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Wheeler was well known for his publications on archaeological matters ; Carr stated that both Wheeler and his first wife emphasised " technical rigour and a full presentation of materials unearthed , as well as a literary discussion of their meaning calculated to appeal to a larger audience . " Focusing on Wheeler 's publications regarding South Asian archaeology , Sudeshna Guha noted that he " produced an assemblage of image @-@ objects that embodied the precision he demanded from excavation photography . " Mallowan noted that " Immediate and swift presentation of results was more important to him than profound scholarship , although his critical sense made him conscious that it was necessary to maintain high standards and he would approve of nothing that was slipshod . " Jacquetta Hawkes commented that he made errors in his interpretation of the archaeological evidence because he was " sometimes too sure of being right , too ready to accept his own authority " . She asserted that while Wheeler was not an original thinker , he had " a vision of human history that enabled him to see each discovery of its traces , however small , in its widest significance . "
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Piggott claimed that Wheeler 's appointment as Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India represented " the most remarkable archaeological achievement of his career , an enormous challenge accepted and surmounted in the autocratic and authoritarian terms within which he could best deploy his powers as administrator and excavator . No other archaeologist of the time , it seems fair to remark , could have come near to attaining his command of incisive strategy and often ruthless tactics which won him the bewildered admiration and touching devotion of his Indian staff . " The Indian archaeologist Dilip K. Chakrabarti later stated that Wheeler 's accomplishments while in India were " considerable " , particularly given the socio @-@ political turmoil of independence and partition . Chakrabarti stated that Wheeler had contributed to South Asian archaeology in various ways : by establishing a " total view " of the region 's development from the Palaeolithic onward , by introducing new archaeological techniques and methodologies to the subcontinent , and by encouraging Indian universities to begin archaeological research . Ultimately , Chakrabarti was of the opinion that Wheeler had " prepared the archaeology of the subcontinent for its transition to modernity in the post @-@ Partition period . " Similarly , Peter Johansen praised Wheeler for systematising and professionalising Indian archaeology and for " instituting a clearly defined body of techniques and methods for field and laboratory work and training . "
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On Wheeler 's death , H.D. Sankalia of Deccan College , Pune , described him as " well known among Old World archaeologists in the United States " , particularly for his book Archaeology from the Earth and his studies of the Indus Valley Civilisation . In its 2013 obituary of the English archaeologist Mick Aston , British Archaeology magazine – the publication of the Council for British Archaeology – described Aston as " the Mortimer Wheeler of our times " because despite the strong differences between their personalities , both had done much to bring archaeology to the British public . However , writing in 2011 , Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall asserted that Wheeler 's reputation has not undergone significant revision among archaeologists , but that instead he had come to be remembered as " a cartoonish and slightly eccentric figure " whom they termed " Naughty Morty " . Carr described the Institute of Archaeology as " one of the [ Wheeler ] couple 's most permanent memorials . "
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= = = Biographies and studies = = =
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In 1960 , Ronald William Clark published a biography titled Sir Mortimer Wheeler . FitzRoy Somerset , 4th Baron Raglan reviewed the volume for the journal Man , describing " this very readable little book " as being " adulatory " in tone , " but hardly more so than its subject deserves . " In 1982 , the archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes published a second biography , Mortimer Wheeler : Adventurer in Archaeology . Hawkes admitted she had developed " a very great liking " for Wheeler , having first met him when she was an archaeology student at the University of Cambridge . She believed that he had " a daemonic energy " , with his accomplishments in India being " almost superhuman " . Ultimately , she thought of him as being " an epic hero in an anti @-@ heroic age " in which growing social egalitarianism had stifled and condemned aspects of his greatness .
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| 3,255 |
In the 2000 film Hey Ram , the lead character , Saket Ram ( played by Kamal Haasan ) and his friend , Amjad Khan ( played by Shah Rukh Khan ) are shown as employees of Wheeler , who was portrayed by Lewis K. Elbinger , before the 1947 Hindu @-@ Muslim riots . In a 2003 volume of the South Asian Studies journal , Sudeshna Gusha published a research article examining Wheeler 's use of photography in his excavations and publications in the Indian subcontinent . In 2011 , the academic journal Public Archaeology published a research paper by Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall that analysed Wheeler 's role in presenting archaeology to the British public . Two years later , the Papers from the Institute of Archaeology issued a short comic strip by Moshenska and Alex Salamunovich depicting Wheeler 's activities in studying the archaeology of Libya during World War II .
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| 3,256 |
= Species of Allosaurus =
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e8b21f52a363425051434f8b3a34aa76
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There have been a number of potential species assigned to the carnosaurian dinosaur genus Allosaurus since its description in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh , but only a handful are still regarded as valid . Allosaurus was originally described from material from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of the western United States of America ; the type species A. fragilis became one of the best @-@ known species of dinosaur .
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bc8a5935255db71a15ad030eae1eb688
| 3,261 |
The genus Allosaurus was part of the Marsh / Cope " Bone Wars " of the late 19th century , and its taxonomy became increasingly confused due to the competition , with several genera and species named by Cope and Marsh now regarded as synonyms of Allosaurus or A. fragilis . Since the description of Allosaurus , scientists have proposed additional species from such far @-@ flung locales as Portugal , Siberia , and Tanzania .
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4322242831122031742b457b52ac9cd4
| 3,262 |
= = Query about type specimen = =
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| 3,264 |
The issue of synonyms is complicated by the type specimen of Allosaurus fragillis ( catalogue number YPM 1930 ) being extremely fragmentary , consisting of a few incomplete vertebrae , limb bone fragments , rib fragments , and a tooth . Because of this , several scientists have noted that the type specimen , and thus the genus Allosaurus itself or at least the species A. fragillis , is technically a nomen dubium ( " dubious name " , based on a specimen too incomplete to compare to other specimens or to classify ) . In an attempt to fix this situation , Gregory S. Paul and Kenneth Carpenter ( 2010 ) submitted a petition to the ICZN to have the name A. fragillis officially transferred to the more complete specimen USNM4734 ( as a neotype ) . This request is currently pending review .
