogie Nights , ambition in There Will Be Blood , self @-@ reinvention in The Master . = = = Frequent collaborators = = = Anderson frequently collaborates with many actors and crew , carrying them over from film to film . Anderson has referred to his regular actors as " my little rep company " that has included John C. Reilly , Philip Baker Hall , Julianne Moore , William H. Macy , Melora Walters , and most prominently , the late Philip Seymour Hoffman . Luis Guzmán is also considered an Anderson regular . Hoffman acted in Anderson 's first four films as well as The Master . Except for Paul F. Tompkins , Kevin Breznahan , and Jim Meskimen , who all had equally minor roles in Magnolia , There Will Be Blood had an entirely new cast . Robert Elswit has been cinematographer for all of Anderson 's films except The Master which was shot by Mihai Mălaimare Jr . Jon Brion served as composer for Hard Eight , Magnolia , and Punch @-@ Drunk Love , and Jonny Greenwood of Radiohead for There Will Be Blood , The Master , and Inherent Vice . Anderson also regularly works with producing partners JoAnne Sellar , Scott Rudin , Michael De Luca , and Daniel Lupi as well as casting director Cassandra Kulukundis . = = Personal life = = Anderson dated ( and frequently collaborated with ) singer Fiona Apple for several years during the late 1990s and early 2000s . He has been in a relationship with actress and comedian Maya Rudolph since 2001 . They live together in the San Fernando Valley with their four children : daughters Pearl Bailey ( born October 2005 ) , Lucille ( born November 2009 ) , and Minnie Ida ( born August 2013 ) and son Jack ( born July 2011 ) . = = Filmography = = = = Awards and recognition = = Anderson has been called " one of the most exciting talents to come along in years " and " among the supreme talents of today . " After the release of Boogie Nights and Magnolia , Anderson was praised as a wunderkind . In his 2002 interview with Jan Aghed , the director Ingmar Bergman referenced Magnolia as an example of the strength of American cinema . In 2004 , Anderson was ranked twenty @-@ first on The Guardian 's list of the forty best living filmmakers . In 2007 , Total Film named him the twentieth greatest director of all time and the American Film Institute regarded him as " one of American film 's modern masters . " In 2012 , The Guardian ranked him number one on its list of " The 23 Best Film Directors in the World , " writing " his dedication to his craft has intensified , with his disdain for PR and celebrity marking him out as the most devout filmmaker of his generation . " In 2013 , Entertainment Weekly named him the eighth @-@ greatest working director , calling him " one of the most dynamic directors to emerge in the
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221
last 20 years . " In a podcast interview with critic Elvis Mitchell , director Sam Mendes referred to Anderson as " a true auteur – and there are very few of those who I would classify as geniuses " , and Ben Affleck in his acceptance speech for the Golden Globe Award for Best Director said " Paul Thomas Anderson , who I think is like Orson Welles . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote that " The Master , the sixth film from the 42 @-@ year @-@ old writer @-@ director , affirms his position as the foremost filmmaking talent of his generation . Anderson is a rock star , the artist who knows no limits . " As of 2016 , Anderson is the only person to win all three director prizes from the three major international film festivals ( Cannes , Berlin , Venice ) . = The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman = The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman is a poem by the 15th @-@ century Scottish poet Robert Henryson and part of his collection of moral fables known as the Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian . It is written in Middle Scots . As with the other tales in the collection , appended to it is a moralitas which elaborates on the moral that the fable is supposed to contain . However , the appropriateness of the moralitas for the tale itself has been questioned . The tale combines two motifs . Firstly , a husbandman tilling the fields with his new oxen makes a rash oath aloud to give them to the wolf ; when the wolf overhears this , he attempts to make sure that the man fulfills his promise . The fox mediates a solution by speaking to them individually ; eventually he fools the wolf into following him to claim his supposed reward for dropping the case , and tricks him into a draw @-@ well . The moralitas connects the wolf to the wicked man , the fox to the devil , and the husbandman to the godly man . A probable source for the tale is Petrus Alfonsi 's Disciplina Clericalis , containing the same motifs , and William Caxton 's Aesop 's Fables — though the tale is a beast fable , not Aesopic . = = Source = = A probable source of the tale is Petrus Alfonsi 's Disciplina clericalis , which has the same three motifs : the rash promise of the husbandman ; the wolf mistaking the moon for cheese ; and the wolf that descends into the well via a bucket , thereby trapping himself and freeing the fox . However , the discussion of legality and the questioning of language that take place alongside these motifs are entirely Henryson 's invention . Whereas the moral of Alfonsi 's tale explains that the wolf lost both the oxen and the cheese because he " relinquished what was present for what was to come " ( Latin : pro futuro quod presens erat dimisit ) , Henryson 's moralitas more fully involves the husbandman . Another source may be Aesop 's Fables as published by William Caxton — scholar John MacQueen considers this more likely than Disciplina clericalis — although the tale itself is not Aesopic but rather of the beast fable ( also beast @-@ epic ) genre . The plots of such works are more complicated than their Aesopic counterpart , tend more towards ribaldry , and feature the fox making a victim of the wolf . = = Synopsis = = = = = Tale = = = A husbandman tilling the fields with his new , untrained oxen is made furious by their wrecking of the land . In his anger he makes the rash oath that the wolf " mot have you all at anis ! [ may , at once ] " . However , the wolf is lying nearby with the fox , and , overhearing it , promises to make him stay true to his word . Eventually the oxen calm down , but on the way back home the wolf jumps into their path . The wolf asks where the husbandman is driving them , since they are not his , to which he confirms that they are and asks why he is being stopped since he never offended the wolf before . The wolf reminds the husbandman of his earlier declaration , to which he replies that a man may say things that do not mean anything . They argue , and the husbandman reproaches the wolf for not having a witness ; in response , he produces the fox . The creature takes it upon himself to mediate the dispute , and takes each aside in turn . To the husbandman he says that he would lend his expertise to help him were it not for the " grit coist and expence " of doing so ; the husbandman offers him half a dozen of the fattest hens he has , to which the fox acedes and goes off . To
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the wolf he says that the husbandman has offered an unparalleled block of cheese in exchange for him dropping the case . The wolf , after some complaint , agrees to this and the two proceed through the woods after the prize — all the while the fox considers how to trick the wolf . Eventually , as the wolf complains of the fruitlessness of their quest , they arrive at a draw @-@ well with buckets on each end of a rope . Seeing the reflection of the moon in the water at the bottom of the well , the wolf believes there to be cheese down there and lowers the fox down to pick it up . When he complains that it is too heavy for him to lift alone , the wolf jumps into the other bucket and descends to help . However , this pulls up the other bucket , into which the fox has jumped , and so the two swap places ; the wolf at the bottom of the well and the fox safely escaped . The narrator professes that he does not know who helped the wolf out of the well , but that the tale is at an end . = = = Moralitas = = = The wolf is likened to a wicked man who oppresses others . The fox is likened to the devil . The farmer is likened to the godly man , with whom the fiend finds fault . The woods where the wolf was cheated are corrupting goods that man longs to get . The cheese represents covetousness ; the well that contains it is fraud and fantasy , which draws men downwards into hell . = = Analysis = = As with other tales in the collection , the moralitas of The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman can be considered at odds with the tale itself . Lianne Farber highlights a number of these discrepancies , and says that the allegory " does not hold true in any traditional sense " . Amongst the inconsistencies is that the fox , not the wolf , is the figure that argues with and finds fault in the husbandman ; the " woods of the world " are not traversed by the husbandman , in spite of the moralitas suggesting it is applicable to all men ; Farber argues that even assuming the moral to be true is problematic , since it apparently suggests that the godly man must bribe the figure of the judge , and that this does not affect his godly status . Furthermore , the absence of the legal discussion and the binding quality of words from the moralitas suggests to Farber that the " intricate legal framework … has no impact whatsoever in resolving the issues with which it is supposed to deal " . In contrast , Philippa M. Bright considers that the moralitas of this tale , as well as several others , create " an additional sense which co @-@ exists with the literal narrative and extends and complements it thematically " ; treating literal details symbolically and establishing the sense through direct comparisons . According to Dorothy Yamamoto , the significant themes in the tale are " solidity and vacancy , substance and illusion " . The cheese that apparently resides in the well is only an illusion , not a solid object , and similarly the fox creates a surface reconciliation between the wolf and the husbandman , but which betrays his real intentions . Through their frequent misuse , words that should convey real value are emptied of meaning . As an example , Yamamoto highlights the fox 's taill on which the wolf and husbandman make their pledge — which body part she says is used by the fox in other tales to blind his foes , and is thereby a highly inappropriate object to use . = = = Modern edition = = = Henryson , Robert ( 2009 ) . The Testament of Cresseid & seven fables . Trans. by Seamus Heaney . London : Faber and Faber . ISBN 9780571249282 . = Joe Nathan = Joseph Michael " Joe " Nathan ( born November 22 , 1974 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Chicago Cubs of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . Nathan started out his baseball career as a shortstop in high school and while at Stony Brook University , but converted to a pitcher after being drafted by the San Francisco Giants . He worked his way through the minor leagues , alternating between spots in the rotation and the bullpen . After a few years of splitting time between the majors and the minors , Nathan had a breakout season as a setup man for the Giants in 2003 . That offseason , Nathan was traded to the Minnesota Twins and became their closer . From 2004 to 2009 , Nathan was considered one of the top closers in MLB with four All @-@ Star appearances and a league @-@ leading 246 saves . In 2010 , Nathan underwent Tommy John surgery to repair a torn ulnar collateral ligament in his throwing elbow and missed the entire season . On April 3 , 2011 , Nathan recorded his first save since his injury against the Toronto Blue Jays and later that year in July , Nathan regained the role as closer . On August 10 , 2011 , he became the Twins all @-@
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time leader in saves with his 255th in a game against the Boston Red Sox . After the 2011 season , Nathan left the Twins via free agency to sign with the Texas Rangers , becoming an All @-@ Star again in 2012 and 2013 . On April 8 , 2013 , he earned his 300th save . After the 2013 season , Nathan left the Rangers via free agency to sign with the Detroit Tigers . Nathan is currently 8th on the all @-@ time saves list . = = Early career = = Nathan graduated from Pine Bush High School in Pine Bush , New York in 1992 , where he played basketball and baseball and ran track . Only Division III colleges showed minimal interest in him , and he ended up at Stony Brook University largely because his high school assistant coach Jeff Masionet and Stony Brook baseball coach Matt Senk knew each other as former teammates in the State University of New York at Cortland baseball program . = = College career = = He first played shortstop for the then Division III Stony Brook Patriots ( now Division I and called the Seawolves ) , at Stony Brook University in Long Island , New York . Nathan became a two @-@ time Academic All @-@ American and graduating as a member of the Golden Key International Honour Society . During his tenure there , professional baseball scouts began to notice his good arm and pitcher 's body , and on the day of a rainout , unfortunately , " literally someone from every organization " came to watch him pitch . He was drafted in the sixth round ( 159th overall ) of the amateur draft by the San Francisco Giants in 1995 , and signed the next day , June 2 . His college jersey number has since been retired , and he was awarded the University Medal , the highest recognition given by SUNY / Stony Brook . He also played for the Fairfield Stallions in the New England Collegiate Baseball League in 1994 . In August 2008 , he gave the SUNY / Stony Brook athletics department $ 500 @,@ 000 for a new baseball facility . In recognition of this " lead gift " from the Joe Nathan Charitable Foundation , the college named it " Joe Nathan Field . " = = Professional career = = = = = Minor Leagues = = = He began his minor league career in Class A for the Bellingham Giants . After an unsuccessful year at the plate the Giants tried to convert Nathan into a pitcher , but he refused and left to return to Stony Brook for a year , graduating with a degree in business management . He gave more thought to his future in baseball , however , and after graduation decided to return to the Giants organization and developed into a standout pitching prospect . After a season with the Salem @-@ Keizer Volcanoes , he pitched for both the A and AA levels for ( the San Jose Giants and Shreveport Captains ) in 1998 as a starter . During his tenure with San Jose he started 22 games with an ERA of 3 @.@ 32 and 118 strikeouts , leading the Class A Giants to the California League championship . Promoted to AA Shreveport in 1999 , he pitched in only two games before being promoted to the parent club in 1999 . = = = San Francisco Giants ( 1999 – 2003 ) = = = Nathan was promoted to the San Francisco Giants on April 20 , 1999 , taking the roster spot of superstar slugger Barry Bonds , who went on the disabled list after left elbow surgery . He made his major league debut the next day , pitching seven shutout innings and winning his first major league decision against the Florida Marlins , 4 – 0 . He then divided the rest of the season between the AAA Fresno Grizzlies and the Giants , going 6 – 4 with the Griz and 7 – 4 and 4 @.@ 18 with the Giants , earning his first career save on May 16 against the Houston Astros . After a short stint in the minors in 2000 , Nathan spent most of the season in the majors , finishing 5 – 2 and even hitting two home runs . But he struggled with his control , walking 63 in 931 ⁄ 3 innings and ending the season with a 5 @.@ 21 ERA . He was on the disabled list twice : from May 17 to June 6 for right shoulder tendinitis and from July 14 to August 18 for an inflamed right shoulder , necessitating arthroscopic surgery on the afflicted shoulder at the end of the season . Nathan divided 2001 between the AAA Fresno Grizzlies and AA Shreveport both starting and relieving , finishing with a disappointing combined 3 – 11 record and an ERA over 7 . Nathan improved slightly in 2002 to 6 – 12 with an ERA of over 5 at Fresno , but finally overcame his postsurgical struggles to return to the Giants in September with 32 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings in relief . Nathan spent all of 2003 with the Giants in the bullpen after marrying Lisa Lemoncelli , his girlfriend of five years , in November 2002 . This was a breakout year for Nathan , starting the
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224
season with 23 scoreless innings en route to a 12 – 4 record in his first full year as a reliever . His 78 appearances put him high on the list of most @-@ used pitchers for the season as one of the best setup men in the NL , allowing no runs in 15 appearances from July 18 to August 20 . His 12 wins in relief led the majors . The Giants won the National League West by 151 ⁄ 2 games and drew the Florida Marlins , the National League 's wild card winner , in the NLDS . Nathan was hit hard in that series , blowing his only save opportunity . His team fared no better , winning Game 1 behind Jason Schmidt 's complete game shutout before dropping the next three . = = = Minnesota Twins ( 2004 – 2011 ) = = = = = = = 2004 = = = = Nathan was traded to the Minnesota Twins on November 16 , 2003 , in one of the more lopsided trades in San Francisco Giants history . The Giants sent Nathan to the Twins along with pitchers Boof Bonser and Francisco Liriano for catcher A. J. Pierzynski and cash . The Twins decided to make Nathan their closer starting in 2004 , risky move considering that Nathan had notched only one save in six opportunities as a Giant , but he won the job over J. C. Romero and Jesse Crain in spring training . He was signed to a three @-@ year deal on March 4 , 2004 and agreed to an incentive @-@ laden contract with a base salary of $ 440 @,@ 000 . He started off the season strong , allowing no runs in 20 appearances and earning 14 saves from April 15 to June 4 . He was named AL Co @-@ Player of the Week starting on May 10 with four saves in four innings and four appearances , facing the minimum number of batters each time . His credentials for the first half of the season , 23 saves in 24 opportunities with a 1 @.@ 19 ERA in 26 appearances , earned him his first All @-@ Star appearance in the 2004 MLB All @-@ Star Game . He was the only Twin on the squad and pitched a perfect seventh inning , getting Bobby Abreu to strike out , Mike Lowell to fly out and Miguel Cabrera to strike out . His numbers were impressive through the rest of the season , allowing no runs between June 9 and August 18 , and between August 25 and September 16 @.@ and finishing 2004 with 44 saves in 47 opportunities and an ERA of 1 @.@ 62 . The Twins won the AL Central division and faced the New York Yankees in the ALDS . Nathan picked up his first postseason save in Game 1 , but blew his second opportunity in Game 2 as the Twins went on to lose the ensuing three games . His outstanding season earned him MVP and Cy Young votes , finishing fourth for Cy Young and 12th for MVP . His first child , a son named Cole , was born on November 9 , 2004 . = = = = 2005 = = = = During spring training in 2005 , Nathan signed a two @-@ year deal that includes a club option for 2008 . He picked up from where he left off in 2004 , allowing no earned runs in 15 appearances from April 5 to May 10 . He also had streaks of 13 and 12 consecutive save opportunities converted between April and July . As a result , Nathan was named the American League Player of the Week for the week of June 27 . Nathan earned another All @-@ Star appearance in 2005 for his pitching in the first half of the season . Although his record was 1 – 3 with a 3 @.@ 57 ERA in 37 appearances , he had struck out 43 batters in 351 ⁄ 3 innings pitched , and lead the AL with 23 saves in 25 opportunities . Nathan pitched in the 2005 MLB All @-@ Star Game alongside fellow pitcher Johan Santana . Pitching the eighth inning of the game , he got Morgan Ensberg to pop out for the first out , then gave out a double to Moisés Alou . Felipe López singled , and Nathan was able to get Miguel Cabrera and Luis Castillo out , but not before Alou scored . Nathan had a brilliant second half as he went 6 – 1 with 18 saves in 20 chances , and posted an ERA of 1 @.@ 76 . He finished the season with a 7 – 4 record , a 2 @.@ 70 ERA , 43 saves in 48 opportunities , and 94 strikeouts . Nathan also became the third pitcher in club history to post consecutive 40 save seasons . The Twins however missed the playoffs . = = = = 2006 = = = = Before the 2006 season began , Nathan participated in the 2006 World Baseball Classic as one of the 30 players selected for the Team USA roster . He played the first game , a 2 – 0 win against Mexico , striking out the side while allowing one hit . He also pitched the 4 – 3 victory against Japan , again throwing a shutout inning . Nathan went on to pitch the last game for the
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225
United States in the ninth inning against Mexico , again not allowing a run and striking out two . As the regular 2006 season began for the Twins , Nathan started off strong , allowing no runs from the start of the season to April 25 . He also converted 10 straight save opportunities from April 11 to June 17 . On June 24 , Nathan recorded his one hundredth career save against the Chicago Cubs , and 99th save with Minnesota . Four days later he got save number 101 , his hundredth save with Minnesota against the Los Angeles Dodgers , becoming the fifth pitcher in Twins history to achieve that mark . Despite putting up great numbers during the 2006 season , Nathan was not selected to the All @-@ Star Game . He continued to pitch well throughout the season , passing Eddie Guardado for second on the Twins ' all @-@ time save list when he earned his 117th save against the Detroit Tigers on September 9 . Nathan was also given the Major League Baseball Delivery Man of the Month award for July , going nine for nine in save opportunities and posting a 0 @.@ 75 ERA for the month . He finished the season with some of his best numbers to date : a 7 – 0 record , a 1 @.@ 58 ERA , 95 strikeouts , 36 saves , an 18th @-@ place finish in MVP voting , and a fifth @-@ place finish in Cy Young voting . His 61 games finished were also good for the AL lead and opponents batted just .158 against him , a career high . With 36 saves in 38 opportunities , Nathan also became the first pitcher for the organization to earn 35 saves in three straight seasons . The Twins won the division on the last day of the regular season , but were swept by the Oakland Athletics in the ALDS as Nathan made one scoreless appearance . = = = = 2007 = = = = Nathan continued as the Twins ' closer for the 2007 season . He had a stretch between July and August where he gave up just two earned runs and converted all 12 save chances . Once again despite Nathan 's numbers , he was not picked for the All @-@ Star team . Nathan finished the year by converting 37 of 41 save opportunities with a record of 4 – 2 and an ERA of 1 @.@ 88 . The Twins however had a disappointing season and missed the playoffs . On September 25 , 2007 , Nathan was named as one of 10 finalists for the " DHL Delivery Man of the Year Award " , the third year in a row that he has been a finalist . On October 29 , the Twins exercised Nathan 's club option for 2008 . = = = = 2008 = = = = Though Nathan was slated to make $ 6 million in 2008 , on March 24 , 2008 , the Minnesota Twins re @-@ signed Nathan to a four @-@ year , $ 47 million contract through 2011 . The deal also includes a $ 12 @.@ 5 million club option for 2012 with a $ 2 million buyout . Nathan started the season with 13 consecutive saves but blew his first save of the season on May 27 by giving up a three @-@ run inside @-@ the @-@ park home run on a misplayed fly ball by teammate Delmon Young ; however , Nathan got two outs to end the 9th inning and the Twins went on to win the game . By converting 27 of 29 save opportunities prior to the All @-@ Star break , Nathan was selected as a reserve player for the American League in the 2008 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game . Nathan finished the year with 39 saves and a career best 1 @.@ 33 ERA . He also had a career high six blown saves and surrendered his first career walk @-@ off home run to Victor Martinez on September 16 . Nathan ranked seventh in the majors in saves and had the lowest ERA of the top 30 save leaders in 2008 . = = = = 2009 = = = = Nathan had a strong season , as he was selected as an All @-@ Star for the 2009 MLB All Star Game , and he finished the year with 2 @.@ 10 ERA with 47 saves in 52 opportunities , which was a franchise record . He shared honors for the AL Rolaids Relief Man award with Mariano Rivera . However , Nathan did not fare as well in the postseason ; in Game 2 of the American League Division Series against the New York Yankees , with the Twins leading 3 – 1 in the bottom of the ninth inning , Nathan blew the save when he surrendered a game @-@ tying two @-@ run home run to Alex Rodriguez . It was the first home run Nathan had allowed with men on base all year . The Yankees later won the game in the 11th inning and swept the series . On October 11 , 2009 , after the Twins lost the final game at the Metrodome ( a 4 – 1 playoff loss to the Yankees that eliminated them ) , Nathan took a pile of dirt from the mound as a keepsake from the Metrodome .
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226
= = = = 2010 = = = = On March 9 , 2010 , it was reported that Nathan had a tear in his ulnar collateral ligament . On March 21 , after attempting to pitch without having surgery , Nathan decided to undergo Tommy John surgery , missing the entire 2010 season . = = = = 2011 = = = = Nathan earned his first save at Target Field on April 8 , 2011 . He emptied the container of dirt he took from the Metrodome on the mound at Target Field before pitching . On April 18 , Nathan was replaced at closer by Matt Capps after going 3 for 5 in save opportunities . On May 28 , 2011 , Nathan was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list with a right flexor muscle strain . Chuck James was called up to take his place . On August 10 , 2011 , against the Boston Red Sox , Nathan became the Twins all @-@ time saves leader with 255 , passing Rick Aguilera . After the Twins declined his $ 12 @.@ 5 million club option and exercised a $ 2 million buyout , Nathan became a free agent at the end of the 2011 season . Nathan is currently the Minnesota Twins leader in career saves . = = = Texas Rangers ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = = On November 21 , 2011 , Nathan agreed to terms on a two @-@ year deal with the Texas Rangers worth $ 14 @.@ 5 million guaranteed with an option for a third year at $ 9 million or a $ 500 @,@ 000 buyout . Nathan had a strong first season with the Rangers , as he was selected to the represent the Rangers at the 2012 MLB All Star Game , the fifth all star selection of his career . He finished his 2012 campaign with 37 saves and an ERA of 2 @.@ 80 . During a game against the Tampa Bay Rays on April 8 , 2013 , Nathan earned his 300th career save after striking out Ben Zobrist looking on a controversial strike call made by home plate umpire Marty Foster . TV cameras captured Nathan saying " Wow ! " after the call . Nathan was selected to his sixth All Star Game in 2013 , and earned the save for the American League . Nathan improved on his 2012 campaign , finishing his 2013 season with 43 saves and an ERA of 1 @.@ 39 . Nathan finished his Rangers career with an overall record of 9 – 7 , 80 saves , a 2 @.@ 08 ERA and 0 @.@ 98 WHIP . = = = Detroit Tigers ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = = On December 4 , 2013 , the Tigers signed Nathan to a two @-@ year , $ 20 million contract , with a club option for 2016 . This reunited him with former teammate and fellow ex @-@ Twins great , Torii Hunter along with Rangers teammate Ian Kinsler . On May 5 , 2014 , Nathan recorded his 347th career save , tying him with Randy Myers for ninth on the all @-@ time saves list . Two days later , Nathan recorded career save number 348 , putting him alone at ninth on the all @-@ time saves list . On June 9 , Nathan recorded career save 358 , tying him with Troy Percival for 8th on the all @-@ time saves list . On August 23 , 2014 , Nathan recorded his 368th career save , passing up Jeff Reardon for 7th place on the all @-@ time saves list . In a September 16 game against the Minnesota Twins , Nathan blew his seventh save of the season , surpassing his previous career high of six blown saves when he pitched for the Twins in 2008 . Nathan finished his first season with the Tigers making 62 appearances and recording 35 saves in 42 chances , while posting an ERA of 4 @.@ 81 . He made one postseason appearance in 2014 , retiring all three batters he faced in a non @-@ save situation in Game 2 of the ALDS against the Baltimore Orioles . The Tigers were swept in the series , 3 – 0 . On April 8 , 2015 , Nathan was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to a strained right elbow . During a rehab start with the Toledo Mud Hens on April 22 , Nathan re @-@ injured his elbow after throwing only 10 pitches . The same night , Nathan underwent MRIs , which tested positive revealing tears in his ulnar collateral ligament of the elbow and his pronator teres muscle , and would undergo Tommy John surgery , ending Nathan 's 2015 season . Sources projected that this surgery could end Nathan 's career , but he was not planning to retire yet . During the 2015 offseason , the Tigers declined the $ 10 million club option for Nathan for the 2016 season , and exercised a $ 1 million buyout . = = = Chicago Cubs ( 2016 – present ) = = = On May 17 , 2016 , Nathan signed with the Chicago Cubs . He was immediately placed on the 60 @-@ day disabled list upon signing to continue recovery from
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227
his previous Tommy John surgery . Nathan made his Cubs debut on July 24 , 2016 against the Milwaukee Brewers . He pitched one inning and struck out the side , allowing one hit and one walk . = = Records and notable statistics = = = = Personal life = = Nathan is married to Lisa ( nee Lemoncelli ) . They have two children . Nathan 's foundation , Joe Nathan Charitable Foundation , also called " Save It " , helps raise money and awareness for many different charities . The Nathan 's reside in Knoxville , Tennessee in the offseason . = = Pitching style = = Nathan throws a mix of four pitches . His main pitch , a four @-@ seam fastball was once thrown in the mid @-@ to @-@ upper 90s , but now settles between 91 and 94 mph . His main breaking ball is a hard slider in the upper 80s , occasionally even touching 90 . He uses the slider less frequently against left @-@ handed hitters , preferring to use a curveball in the low 80s . He also uses a two @-@ seam fastball against lefties . His slider is his best swing @-@ and @-@ miss pitch , with a whiff rate of 42 % since 2007 . = Art Ross = Arthur Howey " Art " Ross ( January 13 , 1885 – August 5 , 1964 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player and executive from 1905 until 1954 . Regarded as one of the best defenders of his era by his peers , he was one of the first to skate with the puck up the ice rather than pass it to a forward . He was on Stanley Cup championship teams twice in a playing career that lasted thirteen seasons ; in January 1907 with the Kenora Thistles and 1908 with the Montreal Wanderers . Like other players of the time , Ross played for several different teams and leagues , and is most notable for his time with the Wanderers while they were members of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) and its successor , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . In 1911 he led one of the first organized player strikes over increased pay . When the Wanderers ' home arena burned down in January 1918 , the team ceased operations and Ross retired as a player . After several years as an on @-@ ice official , he was named head coach of the Hamilton Tigers for one season . When the Boston Bruins were formed in 1924 , Ross was hired as the first coach and general manager of the team . He would go on to coach the team on three separate occasions until 1945 and stayed as general manager until his retirement in 1954 . Ross helped the Bruins finish first place in the league ten times and to win the Stanley Cup three times ; Ross personally coached the team to two of those victories . After being hired by the Bruins , Ross , along with his wife and two sons , moved to a suburb of Boston , and became an American citizen in 1938 . He died near Boston in 1964 . Outside of his association with the Bruins , Ross also helped to improve the game . He created a style of hockey puck still used today , and advocated an improved style of goal nets , a change that lasted forty years . In 1947 Ross donated the Art Ross Trophy , awarded to the leading scorer of the NHL regular season . Ross was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1949 . = = Early life = = Ross was born January 13 , 1885 , in Naughton , Ontario . His father , Thomas Barnston Ross , was the head of a Hudson 's Bay Company trading post in the area . The ninth of ten children , Ross grew up speaking both English and Ojibwe , a native Canadian language . Ross moved to Montreal in 1902 to play in organized hockey leagues , living in the affluent Westmount district . He played high school and junior hockey with Lester and Frank Patrick , both of whom were later inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame . Ross and Lester had a financially successful ticket resale business at the Montreal Arena , buying tickets for thirty @-@ five cents and selling them for up to a dollar . = = Playing career = = = = = 1905 – 09 = = = The best hockey players on their high school team , Ross and the Patrick brothers were invited to play occasional games for local league teams in Montreal . Ross first played in an organized league in 1905 , joining Montreal Westmount of the Canadian Amateur Hockey League ( CAHL ) , the top amateur league in Canada . He scored ten goals in eight games during the season . His opponents regarded him as one of the best rushing defencemen . Most defenders at the time either shot the puck down the ice or passed to a forward ; in contrast , Ross skated up the ice , taking the puck into the offensive zone . Later that year , wishing to pursue a career in banking , he moved to Brandon , Manitoba , where he joined the Brandon Elks of the Manitoba Hockey League , the senior league in the province . In 1906
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228
, his first season , he scored six goals in seven games while he recorded six goals in ten games in 1907 . Around this time , the Kenora Thistles , the Manitoba League champions , wanted to strengthen their team for the Stanley Cup challenge against the Montreal Wanderers in Montreal during January 1907 . They paid Ross $ 1 @,@ 000 to play both matches , a common practice at the time , and the Thistles won the Cup . While failing to score , Ross started many plays and proved an important part of the team . Although he played for the opposing team , he received a good reception from the Montreal crowd . Ross did not play for the Thistles when the two teams played for the Cup again in March , which the Wanderers won to take back the Cup . The following year Ross moved back to Montreal . He joined the Wanderers , the team he had helped to defeat , who played in the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) , the successor league to the CAHL as the premier league in the country . He scored eight goals in ten games over the two @-@ month season that lasted from January to March . He helped the team to finish first in the ECAHA and retain the Cup in 1908 with challenges from Ottawa , Winnipeg and Toronto . The Wanderers were Cup champions throughout these challenges , so Ross became the second player to win the Cup with different teams in consecutive years , after Jack Marshall in 1901 and 1902 . In January 1908 , he participated in the first all @-@ star game in sports history , a benefit for the family of former Wanderer defender Hod Stuart , who died the previous summer . Aside from his time with the Wanderers , Ross repeated his practice of playing for other teams who paid for his services in important matches . For the 1909 season Ross demanded a salary of $ 1 @,@ 600 . Although he settled for $ 1 @,@ 200 , the average salary of hockey players at the time was $ 600 . Ross received a cash bonus of $ 400 to play in a Stanley Cup challenge against a team from Edmonton in December 1908 , in which the Wanderers won the two @-@ game , total @-@ goal series 13 – 10 . He finished the season with two goals in nine games . = = = 1909 – 18 = = = A new league , the Canadian Hockey Association ( CHA ) , was formed in late November 1909 . One of the teams , the All @-@ Montreal Hockey Club , hired Ross as a playing @-@ manager , but the league only lasted to mid @-@ January 1910 before disbanding . Ross , who scored four goals in four games in the CHA , then signed with the Haileybury Comets of the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) , a league formed in December 1909 , which proved to be the stronger replacement to the ECAHA as the highest level of hockey in Canada . He received $ 2 @,@ 700 to play in the 1910 season , which lasted from January to March , playing twelve games for the team and finishing with six goals . Before the following season , the NHA imposed a salary cap of $ 5 @,@ 000 per team . The players , including Ross , were unhappy as this would result in a pay decrease , and began looking to form their own league without a cap . Ross wrote to the Montreal Herald , stating " all the players want is a fair deal ... The players are not trying to bulldoze the NHA , but we want to know where we get off at . " The plans were abandoned when they realized all the suitable arenas would be unavailable as they were owned or leased by the NHA . Ross scored four goals in eleven games with the Wanderers , who finished fourth in the five team league . During a match against the Quebec Bulldogs on February 25 , 1911 , Ross knocked out Eddie Oatman in a fight , provoking a massive brawl between the two teams , which the police had to break up . The fight helped to increase the reputation Ross had as a tough player unwilling to back down from any opponent . The following season Ross had eleven goals in nineteen games as the Wanderers improved to second in the league . Prior to the 1913 – 14 NHA season , Ross refused to sign a contract for the Wanderers , requesting a salary increase . As one of the top players on the team , the Wanderers agreed to his demands of $ 1 @,@ 500 for the forthcoming season , in which he finished with four goals and nine points in eighteen games . The next season Ross , again concerned with his salary , began negotiating with other players in the NHA to leave their teams and form a new league that would offer higher wages . These actions resulted in his suspension in November 1914 by Emmett Quinn , president of the NHA . Ross responded by declaring himself a free agent and claiming his contract with the Wanderers was no longer valid . Consequently , although having no technical power to do so , Quinn suspended Ross from all organized hockey . The proposed new league failed to material
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229
ize and Ross applied for reinstatement to the NHA , which was granted at a meeting of the team owners on December 18 , 1914 . The owners realized if they suspended Ross , they would also have to suspend all those he signed , hurting the league . However , Ross 's actions led to his release by the Wanderers . At first he trained with the Montreal Canadiens , then joined the Ottawa Senators . At the conclusion of the 1914 – 15 season , the Senators and Wanderers finished with identical records of fourteen wins and six losses . A two @-@ game , total goal series was played to determine the NHA league champion who would contest the Stanley Cup with the Pacific Coast Hockey Association winner , the Vancouver Millionaires . Ross , who finished with three goals in sixteen games in the season , scored one goal in the first match against the Wanderers , a Senators 4 – 0 victory , and though Ottawa lost the second game 1 – 0 , they won the series , 4 – 1 . To help the Senators stop the Wanderers , who were known for their speed , Ross created a new system of defence . Termed " kitty bar the door " , it required three defenders to align themselves across the ice 30 feet in front of the goaltender to stop offensive rushes . This style of defence would later be used in a modified version known as the neutral zone trap , later used widely to stop opposition offensive chances . The following year Ross , who had eight goals and eight assists in twenty @-@ one games , was the second highest paid player on the team ; his salary of $ 1 @,@ 400 was $ 100 less than Frank Nighbor made . Even so , Ross left the team in 1916 , returning to Montreal in order to look after his sporting @-@ goods store , and rejoining the Wanderers . He scored six goals and had two assists in sixteen games for the team . The Wanderers , along with the Montreal Canadiens , Toronto Arenas , Quebec Bulldogs and Ottawa Senators dissolved the NHA and founded the National Hockey League ( NHL ) in November 1917 . Ross became coach of the Wanderers , but a fire on January 2 , 1918 , destroyed their home , the Montreal Arena , and forced them to fold after four games . However , the NHL insisted the team continue to play , and recorded two additional scheduled matches as defaulted losses for the Wanderers , even though the matches were not played . With the Wanderers disbanded , Ross retired as a player . His NHL career yielded one goal in three games played . = = Managerial career = = = = = 1918 – 36 = = = Ross began his career as a hockey coach in the midst of his playing days , when at age 24 he led the McGill University Redmen to a 4 – 2 – 1 record during the 1910 – 11 season . Following his playing career , Ross became a NHL referee . He was hired to coach the Hamilton Tigers for the 1922 – 23 season , and adopted new methods in training camp that emphasized physical fitness , including work off the ice . However , the Tigers finished with a record of six wins and eighteen losses , last in the NHL for the third successive year , and Ross did not return the next season . His next coaching appointment arose from meeting Boston grocery store magnate Charles Adams during the 1924 Stanley Cup Finals . Before the 1924 season , the NHL awarded Adams an expansion team . Adams ' first move was to hire Ross as vice president , general manager , coach and scout . Adams instructed Ross to come up with a nickname portraying an untamed animal displaying speed , agility and cunning . With this in mind , Ross named the team the Boston Bruins , after the Old English word for a bear . The team 's nickname went perfectly with the original colours of brown and yellow , which were the same colours of Adams ' grocery chain , First National Stores . Ross utilized his many hockey connections throughout Canada and the United States to sign players . Even so , the team started poorly . Early in the first season the University of Toronto hockey team was in Boston for matches against local universities . The team 's manager , Conn Smythe , who later owned and managed the Toronto Maple Leafs , said that his team could easily defeat the Bruins — Ross 's team had won only two of their first fifteen NHL games . This began a feud between Smythe and Ross which lasted for over 40 years , until Ross ' death ; while mostly confined to newspaper reports , they refused to speak to each other at NHL Board of Governor meetings . The Bruins finished their first season with six wins in thirty games , one of the worst records in the history of the league . Several records were set over the course of the season ; the three home wins are tied for the second fewest ever , and an eleven @-@ game losing streak from December 8 , 1924 , until February 17 , 1925 , set a record for longest losing streak , surpassed in 2004 and now second longest in history . With 17 wins in 36 games the following season , the team greatly improved , and finished one point out of a playoff
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230
