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4101
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dbpedia
|
2
| 89 |
https://www.space.com/china-renovated-underground-laboratory-hunt-dark-matter
|
en
|
Massive underground laboratory in China joins the quest to find dark matter
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"Sharmila Kuthunur",
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2024-02-19T22:00:01+00:00
|
A renovated Chinese underground lab has expanded the search for dark matter, offering new promise for the detection of this abundant yet elusive substance.
|
en
|
Space.com
|
https://www.space.com/china-renovated-underground-laboratory-hunt-dark-matter
|
Dark matter — an invisible substance that somehow makes up over 80 percent of all matter in the universe — is a phenomenon that frustratingly eludes scientists. Despite being sought after for decades, and providing us with clues that it does indeed exist, dark matter has never been directly detected.
But now, the China Jinping Underground Laboratory (CJPL) — crowned the world's largest and deepest underground facility after its upgraded phase, CJPL-II — promises to take scientists a step further. It became operational in early December of last year.
Built inside repurposed tunnels running through the Jinping Mountains in China's Sichuan Province, the lab is buried beneath 2,400 meters (1.49 miles) of rock. The reason for its deep, lonely location is that so much rock can reduce background noise found in dark matter data, typically induced by things like cosmic rays (another space mystery for another time.)
Related: How much of the universe is dark matter?
Spread across 330,000 cubic meters, the enormous new facility is home to two upgraded dark matter detectors. The lab also has exceptional horizontal access. "One can drive a bus to the caverns," said Wick Haxton, a professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley, who has toured CJPL-II as well as the original laboratory, and was on the laboratory's advisory committee until last year.
This impressive aspect "makes the construction of large facilities underground less costly and more efficient," Haxton said. "I do not believe there is any other site that combines such great depth with such access."
Detecting the invisible
Scientists think the dark matter content that permeates our universe doesn't experience many of the interactions that charged particles, like protons and electrons, would, meaning particles thought to make up the mysterious substance could very well glide right through Earth's rock and pass through detectors located even below the surface at China's Jinping lab.
After all, a key characteristic of dark matter is the fact that it doesn't interact with light, unlike "normal," or baryonic, matter composed of protons and electrons. That's actually why it's fully invisible to us.
In the lab, however, scientists hope potential dark matter particles collide with material in detectors designed to flag these elusive particles. At Jinping, this search is spearheaded by two dark matter experiments, named the Particle and Astrophysical Xenon Experiments (PandaX) and the China Dark Matter Experiment (CDEX).
Potential dark matter particles colliding with atoms of liquid xenon maintained by the PandaX detector would be flagged by sensors as light flashes. Meanwhile, CDEX's higher-sensitivity germanium detector would tag these mysterious particles as electrical signals. The idea is that, even if nearly every dark matter particle whizzes past the detectors, at least one will accidentally come into contact with either of them.
Specifically, the detectors are hunting for a leading dark matter candidate called WIMPS (short for weakly interacting massive particles), a hypothetical class of particles predicted over three decades ago that have eluded the most sensitive experiments so far. Their presence, known only through the weak nuclear force and gravity, is within the understanding of how we think the universe evolved. In 2021, however, the world's most sensitive WIMP detectors at the Gran Sasso National Laboratory in Italy as well as Jinping reported a null finding.
Another leading alternative for the dark matter particle include axions, also a category of hypothetical particles thought to flood the universe and behave exactly like dark matter. Other exotic interpretations remain, such as the popular but unconfirmed theory that dark matter particles somehow interact with themselves (self-interacting dark matter or SIDM).
Dark matter experts say the upgraded Jinping lab could also help answer more fundamental questions, such as whether "particles" really constitute dark matter. A commonly held notion is that dark matter is primarily made of as yet undetected subatomic particle (or a group of them). But alternate popular (but imperfect theories) of gravity that don't require dark matter to be made up of particles persist.
"At a basic level, we don't know because we've never detected a particle interaction," said Matthew Walker, an astrophysicist at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. As ambitious as the goal is, detecting a dark matter particle would settle the issue once and for all. "To me, that's the most important thing this experiment could do."
|
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4101
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 8 |
https://www.tyndall.af.mil/About/Fact-Sheets/Article/315029/air-force-research-laboratory/
|
en
|
Air Force Research Laboratory
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Air Force Research Laboratory, with headquarters at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, was created in October 1997. The laboratory was formed through the consolidation of four former Air Force
|
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|
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Tyndall Air Force Base
|
https://www.tyndall.af.mil/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tyndall.af.mil%2FAbout%2FFact-Sheets%2FArticle%2F315029%2Fair-force-research-laboratory%2F
|
Air Force Research Laboratory, with headquarters at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, was created in October 1997. The laboratory was formed through the consolidation of four former Air Force laboratories and the Air Force Office of Scientific Research.
Mission
AFRL's mission is leading the discovery, development and integration of affordable warfighting technologies for America's aerospace forces. It is a full-spectrum laboratory, responsible for planning and executing the Air Force' science and technology program. AFRL leads a worldwide government, industry and academia partnership in the discovery, development and delivery of a wide range of revolutionary technology. The laboratory provides leading-edge warfighting capabilities keeping our air, space and cyberspace forces the world's best.
Personnel and Resources
The lab employs approximately 5,800 government people, including about 1,400 military and 4,400 civilian personnel. It is responsible for the Air Force's science and technology budget of nearly $2 billion including: basic research, applied research, advanced technology development and an additional $1.7 billion from AFRL customers.
Organization
AFRL accomplishes its mission through nine technology directorates located throughout the United States, the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and a central staff.
Headquarters AFRL operates the Major Shared Resource Center at Wright-Patterson AFB, one of four high-performance computing centers in the Department of Defense. The center is tackling large-scale problems previously beyond the reach of processing platforms and providing a vast array of services in a collaborative environment which includes government, industry and academia. The directorates:
Air Force Office of Scientific Research -- With a worldwide exchange program for scientists and engineers, AFOSR is the basic research manager for AFRL at its headquarters in Arlington, Va. AFOSR invests in long-term, broad-based research into aerospace-related science and engineering. To accomplish this mission, AFOSR has formed a strong, productive alliance with other government agencies, U.S. industry and the academic community. Nearly 80 percent of the research is conducted in academia and industry and the remaining 20 percent is conducted within AFRL. AFOSR's investment in basic research programs is distributed to about 300 academic institutions, 145 contracts with industry and more than 150 internal AFRL research efforts.
Air Vehicles Directorate -- With headquarters at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, the Air Vehicles Directorate leads the effort to develop and transition superior technology solutions that enable dominant military aerospace vehicles. The emphasis and vision are on technology investments that support cost-effective, survivable aerospace vehicles capable of accurate and quick delivery of a variety of future weapons or cargo anywhere in the world. To achieve this, core technology areas focus on aeronautical sciences, control sciences, structures and integration. The directorate targets advanced concepts to direct the development of vehicle technologies that provide future capabilities in the areas of sustainment, unmanned air vehicles, space access and future strike.
Directed Energy Directorate -- With headquarters at Kirtland AFB, N.M., the Directed Energy Directorate develops, integrates and transitions science and technology for directed energy, to include high power microwaves, lasers, adaptive optics, imaging and effects to assure the preeminence of the United States in air and space. The directorate provides research and development for leading-edge space capabilities as well as techniques and technologies to improve and transition optical systems to war-fighting commands. It is the Air Force's center of excellence for high power microwave technology and the Department of Defense's center of expertise for laser development, including semiconductor, gas, chemical and solid-state lasers. The Starfire Optical Range conducts theoretical and experimental research in advanced tracking, adaptive optics, atmospheric physics and imaging of objects in space using large ground-based telescopes. The directorate also assesses potential applications and effects of systems using directed energy technologies.
711th Human Performance Wing -- The 711th HPW at Wright-Patterson AFB is the first human-centric warfare wing to consolidate research, education and operational consultation under one roof. The 711th HPW merges the Air Force Research Laboratory Human Effectiveness Directorate with the mission organizations of the 311th Human Systems Wing currently located at Brooks City-Base, Texas; The Performance Enhancement Directorate and the U. S. Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine, which recently integrated the Air Force Institute for Operational Health. The wing's primary mission areas are aerospace medicine, science and technology, and human systems integration.
Information Directorate -- With headquarters at Rome, N.Y., the Information Directorate develops information technologies for aerospace command and control, and its transition to air, space and ground systems. Its focus areas include a broad spectrum of technologies including information fusion and exploitation, communications and networking, collaborative environments, modeling and simulation, defensive information warfare and intelligent information systems technologies. Directorate scientists and engineers develop systems, concepts and technologies to enhance the Air Force's capability to successfully meet the challenges of the information age. In addition to its primary mission, the directorate has partnered with other elements of the federal government, national intelligence agencies, numerous allied nations, state and local governments, and more than 50 major universities to work problems of common interest.
Materials and Manufacturing Directorate -- With headquarters at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, and an additional research facility at Tyndall AFB, Fla., the Materials and Manufacturing Directorate develops new materials, processes and manufacturing technologies for use in aerospace applications. This includes aircraft, spacecraft, missiles, rockets and ground-based systems and their structural, electronic and optical components. With a host of modern materials and analysis laboratories, the directorate also provides quick reaction support and real time solutions to Air Force weapon system acquisition offices, field organizations and maintenance depots to solve materials related concerns and problems. The directorate plans, executes and integrates advanced manufacturing technology programs and affordability initiatives addressing manufacturing process technologies, computer integrated manufacturing and excellence through design for military needs. The directorate is also responsible for the Air Force technology programs that address environmental issues and provides materials expertise for airbase assets such as runways and infrastructures and technologies for aerospace expeditionary forces.
Munitions Directorate -- With headquarters at Eglin AFB, Fla., the Munitions Directorate develops, demonstrates and transitions science and technology for air-launched munitions for defeating ground fixed, mobile/relocatable, air and space targets to assure pre-eminence of U.S. air and space forces. The directorate conducts basic research, exploratory development, and advanced development and demonstrations. It also participates in programs focused on technology transfer, dual-use technology and small business development. The directorate is dedicated to providing the Air Force with a strong revolutionary and evolutionary technology base upon which future air-delivered munitions can be developed to neutralize potential threats to the United States.
Propulsion Directorate -- With headquarters at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, and an additional research facility at Edwards AFB, Calif., the Propulsion Directorate develops air and space vehicle propulsion and power technologies. Focus areas include turbine and rocket engines, advanced propulsion systems, and the associated fuels and propellants for all propulsion systems. The directorate is also responsible for most forms of power technology making it one of the nation's leaders in its field. Programs address both future systems and the need to keep current systems competitive, safe, affordable and effective. The directorate has contributed technology to more than 130 military and commercial systems.