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| 3,266 |
= = Potentially valid species = =
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It is unclear how many species of Allosaurus there were . Eight species have been considered potentially valid since 1988 ( A. amplexus , A. atrox , A. europaeus , the type species A. fragilis , the as @-@ yet not formally described " A. jimmadseni " , A. lucasi , A. maximus , and A. tendagurensis ) , although only about half are usually considered valid at any given time . There are also at least ten dubious or undescribed species that have been assigned to Allosaurus over the years , along with the species belonging to genera now sunk into Allosaurus . In the most recent review of basal tetanuran theropods , only A. fragilis ( including A. amplexus and A. atrox ) , " A. jimmadseni " ( as an unnamed species ) , and A. tendagurensis were accepted as potentially valid species , with A. europaeus not yet proposed and A. maximus assigned to Saurophaganax .
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| 3,270 |
A. fragilis is the type species and was named by Marsh in 1877 . It is known from the remains of at least sixty individuals , all found in the Kimmeridgian – Tithonian Upper Jurassic @-@ age Morrison Formation of the United States , spread across the states of Colorado , Montana , New Mexico , Oklahoma , South Dakota , Utah , and Wyoming . Details of the humerus ( upper arm ) of A. fragilis have been used as diagnostic among Morrison theropods , but the discovery of " A. jimmadseni " indicates that this will no longer be the case at the species level .
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f3ba1ac32ec888c421cc85194759034a
| 3,271 |
A. amplexus was named by Gregory S. Paul for giant Morrison allosaur remains , and included in his conception Saurophagus maximus ( later Saurophaganax ) . A. amplexus was originally coined by Cope in 1878 as the type species of his new genus Epanterias , and is based on what is now AMNH 5767 , parts of three vertebrae , a coracoid , and a metatarsal . Following Paul 's work , this species has been accepted as a synonym of A. fragilis .
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7b99bd25972fa16c8dc7a53ecf56dbb7
| 3,272 |
Allosaurus material from Portugal was first reported in 1999 on the basis of MHNUL / AND.001 , a partial skeleton including a quadrate , vertebrae , ribs , gastralia , chevrons , part of the hips , and hindlimbs . This specimen was assigned to A. fragilis , but the subsequent discovery of a partial skull and neck ( ML 415 ) near Lourinhã , in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age Porto Novo Member of the Lourinhã Formation , spurred the naming of the new species A. europaeus . It differs from other species of Allosaurus in cranial details . However , more material may show it to be A. fragilis , as originally described .
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90b6b8826c27fbbd71635849ebef7e4e
| 3,273 |
Daniel Chure 's work on Morrison allosaurid remains has been responsible , directly or indirectly , for " A. jimmadseni " and A. maximus . " A. jimmadseni " is the proposed name for a new species of Morrison allosaur , based on a nearly complete skeleton and skull . A. sp . 2 , as it is also known , differs from A. fragilis in several anatomical details including a jugal or cheekbone with a straight lower margin , and is also found only in the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison Formation , with A. fragilis only present in the higher Brushy Basin Member . A. maximus was coined by David K. Smith for Chure 's Saurophaganax maximus , a taxon created by Chure in 1995 for giant allosaurid remains from the Morrison of Oklahoma . These remains had been known as Saurophagus , but that name was already in use , leading Chure to propose a substitute . Smith , in his 1998 analysis of variation , concluded that S. maximus was not different enough from Allosaurus to be a separate genus , but did warrant its own species , A. maximus . This reassignment was rejected in the most recent review of basal tetanurans .
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| 3,274 |
= = Biological variation , A. atrox , and A. fragilis = =
|
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| 3,276 |
The perception that there were two common Allosaurus species in the Morrison Formation was popularized in Gregory S. Paul 's 1988 book Predatory Dinosaurs of the World . Paul proposed that A. fragilis had tall pointed horns and a slender build compared to a postulated second species A. atrox , and was not a different gender due to rarity . Allosaurus atrox was originally named by Marsh in 1878 as the type species of its own genus , Creosaurus , and is based on YPM 1890 , an assortment of bones including a couple of pieces of the skull , portions of nine tail vertebrae , two hip vertebrae , an illium , and ankle and foot bones . Although the idea of two common Morrison allosaur species has had support in semi @-@ technical and popular works , it has generally been rejected in the technical literature .
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| 3,278 |
David K. Smith , examining Allosaurus fossils by quarry , found that the Cleveland Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry ( Utah ) specimens are generally smaller than those from Como Bluff ( Wyoming ) or Brigham Young University 's Dry Mesa Quarry ( Colorado ) , but the shapes of the bones themselves did not vary between the sites . A later study by Smith incorporating Garden Park ( Colorado ) and Dinosaur National Monument ( Utah ) specimens found no justification for multiple species based on skeletal variation ; skull variation was most common and was gradational , suggesting individual variation was responsible . Further work on size @-@ related variation again found no consistent differences , although the Dry Mesa material tended to clump together on the basis of the astragalus , an ankle bone . Kenneth Carpenter , using skull elements from the Cleveland Lloyd site , found wide variation between individuals , calling into question previous species @-@ level distinctions based such features as the shape of the horns , and the proposed differentiation of " A. jimmadseni " based on the shape of the jugal .
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| 3,279 |
= = Invalid and synonymous species = =
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| 3,281 |
A number of species assigned to Allosaurus are no longer recognized as valid , for one reason or another . Species " A. agilis " , seen in Zittel , 1887 , and Osborn , 1912 , is a typographical error for A. fragilis . Marsh 's A. ferox ( 1896 ; not to be confused with his 1884 Labrosaurus ferox , also part of Allosaurus taxonomy ) was coined for a partial skull in a footnote , and has been recognized as a specimen of A fragilis . A. lucaris , another Marsh name , was given to a partial skeleton in 1878 . He later decided it warranted its own genus , Labrosaurus , but this has not been accepted , and A. lucaris is also regarded as another specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus lucaris , is known mostly from vertebrae , sharing characters with Allosaurus . Paul and Carpenter stated that the type specimen of this species , YPM 1931 , was from a younger age than Allosaurus , and might represent a different genus . However , they found that the specimen was undiagnostic , and thus A. lucaris was a nomen dubium . " A. whitei " , an informally described species coined by Pickering in 1996 , is a recasting of the A. atrox versus A. fragilis debate using a better specimen to represent the A. atrox form , and has not been recognized .