spot . In 1926 the Western Hockey League , the other top professional hockey league , was in decline . The Patrick brothers , who controlled the league , offered to sell the remaining five teams for $ 300 @,@ 000 . Ross realized the potential talent available and convinced Adams to pay the money . As a result , the Bruins acquired the rights to several future Hall of Fame players , the most notable being defender Eddie Shore . Ross signed goaltender Cecil " Tiny " Thompson in 1928 , who was with a team in Minnesota , despite never watching him play ; Ralph " Cooney " Weiland was also brought over from Minnesota . Ross acquired Cy Denneny from Ottawa and made him a player @-@ assistant @-@ coach while he assumed the role of coach and team manager . On November 20 , 1928 , the Bruins moved to a new arena when the Boston Garden opened . The team played the Canadiens who won the match 1 – 0 in front of 16 @,@ 000 fans . The players signed by Ross helped the Bruins to improve quickly , and they won the Stanley Cup in 1929 . Denneny retired after the Cup win , Ross guiding the team to several league records in the 1929 – 30 season . The team won 38 of 44 games for an .875 winning percentage , the highest in league history ; the five losses tied a record for fewest ever , and the four road losses tied a record for second fewest . The Bruins also only finished one game in a tie , a record for fewest ties in a season since the NHL began recording the record in 1926 . One of the longest winning streaks was also set during the season . From December 3 , 1929 , until January 9 , 1930 , the team won fourteen games in a row , a record that lasted until 1982 and now tied for third longest , as of October 2010 . A home winning streak began the same day and lasted for twenty games , until March 18 , 1930 , which was tied for the longest of its kind in 1976 . In 1930 – 31 , the Bruins again lost only one home game , which equalled their previous record . On March 26 , 1931 , Ross substituted a sixth skater for goaltender Tiny Thompson in the final minute of play in a playoff game against the Montreal Canadiens . Although the Bruins lost the game 1 – 0 , Ross became the first coach to replace his goaltender with an extra attacker , a tactic which became widespread practice in hockey . Stepping aside as coach in 1934 to focus on managing the team , Ross hired Frank Patrick as coach with a salary of $ 10 @,@ 500 , which was high for such a role . However rumours spread during the season that Patrick was drinking heavily and not being as strict with the players as Ross wanted . After the Bruins lost their playoff series with the Toronto Maple Leafs in the 1936 playoffs , the result of an 8 – 1 score in the second game , a newspaper claimed that Patrick had been drinking the day of the game and had trouble controlling the team . Several days later , Ross relieved Patrick of his duties and once again assumed the role of coach . = = = 1936 – 54 = = = Ross took over an improved team . He had recently signed three players , Milt Schmidt , Bobby Bauer and Woody Dumart , who all grew up together in Kitchener , Ontario , and had them play on the same line , soon nicknamed the Kraut Line in reference to the German heritage of all three . Along with them , Ross had acquired a new goaltender in 1938 , Frank Brimsek ; after Brimsek earned six shutouts in his first eight games , the Bruins traded away Tiny Thompson to allow Brimsek to play . With these players the Bruins finished first in the league in 1937 – 38 ; Ross was named as the second best coach in the league , selected for the end of season All @-@ Star Second Team . The next season the Bruins won 36 of 48 games , and won the Stanley Cup in the playoffs ; Ross was named to the First All @-@ Star Team as the best coach in the league for the season and the team only tied two games , which is tied for the second fewest in a season . He hired the recently retired Cooney Weiland to coach the Bruins for the 1939 – 40 NHL season . The Bruins would win the Cup again in 1941 , and tied their record of only four away losses all season . Ross once again took over as coach of the team before the 1941 – 42 season began , as Weiland became coach of the Hershey Bears of the American Hockey League , and led the team to 25 wins in 48 games , which was enough to earn third place in the league . By this time the Second World War had caused several Bruins players , including the entire Kraut Line and goaltender Brimsek , to enlist in their respective armed forces . The Bruins finished second in the NHL during the 1942 – 43 season with 24 wins in 50 games and Ross was again named in the Second NHL All @-@ Star Team as second best coach in the league . The Bruins missed the playoffs
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231
in 1943 – 44 , the first time in ten years they failed to qualify , but returned to the playoffs the next season , something they did for five straight years . In 1949 , Ross had signed Georges Boucher as coach , but Boucher did not work well with Ross and team president Weston Adams . Looking to hire a new coach in the summer of 1950 , Ross phoned Lynn Patrick , the son of Lester , who had just resigned from the New York Rangers after coaching the team to the Stanley Cup Final . Lynn had moved his family back to Victoria , British Columbia , where he grew up as a child , with the intention of coaching the Victoria Cougars , a team in the minor professional Pacific Coast Hockey League . Though reluctant to move back to the eastern United States , Lynn was hired by Ross after he was offered a salary of $ 12 @,@ 000 . He would coach the team for the next four seasons and become the second general manager of the Bruins when Ross retired at the end of October 1954 . = = = Legacy = = = Aside from his career in hockey , Ross was interested in improving the game . Prior to the start of the 1927 – 28 season , the NHL adopted a new style of goal net created by Ross . With the back molded into a B @-@ shape , it was better designed to catch pucks and the net was used until 1984 , when a modified version was adopted . He also improved the design of the puck . Ross ' design had bevel edges , which prevented it bouncing too much , and used synthetic rubber , rather than the natural rubber previously in vogue . Along with New York Rangers coach Frank Boucher , Ross helped to create the red line , which was introduced to help speed up the game by removing the ability for defenders to pass the puck from the defensive to offensive zone ; until 2006 it was against the rules of hockey to make a two line pass . More scoring chances resulted as teams could not simply send the puck down the ice with impunity . In order to help tell the red line and blue lines apart on television , Ross suggested that the red line be striped . Regarded throughout his playing career as one of the best defenders in hockey , Ross was named to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1949 , selected for his playing career rather than his work as an executive . A ceremony for his induction was held prior to a Bruins game on December 2 , 1949 , where he was given his Hall of Fame scroll and a silver tray with the emblems of the six NHL teams on it . In 1975 he was inducted into the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame . Along with his two sons he donated the Art Ross Trophy to the NHL in 1947 , to be awarded to the leading scorer in the league 's regular season . In 1984 he was posthumously awarded the Lester Patrick Trophy for service to hockey in the United States . A descriptive biography entitled Art Ross : The Hockey Legend who Built the Bruins by Eric Zweig was published by Dundurn Press in Sept 2015 . = = Personal life = = Ross also excelled in baseball , football , lacrosse and motorcycle racing . Before he became a hockey executive , he had a career as a bank clerk and ran a sporting @-@ goods store in Montreal . Ross had moved to Brandon , Manitoba , in 1905 at the advice of his parents so he could get a job with a bank , with a salary of $ 600 per year . He gave that career up when he began playing hockey professionally . He was married to Muriel , a native of Montreal , and had two sons , Art and John . During the Second World War , both sons served in the Royal Canadian Air Force . After the war Ross made his son Art the business manager for the Bruins . Ross was named coach and manager of the Boston Bruins in 1924 and moved his family to Brookline , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston , after being hired . In 1928 , he served as the traveling secretary of the Boston Braves baseball team , which was owned by Bruins owner Charles Adams . He became a naturalized American citizen on April 22 , 1938 . On August 5 , 1964 , Ross died at a nursing home in Medford , Massachusetts , a suburb of Boston , at the age of 79 . A sister , both his sons , and three grandchildren survived him . = = Career statistics = = = = = Regular season and playoffs = = = * Playing stats from Total Hockey = = = Coaching record = = = * Coaching stats from Total Hockey = = Awards = = = = = NHL = = = * Awards from Legends of Hockey = Saint Leonard Catholic Church ( Madison , Nebraska ) = Saint Leonard Catholic Church is a Roman Catholic church in the city of Madison , in the state of Nebraska in the Midwestern United States . Built in 1913 , it has been described as " an outstanding example of the Romanesque Revival style of architecture . " St. Leonard 's parish , named
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232
after Saint Leonard of Port Maurice , was organized in 1879 . A wood frame church was built in 1881 on the outskirts of Madison , and moved into the city in 1898 . In 1902 , the basement of the current church was built , and the congregation moved into it , converting the old church to a school . When funds allowed , the basement was extended , and the current brick church completed in 1913 . In 1989 , the church , its 1912 rectory , and the rectory 's garage were listed in the National Register of Historic Places , as the work of noted Nebraska architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . A pupil of Thomas Rogers Kimball , Nachtigall designed a number of Catholic churches and other buildings in the state , several of which are also listed in the National Register . = = History = = The first white settlers to occupy the site of Madison were a party led by Henry Mitchell Barnes , who settled near the junction of Union and Taylor Creeks in 1867 . Growth of the new settlement was rapid ; in particular , there was an influx of German families from Wisconsin . The town of Madison was officially platted by Barnes in 1870 or 1871 . In 1875 , it became the county seat of Madison County , and in 1876 it was incorporated . The Union Pacific Railroad reached Madison in 1879 ; by 1880 , the town had a population of about 300 . The first Christian services held in Madison were Presbyterian , taking place in Barnes 's and other homes . A Presbyterian congregation was organized in 1870 , and a church built in 1872 . A Methodist circuit encompassing Madison and Antelope counties was organized in 1871 ; a parsonage was built in Madison ca . 1875 , and a church begun in 1877 . A Lutheran congregation may have formed in Madison in about 1875 , although early records are incomplete ; the congregation was initially served by the pastor of a Lutheran church in Green Garden Precinct , located about seven miles ( 11 km ) southwest of Madison . It was formally organized in 1885 , and a church built in Madison in 1887 . The first Catholic settlers in Madison County homesteaded near present @-@ day Battle Creek , northwest of Madison , in the late 1860s . In 1874 , they organized a parish ; in 1874 – 75 , they built St. Patrick 's Church , the county 's first Catholic church . In 1877 , they wrote to Bishop James O 'Connor of the Diocese of Omaha , asking that a priest be assigned to visit the church at intervals until a permanent priest could be assigned to the parish ; in apparent response to this , Franciscan missionaries based in Columbus were given the responsibility of providing for Madison County . = = = 1879 – 1900 = = = In 1879 , a group of Catholic residents of the Madison area met to plan the building of a church . At the meeting , a total of $ 426 @.@ 75 was subscribed ; additional contributions of $ 322 @.@ 86 were obtained from citizens of Madison . In January 1880 , the church 's trustees spent $ 100 for five acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) on a hill at the southeastern edge of town . In the spring , a party of parishioners drove their ox teams to Wisner , about 30 miles ( 50 km ) northeast of Madison , for the first load of lumber for the new church . The 30 @-@ by @-@ 40 @-@ foot ( 9 m × 12 m ) frame structure , with a capacity of 100 , was completed in November 1881 ; the total cost was $ 957 @.@ 61 , leaving $ 208 @.@ 00 owed to the carpenter . The new church was dedicated to St. Leonard of Port Maurice , an 18th @-@ century Franciscan priest , preacher , ascetic , and writer venerated as the patron saint of parish missions . In 1882 , a parcel of land southeast of the church was purchased for a cemetery ; a one @-@ year @-@ old child buried in September of that year became its first occupant . The cemetery was fenced in 1883 . In 1884 , the church was enlarged : a sacristy and a room for the priest were added to the east end , and a steeple to the west end . As Madison 's population grew , the church became too small for the expanding congregation . In addition , its location outside of the city was inconvenient for many parishioners . In 1898 , a tract of land inside Madison was bought . Rather than building a new church at the time , the parish elected to move the old one to the new site . The church was moved in two parts ; when it was reconstructed , another section was added between them , increasing the building 's seating capacity to 180 . The church on the new site was dedicated in November 1898 . = = = 1900 – 1913 = = = In the early 20th century , the parish decided that the
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233
old church should be remodelled into a school and a convent for the teachers , and that a new church should be built . Brother Leonard Darscheid , a Franciscan architect , drew up plans for a church ; but financial constraints precluded its construction . Instead , a temporary basement church was built just west of the old church building . It is not known whether the design of the basement used Darscheid 's plans . Construction of the basement church began in July 1902 , services were held there beginning in September 1902 , and it was dedicated in February 1903 . The school opened in September 1903 , with two classrooms staffed by two members of the Sisters of the Presentation of Dubuque , Iowa . 66 students were enrolled , including a number of non @-@ Catholics , owing to overcrowding in the public schools . To make more space available , a basement was dug in 1904 . In 1910 , a third classroom was added . In 1910 , the Franciscans turned the management of the parish over to the Diocese of Omaha . In October of that year , Edward S. Muenich became the first diocesan pastor of St. Leonard 's . Muenich embarked upon an extensive building campaign , for which he retained Omaha architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . Born in Germany in 1874 , Nachtigall had immigrated to the United States with his family in 1883 . Initially working as a laborer in Omaha , he had served as a draftsman for that city 's 1898 Trans @-@ Mississippi and International Exposition . He had then worked as a draftsman for Omaha architect Thomas Rogers Kimball from 1900 to 1908 ; during this time , Kimball had designed the city 's St. Cecilia 's Cathedral . In 1909 , Nachtigall had opened his own architectural office . In 1911 , a two @-@ story eight @-@ room brick rectory designed by Nachtigall was begun ; it was completed and furnished in 1912 , at a cost of $ 10 @,@ 374 . In the fall of 1912 , the church basement was extended by over 50 percent . = = = 1913 – 1946 = = = In 1913 , a Romanesque Revival church designed by Nachtigall was built on the existing basement . The cornerstone was laid and construction begun in May ; the church was completed by the end of November , and formally dedicated on December 4 . The cost of construction was about $ 75 @,@ 000 . While the church was under construction , Catholic services were held in Madison 's armory . The new church had a seating capacity of 700 . In its 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) tower was a clock with four six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) dials , and a peal of three bells , contributed by the citizens of Madison ; beside summoning the parishioners to Mass , these rang the quarter @-@ hours , marking time for the residents of the city and the surrounding rural areas . While the urban United States experienced an economic boom during the 1920s , the agricultural sector of the country experienced a depression . Disruption of European agriculture by World War I had produced high prices for farm commodities , and it had been thought that Europe 's recovery would be slow and that the high prices would persist . This gave rise to a bubble in farmland prices , which burst when the rapid postwar recovery of European agriculture drove commodity prices down again . At the same time , increasing mechanization reduced the need for farm labor , pushing agricultural wages downward and rural unemployment upward . Madison and St. Leonard 's parish suffered from this agricultural depression and from the Great Depression of the 1930s . During this time , the parish 's population remained more or less stable : in 1918 , it consisted of 440 individuals ; in 1929 , 452 . In 1926 , the parish was forced to close its school , since the Presentation Sisters were no longer able to staff it . The school re @-@ opened in 1931 , with 60 pupils taught by Missionary Benedictine Sisters based in Norfolk . The onset of World War II once again brought prosperity to rural Nebraska , and it persisted into the 1950s . St. Leonard 's paid off its remaining debt , held a mortgage @-@ burning ceremony in 1946 , and began raising funds for a new school . = = = 1946 – present = = = The cornerstone for a new school was laid in November 1953 . A property adjoining the new school site was bought , and the house standing upon it converted to a convent for the nuns staffing the school . The new building was completed and opened for classes in August 1954 ; the old school , which had begun life as the first St. Leonard 's Church , was demolished that fall , and its site became a parking lot . The Benedictine Sisters withdrew from the school in 1978 , prompting the closing of the seventh and eighth grades . The school continued to offer grades 1
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234
– 6 , taught by three lay instructors . Beginning in the early 1990s , Madison experienced a large influx of Hispanics . In 1990 , Madison County 's population was 2 % Hispanic ; by 2010 , the number had increased to 13 % . In the city of Madison , whose single largest employer was a meatpacking plant with over 1000 employees , operated by IBP and then by Tyson Foods , the increase was far greater : the Hispanic fraction of the population rose from less than 1 % in 1980 to 48 @.@ 8 % in 2010 , as the Spanish @-@ speaking population increased and the white non @-@ Hispanic population fell . By 2011 , an estimated two @-@ thirds of St. Leonard 's parishioners were Hispanic . Beginning in 1991 , the archdiocese assigned Spanish @-@ speaking priests to the parish , and both English- and Spanish @-@ language services were offered . The centennial of the church building was celebrated in December 2013 , at a bilingual Mass conducted by Elden Curtiss , archbishop emeritus of the Archdiocese of Omaha . = = Architecture = = In 1989 , three of the parish 's buildings — the church , the rectory , and the rectory 's garage — were added to the National Register of Historic Places , as the work of distinguished Nebraska architect Jacob M. Nachtigall . Beside St. Leonard 's , Nachtigall designed a number of other notable buildings in Nebraska , many of them Catholic ; these include St. Mary of the Assumption Church in Dwight ( 1914 ) , St. Anthony 's Church in Cedar Rapids ( 1919 ) , St. Bonaventure 's Church in Raeville ( 1919 ) , Immaculate Conception Church in Omaha ( 1926 ) , and Father Flanagan 's House at Boys Town ( 1927 ) . = = = Church = = = The church is oriented east @-@ west , with the main entrance facing westward . It is just over 153 feet ( 47 m ) long from east to west ; 52 feet ( 16 m ) wide from north to south . The walls are made of mosaic gray pressed brick trimmed with Bedford stone , rising from a rock @-@ faced limestone foundation , and are about 40 feet ( 12 m ) high . The peak of the roof is about 70 feet ( 21 m ) above ground level . At the west end of the church , a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) belltower rises above the main entrance . The tower is topped with a copper dome , capped with a cross . It contains three bells , weighing 900 , 1 @,@ 600 , and 2 @,@ 500 pounds ( 410 , 730 , and 1 @,@ 130 kg ) . The tower 's clock has four six @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) dials . Below the tower , a flight of seventeen steps ascends to the church 's main entrance , via a set of double doors through a semicircular archway . The church 's north and south walls are supported by a series of buttresses . Seven windows run along each wall . A line of brick corbels runs along the walls below the eaves . Near the east end of the church , a short transept extends a short distance outward . At the church 's east end , beyond the transept , is a semicircular apse with a conical roof , topped with a six @-@ paned conical skylight . = = = = Interior = = = = The interior plan of the church consists of a nave , a short transept , and a semicircular apse . At the west end of the nave is a narthex . At the center of this is a vestibule leading to the church 's main entrance ; at the church 's northwest corner is a reconciliation room , formerly a baptistry ; at the southwest corner is a short passage from which a staircase descends to the basement and another rises to the choir loft . In the loft is the church 's organ , a tracker model manufactured by the Hinners Organ Company in 1879 ; the organ was not originally built for St. Leonard 's . The nave measures 98 feet ( 30 m ) between the entrance and the communion rail . An aisle passes down its center ; narrower aisles follow the north and south walls . Two rows of seven circular columns run along the nave . The columns are made of wood , plastered to conceal the material , and decorated with Corinthian capitals . The rib @-@ vaulted ceiling rises 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) above the floor . Fourteen stained @-@ glass windows , depicting scenes from the life of Christ , occupy the nave 's walls . The 13 @.@ 5 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 1 m × 1
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235
@.@ 5 m ) windows were produced by the Muenich Art Studio of Chicago . Between the windows are sculpted stations of the cross . In three spandrels above columns on each side are fresco paintings . Two marble steps rise from the nave to the chancel . At the top of the steps is a hand @-@ carved white wood communion rail , decorated with miniature onyx columns and topped with marble . At the northwest and southwest corners of the chancel are two side altars : to the north , a Marian altar ; to the south , an altar of St. Joseph . The original image on the Marian altar depicts Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception ; more recently , an image of Our Lady of Guadalupe has been added . The St. Joseph altar includes a bone relic of St. Leonard of Port Maurice . On the Gospel side of the chancel is a large hand @-@ carved wood pulpit , decorated with carved figures of the four Evangelists . The chancel is dominated by the high altar , which stands over 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) tall , and which cost its donors $ 2 @,@ 080 in 1913 . Like the communion rail , the side altars , and the pulpit , it is made of hand @-@ carved wood decorated with small onyx columns . At the base is a relief sculpture of the Last Supper ; above that is a marble altar table . The tabernacle is just above that ; to either side is a sculpted angel , kneeling to the tabernacle and holding the sanctuary lamps . Above the tabernacle is a sculpted Crucifixion of Jesus , with the Virgin Mary and the apostle John on either side of the cross . In separate niches on either side of the crucifixion scene are statues of St. Boniface and St. Patrick , representing the German and Irish ethnicity of the parish in the early 20th century . Above their niches are figures of angels blowing trumpets ; at the top of the altar is a statue of St. Leonard . On the half @-@ domed ceiling of the apse is a large oil @-@ painted mural depicting a scene in Heaven . In the center , God the Father and Jesus are enthroned on a cloud ; a stained @-@ glass skylight at the top of the dome depicting the Holy Spirit completes the Trinity . Flanking the Father and Son are the Virgin Mary and John the Baptist . Below the cloud is Satan in torment . At the left and right of the scene is an assemblage of 18 Catholic saints and 10 angels . Beside the fourteen large windows in the nave , there are 25 stained @-@ glass windows in the church , depicting saints and symbols of the Catholic Church . These include St. Cecilia , patron saint of the Archdiocese of Omaha , and a pair of windows depicting St. Boniface and St. Patrick . In the 1989 form nominating it for the National Register of Historic Places , it was noted that the church had undergone only minor alterations , including an interior redecoration in 1964 , the replacement of roof slates with asphalt shingles in 1977 , and the addition of a concrete ramp for access by the handicapped in 1986 . = = = Rectory = = = The rectory , located just south of the church , was designed in Neoclassical style , with Romanesque Revival elements . It is a rectangular house measuring 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide by 57 feet ( 17 m ) long , with eight rooms in two stories . Like the church , it is made of mosaic gray brick . An open porch occupies the whole of the west frontage , facing the street , and wraps around to cover half of the south side . The portico is supported by circular columns with Doric capitals . At the base of the porch is brick latticework . There is a small enclosed porch with a doorway on the east side . There are three rowlock arches above all of the windows on the first floor . One of the west @-@ facing windows on the second floor has two rowlock arches above it ; the other second @-@ floor windows are rectangular . There are two circular window openings in the attic , one facing west and the other south . The rectory has a sloping roof with overhanging eaves and wood cornices . On the south wall is a tympanum , filled in with siding . = = = = Garage = = = = The original rectory garage is located southeast of the rectory . It is a rectangular structure facing westward , measuring 16 feet 2 inches ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) north to south , and 26 feet 4 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) east to west . The interior is a single room . The front ( west side ) of the
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236
garage is made of the same mosaic gray brick that was used for the construction of the church and the rectory . The north and south walls are both made of two different materials : the western two @-@ thirds of them is red brick , possibly from the brickyard that once operated in Madison ; the easternmost third is plastered with a layer of cement , painted red to match the bricks . The rear ( east ) wall is also plastered with red cement . It is speculated that the garage was either lengthened to fit a longer car , or that the eastern third had to be rebuilt ; the building 's hip roof shows no signs of having been lengthened . The garage has two doors and two windows . Both the doors and windows have two rowlock brick arches over them . The car entrance is on the west side ; a passage door is on the north side . A clear @-@ glass window with 16 panes is on the east side . On the west side , north of the car entrance , is a window with beveled lead @-@ glass panes , which appear clear from the outside but red from inside the building . It has been speculated that this window was part of the parish 's first church . = Portuguese ironclad Vasco da Gama = Vasco da Gama was a central battery ironclad which entered service with the Portuguese Navy in 1876 , serving until 1935 . She was built by the Thames Iron Works in London , launched in 1876 , and completed in 1878 . She served as the flagship of the Portuguese fleet for the majority of her long and peaceful career . She was rebuilt and heavily modernized between 1901 and 1903 . Long @-@ since obsolete by the 1930s , Vasco da Gama was finally sold for scrapping in 1935 . = = Design = = Vasco da Gama was 200 feet ( 61 m ) long between perpendiculars , and she had a beam of 40 ft ( 12 m ) , though at the main battery guns , the ship was 46 ft 6 in ( 14 @.@ 17 m ) wide . She had a maximum draft of 19 ft ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 384 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 346 long tons ; 2 @,@ 628 short tons ) as originally built . She was fitted with a barquentine rig and a steam engine rated at 3 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 200 kW ) , which produced a top speed of 10 @.@ 3 kn ( 19 @.@ 1 km / h ; 11 @.@ 9 mph ) . She had a crew of 232 officers and men . As built , Vasco da Gama was armed with a main battery of two 10 @.@ 2 in ( 260 mm ) guns , placed in individual barbettes side by side amidships . She was also equipped with a single 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) gun mounted on her stern , and four 9 @-@ pounder guns for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats . She was protected with a complete iron armored belt that was 4 inches ( 100 mm ) thick on either end and 9 in ( 230 mm ) thick amidships . The main battery guns were protected by 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) thick barbettes . = = Service history = = Vasco da Gama was laid down at the Thames Iron Works shipyard in London , Britain in 1875 , and was launched on 1 December 1876 . The ship was completed in 1878 . She served as part of the coastal defense force that protected Lisbon , the Portuguese capital , and the mouth of the river Tagus . On 26 June 1897 , Vasco da Gama participated in the Fleet Review at Spithead celebrating Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee . At the time , the ship was commanded by Captain Barreto de Vascomellos . In 1901 , Vasco da Gama was taken into drydock at Orlando shipyard in Livorno , Italy , for a major reconstruction . She was cut in half and lengthened by a 32 ft 6 in ( 9 @.@ 91 m ) long section . She was fitted with new engines and more powerful water @-@ tube boilers rated at 6 @,@ 000 ihp ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) ; this increased her speed to 15 @.@ 5 kn ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) . Her sailing rig also was removed . Her main battery guns were replaced with new 8 in ( 200 mm ) L / 40 guns in sponsons , the short 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch gun was replaced by a new long @-@ barreled 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch L / 45 gun , and six 3 @-@ pounders augmented her close @-@ range defense . Her iron belt armor was
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237
removed and stronger steel armor was installed in its place . The ship 's crew increased to 260 officers and men . All of the changes caused her displacement to rise to 2 @,@ 972 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 925 long tons ; 3 @,@ 276 short tons ) . Work on Vasco da Gama was completed by 1903 . On 27 August 1907 , a gas explosion aboard the ship injured several crewmen . During political unrest in April 1913 , part of the crew of Vasco da Gama had to be removed from the ship , as they had been involved in a planned ultra @-@ Radical coup d 'état against the First Portuguese Republic . On 14 May 1915 , the crew again participated in unrest ; they mutinied and killed the ship 's captain and bombarded Lisbon , killing around one hundred people . Vasco da Gama remained the flagship of the Portuguese Navy at least as late as 1914 , as the Portuguese naval budget was insufficient to fund a suitable replacement vessel . Thoroughly obsolete , she remained in the Portuguese fleet until 1935 , when she was sold for scrapping . = Nicole Franklin = Nicole Franklin is a fictional character from the Australian Channel Seven soap opera Home and Away , played by Tessa James . She debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 18 April 2008 . Nicole was introduced by executive producer Cameron Welsh . Nicole was mentioned various times before appearing on @-@ screen , James was cast in the role and described by Welsh as an " exciting talent " . He predicted that the viewers would respond " really well " to her . Nicole was initially portrayed as a shallow " party girl " with " wild ways " . Also described as a " high maintenance " female , she has been shown to dress constantly in a stylish manner . Nicole is also become notable for her many relationships . Her first prominent romance was with Geoff Campbell . Described as " complete opposites " , Geoff is credited as a catalyst in Nicole mellowing her brash attitude . Their storyline allowed the actors to take part in one of the serial 's " biggest ever location shoots " , when the couple became stranded on a remote desert island . In one storyline Nicole was involved in a same sex kiss with fellow character Freya Duric , which was branded controversial by various media sources . The plot saw Nicole question her persona , believing Geoff had transformed her into a boring person . Another relationship Nicole pursued was with Aden Jefferies , her longtime closest friend . Aden had a strong fanbase from his previous relationship with Belle Taylor . This resulted in the audience being divided over their relationship . Nicole has also been featured in various other romantic storylines , such as a brief fling with Liam Murphy , James said that he was compatible with Nicole because he had " the edge she was after " . She also dated Trey Palmer and they became involved in sex tape storyline , many newspapers reported on the plot because it " echoed " co @-@ star Lewis ' real life sex tape scandal . Producer Welsh once stated he believed Nicole was destined to become " full circle " and Nicole began behaving erratic and wild once more , due to her failed romances and the death of her friend Belle . She also had an affair with an older male character , Sid Walker . James liked the fact Nicole had so many romances because she got to kiss many of her co @-@ stars . James announced her departure from Home and Away in March 2011 . One of her final storylines was a pregnancy plot . Nicole felt she was too young and unable to offer a child stability , so she agreed to let Marilyn Chambers adopt the baby upon its birth . James and the writing team took the storyline " very seriously " and conducted research to portray the issue sensitively . Nicole has received critical analysis from various sources , with perception being mixed to positive . TV Week were neutral to aspects of her pregnancy plot but opined James was one of the serials best actress ' . The Daily Record said that being single was good for the character . She has also been likened to celebrities because of her glamorous image . = = Creation and casting = = Nicole is Roman Harris ' ( Conrad Coleby ) daughter and she was often mentioned on @-@ screen before producers decided to introduce her into the serial . In January 2008 it was announced that ex @-@ Neighbours star Tessa James had been cast as Nicole . Executive producer Cameron Welsh said ' She is an exciting talent and I think audiences are going to love her character and respond really well to her . " James then moved to Sydney especially for the role . Speaking of working on the serial James stated : " Working on a series like this [ Home and Away ] is the best training you can get , I look at it like an apprenticeship and never forget how lucky I am . " Fellow cast member Celeste Dodwell who plays Melody Jones originally auditioned for the part of Nicole . After Coleby who plays Roman quit the serial , James ' time with the show was in doubt . In March 2011 , James confirmed
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238
that she had left Home and Away . She has already filmed her final scenes and Nicole will leave on @-@ screen later in the year . Of her departure , James said " I was at Home and Away for three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ years , so it 's good to be finished and get to be who I am , and do what I 've wanted to do for so long . " = = Character development = = = = = Characterisation = = = Nicole has been portrayed as a party girl , feisty and has had many boyfriends in a short space of time . James has described Nicole stating : " I love playing Nicole because she 's feisty and fun , and doesn 't mind pushing the boundaries . And she dresses stylishly – she 's very high maintenance , which is fun to play . " The serial 's official website describe her as : " Nicole might come off as a bitchy princess to some people , she 's not malicious . She 's simply as shallow as a puddle , and while she might cause others emotional pain , it 's totally unintentional . " They also state : " Nicole is a girl who lives to have fun , and she is fun if you accept her for who she is . And , of course , she thinks you 're worth her attention . Nicole is a girl who knows exactly who she is and where she stands : at the centre of the universe . " Soap opera reporting website Holy Soap described Nicole as " a label @-@ loving pampered princess , armed with a sharp wardrobe and an even sharper tongue " . They also added she was a " sultry " type character . Whilst interviewed by The Daily Telegraph , James stated : " I think she 's the best character , I get to have so much fun being a princess and a prima donna . She doesn 't mind pushing the boundaries . She 's very high maintenance , which is fun to play . " She also stated she enjoys Nicole 's " promiscuous side " because she seems to have another boyfriend every week . James also enjoys the role because of this and the fact she gets so many " pash " scenes with other cast members . Series producer Cameron Welsh branded Nicole as an " interesting character " , adding his opinion on her development stating : " She came in with really strong opinions and a kind of morality that was different to the rest of the group " . Welsh also believes that Nicole is destined to come " full circle " . Of her 2010 storylines he comments that Nicole poor judgements make her realise and re @-@ evaluate her life . = = = Relationship with Geoff Campbell = = = Nicole embarks on a relationship with Geoff Campbell , not before they are embroiled in a " sordid love triangle " along with Melody . In one storyline Nicole and Geoff became stranded on a " deserted island " and nearly die . The episodes were filmed on Box Beach located at Shoal Bay , New South Wales as part of a two @-@ day location shoot . Nicole nearly drowns in scenes which aired for the serial 's " cliff @-@ hanger " in 2008 . James and Lewis took scuba diving lessons in preparation for the storyline . Filming the storyline was compromised by logistical challenges . The crew had to move camera equipment between boats and the crew walked around the perimeters of the beach in order to avoid leaving footprints . This was to keep the authenticity of a deserted location . The storyline was also given a " big budget " , featured helicopters and a number of promotional adverts were aired on Seven . The storyline began on @-@ screen when Nicole started dating Elliot Gillen ( Paul Pantano ) . He had a vendetta against Roman and kidnapped Nicole and Geoff and left them stranded out at sea . They washed up on a deserted island and were forced to survive without food and clothing . Describing the effect it had on Nicole and Geoff , James stated : " They have no food , shelter or clothing . [ ... ] They find moments to make each other laugh , though , and realise how much they mean to one another . " Geoff had strong religious views and did not believe in premarital sex . However , the environment they were in caused him to let his guard down and they slept together . Lewis told TV Week that all the pair could think of whilst trapped was being rescued and their feelings for one an other . He added that " the fact they were both pretty much naked didn 't help " . He concluded the fact they were both kids , trying to keep warm - that then " stuff happens " . Geoff was left " guilt @-@ ridden " because he gave into temptation . He did not regret it , but acknowledged that he wanted to save his virginity until marriage . Therefore , Geoff saw no other option but to propose to Nicole . Lewis stated , " He 's not 100 % sure about that either , but he feels that if
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they 're going to have sex , a wedding is the only solution . " Describing Nicole 's reaction he said that she was " dumbfounded " by his offer , as she had believed he was acting strange because he wanted to dump her . Nicole refused when she realised his reasons for proposing . According to James , the moment managed to ruin their passion , she also commented that : " Nicole has liked Geoff for ages and was so happy to have got together with him - but now he 's spoiled it . " James also admitted she was trilled to learn Nicole would turn down his proposal . James later opined that Nicole was " the one " for Geoff , but did not believe that Geoff was " the one " for Nicole . Nicole and Geoff 's relationship became strained . Nicole decided to plan a return trip to the island , believing it would solve their problems and bring them closer together . James said that Geoff loved the surprise , but found Nicole " very sexy and tempting " . She added that everything about Nicole forced Geoff to question his religious beliefs and he felt he " needed to back away " . Their trip soon turned disastrous when a man named Derrick Quaid ( John Atkinson ) stole their food and intimidated the couple . He admitted he were a murderer and tried to attack Geoff with a knife . James said he " put himself in harms way " to save Nicole . In 2009 , James told Inside Soap that Nicole and Geoff had a strong friendship underneath their romance . She also described their compatibility stating : " They 're complete opposites , which works well for them . It 's a bit of a fiery relationship , and they 've been through a lot together . " Whilst Lewis added : " They 're also very similar in some of their strongest traits . Geoff and Nicole are both stubborn and opinionated , and in some ways they 're naive . In a weird way they show a side to each other nobody else gets to see . " James opined Nicole 's wild behaviour was often to much for Geoff to cope with . In public , Lewis initially had negative feedback from older viewers because they felt Geoff was better suited to Melody . He revealed they felt like she was a bad influence for Geoff because she often played games . However towards the end of their relationship he felt perception had changed due to viewers having a better understanding of Nicole 's persona . = = = Other relationships = = = In 2009 , the serial embarked on two lesbian storylines , one of which involved Nicole . It featured Freya Duric ( Sophie Hensser ) kissing Nicole , which sparked complaints . However , for Nicole it wasn 't about sexuality , rather finding herself the center of attention . James described their dynamic , stating : " Freya 's exactly what Nicole was like when she first arrived in the bay , that is why they click . Nicole relates to the wild side of Freya , but has no idea how far Freya is going to take it . " Through her relationship with Geoff she had mellowed , however her vanity was still present . James said Nicole was " angry " because she was on Freya 's " not hot list " . Freya kissed her to prove she thinks she is hot , James opined that Nicole did not enjoy the kiss , but was just " happy to be center of attention " and happy that people were talking about her again . The incident eventually brought her to the realisation that she had become boring . Nicole denied it was to do with her involvement with Geoff , however James said Geoff was the reason she became bored . Later that year the serial included a storyline which was branded " bizarre " after it mirrored a real life scandal that had occurred weeks earlier . Lewis who plays love interest Geoff had been caught up in a sex tape scandal which leaked onto the internet , the serial decided to include Nicole making a sex tape with Trey Palmer ( Luke Bracey ) and having it leaked . Trey filmed without Nicole 's consent , when she found out the truth she ended their relationship . Trey thought she and Geoff were getting back together so aired the tape at a local film festival to gain revenge . James described Nicole 's state of mind adding , " She 's quite vulnerable at the moment , with her dad , Roman , in prison . She 's relying on Trey , so this is the last thing she needs . " Nicole 's best friend during her initial storylines was Aden Jefferies ( Todd Lasance ) . After Brendan Austin ( Kain O 'Keeffe ) caused Roman to go blind , he took his anger out on Nicole and Aden . Subsequently they became " each other 's support network " and Lasance said it was not long afterward that they " slipped between the sheets " . One of the conditions of Aden 's tenancy was to never sleep with Nicole , this made the pair feel guilty that they had deceived Roman . Lasance felt the storyline was controversial as he had a strong fan base for his relationship with Belle Taylor ( Jessica Tovey ) - which meant he knew it would " cause a
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"Ġmeant", "Ġhe", "Ġknew", "Ġit", "Ġwould", "Ġ\"", "Ġcause", "Ġa" ]
240