Sensors Directorate -- With headquarters at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, and additional research facilities at Hanscom AFB, Mass. and Rome, N.Y., the Sensors Directorate develops the new technologies that U.S. warfighters need to find and precisely engage the enemy and eliminate its ability to hide or threaten our forces. In collaboration with other AFRL directorates and DOD organizations, the directorate develops sensors for air and space reconnaissance, surveillance, precision engagement and electronic warfare systems. The directorate's vision is to provide a full range of air and space sensors, networked to the warfighter, providing a complete and timely picture of the battlespace enabling precision targeting of the enemy and protection friendly air and space assets. Its core technology areas include: radar, active and passive electro-optical targeting systems, navigation aids, automatic target recognition, sensor fusion, threat warning and threat countermeasures.
Space Vehicles Directorate -- With headquarters at Kirtland AFB, N.M. and an additional research facility at Hanscom AFB, Mass., the Space Vehicles Directorate develops and transitions space technologies for more effective, more affordable warfighter missions. The directorate also leverages commercial, civil and other government resources that ensure America's defense advantage. Primary focus areas include: radiation hardened electronics; space power; space structures and control; space based sensing; space environmental effects; autonomous maneuvering; and balloon and satellite flight experiments.
History
The laboratory and its predecessors have overseen more than 80 years of critical research efforts for the Air Force and DOD. Its technology breakthroughs can be found in all of today's modern aircraft and weapons systems, including the F-117 stealth fighter, B-2 bomber, C-17 airlifter and the F-22 fighter. It was contributed to significant advancements in modern communications, electronics, manufacturing, and medical research and products.
Current as of: Oct. 20, 2021
|
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4101
|
dbpedia
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| 92 |
https://new.nsf.gov/news/nsf-invests-162-million-research-centers
|
en
|
NSF invests $162 million in research centers to accelerate materials science from lab to factory
|
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"National Science Foundation"
] |
2023-06-26T09:55:39-04:00
|
A $162 million investment from the U.S. National Science Foundation will drive the creation of advanced materials capable of remarkable things — from being…
|
en
|
/themes/custom/nsf_theme/favicons/favicon-32x32.png
|
NSF - National Science Foundation
|
https://new.nsf.gov/news/nsf-invests-162-million-research-centers
|
A $162 million investment from the U.S. National Science Foundation will drive the creation of advanced materials capable of remarkable things — from being tough enough to withstand the heat of a fusion reactor to processing information at the quantum level. Nine Materials Research Science and Engineering Centers (MRSECs) will each receive $18 million over six years. The centers aim to transform fundamental scientific breakthroughs into tangible benefits for multiple sectors of the U.S. economy and innovations that can be produced on tomorrow's factory floors.
"NSF's Materials Research Science and Engineering Centers will help us seize new opportunities in semiconductors, biotech, quantum information and more, addressing the needs of our society and advancing critical emerging technologies," said NSF Director Sethuraman Panchanathan. "They will do so by expanding and enriching the ecosystem of innovation across our country."
"Since the 1970s, NSF's Materials Research Science and Engineering Centers have yielded countless breakthroughs, from shape-morphing materials to plastics that conduct electricity"
From Tennessee to Washington state, the 2023 class of MRSECs are located at nine institutions across the country. In total, NSF now supports 20 such centers. The latest ones will expand the centers' portfolios to pursue a broad range of research projects to unlock new capabilities in a number of areas: semiconductors, artificial intelligence, biotechnology, sustainable energy sources and storage, advanced manufacturing, quantum computing and sensing, and other areas critical for U.S. leadership in materials research. In addition to enabling new commercial opportunities and industries in the U.S., the centers will train students and early career researchers who will become tomorrow's scientific and technical leaders.
"Since the 1970s, NSF's Materials Research Science and Engineering Centers have yielded countless breakthroughs, from shape-morphing materials to plastics that conduct electricity," said NSF Assistant Director for Mathematical and Physical Sciences Sean L. Jones. "Our current centers continue that proud tradition and provide the essential catalyst — born in the materials lab — which ignites American innovations that propel our country's scientific and economic leadership."
NSF's support for the centers also provides resources to train hundreds of undergraduate and graduate students, along with educational STEM programs that will engage hundreds more K-12 students and teachers in dozens of school districts. The centers will engage with local startups and the business community to form partnerships that can take novel materials from the discovery phase to commercialization. Dozens of collaborating institutions will also participate with the centers, including many minority-serving and emerging-research institutions.
The nine 2023 centers are:
Illinois Materials Research Science and Engineering Center
Located at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, the center will investigate 1) how strain in materials can be used to control the motion of electrons and can enable novel information storage and processing models in quantum materials as well as for energy production and storage, and 2) materials with light-controlled conduction of ions with applications in new electrochemical manufacturing, energy and information technologies.
Center for Dynamics and Control of Materials
Located at The University of Texas at Austin, the center will design 1) new soft biomaterials whose structure and functionality can be actively controlled and which can be used for applications such as synthetic cells and adaptive thermal coatings, and 2) atomically thin materials with novel structures that can be useful for microelectronics, quantum information processing and other applications.
University of Washington Molecular Engineering Materials Center
Located at the University of Washington, the center will develop 1) materials in which light can tune the magnetic properties of individual electrons for applications in quantum information processing and sensing, and 2) so-called "elastic quantum matter" materials in which strain forces produce and influence quantum-scale effects.
Northwestern University Materials Research Science and Engineering Center
Located at Northwestern University, the center aims to create 1) bio-inspired materials that can be programmed to perform self-directed functions, like self-healing and shape-morphing, which could be used in food-storage, clothing or wound care, and 2) materials that conduct both electrons and ions, mimicking the capabilities of brain neurons.
Laboratory for Research on the Structure of Matter
Located at the University of Pennsylvania, the center will develop 1) new materials that can adapt to their surroundings and external triggers, with potential applications ranging from flexible materials that can deflect the energy of, for example, a hammer blow to creating soft robots that can perform complex tasks, and 2) tissue-like synthetic biomaterials made from cellular building blocks capable of the controlled release of key molecules inside cells, akin to drug delivery.
Materials Research Laboratory at UCSB
Located at the University of California, Santa Barbara, the center will focus on developing 1) new chemistries and processing methods to enable solvent-free manufacturing of sustainable polymers with improved recyclability, and 2) adaptive biomaterials that mimic living systems with applications in soft implants and haptics (systems which utilize touch and movement for control).
Wisconsin Materials Research Science and Engineering Center
Located at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the center will develop 1) new types of glassy materials, such as flexible metallic and thin organic semiconducting glasses with applications from electronic displays to new formulations of drug molecules into pill form, and 2) thin, crystalline-based membrane materials that feature ultrafast magnetic switching properties which can advance the fields of information processing, high-speed data storage and quantum computing.
Center for Advanced Materials & Manufacturing
Located at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, the center is dedicated to 1) accelerating the understanding, design and control of quantum materials and systems through artificial intelligence, with potential advances in materials for energy harvesting, low-power electronics, quantum computing and novel sensing applications, and 2) developing materials that can withstand the extreme temperatures and pressures needed for nuclear fusion and hypersonic defense systems.
Center for Materials Innovations at Michigan
Located at the University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, the center will focus on developing 1) new layered materials with tailored nanoscale structures to enable elusive quantum states for quantum information processing, and 2) new recyclable polymeric materials capable of self-healing with potential applications in additive manufacturing and the creation of materials whose properties can be regulated on demand.
|
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4101
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 31 |
https://www.toyota-tsusho.com/english/press/detail/180821_004238.html
|
en
|
Using AI and IoT, University Aquaculture Research Institute is challenging to establish automated streamline of Aquaculture Cultivation Selection- Aiming to expand "Workstyle Innovation" of fishery in
|
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"Using AI and IoT, University Aquaculture Research Institute is challenging to establish automated streamline of Aquaculture Cultivation Selection- Aiming to expand "Workstyle Innovation" of fishery industry with cloud and digital technology -" - Toyota Tsusho is the trading arm of the Toyota Group.It is developing the business in the seven divisions and the administrative supporting division.
|
en
|
/english/app-files/img/symbol/favicon.ico
|
Toyota Tsusho Corporation
|
https://www.toyota-tsusho.com/english/press/detail/180821_004238.html
|
2018-08-21
|
||||
4101
|
dbpedia
|
1
| 72 |
https://www.murraystate.edu/about/administration/Provost/orca/events/posters-at-capitol.aspx
|
en
|
Posters at the Capitol
|
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2024-07-26T09:22:38.097913-07:00
|
Murray State University's Posters at the Capitol event helps to increase understanding of the importance undergraduate research plays in education.
|
en
|
https://www.murraystate.edu/about/administration/Provost/orca/events/posters-at-capitol.aspx
|
The 23rd Annual Posters-at-the-Capitol event is scheduled for March 6, 2025. The deadline for submission of student abstracts is December 9, 2024 with official acceptance and regrets to arrive no later than Jan. 17, 2025.
The purpose of Posters-at-the-Capitol is to help those responsible for higher education funding in Kentucky better understand the important role that undergraduate research plays in the education of our students. We encourage faculty mentoring student research to encourage their students to communicate with their hometown and university legislators at this event.
Our program is scheduled to run from 12 p.m. until 3:45 p.m., with special remarks in the Capitol Building Rotunda at 12:00 noon. Each participating institution can include up to twelve posters, each with up to two representing students.
Register to Submit an Abstract
First create a Digital Commons account at https://login.bepress.com/account/register/
Log in
Visit the Posters-at-the-Capitol page: https://digitalcommons.murraystate.edu/postersatthecapitol/
Click on 'Submit Abstract' found under Author Corner on the left-hand side
Follow the submission form prompts
Have the following information ready
Title
Abstract
Be prepared to answer optional questions about:
Prior presentation
Faculty mentor research involvement
Why this research is important to you
Why this research is important to share with state legislators
You do not need to have your poster completed yet, but you will have the option to upload your digital file to be shared online
Once your submission has successfully been entered, you will receive an automated confirmation email
Poster Guidelines
You or your faculty mentor are responsible for printing and bringing your poster to the event
Posters may not exceed 48" by 48" (they may be smaller)
An easel, 48" by 48" poster board, and clips will be prepared for your use
See more general selection guidelines
Tentative Program Schedule
11:00-12:00 REGISTRATION & SETUP (MEZZANINE/MIDDLE LEVEL)
12:00-12:30 OPENING CEREMONY (ROTUNDA)
12:30-1:30 GROUPPHOTOS (SENATE STAIRCASE)
12:40 - Kentucky Community and Technical College System
12:45 - Kentucky State University
12:50 - Eastern Kentucky University
12:55 - Northern Kentucky University
01:00 - Morehead State University
01:05 - University of Kentucky
01:10 - University of Louisville
01:15 - Western Kentucky University
01:20 - Murray State University
01:25 - ALL GROUP PHOTO
1:30-2:30 STUDENT POSTER DISPLAY (MEZZANINE/MIDDLE LEVEL)
2:30-3:30 STUDENT LIGHTNING TALKS (ROTUNDA)
3:30-3:35 CLOSING REMARKS (ROTUNDA)
3:40 STUDENTS RETURN BOARD, CLIPS, AND EASELS TO REGISTRATION TABLE
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TLI Investigator Dr. Lynda Polgreen’s Study Published in Nature Medicine Showin…
June 29, 2024
The study found that anakinra is safe and effective in improving neurobehavioral and functional outcomes for patients with Sanfilippo syndrome
TLI Investigator Dr. Marianne Gausche-Hill Co-authors New Study Revealing Cost-…
June, 11 2024
A groundbreaking study published in the Journal of the American College of Emergency Physicians Open demonstrates that adhering to national pediatric care guidelines in emergency departments (EDs) saves children’s lives and is cost-effective.