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| 3,283 |
Several species coined in genera other than Allosaurus are also now thought to be synonymous with A. fragilis . Labrosaurus ferox was named in 1884 by Marsh for an oddly formed partial lower jaw , with a prominent gap in the tooth row at the tip of the jaw , and a rear section greatly expanded and turned down . Later researchers suggested that the bone was pathologic , showing an injury to the living animal , and that part of the unusual form of the rear of the bone was due to plaster reconstruction . It is recognized as most likely a specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus valens is a typo for Antrodemus valens accidentally used by Friedrich von Huene in 1932 ; Antrodemus valens itself may also pertain to Allosaurus fragilis , as Gilmore suggested in 1920 . Apatodon mirus , based on a scrap of vertebra Marsh first thought to be a mammalian jaw , may or may not be the same as Allosaurus .
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| 3,284 |
= = Misassigned species = =
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| 3,286 |
Several species initially classified within or referred to Allosaurus do not belong within the genus . A. medius was named by Marsh in 1888 for " various specimens " from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland , although most of the remains were removed by Richard Swann Lull to the new ornithopod species Dryosaurus grandis , except for a tooth . Gilmore considered the tooth nondiagnostic but transferred it to a new species , Dryptosaurus medius . The referral was not accepted in the most recent review , and Allosaurus medius was simply listed as a dubious species of theropod . Allosaurus sibiricus was described in 1914 by A. N. Riabinin on the basis of a bone , later identified as a partial fourth metatarsal , from the Early Cretaceous of Buryatia , Russia . It was transferred to Chilantaisaurus in 1990 .
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051e8d3bdcd6d9473276f1a5ce798373
| 3,288 |
Allosaurus meriani was described in 1870 by Greppin as a species of Megalosaurus , based on a tooth from the Late Jurassic of Switzerland . It has occasionally been referred to Allosaurus , but recent reviews have listed it as dubious theropod species Megalosaurus meriani , or included it in Ceratosaurus sp . Allosaurus stechowi was described in 1920 by Janensch as Labrosaurus stechowi for isolated Ceratosaurus @-@ like teeth from the Tendaguru beds of Tanzania . With the synonymization of Labrosaurus and Allosaurus , Donald F. Glut listed it as a species of Allosaurus , but it is now either assigned to Ceratosaurus sp. or considered a dubious ceratosaurian .
|
1ebf4bf05f92107f3aea1f71c19a0bdf
| 3,289 |
There are also several species left over from the synonymizations of Creosaurus and Labrosaurus with Allosaurus . Creosaurus potens was named by Lull in 1911 for a vertebra from the Early Cretaceous of Maryland . It is now regarded as a dubious theropod . Labrosaurus fragilis is a typographical error by Marsh ( 1896 ) for Labrosaurus ferox . L. sulcatus , named by Marsh in 1896 for a Morrison theropod tooth , which like L. stechowi is now regarded as either Ceratosaurus sp. or a dubious ceratosaurian .
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| 3,290 |
A. tendagurensis was named in 1925 by Werner Janensch for a partial shin ( HM 67 ) found in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age rocks of Tendaguru , in Mtwara , Tanzania . This species has not had strong support in recent years , with opinions on its identity ranging from a tentatively valid species of Allosaurus , to a basal tetanuran . The most recent analysis has placed it in Carcharodontosauridae . Although obscure , it was a large theropod , possibly around 10 meters long ( 33 ft ) and 2 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 8 short tons ) in weight .
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6ce89932c01ebea2d962b0f85d02ef1e
| 3,291 |
= = Specimens misassigned to Allosaurus though not described as new species = =
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| 3,293 |
Kurzanov and colleagues in 2003 designated six teeth from Siberia as Allosaurus sp . ( meaning the authors found the specimens to be most like those of Allosaurus , but did not or could not assign a species ) . Also , reports of Allosaurus in Shanxi , China go back to at least 1982 .
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893aed265e5b8665206c2b96545ef272
| 3,295 |
An astragalus ( ankle bone ) thought to belong to a species of Allosaurus was found at Cape Paterson , Victoria in Early Cretaceous beds in southeastern Australia . It was thought to provide evidence that Australia was a refugium for animals that had gone extinct elsewhere . This identification was challenged by Samuel Welles , who thought it more resembled that of an ornithomimid , but the original authors defended their identification . With fifteen years of new specimens and research to look at , Daniel Chure reexamined the bone and found that it was not Allosaurus , but could represent an allosauroid . Similarly , Yoichi Azuma and Phil Currie , in their description of Fukuiraptor , noted that the bone closely resembled that of their new genus . This specimen is sometimes referred to as " Allosaurus robustus " , an informal museum name . It may have belonged to something similar to , or the same as , Australovenator , or it may represent an abelisaur . A speculative " polar " or " dwarf allosaur " was used for the " Spirits of the Ice Forest " episode of Walking with Dinosaurs .
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| 3,296 |
= Astraeus hygrometricus =
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| 3,299 |
Astraeus hygrometricus , commonly known as the hygroscopic earthstar , the barometer earthstar , or the false earthstar , is a species of fungus in the Diplocystaceae family . Young specimens resemble a puffball when young and unopened . In maturity , the mushroom displays the characteristic earthstar shape that is a result of the outer layer of fruit body tissue splitting open in a star @-@ like manner . The false earthstar is an ectomycorrhizal species that grows in association with various trees , especially in sandy soils . A. hygrometricus has a cosmopolitan distribution , and is common in temperate and tropical regions . Its common names refer to the fact that it is hygroscopic ( water @-@ absorbing ) , and can open up its rays to expose the spore sac in response to increased humidity , and close them up again in drier conditions . The rays have an irregularly cracked surface , while the spore case is pale brown and smooth with an irregular slit or tear at the top . The gleba is white initially , but turns brown and powdery when the spores mature . The spores are reddish @-@ brown , roughly spherical with minute warts , measuring 7 @.@ 5 – 11 micrometers in diameter .