stir " and divide the audience . In January 2010 , Nicole and Aden " get up close and personal " and they decided to spend Aden 's remaining time in the Bay together . They shared a kiss and James told TV Week that there are " a lot of complications " for them . She said that no one knew what was going to happen with Liam Murphy ( Axle Whitehead ) and that Nicole felt guilty for betraying Belle because she was her friend . James explained that Nicole 's pairing with Aden was " a bit more serious and in @-@ depth than her usual relationships . " James opined that Aden was the " nicer guy " for Nicole , but Liam may have had " the edge she 's after . " Nicole and Aden then embarked on a relationship . James thought that Nicole and Aden 's relationship was great and said " They started out having a kind of brother @-@ sister relationship , and that developed into something more . " Nicole declared her love for Aden , however he did not reciprocate . Lasance described the moment whilst interviewed by TV Week stating : " They 've always had an awesome connection and Nicole gets into a bit of a comfortable state and blurts out that she loves Aden . " Aden appreciated her love for him , however cannot say it back until he felt the same way . It is this that made their relationship " awkward " , Nicole tried to withdraw her declaration and hide her hurt feelings . = = = Downward spiral = = = In mid @-@ 2009 , producers decided to take Nicole 's storyline into a " u @-@ turn " , when she reverted to her " wild ways " . At the time Nicole had endured repetitive personal trauma including failed relationships , Roman being sent to prison and her best friend Belle was dying of cancer . James explained : " It 's all too much for her and she can 't handle it , so she reverts to her wild ways . " Geoff notices Nicole 's erratic behaviour and attempts to help her . She tried to " lure him into bed " after he comforted her , however he turned her down . James said she no longer had romantic feelings for Geoff , but was actually in a " vulnerable state " . She then started relying on alcohol more , and partied with fellow " wild child " Indigo Walker ( Samara Weaving ) at a " rowdy " venue . James explained that Nicole saw alcohol as an answer to her problems . The fact that " she 's trying to deal with too many things " saw Nicole transform into a messed up and depressed person . Nicole became more irresponsible with the more she drank and was in the company of many men . Geoff arrived and saved her from danger , Lewis said there was a part of Geoff that still loved Nicole . However they did not start anything again , James said she understood why because of their complicated backstory . However Geoff continued to support Nicole as he realised that " a lot of people she was closest to have deserted her " . Nicole 's unpredictable behaviour continued thereafter . All that Geoff could offer was to be there for her because ultimately " Nicole is the only one that can save her from herself . " = = = Pregnancy = = = Nicole had a brief relationship with Penn Graham ( Christian Clark ) and after he was murdered , she discovered that she was pregnant with his child . James told Sunrise that viewers could expect a " realistic portrayal of teen pregnancy " and she explained that it was important to respect the issue . She added " We took it very seriously with the writers , and you do a lot of research and things like that . You can only do your best , I guess ! " Nicole later told Marilyn Chambers ( Emily Symons ) about the baby and she offered to adopt it . James later revealed that when she joined Home and Away she told the writers that they can do anything with her character , except make her pregnant . Of the moment she was told that Nicole was going to have a baby , James said " I went in to see our producer later and he said , ' Okay , I 'm going to apologise in advance - we 're making Nicole pregnant ! ' " She initially did not want to portray a " typical soap teenage pregnancy " as she thought Nicole should be different . However the situation was explained to her and she became excited at the challenging storyline ahead . Nicole later decided to let Marilyn and Sid Walker ( Robert Mammone ) adopt the baby upon its birth . Marilyn was desperate to mother a child and her obsession with that and her controlling behaviour became too much for Nicole . Of the situation , Symons said " Marilyn is in Nicole 's face every minute . She 's doing it out of love , but she doesn 't realise she 's becoming obsessed with the baby . " Nicole was still questioning whether she is making the right decision about her unborn baby 's future and she argued with Marilyn . Nicole began dating a student from university , Angus McCathie ( Tim Pocock ) , they got along well on their first dates . Marilyn was left worried
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241
about their agreement and she felt " distanced . " Symons explained , " Marilyn is scared of being replaced . She 's scared of losing the baby , which could happen because there isn 't a legal agreement . " Roo Stewart ( Georgie Parker ) helped Nicole by convincing Marilyn to re @-@ evaluate the situation . Symons added that there is " still a long way to go " with the arrangement , but thereafter she was supportive and offered constructive help to Nicole . During the final few weeks of her pregnancy Nicole began to receive increasing support from Angelo Rosetta ( Luke Jacobz ) . James said it was clear to see that " the lines of friendship could be blurring into something more " for the pair . Whilst Jacobz opined " They 've been spending time together and have realised how comfortable they are together . " Angelo was forced to help Nicole give birth to a baby boy , George , and she handed him over to Marilyn immediately as agreed . She then tried to stay away , however it became obvious he needed her when he struggled without her . Marilyn then became obsessed with Nicole having the power to take her new son back . It was then revealed that Nicole would struggle to switch off her mothering instinct after giving George away . Nicole came to visit the baby and Marilyn caught her breastfeeding George , while she was alone with him . Symons called the scenes " volatile . " Nicole was unaware that Marilyn has reservations about her spending time with the baby . Of the breastfeeding scene , Symons stated : " Marilyn is shocked and offended , and this cuts to the very core of her worries - that she doesn 't have the same natural mothering instincts as George 's birth mother . Without a doubt , Marilyn thinks Nicole is overstepping the mark . She feels that a boundary has been overstepped and it could put a big strain on their relationship . " After the incident , Nicole is asked by Marylin , to stay away from the baby . James defended Nicole stating : " I think it 's hard to not bond , but this is Marilyn 's baby , and Nicole is so young and wants very much to give Marilyn and Sid this gift . " = = Storylines = = Nicole 's biological parents were the teenage Roman Harris ( Conrad Coleby ) and Natalie Franklin ( Adrienne Pickering ) , but she was raised by her maternal grandparents and considered her mother , Natalie , as an older sister . She did not meet her father until her early teenage years . Nicole arrives in Summer Bay in a flashy car . She initially makes herself unpopular with her bitchy care @-@ free nature . She tries to sleep with Aden but he rebuffs her . She makes a bet with Aden that she can sleep with Geoff Campbell ( Lincoln Lewis ) within two weeks , but Geoff and Belle publicly humiliate her when they find out . Nicole starts dating Roman 's old SAS friend Mark 's brother Elliot Gillen , despite Roman 's disapproval . After breaking up with Elliot , he takes her diving where he tries to kill her , Geoff and later Roman . Geoff tries to save Nicole , but Elliot leaves the pair stranded at sea . They wash up on a remote island and Geoff and Nicole grow close to each other . Geoff , who has strong religious views , sleeps with Nicole as they cannot fight temptation . When rescued Geoff proposes to Nicole out of guilt , she turns him down . She later has a pregnancy scare but is happy to discover it was a false alarm . Nicole later decides she and Geoff should return to the island to repair their relationship . They chased through woodland by a murderer , Derrick who tries to kill them both . However they manage to escape . Nicole decides to try her best to make their relationship work . However , after Freya kisses her they enter a few rocky periods and later break up . She starts a relationship with troublesome Trey . He films them having sex , which is later leaked at the town 's movie festival . She has a brief relationship with Liam . After the death of good friend Belle , Nicole goes on a downward spiral . She starts partying and binge drinking along with Indigo . Geoff notices her behaviour and attempts to help her . After pushing him away she sleeps with drug addict Liam . She then pursues older man Sid . She kisses him and Indigo sees them , which ruins their friendship . She later moves in with Miles Copeland ( Josh Quong Tart ) who agrees to look after her . Nicole starts dating Penn who manipulates her . He makes her believe she has accidentally stepped on a needle and she has tests for HIV . She later finds out she has the all clear . Nicole reveals to Marilyn that she is pregnant with Penn 's child . She initially chooses to have an abortion , but changes her mind and decides to give the baby to Marilyn . Nicole goes on a date with Angelo and she takes him to her antenatal class . When he learns that Nicole is giving her baby away , Angelo ends their relationship . Nicole become friends with Roo and asks her to be at the birth , but Roo
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turns her down . Marilyn apologises to Nicole when she starts to take over and begins leaving her out of her plans for the baby . Nicole becomes fed up when the baby is late and Angelo tries to help her start labour . They go for a walk on the beach and Nicole 's water breaks . Angelo is then forced to deliver the baby . Nicole later decides that she wants her baby back and tells Marilyn , who is devastated . Marilyn takes the baby , but later returns him . Nicole then leaves Summer bay with Angelo and George . She later contacts Marilyn and they meet in the city . Nicole and Marilyn talk things through and Angelo shows up with George . = = Reception = = Holy Soap said that Nicole 's most memorable moment was when she " returned to the desert island with Geoff to rekindle their love " and she was held hostage by Derek the murderer , before her father came to the rescue . When Nicole began dating Liam , Caroline Fitton writing for the Daily Mail said " I think this reforming wild child – a kind of less moody Peaches Geldof – has struck lucky " . Inside Soap opined that Nicole was a " flighty minx from the city who prays at the altar of Paris Hilton " . The Sunday Mail said it seemed like no one could stop her downward spiral . The Daily Record said that Nicole and Geoff 's relationship ending was good for her character . They later branded her a " fiery favourite " and when she started dating Penn , they said " Impressionable Nicole looks set to fall for the wrong man all over again " . When Nicole had her HIV scare Holy Soap said " As if defending her man against the Bay 's critics wasn 't enough for one girl to take , poor Nic " . Inside Soap said " Nicole Franklin isn 't exactly backward in coming forward " . Jaci Stephen of the Daily Mail opined that Nicole seemed incapable of decision making when it came to deciding on a birthing partner . TV Week chose James as one of the serial 's most promising actresses opining she was ready for roles in Hollywood . TV Week often commented on her pregnancy storyline . After the plot was half way through Erin Miller of TV Week said that Nicole had changed her mind about adopting her baby " more times that Julia Gillard has uttered the phrase ' moving forward ' " . Upon watching Nicole 's beach birth scenes , the magazine website editor quipped " Who knew sand had birthing properties ? ! Well , maybe not ... but you could forgive pregnant teen Nicole for thinking that after a casual stroll along the Bay 's beach ends with Angelo delivering her newborn son ! " Commenting on the realism of the storyline they added : " Only in the Bay would a baby be born on the beach ! " Miller thought it was odd she had then " miraculously lost any signs that she even had a baby . " She quipped " already the teen is back to wearing skin @-@ tight dresses ! " . They later described Nicole and Marilyn 's argument over George as " the mother of all rifts " and said " It 's exhausting just thinking about it ! " Miller later criticised Nicole 's career in fashion , after John told her he hated her designs for the Surf Club . She said " I had to agree with him - putting lifesavers in pink polo @-@ neck swimmers is a terrible idea . " = Livin ' the Dream = " Livin ' the Dream " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the ninth season of the American comedy television series The Office and the 197th episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on May 2 , 2013 . The episode guest stars Michael Imperioli as Sensei Billy , and was initially scheduled to air in its half @-@ hour timeslot , before being expanded to a full hour . The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) decides to pursue a career as a professional actor , and quits his job at Dunder Mifflin . Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) finally receives his black belt in karate from his new sensei ( Imperioli ) and , on the recommendation of Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , is promoted to Regional Manager of the Scranton branch . Jim reconnects with Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) , and makes it clear that he will choose her over Philadelphia . The episode was viewed by an estimated and received a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , ranking third in its first half @-@ hour timeslot and fourth in its second , marking a slight increase in the ratings from the previous episode . " Livin ' the Dream " received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Critical praise mainly went towards the dynamic between Jim ,
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243
Pam and Dwight , particularly for the former two 's reconciliation and the latter 's promotion . Andy 's subplot , meanwhile , received more mixed reviews . = = Plot = = CEO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) plans on firing Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) due to his missing work for acting gigs . However , Andy tells David he is resigning to pursue his dreams of stardom full time , and David is relieved to not have to fire him . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) receives his black belt in karate from his new sensei ( Michael Imperioli ) . Seeing Dwight 's tenacity and devotion , David is inspired to make Dwight Andy 's replacement . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) has returned to Scranton full time , saying he has realized that he can 't devote himself to both his family and his new job , and has decided to go " all in " on his family since that is what makes him most happy . David asks Jim his opinion on promoting Dwight , and Jim says that Dwight deserves the job and will be a great manager . Dwight then appoints Jim the new assistant to the regional manager . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) informs Jim that Athlead has found a buyer and wants them to do a promotional tour around the country for three months . With undisguised regret , Jim says he will not do the tour because he cannot put his wife Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) through that , unaware that Pam is listening in . Everyone in the office tells Andy that quitting is a foolish move and that he has no chance of achieving stardom . Andy eventually goes back on his decision , and David allows him to stay on in a sales position . However , mere hours later Andy feels that he is only sticking with his Dundler @-@ Mifflin job because it is safe and that he has to take a shot at achieving fame . Fearing his conviction will falter a second time , he decides he cannot simply quit , but get fired . This proves difficult as he is unable to make himself go through with any offense more serious than defecating on David 's car . Andy bids farewell to his coworkers with an unexpectedly moving rendition of " I Will Remember You " , prompting them to comment to the documentary crew that he may have star potential after all . Meanwhile , Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) is evicted from her studio apartment after her cats were taken away by Animal Control . She considers living in a tent in the woods , prompting Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) to offer her to stay with him until she gets back on her feet . She finally accepts with gratitude . As they set off to take Angela 's things to Oscar 's place , Oscar mentions her marriage to Robert Lipton and she breaks down into tears , saying " I love him . " However , she denies she still has feelings for Robert and claims she was talking about Dwight . = = Production = = " Livin ' the Dream " was written by story editor Niki Schwartz @-@ Wright , marking her second writing credit for the series , after the earlier season episode " Lice " . It was directed by regular Office director Jeffrey Blitz , who last directed season eight 's " Gettysburg " . The episode was originally scheduled to air in its regular half @-@ hour time slot , but NBC later announced it would be expanded to fill an hour time slot beginning a half hour early , although it still counts as one official episode , similar to the earlier season episode " Moving On " . Rogers noted that " we knew the last two episodes would be hour @-@ longs , and The Finale might even end up running longer , but we still had a lot of great storytelling to do leading up to them , and ' Livin ' the Dream ' was one that ultimately deserved to be an hour long episode as well ! " = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " Livin ' the Dream " originally aired on May 2 , 2013 on NBC . In its original American broadcast , " Livin ' the Dream " was viewed by an estimated 3 @.@ 51 million viewers and received a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a slight increase in the ratings from the previous episode , " Paper Airplane " . The episode ranked third in its first half @-@ hour timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the CBS comedy series Two and a Half Men which received a 3 @.@ 2 / 10 rating and an entry of the Fox reality series American Idol which scored a 2 @.@ 6 / 9 rating . The second
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244
half @-@ hour ranked fourth in its timeslot , being beaten by an episode of the ABC series Grey 's Anatomy which scored a 3 @.@ 0 / 9 rating , an entry of the CBS series Person of Interest which garnered a 2 @.@ 4 / 7 rating , and installment of the Fox series Glee which received a 1 @.@ 9 / 5 rating . = = = Reviews = = = " Livin ' the Dream " received positive reviews from television critics . Roth Cornet of IGN wrote that " it pleases me greatly that at the conclusion of this super @-@ sized episode I was left , once again , truly looking forward to seeing what these next few weeks , and that final hour of The Office , will bring . " Cornet praised the full @-@ use of the ensemble , particularly the " Phyllis and Stanley Lil ' Romeo mini @-@ debate " and Creed 's confused mimicking of Dwight 's declaration . Cornet also called the Dwight storyline " perfectly executed " , as well as the Jim @-@ Pam @-@ Dwight dynamic featured throughout the episode , calling their companionship to be " entirely earned " . She also praised Kinsey 's performance during her character 's storyline , and said her final scenes with Oscar " [ tugged ] at my heart @-@ string " . She gave the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , calling it " Great " . M. Giant of Television Without Pity awarded the episode an " A – " and wrote that " almost everybody is having their best day in a long time , in the best episode of The Office in an even longer time " . Nick Campbell of TV.com complimented the sentimental storylines in the episode , specifically between Jim , Pam and Dwight . He was positive towards Jim and Pam 's reconciliation , but felt " something hollow about their reunion " . He also noted that the Jim @-@ Pam storyline caused the Dwight @-@ Angela relationship to go " darker " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix gave the episode a slightly more mixed review writing that " the non @-@ Andy parts of " Livin ' the Dream " were fairly interesting " . He appreciated the drama coming from Angela 's desperation , despite disagreeing with the logic in the situation . Sepinwall praised the Jim @-@ Dwight dynamic in the episode , considering it an enjoyable payoff , and also praised Jim and Pam 's reconciliation , particularly them annoying their co @-@ workers with their flirting . Joshua Alton of The A.V. Club was more negative towards the episode , saying it felt " padded @-@ out " to fill the full hour timeslot , and that " this episode might be the nadir for the show ’ s hour @-@ long installments " . He was complimentary towards the Jim @-@ Pam storyline , but felt " there wasn ’ t much happening " beyond Pam overhearing Jim 's talk with Darryl . Alton praised the Dwight storyline and his dynamic with Jim and Pam , calling it " the true fan service " . Alton gave the episode a " C – " . = Toniná = Tonina ( or Toniná in Spanish orthography ) is a pre @-@ Columbian archaeological site and ruined city of the Maya civilization located in what is now the Mexican state of Chiapas , some 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) east of the town of Ocosingo . The site is medium to large , with groups of temple @-@ pyramids set on terraces rising some 71 metres ( 233 ft ) above a plaza , a large court for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame , and over 100 carved monuments , most dating from the 6th century through the 9th centuries AD , during the Classic period . Toniná is distinguished by its well preserved stucco sculptures and particularly by its in @-@ the @-@ round carved monuments , produced to an extent not seen in Mesoamerica since the end of the much earlier Olmec civilization . Toniná was an aggressive state in the Late Classic , using warfare to develop a powerful kingdom . For much of its history , Toniná was engaged in sporadic warfare with Palenque , its greatest rival and one of the most important polities in the west of the Maya region , although Toniná eventually became the dominant city in the west . The city is notable for having the last known Long Count date on any Maya monument , marking the end of the Classic Maya period in AD 909 . = = Etymology = = Toniná means house of stone in the Tzeltal language of the local Maya inhabitants , an alternate interpretation is the place where stone sculptures are raised to honour time . However , this is a modern name and the original name was either Po or Popo , appearing in Classic Maya texts in the title used
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245
for the kings of Toniná , k 'uhul po ' ajaw ( Divine Lord of Po ) . A Maya rebellion in Colonial times , in 1558 , featured a group called the po ' winikob ' ( People of Po ) . Early versions of the Toniná emblem glyph bore a doubled po glyph and the term Popo is also found in Colonial records . Since double sounds were often abbreviated in hieroglyphic texts , Popo may represent the original name of the city . = = Location = = Toniná is located at an altitude of 800 to 900 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 to 3 @,@ 000 ft ) above mean sea level in the Chiapas highlands of southern Mexico , some 40 miles ( 64 km ) south of the contemporary Maya city of Palenque , Toniná 's greatest rival throughout its recorded history . Toniná is separated from Palenque by mountainous terrain and the site core is located along an easily defended ascending limestone ridge immediately to the west of a seasonal tributary of the Río Jataté , one of the two rivers forming the Ocosingo Valley . = = Rulers = = Rulers of Toniná recorded in the Maya script on Toniná monuments include : The last known recorded date at the site is featured on Monument 101 as 15 January 909 CE . = = History = = = = = Early Classic = = = Toniná had a particularly active Early Classic presence , although the Early Classic remains lie entirely buried under later construction . Due to this , early texts are scarce and only offer a glimpse of the early history of the site . An 8th @-@ century text refers to a king ruling in AD 217 , although it only mentions his title , not his name . Ruler 1 is depicted on a couple of Early Classic monuments , the better preserved of which is an altar that dates to 514 . A ruler known as Jaguar Bird Peccary is represented on a 6th @-@ century stela , which describes him acceding to the throne in 568 . The first mention of Toniná in a record from a foreign state is from the site of Chinikiha , located 72 kilometres ( 45 mi ) to the northeast on the Usumacinta River , the text is from a throne and describes the capture of a person from Toniná in 573 . = = = Late Classic = = = = = = = K 'inich Hix Chapat = = = = Toniná 's history comes into focus in the Late Classic , when its historical record is more fully represented by hieroglyphic texts . In 633 K 'inich Hix Chapat is recorded as installing two subordinate lords but little else is known of his reign , although he was probably enthroned in 595 . The last mention of K 'inich Hix Chapat is in a monument dated to 665 that appears to be a memorial stone . = = = = Ruler 2 = = = = Ruler 2 acceded to the throne of Toniná in 668 . His rule is marked by warfare and the frequent depiction of bound captives on his monuments . Ruler 2 established the use of in @-@ the @-@ round sculptural style that came to typify the stelae of Toniná . A monument dated to 682 depicts three naked prisoners with their arms bound , one of them is identified as a lord from Annak ' , an as yet unidentified site . His reign may have ended with his defeat and capture by K 'inich Kan Balam II of Palenque in September 687 , as described in a glyphic text from Temple 17 in the rival city , an event that probably culminated in his sacrifice . = = = = K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak = = = = K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak was enthroned in 688 , twenty years after Ruler 2 , and reigned for twenty @-@ seven years . During his reign he restored Toniná 's power with a number of military victories over Palenque , and his reign was dominated by the struggle against the rival city for regional power . Ballcourt 1 , the larger of Toniná 's two ballcourts , was dedicated in 699 to celebrate three victories over the city 's arch @-@ rival . The ballcourt originally had six sculptures of bound captives , all vassals of the enemy Palenque king from the Usumacinta region . The date of the king 's death is unknown . = = = = Ruler 4 = = = = Ruler 4 came to power in 708 at a very young age . Three years later , in 711 , while Ruler 4 was still a child
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246
, Toniná gained an important victory over Palenque . The battle resulted in the capture of Kan Joy Chitam II of Palenque and made Toniná the dominant centre in the lower Usumacinta region . The victory was so complete that it resulted in a ten @-@ year gap in the dynastic history of the defeated city , during which the captured ruler may have been held hostage . Ruler 4 continued in power to celebrate the period endings of 716 and 721 . A captive depicted on one of his monuments is identified as being from the distant city of Calakmul , one of the two Maya " superpowers " . = = = = K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat = = = = Ruler 4 was succeeded by K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat in 723 . Around 725 Toniná fought a war against Piedras Negras , a city on the north bank of the Usumacinta River , now in Guatemala . A series of events during his reign were marked on monuments between 726 and 729 and in 730 he rededicated the tomb of his predecessor K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak . The mother of K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat is named as Lady Winik Timan K 'awiil and his father may well have been K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak himself . The reign of K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat is notable for the absence of the usual sculptures depicting bound war captives , although the reason for this is unknown . = = = = Later rulers = = = = Little is known of the next two rulers , Ruler 6 is named as K 'inich Tuun Chapat , he celebrated the period ending of 736 and may have died 762 . A damaged text accompanying the image of a bound captive indicates renewed warfare with Palenque during his reign , however the name of the prisoner is lost and it is unclear if it is the actual king of Palenque or merely one of his vassals . He was succeeded by Ruler 7 , about whom even less is known . Around 764 Toniná defeated Palenque in battle . In 775 a text recorded the death of Lord Wak Chan K 'ak ' , a prince who appears to have been the heir to the throne and who died before he could take power . Ruler 8 was the last of the successful warrior kings of Toniná . He celebrated a series of events between 789 and 806 , including the defeat of Pomoy in 789 , and the capture of the ruler Ucha 'an Aj Chih , who appears to have been the vassal of B 'olon K 'awiil of Calakmul . In 799 he rededicated the tomb of Ruler 1 . Ruler 8 oversaw an extensive remodelling of the upper levels of the Acropolis . Ruler 8 erected a number of sculptures of bound prisoners of war and adopted the title aj b 'olon b 'aak , " He of Many Captives " . However , the lesser extent of Toniná 's power is evident from its victory over the site of Sak Tz 'i ' ( White Dog ) , an important city in the Lacandon region , an area which had once been dominated by Toniná . By the time of Ruler 8 's successor , Uh Chapat , Toniná was clearly in decline . Only a single event , in 837 , can be dated to his reign , although a stucco mural depicting captives with garrottes at their throats may belong to his period of rule . The history of Toniná continued after most other Classic Maya cities had fallen , perhaps aided by the site 's relative isolation . Ruler 10 is associated with a monument dating to 904 in the Terminal Classic and a monument dating to 909 bears the last known Long Count date although the name of the king has not survived . Ceramic fragments indicate that occupation at the site continued for another century or more . = = = Modern history = = = The first published account of the ruins was made by Fray Jacinto Garrido at the end of the 17th century . A number of visitors investigated the ruins of Toniná in the 19th century , the first being an expedition led by Guillaume Dupaix in 1808 . John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood visited in 1840 , and Stephens wrote an extensive description of the site . Eduard Seler and Caecilie Seler @-@ Sachs investigated the monuments at Toniná , publishing their reports at the turn of the 20th century . Karl Sapper visited the site in 1895 and 1896 . Frans Blom and Oliver La Farge investigated the site in 1920s for Tulane University , publishing their reports in 1926 — 1927 . The French Toniná Project began excavations in 1972
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247
which continued through 1975 , then resumed in 1979 to 1980 , under the direction of Pierre Becquelin and Claude Baudez . The National Institute of Anthropology and History of Mexico ( INAH , the Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia ) began their own excavations at Toniná the following year . The site is accessible for tourism and has a small museum that was inaugurated on 15 July 2000 . = = Site description = = The site was built on a platform covering 6 hectares ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The principal architecture is located in the acropolis , which occupies seven south @-@ facing terraces on the northern side of the platform , rising 71 metres ( 233 ft ) over the plaza below . It has a more distinct geometry than at most Maya sites , with a right @-@ angle relationship between most structures . Much of the public imagery of the site details the ruthless manner in which the city dealt with its enemies . A 16 by 4 metres ( 52 by 13 ft ) stucco sculpture rising from the fourth to fifth terraces depicts a skeletal death god carrying the severed head of a lord of Palenque in one hand . A frieze on the fifth terrace probably displayed Toniná 's most distinguished victims , dozens of fragments of this frieze were discovered in the plaza below . This frieze was carved from the local sandstone but its style is that of Palenque , suggesting that captured artists carried out the work . After the abandonment of the city at the end of the Classic Period , many of the sculptures fell down the steep embankment supporting the seven terraces . = = = Structures = = = Ballcourt 1 ( the Sunken Ballcourt ) was dedicated in 699 by K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak to mark three victories over K 'inich Kan Balam II of Palenque . Sculptures of the torsos of six captured vassals of the Palenque king were used as ballcourt markers . One of these vassals is named as Yax Ahk ( Green Turtle ) , who was the lord of Annay Te ' , a site that probably lay on the south side of the Usumacinta between Piedras Negras and Yaxchilán . Ballcourt 2 is the smaller of the two ballcourts and lies in the north of the plaza , at the foot of the Acropolis . The Palace of the Underworld is entered via three step @-@ vaulted arches on the eastern side of the second terrace of the Acropolis . The Palace of Frets is located on the fourth terrace of the Acropolis . The south facade of the palace is decorated with four large stepped frets . On the east side of the palace a stairway leads to a decorated throne of stone and stucco . One of the rooms of the palace contains a stucco decoration representing feathered serpents and crossed bones . = = = Monuments and sculptures = = = The monuments of Toniná tend to be smaller than those at other Maya sites , with most of the stelae measuring less than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . The most important difference from monuments at other Maya sites is that they are carved in the round like statues , often with hieroglyphic text running down the spine . On the fifth terrace , in @-@ the @-@ round sculptures of Toniná 's rulers dominated two @-@ dimensional representations of defeated enemies . The dated monuments at Toniná span the period from AD 495 to 909 , covering most of the Classic Period . Monument 3 is broken into various fragments , five of which were recovered from various locations in Ocosingo and Toniná through the course of the 20th century and most of which were reunited in the Toniná site museum . Aside from being broken , the stela is largely complete and only lightly eroded , it is a statue of a ruler with inscriptions describing the accession of K 'inich Baaknal Chaak and the promotion to the priesthood of Aj Ch 'aaj Naah . Monument 5 was recovered from a school in Ocosingo and moved to the site museum of Toniná . It is a badly eroded life @-@ size human statue with the head missing . Monument 7 is carved from yellow sandstone and has suffered only minor damage . It is a stela base with well @-@ preserved hieroglyphs on all four vertical sides and was dedicated by K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat in 728 . It is currently in the Museo Regional in Tuxtla Gutiérrez . Monument 8 dates to the reign of Ruler 2 . It marks the period ending of 682 and shows the presentation
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248
of three war captives . Monument 12 is a sculpture carved in the round , representing Ruler 2 . It dates to AD 672 . Monument 27 is a carved step depicting K 'awiil Mo ' , a lord from Palenque , as an elderly prisoner , bound and lying on his back with his profile positioned in such a way as to be trodden on time and again . Monument 99 is an undated fragment that depicts a female captive , which is rare in Maya art . Monument 101 has the last Long Count date from any Maya monument , it marks the K 'atun ending of AD 909 . Monument 106 is the earliest securely dated monument at the site , dating to AD 593 . It depicts Ruler 1 . Monument 113 depicts Ruler 2 participating in a scattering ritual . Monument 114 was dedicated in 794 by Ruler 8 . It commemorates the death of an important noble , apparently a relative or vassal of Ruler 8 's predecessor Tuun Chapat . Monument 122 is a low relief sculpture marking the defeat of Palenque by Ruler 4 in 711 and the capture of Kan Joy Chitam II , who is depicted as a bound captive . Monument 141 is a very well preserved hieroglyphic panel carved from fine grained white limestone with almost the whole inscription intact . It describes the dedication of a ballcourt by K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak . Monument 154 dates to the reign of K 'inich Hix Chapat and records his installing of two subordinate lords in 633 . Monument 158 has a very late date , in AD 904 , at the very end of the Classic Period . It was erected during the reign of Ruler 10 . The Frieze of the Dream Lords ( also known as the Frieze of the Four Suns or Frieze of the Four Eras ) was uncovered by archaeologists during excavations in 1992 . It is a stucco mural located at the east end of the 5th terrace . It represents a complex supernatural scene divided into four by a feather @-@ covered scaffold from which hang the severed heads of sacrificial victims . Among the scaffold partitions are depicted the wayob ( spirit companions ) of the Maya elite . The most well @-@ preserved section of the sculpture depicts a skeletal supernatural way named Ak Ok Kimi ( " Turtle Foot Death " ) wearing turtleshells on its feet and carrying a severed head in one hand , interpreted as the way of a lord from the site of Pipa ' . The frieze was once brightly painted in red , blue and yellow . This frieze has strong stylistic parallels with mural paintings at the great Early Classic metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico . = = = The site museum = = = The site museum is located 300 metres ( 980 ft ) outside of the Toniná archaeological zone . It possesses 2 exhibition rooms and a conference room . The first room explains the pyramidal form of the acropolis and how it relates to Maya mythology , while the main room contains sculptures of the city 's rulers . Artefacts in the collection include stone sculptures , ceramics and artefacts sculpted from bone , shell , obsidian and flint . The pieces in the museum graphically depict the two sides of the power exercised by Toniná , on the one hand with sculptures of the city 's rulers and on the other with its depictions of bound prisoners of war . = Central Area Command ( RAAF ) = Central Area Command was one of several geographically based commands raised by the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . It was formed in March 1940 , and covered the central portion of New South Wales . Headquartered at Sydney , Central Area Command was primarily responsible for air defence , aerial reconnaissance and protection of the sea lanes within its boundaries . It was disbanded in August 1941 and control of its units taken over by other RAAF formations . Proposals in 1943 – 44 to raise a new Central Area Command did not come to fruition . = = History = = Prior to World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force was small enough for all its elements to be directly controlled by RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . After war broke out in September 1939 , the RAAF began to implement a decentralised form of command , commensurate with expected increases in manpower and units . Its initial move in this direction was to create Nos. 1 and 2 Groups to control units in Victoria and New South Wales , respectively . Then , between March 1940 and May 1941 , the RAAF divided Australia and New Guinea into four geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones : Central Area , Southern Area , Western Area , and Northern Area . The roles of these area commands were air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC )
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249
responsible for the administration and operations of all air bases and units within his boundary . No. 2 Group , which had been established on 20 November 1939 , was re @-@ formed as one of the first two area commands , Central Area , on 7 March 1940 . Headquartered in Sydney , Central Area Command was given control of all Air Force units in New South Wales except those in the southern Riverina and the north of the state . Units in Queensland were also temporarily assigned to its control , pending the formation of Northern Area . Central Area 's inaugural AOC was Air Commodore Adrian " King " Cole , who had also led No. 2 Group . His senior air staff officer was Wing Commander Alan Charlesworth . In May 1940 it was reported that the area 's headquarters building would change from " Mont Loana " in Point Piper to the mansion " Kilmory " nearby . Cole handed over command of Central Area to Air Commodore Bill Anderson in December 1940 . By August 1941 , the RAAF 's expanding instructional program necessitated the establishment of overarching training organisations on a semi @-@ functional , semi @-@ geographical basis . Accordingly , No. 2 ( Training ) Group was formed in Sydney , taking responsibility for the training units then under Central Area , which was disbanded . Control of other Central Area units was " divided as convenient " , according to the official history of the war , between Northern and Southern Area Commands . = = Aftermath = = The RAAF 's area command structure was revised in 1942 , following the outbreak of the Pacific War : Northern Area was split into North @-@ Eastern Area and North @-@ Western Area , and a new command covering New South Wales and southern Queensland , Eastern Area , was created , making a total of five commands . In October 1943 , the Air Board proposed carving a new Central Area Command out of Eastern Area , which by then was considered too large to be controlled by one headquarters and therefore ripe for subdivision . This Central Area Command would have been responsible for training and operational units in southern Queensland . The War Cabinet deferred its decision on the proposal . The concept was raised again in August 1944 , and this time the new Central Area Command was to control maintenance units , as well as training and operations , in southern Queensland . Once again , nothing came of the proposal . = Corn crake = The corn crake , corncrake or landrail ( Crex crex ) is a bird in the rail family . It breeds in Europe and Asia as far east as western China , and migrates to Africa for the northern hemisphere 's winter . It is a medium @-@ sized crake with buff- or grey @-@ streaked brownish @-@ black upperparts , chestnut markings on the wings , and blue @-@ grey underparts with rust @-@ coloured and white bars on the flanks and undertail . The strong bill is flesh @-@ toned , the iris is pale brown , and the legs and feet are pale grey . Juveniles are similar in plumage to adults , and downy chicks are black , as with all rails . There are no subspecies , although individuals from the east of the breeding range tend to be slightly paler than their western counterparts . The male 's call is a loud krek krek , from which the scientific name is derived . The corn crake is larger than its closest relative , the African crake , which shares its wintering range ; that species is also darker @-@ plumaged , and has a plainer face . The corn crake 's breeding habitat is grassland , particularly hayfields , and it uses similar environments on the wintering grounds . This secretive species builds a nest of grass leaves in a hollow in the ground and lays 6 – 14 cream @-@ coloured eggs which are covered with rufous blotches . These hatch in 19 – 20 days , and the black precocial chicks fledge after about five weeks . This crake is in steep decline across much of its former breeding range because modern farming practices often destroy nests before breeding is completed . The corn crake is omnivorous but mainly feeds on invertebrates , the occasional small frog or mammal , and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain . Natural threats include introduced and feral mammals , large birds , various parasites and diseases . Although numbers have declined steeply in western Europe , this bird is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List because of its huge range and large , apparently stable , populations in Russia and Kazakhstan . Numbers in western China are more significant than previously thought , and conservation measures have facilitated an increased population in some countries which had suffered the greatest losses . Despite its elusive nature , the loud call has ensured the corn crake has been noted in literature , and garnered a range of local and dialect names . = = Taxonomy = = The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species . Although origins of the group are lost in antiquity
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"ĠAlthough", "Ġorigins", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġgroup", "Ġare", "Ġlost", "Ġin", "Ġantiquity" ]
250