A Trailblazer Returns: 94-Year-Old Mary Burns Revisits Lundquist Institute for …
June 10, 2024
Marking a special milestone for medical research, Mary Burns, a 94-year-old trailblazer in the battle against COPD, made her return to The Lundquist Institute
TLI Receives $2.6 Million Grant from USAMRAA to Develop Wearable Biosensors
April 24, 2024
The proposed sensor has the potential to not only revolutionize COPD management but also to impact healthcare by incorporating wearable electronics into chronic disease management
TLI Investigator Dr. Denise Al Alam Receives $1.5 Million Grant from CIRM to Ex…
April 2, 2024
TLI Investigator Dr. Denise Al Alam Receives $1.5 Million Grant from CIRM to Explore Genetic Defects of Lung Disease in Down Syndrome
Dr. Nicholas Jendzjowsky Receives NIH/NIAID Grant to Investigate the Neural Reg…
Wednesday, March 20, 2024
The project will take a pioneering approach to unraveling sensory and autonomic neurons in the overproduction of IgE in allergic asthma
TLI Investigator Dr. Wei Yan Named Editor-in-Chief of the Andrology Journal
March 18, 2024
The Lundquist Institute is proud to announce that Wei Yan, MD, PhD, a distinguished professor at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and Lundquist investigator, has been appointed by the American Society of Andrology and the European Academy of An
Dr. Loren Miller to Receive 2024 Top Ten Clinical Research Achievement Award
February 14, 2024
Lundquist Investigator Loren Miller, MD, MPH, will be honored with a 2024 Top Ten Clinical Research Achievement Award by the Clinical Research Forum (CR Forum) at a Las Vegas, NV ceremony, on April 2, 2024. Dr. Miller is an Investigator at TLI, Chief of I
Donor Impact Report
September 1, 2023
Your support has directly enabled us to conduct research focusing on life-threatening diseases like cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). You’ve helped us launch clinical trials that are testing cutting-edge therapies, and for that, we
Lundquist Institute, L.A. County Emergency Services & Harbor-UCLA Department of…
November 9, 2023
This initiative seeks to improve emergency medical services in L.A. County by drastically reducing post-motor vehicle crash deaths through a new protocol mobile application
Lundquist Investigator Dr. Mohsen Saidinejad is the Lead Author of an article i…
October 26, 2023
In the Pediatrics article, “The Management of Children and Youth Pediatric Mental and Behavioral Health Emergencies,” Dr. Saidinejad and his co-authors note that “mental and behavioral health (MBH) conditions affect as many as 1 in 5 children ...
The Lundquist Institute Innovation Showcase
10/9/2023
The Innovation Showcase has been blessed with a history of stellar speakers and this year expanded upon those laurels.
Lundquist Investigator Dr. Harry Rossiter Awarded $3.8 Million NIH Grant To De…
September 20, 2023
The Lundquist Institute (TLI) Investigator, Harry Rossiter, PhD, has been awarded a five-year R01 grant totaling $3.8 Million from the National Institutes of Health’s National Heart Lung and Blood Institute (NIH/NHLBI). The R01 is the most prestigious and
Reach Magazine, Fall 2023
Research Within Reach
Dr. Joel Kopple on Nutritional Therapy for Chronic Kidney Disease | A Full Plate: Pursuing A PhD and Raising a Family at the Same Time | The New Farima Czyzyk Center for Cardiac Research and Wellness
Lundquist Institute Investigator Eiji Yoshihara, PhD., Receives Two Major Grant…
September 16, 2023
TRDRP Research grant and JDRF multi-PI grant will help to establish the basis of diabetes and provides new therapeutics
The Lundquist Institute Receives Gift from the Samberg Foundation to Study the…
July 25, 2023
The gift will facilitate an FDA-approved multi-site clinical trial under the co-direction of Lundquist Investigators, Dr. Charles S. Grob and Dr. Anthony P. Bossis
Lundquist Institute Investigator Dr. Virender Rehan and Advent Therapeutics Awa…
July 25, 2023
The NIH Award will Support Dr. Rehan’s and Advent’s Research to Develop and Position Its Novel Aerosolized Vitamin A Formulation for Commercialization to Prevent BPD
The Lundquist Institute celebrated the career of David S. Cannom, MD Video
April 8, 2023
The Lundquist Institute celebrated the career of David S. Cannom, MD, on April 8 with a dinner event in his honor. Dr. Cannom is a cardiac electrophysiologist and a cardiologist and has been practicing medicine for nearly 60 yrs. Click to watch the video
The Lundquist Institute celebrated the career of David S. Cannom, MD, Photos
April 8, 2023
The Lundquist Institute celebrated the career of David S. Cannom, MD, on April 8 in Torrance, California with a dinner event in his honor. Dr. Cannom is a cardiac electrophysiologist and a cardiologist and has been practicing medicine for nearly 60 years.
The Lundquist Institute Now Working on a Vaccine for the Urgent Fungal Threat o…
March 23, 2023
CDC says Candida auris is spreading at an alarming rate throughout health care facilities in the U.S. and is resistant to several antifungal drugs
2022 Lundquist Legends Scott Filler, MD, and Darrell Harrington, MD, Honored fo…
December 13, 2022
Dr. Filler feted for his research on fungal infections and vaccines while Dr. Harrington celebrated for his work in internal medicine and treating venous thromboembolism (VTE)
Reach Magazine, Fall 2022
Saving Lives One Breath at a Time
Matt Budoff on Why Our Hearts Need a Mammogram; Eiji Yoshihara on Stem Cell Therapy for Diabetes; Meet Our Scientists, Meet the Board, and much more.
Lundquist Institute Investigator Dr. Matt Budoff Receives $1 Million Gift from …
November 22, 2022
The Gift Will be Used to Study the Effects of the Anti-Inflammatory Colchicine in People with Coronary Artery Disease
News & Updates from Lundquist Investigators
May 3, 2022
At The Lundquist Institute, our investigators and researchers work at the cutting edge of discovery. To highlight and showcase their work, we are launching a new site called Investigator News. Learn more here.
Education and Training Opportunities
February 23, 2022
As part of its continuing educational outreach efforts, The Lundquist Institute provides training opportunities for students (high school, undergraduate, graduate) seeking an experience in medical research or administration.
The Lundquist “Impositive” Float Will Be in the 2022 Rose Parade
December 6 2021
The Lundquist Institute will have a float in the 2022 Rose Parade called “Impositive” to celebrate its 70th Anniversary.
Prestigious $5 Million CIRM Scholar Research Training Award Received
September 24, 2021
Received a generous $5 million, 5-year grant from the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine (CIRM) that will allow its PhD students, postdoctoral fellows and clinical fellows to pursue careers in …
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Sharing Tokyo
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The book questions how “artifice” and the “social world” can be mutually and constructively integrated so that the contemporary urban space can be ...
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The book questions how “artifice” and the “social world” can be mutually and constructively integrated so that the contemporary urban space can be shared by all. Taking the example of Tokyo, it takes up the two major traits in urban transformation – the large-scale development model on the one hand, and the small-scale model of neighborhood development or preservation on the other – and instead seeks alternative ideas and new strategies. A variety of innovative practices are presented by a diverse group of contributors including renowned scholars, architects, urbanists, and photographers from Japan and the US, and the research team at the Harvard University Graduate School of Design. While the discourses and architectural works presented deal with the specificity of Tokyo, they were carefully selected to formulate together a collection of insights, new perspectives, and speculative experiments in urbanism and architecture that can also be used in other contexts.
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Elaine in Japan
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2023-03-24T12:00:00
|
Read updates on CASHP PhD student Elaine Miller's summer fellowship in Japan at the Center for International Collaboration and Advanced Studies in Primatology.
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Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology | Columbian College of Arts & Sciences
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https://cashp.columbian.gwu.edu/elaine-japan
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Follow here to get updates on CASHP PhD student Elaine Miller's summer fellowship in Japan at the Center for International Collaboration and Advanced Studies in Primatology.
--
Elaine in Japan – JSPS Blog Post #8 - August 30, 2022
My summer fellowship in Japan has ended. I had such an amazing time! I explored a new country, made new friends and colleagues and I learned a lot about chimpanzee cognition. I can’t imagine a better way to have spent the summer and I am very grateful to Adachi sensei, Dr. Anthony Tosi and everyone at the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for all their support.
For my last weekend in Japan, I went on a spur-of-the-moment trip to Kyoto with some of the other international students at EHUB: Ken, Sanjana, Ozan, André, Vanessa and Josue. We stayed in a capsule hotel, which is a room with a bunch of sleeping spaces or capsules. Each capsule has a twin-sized bed and a small light, and each capsule comes with a nightgown. On Friday evening we went out for pizza and drinks and then we enjoyed some of the nightlife in the city. When we returned to our capsule hotel, we all got dressed in our matching nightgowns and went to bed. On Saturday morning everyone was tired, but I bounced out of my capsule after a few hours of sleep because it was my last chance to explore more of Kyoto. I walked over to the Kyoto Imperial Palace, which was the residence of Japan’s imperial family from 1331 to 1869. I enjoyed a guided tour where I got to see everything from the carriage porch to the Seiryōden (Hall of Ceremonies). I also visited the Kyoto Sento Imperial Palace, which is a secondary palace complex that is surrounded by stunning Japanese gardens. The best part of the gardens is the waterfowl that you can spot. After a long day of visiting Kyoto’s palaces, I reunited with my friends, and we all went out for Indian food. Then we took an evening stroll along the Katsura river.
Sunday morning, we all got up, got ready for the day and went for coffee. Ken, Sanjana and I took a taxi to visit the Kinkaku-ji Temple, which is a golden Zen temple of the Rinzai Buddhist denomination. It was stunning – the most beautiful piece of architecture I have ever seen. After visiting the temple and the surrounding gardens, we all met at a Moroccan restaurant for lunch. The chef came out and asked us where we are all from. When I told him I was from California he talked to me about how lots of Hollywood films were made in Morocco and how Morocco was one of the first countries to recognize the United States as an independent nation from the British Empire. From there, we decided to return to Inuyama. On the way back, we stopped at a thrift store and went shopping for ceramics, clothes and other little household items.
My last few days in Japan were a whirlwind! I continued running experiments with the chimpanzees. I hope they are learning the association between the three colored rectangles and the video content that they represent. Once they make this association and are habituated, then we can identify any preferences they have for social, nonsocial and environmental content. Unfortunately, my fellowship period ended before I could collect all the data I need. I hope that someone can continue the project to see where it leads. In any case, I am thrilled with my new experience, and I know it’s made me a better scientist. I would love to come back to Japan to continue the project I have started or collaborate on other projects.