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| 3,301 |
Despite a similar overall appearance , A. hygrometricus is not related to the true earthstars of genus Geastrum , although historically , they have been taxonomically confused . The species was first described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801 as Geastrum hygrometricus . In 1885 , Andrew P. Morgan proposed that differences in microscopic characteristics warranted the creation of a new genus Astraeus distinct from Geastrum ; this opinion was not universally accepted by later authorities . Several Asian populations formerly thought to be A. hygrometricus were renamed in the 2000s once phylogenetic analyses revealed they were unique Astraeus species , including A. asiaticus and A. odoratus . Research has revealed the presence of several bioactive chemical compounds in the fruit bodies . North American field guides typically rate A. hygrometricus as inedible .
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| 3,302 |
= = Taxonomy , naming , and phylogeny = =
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| 3,304 |
Because this species resembles the earthstar fungi of Geastrum , it was placed in that genus by early authors , starting with Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801 ( as Geaster , an alternate spelling of Geastrum ) . According to the American botanist Andrew P. Morgan , however , the species differed from those of Geastrum in not having open chambers in the young gleba , having larger and branched capillitium threads , not having a true hymenium , and having larger spores . Accordingly , Morgan set Persoon 's Geaster hygrometricum as the type species of his new genus Astraeus in 1889 . Despite Morgan 's publication , some authorities in the following decades continued to classify the species in Geastrum . The New @-@ Zealand based mycologist Gordon Herriot Cunningham explicitly transferred the species back to the genus Geastrum in 1944 , explaining :
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| 3,306 |
The treatment of this species by certain taxonomists well illustrates the pitfalls that lie in wait for those who worship at the shrine of ontogenic classification ... The only feature of those outlined in which the species differs from others of Geastrum is the somewhat primitive hymenium . In the developing plant the glebal cavities are separated by tramal plates so tenuous as to be overlooked by the uncritical worker . Each cavity is filled with basidia somewhat irregularly arranged in clusters ( like those of Scleroderma ) and not in the definite palisade of the species which have been studied . This difference disappears as maturity is reached , when plants resemble closely the fructification of any other member of the genus . The taxonomist is then unable to indicate any point of difference by which " Astraeus " may be separated from Geastrum , which indicates that the name should be discarded .
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6f9e51dc5a43f7203b3500b644728a88
| 3,307 |
Cunningham 's treatment was not followed by later authorities , who largely considered Astraeus a distinct genus . According to the taxonomical authority MycoBank , synonyms of Astraeus hygrometricus include Lycoperdon stellatus Scop . ( 1772 ) ; Geastrum fibrillosum Schwein . ( 1822 ) ; Geastrum stellatum ( Scop . ) Wettst . ( 1885 ) ; and Astraeus stellatus E.Fisch. ( 1900 ) .
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cfedc8884b61f71e6c6b2b1b10ef8630
| 3,308 |
Astraeus hygrometricus has been given a number of colloquial names that allude to its hygroscopic behavior , including the " hygrometer earthstar " , the " hygroscopic earthstar " , the " barometer earthstar " , and the " water @-@ measure earthstar " . The resemblance to Geastrum species ( also known as true earthstars ) accounts for the common name " false earthstar " . The specific name is derived from the Greek words ὑγρός ( hygros ) " wet " and μέτρον ( metron ) " measure " . The German Mycological Society selected the species as their " Mushroom of the Year " in 2005 .
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d76e8513f7c7cf2f360d639bdd740938
| 3,309 |
Studies in the 2000s showed that several species from Asian collection sites labelled under the specific epithet hygrometricus were actually considerably variable in a number of macroscopic and microscopic characteristics . Molecular studies of the DNA sequences of the ITS region of the ribosomal DNA from a number of Astraeus specimens from around the world have helped to clarify phylogenetic relationships within the genus . Based on these results , two Asian " hygrometricus " populations have been described as new species : A. asiaticus and A. odoratus ( synonymous with Petcharat 's A. thailandicus described in 2003 ) . Preliminary DNA analyses suggests that the European A. hygrometricus described by Persoon is a different species than the North American version described by Morgan , and that the European population may be divided into two distinct phylotypes , from France and from the Mediterranean . A 2010 study identified a Japanese species , previously identified as A. hygrometricus , as genetically distinct ; it has yet to be officially named .
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9374154ab9d8422fe731962d752911da
| 3,310 |
A form of the species found in Korea and Japan , A. hygrometricus var. koreanus , was named by V.J. Stanĕk in 1958 ; it was later ( 1976 ) published as a distinct species — A. koreanus — by Hanns Kreisel . As pointed out by Fangfuk and colleagues , clarification of the proper name for this taxon must await analysis of A. hygrometricus var. koreanus specimens from the type locality in North Korea .
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| 3,311 |
= = Description = =
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| 3,313 |
Young specimens of A. hygrometricus have roughly spherical fruit bodies that typically start their development partially embedded in the substrate . A smooth whitish mycelial layer covers the fruit body , and may be partially encrusted with debris . As the fruit body matures , the mycelial layer tears away , and the outer tissue layer , the exoperidium , breaks open in a star @-@ shaped ( stellate ) pattern to form 4 – 20 irregular " rays " . This simultaneously pushes the fruit body above ground to reveal a round spore case enclosed in a thin papery endoperidium . The rays open and close in response to levels of moisture in the environment , opening up in high humidity , and closing when the air is dry . This is possible because the exoperidium is made of several different layers of tissue ; the innermost , fibrous layer is hygroscopic , and curls or uncurls the entire ray as it loses or gains moisture from its surroundings . This adaptation enables the fruit body to disperse spores at times of optimum moisture , and reduce evaporation during dry periods . Further , dry fruit bodies with the rays curled up may be readily blown about by the wind , allowing them to scatter spores from the pore as they roll .
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| 3,315 |
The fruit body is 1 – 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter from tip to tip when expanded . The exoperidium is thick , and the rays are typically areolate ( divided into small areas by cracks and crevices ) on the upper surface , and are dark grey to black . The spore case is sessile ( lacking a stalk ) , light gray to tan color and 1 to 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) broad with a felt @-@ like or scurfy ( coated with loose scaly crust ) surface ; the top of the spore case is opened by an irregular slit , tear or pore . The interior of the spore case , the gleba , is white and solid when young , and divided into oval locules — a characteristic that helps to distinguish it from Geastrum . The gleba becomes brown and powdery as the specimen matures . Small dark hairlike threads ( rhizomorphs ) extend from the base of the fruit body into the substrate . The rhizomorphs are fragile , and often break off after maturity .