, the largest number of species and least specialised forms are found in the Old World , suggesting this family originated there . The taxonomy of the small crakes is complicated , but the closest relative of the corn crake is the African crake , C. egregia , which has sometimes been given its own genus , Crecopsis , but is now more usually placed in Crex . Both species are short @-@ billed brown birds with a preference for grassland rather than wetland habitats typical of rails . Porzana crakes , particularly the ash @-@ throated crake ( Porzana albicollis ) are near relatives of the Crex genus . Corn crakes were first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 as Rallus crex , but was subsequently moved to the genus Crex , created by German naturalist and ornithologist Johann Matthäus Bechstein in 1803 , and named Crex pratensis . The earlier use of crex gives it priority over Bechstein 's specific name pratensis , and leads to the current name of Crex crex . The binomial name , Crex crex , from the Ancient Greek " κρεξ " , is onomatopoeic , referring to the crake 's repetitive grating call . The common name was formerly spelt as a single word , " corncrake " , but the official version is now " corn crake " . The English names refer to the species habit of nesting in dry hay or cereal fields , rather than marshes used by most members of this family . = = Description = = The corn crake is a medium @-@ sized rail , 27 – 30 cm ( 11 – 12 in ) long with a wingspan of 42 – 53 cm ( 17 – 21 in ) . Males weigh 165 g ( 5 @.@ 8 oz ) on average and females 145 g ( 5 @.@ 1 oz ) . The adult male has the crown of its head and all of its upperparts brown @-@ black in colour , streaked with buff or grey . The wing coverts are a distinctive chestnut colour with some white bars . The face , neck and breast are blue @-@ grey , apart from a pale brown streak from the base of the bill to behind the eye , the belly is white , and the flanks , and undertail are barred with chestnut and white . The strong bill is flesh @-@ coloured , the iris is pale brown , and the legs and feet are pale grey . Compared to the male , the female has warmer @-@ toned upperparts and a narrower duller eye streak . Outside the breeding season , the upperparts of both sexes become darker and the underparts less grey . The juvenile is like the adult in appearance , but has a yellow tone to its upperparts , and the grey of the underparts is replaced with buff @-@ brown . The chicks have black down , as with all rails . While there are no subspecies , all populations show great individual variation in colouring , and the birds gradually become paler and greyer towards the east of the range . Adults undergo a complete moult after breeding , which is normally finished by late August or early September , before migration to south eastern Africa . There is a pre @-@ breeding partial moult prior to the return from Africa , mainly involving the plumage of the head , body and tail . Young birds have a head and body moult about five weeks after hatching . The corn crake is sympatric with the African crake on the wintering grounds , but can be distinguished by its larger size , paler upperparts , tawny upperwing and different underparts pattern . In flight , it has longer , less rounded wings , and shallower wingbeats than its African relative , and shows a white leading edge to the inner wing . In both the breeding and wintering ranges it is unlikely to be confused with any other rails , since sympatric species are smaller , with white markings on the upperparts , different underparts patterns and shorter bills . A flying corn crake can resemble a gamebird , but its chestnut wing pattern and dangling legs are diagnostic . = = = Voice = = = On the breeding grounds , the male corn crake 's advertising call is a loud , repetitive , grating krek krek normally delivered from a low perch with the bird 's head and neck almost vertical and its bill wide open . The call can be heard from 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) away , and serves to establish the breeding territory , attract females , and challenge intruding males . Slight differences in vocalisations mean that individual males can be distinguished by their calls . Early in the season , the call is given almost continuously at night , and often during the day , too . It may be repeated more
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251
than 20 @,@ 000 times a night , with a peak between midnight and 3 am . The call has evolved to make a singing male 's location clear , as this species hides in vegetation . The frequency of calling reduces after a few weeks but may intensify again near the end of the laying period before falling away towards the end of the breeding season . To attract males , mechanical imitations of their call can be produced by rubbing a piece of wood down a notched stick , or by flicking a credit card against a comb or zip @-@ fastener . The male also has a growling call , given with the bill shut and used during aggressive interactions . The female corn crake may give a call that is similar to that of the male ; it also has a distinctive barking sound , similar in rhythm to the main call but without the grating quality . The female also has a high @-@ pitched cheep call , and a oo @-@ oo @-@ oo sound to call the chick . The chicks make a quiet peeick @-@ peeick contact call , and a chirp used to beg for food . Because of the difficulty in seeing this species , it is usually censused by counting males calling between 11 pm and 3 am ; the birds do not move much at night , whereas they may wander up to 600 m ( 660 yd ) during the day , which could lead to double @-@ counting if monitored then . Identifying individual males suggests that just counting calling birds underestimates the true count by nearly 30 % , and the discrepancy is likely to be greater , since only 80 % of males may call at all on a given night . The corn crake is silent in Africa . = = Distribution and habitat = = The corn crake breeds from Britain and Ireland east through Europe to central Siberia . Although it has vanished from much of its historic range , this bird was once found in suitable habitats in Eurasia everywhere between latitudes 41 ° N and 62 ° N. There is also a sizable population in western China , but this species nests only rarely in northern Spain and in Turkey . Old claims of breeding in South Africa are incorrect , and result from misidentification of eggs in a museum collection which are actually those of the African rail . The corn crake winters mainly in Africa , from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and central Tanzania south to eastern South Africa . North of this area , it is mainly seen on migration , but occasionally winters in North Africa and to the west and north of its core area in southeast Africa . Most of the South African population of about 2 @,@ 000 birds occurs in KwaZulu @-@ Natal and the former Transvaal Province , and numbers elsewhere in Africa are uncertain . There are several nineteenth @-@ century records , when populations were much higher than now , of birds being seen in western Europe , mainly Britain and Ireland , between December and February . This crake migrates to Africa along two main routes : a western route through Morocco and Algeria , and a more important flyway through Egypt . On passage , it has been recorded in most countries between its breeding and wintering ranges , including much of West Africa . Birds from Coll following the western route paused in West Africa on their way further south , and again on the return flight , when they also rested in Spain or North Africa . Eastern migrants have been recorded in those parts of southern Asia that lie between the east of the breeding range and Africa . Further afield , the corn crake has been recorded as a vagrant to Sri Lanka , Vietnam and Australia , the Seychelles , Bermuda , Canada , the US , Greenland , Iceland , the Faroes , the Azores , Madeira , and the Canary Islands . The corn crake is mainly a lowland species , but breeds up to 1 @,@ 400 m ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) altitude in the Alps , 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) in China and 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in Russia . When breeding in Eurasia , the corn crake 's habitats would originally have included river meadows with tall grass and meadow plants including sedges and irises . It is now mainly found in cool moist grassland used for the production of hay , particularly moist traditional farmland with limited cutting or fertiliser use . It also utilises other treeless grasslands in mountains or taiga , on coasts , or where created by fire . Moister areas like wetland edges may be used , but very wet habitats are avoided , as are open areas and those with vegetation more than 50 cm ( 20 in ) tall , or too dense to walk through . The odd bush or hedge may be used as a calling post . Grassland which is not mown or grazed becomes too matted to be suitable for nesting , but locally crops such as cereals , peas , rape , clover or potatoes may be used
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252
. After breeding , adults move to taller vegetation such as common reed , iris , or nettles to moult , returning to the hay and silage meadows for the second brood . In China , flax is also used for nest sites . Although males often sing in intensively managed grass or cereal crops , successful breeding is uncommon , and nests in the field margins or nearby fallow ground are more likely to succeed . When wintering in Africa , the corn crake occupies dry grassland and savanna habitats , occurring in vegetation 30 – 200 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 6 @.@ 56 ft ) tall , including seasonally burnt areas and occasionally sedges or reed beds . It is also found on fallow and abandoned fields , uncut grass on airfields , and the edges of crops . It occurs at up to at least 1 @,@ 750 metres ( 5 @,@ 740 ft ) altitude in South Africa . Each bird stays within a fairly small area . Although it sometimes occurs with the African crake , that species normally prefers moister and shorter grassland habitats than does the corn crake . On migration , the corn crake may also occur in wheatfields and around golf courses . = = Behaviour = = The corn crake is a difficult bird to see in its breeding sites , usually being hidden by vegetation , but will sometimes emerge into the open . Occasionally , individuals may become very trusting ; for five consecutive summers , an individual crake on the Scottish island of Tiree entered a kitchen to feed on scraps , and , in 1999 , a wintering Barra bird would come for poultry feed once the chickens had finished . In Africa , it is more secretive than the African crake , and , unlike its relative , it is rarely seen in the open , although it occasionally feeds on tracks or road sides . The corn crake is most active early and late in the day , after heavy rain and during light rain . Its typical flight is weak and fluttering , although less so than that of the African crake . For longer flights , such as migration , it has a steadier , stronger action with legs drawn up . It walks with a high @-@ stepping action , and can run swiftly through grass with its body held horizontal and laterally flattened . It will swim if essential . When flushed by a dog , it will fly less than 50 m ( 160 ft ) , frequently landing behind a bush or thicket , and then crouch on landing . If disturbed in the open , this crake will often run in a crouch for a short distance , with its neck stretched forward , then stand upright to watch the intruder . When captured it may feign death , recovering at once if it sees a way out . The corn crake is solitary on the wintering grounds , where each bird occupies 4 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 9 ha ( 10 – 12 acres ) at one time , although the total area used may be double that , since an individual may move locally due to flooding , plant growth , or grass cutting . Flocks of up to 40 birds may form on migration , sometimes associating with common quails . Migration takes place at night , and flocks resting during the day may aggregate to hundreds of birds at favoured sites . The ability to migrate is innate , not learned from adults . Chicks raised from birds kept in captivity for ten generations were able to migrate to Africa and return with similar success to wild @-@ bred young . = = = Breeding = = = Until 1995 , it was assumed that the corn crake is monogamous , but it transpires that a male may have a shifting home range , and mate with two or more females , moving on when laying is almost complete . The male 's territory can vary from 3 to 51 ha ( 7 @.@ 4 to 126 @.@ 0 acres ) , but averages 15 @.@ 7 ha ( 39 acres ) . The female has a much smaller range , averaging only 5 @.@ 5 ha ( 14 acres ) . A male will challenge an intruder by calling with his wings drooped and his head pointing forward . Usually the stranger moves off ; if it stays , the two birds square up with heads and necks raised and the wings touching the ground . They then run around giving the growling call and lunging at each other . A real fight may ensue , with the birds leaping at each other and pecking , and sometimes kicking . Females play no part in defending the territory . The female may be offered food by the male during courtship . He has a brief courtship display in which the neck is extended and the head held down , the tail is fanned , and the wings are spread with the tips touching the ground . He will then attempt to approach the female from behind , and then leap on her back to copulate . The nest is typically in grassland , sometimes in safer sites along a hedge , or near an isolated tree or bush ,
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253
or in overgrown vegetation . Where grass is not tall enough at the start of the season , the first nest may be constructed in herby or marsh vegetation , with the second brood in hay . The second nest may also be at a higher altitude that the first , to take advantage of the later @-@ developing grasses further up a hill . The nest , well hidden in the grass , is built in a scrape or hollow in the ground . It is made of woven coarse dry grass and other plants , and lined with finer grasses . Although nest construction is usually described as undertaken by the female , a recent aviary study found that in the captive population the male always built the nest . The nest is 12 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter and 3 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) deep . The clutch is 6 – 14 , usually 8 – 12 eggs ; these are oval , slightly glossy , creamy or tinted with green , blue or grey , and blotched red @-@ brown . They average 37 mm × 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in × 1 @.@ 0 in ) and weigh about 13 – 16 g ( 0 @.@ 46 – 0 @.@ 56 oz ) , of which 7 % is shell . The eggs are laid at daily intervals , but second clutches may sometimes have two eggs added per day . Incubation is by the female only ; her tendency to sit tight when disturbed , or wait until the last moment to flee , leads to many deaths during hay @-@ cutting and harvesting . The eggs hatch together after 19 – 20 days , and the precocial chicks leave the nest within a day or two . They are fed by the female for three or four days , but can find their own food thereafter . The juveniles fledge after 34 – 38 days . The second brood is started about 42 days after the first , and the incubation period is slightly shorter at 16 – 18 days . The grown young may stay with the female until departure for Africa . Nest success in undisturbed sites is high , at 80 – 90 % , but much lower in fertilised meadows and on arable land . The method and timing of mowing is crucial ; mechanized mowing can kill 38 – 95 % of chicks in a given site , and losses average 50 % of first brood chicks and somewhat less than 40 % of second brood chicks . The influence of weather on chick survival is limited ; although chick growth is faster in dry or warm weather , the effects are relatively small . Unlike many precocial species , chicks are fed by their mother to a greater or lesser extent until they become independent , and this may cushion them from adverse conditions . The number of live chicks hatched is more important than the weather , with lower survival in large broods . The annual adult survival rate is under 30 % , although some individuals may live for 5 – 7 years . = = = Feeding = = = The corn crake is omnivorous , but mainly feeds on invertebrates , including earthworms , slugs and snails , spiders , beetles , dragonflies , grasshoppers and other insects . In the breeding areas , it is a predator of Sitona weevils , which infest legume crops. and in the past consumed large amounts of the former grassland pests , leatherjackets and wireworms . This crake will also eat small frogs and mammals , and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain . Its diet on the wintering grounds is generally similar , but includes locally available items such as termites , cockroaches and dung beetles . Food is taken from the ground , low @-@ growing plants and from inside grass tussocks ; the crake may search leaf litter with its bill , and run in pursuit of active prey . Hunting is normally in cover , but , particularly in the wintering areas , it will occasionally feed on grassy tracks or dirt roads . Indigestible material is regurgitated as 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) pellets . Chicks are fed mainly on animal food , and when fully grown they may fly with the parents up to 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) to visit supplementary feeding areas . As with other rails , grit is swallowed to help break up food in the stomach . = = Predators and parasites = = Predators on the breeding grounds include feral and domestic cats , introduced American mink , feral ferrets , otters and red foxes , and birds including the common buzzard and hooded crow . In Lithuania , the introduced raccoon dog has also been recorded as taking corn crakes . When chicks are exposed by rapid mowing , they may be taken by large birds including the white stork , harriers and other birds of prey , gulls and corvids . At undisturbed sites nests and broods are rarely attacked , as reflected in
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254
a high breeding success . There is a record of a corn crake on migration through Gabon being killed by a black sparrowhawk . The widespread fluke Prosthogonimus ovatus , which lives in the oviducts of birds , has been recorded in the corn crake , as have the parasitic worm Plagiorchis elegans , the larvae of parasitic flies , and hard ticks of the genera Haemaphysalis and Ixodes . During the reintroduction of corn crakes to England in the 2003 breeding season , enteritis and ill health in pre @-@ release birds was due to bacteria of a pathogenic Campylobacter species . Subsequently , microbiology tests were done to detect infected individuals and to find the source of the bacteria in their environment . = = Status = = Until 2010 , despite a breeding range estimated at 12 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , the corn crake was classified as near threatened on the IUCN Red List because of serious declines in Europe , but improved monitoring in Russia indicates that anticipated losses there have not occurred and numbers have remained stable or possibly increased . It is therefore now classed as least concern , since the major populations in Russia and Kazakhstan are not expected to change much in the short term . There are an estimated 1 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 0 million breeding pairs in Europe , three @-@ quarters of which are in European Russia , and a further 515 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 pairs in Asiatic Russia ; the total Eurasian population has been estimated at between 5 @.@ 45 and 9 @.@ 72 million individuals . In much of the western half of its range , there have been long @-@ term declines that are expected to continue , although conservation measures have enabled numbers to grow in several countries , including a five @-@ fold increase in Finland , and a doubling in the UK . In the Netherlands , there were 33 breeding territories in 1996 , but this number had increased to at least 500 by 1998 . The breeding corn crake population had begun to decline in the 19th century , but the process gained pace after World War II . The main cause of the steep declines in much of Europe is the loss of nests and chicks from early mowing . Haymaking dates have moved forward in the past century due to faster crop growth , made possible by land drainage and the use of fertilisers , and the move from manual grass @-@ cutting using scythes to mechanical mowers , at first horse @-@ drawn and later pulled by tractors . Mechanisation also means that large areas can be cut quickly , leaving the crake with no alternative sites to raise either a first brood if suitable habitat has gone , or a replacement brood if the first nest is destroyed . The pattern of mowing , typically in a circular pattern from the outside of a field to its centre , gives little chance of escape for the chicks , which are also exposed to potential animal predators . Adults can often escape the mowers , although some incubating females sit tight on the nest , with fatal results . Loss of habitat is the other major threat to the corn crake . Apart from the reduced suitability of drained and fertilised silage fields compared to traditional hay meadows , in western Europe the conversion of grassland to arable has been aided by subsidies , and further east the collapse of collective farming has led to the abandonment and lack of management of much land in this important breeding area . More localised threats include floods in spring , and disturbance by roads or wind farms . This bird is good eating ; when they were common in England , Mrs Beeton recommended roasting four on a skewer . More significant than direct hunting is the loss of many birds , up to 14 @,@ 000 a year , in Egypt , where migrating birds are captured in nets set for the quail with which they often migrate . Although this may account for 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 7 % of the European population , the losses to this form of hunting are less than when the targeted species were more numerous and predictable . Most European countries have taken steps to conserve the corn crake and produce national management policies ; there is also an overall European action plan . The focus of conservation effort is to monitor populations and ecology and to improve survival , principally through changing the timing and method of hay harvesting . Later cutting gives time for breeding to be completed , and leaving uncut strips at the edges of fields and cutting from the centre outwards reduces the casualties from mowing . Implementing these changes is predicted to stop the population decline if the measures are applied on a sufficiently large scale . Reduction of illegal hunting , and protection in countries where hunting is still allowed , are also conservation aims . Reintroduction of the corn crake is being attempted in England , and breeding sites are scheduled for protection in many
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255
other countries . Where breeding sites impinge on urban areas , there are cost implications , estimated in one German study at several million euros per corn crake . The corn crake does not appear to be seriously threatened on its wintering grounds and may benefit from deforestation , which creates more open habitats . = = In culture = = Most rails are secretive wetland birds that have made little cultural impression , but as a formerly common farmland bird with a loud nocturnal call that sometimes led to disturbed sleep for rural dwellers , the corn crake has acquired a variety of folk names and some commemoration in literature . = = = Names = = = The favoured name for this species among naturalists has changed over the years , with " landrail " and variants of " corncrake " being preferred at various times . " Crake gallinule " also had a period of popularity between 1768 and 1813 . The originally Older Scots " cornecrake " was popularised by Thomas Bewick , who used this term in his 1797 A History of British Birds . Other Scots names include " corn scrack " and " quailzie " ; the latter term , like " king of the quail " , " grass quail " , the French " roi de caille " , and the German " Wachtelkönig " refer to the association with the small gamebird . Another name , " daker " , has been variously interpreted as onomatopoeic , or derived from the Old Norse ager @-@ hoene , meaning " cock of the field " ; variants include " drake " , " drake Hen " and " gorse drake " . = = = In literature = = = Corn crakes are the subject of three stanzas of the seventeenth century poet Andrew Marvell 's " Upon Appleton House " , written in 1651 about the North Yorkshire country estate of Thomas Fairfax . The narrator depicts the scene of a mower cutting the grass , before his " whistling Sithe " unknowingly " carves the Rail " . The farmhand draws out the scythe " all bloody from its breast " and " does the stroke detest " . It continues with a stanza that demonstrates the problematic nature of the corn crake 's nesting habits : John Clare , the nineteenth @-@ century English poet based in Northamptonshire , wrote " The Landrail " , a semi @-@ comic piece which is primarily about the difficulty of seeing corn crakes – as opposed to hearing them . In the fourth verse he exclaims : " Tis like a fancy everywhere / A sort of living doubt " . Clare wrote about corn crakes in his prose works too , and his writings help to clarify the distribution of this rail when it was far more widespread than now . The Finnish poet Eino Leino also wrote about the bird in his poem " Nocturne " . The proverbial use of the corn crake 's call to describe someone with a grating or unmelodious voice is illustrated in the quotation " thanks to a wee woman with a voice like a corncrake who believed she was an apprentice angel " . This usage dates from at least the first half of the nineteenth century , and continues through to the present . = Acute myeloid leukemia = Acute myeloid leukemia ( AML ) , also known as acute myelogenous leukemia or acute nonlymphocytic leukemia ( ANLL ) , is a cancer of the myeloid line of blood cells , characterized by the rapid growth of abnormal white blood cells that accumulate in the bone marrow and interfere with the production of normal blood cells . AML is the most common acute leukemia affecting adults , and its incidence increases with age . Although AML is a relatively rare disease , accounting for roughly 1 @.@ 2 % of cancer deaths in the United States , its incidence is expected to increase as the population ages . The symptoms of AML are caused by replacement of normal bone marrow with leukemic cells , which causes a drop in red blood cells , platelets , and normal white blood cells . These symptoms include fatigue , shortness of breath , easy bruising and bleeding , and increased risk of infection . Several risk factors and chromosomal abnormalities have been identified , but the specific cause is not clear . As an acute leukemia , AML progresses rapidly and is typically fatal within weeks or months if left untreated . AML has several subtypes ; treatment and prognosis vary among subtypes . AML is cured in 35 – 40 % of people less than 60 years old and 5 – 15 % more than 60 years old . Older people who are not able to withstand intensive chemotherapy have an average survival of 5 – 10 months . AML is treated initially with chemotherapy aimed at inducing a remission ; people may go on to receive additional chemotherapy or a hematopoietic
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256
stem cell transplant . Recent research into the genetics of AML has resulted in the availability of tests that can predict which drug or drugs may work best for a particular person , as well as how long that person is likely to survive . The treatment and prognosis of AML differ from those of chronic myelogenous leukemia ( CML ) in part because the cellular differentiation is not the same ; AML involves higher percentages of dedifferentiated and undifferentiated cells , including more blasts ( myeloblasts , monoblasts , and megakaryoblasts ) . = = Signs and symptoms = = Most signs and symptoms of AML are caused by the replacement of normal blood cells with leukemic cells . A lack of normal white blood cell production makes people more susceptible to infections ; while the leukemic cells themselves are derived from white blood cell precursors , they have no infection @-@ fighting capacity . A drop in red blood cell count ( anemia ) can cause fatigue , paleness , and shortness of breath . A lack of platelets can lead to easy bruising or bleeding with minor trauma . The early signs of AML are often vague and nonspecific , and may be similar to those of influenza or other common illnesses . Some generalized symptoms include fever , fatigue , weight loss or loss of appetite , shortness of breath , anemia , easy bruising or bleeding , petechiae ( flat , pin @-@ head sized spots under the skin caused by bleeding ) , bone and joint pain , and persistent or frequent infections . Enlargement of the spleen may occur in AML , but it is typically mild and asymptomatic . Lymph node swelling is rare in AML , in contrast to acute lymphoblastic leukemia . The skin is involved about 10 % of the time in the form of leukemia cutis . Rarely , Sweet 's syndrome , a paraneoplastic inflammation of the skin , can occur with AML . Some people with AML may experience swelling of the gums because of infiltration of leukemic cells into the gum tissue . Rarely , the first sign of leukemia may be the development of a solid leukemic mass or tumor outside of the bone marrow , called a chloroma . Occasionally , a person may show no symptoms , and the leukemia may be discovered incidentally during a routine blood test . = = Risk factors = = A number of risk factors for developing AML have been identified , including : other blood disorders , chemical exposures , ionizing radiation , and genetics . = = = Preleukemia = = = " Preleukemic " blood disorders , such as myelodysplastic syndrome ( MDS ) or myeloproliferative disease ( MPS ) , can evolve into AML ; the exact risk depends on the type of MDS / MPS . = = = Chemical exposure = = = Exposure to anticancer chemotherapy , in particular alkylating agents , can increase the risk of subsequently developing AML . The risk is highest about three to five years after chemotherapy . Other chemotherapy agents , specifically epipodophyllotoxins and anthracyclines , have also been associated with treatment @-@ related leukemias , which are often associated with specific chromosomal abnormalities in the leukemic cells . Occupational chemical exposure to benzene and other aromatic organic solvents is controversial as a cause of AML . Benzene and many of its derivatives are known to be carcinogenic in vitro . While some studies have suggested a link between occupational exposure to benzene and increased risk of AML , others have suggested the attributable risk , if any , is slight . = = = Radiation = = = High amounts of ionizing radiation exposure can increase the risk of AML . Survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki had an increased rate of AML , as did radiologists exposed to high levels of X @-@ rays prior to the adoption of modern radiation safety practices . People treated with ionizing radiation after treatment for prostate cancer , non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma , lung cancer and breast cancer have the highest chance of acquiring AML , but this increased risk returns to the background risk observed in the general population after 12 years . = = = Genetics = = = A hereditary risk for AML appears to exist . Multiple cases of AML developing in a family at a rate higher than predicted by chance alone have been reported . Several congenital conditions may increase the risk of leukemia ; the most common is probably Down syndrome , which is associated with a 10- to 18 @-@ fold increase in the risk of AML . = = Diagnosis = = The first clue to a diagnosis of AML is typically an abnormal result on a complete blood count . While an excess of abnormal white blood cells ( leukocytosis ) is a common finding , and leukemic
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257
blasts are sometimes seen , AML can also present with isolated decreases in platelets , red blood cells , or even with a low white blood cell count ( leukopenia ) . While a presumptive diagnosis of AML can be made by examination of the peripheral blood smear when there are circulating leukemic blasts , a definitive diagnosis usually requires an adequate bone marrow aspiration and biopsy . Marrow or blood is examined under light microscopy , as well as flow cytometry , to diagnose the presence of leukemia , to differentiate AML from other types of leukemia ( e.g. acute lymphoblastic leukemia - ALL ) , and to classify the subtype of disease . A sample of marrow or blood is typically also tested for chromosomal abnormalities by routine cytogenetics or fluorescent in situ hybridization . Genetic studies may also be performed to look for specific mutations in genes such as FLT3 , nucleophosmin , and KIT , which may influence the outcome of the disease . Cytochemical stains on blood and bone marrow smears are helpful in the distinction of AML from ALL , and in subclassification of AML . The combination of a myeloperoxidase or Sudan black stain and a nonspecific esterase stain will provide the desired information in most cases . The myeloperoxidase or Sudan black reactions are most useful in establishing the identity of AML and distinguishing it from ALL . The nonspecific esterase stain is used to identify a monocytic component in AMLs and to distinguish a poorly differentiated monoblastic leukemia from ALL . The diagnosis and classification of AML can be challenging , and should be performed by a qualified hematopathologist or hematologist . In straightforward cases , the presence of certain morphologic features ( such as Auer rods ) or specific flow cytometry results can distinguish AML from other leukemias ; however , in the absence of such features , diagnosis may be more difficult . The two most commonly used classification schemata for AML are the older French @-@ American @-@ British ( FAB ) system and the newer World Health Organization ( WHO ) system . According to the widely used WHO criteria , the diagnosis of AML is established by demonstrating involvement of more than 20 % of the blood and / or bone marrow by leukemic myeloblasts , except in the three best prognosis forms of AML with recurrent genetic abnormalities ( t ( 8 ; 21 ) , inv ( 16 ) , and t ( 15 ; 17 ) ) in which the presence of the genetic abnormality is diagnostic irrespective of blast percent . The French – American – British ( FAB ) classification is a bit more stringent , requiring a blast percentage of at least 30 % in bone marrow ( BM ) or peripheral blood ( PB ) for the diagnosis of AML . AML must be carefully differentiated from " preleukemic " conditions such as myelodysplastic or myeloproliferative syndromes , which are treated differently . Because acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) has the highest curability and requires a unique form of treatment , it is important to quickly establish or exclude the diagnosis of this subtype of leukemia . Fluorescent in situ hybridization performed on blood or bone marrow is often used for this purpose , as it readily identifies the chromosomal translocation [ t ( 15 ; 17 ) ( q22 ; q12 ) ; ] that characterizes APL . There is also a need to molecularly detect the presence of PML / RARA fusion protein , which is an oncogenic product of that translocation . = = = World Health Organization = = = The WHO 2008 classification of acute myeloid leukemia attempts to be more clinically useful and to produce more meaningful prognostic information than the FAB criteria . Each of the WHO categories contains numerous descriptive subcategories of interest to the hematopathologist and oncologist ; however , most of the clinically significant information in the WHO schema is communicated via categorization into one of the subtypes listed below . The WHO subtypes of AML are : Acute leukemias of ambiguous lineage ( also known as mixed phenotype or biphenotypic acute leukemia ) occur when the leukemic cells can not be classified as either myeloid or lymphoid cells , or where both types of cells are present . = = = French @-@ American @-@ British = = = The French @-@ American @-@ British ( FAB ) classification system divides AML into eight subtypes , M0 through to M7 , based on the type of cell from which the leukemia developed and its degree of maturity . This is done by examining the appearance of the malignant cells with light microscopy and / or by using cytogenetics to characterize any underlying chromosomal abnormalities . The subtypes have varying prognoses and responses to therapy . Although the WHO classification ( see above
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258
) may be more useful , the FAB system is still widely used . Eight FAB subtypes were proposed in 1976 . The morphologic subtypes of AML also include rare types not included in the FAB system , such as acute basophilic leukemia , which was proposed as a ninth subtype , M8 , in 1999 . = = Pathophysiology = = The malignant cell in AML is the myeloblast . In normal hematopoiesis , the myeloblast is an immature precursor of myeloid white blood cells ; a normal myeloblast will gradually mature into a mature white blood cell . In AML , though , a single myeloblast accumulates genetic changes which " freeze " the cell in its immature state and prevent differentiation . Such a mutation alone does not cause leukemia ; however , when such a " differentiation arrest " is combined with other mutations which disrupt genes controlling proliferation , the result is the uncontrolled growth of an immature clone of cells , leading to the clinical entity of AML . Much of the diversity and heterogeneity of AML stems is because leukemic transformation can occur at a number of different steps along the differentiation pathway . Modern classification schemes for AML recognize the characteristics and behavior of the leukemic cell ( and the leukemia ) may depend on the stage at which differentiation was halted . Specific cytogenetic abnormalities can be found in many people with AML ; the types of chromosomal abnormalities often have prognostic significance . The chromosomal translocations encode abnormal fusion proteins , usually transcription factors whose altered properties may cause the " differentiation arrest " . For example , in acute promyelocytic leukemia , the t ( 15 ; 17 ) translocation produces a PML @-@ RARα fusion protein which binds to the retinoic acid receptor element in the promoters of several myeloid @-@ specific genes and inhibits myeloid differentiation . The clinical signs and symptoms of AML result from the growth of leukemic clone cells , which tends to displace or interfere with the development of normal blood cells in the bone marrow . This leads to neutropenia , anemia , and thrombocytopenia . The symptoms of AML are , in turn , often due to the low numbers of these normal blood elements . In rare cases , people with AML can develop a chloroma , or solid tumor of leukemic cells outside the bone marrow , which can cause various symptoms depending on its location . An important pathophysiological mechanism of leukemogenesis in AML is the epigenetic induction of dedifferentiation by genetic mutations that alter the function of epigenetic enzymes , such as the DNA demethylase TET2 and the metabolic enzymes IDH1 and IDH2 , which lead to the generation of a novel oncometabolite , D @-@ 2 @-@ hydroxyglutarate , which inhibits the activity of epigenetic enzymes such as TET2 . The hypothesis is that such epigenetic mutations lead to the silencing of tumor suppressor genes and / or the activation of proto @-@ oncogenes . = = Treatment = = First @-@ line treatment of AML consists primarily of chemotherapy , and is divided into two phases : induction and postremission ( or consolidation ) therapy . The goal of induction therapy is to achieve a complete remission by reducing the number of leukemic cells to an undetectable level ; the goal of consolidation therapy is to eliminate any residual undetectable disease and achieve a cure . Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is usually considered if induction chemotherapy fails or after a person relapses , although transplantation is also sometimes used as front @-@ line therapy for people with high @-@ risk disease . Efforts to use tyrosine kinase inhibitors in AML continue . = = = Induction = = = All FAB subtypes except M3 are usually given induction chemotherapy with cytarabine ( ara @-@ C ) and an anthracycline ( most often daunorubicin ) . This induction chemotherapy regimen is known as " 7 + 3 " ( or " 3 + 7 " ) , because the cytarabine is given as a continuous IV infusion for seven consecutive days while the anthracycline is given for three consecutive days as an IV push . Up to 70 % of people with AML will achieve a remission with this protocol . Other alternative induction regimens , including high @-@ dose cytarabine alone , FLAG @-@ like regimens or investigational agents , may also be used . Because of the toxic effects of therapy , including myelosuppression and an increased risk of infection , induction chemotherapy may not be offered to the very elderly , and the options may include less intense chemotherapy or palliative care . The M3 subtype of AML
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, also known as acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) , is almost universally treated with the drug all @-@ trans @-@ retinoic acid ( ATRA ) in addition to induction chemotherapy , usually an anthracycline . Care must be taken to prevent disseminated intravascular coagulation ( DIC ) , complicating the treatment of APL when the promyelocytes release the contents of their granules into the peripheral circulation . APL is eminently curable , with well @-@ documented treatment protocols . The goal of the induction phase is to reach a complete remission . Complete remission does not mean the disease has been cured ; rather , it signifies no disease can be detected with available diagnostic methods . Complete remission is obtained in about 50 % – 75 % of newly diagnosed adults , although this may vary based on the prognostic factors described above . The length of remission depends on the prognostic features of the original leukemia . In general , all remissions will fail without additional consolidation therapy . = = = Consolidation = = = Even after complete remission is achieved , leukemic cells likely remain in numbers too small to be detected with current diagnostic techniques . If no further postremission or consolidation therapy is given , almost all people with AML will eventually relapse . Therefore , more therapy is necessary to eliminate nondetectable disease and prevent relapse — that is , to achieve a cure . The specific type of postremission therapy is individualized based on a person 's prognostic factors ( see above ) and general health . For good @-@ prognosis leukemias ( i.e. inv ( 16 ) , t ( 8 ; 21 ) , and t ( 15 ; 17 ) ) , people will typically undergo an additional three to five courses of intensive chemotherapy , known as consolidation chemotherapy . For people at high risk of relapse ( e.g. those with high @-@ risk cytogenetics , underlying MDS , or therapy @-@ related AML ) , allogeneic stem cell transplantation is usually recommended if the person is able to tolerate a transplant and has a suitable donor . The best postremission therapy for intermediate @-@ risk AML ( normal cytogenetics or cytogenetic changes not falling into good @-@ risk or high @-@ risk groups ) is less clear and depends on the specific situation , including the age and overall health of the person , the person 's values , and whether a suitable stem cell donor is available . For people who are not eligible for a stem cell transplant , immunotherapy with a combination of histamine dihydrochloride ( Ceplene ) and interleukin 2 ( Proleukin ) after the completion of consolidation has been shown to reduce the absolute relapse risk by 14 % , translating to a 50 % increase in the likelihood of maintained remission . = = = Relapsed AML = = = For people with relapsed AML , the only proven potentially curative therapy is a hematopoietic stem cell transplant , if one has not already been performed . In 2000 , the monoclonal antibody @-@ linked cytotoxic agent gemtuzumab ozogamicin ( Mylotarg ) was approved in the United States for people aged more than 60 years with relapsed AML who are not candidates for high @-@ dose chemotherapy . This drug was voluntarily withdrawn from the market by its manufacturer , Pfizer in 2010 . Since treatment options for relapsed AML are so limited , palliative care or enrolment in a clinical trial may be offered . For relapsed acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) , arsenic trioxide is approved by the US FDA . Like ATRA , arsenic trioxide does not work with other subtypes of AML . = = Prognosis = = Acute myeloid leukemia is a curable disease ; the chance of cure for a specific person depends on a number of prognostic factors . = = = Cytogenetics = = = The single most important prognostic factor in AML is cytogenetics , or the chromosomal structure of the leukemic cell . Certain cytogenetic abnormalities are associated with very good outcomes ( for example , the ( 15 ; 17 ) translocation in acute promyelocytic leukemia ) . About half of people with AML have " normal " cytogenetics ; they fall into an intermediate risk group . A number of other cytogenetic abnormalities are known to associate with a poor prognosis and a high risk of relapse after treatment . The first publication to address cytogenetics and prognosis was the MRC trial of 1998 : Later , the Southwest Oncology Group and Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group and , later still , Cancer and Leukemia Group B published other , mostly overlapping lists of cytogenetics prognostication in leukemia .