Thanks for following along on my adventures as a JSPS summer fellow!
Elaine
P.S. If anyone is thinking about applying for a JSPS fellowship, I am happy to elaborate more on my experience and answer any questions!
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Elaine in Japan – JSPS Blog Post #7 - August 5, 2022
Yay! I have recovered from COVID and I am out of quarantine! I am so happy, but at the same time, very sad because I lost precious time in Japan.
Quarantine was hard. As I was inside my room, I looked out the window and the weather was so perfect for going out to visit, but I couldn’t leave. I was not particularly productive during my quarantine either. I felt too anxious to focus so I doodled a lot. On my fourth day of quarantine, a giant huntsman spider jumped out of the shower and that was really the most excitement I had. He was subsequently named Bob Jeffey and although I feared him, I enjoyed his company. I found him particularly cute when he tried to hide from me because I could always find his little legs wrapped around the edge of a box or along the wall from behind the curtains. In any case, no one I was in contact with has had symptoms or tested positive and I am very happy about that.
As my COVID quarantine ended, I got back to work. I put together all my video clips from Tama Zoo including those that I found online and those that I collected myself. Adachi sensei and I worked together to plan the video sequence files and he did a bunch of coding to make a program that would run the video sequence files the proper way for the experiments. After adjusting the resolution of some clips, converting file types and triple checking everything, we were finally ready to do experiments.
The experiments are simple. A chimpanzee enters the skylab, which is a space built into the fourth floor of the chimpanzee enclosure that is equipped with computers to run cognitive tests. Immediately, I put on the program for that chimpanzee. The chimpanzee touches a colored square on the screen to initiate the trial. Then, three colored rectangles appear each representing a different type of video content: 1. social interaction between chimpanzees such as two individuals playing together, 2. nonsocial action of chimpanzees such as two chimpanzees playing independently, and 3. the environment where these actions take place such as the giant climbing structure. After the chimpanzee, chooses a video (any video) they receive a little banana pellet. I have run several tests with multiple chimpanzees, and I look forward to seeing if they prefer one type of video or another. The data from experiments like this one yield a deeper understanding of what a chimpanzee finds rewarding. Are they motivated to observe social interactions or are they more motivated to observe the environment? Why is one or the other of more interest and how does this inform their behavior? One additional benefit of doing experiments like this one, is that they are enriching. I hope the chimpanzees enjoy themselves as it could be argued these tests are the human equivalent of watching television and eating treats.
As my time in Japan is ending, I hope to collect a bunch of data and keep visiting this beautiful country.
More next week!
Elaine
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Elaine in Japan – JSPS Blog Post #6 - July 25, 2022
Time is going too quick in Japan and before I leave, I am realizing how much I will want to come back. This week was hard because I got sick, but I am hopeful that I will recover quick and be back at it.
This past weekend I did my JSPS HomeStay. This is a JSPS program that matches its fellows with a local Japanese family. Then, you spend the weekend together as a cultural exchange. I was matched with the lovely Matsuno family; a mom named Mari and a dad named Yuichiro, and their three sons ages 7, 5, and 2. They picked me up from EHUB and had the most precious sign to welcome me! On Friday night, we played MarioKart and ate dinner. Mari made many wonderful things to eat including corn, soup, salad with hard-boiled egg, egg custard, rice with fish, natto and seaweed. It was all very good! On Saturday, we had breakfast together, which was soup and a pickled plum riceball. After, we played and watched TV for a while until it was time to have lunch. The Matsuno family treated me to a famous unagi restaurant. I had never eaten unagi, so it was exciting for me! From there, we went to the aquarium, which was tons of fun! The kids and I fed lettuce to tortoises and little feed pellets to fish! We got to see all kinds of cool aquatic animals. The kids were very sweet and insisted on holding my hand through the aquarium. For dinner, Mari showed me how to make okonomiyaki, which is like a salty Japanese pancake. I LOVED it! I look forward to recreating it at home. On Sunday, we had breakfast together. This time we had soup and toast with apple jam. Mari showed me the Tanabata Tree in their home and I got to add my wishes to it! For lunch, we went to a restaurant where we had soba and tempura! Super good! In the afternoon, we visited museum Meiji-Mura, which is an open-air architectural museum. It's like an old-town attraction where you can see how an old Japanese town was. There are old buildings, games to play and little shops. After, Mari very kindly took me back to my dorm but not before she gave me a parting gift of a tea towel, Japanese fan, and some teas. It was truly a fantastic weekend. I feel extremely grateful to have been welcomed so warmly into the Matsuno home.
After, my weekend with the Matsuno family, I traveled to Tachikawa, which is a few hours from Inuyama, to visit the Tama Zoo. I arrived late on Sunday evening after taking the Meitetsu to Nagoya, the shinkansen to Tokyo, and the JR Chūō to Tachikawa. On Monday morning, I woke up, got dressed and went to the train station to get to the Tama Zoo. I stopped at a bakery in the train station where I had a peach pastry, some cheese balls, and a matcha latte. I like matcha now. From there, I meandered to the monorail stop and made it to Tama Zoo. I spent all day trying to record the chimpanzees, and I got some good footage, yes, but it was more difficult than I had anticipated. These chimpanzees do what they want and that frequently does not include my specific target behaviors, within my view. Eventually, I came back to my hotel and ate a lemon jelly and rested in my room. I finally came out to go to an Indian restaurant where I had chili paneer, salad, and naan. It was delicious! The next day I woke up and went back to Tama Zoo to record the chimpanzees. They were out and about more than they were the day before and I captured more footage. Even though I didn’t get to record as much as I wanted over the course of my two days at the zoo it was such a joy to see these chimpanzees en vrai as I had spent so many hours watching footage of them and making clips for my experiments.
I arrived back in Inuyama around 8:45pm on Tuesday and I didn’t know it then, but I would not be coming out for a while. The next morning, I woke up feeling ill with a sore throat and very fatigued. I took a rapid COVID test, and it came up positive. It’s been five days and I haven’t set foot from my room. No one on campus has a positive test or any symptoms and the Matsuno family says they’re all in good health too. I am most happy about that, but I am also feeling better now and a little anxious to leave my room soon!
More next week!
Elaine
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Elaine in Japan – JSPS Blog Post #5 - July 16, 2022
I am more than halfway through my time here in Japan and there is still so much to see and do!
This past weekend was incredibly rainy – storms galore! Sunday afternoon the thunder, lightning and rain finally stopped, and I could go out to visit Japan! I decided to go to Nagoya to visit the Nagoya Castle, which is beautiful and also includes the Hommaru Palace, which houses stunning gold paintings. Here, I enjoyed matcha ice cream with red bean and mochi!
After seeing the castle and palace, I visited Atsuta Jingu, which is a very special shrine in Nagoya. I got to see a sword-making demonstration there. Interestingly, the Kusanagi-no-tsurugi is housed in the Atsuta shrine. This is a legendary sword in Japanese folklore and one of three sacred treasures of the Imperial House. The shrine had roosters that wander around all the buildings and people love this! I saw several people (not just tourists) taking photos of the roosters and standing by to watch them as they clucked around one of the greatest centers of worship in Japan. For dinner, I went to a vegan restaurant called Vegi Kitchen GuGu where I ate a bunch of really delicious mapo tofu and salad.
This past week, I have continued to collect and edit even more video clips for my experiments. I have also been planning my trip to the Tama Zoo to collect some of my own footage! Yay!
More next week!
Elaine
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Elaine in Japan – JSPS Blog Post #4 - July 9, 2022
It’s already my fourth week in Japan and I am enjoying every second of it!
This past weekend, my friend Bethan and I went to Kyoto, which is the former capital of Japan. What a fabulous city! We left Friday evening taking the Meitetsu train to Nagoya, and the Shinkansen train to Kyoto. The Shinkansen are the bullet trains, which reach speeds of ~200mph and riding one is fun because you feel like you are gliding through space as everything out the window is a bit of a blur. We checked into our hotel and went out to ramen at a restaurant called Ramen Uzo Kyoto. It was a totally unique experience because everyone is sat at one large table in the dark and the back wall is a gigantic screen with artsy brush strokes playing. To accompany the art, there was elegant piano music. I had spicy miso ramen and matcha mochi ice cream, which was so good. Saturday, we rode bikes to Arashiyama Monkey Park Iwatayama to see free-ranging Japanese macaques. I just love how fluffy they are. The monkeys live up on top of a mountain, which is about a 25m hike from the Katsura river. I got to see several monkeys grooming, eating, hoping around and swimming in the pond. The pond has giant fish in it and the monkeys poke and try to grab the fish as they swim around. After seeing the macaques, we went to Shigetsu for lunch, which is a Zen vegetarian restaurant located at Tenryu-ji Temple. This was another exceptional dining experience. Bethan and I were seated on the floor in a private room and served all sorts of dishes: rice, purée soup, omelet in broth, tofu different vegetables (prepared in different ways), miso eggplant. To be honest, I had never seen most of the dishes and I am still unsure how they’re called, but it was delicious, and I feel extremely privileged to have had such a wonderful meal. After lunch, we visited Tenryu-ji Temple and the surrounding gardens, and both were lovely. From there, we wandered over to the Arashiyama Bamboo Grove and walked through, looking up at the tall stalks, and feeling like ants.
Sunday was a rainy day – like super rainy. We took a taxi to the famous Fushimi Inari Shrine, which was stunning and walked under the Torri gates as it poured. We had lunch at a restaurant called Ain Soph, which was a totally vegan restaurant that served “chicken” teriyaki among other things. I had this fantastic pineapple drink. From Ain Soph, we walked to the Kiyomizu-dera Temple. This temple is not only beautiful, but it is situated up on Mt. Otowa where you get beautiful views of the Higashiyama mountain range and the city. The road leading up to the temple is lined with all different types of boutiques from which you can buy ceramics, baked goods, trinkets and all types of fun stuff. From the temple, we walked back to Kyoto station and took the Shinkansen train back to Nagoya and from there, we took the Meitetsu train back to Inuyama. It was a fantastic weekend to say the least.
This past week, I have been collecting and editing more video clips for my experiments. I suspect that my project will be 80% preparing for experiments with chimpanzees and 20% doing experiments with chimpanzees. We’re still working on organizing a special visit for me to the Tama Zoo to collect some footage of my own. I hope this works out! In any case, I am having a wonderful time and learning a lot along the way so I could not ask for more.
More next week!
Elaine
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Elaine in Japan – JSPS Blog Post #3 - July 1, 2022
It’s already my third week in Japan and time is going so quickly!