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067fd9fdcf9fc26c0ee74476dc2112aa
| 3,316 |
The spores are spherical or nearly so , reddish @-@ brown , thick @-@ walled and verrucose ( covered with warts and spines ) . The spores ' dimensions are 7 – 11 µm ; the warts are about 1 µm long . The spores are non @-@ amyloid , and will not stain with iodine from Melzer 's reagent . The use of scanning electron microscopy has shown that the spines are 0 @.@ 90 – 1 @.@ 45 µm long , rounded at the tip , narrow , tapered , and sometime joined together at the top . The capillitia ( masses of thread @-@ like sterile fibers dispersed among the spores ) are branched , 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm in diameter , and hyaline ( translucent ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four- to eight @-@ spored , with very short sterigmata . The basidia are arranged in long strings of clusters ; individual basidia measure 11 – 15 by 18 – 24 µm . The threads of the capillitia arise from the inner surface of the peridium , and are thick @-@ walled , long , interwoven , and branched , measuring 3 – 5 @.@ 5 µm thick . The exoperidium ( the outer layer of tissue , comprising the rays ) is made of four distinct layers of tissue : the mycelial layer contains branched hyphae that are 4 – 6 μm in diameter ; the hyphae of the fibrous layer are 6 – 8 μm diameter and branched ; the collenchyma @-@ type layer has branched hyphae of 3 – 4 μm diameter ; the soft layer contains hyphae that are 3 – 6 μm in diameter .
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| 3,317 |
= = = Edibility = = =
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412d8c101ed9e52fb4c3734dc5f53697
| 3,319 |
North American sources describe A. hygrometricus as being of either unknown edibility , or too tough to be edible . However , they are regularly consumed in Asia , including Nepal and South Bengal , where " local people consume them as delicious food " . They are collected from the wild and sold in the markets of India .
|
8edb1b290b22a4aa052abb2c732146fe
| 3,321 |
A study of a closely related southeast Asian Astraeus species concluded that the fungus contained an abundance of volatile eight @-@ carbon compounds ( including 1 @-@ octanol , 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ ol , and 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ one ) that imparted a " mushroom @-@ like , earthy , and pungent odor that was evident as an oily and moss @-@ like smell upon opening the caps " . The study 's authors further noted that the fruit bodies after cooking have a " roasted , maillard , herbal , and oily flavor " . Volatile compounds detected after cooking the mushroom samples included furfural , benzaldehyde , cyclohexenone , and furanyl compounds . The regional differences in opinions on edibility are from sources published before it was known that North American and Asian versions of A. hygrometricus were not always the same ; in some cases Asian specimens have been identified as new species , such as A. asiaticus and A. odoratus .
|
0db9b5f17673ae1cfda312e1ec693041
| 3,322 |
= = Similar species = =
|
a1a5b023839c337958e012e093ac0721
| 3,324 |
Although A. hygrometricus bears a superficial resemblance to member of the " true earthstars " Geastrum , it may be readily differentiated from most by the hygroscopic nature of its rays . Hygroscopic earthstars include G. arenarium , G. corollinum , G. floriforme , G. recolligens , and G. kotlabae . Unlike Geastrum , the young fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus do not have a columella ( sterile tissue in the gleba , at the base of the spore sac ) . Geastrum tends to have its spore sac opening surrounded by a peristome or a disc , in contrast with the single lacerate slit of A. hygrometricus . There are also several microscopic differences : in A. hygrometricus , the basidia are not arranged in parallel columns , the spores are larger , and the threads of the capillitia are branched and continuous with the hyphae of the peridium . Despite these differences , older specimens can be difficult to distinguish from Geastrum in the field . One species of Geastrum , G. mammosum , does have thick and brittle rays that are moderately hygroscopic , and could be confused with A. hygrometricus ; however , its spores are smaller than A. hygrometricus , typically about 4 µm in diameter .
|
071543ed8ec667dcfd303ed9d9850430
| 3,326 |
Astraeus pteridis is larger , 5 to 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) or more when expanded , and often has a more pronounced areolate pattern on the inner surface of the rays . It is found in North America and the Canary Islands . A. asiaticus and A. odoratus are two similar species known from throughout Asia and Southeast Asia , respectively . A. odoratus is distinguished from A. hygrometricus by a smooth outer mycelial layer with few adhering soil particles , 3 – 9 broad rays , and a fresh odor similar to moist soil . The spore ornamentation of A. odoratus is also distinct from A. hygrometricus , with longer and narrower spines that often joined together . A. asiaticus has an outer peridial surface covered with small granules , and a gleba that is purplish @-@ chestnut in color , compared to the smooth peridial surface and brownish gleba of A. hygrometricus . The upper limit of the spore size of A. asiaticus is larger than that of its more common relative , ranging from 8 @.@ 75 – 15 @.@ 2 μm . A. koreanus ( sometimes named as the variety A. hygrometricus var. koreanus ; see Taxonomy ) differs from the more common form in its smaller size , paler fruit body , and greater number of rays ; microscopically , it has smaller spores ( between 6 @.@ 8 and 9 μm in diameter ) , and the spines on the spores differ in length and morphology . It is known from Korea and Japan .
|
87866d350dd6a31d4076f9b23dc5caac
| 3,327 |
= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =
|
263485574851af63964d398bdf6c9e33
| 3,329 |
Astraeus hygrometricus is an ectomycorrhizal fungus and grows in association with a broad range of tree species . The mutualistic association between tree roots and the mycelium of the fungus helps the trees extract nutrients ( particularly phosphorus ) from the earth ; in exchange , the fungus receives carbohydrates from photosynthesis . In North America , associations with oak and pine are usual , while in India , it has been noted to grow commonly with chir pine ( Pinus roxburghii ) and sal ( Shorea robusta ) . The false earthstar is found on the ground in open fields , often scattered or in groups , especially in nutrient @-@ poor , sandy or loamy soils . It has also been reported to grow on rocks , preferring acid substrates like slate and granite , while avoiding substrates rich in lime . In Nepal , fruit bodies have been collected at elevations of 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . Fruit bodies typically appear in autumn , although the dry fruit bodies are persistent and may last up to several years . Gelatinipulvinella astraeicola is a leotiaceous fungus with minute , gelatinous , pulvinate ( cushion @-@ shaped ) apothecia , known to grow only on the inner surface of the rays of dead Astraeus species , including A. hygrometricus .