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"e", ".", "Ġinv", "Ġ(", "Ġ16", "Ġ)", "Ġ,", "Ġt", "Ġ(", "Ġ8", "Ġ;", "Ġ21", "Ġ)", "Ġ,", "Ġand", "Ġt", "Ġ(", "Ġ15", "Ġ;", "Ġ17", "Ġ)", "Ġ)", "Ġ,", "Ġpeople", "Ġwill", "Ġtypically", "Ġundergo", "Ġan", "Ġadditional", "Ġthree", "Ġto", "Ġfive", "Ġcourses", "Ġof", "Ġintensive", "Ġchemotherapy", "Ġ,", "Ġknown", "Ġas", "Ġconsolidation", "Ġchemotherapy", "Ġ.", "ĠFor", "Ġpeople", "Ġat", "Ġhigh", "Ġrisk", "Ġof", "Ġrelapse", "Ġ(", "Ġe", ".", "g", ".", "Ġthose", "Ġwith", "Ġhigh", "Ġ@", "-", "@", "Ġrisk", "Ġcyt", "ogen", "etics", "Ġ,", "Ġunderlying", "ĠM", "DS", "Ġ,", "Ġor", "Ġtherapy", "Ġ@", "-", "@", "Ġrelated", "ĠAM", "L", "Ġ)", "Ġ,", "Ġall", "ogene", "ic", "Ġstem", "Ġcell", "Ġtransplant", "ation", "Ġis", "Ġusually", "Ġrecommended", "Ġif", "Ġthe", "Ġperson", "Ġis", "Ġable", "Ġto", "Ġtolerate", "Ġa", "Ġtransplant", "Ġand", "Ġhas", "Ġa", "Ġsuitable", "Ġdonor", "Ġ.", "ĠThe", "Ġbest", "Ġpost", "rem", "ission", "Ġtherapy", "Ġfor", "Ġintermediate", "Ġ@", "-", "@", "Ġrisk", "ĠAM", "L", "Ġ(", "Ġnormal", 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"Ġrisk", "Ġby", "Ġ14", "Ġ%", "Ġ,", "Ġtranslating", "Ġto", "Ġa", "Ġ50", "Ġ%", "Ġincrease", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "Ġlikelihood", "Ġof", "Ġmaintained", "Ġremission", "Ġ.", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ=", "Ġ=", "Ġ=", "ĠRel", "apsed", "ĠAM", "L", "Ġ=", "Ġ=", "Ġ=", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠFor", "Ġpeople", "Ġwith", "Ġrel", "apsed", "ĠAM", "L", "Ġ,", "Ġthe", "Ġonly", "Ġproven", "Ġpotentially", "Ġcur", "ative", "Ġtherapy", "Ġis", "Ġa", "Ġhe", "mat", "op", "o", "iet", "ic", "Ġstem", "Ġcell", "Ġtransplant", "Ġ,", "Ġif", "Ġone", "Ġhas", "Ġnot", "Ġalready", "Ġbeen", "Ġperformed", "Ġ.", "ĠIn", "Ġ2000", "Ġ,", "Ġthe", "Ġmon", "oc", "lon", "al", "Ġantibody", "Ġ@", "-", "@", "Ġlinked", "Ġcyt", "ot", "oxic", "Ġagent", "Ġgem", "t", "uz", "um", "ab", "Ġoz", "og", "amic", "in", "Ġ(", "ĠMy", "lot", "arg", "Ġ)", "Ġwas", "Ġapproved", "Ġin", "Ġthe", "ĠUnited", "ĠStates", "Ġfor", "Ġpeople", "Ġaged", "Ġmore", "Ġthan", "Ġ60", "Ġyears", "Ġwith", "Ġrel", "apsed", "ĠAM", "L", "Ġwho", "Ġare", "Ġnot", "Ġcandidates", "Ġfor", "Ġhigh", "Ġ@", "-", "@", 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"Ġspecific", "Ġperson", "Ġdepends", "Ġon", "Ġa", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġprog", "nostic", "Ġfactors", "Ġ.", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ=", "Ġ=", "Ġ=", "ĠCy", "t", "ogen", "etics", "Ġ=", "Ġ=", "Ġ=", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "Ġsingle", "Ġmost", "Ġimportant", "Ġprog", "nostic", "Ġfactor", "Ġin", "ĠAM", "L", "Ġis", "Ġcyt", "ogen", "etics", "Ġ,", "Ġor", "Ġthe", "Ġchromos", "omal", "Ġstructure", "Ġof", "Ġthe", "Ġle", "uke", "mic", "Ġcell", "Ġ.", "ĠCertain", "Ġcyt", "ogen", "etic", "Ġabnormalities", "Ġare", "Ġassociated", "Ġwith", "Ġvery", "Ġgood", "Ġoutcomes", "Ġ(", "Ġfor", "Ġexample", "Ġ,", "Ġthe", "Ġ(", "Ġ15", "Ġ;", "Ġ17", "Ġ)", "Ġtransl", "ocation", "Ġin", "Ġacute", "Ġprom", "y", "el", "ocy", "tic", "Ġleukemia", "Ġ)", "Ġ.", "ĠAbout", "Ġhalf", "Ġof", "Ġpeople", "Ġwith", "ĠAM", "L", "Ġhave", "Ġ\"", "Ġnormal", "Ġ\"", "Ġcyt", "ogen", "etics", "Ġ;", "Ġthey", "Ġfall", "Ġinto", "Ġan", "Ġintermediate", "Ġrisk", "Ġgroup", "Ġ.", "ĠA", "Ġnumber", "Ġof", "Ġother", "Ġcyt", "ogen", "etic", "Ġabnormalities", "Ġare", "Ġknown", 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= = = Myelodysplastic syndrome = = = AML which arises from a pre @-@ existing myelodysplastic syndrome ( MDS ) or myeloproliferative disease ( so @-@ called secondary AML ) has a worse prognosis , as does treatment @-@ related AML arising after chemotherapy for another previous malignancy . Both of these entities are associated with a high rate of unfavorable cytogenetic abnormalities . = = = Other prognostic markers = = = In some studies , age > 60 years and elevated lactate dehydrogenase level were also associated with poorer outcomes . As with most forms of cancer , performance status ( i.e. the general physical condition and activity level of the person ) plays a major role in prognosis as well . = = = = Genotype = = = = A large number of molecular alterations are under study for their prognostic impact in AML . However , only FLT3 @-@ ITD , NPM1 , CEBPA and c @-@ KIT are currently included in validated international risk stratification schema . These are expected to increase rapidly in the near future . FLT3 internal tandem duplications ( ITDs ) have been shown to confer a poorer prognosis in AML with normal cytogenetics . Several FLT3 inhibitors have undergone clinical trials , with mixed results . Two other mutations - NPM1 and biallelic CEBPA are associated with improved outcomes , especially in people with normal cytogenetics and are used in current risk stratification algorithms . Researchers are investigating the clinical significance of c @-@ KIT mutations in AML . These are prevalent , and potentially clinically relevant because of the availability of tyrosine kinase inhibitors , such as imatinib and sunitinib that can block the activity of c @-@ KIT pharmacologically . It is expected that additional markers ( e.g. , RUNX1 , ASXL1 , and TP53 ) that have consistently been associated with an inferior outcome will soon be included in these recommendations . The prognostic importance of other mutated genes ( e.g. , DNMT3A , IDH1 , IDH2 ) is less clear . = = = Expectation of cure = = = Cure rates in clinical trials have ranged from 20 – 45 % ; although clinical trials often include only younger people and those able to tolerate aggressive therapies . The overall cure rate for all people with AML ( including the elderly and those unable to tolerate aggressive therapy ) is likely lower . Cure rates for promyelocytic leukemia can be as high as 98 % . = = Epidemiology = = Acute myeloid leukemia is a relatively rare cancer . There are approximately 10 @,@ 500 new cases each year in the United States , and the incidence rate has remained stable from 1995 through 2005 . AML accounts for 1 @.@ 2 % of all cancer deaths in the United States . The incidence of AML increases with age ; the median age at diagnosis is 63 years . AML accounts for about 90 % of all acute leukemias in adults , but is rare in children . The rate of therapy @-@ related AML ( that is , AML caused by previous chemotherapy ) is rising ; therapy @-@ related disease currently accounts for about 10 – 20 % of all cases of AML . AML is slightly more common in men , with a male @-@ to @-@ female ratio of 1 @.@ 3 : 1 . There is some geographic variation in the incidence of AML . In adults , the highest rates are seen in North America , Europe , and Oceania , while adult AML is rarer in Asia and Latin America . In contrast , childhood AML is less common in North America and India than in other parts of Asia . These differences may be due to population genetics , environmental factors , or a combination of the two . = = = UK = = = AML accounts for 34 % of all leukaemia cases in the UK , and around 2 @,@ 900 people were diagnosed with the disease in 2011 . = = History = = The first published description of a case of leukemia in medical literature dates to 1827 , when French physician Alfred @-@ Armand @-@ Louis @-@ Marie Velpeau described a 63 @-@ year @-@ old florist who developed an illness characterized by fever , weakness , urinary stones , and substantial enlargement of the liver and spleen . Velpeau noted the blood of this person had a consistency " like gruel " , and speculated the appearance of the blood was due to white corpuscles . In 1845 , a series of people who died with enlarged spleens and changes in the " colors and consistencies of their blood " was reported by the Edinburgh @-
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@ based pathologist J.H. Bennett ; he used the term " leucocythemia " to describe this pathological condition . The term " leukemia " was coined by Rudolf Virchow , the renowned German pathologist , in 1856 . As a pioneer in the use of the light microscope in pathology , Virchow was the first to describe the abnormal excess of white blood cells in people with the clinical syndrome described by Velpeau and Bennett . As Virchow was uncertain of the etiology of the white blood cell excess , he used the purely descriptive term " leukemia " ( Greek : " white blood " ) to refer to the condition . Further advances in the understanding of acute myeloid leukemia occurred rapidly with the development of new technology . In 1877 , Paul Ehrlich developed a technique of staining blood films which allowed him to describe in detail normal and abnormal white blood cells . Wilhelm Ebstein introduced the term " acute leukemia " in 1889 to differentiate rapidly progressive and fatal leukemias from the more indolent chronic leukemias . The term " myeloid " was coined by Franz Ernst Christian Neumann in 1869 , as he was the first to recognize white blood cells were made in the bone marrow ( Greek : µυєλός , myelos = ( bone ) marrow ) as opposed to the spleen . The technique of bone marrow examination to diagnose leukemia was first described in 1879 by Mosler . Finally , in 1900 , the myeloblast , which is the malignant cell in AML , was characterized by Otto Naegeli , who divided the leukemias into myeloid and lymphocytic . In 2008 , AML became the first cancer genome to be fully sequenced . DNA extracted from leukemic cells were compared to unaffected skin . The leukemic cells contained acquired mutations in several genes that had not previously been associated with the disease . = = Pregnancy = = Leukemia is rarely associated with pregnancy , affecting only about 1 in 10 @,@ 000 pregnant women . How it is handled depends primarily on the type of leukemia . Acute leukemias normally require prompt , aggressive treatment , despite significant risks of pregnancy loss and birth defects , especially if chemotherapy is given during the developmentally sensitive first trimester . = Love Me Like You = " Love Me Like You " is a song recorded by British girl group Little Mix for their third studio album , Get Weird ( 2015 ) . The song was released on 25 September 2015 , as the second single from the album . Produced by Steve Mac , he co @-@ wrote the song with Iain James , Camille Purcell and James Newman . Backed by an instrumental of pianos , bells , sax and percussion , the song is a down @-@ tempo retro homage to doo @-@ wop , with lyrics about puppy love . Its composition was compared by several critics to Motown artists of the 1950s and 1960s , namely The Ronettes , The Supremes and Shadow Morton . Critical response to " Love Me Like You " was positive : critics praised its vintage style and highlighted it as an album standout . It reached number 11 on the UK Singles Chart and has been certified gold by the BPI . The accompanying music video for the song was set at a high school dance . Unbeknownst to each member of the group , they had been invited to attend by the same date after previously meeting him in different situations . He arrives with another girl near the end of the night , and they realise that he had all been invited by the same guy , and end up dateless . Little Mix have performed the track on both the Australian and British versions of The X Factor and on Good Morning America in the United States . = = Background and release = = " Love Me Like You " was written by Steve Mac , Camille Purcell , Iain James and James Newman for Little Mix 's third studio album , Get Weird ( 2015 ) . It was published by Rokstone Music Ltd. under exclusive licence to BMG Rights Management ( UK ) Ltd ; Kobalt Music Group ; Sony / ATV Music Publishing ; Black Butter Music Publishing and BMG Rights Management . The song was produced by Mac and mixed by Serban Ghenea at Mixstar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . It was engineered for mixing by John Hanes and engineered by Chris Laws and Dann Pursey , and mastered by Tom Coyne and Randy Merrill at Sterling Sound Studios in New York . The track was recorded at Rokstone Studios in London . Purcell also provided background vocals . The keyboards were performed by Mac , and the guitars were played by Paul Gendler . Laws and Pursey performed the drums and the percussion , respectively . The group announced on 9 September 2015 that " Love Me Like You " would be the second single to be released from the album , and that it would be
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262
made available to pre @-@ order on 11 September , and be released on 25 September . It was released by Syco and Columbia in Ireland and the United Kingdom on 25 September 2015 . The single 's artwork was released on the same day . In their review , MTV News joked that the group were suggesting that it would be number @-@ one due to each of the band members eyeline , writing " We can 't help but get the hint they 're on the hunt for ANOTHER chart topping trophy . Leigh @-@ Anne clearly thinks she can see it in the distance , Jesy is just imagining it with her brain , Jade definitely thinks she can hear the noise of records being sold and Perrie is convinced it 's on the floor . " M magazine writer Heather Thompson described the artwork as " vibrant " . A collection of alternate versions called " Love Me Like You ( The Collection ) " was also released in Australia and New Zealand in addition to Ireland and the United Kingdom on 16 October 2015 . It consists of a Christmas mix , several remixes and an instrumental version of " Love Me Like You " and another album track called " Lightning " . = = Composition = = " Love Me Like You " has been described as a down @-@ tempo " ode to ' 60s doo @-@ wop " retro style pop song , which lasts for a duration of three minutes , seventeen seconds . The song is composed in the key of G major using common time and a tempo of 106 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by " vintage " pianos , bells and a " pumping " tenor sax . The use of percussion gives the a track a more modern style . During the track , the band members vocal range spans one octave , from the low note of D4 to the high note of E5 . The song opens with the group harmonising " Sha la la la " over pianos . The lyrics are about puppy love , as they yearningly sing " Last night I lay in bed so blue / Cause ' I realized the truth / They can 't love me like you / I tried to find somebody new / Baby they ain 't got a clue / Can 't love me like you . " Fuse writer Jeff Benjamin described the song as being reminiscent of 1960s girl group The Ronettes but with a more modern feel for 2015 radio , highlighting the line " They try to romance me but you got that nasty and that 's what I want " as an example . Digital Spy writer Lewis Corner thought that the line " He might got the biggest ca @-@ aa @-@ ar " does not fool listeners into thinking that " they 're not actually talking about his Fiat 500 . " Several music critics compared the song to recordings from the Motown era in the 1950s and 1960s , with Andy Gill of The Independent likening it to material composed by Shadow Morton . Emilee Lindner of MTV News likened the production to material composed by Phil Spector . The Christmas mix version features added church bells and jingles . = = Critical reception = = Andy Gill of The Independent described the track as having a " nice " retro sound , and singled it out as being one of his top three songs from the album to download , along with " Black Magic " and " Grown " . Writing for NME , Nick Levine thought that " Love Me Like You " was reminiscent of songs recorded by Stooshe , but added that Little Mix performed the Motown style " without the forced sense of fun . " Similarly , Billboard writer Malorie MaCall and Digital Spy critic Jack Klompus likened the retro style to songs performed by Meghan Trainor and The Supremes , respectively . Music Times writer Carolyn Menyes praised its composition for being " charming " and described the track as " totally charming . " A reviewer for Press Play OK commented that the song was " less club night and more prom night . " Broadcaster Stephen Fry criticised the track when interviewed by Newsbeat about his review of a selection of songs released in 2015 . He described it as " horrible " and a modern @-@ day " hideous , toxic compound " take on a Phil Spector song . = = Chart performance = = In the United Kingdom , " Love Me Like You " debuted at number 21 on the UK Singles Chart on 8 October 2015 . It later peaked at number 11 on 7 January 2016 . It also peaked at number nine on the UK Singles Downloads Chart . The track has been certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 400 @,@ 000 copies . In Scotland , the song reached number five . It achieved success in Ireland , reaching number 8 on 31 December 2015 . It peaked at number 66 on the Belgium Ultratip Flanders chart on 31 October 2015 . It also peaked at number 64 in Slovakia , number 81 in the Czech Republic , and number 140 in France . Outside of Europe , "
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263
Love Me Like You " reached number 80 on the Japan Hot 100 , number 27 in Australia , and number one on the New Zealand Heatseekers chart . = = Music video = = The accompanying music video for " Love Me Like You " was released on 10 October 2015 . The video takes place at a school dance , where a professor in the hall ( the same man who appeared in their previous single 's video " Black Magic " ) tells everyone that it is the last dance . Jade , Leigh @-@ Anne , Jesy and Perrie are waiting for their dates to arrive . Scenes of the girls waiting for their date are intercut throughout the video of them sitting at a table while all of the other couples are dancing . Unbeknownst to them , the man , played by Hector David Junior , has invited each of them to go to the dance after meeting them in different situations prior to that night . He asked Jade by picking her up in his car to go on a date . As she gets in , he invites her to be his date at the dance and presents her with a corsage to wear on her wrist on the night . He mets Leigh @-@ Anne at a high school basketball game , where she and her girlfriends were watching him and some other boys play on the court . He sees that she is infatuated by how good he is at the sport , walks up to her , and asks her to be his date by giving her a corsage . He asked Jesy to be his date while they were at the cinema as they shared a bucket of popcorn . As he gives her the corsage , she throws the bucket over her shoulder and eagerly jumps on his lap , causing them to fall off the chair . Finally , he invited Perrie to be his date after she fell off her bike while staring at him work out on a field and pouring water over his torso to cool down . He helps her up , and gives her a corsage . Toward the end of the video , they sit on a bench next to the entrance , and see their date walk in with another girl wearing the same corsage as the ones that he had given each of them . They realise that they have all been two @-@ timed by the same guy , and are all dateless . It ends with the girls being each other 's date and solemnly dancing whilst everyone else has a good time . Metro writer Rebecca Lewis noted that the man in the video strongly resembled Perrie 's former fiancé Zayn Malik of One Direction . She also wrote that fans had noticed that she was still wearing her engagement ring in the video , meaning that the video was filmed before they split up in August 2015 . = = Live performances = = " Little Mix " performed " Love Me Like You " live on the seventh season of The X Factor in Australia on 13 October 2015 . Capital praised their performed , writing that it set an " amazing example " for the contestants on the show and that their vocals were " pitch perfect " . On 1 November , the group performed a " Love Me Like You " / " Black Magic " medley on the twelfth series of The X Factor in the United Kingdom . It featured the group wearing prom dresses for their performance of " Love Me Like You " , which were then torn off to reveal leotards to sing " Black Magic " . Little Mix " sang the track live on Good Morning America in the United States on 5 November . They returned to the UK to perform " Love Me Like You " at the Radio 1 Teen Awards at Wembley Arena on 8 November , and again the following morning on breakfast show Lorraine . " Love Me Like You " was included on the set @-@ list of their segment at Capital 's annual Jingle Bell Ball on 6 December , along with the other singles to be released Get Weird " Black Magic " and " Secret Love Song " , as well as previous singles " Salute " , " Move " and " Wings " . = = Track listing = = Digital download " Love Me Like You " – 3 : 17 Digital download — The Collection " Love Me Like You " ( Christmas Mix ) – 3 : 29 " Lightning " – 5 : 09 " Love Me Like You " ( J @-@ Vibe Reggae Remix ) – 3 : 04 " Love Me Like You " ( Bimbo Jones Remix ) – 3 : 07 " Love Me Like You " ( 7th Heaven Remix ) – 3 : 10 " Love Me Like You " ( Exclusive Interview ) – 3 : 16 " Love Me Like You " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 15 = = Charts and certifications = = = Shaoguan incident = The Shaoguan incident was a civil disturbance which took place overnight on 25 / 26 June 2009 in Guangdong province , China . A violent dispute erupted between migrant U
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264
yghurs and Han workers at a toy factory in Shaoguan as a result of allegations of the sexual assault of a Han female . Groups of Han set upon Uyghur co @-@ workers , leading to at least two Uyghurs being killed , ( Uyghur workers who witnessed the incident report at least 100 dead and 400 wounded ) and some 118 people injured . The event was widely cited as the trigger event for July 2009 Ürümqi riots , which ostensibly started as a peaceful street protest demanding official action over the two Uyghurs who died in Shaoguan . Following trials in October 2009 , one person was executed and several others sentenced to terms between life imprisonment and five to seven years . = = Background = = The factory where the incident took place is the Xuri ( " Early Light " ) Toy Factory ( 旭日玩具厂 ) , owned by Hong Kong @-@ based Early Light International ( Holdings ) Ltd . , the largest toy manufacturer in the world . The company 's Shaoguan factory in the Wujiang district employs some 16 @,@ 000 workers . At the behest of the Guangdong authorities , it hired 800 workers from Kashgar , in Xinjiang as part of an ethnic program which relocated 200 @,@ 000 young Uyghurs since the start of 2008 . According to The Guardian , most workers sign a one- to three @-@ year contract then travel to factory dormitories in the south ; in addition to their salaries ranging from 1 @,@ 000 yuan to 1 @,@ 400 yuan a month , many get free board and lodging . Most of these Kashgars are away from home to work for the first time . The Far Eastern Economic Review said Guangdong authorities initiated a controversial plan to ship [ Uyghur ] workers to Guangdong factories amid continuing labour shortages . The young workers , whose families have charged that they were forced to send their children south , often lack even basic Chinese language skills and find it difficult to fit in with the dominant Han culture . " The New York Times quoted Xinjiang Daily saying in May that 70 percent of the young Uyghurs had " signed up for employment voluntarily . " However , Kashgar residents say the families of those who refuse to go are threatened with fines of up to six months ' worth of a villager 's income . An official in charge of ethnic and religious affairs in Guangdong said that the province had hired Uygurs , aged from 18 to 29 , in May . A small group of Uyghurs arrived on 2 May , and workers at the factory remarked that relations between the two groups deteriorated as the number of Uyghurs increased . State media confirmed that all the workers were from Shufu County . China Labor Watch reported that workers at the Shaoguan factory , where the Uyghurs were employed , earned 28 yuan per day compared with 41 @.@ 3 yuan in its factory in Shenzhen . They noted that rights of workers , Han and Uyghur alike , were frequently violated by verbal abuse from factory supervisors , unpaid overtime , poor dormitory conditions and illegal labour contracts . Li Qiang , executive director of China Labor Watch said that low pay , long hours and poor working conditions combined with the inability to communicate with their colleagues exacerbated deeply held mistrust between the Han and Uyghurs . = = Causes and events = = Overnight on 25 – 26 June , tensions flared at the factory , leading to a full @-@ blown ethnic brawl between Uyghurs and Han . As a result of the fighting , 2 Uyghurs died and 118 people were injured , 16 of them seriously . Of the injured , 79 were Uyghurs and 39 were Hans . 400 police and 50 anti @-@ riot vehicles were mobilised . Official sources state that the rioting began at around 2 a.m. , and there were reports that they lasted until at least 4 @.@ 30 a.m. , when police arrived . An initial disturbance was reported at around 11 p.m. when security guards responded to a call for help by a female worker who felt intimidated by several chanting male Uyghurs . Two dozen Han workers armed with batons and metal rods then responded ; they called for backup using their phones . Uyghurs maintained that the attacks started after the night shift at around 12 @.@ 30 a.m. , when Han mobs stormed into Uyghur dormitories and started indiscriminate and unprovoked beatings . Amateur videos posted online showed brutal attacks , and Han chasing Uyghurs through the dorm floors . One man said that he saw that security had been overwhelmed by the arrival of outside gangs ; he said it was common knowledge that the outsiders brought in machetes . Han and Uyghur witnesses interviewed by the foreign press thought the casualties had been understated by the authorities
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265
: a Han claimed to have killed seven or eight Uyghurs ; Uyghurs cited " merciless " assaults on those already in ambulances . The rioting stopped soon after the police arrived . A policeman explained their delay in arriving at the scene due to difficulties in assembling enough officers . The two dead men were later named as Aximujiang Aimaiti and Sadikejiang Kaze , both from Xinjiang . = = = Rape rumours = = = The rioting was sparked by allegations of sexual assault on Han women by Uyghurs , and rumours of an incident in which two female Han workers were sexually assaulted by six Uyghur co @-@ workers at the factory , according to Voice of America . The authorities said that the rumours were false , and had been initiated by a disgruntled former co @-@ worker . Xinhua said that a man surnamed Zhu " faked the information to express his discontent " over failing to find new work after quitting his job at the factory . = = Responses = = Police said that their investigations found no evidence that a rape had taken place . Shaoguan government spokesman Wang Qinxin , called it " a very ordinary incident " , which he said had been exaggerated to foment unrest.The Guardian reported that video of the riots and photographs of the victims were quickly circulated on the internet by Uighur exile groups , along with claims that the death toll was under @-@ reported and the police were slow to act ; protests in Ürümqi were assembled by email . Xinhua reported that Guangdong authorities had arrested two people who are suspected of having spread rumours online which alleged sexual assault of Han women had taken place . In addition , it reported on 7 July 2009 that 13 suspects had been taken into custody following the incident , of which 3 were Uyghurs from Xinjiang . Xinhua quoted 23 @-@ year @-@ old Huang Jiangyuan saying that he was angry at being turned down for a job in June at the toy factory , and thus posted an article at a forum on sg169.com on 16 June which alleged six Xinjiang boys had raped two innocent girls at the Xuri Toy Factory ; Huang Zhangsha , 19 , was detained for writing on his online chat space on 28 June that eight Xinjiang people had died in the factory fight . Kang Zhijian , vice director with the Shaoguan Public Security Bureau , said that the offenders would face up to 15 days in administrative detention . On 8 July 2009 , Xinhua released an interview with Huang Cuilian , the " Han girl " whose alleged rape triggered the disturbances . The 19 @-@ year @-@ old trainee from rural Guangdong , who had worked at the factory less than two months , said : " I was lost and entered the wrong dormitory and screamed when I saw those Uyghur young men in the room ... I just felt they were unfriendly so I turned and ran . " She recounted how one of them stood up and stamped his feet as if to chase her . " I later realized that he was just making fun of me . " She said she only found out hours later that she was the cause of the violence . Shaoguan authorities moved the Uyghur workers to temporary accommodation , and the workers were transferred on 7 July to another facility belonging to Early Light , 30 km away in Baitu town . The Baitu factory is now reported to be an Uyghur enclave , with , sporting facilities , canteen serving Xinjiang food , a round @-@ the @-@ clock staff clinic , and plain @-@ clothed police officers in their midst . According to the South China Morning Post , the Kashgar staff were apparently unable to mix with colleagues in their previous location because of the language barrier – a local shop worker estimated that less than one in three spoke Mandarin . Two months on , the South China Morning Post found few willing to talk about the events of the fateful night . The authorities ' claims that 50 Uyghur workers were granted their repatriation requests following the violence are contested by Uyghur workers . Abdukeyum Muhammat , deputy secretary of Xinjiang kanji Prefectural Committee of the Communist Party , led a working team to Shaoguan on 27 June . Zhou Yongkang , Politburo Standing Committee member responsible for security , reportedly visited Shaoguan in early September 2009 . On 5 August , Xinhua reported that Chinese police had arrested Kurban Khayum , a chef at an Arabic restaurant in Guangzhou who they claimed confessed to being an agent for the World Uygur Congress ( WUC ) and who allegedly spread rumours that were later used as a pretext to trigger the Ürümqi riots of 5 July . Xinhua alleged that he had fabricated a report that " the factory brawl had caused the death of 17 to 18 people , including three females , " which he sent in an
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266
e @-@ mail to Rebiya Kadeer . At a trial on 10 October at Shaoguan Intermediate People 's Court , Xiao Jianhua ( 肖建华 ) was sentenced to death for being the " principal instigator " of the violence and Xu Qiqi ( 许其琪 ) was given a life sentence for manslaughter ; three other people were sentenced to seven to eight years for assault . On the same day , the People 's Court of Wujiang District , Shaoguan , jailed three more Han workers and three Uyghurs for participating in the brawl ; they were sentenced to five to seven years ' imprisonment . = Galveston , Texas = Galveston / ˈɡælvᵻstən / is a coastal city located on Galveston Island and Pelican Island in the U.S. state of Texas . The community of 208 @.@ 3 square miles ( 539 km2 ) , with its population of 47 @,@ 762 people ( 2012 Census estimate ) , is the county seat and second @-@ largest municipality of Galveston County . It is located within Houston – The Woodlands – Sugar Land metropolitan area . Named after Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez ( born in Málaga , Spain ) , Galveston 's first European settlements on the island were constructed around 1816 by French pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury to help the fledgling Republic of Mexico fight Spain . The Port of Galveston was established in 1825 by the Congress of Mexico following its successful independence from Spain . The city served as the main port for the Texas Navy during the Texas Revolution , and later served as the capital of the Republic of Texas . During the 19th century , Galveston became a major U.S. commercial center and one of the largest ports in the United States . It was devastated by the 1900 Galveston Hurricane , whose effects included flooding and a storm surge . The natural disaster on the exposed barrier island is still ranked as the deadliest in United States history , with an estimated toll of 8 @,@ 000 people . Much of Galveston 's modern economy is centered in the tourism , health care , shipping , and financial industries . The 84 @-@ acre ( 340 @,@ 000 m2 ) University of Texas Medical Branch campus with an enrollment of more than 2 @,@ 500 students is a major economic force of the city . Galveston is home to six historic districts containing one of the largest and historically significant collections of 19th @-@ century buildings in the United States , with over 60 structures listed in the National Register of Historic Places . = = History = = = = = Exploration and 19th century development = = = Galveston Island was originally inhabited by members of the Karankawa and Akokisa tribes who called the island Auia . The Spanish explorer Cabeza de Vaca and his crew were shipwrecked on the island or nearby in November 1528 , calling it " Isla de Malhado " ( " Isle of Bad Fate " ) . They began their years @-@ long trek to a Spanish settlement in Mexico City . During his charting of the Gulf Coast in 1785 , the Spanish explorer José de Evia named the island Gálvez @-@ town or Gálveztown in honor of Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez . The first permanent European settlements on the island were constructed around 1816 by the pirate Louis @-@ Michel Aury as a base of operations to support Mexico 's rebellion against Spain . In 1817 , Aury returned from an unsuccessful raid against Spain to find Galveston occupied by the pirate Jean Lafitte . Lafitte organized Galveston into a pirate " kingdom " he called " Campeche " , anointing himself the island 's " head of government . " Lafitte remained in Galveston until 1821 , when he and his raiders were forced off the island by the United States Navy . In 1825 the Congress of Mexico established the Port of Galveston and in 1830 erected a customs house . Galveston served as the capital of the Republic of Texas when in 1836 the interim president David G. Burnet relocated his government there . In 1836 , the French @-@ Canadian Michel Branamour Menard and several associates purchased 4 @,@ 605 acres ( 18 @.@ 64 km2 ) of land for $ 50 @,@ 000 to found the town that would become the modern city of Galveston . As Anglo @-@ Americans migrated to the city , they brought along or purchased enslaved African @-@ Americans , some of whom worked domestically or on the waterfront , including on riverboats . In 1839 the City of Gal
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267
veston adopted a charter and was incorporated by the Congress of the Republic of Texas . The city was by then a burgeoning port of entry and attracted many new residents in the 1840s and later among the flood of German immigrants to Texas , including Jewish merchants . Together with ethnic Mexican residents , these groups tended to oppose slavery , support the Union during the Civil War , and join the Republican Party after the war . During this expansion , the city had many " firsts " in the state , with the founding of institutions and adoption of inventions : post office ( 1836 ) , naval base ( 1836 ) , Texas chapter of a Masonic order ( 1840 ) ; cotton compress ( 1842 ) , Catholic parochial school ( Ursuline Academy ) ( 1847 ) , insurance company ( 1854 ) , and gas lights ( 1856 ) . During the American Civil War , Confederate forces under Major General John B. Magruder attacked and expelled occupying Union troops from the city in January 1863 in the Battle of Galveston . In 1867 Galveston suffered a yellow fever epidemic ; 1800 people died in the city . These occurred in waterfront and river cities throughout the 19th century , as did cholera epidemics . The city 's progress continued through the Reconstruction era with numerous " firsts " : construction of the opera house ( 1870 ) , and orphanage ( 1876 ) , and installation of telephone lines ( 1878 ) and electric lights ( 1883 ) . Having attracted freedmen from rural areas , in 1870 the city had a black population that totaled 3 @,@ 000 , made up mostly of former slaves but also by numerous persons who were free men of color and educated before the war . The " blacks " comprised nearly 25 % of the city 's population of 13 @,@ 818 that year . During the post @-@ Civil @-@ War period , leaders such as George T. Ruby and Norris Wright Cuney , who headed the Texas Republican Party and promoted civil rights for freedmen , helped to dramatically improve educational and employment opportunities for blacks in Galveston and in Texas . Cuney established his own business of stevedores and a union of black dockworkers to break the white monopoly on dock jobs . Galveston was a cosmopolitan city and one of the more successful during Reconstruction ; the Freedmen 's Bureau was headquartered here . German families sheltered teachers from the North , and hundreds of freedmen were taught to read . Its business community promoted progress , and immigrants continued to stay after arriving at this port of entry . By the end of the 19th century , the city of Galveston had a population of 37 @,@ 000 . Its position on the natural harbor of Galveston Bay along the Gulf of Mexico made it the center of trade in Texas . It was one of the largest cotton ports in the nation , in competition with New Orleans . Throughout the 19th century , the port city of Galveston grew rapidly and the Strand was considered the region 's primary business center . For a time , the Strand was known as the " Wall Street of the South " . In the late 1890s , the government constructed Fort Crockett defenses and coastal artillery batteries in Galveston and along the Bolivar Roads . In February 1897 , Galveston was officially visited by the USS Texas ( nicknamed Old Hoodoo ) , the first commissioned battleship of the United States Navy . During the festivities , the ship 's officers were presented with a $ 5 @,@ 000 silver service , adorned with various Texas motifs , as a gift from the citizens of the state . = = = Hurricane of 1900 and recovery = = = On September 8 , 1900 , the island was struck by a devastating hurricane . This event holds the record as the United States ' deadliest natural disaster . The city was devastated , and an estimated 6 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 people on the island were killed . Following the storm , a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) long , 17 foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) high seawall was constructed to protect the city from floods and hurricane storm surge . A team of engineers including Henry Martyn Robert ( Robert 's Rules of Order ) designed the plan to raise much of the existing city to a sufficient elevation behind a seawall so that confidence in the city could be maintained . The city developed the city commission form of city government , known as the " Galveston Plan " , to help expedite recovery . Despite attempts to draw new investment to the city after the hurricane , Galveston never fully returned to its previous levels of national importance or prosperity . Development was also hindered by the construction of the Houston Ship Channel , which brought the Port of Houston into direct competition with the natural harbor of the Port of Galveston for sea traffic . To further her recovery , and rebuild her population , Galveston actively solicited immigration . Through the efforts of Rabbi Henry Cohen
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268
and Congregation B 'nai Israel , Galveston became the focus of an immigration plan called the Galveston Movement that , between 1907 and 1914 , diverted roughly 10 @,@ 000 Eastern European Jewish immigrants from the usual destinations of the crowded cities of the Northeastern United States . Additionally numerous other immigrant groups , including Greeks , Italians and Russian Jews , came to the city during this period . This immigration trend substantially altered the ethnic makeup of the island , as well as many other areas of Texas and the western U.S. Though the storm stalled economic development and the city of Houston developed as the region 's principal metropolis , Galveston economic leaders recognized the need to diversify from the traditional port @-@ related industries . In 1905 William Lewis Moody , Jr. and Isaac H. Kempner , members of two of Galveston 's leading families , founded the American National Insurance Company . Two years later , Moody established the City National Bank , which would later become the Moody National Bank . During the 1920s and 1930s , the city re @-@ emerged as a major tourist destination . Under the influence of Sam Maceo and Rosario Maceo , the city exploited the prohibition of liquor and gambling in clubs like the Balinese Room , which offered entertainment to wealthy Houstonians and other out @-@ of @-@ towners . Combined with prostitution , which had existed in the city since the Civil War , Galveston became known as the " sin city " of the Gulf . Galvestonians accepted and supported the illegal activities , often referring to their island as the " Free State of Galveston " . The island had entered what would later become known as the " open era " . The 1930s and 1940s brought much change to the Island City . During World War II , the Galveston Municipal Airport , predecessor to Scholes International Airport , was re @-@ designated a U.S. Army Air Corps base and named " Galveston Army Air Field " . In January 1943 , Galveston Army Air Field was officially activated with the 46th Bombardment Group serving an anti @-@ submarine role in the Gulf of Mexico . In 1942 , William Lewis Moody , Jr . , along with his wife Libbie Shearn Rice Moody , established the Moody Foundation , to benefit " present and future generations of Texans . " The foundation , one of the largest in the United States , would play a prominent role in Galveston during later decades , helping to fund numerous civic and health @-@ oriented programs . = = = Post – World War II = = = The end of the war drastically reduced military investment in the island . Increasing enforcement of gambling laws and the growth of Las Vegas , Nevada as a competitive center of gambling and entertainment put pressure on the gaming industry on the island . Finally in 1957 , Texas Attorney General Will Wilson and the Texas Rangers began a massive campaign of raids which disrupted gambling and prostitution in the city . As these vice industries crashed , so did tourism , taking the rest of the Galveston economy with it . Neither the economy nor the culture of the city was the same afterward . The economy of the island entered a long stagnant period . Many businesses relocated off the island during this period ; however , health care , insurance and financial industries continue to be strong contributors to the economy . By 1959 , the city of Houston had long out @-@ paced Galveston in population and economic growth . Beginning in 1957 , the Galveston Historical Foundation began its efforts to preserve historic buildings . The 1966 book The Galveston That Was helped encourage the preservation movement . Restoration efforts financed by motivated investors , notably Houston businessman George P. Mitchell , gradually developed the Strand Historic District and reinvented other areas . A new , family @-@ oriented tourism emerged in the city over many years . With the 1960s came the expansion of higher education in Galveston . Already home to the University of Texas Medical Branch , the city got a boost in 1962 with the creation of the Texas Maritime Academy , predecessor of Texas A & M University at Galveston ; and by 1967 a community college , Galveston College , had been established . In the 2000s , property values rose after expensive projects were completed and demand for second homes by the wealthy increased . It has made it difficult for middle @-@ class workers to find affordable housing on the island . Hurricane Ike made landfall on Galveston Island in the early morning of September 13 , 2008 as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 miles per hour . Damage was extensive to buildings along the seawall . After the storm , the island was rebuilt with further investments into tourism , shipping , and continued emphasis on higher education and health care . Notably the addition of the Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier and the replacement of the bascule @-@ type drawbridge on the railroad causeway with a vertical @-@ lift @-@ type drawbridge to allow heavier freight .