This past weekend I decided to relax a bit, especially because the heat here is so intense and exhausting! Friday evening, I had dinner and drinks with the other international students at an Izakaya restaurant called Sennen-no-Utage. Upon entering, customers remove their shoes and are sat in a private room with their party where they settle in for lots of eating and drinking. I overindulged in this sour lemon drink and tofu skins. Sunday, I went on a lone expedition to visit downtown Inuyama and Inuyama castle. The downtown area is beautiful. There is a main road with lots of boutiques and little groceries that sell everything from penny purses to cucumbers. There are also little restaurants where people can buy meats on sticks, ice cream, sushi, all kinds of items. One shop in particular stood out to me – the kimono rental shop. People come, get dressed up and spend the day shopping, walking around and eating in restaurants all in traditional clothing. The castle itself was fabulous. Like the Izakaya restaurant, visitors must remove their shoes upon entering. After climbing a series of very steep, large steps, visitors reach the top of the castle and step out to see stunning views of the river and the city.
This week I have continued my efforts to find video clips to do my experiments with the chimpanzees. It’s exceptionally difficult to control for the number of individuals in each clip, the ages of individuals, the actions they’re performing and if these actions are social or self-directed. In any case, I am making good progress. All my video footage comes from Tama Zoo in Tokyo and therefore I would like to go to the zoo myself to collect some video. Fingers crossed I can make this happen! In the meantime, I still sit in on other students’ experiments, which is always fun. I am slowly getting to learn the character of each chimpanzee here. For example, Akira, an older male individual tends to spill juice all over himself and on the floor, but he doesn’t like to sit or step in it. This means that whenever he comes to do experiments, the experimenter sets up a special wooden stool with slots for him. This allows for the juice to run through the stool and down the floor away from him. In the photos, you can see him on his stool drawing, and you can see his final masterpiece.
Besides the chimpanzees, I am also meeting lots of interesting humans. Dr. Andrew Macintosh is a primate ecologist who specializes in studying parasites among other things. He also produces his own podcast called The Primate Cast to discuss all kinds of topics in primatology with notable experts. I totally encourage anyone with an interest in the natural world and especially primates to have a listen.
More next week!
Elaine
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Elaine in Japan – JSPS Blog Post #2 - June 27, 2022
It’s my second week in Japan and I am feeling more and more settled. I think learning more Japanese words will help, but Japanese is hard, and I am quite shy so this will take more time.
This past weekend I had a nice time with the other international students at EHUB and another JSPS fellow, Taylor. On Friday evening, the EHUB students and I got dinner, some drinks and hung out around the Kiso River, which is this beautiful landscape in Inuyama with lots of loud frogs. Saturday, I visited the Japan Monkey Center with friends from EHUB. We got to see so many primate species: gibbons, squirrel monkeys, baboons, spider monkeys, chimpanzees, colobus monkeys, ring-tailed lemurs, Japanese macaques, tamarins...
I spent Sunday in Nagoya, which is the 4th largest city in Japan. Taylor and I took the Meitetsu train to the city to visit the Higashiyama Zoo and Botanical Gardens. It’s 6 miles from the train station and I insisted on walking because I like to visit cities by wandering around. In hindsight, it might have been a little too hot as I had to really resist the urge to jump in the fountains around the city. Besides getting some terrible tan lines, it was a wonderful day! At the zoo, we saw rhinos, kangaroos, sun bears, Japanese macaques, elephants, koalas, Japanese serows, hippos, and the famous tanuki. Tanuki are little carnivores that resemble a raccoon and have made their way into Japanese folklore. You can find little tanuki gnomes around Japan. One of the really fun attractions of the zoo is this pretty lake where you can rent paddle boats and cycle boats. There were lots of big fish in the lake too! After the zoo, we took the metro to the Osu Shopping District. It was pretty fun to see how style differs between American people and Japanese people. There were lots of shops with vintage clothes and remade clothes, and lots of old American style stuff. The most memorable item I saw was a used Lil Wayne shirt for the equivalent of $50.
This past week I have been working on developing my project, which means I have been watching hours and hours of chimpanzee footage to make clips of specific behaviors to show the chimpanzees. Some clips feature chimpanzees engaged in social behaviors (i.e. social grooming) while other clips feature chimpanzees engaged in solitary behaviors (i.e. self-grooming). I hope they enjoy my choices for them! Besides working on my own project, I am learning a lot about the research performed here at EHUB. One student does eye tracking experiments to test if chimpanzees exhibit trypophobia, an aversion to objects with lots of holes. I actually think I might have this aversion. Another student does experiments to see how chimpanzees recognize different parts of their bodies. There’s a lot of interesting projects here!
More next week!
Elaine
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Elaine in Japan – JSPS Blog Post #1 - June 20, 2022
I can’t believe it. I made it to Japan! I was very fortunate to be awarded a Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) summer fellowship to work with Dr. Ikuma Adachi at the Center for International Collaboration and Advanced Studies in Primatology (CICASP). I have just arrived one week ago and in that time, I feel that I have already learned so much.
I traveled from Washington DC to Inuyama, Aichi. This trip included stops in Chicago (O’Hare), Tokyo (Haneda) and Nagoya (Chubu Centrair) and it took many hours – so many hours that I stopped in Nagoya to sleep. This was a good decision not only because I was very exhausted from travel and totally disoriented by the time difference, but because I got the best room in the Centrair Hotel at the Nagoya airport. It’s called the Hello Kitty room and it was exactly that – a room of everything Hello Kitty. I am a 33-year-old woman and I loved it. From Nagoya, I took the Meitetsu train to Inuyama and arrived at my destination: The Center for the Evolutionary Origins of Human Behavior (EHUB). Adachi sensei picked me up at the train station and immediately introduced me to students, post-docs, and faculty – all who welcomed me so warmly. As exciting as it is to meet new people, I will admit that I was exceptionally excited to meet the chimpanzees. Ai is like a celebrity of sorts in the primate cognition world so it was a very special moment to see her.
I spent my first couple days of work settling in, eating at the fabulous campus cantine and joining other researchers’ experiments with the chimpanzees and before I knew it, the weekend had arrived. I spent Saturday walking around my neighborhood, eating at a restaurant and shopping at the Yoshizuya store with another JSPS fellow, Taylor Papstein-Novak. On my way home, it started raining and because I didn’t have the forethought to bring an umbrella, I started to get totally drenched. As I was powerwalking back to my dorm, a stranger pulled his car over, fished out an umbrella from his backseat and ran out in the rain to give it to me. I think this might be the kindest thing a stranger has ever done for me. I certainly wouldn’t expect this type of generosity at home in Washington. Sunday was a marvelous day. A bunch of students from EHUB and I rode our bikes all the way to Gifu City from Inuyama to visit the Gifu castle. It was 25km out (the scenic route) and 20km back (the direct route). I don’t usually ride a bike, so this was a strenuous ride for me, but it was totally worth the struggle to visit the gardens and see the castle. My favorite part was the Mt. Kinka ropeway, which is a little tram that carries you to the top of the mountain where the castle sits. Not only are the views amazing, but it also gave my tired little legs a rest after all the cycling.
This week I have been working to develop my own project. In general, I am interested in the concept of “social rewards,” which are a range of social stimuli (e.g. touch, smiles, praise) that activate brain circuits similar to other rewards (e.g. money, material goods). I am planning a project to test whether chimpanzees are more motivated to watch video content of other chimpanzees (e.g. chimpanzees grooming one another) or video content of environmental events (e.g. apple falling from a tree). I can’t wait to start my experiments and see the results.
More next week!
Elaine
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http://www.imr.tohoku.ac.jp/en/about/history.html
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Institute for Materials Research, TOHOKU UNIVERSITY
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IMR - Institute for Materials Research, Tohoku University
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Japan was extremely restricted on importing commodities from abroad during the World WarⅠ. Especially, self-supply of chemicals and iron and steel was forced. ln order to meet these demands, the 1st Division for developing nonflammable celluloid and the 2nd Division for iron and steel were established in August, 1915 and April, 1916, respectively, in the Provisional Institute of Physical and Chemical Research of the Tohoku Imperial University.
The first head of the 2nd Division was Professor Kotaro HONDA invented the KS magnet steel soon. This was the beginning of a great success exploiting a variety of functional alloys such as new KS magnet steel, Sendust, Superinvar, Coelinvar and so on and cultivating and sending out a great number of excellent researchers. The institute has been a pioneer for material research 100 years.
The institute was reorganized on May 21, 1987 as a collaborative research institute to meet the current rapid progress in materials science. IMR provides opportunities for the researchers both in academic institutes and industries to carry out cooperative work for mutual benefits. The chance for this collaboration is open not only to Japanese researchers but also to those overseas.
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Laboratory Management
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Battelle oversees approximately 45,000 employees at nine national laboratories. These U.S. Department of Energy and Department of Homeland Security labs deliver unmatched capabilities that drive scientific discovery, inspire innovation and solve what matters most.
As a contract manager of National Laboratories under the Government-Owned Contractor-Operated (GOCO) governance model, Battelle emphasizes the value and relevance of these laboratories. We’re successful in our role of lab management because we apply the Battelle philosophy of Simultaneous Excellence™.
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https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-history-of-japan/civilization-and-enlightenment-in-early-meiji-japan/F5FF8DEA2398B71D65C279041B132A18
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Civilization and Enlightenment in Early Meiji Japan (Chapter 21)
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The New Cambridge History of Japan - November 2023
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To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.
Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.
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https://www.med.navy.mil/Naval-Medical-Research-Command/R-D-Commands/Naval-Submarine-Medical-Research-Laboratory/
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Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
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/Portals/62/NAVMED Logo 2023.ico?ver=3YUYPBKdE0rmndNJxslaCA%3d%3d
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The Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory (NSMRL) delivers evidence-based solutions that enhance undersea warfighter health and performance. Located at the Submarine Base New London, NSMRL researchers have local access to Submarine Squadrons 4 and 12, the Naval Submarine School, the Naval Submarine Support Center, the Naval Undersea Medical Institute, the Undersea Warfighting Development Center, the Submarine Learning Center, and an important center of submarine design, construction, and lifecycle support: General Dynamics Electric Boat.
The laboratory ensures the superiority of submariners and divers by conducting research in nine core research areas: undersea warfighter health and performance, submariner psychological fitness and resiliency, human systems integration, submarine atmospheric monitoring, bioeffects of underwater sound and blast, hearing conservation, diving and hyperbaric research, disabled submarine survival, escape, and rescue, and undersea health epidemiology.
Mission: To sustain the readiness and superiority of our undersea warriors through innovative health and performance research.
Vision: To lead the world in delivering science solutions to ensure undersea warrior dominance.
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https://medschool.cuanschutz.edu/ophthalmology/research
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Research
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[
"retinal disease",
"stem cell technology",
"cataract",
"diabetic retinopathy",
"glaucoma",
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Our faculty members include basic researchers and clinician-scientists, who direct impactful basic and translational research projects.
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https://medschool.cuanschutz.edu/ophthalmology/research
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Welcome!