|
ed7999536b32484ff6d59be5bb4a7143
| 3,331 |
The species has a cosmopolitan distribution except for arctic , alpine and cold temperate regions ; it is common in temperate and tropical regions of the world . It has been collected in Africa , Asia , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America .
|
c7dddc4cea79dad08a2ffc2aa8d7e603
| 3,332 |
= = Bioactive compounds = =
|
9293f968f585cd0ed15cf01db76fe08a
| 3,334 |
Mushroom polysaccharides from a number of species have attracted research interest for their immunomodulatory and antitumor properties . Extracts from A. hygrometricus containing the polysaccharide named AE2 were found to inhibit the growth of several tumor cell lines in laboratory tests , and stimulated the growth of splenocytes , thymocytes , and bone marrow cells from mice . The extract also stimulated mouse cells associated with the immune system ; specifically , it enhanced the activity of mouse natural killer cells , stimulated macrophages to produce nitric oxide , and enhanced production of cytokines . The activation of macrophages by AE2 might be mediated by a mitogen @-@ activated protein kinase pathway of signal transduction . AE2 is made of the simple sugars mannose , glucose , and fucose in a 1 : 2 : 1 ratio .
|
46eacf3a8f2e23059d398daa4ac10cb0
| 3,336 |
In addition to the previously known steroid compounds ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ diene @-@ 3 @-@ ol acetate and ergosta @-@ 4,6,8- ( 14 ) , 22 @-@ tetraene @-@ 3 @-@ one , three unique triterpenes — derivatives of 3 @-@ hydroxy @-@ lanostane — have been isolated from fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus . The compounds , named astrahygrol , 3 @-@ epi @-@ astrahygrol , and astrahygrone ( 3 @-@ oxo @-@ 25S @-@ lanost @-@ 8 @-@ eno @-@ 26 @,@ 22 @-@ lactone ) , have δ @-@ lactone ( a six @-@ membered ring ) in the side chain — a chemical feature previously unknown in the Basidiomycetes . A previously unknown steryl ester ( 3β , 5α @-@ dihydroxy- ( 22E , 24R ) -ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ dien @-@ 6α @-@ yl palmitate ) has been isolated from mycelia grown in liquid culture . The compound has a polyhydroxylated ergostane @-@ type nucleus .
|
440beb6850179470995d8a178e79dfc5
| 3,337 |
Ethanol extracts of the fruit body are high in antioxidant activity , and have been shown in laboratory tests to have anti @-@ inflammatory activity comparable to the drug diclofenac . Studies with mouse models have also demonstrated hepatoprotective ( liver @-@ protecting ) ability , possibly by restoring diminished levels of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase caused by experimental exposure to the liver @-@ damaging chemical carbon tetrachloride .
|
1900e5ce795467eb709cb71c1a1d134f
| 3,338 |
= = Traditional beliefs = =
|
ed83f9ee3a5096c9aa3f94498792e3fe
| 3,340 |
This earthstar has been used in traditional Chinese medicine as a hemostatic agent ; the spore dust is applied externally to stop wound bleeding and reduce chilblains . Two Indian forest tribes , the Baiga and the Bharia of Madhya Pradesh , have been reported to use the fruit bodies medicinally . The spore mass is blended with mustard seed oil , and used as a salve against burns . The Blackfoot of North America called the fungus " fallen stars " , considering them to be stars fallen to the earth during supernatural events .
|
59f8b05c149649eef13baf18dd1605b8
| 3,342 |
= Paul Thomas Anderson =
|
2f6d6766e45b18ce24d1e8478730c077
| 3,345 |
Paul Thomas Anderson ( born June 26 , 1970 ) also known as P.T. Anderson , is an American film director , screenwriter and producer . Interested in film @-@ making at a young age , Anderson was encouraged by his father Ernie Anderson ( a disc jockey , and television and radio announcer / voiceover artist ) to become a filmmaker .
|
ecc29736a29ced63ab2de44ce7fd83ed
| 3,347 |
In 1993 , he wrote and directed a short film titled Cigarettes & Coffee on a budget of $ 20 @,@ 000 . After he attended the Sundance Institute , Anderson had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature film , a neo @-@ noir crime thriller titled Hard Eight , in 1996 . Anderson received critical and commercial success for his film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , set during the Golden Age of Porn in the 1970s and 1980s . His third feature , Magnolia ( 1999 ) , received wide acclaim despite struggling at the box office .
|
2ff9f4456d846f88c7450259588f0de6
| 3,348 |
In 2002 , the romantic comedy @-@ drama Punch @-@ Drunk Love , Anderson 's fourth feature , was released to generally favorable reviews . After a five @-@ year absence , the epic drama There Will Be Blood was released to critical acclaim in 2007 . In 2012 , Anderson 's sixth film , the drama The Master , was released to critical acclaim . His seventh film , the crime comedy @-@ drama Inherent Vice , based on the novel of the same name by Thomas Pynchon , was released in 2014 , to general acclaim .
|
45bbd689db4299a90bde0f7ac22db2a1
| 3,349 |
Anderson has been nominated for six Academy Awards over the course of his career , while his films have earned a further fourteen Academy Award nominations for cast and crew .
|
7898327fd0a3228f0c10353c42453d3d
| 3,350 |
= = Early life = =
|
b536b642460eb47d0633950c6043cf5f
| 3,352 |
Anderson was born June 26 , 1970 , in Studio City , California , to Edwina ( née Gough ) and Ernie Anderson . Ernie was an actor who was the voice of ABC and a Cleveland television late @-@ night horror movie host known as " Ghoulardi " ( after whom Anderson later named his production company ) . Anderson grew up in the San Fernando Valley . He is third youngest of nine children , and had a troubled relationship with his mother but was close with his father , who encouraged him to become a writer or director . Anderson attended a number of schools , including Buckley in Sherman Oaks , John Thomas Dye School , Campbell Hall School , Cushing Academy and Montclair Prep .