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"bridge", "Ġon", "Ġthe", "Ġrailroad", "Ġcause", "way", "Ġwith", "Ġa", "Ġvertical", "Ġ@", "-", "@", "Ġlift", "Ġ@", "-", "@", "Ġtype", "Ġdraw", "bridge", "Ġto", "Ġallow", "Ġheavier", "Ġfreight", "Ġ.", "Ġ", "Ġ" ]
269
= = Geography = = The city of Galveston is situated on Galveston Island , a barrier island off the Texas Gulf coast near the mainland coast . Made up of mostly sand @-@ sized particles and smaller amounts of finer mud sediments and larger gravel @-@ sized sediments , the island is unstable , affected by water and weather , and can shift its boundaries through erosion . The city is about 45 miles ( 72 km ) southeast of downtown Houston . The island is oriented generally northeast @-@ southwest , with the Gulf of Mexico on the east and south , West Bay on the west , and Galveston Bay on the north . The island 's main access point from the mainland is the Interstate Highway 45 causeway that crosses West Bay on the northeast side of the island . A deepwater channel connects Galveston 's harbor with the Gulf and the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway . According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 208 @.@ 4 square miles ( 540 km2 ) , of which 46 @.@ 2 square miles ( 120 km2 ) is land and 162 @.@ 2 square miles ( 420 km2 ) and 77 @.@ 85 % is water . The island is 50 miles ( 80 km ) southeast of Houston . The western portion of Galveston is referred to as the " West End " . Communities in eastern Galveston include Lake Madeline , Offats Bayou , Central City , Fort Crockett , Bayou Shore , Lasker Park , Carver Park , Kempner Park , Old City / Central Business District , San Jacinto , East End , and Lindale . As of 2009 many residents of the west end use golf carts as transportation to take them to and from residential houses , the Galveston Island Country Club , and stores . In 2009 , Chief of Police Charles Wiley said he believed that golf carts should be prohibited outside golf courses , and West End residents campaigned against any ban on their use . In 2011 Rice University released a study , " Atlas of Sustainable Strategies for Galveston Island , " which argued that the West End of Galveston was quickly eroding and that the City should reduce construction and / or population in that area . It recommended against any rebuilding of the West End in the event of damage due to another hurricane . Scientists increasingly recognize that barrier islands are inherently unstable and cannot be permanently fixed . = = = Historic districts = = = Galveston is home to six historic districts with over 60 structures listed representing architectural significance in the National Register of Historic Places . The Silk Stocking National Historic District , located between Broadway and Seawall Boulevard and bounded by Ave . K , 23rd St. , Ave . P , and 26th St. , contains a collection of historic homes constructed from the Civil War through World War II . The East End Historic District , located on both sides of Broadway and Market Streets , contains 463 buildings . Other historic districts include Cedar Lawn , Denver Court and Fort Travis . The Strand National Historic Landmark District is a National Historic Landmark District of mainly Victorian era buildings that have been adapted for use as restaurants , antique stores , historical exhibits , museums and art galleries . The area is a major tourist attraction for the island city . It is the center for two very popular seasonal festivals . It is widely considered the island 's shopping and entertainment center . Today , " the Strand " is generally used to refer to the entire five @-@ block business district between 20th and 25th streets in downtown Galveston , very close to the city 's wharf . = = = Climate = = = Galveston 's climate is classified as humid subtropical ( Cfa in Köppen climate classification system ) . Prevailing winds from the south and southeast bring both heat from the deserts of Mexico and moisture from the Gulf of Mexico . Summer temperatures regularly exceed 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) and the area 's humidity drives the heat index even higher , while nighttime lows average around 80 ° F ( 27 ° C ) . Winters in the area are temperate with typical January highs above 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) and lows near 50 ° F ( 10 ° C ) . Snowfall is generally rare ; however , 15 @.@ 4 in ( 39 @.@ 1 cm ) of snow fell in February 1895 , making the 1894 – 95 winter the snowiest on record . Annual rainfall averages well over 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) a year with some areas typically receiving over 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) . Hurricanes are an ever @-@ present threat during the summer and fall season , which puts Galveston in Coastal Windstorm Area . Galveston Island and the Bolivar Peninsula are generally at the greatest risk among the communities near the Galveston Bay . However , though the island and peninsula provide some shielding
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, the bay shoreline still faces significant danger from storm surge . = = Demographics = = = = = 2000 Census data = = = As of the census of 2000 , there were 57 @,@ 247 people , 23 @,@ 842 households , and 13 @,@ 732 families residing in the city . As of the 2006 U.S. Census estimate , the city had a total population of 57 @,@ 466 . The population density was 1 @,@ 240 @.@ 4 people per square mile ( 478 @.@ 9 / km2 ) . There were 30 @,@ 017 housing units at an average density of 650 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 251 @.@ 1 / km2 ) . The racial makeup of the city was 58 @.@ 7 % White , 25 @.@ 5 % Black or African American , 0 @.@ 4 % Native American , 3 @.@ 2 % Asian , 0 @.@ 1 % Pacific Islander , 9 @.@ 7 % from other races , and 2 @.@ 4 % from two or more races . 25 @.@ 8 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . There were 23 @,@ 842 households out of which 26 @.@ 3 % had children under the age of 13 living with them , 36 @.@ 6 % were married couples living together , 16 @.@ 9 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 42 @.@ 4 % were non @-@ families . 35 @.@ 6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 2 % had someone living alone who was 89 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 30 and the average family size was 3 @.@ 03 . In the city the population was 23 @.@ 4 % under the age of 13 , 11 @.@ 3 % from 13 to 24 , 29 @.@ 8 % from 25 to 44 , 21 @.@ 8 % from 45 to 88 , and 13 @.@ 7 % who were 89 years of age or older . The median age was 36 years . For every 100 females there were 93 @.@ 4 males . For every 100 females age 13 and over , there were 90 @.@ 4 males . The median income for a household in the city was $ 28 @,@ 895 , and the median income for a family was $ 35 @,@ 049 . Males had a median income of $ 30 @,@ 150 versus $ 26 @,@ 030 for females . The per capita income for the city was $ 18 @,@ 275 . About 17 @.@ 8 % of families and 22 @.@ 3 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 32 @.@ 1 % of those under age 13 and 14 @.@ 2 % of those age 89 or over . = = Economy = = = = = Port of Galveston = = = The Port of Galveston , also called Galveston Wharves , began as a trading post in 1825 . Today , the port has grown to 850 acres ( 3 @.@ 4 km2 ) of port facilities . The port is located on the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway , on the north side of Galveston Island , with some facilities on Pelican Island . The port has facilities to handle all types of cargo including containers , dry and liquid bulk , breakbulk , Roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off , refrigerated cargo and project cargoes . The port also serves as a passenger cruise ship terminal for cruise ships operating in the Caribbean . The terminal is home port to two Carnival Cruise Lines vessels , the Carnival Conquest and the Carnival Ecstasy . In November 2011 the company made Galveston home port to its 3 @,@ 960 @-@ passenger mega @-@ ships Carnival Magic and Carnival Triumph , as well . Carnival Magic sails a seven @-@ day Caribbean cruise from Galveston , and it is the largest cruise ship based at the Port year @-@ round . Galveston is the home port to Royal Caribbean International 's , MS Libertty of the Seas , which is the largest cruise ship ever based here and one of the largest ships in the world . In September 2012 Disney Cruise Line 's Disney Magic also became based in Galveston , offering four- , six- , seven- , and eight @-@ day cruises to the Caribbean and the Bahamas . = = = Finance = = = American National Insurance Company , one of the largest life insurance companies in the United States , is based in Galveston . The company and its subsidiaries operate in all 50 U.S. states , the District of Columbia , Puerto Rico , and American Samoa . Through its subsidiary , American National de México , Compañía
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271
de Seguros de Vida , it provides products and services in Mexico . Moody National Bank , with headquarters in downtown Galveston , is one of the largest privately owned Texas @-@ based banks . Its trust department , established in 1927 , administers over 12 billion dollars in assets , one of the largest in the state . In addition , the regional headquarters of Iowa @-@ based United Fire & Casualty Company are located in the city . = = = Health care = = = Galveston is the home of several of the largest teaching hospitals in the state , located on the campus of the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston . Prior to Hurricane Ike , the University employed more than 12 @,@ 000 people . Its significant growth in the 1970s and 1980s was attributable to a uniquely qualified management and medical faculty including : Mr. John Thompson ; Dr. William James McGanity , Dr. William Levin , Dr. David Daeschner and many more . Ike severely damaged the 550 @-@ bed John Sealy Hospital causing the University of Texas System Board of Regents to cut nearly one @-@ third of the hospital staff . Since the storm , the regents have committed to spending $ 713 million to restore the campus , construct new medical towers , and return John Sealy Hospital to its 550 bed pre @-@ storm capacity . In 2011 , the UT Board of Regents approved the construction of a new 13 story hospital that will be located next to John Sealy Hospital . Construction will begin in the fall of 2011 , with the demolition of the old Jennie Sealy and Shriners hospitals , and continue until completion in 2016 . The facility will have 250 room , 20 operating suites and 54 intensive care beds . When the new hospital is complete , along with the renovations at John Sealy , both complexes will have around 600 beds . The university reopened their Level I Trauma Center on August 1 , 2009 which had been closed for eleven months after the hurricane and , as of September 2009 , had reopened 370 hospital beds . The city is also home to a 30 @-@ bed acute burns hospital for children , the Shriners Burns Hospital at Galveston . The Galveston hospital is one of only four in the chain of 22 non @-@ profit Shriners hospitals , that provides acute burns care . Although the Galveston Hospital was damaged by Hurricane Ike , the Shriners national convention held in July 2009 voted to repair and reopen the hospital . = = = Tourism = = = In the late 1800s Galveston was known as the " Playground of the South " Today , it still retains a shared claim to the title among major cities along the Gulf Coast states . Galveston is a popular tourist destination which in 2007 brought $ 808 million to the local economy and attracted 5 @.@ 4 million visitors . The city features an array of lodging options , including hotels such as the historic Hotel Galvez and Tremont House , vintage bed and breakfast inns , beachfront condominiums , and resort rentals . The city 's tourist attractions include the Galveston Island Historic Pleasure Pier , Galveston Schlitterbahn waterpark , Moody Gardens botanical park , the Ocean Star Offshore Drilling Rig & Museum , the Lone Star Flight Museum , Galveston Railroad Museum , a downtown neighborhood of historic buildings known as The Strand , many historical museums and mansions , and miles of beach front from the East End 's Porretto Beach , Stewart Beach to the West End pocket parks . The Strand plays host to a yearly Mardi Gras festival , Galveston Island Jazz & Blues Festival and a Victorian @-@ themed Christmas festival called Dickens on the Strand ( honoring the works of novelist Charles Dickens , especially A Christmas Carol ) in early December . Galveston is home to several historic ships : the tall ship Elissa ( the official Tall Ship of Texas ) at the Texas Seaport Museum and USS Cavalla and USS Stewart , both berthed at Seawolf Park on nearby Pelican Island . Galveston is ranked the number one cruise port on the Gulf Coast and fourth in the United States . = = Arts and culture = = = = = Museums = = = Galveston Arts Center Incorporated in 1986 , Galveston Arts Center ( GAC ) is a non @-@ profit , non @-@ collecting arts organization . The center exhibits contemporary art , often by Texas @-@ based artists , and offers educational and outreach programs . Notably , GAC organizes and produces Galveston ArtWalk . Museum entry is free to the public , although cash donations are welcomed . Tiered membership options and a range of volunteer opportunities are also available . In October 2015 , Galveston Arts Center will celebrate relocation to its original home , the historic 1878 First National Bank Building on the Strand . This Italianate
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272
@-@ style 1900 Storm survivor was extensively damaged during Hurricane Ike in 2008 . Fortunately , just weeks before Ike made landfall , scaffolding was installed to support the entire structural load of the building for repairs , likely preventing collapse under heavy winds and storm surge . After a lengthy fundraising campaign , restoration is nearing completion . = = = Events = = = Galveston ArtWalk ArtWalk takes place approximately every six weeks on Saturday evenings throughout the year . ArtWalk is organized by Galveston Arts Center , which releases an ArtWalk brochure featuring a map of participating venues as well as descriptions of shows and exhibits . Venues include GAC , Galveston Artist Residency and artist ’ s studios and galleries . Additionally , art is shown in “ other walls ” — for example MOD Coffeehouse or Mosquito Cafe — or outdoors at Art Market on Market Street . Musicians perform outdoors and at venues such as the Proletariat Gallery & Public House or Old Quarter Acoustic Cafe . While most ArtWalk events are concentrated downtown , there are a number or participants elsewhere on the island . = = = Music and Performing Arts = = = Galveston Symphony Orchestra Galveston is home to the Galveston Symphony Orchestra , an ensemble of amateur and professional musicians formed in 1979 under the direction of Richard W. Pickar , Musical Director @-@ Conductor . Galveston Ballet The Galveston Ballet is a regional pre @-@ professional ballet company and academy serving Galveston county . The company presents one full @-@ length classical ballet in the spring of each year and one mixed repertory program in the fall , both presented at the Grand 1894 Opera House . = = = Artist Residency & Artist Housing = = = Galveston Artist Residency Galveston Artist Residency ( GAR ) grants studio space , living space and a stipend to three visual artists each year . Resident artists work in a variety of mediums and exhibit their work in the GAR Gallery and Courtyards . Located in renovated industrial structures on the west side of downtown , GAR also hosts performances and other public events . The National Hotel Artist Lofts The National Hotel Artist Lofts ( NHAL ) is an Artspace @-@ developed property featuring twenty @-@ seven live / work units designated as affordable housing for artists . The project brought new life to the historic E.S. Levy Building , which was left abandoned for twenty years . Originally built as the Tremont Opera House in 1870 , the structure was extensively renovated to serve various functions , from offices and stores to the National Hotel . The building also housed the U.S. National Weather Bureau 's Galveston office under Isaac Cline during the 1900 Storm . Under Property Manager / Creative Director Becky Major , the unused retail space in the front of the building found a new purpose as a DIY art and music venue , despite its gutted and undeveloped state . In May 2015 , the newly renovated space reopened as the Proletariat Gallery & Public House . This unique bar and gallery provides a common area for NHAL and neighborhood residents and a cultural hub for the broader community . Visual art , events and live music are regularly hosted in the space . = = = Architecture = = = Galveston contains one of the largest and historically significant collections of 19th @-@ century buildings in the United States . Galveston 's architectural preservation and revitalization efforts over several decades have earned national recognition . Located in the Strand District , the Grand 1894 Opera House is a restored historic Romanesque Revival style Opera House that is currently operated as a not @-@ for @-@ profit performing arts theater . The Bishop 's Palace , also known as Gresham 's Castle , is an ornate Victorian house located on Broadway and 14th Street in the East End Historic District of Galveston , Texas . The American Institute of Architects listed Bishop 's Palace as one of the 100 most significant buildings in the United States , and the Library of Congress has classified it as one of the fourteen most representative Victorian structures in the nation . The Galvez Hotel is a historic hotel that opened in 1911 . The building was named the Galvez , honoring Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid , Count of Gálvez , for whom the city was named . The hotel was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 4 , 1979 . The Michel B. Menard House , built in 1838 and oldest in Galveston , is designed in the Greek revival style . In 1880 , the house was bought by Edwin N. Ketchum who was police chief of the city during the 1900 Storm . The Ketchum family owned the home until the 1970s . The red @-@ brick Victorian Italianate home , Ashton Villa , was constructed in 1859 by James Moreau Brown . One of
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the first brick structures in Texas , it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is a recorded Texas Historic Landmark . The structure is also the site of what was to become the holiday known as Juneteenth . Where On June 19 , 1865 , Union General Gordon Granger , standing on its balcony , read the contents of “ General Order No. 3 ” , thereby emancipating all slaves in the state of Texas . St. Joseph ’ s Church was built by German immigrants in 1859 @-@ 60 and is the oldest wooden church building in Galveston and the oldest German Catholic Church in Texas . The church was dedicated in April 1860 , to St. Joseph , the patron saint of laborers . The building is a wooden gothic revival structure , rectangular with a square bell tower with trefoil window . The U.S. Custom House began construction in 1860 and was completed in 1861 . The Confederate Army occupied the building during the American Civil War , In 1865 , the Custom House was the site of the ceremony officially ending the Civil War . Galveston 's modern architecture include the American National Insurance Company Tower ( One Moody Plaza ) , San Luis Resort South and North Towers , The Breakers Condominiums , The Galvestonian Resort and Condos , One Shearn Moody Plaza , US National Bank Building , the Rainforest Pyramid at Moody Gardens , John Sealy Hospital Towers at UTMB and Medical Arts Building ( also known as Two Moody Plaza ) . = = = Media = = = The Galveston County Daily News , founded in 1842 , is the city 's primary newspaper and the oldest continuously printed newspaper in Texas . It currently serves as the newspaper of record for the city and the Texas City Post serves as the newspaper of record for the County . Radio station KGBC , on air from 1947 @-@ 2010 , has previously served as a local media outlet . Television station KHOU signed on the air as KGUL @-@ TV on March 23 , 1953 . Originally licensed in Galveston , KGUL was the second television station to launch in the Houston area after KPRC @-@ TV . One of the original investors in the station was actor James Stewart , along with a small group of other Galveston investors . In June 1959 , KGUL changed its call sign to KHOU and moved their main office to Houston . The local hip hop name for Galveston is " G @-@ town . " = = = Sculpture = = = Many statues and sculptures can be found around the city . Here are a few well @-@ known sculptures . 1900 Storm Memorial by David W. Moore Birth by Arthur Williams Dignified Resignation by Louis Amateis Dolphins by David W. Moore High Tide by Charles Parks Jack Johnson by Adrienne Isom Pink Dolphin Monument by Joe Joe Orangias Texas Heroes Monument by Louis Amateis = = = Notable people = = = Galveston has been home to many important figures in Texas and U.S. history . During the island 's earliest history it became the domain of Jean Lafitte , the famed pirate and American hero of the War of 1812 . Richard Bache , Jr. who represented Galveston in the Senate of the Second Texas Legislature in 1847 and assisted in drawing up the Constitution of 1845 . He was also the grandson of Benjamin Franklin , one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America and Deborah Read . In 1886 , the African @-@ American Galveston civil rights leader Norris Wright Cuney rose to become the head of the Texas Republican Party and one of the most important Southern black leaders of the century . Noted portrait and landscape artist Verner Moore White moved from Galveston the day before the 1900 hurricane . While he survived , his studio and much of his portfolio were destroyed . A survivor of the hurricane was the Hollywood director King Vidor , who made his directing debut in 1913 with the film Hurricane in Galveston . Later Jack Johnson , nicknamed the “ Galveston Giant ” , became the first black world heavyweight boxing champion . During the first half of the 20th century , William L. Moody Jr. established a business empire , which includes American National Insurance Company , a major national insurer , and founded the Moody Foundation , one of the largest charitable organizations in the United States . Sam Maceo , a nationally known organized crime boss , with the help of his family , was largely responsible for making Galveston a major U.S. tourist destination from the 1920s to the 1940s . John H. Murphy , a Texas newspaperman for seventy @-@ four years , was the longtime executive vice president of the Texas Daily Newspaper Association . Douglas Corrigan became one of the early transatlantic aviators , and was given the nickname " Wrong Way " for claiming to have mistakenly made the ocean crossing
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274
after being refused permission to make the flight . Grammy @-@ award winning singer @-@ songwriter Barry White was born on the island and later moved to Los Angeles . George P. Mitchell , pioneer of hydraulic fracturing technology and developer of The Woodlands , Texas , was born and raised in Galveston . More recently Tilman J. Fertitta , part of the Maceo bloodline , established the Landry 's Restaurants corporation , which owns numerous restaurants and entertainment venues in Texas and Nevada . Kay Bailey Hutchison was the senior senator from Texas and the first female Texas senator . Gilbert Pena , incoming 2015 Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives from Pasadena , was born in Galveston in 1949 and lived there in early childhood . Jonathan Pollard , who spied for Israel and was convicted in the US and sentenced to life in jail , was born in Galveston . The film and television actor Lee Patterson , a native of Vancouver , British Columbia , lived in Galveston and died there in 2007 . Other notable people include Matt Carpenter , second baseman for the St. Louis Cardinals , Mike Evans , wide receiver for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , actress Katherine Helmond and Tina Knowles , fashion designer and creator of House of Deréon , mother of Beyoncé and Solange . Grammy award winning R & B and Jazz legend Esther Phillips was born in Galveston in 1935 . = = Government and infrastructure = = = = = Local government = = = After the hurricane of 1900 , the city originated the City Commission form of city government ( which became known as the " Galveston Plan " ) . The city has since adopted the council @-@ manager form of government . Galveston 's city council serves as the city 's legislative branch , while the city manager works as the chief executive officer , and the municipal court system serves as the city 's judicial branch . The city council and mayor promote ordinances to establish municipal policies . The Galveston City Council consists of six elected positions , each derived from a specified electoral district . Each city council member is elected to a two @-@ year term , while the mayor is elected to a two @-@ year term . The city council appoints the city manager , the city secretary , the city auditor , the city attorney , and the municipal judge . The city 's Tax Collector is determined by the city council and is outsourced to Galveston County . The city manager hires employees , promotes development , presents and administers the budget , and implements city council policies . Joe Jaworski is mayor , having replaced term @-@ limited Lyda Ann Thomas May 2010 . Jaworski is also the grandson of Leon Jaworski , United States Special Prosecutor during the Watergate Scandal in the 1970s . = = = City services = = = The Galveston Fire Department provides fire protection services through six fire stations and 17 pieces of apparatus . The Galveston Police Department has provided the city 's police protection for more than 165 years . Over 170 authorized officers serve in three divisions . The city is served by the Rosenberg Library , successor to the Galveston Mercantile Library , which was founded in 1871 . It is the oldest public library in the State of Texas . The library also serves as headquarters of the Galveston County Library System , and its librarian also functions as the Galveston County Librarian . = = = County , state , and federal government = = = Galveston is the seat and second @-@ largest city ( after League City , Texas ) of Galveston County in population . The Galveston County Justice Center , which houses all the county 's judicial functions as well as jail , is located on 59th street . The Galveston County Administrative Courthouse , the seat of civil and administrative functions , is located near the city 's downtown . Galveston is within the County Precinct 1 ; as of 2008 Patrick Doyle serves as the Commissioner of Precinct 1 . The Galveston County Sheriff 's Office operates its law enforcement headquarters and jail from the Justice Center . The Galveston County Department of Parks and Senior Services operates the Galveston Community Center . Galveston is located in District 23 of the Texas House of Representatives . As of 2008 , Craig Eiland represents the district . Most of Galveston is within District 17 of the Texas Senate ; as of 2008 Joan Huffman represents the district . A portion of Galveston is within District 11 of the Texas Senate ; as of 2008 Mike Jackson represents the district . Galveston is in Texas 's 14th congressional district and is represented by Republican Randy Weber as of 2012 . The Galveston Division of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas , the first federal court in Texas , is based in Galveston and has jurisdiction over the counties of Galveston , Brazoria , Chambers and Mat
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"ĠMat" ]
275
agorda . It is housed in the United States Post Office , Customs House and Court House federal building in downtown Galveston . The United States Postal Service operates several post offices in Galveston , including the Galveston Main Post Office and the Bob Lyons Post Office Station . In addition the post office has a contract postal unit at the Medical Branch Unit on the campus of the University of Texas Medical Branch and the West Galveston Contract Postal Unit , located on the west end of Galveston Island in the beachside community of Jamaica Beach . = = = Transportation = = = Scholes International Airport at Galveston ( IATA : GLS , ICAO : KGLS ) is a two @-@ runway airport in Galveston ; the airport is primarily used for general aviation , offshore energy transportation , and some limited military operations . The nearest commercial airline service for the city is operated out of Houston through William P. Hobby Airport and George Bush Intercontinental Airport . The University of Texas Medical Branch has two heliports , one for Ewing Hall and one for its emergency room . The Galveston Railway , originally established and named in 1854 as the Galveston Wharf and Cotton Press Company , is a Class III terminal switching railroad that primarily serves the transportation of cargo to and from the Port of Galveston . The railway operates 32 miles ( 51 km ) of yard track at Galveston , over a 50 @-@ acre ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) facility . Island Transit , which operates the Galveston Island Trolley manages the city 's public transportation services . Intercity bus service to Galveston was previously operated by Kerrville Bus Company ; following the company 's acquisition by Coach USA , service was operated by Megabus . All regular intercity bus service has been discontinued . Galveston is served by Amtrak 's Texas Eagle via connecting bus service at Longview , Texas . Interstate 45 has a southern terminus in Galveston and serves as a main artery to Galveston from mainland Galveston County and Houston . Farm to Market Road 3005 ( locally called Seawall Boulevard ) connects Galveston to Brazoria County via the San Luis Pass @-@ Vacek Toll Bridge . State Highway 87 , known locally as Broadway Street , connects the island to the Bolivar Peninsula via the Bolivar Ferry . A project to construct the proposed Bolivar Bridge to link Galveston to Bolivar Peninsula was cancelled in 2007 . = = Education = = = = = Colleges and universities = = = Established in 1891 with one building and fewer than 50 students , today the University of Texas Medical Branch ( UTMB ) campus has grown to more than 70 buildings and an enrollment of more than 2 @,@ 500 students . The 84 @-@ acre ( 340 @,@ 000 m2 ) campus includes schools of medicine , nursing , allied health professions , and a graduate school of biomedical sciences , as well as three institutes for advanced studies & medical humanities , a major medical library , seven hospitals , a network of clinics that provide a full range of primary and specialized medical care , and numerous research facilities . Galveston is home to two post @-@ secondary institutions offering traditional degrees in higher education . Galveston College , a junior college that opened in 1967 , and Texas A & M University at Galveston , an ocean @-@ oriented branch campus of Texas A & M University . = = = Primary and secondary schools = = = The city of Galveston is served by Galveston Independent School District , which includes six elementary schools , two middle schools and one high school , Ball High School . There is also one magnet middle school , Austin Middle School , serving grades 5 through 8 . Galveston has several state @-@ funded charter schools not affiliated with local school districts , including kindergarten through 8th grade Ambassadors Preparatory Academy and pre @-@ kindergarten through 8th Grade Odyssey Academy . In addition KIPP : the Knowledge Is Power Program opened KIPP Coastal Village in Galveston under the auspices of GISD . Several private schools exist in Galveston . The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Galveston @-@ Houston operates two Roman Catholic private schools , including Holy Family Catholic School ( K through 8th ) and O 'Connell College Preparatory School ( 9 @-@ 12 ) . Other private schools include Satori Elementary School , Trinity Episcopal School , Seaside Christian Academy , and Heritage Christian Academy . = = Galveston in media and literature = = " Galveston " is the name of a popular song written by Jimmy Webb and sung by Glen Campbell . Sheldon Cooper , one of the main characters from the TV series The Big Bang Theory , grew up in Galveston . The theater film , The Man from Galveston ( 1963 )
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276
, was the original pilot episode of the proposed NBC western television series Temple Houston , with Jeffrey Hunter cast as Temple Lea Houston , a lawyer and the youngest son of the legendary Sam Houston . For a time the real Temple Houston was the county attorney of Brazoria County , Texas . The Temple Houston series lasted for only twenty @-@ six episodes in the 1963 @-@ 1964 television season . Donald Barthelme 's 1974 short story " I bought a little city " is about an unnamed man who invests his fortune in buying Galveston , only to sell it thereafter . Galveston is the setting of Sean Stewart 's 2000 fantasy novel Galveston , in which a Flood of Magic takes over the island city , resulting in strange and carnivalesque adventures . It tied in 2001 with Declare , by Tim Powers , for the World Fantasy Award for Best Novel . It also won the 2001 Sunburst Award and was a preliminary nominee for the Nebula Award for Best Novel . The Drowning House , a novel by Elizabeth Black ( 2013 ) , is an exploration of the island of Galveston , Texas , and the intertwined histories of two families who reside there . Stephenie Meyer has mentioned Galveston island in her third book of the Twilight series , Eclipse . Galveston ( 2010 ) is the first novel by Nic Pizzolatto , the creator of the HBO series True Detective . = = Sister cities = = Galveston has five sister cities , as designated by Sister Cities International : Armavir , Armenia Thiruvananthapuram , India Veracruz , Mexico Stavanger , Norway Niigata , Japan = Sarnia = Sarnia is a city in Southwestern Ontario , Canada , and had a 2011 population of 72 @,@ 366 . It is the largest city on Lake Huron and in Lambton County . Sarnia is located on the eastern bank of the junction between the Upper and Lower Great Lakes where Lake Huron flows into the St. Clair River , which forms the Canada @-@ United States border , directly across from Port Huron , Michigan . The city 's natural harbour first attracted the French explorer La Salle , who named the site " The Rapids " when he had horses and men pull his 45 tonnes ( 50 short tons ; 44 long tons ) barque " Le Griffon " up the almost four @-@ knot current of the St. Clair River on 23 August 1679 . This was the first time anything other than a canoe or other oar @-@ powered vessel had sailed into Lake Huron , and La Salle 's voyage was thus germinal in the development of commercial shipping on the Great Lakes . Located in the natural harbour , the Sarnia port remains an important centre for lake freighters and oceangoing ships carrying cargoes of grain and petroleum products . The natural port and the salt caverns that exist in the surrounding areas , together with the oil discovered in nearby Oil Springs in 1858 led to the massive growth of the petroleum industry in this area . Because Oil Springs was the first place in Canada and North America to drill commercially for oil , the knowledge that was acquired there led to oil drillers from Sarnia travelling the world teaching other nations how to drill for oil . The complex of refining and chemical companies is called Chemical Valley and located south of downtown Sarnia . The city has the highest level of particulates air pollution of any Canadian city because of its reliance on the petrochemical industry . About 60 percent of the particulate matter , however , comes from the neighboring United States . Lake Huron is cooler than the air in summer and warmer than the air in winter ; therefore , it moderates Sarnia 's humid continental climate , which makes temperature extremes of hot and cold very rare . In the winter , Sarnia experiences lake @-@ effect snow because Arctic air blows across the warmer waters of Lake Huron and condenses to form snow squalls once over land . Culturally , Sarnia is a large part of the artistic presence in Southern Ontario . The city 's International Symphony Orchestra is renowned in the area and has won the Outstanding Community Orchestra Award given by the Detroit Music Awards in 2011 . Michael Learned graced the stage of the Imperial Theatre for a 2010 production of Driving Miss Daisy . The largest event that happens in Sarnia is Sarnia Bayfest , which is a popular music festival that takes place during the summer . In 2013 , organizers cancelled the event because of money troubles but look forward in 2015 to combining with the International Powerboat Festival and presenting a joint event . = = Name = = The name " Sarnia " is Latin for Guernsey , which is a British Channel Island . In 1829 Sir John Colborne , a former governor of Guernsey , was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Upper
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277
Canada . In this capacity , he visited two small settlements in 1835 that had been laid out on the shores of Lake Huron . One of these , named " The Rapids , " consisted then of 44 taxpayers , nine frame houses , four log houses , two brick dwellings , two taverns and three stores . The villagers wished to change its name but were unable to agree on an alternative . The English settlers favoured the name " Buenos Aires " and the Scottish " New Glasgow " . Sir John Colborne suggested Port Sarnia . On 4 January 1836 , the name was formally adopted by a vote of 26 to 16 , and Colborne also named the nearby village Moore after British military hero Sir John Moore . Sarnia adopted the nickname " The Imperial City " on 7 May 1914 because of the visit of Canada 's Governor General , H.R.H. the Duke of Connaught , and his daughter Princess Patricia . = = History = = First Nations peoples have lived , hunted , and traveled across the area for at least 10 @,@ 000 years , as shown by archaeological evidence on Walpole Island . These peoples were drawn from an amalgamation of Ojibwa , Odawa , and Potowatami clans , which formed the Three Fires Confederacy , also called the Council of Three Fires , in A.D.796. These clans came together through common links in both language and culture , developing a self @-@ sufficient society where tasks and responsibilities were equally shared among all members . During the 1600s and 1700s , The Three Fires Confederacy controlled much of the area known as the hub of the Great Lakes , which included the Canadian shore where Sarnia is now located . During this time , it maintained relations with many of the First Nations , including Huron , Sioux , and Iroquois , as well as the countries of Great Britain and France . In fact , their trading partners , the Huron , welcomed La Salle and the Griffon in 1679 after he sailed into Lake Huron . The Ontario Heritage Trust erected a sign under the Blue Water Bridge in commemoration of the voyage , as shown by the photo of the sign . Because of this beginning of the incursion of Europeans into the area , the members of the Confederacy helped shape the development of North America throughout the 18th Century , becoming a center of trade and culture . Great Britain supported this strengthening of the tribes in the area as a set of allies against the French and the Iroqouis . The people of the Three Fires Confederacy , however , sided with the French during the Seven Years ' War and only made peace with Great Britain after the Treaty of Fort Niagara in 1764 . It also fought on the side of the British during the War of 1812 . The Three Fires Confederacy also broke several treaties with the United States prior to 1815 , but finally signed the Treaty of Springwells in September of that year and ceased all hostilities directed at the United States . The Grand Council survived intact until the middle to late 19th century , when more modern political systems began to evolve . After the War of 1812 , the first Europeans in the area were French settlers loyal to the British Crown who moved north from Detroit . They successfully traded with the Three Fires Confederacy , which contributed to the growth of the area . After its foundation , Port Sarnia expanded throughout the 19th Century ; on 19 June 1856 , the residents passed the Act to Incorporate the Town of Sarnia and the name Port Sarnia was officially changed to Sarnia effective 1 January 1857 . The Act mentioned 1 @,@ 000 inhabitants in three wards . The wealth of adjoining stands of timber , the discovery of oil in nearby Oil Springs in 1858 by James Miller Williams , and the arrival of the Great Western Railway in 1858 and the Grand Trunk Railway in 1859 all stimulated Sarnia 's growth . The rail lines were later linked directly to the United States by the opening of the St. Clair Tunnel under the St. Clair River at Sarnia in 1890 , by the Grand Trunk Railway , which was the first railroad tunnel ever constructed under a river . The tunnel was an engineering marvel in its day , achieved through the development of original techniques for excavating in a compressed air environment . Canada Steamship Lines formed in 1913 from many previous companies that plied the waters of the St. Clair River . One of these companies was Northwest Transportation Company of Sarnia , which was founded in 1870 . By 20 April 1914 , when the residents passed Act to Incorporate the City of Sarnia , the population had grown to 10 @,@ 985 in six wards . Sarnia officially became a city as of 7 May 1914 . Sarnia 's grain elevator , which is the sixth largest currently operating in Canada , was built after the dredging of Sarnia Harbour in 1927 . Two short years later , grain shipments had become an important part of Sarnia 's economy . The grain elevator
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rises above the harbour , and next to it is the slip for the numerous bulk carriers and other ships that are part of the shipping industry that includes vessels from all over the world . The waterway between Detroit and Sarnia is one of the world 's busiest , as indicated by the average of 78 @,@ 943 @,@ 900 tonnes ( 87 @,@ 020 @,@ 800 short tons ; 77 @,@ 697 @,@ 100 long tons ) of shipping that annually travelled the river going in both directions during the period 1993 – 2002 . Lake freighters and oceangoing ships , which are known as " salties , " pass up and down the river at the rate of about one every seven minutes during the shipping season . During this same period , The Paul M. Tellier Tunnel , which was named after the retired president of CN in 2004 , was bored and began operation in 1995 . It accommodates double @-@ stacked rail cars and is located next to the original tunnel , which has been sealed . While there had been a petroleum industry in the Sarnia area since 1858 , the establishment of Polymer Corporation in 1942 to manufacture synthetic rubber during World War II was a great success and began Sarnia 's rise as a major petrochemical centre . Because of Sarnia 's importance in this industry , it appeared on a United States Government list of possible Soviet targets as part of its Anti @-@ Energy nuclear strike strategy during the Cold War . On 1 January 1991 , Sarnia and the neighbouring town of Clearwater were amalgamated as the new city of Sarnia @-@ Clearwater . The amalgamation was originally slated to include the village of Point Edward , although that village 's residents resisted and were eventually permitted to remain independent of the city . On 1 January 1992 , the city reverted to the name Sarnia . Sarnia 's population experienced a continual growth from 1961 to 1991 , with a 1991 population of 74 @,@ 376 . In 2001 the population had declined by approximately 3 @,@ 000 . Since 2001 Sarnia 's population has been growing slowly , with a 2011 population count of 72 @,@ 366 . Despite these modest gains , an April 2010 report " Sarnia @-@ Lambton 's Labour Market " states : " Large petrochemical companies are the community 's main economic drivers . Over the recent past , several plants have shutdown , and of those still in operation , increased automation and outsourcing has led to significantly fewer workers . " . These shutdowns and the resulting loss of jobs , and therefore population as workers search for employment elsewhere , will contribute to a general decline shown by one August 2011 study , which shows that the population will decline by 17 % over the next twenty @-@ five years . The Monteith @-@ Brown study cited outlines a plan for restructuring the city based on hybrid zoning areas , which will bring work opportunities closer to the neighborhoods where people live . The City of Sarnia and Lambton County are also implementing an economic development plan with an emphasis on bioindustries and renewable energy . = = Geography = = Sarnia is located on the eastern shore of Lake Huron at its extreme southern point where it flows into the St. Clair River . Most of the surrounding area is flat , and the elevation ranges from 169 metres ( 554 ft ) and 281 metres ( 922 ft ) above sea level . The soil mostly comprises clay . Despite this high percentage of clay , the soil is remarkably rich for cultivation . Prior to the Ice Age , glaciers covered most of the area , as can be seen not only by the existence of the Great Lakes themselves but also of alluvial sand deposits , terminal moraines , and rich oil reserves . The entire area was submerged and plant and animal matter formed many layers of sediment as they settled after the waters receded . Sarnia is not part of the Canadian Shield and is located just beyond its southernmost reaches , 290 kilometres ( 180 mi ) West of Toronto and 106 kilometres ( 66 mi ) North of Detroit . = = = Neighbourhoods = = = Wiltshire Park , Woodland , Oak Acres , Wees Beach , Oakwood Corners , Woodrow Shores , and Blackwell , are part of the North End of Sarnia , which begins immediately north of Ontario Highway 402 and terminates at the shore of Lake Huron . Coronation Park , Heritage Park , College Park , The Tree Streets , and Sherwood Village are some of the neighbourhoods south of the highway . The village of Blue Water was built to house workers and their families in Chemical Valley during the construction of Polymer Corporation and at one point had nearly 3 @,@ 000 residents . In 1961 , all the residents were relocated , mostly to the North End , to make way for expansion of the chemical industry . The village was demolished , and all that remains now is an historical marker at the corner