Welcome to the Department of Ophthalmology’s research web pages. Here you will find information about the breadth of research being conducted by our faculty. Our research laboratories are located on the 5th floor of the Research Complex-1 North tower on the Anschutz Medical Campus. Faculty conducting ocular epidemiology and comparative effectiveness research are located in the Sue Anschutz-Rodgers Eye Center also on the Anschutz campus.
Our research division is under the leadership of J. Mark Petrash, PhD, Vice Chair for Research in the Department of Ophthalmology. We currently have 19 faculty members, including basic researchers and clinician-scientists, who direct impactful basic and translational research projects. Our research team is further strengthened by 9 vision research colleagues from other departments who have secondary or adjoint appointments in ophthalmology, respectively. In addition, clinical faculty in our department are leading and participating in a broad number of clinical trials.
Research areas of excellence include:
Our department also provides an excellent training environment for graduate students at the University of Colorado. Faculty affiliations include graduate programs in Biomedical Science, Toxicology, Cell Biology, Stem Cells and Development, Molecular Biology, Neuroscience, and Public Health programs. Students in these competitive programs can perform their graduate research or rotations with our faculty. Many of our faculty also mentor undergraduate trainees associated with the Gates Summer Internship Program.
We are also proud to host a variety of monthly meetings to stimulate research in the vision sciences. During the academic year, we host a Journal Club in which our graduate students and postdoctoral scientists lead discussions of high impact publications in leading journals. We also host a Vision Science Seminar Series featuring internationally-prominent speakers from the vision research community. Group meetings are open to the campus community.
Please explore our site to learn more about the research being performed in each laboratory. If you are interested in supporting our research, please visit our giving page for information on that process. Thank you for taking the time to visit us today!
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https://www.usmcu.edu/Research/Marine-Corps-History-Division/Research-Tools-Facts-and-Figures/Chronologies-of-the-Marine-Corps/
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Chronologies of the Marine Corps
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1982
1 January – The strength of the armed forces was 2,093,032, of which 190,039 were Marines.
5 January – An auditorium used for weapons and tactics instructor training at Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS), Yuma was named in honor of the late Colonel John H. Ditto. Colonel Ditto was instrumental in the creation and development of Marine Aviation and Weapons Squadron based at MCAS Yuma. Colonel Ditto was killed 19 January 1981 at the age of 44 when his AV-8A Harrier crashed at MCAS Cherry Point.
9 January – A Marine Security Guard duty vehicle in San Salvador, El Salvador, was fired upon as it was enroute to the Marine House. The vehicle sustained one hit from a 7.62 millimeter weapon; there were no injuries.
13 January – Jiro Horikashi, 78, designer of the Japanese Zero fighter that challenged Marine aviators at the outset of World War II, died of pneumonia in a Tokyo hospital.
13 January – The first Marine Corps F/A-18 Hornet aircraft went on the assembly line at the Northrop Corporation in Hawthorne, California. After final assembly and extensive testing, Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 314 (VMFA-314) was the first squadron at MCAS El Toro to receive the F/A-18, followed by VMFA-323 and 531.
15 January – The Basic Skills Education Program (BSEP) opened its new learning center at Camp Geiger, Okinawa. The BSEP, which prepares Marines for the Graduate Equivalency Degree examination, has helped almost 4,500 Marines since its inception in 1977.
20 January – General Robert H. Barrow, the Commandant of the Marine Corps advised that urinalysis test results received from drug testing laboratories could be used in disciplinary proceedings involving Marines accused of drug usage for any drug except cannibis.
29 January – The base theater at Marine Corps Air Station, Beaufort, South Carolina, was named in honor of the late Lieutenant Colonel Lee T. Lasseter, who served as a fighter pilot during his career in the Marine Corps.
29 January – River Road, Marine Corps Base, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, was renamed to Julian C. Smith Drive in honor of the late Lieutenant General Julian C. Smith, who commanded the 2d Marine Division on Tarawa during World War II.
31 January – Marines of the Marine Security Guard Detachment in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, responded to a fire in one of the American Embassy buildings and were instrumental in extinguishing the blaze. A Marine inside the building was badly burned and was evacuated to the United States as a result.
1 February – The Commandant of the Marine Corps launched a concentrated campaign to eliminate the use of illegal drugs in the Corps following specific guidelines set in ALMAR 246. The language of the order was simple, beginning with: “the distribution, possession or use of illegal drugs is not tolerated in the United States Marine Corps,” and all Marines were subject to random urinalysis testing.
3 February – The flag at the American Embassy in Beijing, China, was lowered to half-mast by Marines of the security guard detachment in memory of Lieutenant General Joseph C. Burger, who died on 1 February. Lieutenant General Burger served with the 4th Marines in Shanghai and later at the embassy in Peiping in 1935.
12 February – A decision was made by the Commandant of the Marine Corps to have east coast Marine amphibious units (MAUs) redesignated. Under the new system, they would be numbered in the 20s with the first digit “2” reflecting the Marine amphibious force (MAF) from which each MAU orignated. MAUs from II MAF would be designated 22, 24, 26, and 28 instead of 32, 34, 36, and 38.
13 February – Marines from III MAF participated in “Team Spirit 82,” conducted in the Republic of Korea (ROK) to exercise deployment, reception, and employment of ROK/US forces responding to possible contingencies in the Korean theater.
20 February – The 20th anniversary of the historic flight of Friendship Seven Mercury Spacecraft, in which Senator John Glenn (Colonel, USMC, Ret.) was the first American to orbit the earth in outer space, was observed. The flight, which took four hours and 56 minutes, consisted of three orbits around the earth.
28 February – The Defense Department rejected all bids by competing companies to manufacture a new 9 millimeter handgun, which was designed to be compatible with NATO sidearms and replace the Colt .45 currently in use by U.S. armed forces. Of the four companies bidding, none was able to meet more than 11 of the 71 specifications laid down by the Defense Department, which plans to purchase 400,000 9mm pistols over a 10-year period.
5 March – The Commandant of the Marine Corps announced that the Marine Corps program designed to reveal drug usage among Marines is now applicable to the Marine Corps Reserve.
5 March – The first of 15 CH-53E “Super Stallion” helicopters was unveiled at MCAS Tustin, California, by Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron 465. New features of the CH-53E included the ability to refuel in flight (a first for helicopters) and lift capability twice that of earlier models. East coast helicopter squadrons had received their first CH-53Es in 1981.
15 March – The USS New Jersey, a 40-year old veteran battleship of three wars, was refloated at the Naval Shipyard, Long Beach, California. The ship is being returned to service for a fourth tour of duty, and will include a Marine detachment among its complement of officers and men.
17 March – An attempt was made by dissident military forces of Guatemala to take over the government in that country. U.S. Marines were placed on alert inside the American Embassy, but were later ordered to stand down. There were no casualties.
22 March – The space shuttle Columbia (STS-3) embarked on its third trip into space in a mission that lasted 7 days, 3 hours, and 25 minutes. The crew on board included Marine Colonel Jack R. Lousma, 46, who previously was a member of the astronaut support crews for the Apollo 9, 10, and 13 missions and pilot for Skylab 3.
23 March – “Woodland” camouflage utilities replaced “poplin” utilities in use throughout the Marine Corps. The new utilities improvements include reinforced knee, elbow, and seat patches, unpleated breast pockets, slightly heavier material, smaller trouser pockets, and larger collars. The cost of new utilities remained the same as the old ones.
27 March – A group of 120 politcians and ex-combat troops broke ground on the Mall near the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., for a $6 million memorial to those who served and died in Vietnam. The U.S. Marine Band played “God Bless America” at the groundbreaking.
31 March – A group of unidentified individuals fired a Chinese-made rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) and 20 rounds of small arms ammunition at the American Embassy in Guatemala. The RPG caused a 4-inch hole in a second floor. No injuries were reported. The local police arrived in a timely manner and conducted an investigation.
1-6 April – “Gallant Eagle 82” employed 10,000 Marines and sailors of the 7th Marine Amphibious Brigade (MAB) at Twentynine Palms, California, in a United States Readiness Command exercise. The purpose of “Gallant Eagle 82” was to provide a simulated combat environment to exercise, train, and evaluate the 7th MAB, along with other multi-service forces of the Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force, in a desert environment. In all, “Gallant Eagle 82” employed 25,000 soldiers, sailors, airmen, and Marines.
2 April – The annual Navy League awards were presented to the following: Colonel Jack B. Hammond, 2d Marine Air Wing (MAW), received the General John A. Lejeune award for inspirational leadership; Major Richard F. Vercauteren, 2d Marine Division, received the General Holland M. Smith award for operational competence; and Gunnery Sergeant J. J. Brown, 1st Marine Division, received the General Gerald C. Thomas award for inspirational leadership.
5 April – Approximately 15 shots were fired by unknown assailants using a small caliber rifle at the American Embassy in Tegucigalpa, Honduras. There were no injuries and only minor damage to the outside of the building was incurred.
11 April – The Dome of the Rock shooting by unidentified assailants in Jerusalem caused extensive re-examination of political priorities throughout the Middle East. Marine Security Guards at overseas posts in the Middle East increased security measures for the protection of American interests and property as directed by the Secretary of State.
17 April – The USS Lewis B. Puller (FFG 23) was commissioned at the Long Beach, California, Naval Shipyard and was named in honor of Lieutenant General Lewis B. “Chesty” Puller, the only Marine in history to receive five Navy Crosses. The Puller, a 445-foot guided missile frigate, was under construction since 1979.
17 - 29 April – 29,000 sailors and Marines from the United States, Australia, Canada, Japan, and New Zealand participated in Exercise “RIMPAC ‘82” to enhance tactical capabilities of participating units in most major aspects of conventional maritime warfare.
22 April – The battleship USS Iowa (BB 61), leader of the fourmember class of battleships remaining in the U.S. Navy, was moved from its moorings at Philadelphia Naval Shipyard in preparation for reactivation and recommissioning in January 1985.
23 April – Rotation of the 31st Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) units occurred with Battalion Landing Team, 3d Battalion, 3d Marines (BLT 3/3), Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 165 (HMM-165), and MAU Service Support Group 31 (MSSG-31) departing Hawaii for deployment to WestPac. These units replaced BLT 1/3, HMM-265, and MSSG-37.
27 April - 16 May – Exercise “Ocean Venture 82” was conducted in the Carribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the southeastern United States to emphasize command and control of forces in a simulated combat environment. It included 5,500 Marines in the overall force of 45,000 active and reserve military from all the armed services and units of the Royal Netherlands Navy and Marines. The exercise was designed to signal that the U.S. is prepared to defend its Caribbean interests.
28 April – Lejeune Hall, the United States Naval Academy Physical Education Center, was dedicated. The new center was named after Lieutenant General John A. Lejeune, an 1888 graduate of the Naval Academy who became the 13th Commandant of the Marine Corps. Lejeune Hall is a 95,000-square foot, steel, concrete, granite, and glass building. It features swimming and diving pools, six wrestling rings, strength training rooms, a 120-person classroom, and administrative offices. The grounds surrounding Lejeune Hall feature three memorial monuments.