|
9bb56acd3014777f57c0480047e99abf
| 3,354 |
Anderson was involved in filmmaking at a young age and never really had an alternative plan to directing films . He made his first movie when he was eight years old and started making movies on a Betamax video camera which his dad bought in 1982 when he was twelve years old . He later started using 8 mm film but realized that video was easier . He began writing in adolescence , and at 17 years old he began experimenting with a Bolex sixteen millimeter camera . After years of experimenting with " standard fare " , he wrote and filmed his first real production as a senior in high school at Montclair Prep using money he earned cleaning cages at a pet store . The film was a thirty @-@ minute mockumentary shot on video called The Dirk Diggler Story ( 1988 ) , about a pornography star ; the story was inspired by John Holmes , who also served as a major inspiration for Boogie Nights .
|
60df3f2add8d90dcd7ea1d75c5398c07
| 3,355 |
= = Career = =
|
46d66cdd8e6cc1ca11d9faaf4214751f
| 3,357 |
= = = Early career = = =
|
a8b1c4f8a39aea51fd0e9dbf806656b7
| 3,360 |
Anderson spent two semesters as an English major at Emerson College , and only two days at New York University before he began his career as a production assistant on television films , music videos and game shows in Los Angeles and New York City . Feeling that the material shown to him at film school turned the experience into " homework or a chore " , Anderson decided to make a twenty @-@ minute film that would be his " college " .
|
d6d46a701e6c1488f52b6fe2e5d1a4db
| 3,362 |
For $ 20 @,@ 000 , made up of gambling winnings , his girlfriend 's credit card , and money his father set aside for him for college , Anderson made Cigarettes & Coffee ( 1993 ) , a short film connecting multiple story lines with a twenty @-@ dollar bill . The film was screened at the 1993 Sundance Festival Shorts Program . He decided to expand the film into a feature @-@ length film and was subsequently invited to the 1994 Sundance Feature Film Program . At the Sundance Feature Film Program , Michael Caton @-@ Jones served as Anderson 's mentor ; he saw Anderson as someone with " talent and a fully formed creative voice but not much hands @-@ on experience " and gave him some hard and practical lessons .
|
c5ccf1df64fcc3412b395b1af34287a2
| 3,363 |
= = = 1990s = = =
|
6e2c4b922e2d44ca6bb591b96263558f
| 3,365 |
= = = = Hard Eight = = = =
|
9a4c07241ebdadc0dc883a01a480abd4
| 3,368 |
While at the Sundance Feature Film Program , Anderson already had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature . In 1996 , Anderson made his first full @-@ length feature , Sydney , which was retitled Hard Eight ( 1996 ) . Upon completion of the film , Rysher re @-@ edited it . Anderson , who still had the workprint of his original cut , submitted the film , which was accepted and screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival . Anderson was able to get his version released but only after he retitled the film and raised the $ 200 @,@ 000 necessary to finish it - he , Philip Baker Hall , Gwyneth Paltrow and John C. Reilly contributed the funding . The version that was released was Anderson 's and the acclaim from the film launched his career .
|
ada55f4ae9264d831a685932eb1f4476
| 3,370 |
= = = = Boogie Nights = = = =
|
a245964b1b75dfb4be9ee6626e3c498c
| 3,372 |
Anderson began working on the script for his next feature film during his troubles with Hard Eight , completing the script in 1995 . The result was Anderson 's breakout for the drama film Boogie Nights ( 1997 ) , which is based on his short The Dirk Diggler Story . The script was noticed by New Line Cinema 's president , Michael De Luca , who felt " totally gaga " reading it . It was released on October 10 , 1997 and was a critical and commercial success . The film revived the career of Burt Reynolds , and provided breakout roles for Mark Wahlberg and Julianne Moore . At the 70th Academy Awards ceremony , the film received three Academy Award nominations , including for Best Supporting Actor ( Burt Reynolds ) , Best Supporting Actress ( Julianne Moore ) and Best Original Screenplay .
|
98ff42062166ab114dfe3d7d59c0401e
| 3,374 |
= = = = Magnolia = = = =
|
8935dd8b079ea4d8b914c15c5b771a1e
| 3,376 |
After the success of Boogie Nights , New Line told Anderson that he could do whatever he wanted for his next film and granted him creative control . Though Anderson initially wanted to make a film that was " intimate and small @-@ scale " , the script " kept blossoming " . The resulting film was the ensemble piece Magnolia ( 1999 ) , which tells the story of the peculiar interaction of several individuals in the San Fernando Valley . Anderson used the music of Aimee Mann as a basis and inspiration for the film , commissioning her to write eight new songs . At the 72nd Academy Awards , Magnolia received three nominations , for Best Actor in a Supporting Role ( Tom Cruise ) , Best Original Song for " Save Me " by Aimee Mann and Best Original Screenplay . Anderson stated after the film 's release that " what I really feel is that Magnolia is , for better or worse , the best movie I 'll ever make . "
|
f8323007f6e5ee54b9349c8701f78fea
| 3,378 |
= = = 2000s = = =
|
fa9615ac77ca58b688f8a6d3ae25a609
| 3,380 |
= = = = Punch @-@ Drunk Love = = = =
|
eaef8796b54e321da05a265f36154950
| 3,383 |
After the release of Magnolia , Anderson stated that he would like to work with comedic actor Adam Sandler in the future and that he was determined to make his next film 90 minutes long . His next feature was the romantic comedy @-@ drama film Punch @-@ Drunk Love ( 2002 ) , starring Sandler , with Emily Watson portraying his love interest . The story centers on a beleaguered small @-@ business owner ( Sandler ) with anger issues and seven emasculating sisters . A subplot in the film was partly based on David Phillips ( also called The Pudding Guy ) . Sandler received critical praise for his role in his first major departure from the mainstream comedies that had made him a star . At the 2002 Cannes Film Festival , Anderson won the Best Director Award and was nominated for the Palme d 'Or .