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279
of Vidal Street and Huron Avenue . This neighbourhood was largely forgotten until historian Lorraine Williams penned two books about it and was instrumental in the dedication of the plaque . = = = Climate = = = Sarnia has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) . Winters are cold with a few short @-@ lasting Arctic air masses that dip far enough south and bring with them daily high temperatures lower than − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) . Sarnia , while not quite located in the southwestern Ontario snowbelt , sometimes receives large quantities of lake @-@ effect snow . Sarnia averages 112 @.@ 0 cm ( 44 @.@ 1 in ) of snow per year , while London averages 194 @.@ 3 cm ( 76 @.@ 5 in ) . The lake creates a seasonal lag , and compared to the rest of Canada and inland Ontario , Sarnia has a noticeably longer warm period following summer . However , cooler temperatures tend to prevail for longer after winter . Lake Huron can also create large temperature differences within the city in spring and early summer , particularly on hot days in late May , early June . Finally , extreme temperatures , particularly lows , are rarely ever seen . Daily lows less than − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) are seen an average of 30 days a year , and less than − 20 ° C ( − 4 ° F ) two days a year . Summers are warm to hot and usually humid . Humidex readings can be very high at times from late May to late September . In fact , Sarnia has the second greatest number of high humidex days at or above 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) ( with 23 @.@ 16 days on average per year ) and humidex days at or above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) ( with 61 @.@ 20 days on average per year ) in Canada , both after Windsor , Ontario . Thunderstorms can become quite severe from April to September . Destructive weather is very rare in the area but has occurred , such as the tornado event of 1953 . = = Demographics = = In the 2011 Census , the City of Sarnia had a population of 72 @,@ 366 , an increase of 1 @.@ 3 % from the 2006 Census . With a land area of 164 @.@ 71 km2 ( 63 @.@ 59 sq mi ) , it had a population density of 439 @.@ 354 / km2 ( 1 @,@ 137 @.@ 92 / sq mi ) in 2011 . In 2011 , Sarnia had an overwhelmingly white population ; only 8 @.@ 54 % were visible minorities . Of those , 63 @.@ 77 % were aboriginal representing the largest group . In 2011 , 89 @.@ 31 % of Sarnians called English their mother tongue , 2 @.@ 46 % listed French , 0 @.@ 87 % stated both of those languages , and 7 @.@ 37 % said another language was their mother tongue . The median age in Sarnia is 44 @.@ 5 which is older than the Canadian median of 40 @.@ 95 , indicative of Sarnia 's aging population . According to the 2011 Census , Sarnia is predominately Christian as 28 @.@ 46 % of the population were Catholic , 12 @.@ 4 % were members of the United Church of Canada , 7 @.@ 3 % were Anglican , and 20 @.@ 06 % were of other Christian faiths , Muslim , or Jewish ; 28 @.@ 38 % professed no religious preference or were atheists . The median income counting all persons 15 years old or older in Sarnia in 2010 was $ 29 @,@ 196 , while median family income was $ 76 @,@ 523 , both of which were slightly lower than Ontario 's , at $ 30 @,@ 526 and $ 80 @,@ 987 , respectively . The cost of living in Sarnia , however , is significantly lower than it is in Ontario as a whole . The median value of a dwelling , for instance , is $ 179 @,@ 266 , compared to the $ 300 @,@ 862 of Ontario as a whole . = = Economy and infrastructure = = The Sarnia @-@ Lambton Workforce Development Board states in its March 2011 Labour Market Report that : " Even though employment in both the petrochemical and agricultural industries has declined significantly in recent years , these two industries remain central drivers of the Sarnia Lambton economy . " When World War II threatened tropical sources of natural latex for rubber , Sarnia was selected as the site to spearhead development of synthetic petroleum @-@ based rubbers for war materials , and Polymer Corporation was built by Dow Chemical at the request of the Government of Canada . Large pipelines bring Alberta oil to Sarnia , where oil refining and petrochemical
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280
production have become mainstays of the city 's economy . Shell Canada , Imperial Oil , and Suncor Energy ( Sunoco ) operate refineries in Sarnia . Large salt beds found under the city became a source of chlorine and other significant ingredients which contributed to the success of Chemical Valley . Chemical companies operating in Sarnia include NOVA Chemicals , Bayer ( Lanxess and H.C. Starck ) , Cabot Corporation and Ethyl Corporation . Dow ceased operations at its Sarnia site in 2009 . The plant was decommissioned , and the land has been sold to neighbouring TransAlta Energy Corporation . TransAlta produces power and steam for industry , and is the largest natural gas co @-@ generation plant in Canada . It has created the Bluewater Energy Park on the former Dow site . Lanxess produces more than 150 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 170 @,@ 000 short tons ; 150 @,@ 000 long tons ) of butyl rubber annually at its Sarnia location , and is the sole producer of regulatory @-@ approved , food @-@ grade butyl rubber , used in the manufacture of chewing gum . Within the boundaries of its Sarnia plant Lanxess has also created the Bio @-@ industrial Park Sarnia . Chemical Valley and the surrounding area are home to 62 facilities and refineries . These industrial complexes are the heart of Sarnia 's infrastructure and economy . They directly employ nearly 8 @,@ 000 , and contribute to almost 45 @,@ 000 additional jobs in the area . In 1971 , the Canadian government deemed this area so important to the economic development of the country that it printed an image of a Sarnia Oil Refinery on the reverse of the Canadian $ 10 note . The huge industrial area is the cause of significant air and water pollution . The Canada Wide Daily Standard for airborne particulate matter and ozone pollution , regulation PM2.5 , is 30 micrograms per cubic metre . Forty @-@ five percent of this particulate air pollution in Sarnia comes from Chemical Valley , and the rest drifts over the St. Clair River from the neighbouring United States in the form of what is known as " Transboundary Air Pollution . " Sarnia is the location of Enbridge 's Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant . The facility went into full commercial operation in December 2009 , with 20 MW of power . As of September 2010 , the plant was the largest photovoltaic ( PV ) solar power generation facility in the world , putting out 97 MW . The 80 @-@ acre Western University Research Park , Sarnia @-@ Lambton Campus was established in 2003 by the University of Western Ontario as a joint initiative with the County of Lambton and the City of Sarnia . The park is also the location of the Bioindustrial Innovation Centre , Canada 's centre for the commercialization of industrial biotechnology . In 2012 BioAmber began construction of North America 's first biosuccinic acid plant at the Bio @-@ Industrial Park . The company has since announced that it plans to double the original size of this $ 80 million plant . Solutions4C02 is developing a 50 @,@ 000 square foot demonstration facility at the Bluewater Energy Park . This company captures waste gas / water streams to process into value @-@ added co @-@ products . PlantForm Corporation , a Canadian biotech startup company producing ultra @-@ low @-@ cost therapeutic antibody drugs , opened an office at the Western University Research Park in 2011 , and the KmX Corporation began work on a pilot plant at the park in Summer 2012 , for the production of biobutanol . = = = Retail and hospitality = = = Sarnia has two large malls : Lambton Mall with 72 stores , and the Bayside Centre with 9 stores , and several government and medical services . These large malls combine with several smaller shopping centres , discount stores , dollar stores , convenience stores , and a collection of antique and specialty stores to form the crux of Sarnia 's retail business . Travellers can choose from eight branded and many family @-@ owned hotels and motels . = = = Transportation = = = The Blue Water Bridge links Sarnia and its neighbouring village of Point Edward to the city of Port Huron in the United States . It spans the St. Clair River , which connects Lake Huron to Lake St. Clair . The bridge 's original three @-@ lane span , opened in 1938 , was twinned on 22 July 1997 , making the bridge the fourth busiest border crossing in Ontario . The Blue Water Bridge border crossing makes use of both the NEXUS ( frequent traveler program ) and the Free and Secure Trade ( FAST ) program . Linking Highway 402 with the American Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) and I @-@ 69 , the bridge forms part of the NAFTA Superhigh
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281
way , and is one of the most important gateways on the north – south truck routes . Public transportation within the City of Sarnia , including conventional bus transit , transportation of people with disabilities , transportation support for major events , and charter services , is provided by Sarnia Transit . From the city 's local airport , Sarnia Chris Hadfield Airport , Air Georgian operates services to and from Toronto Pearson International Airport on behalf of Air Canada Express . For rail travel , Sarnia is one of the two western termini , along with Windsor , of the Via Rail Quebec City – Windsor Corridor , over which a service departs Sarnia station in the morning and arrives in the evening . = = = Health care = = = Sarnia is served by Bluewater Health , a hospital with 188 acute care beds , 70 complex continuing care beds and 27 rehabilitation beds . The hospital opened in 2010 , following the amalgamation of several smaller facilities . Bluewater Health was recently recognized by Healthcare Insurance Reciprocal of Canada , one of the country 's largest hospital insurers , for its continued improvement in patient safety and care quality . = = Culture = = = = = Music , theatre , and arts = = = Sarnia 's musical and theatrical presence in Southern Ontario is significant . The International Symphony Orchestra plays at the Imperial Theatre for an annual season lasting from September to April . In addition to symphonic concerts , the Imperial Theatre offers year @-@ round dramatic productions ; Michael Learned played the lead in Driving Miss Daisy at the theatre in 2010 . Former Max Webster frontman Kim Mitchell has returned to his hometown on occasion to play a concert , including his visit in 2008 for Sarnia 's popular Ribfest , a competition where local amateur chefs share their recipes for barbecued ribs and compete against each other . Canadian composer and music educator Raymond Murray Schafer was born in Sarnia and developed his radical schizophonia techniques there . Musicians and groups such as Aerosmith , KISS , Keith Urban , John Bon Jovi and Rascal Flatts have played at Sarnia Bayfest in the past . The Sarnia Bayfest , which was preceded by the " Festival by the Bay , " is an annual concert festival that features big @-@ name rock and country bands , typically during the second or third weekend of July . 2013 would have marked the fifteenth anniversary of the annual festival , but financial problems caused the event 's cancellation . Prior to December 2013 , organizers stated that it is " not the end " and that they planned on coming back on solid financial footing sometime in the future . As of December 2013 , however , Bayfest organizers indicated they planned on merging with the International Powerboat Festival for a joint event in 2015 . Besides the single museum in Sarnia proper , six other museums in the local area document Sarnia 's history , including its legacy as the home of the North American Oil Industry . Gallery Lambton offers 12 annual art exhibitions . In 2012 the Judith and Norman Alex Art Gallery opened . It is an international Category A art gallery . During the Christmas season , the city of Sarnia presents the annual " Celebration of Lights " in Centennial Park . The event was created in 1984 by Dr. Wills Rawana and a committee funded by the retail chain Hudson 's Bay , and the national telecommunications company Telus . From modest beginnings the event has garnered numerous awards as it has grown , including second place in the 2002 Canadian Government 's Canada WinterLights competition . The Celebration , was incorporated in its national prizewinning year and is now run by a voluntary Board of Directors . = = Attractions = = There are over 100 parks in Sarnia , the largest being Canatara Park , which covers over 200 acres along the shore of Lake Huron . Canatara is an Ojibwe word that means Blue Water . The park was opened 24 May 1933 . Within the park is Lake Chipican , a haven for 280 different species of birds on their migration routes . The park also maintains a Children 's Animal Farm as part of Sarnia 's commitment to wildlife . The annual " Christmas on the Farm " weekend event held at the Farm in early December is a popular community event enjoyed by families . Canatara Park is one of the first parks in southern Ontario to feature an outdoor fitness equipment installation . The largest recreational park in Sarnia is Germain Park , which incorporates five baseball diamonds , four soccer fields , an outdoor pool , and the Community Gardens . As a memorial to Canadian aviators who gave their lives in World War II , one of the remaining Canadair Sabres in Canada is on display in the park , Centennial Park was opened on Dominion Day in 1967 , as part of Canada 's centenary celebrations . The City of Sarnia decided in 2013 to close much of Centennial Park , after the discovery of toxic lead and asbestos in the soil
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282
. Sarnia has one remaining museum within its city limits : " Stones ' N Bones " , which houses over 6 @,@ 000 exhibits . The collection includes rocks , artifacts , fossils , and bones from all over the world . A previous museum , the Discovery House Museum , has been converted into to a hospice . This historic house , built between 1869 and 1875 , is recognised as a testament to Victorian Era construction . The city 's sandy fresh water beaches are a popular tourist attraction , while the sheltered harbour houses marinas for recreational sailing . Since 1925 , the 400 km ( 250 mi ) Mackinac race from Sarnia / Port Huron to Mackinac Island at the north end of the lake has been the highlight of the sailing season , drawing more than 3 @,@ 000 sailors each year . Sarnia 's fresh @-@ cut fries are another popular tourist attraction , and thousands of visitors annually visit the chip trucks parked under the Blue Water Bridge . Niagara @-@ based cookbook author and food e @-@ magazine publisher Lynn Ogryzlo visited the chip trucks in August 2012 and stated " I was blown away by Sarnia , " not only by the city 's waterfront , where the chip trucks are located , but also by the chip trucks themselves . She also published an article in her e @-@ magazine , The Ontario Table , recognizing the outstanding quality of the fresh @-@ cut fries . Guelph @-@ based travel writer Pat Brennan also recognized the quality of Sarnia 's fries in his 2007 piece " Sarnia Boasts Best Fries in the World . " In 2012 , Sarnia officials even created a special detour to reach the chip trucks during a period of construction . Realizing the popularity of Sarnia 's chip trucks , the Ontario Medical Association includes them in a campaign to have fries and other junk food labelled for being dangerous in the same manner as cigarettes . = = Sports = = Sarnia is home to the Sarnia Sting , a junior ice hockey team in the Ontario Hockey League . Dino Ciccarelli , a former NHL player , was a part owner of the team . Former Sting player Steven Stamkos was selected first overall in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft by the Tampa Bay Lightning , and was followed by Nail Yakupov in 2012 . Sarnia is also home to the Sarnia Legionnaires ice hockey team , which plays in the Greater Ontario Junior Hockey League . The team is successor to the Sarnia Legionnaires ( 1954 – 1970 ) , who won five Western Jr . ' B ' championships and four Sutherland Cups during 16 seasons in the Ontario Hockey Association . Sarnia has a successful tradition in Canadian football . As members of the Ontario Rugby Football Union , the local team Sarnia Imperials twice won the Grey Cup , in 1934 and 1936 . The modern Sarnia Imperials are a semi @-@ professional team playing in the Northern Football Conference . The Sarnia @-@ born world champion curler Steve Bice played as alternate for the Glenn Howard rink in the 2007 Tim Hortons Brier and 2007 Ford World Men 's Curling Championship , winning both times . = = Government = = Sarnia City Council consists of nine elected members : the Mayor , four members from the city , and four members from the county . The Mayor and all Council members are elected to four @-@ year terms . The four Lambton County Council members serve both County and City Council . The current mayor , Mike Bradley , has held the position since December 1988 and is currently the second longest @-@ serving mayor in the province of Ontario behind Milton 's Gord Krantz . Past mayors of the city have included Andy Brandt , Marceil Saddy , Paul Blundy , Thomas George Johnston , and Alexander Mackenzie , the second Prime Minister of Canada . At the provincial level , Sarnia is located within the Sarnia — Lambton provincial electoral district , represented in 2013 by Bob Bailey , a member of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario . At the federal level , Sarnia is located within the Sarnia — Lambton federal electoral district which in 2013 was represented by Patricia Davidson of the Conservative Party of Canada . Over the past 50 years , Sarnia 's voters have been moderate , and the party affiliation of its Members of Parliament , both provincial and federal , has swung back and forth largely between the Liberal and Progressive Conservative parties ( a New Democrat was elected in their 1990 provincial wave ) . = = Education = = The Lambton Kent District School Board is responsible for the 13 elementary and four secondary public schools ( Northern Collegiate Institute and Vocational School , Alexander MacKenzie Secondary School , Sarnia Collegiate Institute & Technical School , and St. Clair Secondary School ) located within Sarnia 's boundaries . The St. Clair Catholic
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District School Board is responsible for the city 's seven elementary and two secondary Catholic schools ( St. Christopher 's and St. Patrick 's ) . In 2014 , St. Patrick 's and St. Christopher 's merged , under the St. Patrick 's name , on St. Christopher 's North Sarnia site . The Conseil scolaire catholique de Providence ( CSC Providence ) represents the two French Catholic schools in the city , Saint @-@ François @-@ Xavier and Saint @-@ Thomas @-@ d 'Aquin , while the Conseil scolaire Viamonde operates two French public schools , the elementary École Les Rapides and the secondary École Secondaire Franco @-@ Jeunesse . There are also two independent Christian elementary schools in Sarnia — Sarnia Christian School and Temple Christian Academy . Lambton College , which offers two @-@ year programs and diplomas , is one of Ontario 's 21 colleges of applied arts and technology . It has a full @-@ time enrolment of 3 @,@ 500 and a part @-@ time enrolment of about 8 @,@ 000 . It is the city 's only post @-@ secondary school . = = Media = = There are four radio stations that originate from Sarnia , although other stations rebroadcast their signal there , notably CKTI @-@ FM , a First Nations produced station from Kettle Point , and CBEG @-@ FM and CBEF @-@ 3 @-@ FM , simulcasts of CBC Radio One and Ici Radio @-@ Canada Première , respectively , from Windsor , Ontario . CHOK , country / news / sports CFGX @-@ FM The Fox , adult contemporary CHOK @-@ 1 @-@ FM ( rebroadcaster of CHOK AM ) CHKS @-@ FM , active rock Sarnia does not have a network television station of its own , although it has a community channel on Cogeco , which is the cable television provider in Sarnia . Cable systems pipe in stations from Kitchener and Toronto . The city 's main daily newspaper is the Sarnia Observer , owned by Postmedia , which purchased Sun Media in 2014 for $ 316 million . A weekly newspaper called the Sarnia Journal began distribution in March 2014 . It is distributed to 30 @,@ 000 households in Sarnia , Bright ’ s Grove , Point Edward and Corunna . The community publications Sarnia This Week , Lambton County Smart Shopper and Business Trends are owned by Bowes Publishing . The monthly business oriented newspaper First Monday is owned by Huron Web Printing and Graphics . Lambton Shield Publishing has been in operation since November 2010 and runs an on @-@ line only news website , lambtonshield.com , delivering local news and services to the Sarnia @-@ Lambton area . There are two magazines currently published in Sarnia , Business Trends and Report on Industry . Business Trends is distributed through City Hall and Report on Industry is sent to executives in surrounding businesses . Report on Industry articles are available online . = = Notable people = = Among Sarnia 's distinguished residents are retired Canadian Space Agency astronaut Chris Hadfield , who flew on two NASA Space Shuttle missions and served as the first Canadian commander of the International Space Station during Expedition 35 . The Nobel laureate George Andrew Olah moved to Sarnia from his native Hungary to join Dow Chemical in 1957 . James Doohan , the well @-@ known Star Trek actor , attended high school in Sarnia . Harmonica virtuoso Mike Stevens still lives in Sarnia and tours all over the world ; he is also notable for his extensive work with aboriginal youth . Many notable Sarnians are athletes and others associated with sports , such as NHL Hall of Famer Dino Ciccarelli , former NHL star Pat Verbeek , retired NHL referee Kerry Fraser , current NHL star Steven Stamkos , champion curler Steve Bice , and golfer Mike Weir , who was the 2003 Masters Champion . Dominique Pegg , a Sarnia gymnast , won a bronze medal in Floor Exercise , at the World Cup event in Cottbus in March 2012 . The Honourable Alexander Mackenzie , second Prime Minister of Canada , was buried at Lakeview Cemetery , Sarnia , where a monument has been erected . The 1910s – 1930s actress Marie Prevost was also born there . Katherine Ryan , comedian , writer , presenter and actress , was born in Sarnia in 1983 she now resides in London , England . = French cruiser Sully = The French cruiser Sully was an armored cruiser of the Gloire class that was built for the French Navy in the early 1900s . She was named in honor of Maximilien de Béthune ,
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Duke of Sully , trusted minister of King Henry IV . The ship struck a rock in Hạ Long Bay , French Indochina in 1905 , only eight months after she was completed , and was a total loss . = = Design and description = = The Gloire @-@ class ships were designed as enlarged and improved versions of the Gueydon @-@ class armored cruisers by Emile Bertin . Her crew numbered 612 officers and men . The ship measured 139 @.@ 8 meters ( 458 ft 8 in ) overall , with a beam of 20 @.@ 2 meters ( 66 ft 3 in ) . Sully had a draft of 7 @.@ 7 meters ( 25 ft 3 in ) and displaced 10 @,@ 014 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 856 long tons ) . Sully had three propeller shafts , each powered by one vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engine , which were rated at a total of 20 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 15 @,@ 300 kW ) . Twenty @-@ four Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for her engines . She had a designed speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . She carried up to 1 @,@ 590 long tons ( 1 @,@ 620 t ) of coal and could steam for 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Sully 's main armament consisted of two 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns were mounted in single gun turrets fore and aft . Her intermediate armament was eight 45 @-@ caliber Canon de 164 mm Modèle 1893 guns . Four of these were in single gun turrets on the sides of the ship and the other four were in casemates . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defence she carried six 45 @-@ caliber 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) guns in casemates and eighteen 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . She was also armed with five 450 @-@ millimeter ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes ; two of these were submerged and the others were above water . The waterline armored belt of the Gloire @-@ class ships was 170 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) thick amidships and tapered to 106 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 2 in ) towards the bow and stern . Above the main belt was another belt , 127 millimeters ( 5 in ) thick that also tapered to 106 mm at the ends of the ship . The conning tower had armored sides 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The main gun turrets were protected by 173 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 8 in ) of armor and the intermediate turrets by 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . The flat part of the lower armored deck was 45 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) , but increased to 64 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) as it sloped down to the sides of the ship . = = Service = = Sully was laid down at the Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée shipyard in La Seyne on 24 May 1899 and launched on 4 June 1901 . The ship was completed in June 1904 and sent to French Indochina for her first commission . On 7 February 1905 Sully struck a rock in Hạ Long Bay ; her crew was not injured . Her guns and equipment were salvaged , but the ship broke in two and was abandoned as a total loss . = Norman Finkelstein = Norman Gary Finkelstein ( born December 8 , 1953 ) is an American political scientist , activist , professor , and author . His primary fields of research are the Israeli – Palestinian conflict and the politics of the Holocaust , an interest motivated by the experiences of his parents who were Jewish Holocaust survivors . He is a graduate of Binghamton University and received his Ph.D in political science at Princeton University . He has held faculty positions at Brooklyn College , Rutgers University , Hunter College , New York University , and DePaul University where he was an assistant professor from 2001 to 2007 . In 2007 , after a highly publicized feud between Finkelstein and an academic opponent , Alan Dershowitz , Finkelstein 's tenure bid at DePaul was denied . Finkelstein was placed on administrative leave for the 2007 – 2008 academic year , and on September 5 , 2007 , he announced his resignation after coming to a settlement with the university on generally undisclosed terms . An official statement from DePaul strongly defended the decision to deny Finkelstein tenure
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285
, stated that outside influence played no role in the decision . In 2008 , he was banned from entering Israel for 10 years . Finkelstein taught at Sakarya University Middle East Institute in Turkey between 2014 and 2015 . = = Personal background and education = = Finkelstein has written of his Jewish parents ' experiences during World War II . His mother , Maryla Husyt , grew up in Warsaw , survived the Warsaw Ghetto , the Majdanek concentration camp , and two slave labor camps . Her first husband died in the war . She considered the day of her liberation as the most horrible day of her life , as she realized that she was alone , her parents and siblings gone . Norman 's father , Zacharias Finkelstein , active in Hashomer Hatzair , was a survivor of both the Warsaw Ghetto and the Auschwitz concentration camp . After the war they met in a displaced persons camp in Linz , Austria , and then emigrated to the United States , where his father became a factory worker and his mother a homemaker and later a bookkeeper . Finkelstein 's mother was an ardent pacifist . Both his parents died in 1995 . Of his parents , Finkelstein has recalled that " they saw the world through the prism of the Nazi Holocaust . They were eternally indebted to the Soviet Union ( to whom they attributed the defeat of the Nazis ) , and so anyone who was anti @-@ Soviet they were extremely harsh on " . They supported the Soviet Union 's approval of the creation of the State of Israel , as enunciated by Gromyko , who stated that the Jews had earned the right to a state , but thought that Israel had sold its soul to the West and " refused to have any truck with it " . Finkelstein grew up in Borough Park , then Mill Basin , both in Brooklyn , New York , where he attended James Madison High School . In his memoir , Finkelstein recalls his strong youthful identification with the outrage that his mother , witness to the genocidal atrocities of World War II , felt at the carnage wrought by the United States in Vietnam . One childhood friend recalls his mother 's " emotional investment in left @-@ wing humanitarian causes as bordering on hysteria " . He had " internalized [ her ] indignation " , a trait which he admits rendered him " insufferable " when talking of the Vietnam War , and which imbued him with a " holier @-@ than @-@ thou " attitude at the time which he now regrets . But Finkelstein regards his absorption of his mother 's outlook — the refusal to put aside a sense of moral outrage in order to get on with one 's life — as a virtue . Subsequently , his reading of Noam Chomsky played an important role in tailoring the passion bequeathed to him by his mother to the necessity of maintaining intellectual rigor . Finkelstein completed his undergraduate studies at Binghamton University in New York in 1974 , after which he studied at the École Pratique des Hautes Études in Paris . A deep admirer of Paul Sweezy , he was an ardent Maoist and was devastated by the news of the trial of the Gang of Four , an event which " totally devastated " him , and led him to abandon Marxism – Leninism . Finkelstein received his Master 's degree in political science in 1980 , and later his PhD in political studies , from Princeton . His doctoral thesis was on Zionism . Before gaining academic employment , Finkelstein was a part @-@ time social worker with teenage dropouts in New York . He then taught successively at Rutgers University , New York University , Brooklyn College , and Hunter College and at DePaul University in Chicago . During the First Intifada , he spent every summer from 1988 in the West Bank , a guest of Palestinian families in Hebron and Beit Sahour . According to The New York Times , Finkelstein left Hunter College in 2001 , " after his teaching load and salary were reduced " by the college administration . In his own recollection , he enjoyed teaching at Hunter ( 1992 – 2000 ) and was ' unceremoniously kicked out of ' the school after begging them to keep him on with just two courses a semester ( $ 12 @,@ 000 a year ) . Hunter set conditions that would have required him to spend four days a week , which he thought unacceptable . Beginning with his doctoral thesis at Princeton , Finkelstein 's career has been marked by controversy . A self @-@ described " forensic scholar " , he has written sharply critical academic reviews of several prominent writers and scholars whom he accuses of misrepresenting the documentary record in order to defend Israel 's policies and practices . His writings have dealt with politically charged topics such as Zionism , the demographic history of Palestine and his allegations of the existence of a " Holocaust Industry " that exploits the memory of the Holocaust to further Israeli and financial interests . C
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286
iting linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky as an example , Finkelstein notes that it is " possible to unite exacting scholarly rigor with scathing moral outrage , " and supporters and detractors alike have remarked on the polemical style of Finkelstein 's work . Its content has been praised by eminent historians such as Raul Hilberg and Avi Shlaim , as well as Chomsky . Finkelstein has described himself as " an old @-@ fashioned communist , " in the sense that he " see [ s ] no value whatsoever in states . " = = Academic career = = = = = On From Time Immemorial = = = In Finkelstein 's doctoral thesis , he examined the claims made in Joan Peters 's From Time Immemorial , a best @-@ selling book at the time . Peters 's " history and defense " of Israel deals with the demographic history of Palestine . Demographic studies had tended to assert that the Arab population of Ottoman @-@ controlled Palestine , a 94 % majority at the turn of the century , had dwindled towards parity due to massive Zionist immigration . Peters radically challenged this picture by arguing that a substantial part of the Palestinian people were descended from immigrants from other Arab countries from the early 19th century onwards . It followed , for Peters and many of her readers , that the picture of a native Palestinian population overwhelmed by Jewish immigration was little more than propaganda , and that in actuality two almost simultaneous waves of immigration met in what had been a relatively unpopulated land . From Time Immemorial had been praised by figures as varied as Barbara Tuchman , Theodore H. White , Elie Wiesel , and Lucy Dawidowicz . Saul Bellow , for one , wrote in a jacket endorsement that : " Millions of people the world over , smothered by false history and propaganda , will be grateful for this clear account of the origins of the Palestinians . " Finkelstein asserted that the book was a " monumental hoax " . He later opined that , while Peters 's book received widespread interest and approval in the United States , a scholarly demonstration of its fraudulence and unreliability aroused little attention : " By the end of 1984 , From Time Immemorial had ... received some two hundred [ favorable ] notices ... in the United States . The only ' false ' notes in this crescendoing chorus of praise were the Journal of Palestine Studies , which ran a highly critical review by Bill Farrell ; the small Chicago @-@ based newsweekly In These Times , which published a condensed version of this writer 's findings ; and Alexander Cockburn , who devoted a series of columns in The Nation exposing the hoax . ... The periodicals in which From Time Immemorial had already been favorably reviewed refused to run any critical correspondence ( e.g. The New Republic , The Atlantic Monthly , Commentary ) . Periodicals that had yet to review the book rejected a manuscript on the subject as of little or no consequence ( e.g. The Village Voice , Dissent , The New York Review of Books ) . Not a single national newspaper or columnist contacted found newsworthy that a best @-@ selling , effusively praised ' study ' of the Middle East conflict was a threadbare hoax . " Noam Chomsky later reminisced : " I warned him , if you follow this , you 're going to get in trouble — because you 're going to expose the American intellectual community as a gang of frauds , and they are not going to like it , and they 're going to destroy you . " In 1986 , the New York Review of Books published Yehoshua Porath 's review and an exchange with critics of the review in which he criticized the assumptions and evidence on which Peters 's thesis relied , thus lending independent support from an expert in Palestinian demographics to Finkelstein 's doctoral critique . In the house journal of the American Council on Foreign Relations , Foreign Affairs , William B. Quandt , the Edward Stettinius professor of Politics at the University of Virginia and authority on Middle Eastern politics , later described Finkelstein 's critique of From Time Immemorial as a " landmark essay " and a " victory to his credit " , in its " demonstration " of the " shoddy scholarship " of Peters ' book . Israeli historian Avi Shlaim later praised Finkelstein 's thesis , saying that it had established his credentials when he was still a doctoral student . In Shlaim 's view , Finkelstein had produced an " unanswerable case " with " irrefutable evidence " , proving that Peters ' book was both " preposterous and worthless " . According to Noam Chomsky , the controversy that surrounded Finkelstein 's research caused a delay in his earning his Ph.D. at Princeton University . Chomsky wrote in Understanding Power that Finkelstein " literally could not get the faculty to read [ his dissertation ]
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" and that Princeton eventually granted Finkelstein his doctorate only " out of embarrassment [ for Princeton ] " but refused to give him any further professional backing . Finkelstein published portions of his thesis in the following publications : " Disinformation and the Palestine Question : The Not @-@ So @-@ Strange Case of Joan Peters 's From Time Immemorial " , Chapter 2 of Blaming the Victims : Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question ( 1988 ) ; and " A Land Without a People ( Joan Peters ' " Wilderness " Image ) " , Chapter 2 of Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict ( 1995 ) . = = = The Holocaust Industry = = = The Holocaust Industry : Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering was published in 2000 . Here , Finkelstein argues that Elie Wiesel and others exploit the memory of the Holocaust as an " ideological weapon . " The purpose , writes Finkelstein , is to enable the State of Israel , " one of the world 's most formidable military powers , with a horrendous human rights record , [ to ] cast itself as a victim state ; " that is , to provide Israel " immunity to criticism . " He alleges what he calls a " double shakedown " by " a repellent gang of plutocrats , hoodlums and hucksters " seeking enormous legal damages and financial settlements from Germany and Switzerland , moneys which then go to the lawyers and institutional actors involved in procuring them , rather than actual Holocaust survivors . The book received a hostile reception in some quarters , with critics charging that it was poorly researched and / or allowed others to exploit it for antisemitic purposes . The German historian Hans Mommsen disparaged the first edition as " a most trivial book , which appeals to easily aroused anti @-@ Semitic prejudices " . Israeli Holocaust historian Israel Gutman called the book " a lampoon " , stating " this is not research ; it isn 't even political literature ... I don 't even think it should be reviewed or critiqued as a legitimate book . " The book was also harshly criticized by Brown University Professor Omer Bartov and University of Chicago Professor Peter Novick . However , preeminent Holocaust scholar Raul Hilberg said the book expressed views Hilberg himself subscribed to in substance , in that he too found the exploitation of the Holocaust , as Finkelstein describes , " detestable " . Asked on another occasion if Finkelstein 's analysis might play into the hands of neo @-@ Nazis for antisemitic purposes , Hilberg replied : " Well , even if they do use it in that fashion , I 'm afraid that when it comes to the truth , it has to be said openly , without regard to any consequences that would be undesirable , embarrassing " . Other critics claim Finkelstein 's evidence is highly selective and / or dubious and that his arguments would be based on a misinterpretation of history and a questionable use of sources . The historian David Cesarani wrote that while Finkelstein absolves Swiss banks of serious misconduct towards Holocaust survivors and depicts them as victims of a Jewish terror based on a sentence from an important report annex , he had ignored the report body which describes deceitful actions by Swiss banks , inappropriate closing of accounts , failure to keep adequate records , and so on . = = = Criticism of Alan Dershowitz 's The Case for Israel = = = Shortly after the publication of the book The Case for Israel by Alan Dershowitz , Finkelstein derided it as " a collection of fraud , falsification , plagiarism , and nonsense " . During a debate on Democracy Now ! , Finkelstein asserted that Dershowitz lacked knowledge about specific contents of his own book . He also claimed that Dershowitz did not write the book , and may not have even read it . Finkelstein noted 20 instances , in as many pages , where Dershowitz 's book cites the same sources and passages used by Joan Peters in her book , in largely the same sequence , with ellipses in the same places . In two instances , Dershowitz reproduces Peters 's errors ( see below ) . From this Finkelstein concluded that Dershowitz had not checked the original sources himself , contrary to the latter 's claims . Finkelstein suggests that this copying of quotations amounts to copying ideas . Examining a copy of a proof of Dershowitz 's book he managed to obtain , he found evidence that Dershowitz had his secretarial assistant , Holly Beth Billington , check in the Harvard library the sources he had read in Peters 's book . Dershowitz answered the charge in a letter to the University of California 's Press Director Lynne Withey , arguing that Finkelstein had made up the smoking gun quotation , in that he had changed its wording ( from ' cite
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288
' to ' copy ' ) in his book . In public debate he has stated that if " somebody borrowed the quote without going to check back on whether Mark Twain had said that , obviously that would be a serious charge " ; however , he insisted emphatically that he himself did not do that , that he had indeed checked the original source by Twain . Dershowitz threatened libel action over the charges in Finkelstein 's book , as a consequence of which , the publisher deleted the word " plagiarism " from the text before publication . Finkelstein agreed to remove the suggestion that Dershowitz was not the true author of The Case for Israel because , as the publisher said , " he couldn 't document that " . Asserting that he did consult the original sources , Dershowitz said Finkelstein is simply accusing him of good scholarly practice : citing references he learned of initially from Peters 's book . Dershowitz denies that he used any of Peters 's ideas without citation . " Plagiarism is taking someone else 's words and claiming they 're your own . There are no borrowed words from anybody . There are no borrowed ideas from anybody because I fundamentally disagree with the conclusions of Peters 's book . " In a footnote in The Case for Israel which cites Peters 's book , Dershowitz explicitly denies that he " relies " on Peters for " conclusions or data " . In their joint interview on Democracy Now , however , Finkelstein cited specific passages in Dershowitz 's book in which a phrase that he says Peters coined was incorrectly attributed to George Orwell : " [ Peters ] coins the phrase , ' turnspeak ' , she says she 's using it as a play off of George Orwell which as all listeners know used the phrase ' Newspeak . ' She coined her own phrase , ' turnspeak ' . You go to Mr. Dershowitz 's book , he got so confused in his massive borrowings from Joan Peters that on two occasions , I 'll cite them for those who have a copy of the book , on page 57 and on page 153 he uses the phrase , quote , George Orwell 's ' turnspeak ' . ' Turnspeak ' is not Orwell , Mr. Dershowitz , you 're the Felix Frankfurter chair at Harvard , you must know that Orwell would never use such a clunky phrase as ' turnspeak ' " . James O. Freedman , the former president of Dartmouth College , the University of Iowa , and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , has defended Dershowitz : I do not understand [ Finkelstein 's ] charge of plagiarism against Alan Dershowitz . There is no claim that Dershowitz used the words of others without attribution . When he uses the words of others , he quotes them properly and generally cites them to the original sources ( Mark Twain , Palestine Royal Commission , etc . ) [ Finkelstein 's ] complaint is that instead he should have cited them to the secondary source , in which Dershowitz may have come upon them . But as The Chicago Manual of Style emphasizes : ' Importance of attribution . With all reuse of others ' materials , it is important to identify the original as the source . This not only bolsters the claims of fair use , it also helps avoid any accusation of plagiarism . ' This is precisely what Dershowitz did . Responding to an article in The Nation by Alexander Cockburn , Dershowitz also cited The Chicago Manual of Style : Cockburn 's claim is that some of the quotes should not have been cited to their original sources but rather to a secondary source , where he believes I stumbled upon them . Even if he were correct that I found all these quotations in Peters 's book , the preferred method of citation is to the original source , as The Chicago Manual of Style emphasizes : " With all reuse of others ' materials , it is important to identify the original as the source . This ... helps avoid any accusation of plagiarism ... To cite a source from a secondary source ( ' quoted in ... ' ) is generally to be discouraged .... " ... to which Cockburn responded : Quoting The Chicago Manual of Style , Dershowitz artfully implies that he followed the rules by citing " the original " as opposed to the secondary source , Peters . He misrepresents Chicago here , where " the original " means merely the origin of the borrowed material , which is , in this instance , Peters . Now look at the second bit of the quote from Chicago , chastely separated from the preceding sentence by a demure three @-@ point ellipsis . As my associate Kate Levin has discovered , this passage ( " To cite a source from a secondary source ... " ) occurs on page 727 , which is no less than 590 pages later than the material before the ellipsis , in a section titled "