30 April – Marine Helicopter Training Squadron 303 (HMT-303) was activated at Camp Pendleton, California, and was attached to Marine Aircraft Group 39, 3d Marine Aircraft Wing.
21 May – Brigadier General Paul A. Putnam, USMC (Retired), died in Mesa, Arizona. He commanded Marine Fighting Squadron 211, the “Wake Island Avengers,” on Wake Island at the beginning of World War II and was a Japanese prisoner of war for four years.
21 May – Marine Aerial Refueler Transport Squadron 252, the oldest continually active squadron in the Marine Corps, reached 250,000 accident-free flight hours.
21 May – The winner of the 1982 Annual Rifle Squad Combat Competition was 1st Squad, 1st Platoon, Company E, 2d Battalion, 3d Marines, 1st Marine Brigade led by Sergeant Jack Lawrence.
22 May – The 70th anniversary of Marine aviation was observed. On 22 May 1912, Lieutenant Alfred Austell Cunningham became Marine Aviator Number 1 in a solo flight at Annapolis, Maryland, after two hours and 40 minutes of instruction.
24 May – The 32d Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU), commanded by Colonel James Mead, began deployment with the Amphibious Task Force, U.S. Sixth Fleet on duty in the eastern Mediterranean. The 32d MAU was composed of Battalion Landing Team, 2d Battalion, 8th Marines, Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 261 and MAU Service Support Group 32.
28 May – The 1981 Colonel Robert Debs Heinl Award for Marine Corps history was awarded to Mr. Jack Shulimson and Dr. Graham A. Cosmas for their article in the November 1981 issue of Marine Corps Gazette, “Teddy Roosevelt and the Corps’ Sea-Going Mission.”
2- 6 June – The Marine Security Guard Detachment in Paris, France, provided support during President Reagan’s visit at the Versailles Summit.
7 June – The embassy in Beirut, Lebanon, was the subject of a rocket and machine gun attack which caused minimal damage. A Marine was wounded by shrapnel but continued in a full-duty status.
8 June – Camp Kuwae, Marine Corps Base, Camp Smedley D. Butler, Okinawa, was renamed Camp Lester in honor of the late Hospital Apprentice (HA) First Class Fred F. Lester, USNR. HA1 Lester was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for heroism while serving as a medical corpsman attached to the 6th Marine Division on Okinawa during World War II.
11 June – Colonel Michael P. Sullivan, commanding officer of Marine Aircraft Group 11, became the first Marine Corps pilot to achieve 4,000 accident-free flight hours in an F-4 “Phantom” aircraft.
21 June - 2 July – 7th Marine Amphibious Brigade (MAB) units from Camp Pendleton and Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center at Twentynine Palms participated in Exercise “Stratmobex 2-82” to exercise and test 7th MAB alert, marshalling, and deployment plans and procedures.
23 June – Initial evacuation of the American Embassy in Beirut, Lebanon, began with the Marine Security Guard Detachment providing security.
24 June – The American Embassy in Beirut was secured then abandoned due to severe fighting in the area. Remaining personnel were relocated to the ambassador’s residence in the nearby city of Yarze. Nine Marines of the Marine Security Guard Detachment provided security.
26 June - 26 November – Over 250 Marines from the 2d Marine Division and the 2d Force Service Support Group participated with other U.S. forces and navy/air forces from various South American nations in Exercise “Unitas XXIII” designed to promote military professionalism between the United States and participating South American navies.
28 June – The Marine Corps’ last C-117D aircraft was officially retired at Marine Corps Air Station, Iwakuni, Japan, after a final flight to Naval Air Station, Cubi Point, in the Republic of the Philippines. Better known as the “Skytrain,” the C-117D had been used for combat support, transporting troops, cargo lift, medical evacuations, and had been modified for cold weather missions by having skis attached.
30 June – The strength of the armed forces was 2,107,709, of which 193,399 were Marines.
2 July – The last Marine U11A Piper “Aztec” aircraft was retired at Marine Corps Air Station, Cherry Point, North Carolina.
9 July – President Ronald Reagan designated this date as National POW/MIA Recognition Day, in honor of all former American prisoners of war, those still missing, and their families. The President called on all Americans to join in honoring those who made the uncommon sacrifices of being held captive in war. From World War I to the Vietnam conflict, more than 142,000 U.S. servicemen were taken prisoner and more than 17,000 died while in captivity. During the same period, more than 92,000 servicemen were lost in combat and their remains were never recovered.
16 July – Marine Fighter Attack Training Squadron 101 participated with U.S. air and naval forces, along with Canadian military forces, in Exercise “Amalgam Chief 82-5” designed to exercise NORAD (North American Aerospace Defense) personnel throughout the radar network along with fighter-interceptor squadrons.
16 July – Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 164 (HMM-164) was the first squadron recognized by the Boeing/Vertol Company, the manufacturer of the CH-46 “Sea Knight” helicopter, to reach 100,000 cumlative flight hours. HMM-164 is based at Marine Corps Air Station (Helicopter), Tustin, California.
18 July – Operation “Phoenix Bear,” an all-Reserve amphibious landing exercise, was executed by the 46th Marine Amphibious Unit to test readiness of reservists and equipment for partial or complete mobilization at Marine Corps Base, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina.
26 July – The USS Vandegrift (FFG 48) was launched by Todd Shipyard Corporation, Seattle, Washington. The ship was named in honor of General Alexander A. Vandegrift, the 18th Commandant of the Marine Corps (January 1944 – December 1947).
29 July – Colonel Justice M. Chambers, who received the Medal of Honor for heroism on Iwo Jima, died at National Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, Maryland, at the age of 74. Colonel Chambers commanded the 3d Battalion, 25th Marines in the Iwo Jima landing on 19 February 1945. In addition to the Medal of Honor, Colonel Chambers received many other medals including the Silver Star, Legion of Merit with Combat “V,” and three Purple Hearts. Commissioned in the Marine Corps in 1932, Colonel Chambers retired from the Marine Corps Reserve on 1 January 1946. After his retirement, he began a career in the federal government largely devoted to the Nation’s non-military preparedness.
5 August – General Paul X. Kelley, Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps and Chief of Staff, laid the keel of the Dock Landing Ship 42 (LSD 42) at the Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company in Seattle, Washington. The ship is designed to transport combat-ready and equipped Marines to a deployment area.
6 August – Deputy Secretary of Defense Frank C. Carlucci, Postmaster General William F. Bolger, and Army Sergeant John O. Marsh dedicated a new twenty cent embossed stamped envelope commemorating the 200th anniversary of the Purple Heart award.
7 - 9 August – The 40th anniversary of the landing on the beaches of Guadalcanal and Tulagi in the Solomon Islands during World War II was observed. The landings marked the first Allied land offensive in the Pacific and were the first amphibious assaults against the enemy forces by the 1st Marine Division (Reinforced).
14 August – President Reagan proclaimed this day as National Navajo Code Talkers Day to honor the Navajo code talkers from the New Mexico and Arizona reservations who joined the Marine Corps during World War II. They used their native language as a base for a Marine Corps communications code in operations against the Japanese throughout the Pacific.
25 August – Approximately 800 Marines of the 32d Marine Amphibious Unit under the command of Colonel James Mead went ashore in Beirut, Lebanon, to form the United States element of a multinational force called in to assist Lebanese armed forces and to assure the safe and orderly departure of Palestine Liberation Organization forces from Lebanon. U.S. Marines joined approximately 400 French and 800 Italian military personnel to form the peacekeeping force.
27 August - 18 October – Marines from the 4th Marine Amphibious Brigade and sailors from east coast commands joined forces with servicemen from nine other NATO nations to participate in two exercises: “Northern Wedding ‘82” and “Bold Guard ‘82” in Norway, Denmark, and the Federal Republic of Germany. The exercises tested the capacity of alliance forces to bring in reinforcements and resist aggression in the Atlantic, Baltic, and Norwegian sea areas. The exercises provided an opportunity for the conduct of a combined amphibious assault in the North Sea followed by a tactical reembarkation for subsequent amphibious landings in the Baltic approaches and the Baltic.
1 September – General Roy S. Geiger was named to the Naval Aviation Hall of Honor and will be enshrined in the Hall of Honor in May of 1983. General Geiger was the first Marine aviator to have tactical command of all Marine Corps ground forces in the Pacific during World War II, and, as a lieutenant general, became the third Marine officer to wear three stars on active duty. On 30 June 1947, Congress passed a special act promoting General Geiger posthumously to four-star rank in the Marine Corps.
2 September – Captain Dirk R. Ahle, of Weapons Company, 2d Battalion, 1st Marines, 1st Marine Division was the recipient of the 1982 Leftwich trophy for outstanding leadership as the unit’s company commander. The award was presented to Captain Ahle who is from St. Louis, Missouri, at the evening parade at the Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.
10 September – By order of the President, Marines of the 32d Marine Amphibious Unit were withdrawn from Lebanon for scheduled redeployment to Camp Lejeune.
15 September – The Marine Detachment, USS New Jersey activated at Long Beach, California. The detachment will help man the vessel that has assisted the Marine Corps in accomplishing its mission in three wars. The USS New Jersey is scheduled to be brought back for a fourth tour of duty in formal recommissioning ceremonies in January 1983.
20 September – President Reagan announced that U.S. forces will again join French and Italian troops in Beirut to enable the government of Lebanon to resume control of the city. President Reagan’s decision was spurred by the massacre of hundreds of Muslim Palestinians, reportedly by Lebanese Christian militiamen, in two Beirut refugee camps.
25 September – Camp Pendleton, California, the largest Marine Corps amphibious base, celebrated its 40th anniversary. First dedicated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1942, the Marine Corps base has been the home of the 1st, 3d, 4th, and 5th Marine Divisions spanning three wars. It is currently the home of the I Marine Amphibious Force, the 1st Marine Division, 1st Force Service Support Group, and Marine Aircraft Group 39.
26 September – The Defense Department announced that the Armed Forces, in an effort to find contraband, have the power to open overseas mail for the first time since World War II.
26 September – The Navy Unit Commendation was awarded to Marines and sailors for their handling of the U.S. peacekeeping effort in Beirut, Lebanon. While on the initial 16-day operation, Marines of the 32d Marine Amphibious Unit oversaw the departure of more than 6,000 Palestine Liberation Organization soldiers. Marine Corps Commandant, General Robert Barrow, and the Commander of the Sixth Fleet, Vice Admiral William Rowden, presented the awards in a ceremony aboard the USS Guam, about sixty miles off the coast of Beirut.
27 September – The laying of the keel for FFG 47, a guided missile frigate, took place at Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine. FFG 47 will be named in honor of Major Samuel Nicholas, the Revolutionary War Marine who is considered to be the Corps’ first Commandant.
29 September – 1,200 Marines of the 32d Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) again joined 2,200 French and Italian troops already in Beirut, Lebanon, as part of the multinational peacekeeping force assigned to protect Palestinians and prevent factional strife of the sort that led to the massacres at the Palestinian refugee villages of Sabra and Shatila. The 32d MAU was under the command of Colonel James Mead.