|
05ed16c8603a00bb248f429e5990cacf
| 3,385 |
= = = = There Will Be Blood = = = =
|
a2c72c2eba77f942307c195fbb82fcd2
| 3,387 |
There Will Be Blood ( 2007 ) was loosely based on the Upton Sinclair novel Oil ! . The budget of the film was $ 25 million , and it earned $ 76 @.@ 1 million worldwide . Daniel Day @-@ Lewis starred and won an Oscar for Best Leading Actor for his role . The film received eight nominations overall at the 80th Academy Awards . Paul Dano received a BAFTA nomination for Best Supporting Actor . Anderson was nominated for Best Director from the Directors Guild of America . The film also received eight Academy Award nominations , tying with No Country for Old Men for the most nominations . Anderson received nominations for Best Picture , Best Director and Best Adapted Screenplay , losing all three to the Coen Brothers for No Country for Old Men . There Will Be Blood was regarded by some critics as one of the greatest films of the decade , some parties further declaring it one of the most accomplished American films of the modern era ; David Denby of The New Yorker wrote " the young writer @-@ director Paul Thomas Anderson has now done work that bears comparison to the greatest achievements of Griffith and Ford " , while Richard Schickel proclaimed it " one of the most wholly original American movies ever made " .
|
078be258812760e182b945d45c9309f0
| 3,389 |
= = = 2010s = = =
|
4add34ffa62315307730a88c6e0cb3d9
| 3,391 |
= = = = The Master = = = =
|
b5d47620438061a92842601211d235da
| 3,394 |
In December 2009 , Anderson was working on a new script tentatively titled The Master , about a " charismatic intellectual " who starts a new religion in the 1950s . An associate of Anderson stated that the idea for the film had been in Anderson 's head for about twelve years . Though the film makes no reference to the movement , it has " long been widely assumed to be based on Scientology . " The Master was released on September 14 , 2012 by The Weinstein Company in the United States and Canada to critical acclaim . The film received three nominations at the 85th Academy Awards : Joaquin Phoenix for Best Leading Actor , Philip Seymour Hoffman for Best Supporting Actor and Amy Adams for Best Supporting Actress .
|
04328dae1b03f2c12b02419fcc0fd21a
| 3,396 |
= = = = Inherent Vice = = = =
|
3ed6dd17b3208c3e9a545817814a79e1
| 3,398 |
Production of Anderson 's adaptation of Thomas Pynchon 's 2009 novel Inherent Vice began in May 2013 and ended in August of the same year . The film marked the first time that Pynchon allowed his work to be adapted for the screen and saw Anderson work with Phoenix for a second time . The supporting cast includes Owen Wilson , Reese Witherspoon , Jena Malone , Martin Short , Benicio Del Toro , Katherine Waterston , Josh Brolin , Peter McRobbie , Michael K. Williams and Eric Roberts . The film received two nominations at the 87th Academy Awards : Anderson for Best Adapted Screenplay and Mark Bridges for Best Costume Design .
|
e417f25269b91f12e1d4078c596ecb40
| 3,400 |
= = = = Junun = = = =
|
530896cc0c845cb76655ea5816e9bf25
| 3,402 |
In 2015 , Anderson directed a 54 @-@ minute documentary , Junun , about the making of an album of the same name by Jonny Greenwood , Israeli composer Shye Ben Tzur and a group of Indian musicians . Most of the performances were recorded at the 15th @-@ century Mehrangarh Fort in the Indian state of Rajasthan . Junun premiered at the 2015 New York Film Festival .
|
9b22c6f10bacf4488b487ce4622d3456
| 3,404 |
= = = = Future projects = = = =
|
a70cebfdb2349fb83a54f44d308d1b33
| 3,406 |
Anderson is currently working on a drama about the New York fashion industry in the 1950s , which is expected to star Daniel Day @-@ Lewis in his first acting role since Lincoln in 2012 .
|
abec2d9410a273198e3b2309b35527d7
| 3,408 |
= = = Other work = = =
|
51ce9c45ca54ad44db6240d7e6479799
| 3,410 |
Anderson was a standby director during the 2005 filming of Robert Altman 's A Prairie Home Companion for insurance purposes , as Altman was 80 years old at the time . In addition to films , Anderson has directed several music videos , including several for musician Fiona Apple . In 2008 , Anderson co @-@ wrote and directed a 70 @-@ minute play at the Largo Theatre , comprising a series of vignettes starring Maya Rudolph and Fred Armisen , with a live musical score by Jon Brion .
|
aa2376d82593589ef849c080ace00017
| 3,412 |
= = Influences and style = =
|
fc1a2e05f57f46336eb4dc926705b8b3
| 3,414 |
= = = Influences = = =
|
629a9938353ec6a1e165235dcdf68d7a
| 3,417 |
Anderson only attended film school for two days , preferring to learn the craft by watching films by the filmmakers he liked , as well as watching films accompanied by director 's audio commentary . Anderson has cited Martin Scorsese , Robert Altman , Jonathan Demme , Stanley Kubrick , Orson Welles and Max Ophüls , as his main influences as a filmmaker .
|
e83039a53d76319d8ca9cd9340f9ba09
| 3,419 |
= = = Themes and style = = =
|
414a0d52d2d7f36a77fd354bc006af79
| 3,421 |
Anderson is known for films set in the San Fernando Valley with realistically flawed and desperate characters . Among the themes dealt with in Anderson 's films are dysfunctional familial relationships , alienation , surrogate families , regret , loneliness , destiny , the power of forgiveness , and ghosts of the past . Anderson makes frequent use of repetition to build emphasis and thematic consistency . In Boogie Nights , Magnolia , Punch Drunk Love and The Master , the phrase " I didn 't do anything " is used at least once , developing themes of responsibility and denial . Anderson 's films are known for their bold visual style which includes stylistic trademarks such as constantly moving camera , steadicam @-@ based long takes , memorable use of music , and multilayered audiovisual imagery . Anderson also tends to reference the Book of Exodus , either explicitly or subtly , such as in recurring references to Exodus 8 : 2 in Magnolia , which chronicles the plague of frogs , culminating with the literal raining of frogs in the film 's climax , or the title and themes in There Will Be Blood , a phrase that can be found in Exodus 7 : 19 , which details the plague of blood .
|
08dd217ef6121ce617831db7c0ff897c
| 3,423 |
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