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289
Citations Taken from Secondary Sources . " Here 's the full quote , with what Dershowitz left out set in bold : " ' Quoted in ' . To cite a source from a secondary source ( " quoted in " ) is generally to be discouraged , since authors are expected to have examined the works they cite . If an original source is unavailable , however , both the original and the secondary source must be listed . " So Chicago is clearly insisting that unless Dershowitz went to the originals , he was obliged to cite Peters . Finkelstein has conclusively demonstrated that he didn 't go to the originals . Plagiarism , QED , plus added time for willful distortion of the language of Chicago 's guidelines , cobbling together two separate discussions . On behalf of Dershowitz , Harvard Law School dean Elena Kagan asked former Harvard president Derek Bok to investigate the assertion of plagiarism ; Bok exonerated Dershowitz of the charge . In an April 3 , 2007 interview with the Harvard Crimson , " Dershowitz confirmed that he had sent a letter last September to DePaul faculty members lobbying against Finkelstein 's tenure . " In April 2007 , Dr. Frank Menetrez , a former Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of the UCLA Law Review , published an analysis of the charges made against Finkelstein by Dershowitz , finding no merit in any single charge and concluding that Dershowitz had misrepresented matters . In a follow @-@ up analysis he concluded that he could find ' no way of avoiding the inference that Dershowitz copied the quotation from Twain from Peters 's From Time Immemorial , and not from the original source ' , as Dershowitz claimed . In an interview given for the film American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein in 2009 , Dershowitz said of Finkelstein : " I don 't think he is a Jew . He 's Jewish only on his parents ' side . " = = Controversies = = = = = Tenure denial and resignation = = = In September 2006 , Dershowitz sent members of DePaul 's law and political science faculties what he described as " a dossier of Norman Finkelstein 's most egregious academic sins , and especially his outright lies , misquotations , and distortions " and lobbied professors , alumni and administrators to deny Finkelstein tenure . De Paul 's political science committee investigated his accusations against Finkelstein and concluded that they were not based on legitimate criticism . The department subsequently invited John Mearsheimer and Ian Lustick , two independent academics with known expertise on the Israel – Palestine conflict , to evaluate the academic merit of Finkelstein 's work ; they came to the same conclusion . Also in 2006 , the Washington Post noted " the ADL repeatedly accused " Norman Finkelstein of being a " Holocaust denier " and that " These charges have proved baseless . " Finkelstein 's mother survived the Majdanek concentration camp , his father survived the Auschwitz concentration camp , and most of his family died in the Holocaust In early 2007 , the DePaul Political Science Department voted nine to three , and the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Personnel Committee five to zero , in favor of giving Finkelstein tenure . The three opposing faculty members subsequently filed a minority report opposing tenure , supported by the Dean of the College , Chuck Suchar . Suchar stated he opposed tenure because Finkelstein 's " personal and reputation demeaning attacks on Dershowitz , Benny Morris , and the holocaust authors Elie Wiesel and Jerzy Kosinski " were inconsistent with DePaul 's " Vincentian " values ; as examples of the latter , Suchar argued that Finkelstein lacked respect for " the dignity of the individual " and for " the rights of others to hold and express different intellectual positions " . Amidst considerable public debate , Dershowitz actively campaigned to block Finkelstein 's tenure bid . In June 2007 , a 4 – 3 vote by DePaul University 's Board on Promotion and Tenure ( a faculty board ) , affirmed by the university 's president , the Rev. Dennis Holtschneider , denied Finkelstein tenure . The university denied that Dershowitz , who had been criticized for his campaign against Finkelstein 's tenure , played any part in this decision . At the same time , the university denied tenure to international studies assistant professor Mehrene Larudee , a strong supporter of Finkelstein , despite unanimous support from her department , the Personnel Committee and the dean . Finkelstein stated that he would engage in civil disobedience if attempts were made to bar him from teaching his students . The Faculty Council later affirmed the right of Professors Finkelstein and Larudee to appeal , which a university lawyer said was not possible . Council President Anne Bartlett said she was " '
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terribly concerned ' correct procedure was not followed " . DePaul 's faculty association considered taking no @-@ confidence votes on administrators , including the president , because of the tenure denials . In a statement issued upon Finkelstein 's resignation , DePaul called him " a prolific scholar and an outstanding teacher " . Dershowitz expressed outrage at the compromise and this statement in particular , saying that the university had " traded truth for peace " . In June 2007 , after two weeks of protests , some DePaul students staged a sit @-@ in and hunger strike in support of both professors denied tenure . The Illinois Conference of the American Association of University Professors also sent a letter to the university 's president stating : " It is entirely illegitimate for a university to deny tenure to a professor out of fear that his published research ... might hurt a college 's reputation " and that the association has " explicitly rejected collegiality as an appropriate criterion for evaluating faculty members " . In a 2014 interview , professor Matthew Abraham , author of Out of Bounds : Academic Freedom and the Question of Palestine , described the Finkelstein tenure case as " one of the most significant academic freedom cases in the last fifty years " , claiming the case demonstrated " the substantial pressure outside parties can place on a mid @-@ tier religious institution when the perspectives advanced by a controversial scholar threaten dominant interests " . = = = Denied entry to Israel in 2008 = = = On May 23 , 2008 , Finkelstein was denied entry to Israel , according to unnamed Shin Bet security officials , because " of suspicions involving hostile elements in Lebanon " and that he " did not give a full accounting to interrogators with regard to these suspicions . " Finkelstein had previously visited south Lebanon and met with Lebanese families during the 2006 Lebanon War . He was banned from entering Israel for 10 years . Finkelstein was questioned after his arrival at Ben Gurion Airport near Tel Aviv and detained for 24 hours in a holding cell . After speaking to Israeli attorney Michael Sfard he was placed on a flight back to Amsterdam , his point of origin . In an interview with Haaretz , Finkelstein stated " I did my best to provide absolutely candid and comprehensive answers to all the questions put to me . I am confident that I have nothing to hide ... no suicide missions or secret rendezvous with terrorist organizations . " He had been travelling to visit friends in the West Bank and stated he had no interest in visiting Israel . Sfard said banning Finkelstein from entering the country " recalls the behavior of the Soviet bloc countries " . = = Reception = = Finkelstein 's books are an attempt to examine the works of mainstream scholarship . The authors whose work he has thus targeted , including Daniel Jonah Goldhagen and Dershowitz , along with others such as Benny Morris whose work Finkelstein has also cited in his scholarship , have in turn accused Finkelstein of grossly misrepresenting their work , and selectively quoting from their books . According to Raul Hilberg , Finkelstein displays " academic courage to speak the truth when no one else is out there to support him ... I would say that his place in the whole history of writing history is assured , and that those who in the end are proven right triumph , and he will be among those who will have triumphed , albeit , it so seems , at great cost . " In a peer review for Beyond Chutzpah , Avi Shlaim said that Finkelstein " has a most impressive track record in exposing spurious American @-@ Jewish scholarship on the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict . " He praised Finkelstein for " all the sterling qualities for which he has become famous : erudition , originality , spark , meticulous attention to detail , intellectual integrity , courage , and formidable forensic skills . " Sara Roy stated that her shared experience with Finkelstein as a child of Holocaust survivors engaged in research on the Palestinian @-@ Israeli conflict gave her a unique position to comment . According to Roy , Finkelstein 's scholarship is , " exceptional both for its brilliance and rigor . In the fields of Middle Eastern studies and political science his work is considered seminal and there is no doubt that both disciplines would be intellectually weaker without it . Norman 's power and value , however , do not emanate only from his scholarship but from his character . His life ’ s work , shaped largely but not entirely by his experience as a child of survivors has been and continues to be informed by a profound concern with human dignity and the danger of dehumanization . " The Israeli newspaper , Haaretz , stated that " [ i ] t is difficult to sympathize with Finkelstein 's opinions and preferences , especially since he decided to support Hezbollah , meet with its fighters and visit the graves of some of its slain operatives . " Still , it continued to say that he should not be banned from entering Israel , because " meetings with Hezbollah operatives do not in themselves
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constitute a security risk " . = = = 2009 film about Finkelstein = = = American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein is an award @-@ winning documentary film about the life and career of Norman Finkelstein , released in 2009 and directed by David Ridgen and Nicolas Rossier . It has been screened in Amsterdam IDFA , in Toronto Hot Docs and in more than 40 other national and international venues , it received a freshness rating of 100 % on film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes . The same year Finkelstein appeared in Defamation ( Hebrew : השמצה ; translit . Hashmatsa ) a documentary film by award @-@ winning Israeli filmmaker Yoav Shamir . = = = Criticism = = = Criticism has been leveled against Finkelstein from several angles . The first sources are responses from those whose work Finkelstein has discussed . Daniel Goldhagen , whose book Hitler 's Willing Executioners Finkelstein criticized , claimed his scholarship has " everything to do with his burning political agenda " . Alan Dershowitz has written that Peter Novick , Professor of History at the University of Chicago and a noted Holocaust historian whose work Finkelstein says inspired The Holocaust Industry , has strongly criticized the latter 's work , describing it as " trash " . Similarly , Dershowitz , whose book The Case for Israel and Finkelstein 's response Beyond Chutzpah sparked an ongoing feud between the two , has claimed Finkelstein 's complicity in a conspiracy against pro @-@ Israel scholars : " The mode of attack is consistent . Chomsky selects the target and directs Finkelstein to probe the writings in minute detail and conclude that the writer didn 't actually write the work , that it is plagiarized , that it is a hoax and a fraud , " arguing that Finkelstein has leveled charges against many academics , calling at least 10 " distinguished Jews ' hucksters ' , ' hoaxters ' ( sic ) , ' thieves ' , ' extortionists ' , and worse . " Although the back and forth between Finkelstein and Dershowitz received the most attention and attracted significant controversy , Finkelstein has maintained that " the real issue is Israel 's human rights record . " Israeli historian Omer Bartov , writing for The New York Times Book Review , judged The Holocaust Industry to be marred by the same errors he denounces in those who exploit the Holocaust for profit or politics : It is filled with precisely the kind of shrill hyperbole that Finkelstein rightly deplores in much of the current media hype over the Holocaust ; it is brimming with the same indifference to historical facts , inner contradictions , strident politics and dubious contextualizations ; and it oozes with the same smug sense of moral and intellectual superiority ... Like any conspiracy theory , it contains several grains of truth ; and like any such theory , it is both irrational and insidious . Finkelstein has accused journalist Jeffrey Goldberg of " torturing " or " being an accessory to torture of " Palestinian prisoners during his IDF service in the First Intifada , based on statements made in Goldberg 's book Prisoners . Finkelstein says that Goldberg admits to personally sending prisoners to the zinzana , which he says has been repeatedly condemned as torture in human rights reports . Goldberg referred to the allegation as " ridiculous " and he had " never laid a hand on anybody . " Goldberg said his " principal role " was " making sure prisoners had fresh fruit . " He characterized Finkelstein as a " ridiculous figure " and accused him of " lying and purposely misreading my book . " = = Statements on Israel = = Finkelstein is a sharp critic of the state of Israel . Discussing Finkelstein 's book Beyond Chutzpah , Israeli historian Avi Shlaim stated that Finkelstein 's critique of Israel " is based on an amazing amount of research . He seems to have read everything . He has gone through the reports of Israeli groups , of human rights groups , Human Rights Watch and Peace Now and B 'Tselem , all of the reports of Amnesty International . And he deploys all this evidence from Israeli and other sources in order to sustain his critique of Israeli practices , Israeli violations of human rights of the Palestinians , Israeli house demolitions , the targeted assassinations of Palestinian militants , the cutting down of trees , the building of the wall — the security barrier on the West Bank , which is illegal — the restrictions imposed on the Palestinians in the West Bank , and so on and so forth . I find his critique extremely detailed , well @-@ documented and accurate . " In a telephone interview with Today 's Zaman , in 2009 , Finkelstein stated : I think Israel , as a number of commentators pointed out , is becoming an insane state . And we have to be honest about that . While the rest of the world wants
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peace , Europe wants peace , the US wants peace , but this state wants war , war and war . In the first week of the massacres , there were reports in the Israeli press that Israel did not want to put all its ground forces in Gaza because it was preparing attacks on Iran . Then there were reports it was planning attacks on Lebanon . It is a lunatic state . When asked how he , as the son of Holocaust survivors , felt about Israel ’ s operation in Gaza , Finkelstein replied : It has been a long time since I felt any emotional connection with the state of Israel , which relentlessly and brutally and inhumanly keeps these vicious , murderous wars . It is a vandal state . There is a Russian writer who once described vandal states as Genghis Khan with a telegraph . Israel is Genghis Khan with a computer . I feel no emotion of affinity with that state . I have some good friends and their families there , and of course I would not want any of them to be hurt . That said , sometimes I feel that Israel has come out of the boils ( sic ) of the hell , a satanic state . The Anti @-@ Defamation League has described Finkelstein as an " obsessive anti @-@ Zionist " filled with " vitriolic hatred of Zionism and Israel . " On being called an anti @-@ Zionist Finkelstein has said : " It 's a superficial term . I am opposed to any state with an ethnic character , not only to Israel . " Finkelstein is an advocate of a two @-@ state solution to the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict . = = = Hezbollah and Hamas = = = Finkelstein has expressed solidarity with Hezbollah and Hamas with respect to defensive actions , alleging that Israel had invaded Lebanon as a signal of rejection when Hamas was seeking a diplomatic settlement with Israel . He also condemned what he said was Israel 's refusal " to abide by international law [ and ] to abide by the opinion of the international community " to settle the conflict . " I was of course happy to meet the Hizbullah people , because it is a point of view that is rarely heard in the United States . I have no problem saying that I do want to express solidarity with them , and I am not going to be a coward of ( sic ) a hypocrite about it . I don 't care about Hizbullah as a political organization . I don 't know much about their politics , and anyhow , it 's irrelevant . I don 't live in Lebanon . It 's a choice that the Lebanese have to make : Who they want to be their leaders , who they want to represent them . But there is a fundamental principle . People have the right to defend their country from foreign occupiers , and people have the right to defend their country from invaders who are destroying their country . That to me is a very basic , elementary and uncomplicated question . " While condemning the targeting of civilians to achieve a political goal , Finkelstein has stated he believes Hezbollah has the right to target Israeli civilians as long as " Israel persists in targeting [ Lebanese ] civilians until Israel ceases its terrorist acts . " Finkelstein claims that an equivalence exists between Hamas and the state of Israel in regards to the military policy of targeted killings during the Second Intifada . According to Finkelstein " the record shows that Israel has routinely targeted civilians for killing " and " Israel indiscriminately kills civilians " . He concludes that " the argument , among human rights organizations at any rate is that ... in effect , there ’ s no difference between indiscriminately killing civilians and targeting civilians . " Finkelstein argued one of Israel 's primary motivations for launching the 2008 offensive in Gaza was that Hamas was " signaling that it wanted a diplomatic settlement of the conflict along the June 1967 border . " Finkelstein believes Hamas had joined the international community in " seeking a diplomatic settlement " and describes Hamas 's stance towards Israel prior to the war as a " peace offensive . " = = Statements on the BDS movement = = Finkelstein had made many criticisms of the Boycott , Divestment and Sanctions Movement . Finkelstein stated that " I think the solidarity movement has the right tactics . I support the BDS . But I said it will never reach a broad public until and unless they are explicit on their goal . And their goal has to include recognition of Israel , otherwise it 's a nonstarter . " Elsewhere , he has stated that he supports a " lowercase " BDS , making the same point about tactics and goals . In February 2012 , The Jewish Chronicle in England stated that Finkelstein " launched a blistering attack " on the BDS movement , saying it was a " hypocritical , dishonest cult " , " [ l ] ike the Munchkin cult in Oz , " that tries to cleverly pose as human rights activists while in reality their goal is
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to destroy Israel . Finkelstein stated that the BDS movement has had very few successes , and that just like a cult , the leaders pretend that they are hugely successful when in reality the general public rejects their extreme views . In June 2012 , in an appearance on Democracy Now ! , Finkelstein elaborated on his criticisms of the BDS movement : The problem as I see it with the BDS movement is not the tactic . Who could not support Boycott , Divestment and Sanctions ? Of course you should . And most of the human rights organizations , church organizations have moved in that direction . The problem is the goal . . . The official BDS movement , they claim to be agnostic , neutral — whatever term you want to use — on the question of Israel . You can ’ t reach a broad public if you are agnostic on the question of Israel . The broad public wants to know , where do you stand ? And if you claim not to have a stand , you lose them . The BDS movement , it always says , and I ’ m using their language , " We are a rights @-@ based organization . We are based in international law . " I agree with that . That ’ s where you have to go : rights @-@ based international law . But the international law is clear . You read the last sentence of the 2004 International Court of Justice opinion on the wall that Israel has been building in the West Bank , and the last sentence says , " We look forward to two states : a Palestinian state alongside Israel and at peace with its neighbors . " That 's the law . And if you want to go past that law or ignore the Israel part , you ’ ll never reach a broad public . And then it 's a cult . Then it ’ s pointless , in my opinion . We 're wasting time . And it 's only a wasting of time . It becomes — and I know it 's a strong word , and I hope I won 't be faulted for it , but it becomes historically criminal , because there was a time where whatever we said , it made no difference . Nobody was listening . You could shout whatever you want — who cares ? But now , actually , we can reach people . There is a possibility . I ’ m not saying a certainty . I 'm not even saying a probability . But there is a possibility that we can reach a broad public . And so , we have to be very careful about the words we use , and we have to be very careful about the political strategy we map out . Otherwise , we 're going to squander a real opportunity . And I don 't want to squander it . = = = Books = = = 2014 : Method and Madness : The Hidden Story of Israel 's Assaults on Gaza , OR Books , New York ( 2014 ) 2014 : Old Wine , Broken Bottle : Ari Shavit 's Promised Land , OR Books , New York ( 2014 ) 2012 : Knowing Too Much : Why the American Jewish Romance with Israel is Coming to an End , OR Books , New York ( 2012 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 77 @-@ 5 2012 : What Gandhi Says About Nonviolence , Resistance and Courage , OR Books , New York : 2012 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 79 @-@ 9 2011 : " Goldstone Recants . Richard Goldstone renews Israel 's license to kill " , OR Books , New York ( 2011 ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 51 @-@ 5 2010 : This Time We Went Too Far : Truth and Consequences of the Gaza Invasion . OR Books , New York : 2010 . [ 2 ] ; ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 935928 @-@ 43 @-@ 0 2005 : Beyond Chutzpah : On the Misuse of Anti @-@ Semitism and the Abuse of History . University of California Press ; ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 24598 @-@ 9 . 2nd updated Ed . , University of California Press . June 2008 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 24989 @-@ 5 , contains an appendix written by Frank J. Menetrez , Dershowitz vs Finkelstein . Who 's Right and Who 's Wrong ? , pp. 363 – 94 @,@ 2000 : The Holocaust Industry : Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering , Verso ; ISBN 1 @-@ 85984 @-@ 488 @-@ X. 1998 : A Nation on Trial : The Goldhagen Thesis and Historical Truth ( co @-@ written with Ruth Bettina Birn ) , Henry Holt and Co . ; ISBN 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 5872 @
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294
-@ 9 . 1996 : The Rise and Fall of Palestine : A Personal Account of the Intifada Years . Minneapolis : U of Minnesota P , ISBN 0 @-@ 8166 @-@ 2859 @-@ 9 . 1995 : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict , Verso ; ISBN 1 @-@ 85984 @-@ 442 @-@ 1 1987 : From the Jewish Question to the Jewish State : An Essay on the Theory of Zionism ( thesis ) , Princeton University . = = = Articles and chapters = = = " Disinformation and the Palestine Question : The Not @-@ So @-@ Strange Case of Joan Peter 's ' From Time Immemorial . ' " in Blaming the Victims : Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question . Ed . Edward W. Said and Christopher Hitchens . Verso Press , 1988 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 86091 @-@ 887 @-@ 4 . Chapter Two , Part One : " Peace process or peace panic ? - The scourge of Palestinian moderation " , Middle East Report , 19 ( 1989 ) 3 / 158 , pp. 25 – 26 @,@ 28 @-@ 30 @,@ 42 " Zionist orientations " , Scandinavian Journal of Development Alternatives 9 ( March 1990 ) 1 @.@ p . 41 @-@ 69 " Bayt Sahur in year II of the intifada . - A personal account " , Journal of Palestine Studies 19 ( Winter 1990 ) 2 / 74 , pp. 62 – 74 " Israel and Iraq . - A double standard " , Journal of Palestine Studies 20 ( 1991 ) 2 / 78 @.@ pp. 43 – 56 " Reflections on Palestinian attitudes during the Gulf war " , Journal of Palestine Studies , 21 ( 1992 ) 3 / 83 , pp. 54 – 70 " Réflexions sur la responsabilité de l ´ État et du citoyen dans le conflit arabo @-@ israélien " ( Reflections on the responsibility of state and citizen in the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict ) , in L ' homme et la société , L 'Harmattan 1994 , 114 , S. 37 @-@ 50 " Whither the `peace process ' ? " , New Left Review , ( 1996 ) 218 , p . 138 " Securing occupation : The real meaning of the Wye River Memorandum " , New Left Review , ( 1998 ) 232 , pp. 128 – 39 Contributor to The Politics of Anti @-@ Semitism . Ed . Alexander Cockburn and Jeffrey St. Clair . AK Press , 2001 ; ISBN 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 77 @-@ 4 . " Lessons of Holocaust compensation " , in Palestinian Refugees : The Right of Return . Ed . Naseer Aruri . Pluto Press , 2001 , S. 272 @-@ 275 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 7453 @-@ 1776 @-@ 6 . " Abba Eban with Footnotes " , Journal of Palestine Studies , vol 32 . ( 2003 ) , pp. 74 – 89 " Prospects for Ending the Occupation " , Antipode , 35 ( 2003 ) 5 , pp. 839 – 45 Contributor to Radicals , Rabbis and Peacemakers : Conversations with Jewish Critics of Israel , by Seth Farber . Common Courage Press , 2005 . ISBN 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 326 @-@ 3 . " The Camp David II negotiations . - how Dennis Ross proved the Palestinians aborted the peace process " , Journal of Palestine Studies , vol . 36 ( 2007 ) , pp. 39 – 53 " Dennis Ross and the peace process : subordinating Palestinian rights to Israeli ' needs ' " , Institute for Palestine Studies , 2007 ; ISBN 0 @-@ 88728 @-@ 308 @-@ X = = Others on Finkelstein and his works = = = = = Academic reviews of books by Finkelstein = = = Massad , Joseph . " Deconstructing Holocaust Consciousness " , Review Essay , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 32 , No. 1 . ( Autumn , 2002 ) , pp. 78 – 89 . Cole , Tim . " Representing the Holocaust in America : Mixed Motives or Abuse ? " , The Public Historian , Vol . 24 , No. 4 . ( Fall , 2002 ) , pp. 127 – 31 Hooglund , Eric . Reviewed work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict by Norman Finkelstein , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 33 , No. 3 , Special Issue in Honor of Edward W. Said . ( Spring , 2004 ) , pp. 123 – 124 .
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295
Pelham , Nicolas . Reviewed Work : Image and Reality in the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict. by Norman G. Finkelstein , International Affairs , Vol . 72 , No. 3 , Ethnicity and International Relations . ( July 1996 ) , pp. 627 – 28 . Pappe , Ilan . " Valuable New Perspectives , " Reviewed Work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict. by Norman G. Finkelstein , Journal of Palestine Studies , Vol . 26 , No. 4 . ( Summer , 1997 ) , pp. 113 – 15 . Beinin , Joel . " The Palestinian @-@ Israeli Conflict after Oslo " , Reviewed work : Image and Reality of the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict by Norman G. Finkelstein . Middle East Report , No. 201 , Israel and Palestine : Two States , Bantustans or Binationalism ? . ( Oct @-@ Dec 1996 ) , pp. 45 – 47 . = = = Reviews of books by Finkelstein = = = Blokker , Bas ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ) , NRC Handelsblad , February 24 , 2006 . Pappe , Ilan ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ) , BOOKFORUM ( February / March 2006 ) De Zayas , Alfred . Review of Beyond Chutzpah in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung ( February 3 , 2006 ) Merkley , Paul Charles . These Pigs on the Face of the Earth : Israel 's most relentless critic ( review of Beyond Chutzpah , in Christianity Today ( January / February 2006 ) Marqusee , Mike . " Israel , fraud and chutzpah " ( review of Beyond Chutzpah ; January 2006 ) Prashad , Vijay . Z magazine reviews Beyond Chutzpah . Review of Beyond Chutzpah . Z Magazine November 2005 Volume 18 , Number 11 Gordon , Neve . Neve Gordon : Review of Norman Finkelstein 's , Beyond Chutzpah . Review of Beyond Chutzpah : On the Misuse of Anti @-@ Semitism and the Abuse of History , by Norman G. Finkelstein . History News Network , October 12 , 2005 Bogdanor , Paul . The Finkelstein Phenomenon ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , Judaism ( Fall 2002 ) Abse , Tobias . Finkelstein 's Follies : The Dangers of Vulgar Anti @-@ Zionism ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , whatnextjournal.co.uk ; accessed November 1 , 2015 Bartov , Omer . " A Tale of Two Holocausts " ( review of The Holocaust Industry ) , New York Times Book Review , August 6 , 2000 = = = Profiles of Finkelstein = = = Garner , Mandy . " The Good Jewish Boys Go into Battle . " Times Higher Education Supplement 16 December 2005 . Naparstek , Ben . " His Own Worst Enemy . " The Jerusalem Post 12 December 2005 . Rayner , Jay . " Finkelstein 's List . " The Observer 16 July 2000 . Sheleg , Yair . " The Finkelstein Polemic . " Ha 'aretz 30 March 2001 . = = = Critics of Finkelstein and replies = = = Daniel Goldhagen , The New Discourse of Avoidance at the Wayback Machine ( archived December 4 , 2002 ) Norman Finkelstein , Response to Goldhagen William Rubinstein et al . , Uses of Holocaust , letters to the London Review of Books David Friedman , Anti @-@ Defamation League letter at the Wayback Machine , calling Finkelstein a " Holocaust denier " The Washington Post Publishes a Retraction : Marc Fisher , a Washington Post columnist , publishes a retraction of his charge of " Holocaust revisionism " , archive.org ; accessed November 1 , 2015 . = = = Video = = = Norman Finkelstein at the Internet Movie Database Eight Interviews with Finkelstein ( two sets of four ) , December 2014 and January 2015 , and Three More Interviews with Finkelstein , May 2015 , The Real News American Radical : The Trials of Norman Finkelstein - broadcast of the documentary in two parts Resolving the Israel @-@ Palestine Conflict : University of British Columbia , Vancouver , Jan 21 , 2009 . Interview broadcast on Lebanese TV January 20 , 2008 VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein - Israel and Palestine : Roots of Conflict , Prospects for Peace , presentation in Seattle , Washington , May 8 , 2008 . VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein - The Coming Breakup of American Zionism , presentation in Olympia , Washington , May 8 , 2008 .
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296
VIDEO : Norman Finkelstein at Brown University on YouTube , April 15 , 2008 Doha Debate at the Oxford Union Video of debate on whether the " pro @-@ Israeli lobby has successfully stifled Western debate about Israel 's actions " with Andrew Cockburn , Martin Indyk , and David Aaronovitch , May 1 , 2007 Debate with Shlomo Ben @-@ Ami on Democracy Now ! , February 14 , 2006 Finkelstein Responds to Clinton , Netanyahu AIPAC Comments March 23 , 2010 Israel vs Palestine - featuring Norman Finkelstein ( April 2014 ) , Juice Rap News = Mutinus elegans = Mutinus elegans , commonly known as the elegant stinkhorn , the dog stinkhorn , the headless stinkhorn , or the devil 's dipstick , is a species of fungus in the Phallaceae family . A saprobic species , it is typically found growing on the ground singly or in small groups on woody debris or leaf litter , during summer and autumn in Japan , Europe , and eastern North America . The fruit body begins its development in an " egg " form , resembling somewhat a puffball partially submerged in the ground . As the fungus matures , a slender orange to pink colored stalk emerges that tapers evenly to a pointed tip . The stalk is covered with a foul @-@ smelling slimy green spore mass on the upper third of its length . Flies and other insects feed upon the slime which contains the spores , assisting in their dispersal . Due to their repellent odor , mature specimens are not generally considered edible , although there are reports of the immature " eggs " being consumed . In the laboratory , Mutinus elegans has been shown to inhibit the growth of several microorganisms that can be pathogenic to humans . = = Taxonomy = = Mutinus elegans was first described by British missionary John Banister in 1679 who chronicled the natural history of Virginia ; this early report is thought to be the first account of a fungus in North America . It was first characterized scientifically by French scientist Jean Pierre François Camille Montagne in 1856 , who called it Corynites elegans . The genus name Mutinus refers to a phallic deity , Mutinus Mutunus , one of the Roman di indigetes placated by Roman brides . The species is commonly known variously as the " elegant stinkhorn " , the " headless stinkhorn " , the " dog stinkhorn " , or the " devil 's dipstick " . The specific epithet elegans is derived from the Latin word meaning " graceful " or " elegant " . = = Description = = The young fruiting bodies are initially white and spherical or egg @-@ shaped , partially submerged in the ground , with dimensions of 2 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) by 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) . As the fruit body matures , the egg ruptures and the spongy spore @-@ bearing stalk emerges ; fully grown , it may be from 1 to 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 to 0 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The stalk is hollow and strongly wrinkled overall ; its shape is cylindrical below , but it gradually tapers to a narrow apex with a small opening at the tip . The upper half of the stalk is bright red to reddish orange , and the color gradually loses intensity transforming into pinkish white below . The stalk may be straight , or slightly curved . A gelatinous greenish @-@ brown gleba covers the upper third of the stalk in newly emerged specimens . The remains of the " egg " forms a volva around the base of the stalk . The odor of the gleba is foul ; one author describes it as " sickly sweet or metallic " . The spores are a greenish @-@ brown color . Fruit bodies are attached to the substrate by whitish rhizomorphs that resemble plant roots . American mycologist Smith noted that the eggs are often slow to open , sometimes taking up to two weeks before the stalk expands . The spores are 4 – 7 by 2 – 3 µm , oblong @-@ elliptical , smooth , and embedded in the gleba . A 1982 study revealed that spores of species in the Phallaceae family , including Mutinus elegans , have a hilar scar ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 µm diameter ) that is observable with scanning electron microscopy . The hilar scar is a circular indentation at one end of the spore , and it most likely results during the separation of the attachment of the spore to the sterigma of the basidium . = = = Edibility = = =
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297
The immature egg @-@ forms of Mutinus elegans are edible , but " not recommended " . One field guides notes that the eggs of the stinkhorn fungi " taste like the seasonings that are added to them . " The fetid odor of mature specimens would probably be repellent to most , although they are not considered poisonous . = = = Similar species = = = The " dog stinkhorn " ( Mutinus caninus ) is smaller , has a distinct oval or spindle @-@ shaped tip on a slender stem and lacks the bright coloring of M. elegans ; it has less of the stalk covered by gleba . The portion of the stalk below the spore mass is pitted in M. caninus , compared to " pebbly " in M. elegans . M. caninus is also less common than M. elegans . Mutinus bambusinus is similar in size and shape , except it does not have a distinct color demarcation between the upper and lower parts of the stalk ; instead , the entire stem shows red pigments . The stalk of M. ravenelii is less tapered than M. elegans , and it has a clearly differentiated swollen head . = = Habitat and distribution = = Mutinus elegans is saprobic — deriving nutrients by breaking down dead or dying organic matter . It is commonly found in gardens and farm areas enriched with manure , near well @-@ decayed stumps and logs , and in wood chips . A Japanese publication mentioned its occurrence in Takatsuki and Osaka @-@ fu , where it fruited in November and December on the ground along paths or in open spaces , under or near bamboo ( Phyllostachys bambusoides ) and hardwoods such as the Sawtooth Oak , the Japanese Zelkova , and the Camphor tree . This common species has been collected in eastern North America , in the area extending from Quebec to Florida and west to the Great Lakes , Iowa , and Texas . In Europe , it has been reported from Netherlands and in Asia , it has been collected in Japan . = = Antibiotic activity = = A study of 32 basidiomycete mushrooms showed that Mutinus elegans was the only species to show antibiotic ( both antibacterial and antifungal ) activity against all six microorganisms tested , namely , the human pathogenic bacteris Bacillus cereus , Bacillus subtilis , Staphylococcus aureus , Escherichia coli , Salmonella typhimurium and the yeast Candida albicans . = The Boat Race 1900 = The 57th Boat Race took place on 31 March 1900 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge won by twenty lengths in a record @-@ equalling time of 18 minutes 45 seconds , taking the overall record in the event to 32 – 24 in Oxford 's favour . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1899 race by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths , while Oxford led overall with 32 victories to Cambridge 's 23 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Leading up to the race , Oxford suffered a variety of misfortune : M. C. McThornhill was ordered by his doctor not to row , H. J. Hale was injured and president Felix Warre contracted scarlet fever . Cambridge were coached by James Brookes Close , who had rowed for the Light Blues three times between 1872 and 1874 , and Stanley Muttlebury , five @-@ time Blue for Cambridge between 1886 and 1890 . Oxford 's coaches were Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president the previous year and four @-@ time Blue ) and Douglas McLean ( an Oxford Blue five times between 1883 and 1887 ) . The umpire for the race for the eleventh year in a row was Frank Willan who had won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races . = = Crews = = The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 4 @.@ 625 lb (
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298
78 @.@ 1 kg ) , 0 @.@ 25 pounds ( 0 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained three members with Boat Race experience : C. E. Johnston , C. W. Tomlkinson and cox G. S. Maclagan . Cambridge saw six of their 1899 crew return , including William Dudley Ward and Raymond Broadly Etherington @-@ Smith , both of whom were rowing in their third race . Eight of the nine Light Blues were students at Trinity College . Oxford 's stroke H. H. Dutton , a native of South Australia , was the only non @-@ British participant registered in the race . Author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater suggested that this year 's Cambridge crew , along with the Oxford crew which rowed in the 1897 race , " stand in a class by themselves among University crews . " He also described the Oxford crew as " one of the poorest that ever came from the Isis " . = = Race = = Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . In good conditions , umpire Willan got the race under way at 2 : 00 p.m. whereupon Cambridge took the lead immediately . By Craven Steps they were three lengths ahead and continued to draw away from the Dark Blues , to win by 20 lengths in a time of 18 minutes 45 seconds . It was the fastest winning time in the history of the event , equalling that set by Oxford in the 1893 race . Although it was the Light Blues ' second consecutive victory , it followed a run of nine consecutive wins for Oxford – overall the Dark Blues led 32 – 24 . = Ten Commandments in Catholic theology = The Ten Commandments are a series of religious and moral imperatives that are recognized as a moral foundation in several of the Abrahamic religions , including Catholicism . As described in the Old Testament books Exodus and Deuteronomy , the Commandments form part of a covenant offered by God to the Israelites to free them from the spiritual slavery of sin . According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church — the official exposition of the Catholic Church 's Christian beliefs — the Commandments are considered essential for spiritual good health and growth , and serve as the basis for Catholic social justice . A review of the Commandments is one of the most common types of examination of conscience used by Catholics before receiving the sacrament of Penance . The Commandments appear in the earliest Church writings ; the Catechism states that they have " occupied a predominant place " in teaching the faith since the time of Augustine of Hippo ( AD 354 – 430 ) . The Church had no official standards for religious instruction until the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 ; evidence suggests the Commandments were used in Christian education in the early Church and throughout the Middle Ages , but with inconsistent emphasis . The lack of instruction in them by some dioceses formed the basis of one of the criticisms launched against the Church by Protestant reformers . Afterward , the first Church @-@ wide catechism in 1566 provided " thorough discussions of each commandment " , but gave greater emphasis to the seven sacraments . The most recent Catechism devotes a large section to interpret each of the commandments . Church teaching of the Commandments is largely based on the Old and New Testaments and the writings of the early Church Fathers . In the New Testament , Jesus acknowledged their validity and instructed his disciples to go further , demanding a righteousness exceeding that of the scribes and Pharisees . Summarized by Jesus into two " Great Commandments " that teach love of God and love of neighbor , they instruct individuals on their relationships with both . The first three commandments demand respect for God 's name , observation of the Lord 's Day and prohibit the worship of other gods . The others deal with the relationships between individuals , such as that between parent and child ; they include prohibitions against lying , stealing , murdering , adultery and covetousness . = = Numbering = = The Old Testament refers to ten individual commandments , even though there are more than ten imperative sentences in the two relevant texts : Exodus 20 : 1 – 17 and Deuteronomy 5 : 6 – 21 . The Old Testament does not make clear how the texts should be divided to arrive at ten commandments . The division traditionally used by the Catholic and Lutheran churches was first derived by the Latin Church Father Augustine of Hippo ( 354 – 430 ) in his book Questions on Exodus . Other Christian churches , such as the Eastern Orthodox and some Protestant churches , use a form established by the Greek Fathers . The two forms have slightly different numbering , but maintain exactly the same substance despite Protestant accusations to the contrary . Jewish numbering differs from Christian denominations in that it considers what many Christians call a prologue to be the entire first commandment . = = History = = The Ten Commandments are recognized as a
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"Ġcommand", "ment", "Ġ.", "Ġ", "Ġ", "Ġ=", "Ġ=", "ĠHistory", "Ġ=", "Ġ=", "Ġ", "Ġ", "ĠThe", "ĠTen", "ĠCommand", "ments", "Ġare", "Ġrecognized", "Ġas", "Ġa" ]
299