30 September – The strength of the armed forces was 2,108,612, of which 195,715 were Marines.
30 September – Corporal David L. Reagan, USMC, serving with the multinational peacekeeping force, was killed and three other Marines wounded as they attempted to defuse a piece of ordnance inside the grounds of the international airport in Beirut, Lebanon.
1 October – The Marine Detachment, USS Long Beach was reactivated at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Bremerton, Washington.
5 October – The Communications/Electronics School at the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center, Twentynine Palms, California, celebrated its 40th anniversary. The Marine Corps’ largest formal school offers 69 classes to Marines in 38 different job specialties.
9 October – Station Operations and Maintenance Squadron (SOMS) activated at Marine Corps Air Station, El Toro. The activation of SOMS was a result of splitting Headquarters and Headquarters Squadron, the largest squadron in the Marine Corps, to form two separate squadrons. The split made the SOM’S command responsible for all station aircraft activities.
15 October – Three thousand precooked and frozen hamburgers, complete with bun, ketchup, salt and pickle, were shipped to U.S. Marines serving in Beirut as part of several American companies’ reaction to headlines that Marines were not eating as well as their French and Italian counterparts. The burgers were paid for and shipped free of charge by American firms in response to an appeal by radio Station WDJX in Dayton, Ohio.
15 October – Fiscal year (FY) 1982 topped FY81 and was cited by the Defense Department as the best recruiting and retention year for the armed forces since the draft ended in 1973. Not only did the Marine Corps meet its recruiting goals, but 90 percent of the recruits were high school graduates. The retention of quality Marines during FY82 resulted in the second largest number of reenlistments on record.
18 October – The High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), the “Humvee”, replaced the jeep and some of its younger brothers. The “Humvee” is a basic four-wheel drive 1 and ¼ ton payload vehicle that will serve as a personnel carrier, cargo carrier, command vehicle, weapons platform, and ambulance. Contracts for the development of this vehicle were scheduled to be awarded at the end of 1982 in a contest involving AM General, Teledyne Continental Motors, and General Dynamics, who competed for a $1 billion, 5-year contract for 50,000 vehicles including an option for another 50,000 at a later date.
19 October – A decision was reached by the Marine Corps Chief of Staff Committee to develop a new concept for organizing and manning Marine Air Ground Task Force Headquarters. The new plan called for the establishment of three Marine Amphibious Force planning headquarters each headed by a brigadier general and each permanently staffed with 47 officers and 45 enlisted men. Six Marine amphibious brigades, two in each division-wing team, manned by 65 officers and 85 enlisted men, were also planned.
22 October – Headquarters and Maintenance Squadron 13 (H&MS-13) was awarded the 1982 Villard C. Sledge Memorial Award for best J52 turboshaft engine repair unit in the naval service. H&MS-13 has received the award for five consecutive years.
22 October – In a recent test of the new “Meal, Ready-to-Eat” (MRE) rations, 91.5 percent of the Marines at Camp Lejeune preferred the new C rations over the old ones. The most important feature of the new C rations was the old tin cans gave way to a new flexible package – a “retort” pouch. MREs are lighter than C rations and the new packaging materials are designed to withstand climate and rough handling stresses. The new MREs will be issued this year as old C ration supplies are depleted.
29 October – The 24th Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU), under the command of Colonel Thomas M. Stokes, Jr., replaced the 32d MAU as part of the multinational peacekeeping force in Beirut, Lebanon.
29 October - 3 November – The 32d Marine Amphibious Unit backload into five amphibious ships in Beirut enroute to Camp Lejeune, North Carolina.
4 November – U.S. Marines extended their presence in the Lebanese capital of Beirut to the Christian eastern sector, sending their first patrol into one of the most devastated areas along the old “Green Line” that for seven years divided the war torn city into sectarian parts. The Marines carried M16 rifles and .45 caliber pistols, while two of the jeeps were mounted with 60 mm machine guns.
5 November – Retired Marine Corps General Edwin Allen Pollock, 83, the only Marine to command both the Atlantic and Pacific Fleet Marine Forces died in Charleston, South Carolina. He commanded the 1st Marine Division in Korea from August 1952 - June 1953.
7 November – The Seventh Annual Marine Corps Marathon took place in Washington, D.C., and Arlington, Virginia, covering 26 miles and 385 yards. 9,996 runners from every state and 27 foreign countries participated in the second largest marathon in the nation after New York’s. Jeff Smith, a 27-year-old postal worker from Cumberland, Maryland, took first place with a time of 2:21:29.
9 November – The “Green Knights” of Marine Attack Squadron 121 exceeded the 45,000-hour accident free flight mark. This milestone marked more than eleven years of accident free flying and distinguished the “Green Knights” as the leading accident-free fixed-wing tactical jet squadron in the Marine Corps.
9 November – The Commandant of the Marine Corps issued a statement elaborating on the approval of the Marine Corps’ new service rifle, the M16A2. The M16A1 underwent significant engineering changes to produce a more sound and reliable weapon. The Commandant stated that the Marine Corps’ well-deserved reputation for military professionalism stems in part from the unique relationship that has existed between a Marine and his rifle and from the Corps’ devotion to marksmanship proficiency as a fundamental skill of all Marines. The Commandant also stated that he was confident that the selection of the M16A2 will enhance the Corps’ combat effectiveness. Due to the rapidly declining inventory of M161As, the Corps has elected to replace them with the newer models on a one-for-one basis in FY84, with inventory conversion completed by FY89.
10 November – Marines throughout the world celebrated the 207th birthday of the Marine Corps, in honor of the founding of the Marine Corps on 10 November 1775 by the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia. In his birthday message, the Commandant of the Marine Corps said that “on this special day, as always, those who rely on us can feel confident that, if needed, we are ready.”
10 November – The 3d Marine Aircraft Wing celebrated its 40th birthday at Marine Corps Air Station, El Toro, California.
11 November – Space shuttle Columbia’s first satellite-carrying commercial flight took place with Marine Colonel Robert Overmyer on board as pilot of the vehicle and Vance D. Brand, a former Marine who served with the Corps from 1953-1957, as shuttle commander. The four-astronaut team successfully released a massive communications satellite from the space shuttle Columbia and left it behind them in the open sea of space.
13 November – The dedication of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial took place at the memorial site in Washington, D.C., immediately following a parade in tribute to Vietnam Veterans. The dedication and parade was part of the week long National Salute to Vietnam Veterans which included a candlelight vigil, unit reunion registration, and religious services for Marine Corps Vietnam veterans and those from other services.
16 November – Space shuttle Columbia, piloted by a Marine and commanded by a former Marine, landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at the completion of a successful mission which included the placing into orbit around the earth of two $50 million communications satellites.
24 November – The 32d Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) arrived at Morehead City, North Carolina, from Beirut, Lebanon, concluding its Mediterranean deployment. The 32d MAU was relieved in Beirut on 29 October 1982 by the 24th MAU and participated in a training exercise in Morocco prior to its return.
24 November – The last F-4 “Phantom” fighters departed Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS), El Toro, California. Flight operations have been slowly phased out at MCAS El Toro due to the noise levels of modern aircraft and their incompatibility with neighboring communities. This marked the end of a twenty-year era at the air station.
3 December – The new Federal Aviation Administration Building in New York City was named after Major Robert M. Fitzgerald, a highly decorated Marine aviator. Major Fitzgerald was killed in action in the Quang Nam Province of Vietnam on 1 June 1970 while attempting a helicopter rescue of a six-man reconnaissance team that was engaged in combat.
3- 7 December – The 31st Marine Amphibious Unit participated in Exercise “Jade Tiger 83” conducted at Wahibah Sands, Oman. The exercise included close air support in conjunction with the establishment of the beachhead by amphibious forces, follow-on strikes as the force moved inland, and interdiction against designated hostile surface contacts.
7 December – President Reagan approved the activation of a new U.S. Central Command (US CENTCOM) responsible for protecting U.S. security interests in the Middle East, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean areas. The command will be empowered to draw from a pool of about 230,000 troops in the U.S. in the event of a war emergency in that critical region. The unified command is an outgrowth of the Rapid Deployment Force created by the Carter Administration in 1980, in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and the Soviet invasion of Afganistan.
10 December – A 250-man Marine Detachment assigned to Exercise “UNITAS XXII” and the “West African Training Cruise 82” on board the USS Portland returned after a six-month deployment. Navy and embarked Marine Corps personnel made goodwill visits to numerous African areas conducting training activities, community relations projects, open houses, and other events to enhance U.S. and African relations.
13 December – U.S. Marine peacekeeping troops began training a special unit of the Lebanese Army in an expansion of the American role in Lebanon. About 75 Lebanese soldiers joined a company of 220 Marines at the Americans’ camp near Beirut airport for 21 days of training in basic infantry skills including helicopter assaults.
16 December – The 36th anniversary of Fleet Marine Force Atlantic was observed. The force was born out of necessity for a grouping of Marine air, ground, and specialized units under one command to produce the Marine Corps highly effective air-ground “Force in Readiness.” This force in readiness was able to respond quickly and effectively to the crisis in Lebanon this year.
29 December – The USS New Jersey was recommissioned. The battleship was first commissioned in 1943 and fought in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. The New Jersey was modernized with the addition of 32 Tomahawk Cruise missiles, 16 Harpoon surface-to-surface missiles, and a close-in weapons system of computerized radar-guided Gatling guns. Three helicopters, known as Light Airborne MultiWeapons System (LAMPS), have also been added. The modernizing and commissioning of the battleship took place three weeks ahead of schedule. The Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Barrow, and President Reagan attended the recommissioning ceremonies. Two officers and 42 enlisted men make up the Marine Detachment on board.
31 December – Marine Fighter Squadron 214, 3d Marine Aircraft Wing at Marine Corps Air Station, El Toro, was named attack squadron of the year and received the Lawson H.S. Sanderson Award. Major General Sanderson was the Marine Corps’ dive-bombing pioneer noted for his experimental close support bombing exercises. The award was established to recognize superior performance of a Marine attack squadron.
31 December – The Commandant announced that Marine Corps aviation achieved a new milestone of a major mishap rate of approximately 6.3 major mishaps per 100,000 flight hours for 1982. Against the 6.5 goal the Commandant set for 1982, this represented significant progress and is the lowest annual rate ever attained by Marine Corps aviation. While the ultimate goal of Marine Corps aviation will continue to be a zero mishap rate, the Commandant was confident that with the emphasis on successful measures already established, the Marine Corps can continue to work towards that goal by attaining a mishap rate of 6.0 or less in 1983.
1983
1 January – A composite U.S. Marine Corps band participated in the 94th Annual Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, California. The 100-plus member band was composed of musicians from Marine units stationed at Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii; El Toro, California; Camp Pendleton, California; and San Diego, California. This marked the 36th consecutive year that the Corps’ bandsmen participated in the Rose Parade. Over one million spectators saw the Marine musicians and millions more viewed the marching unit on nationwide television.
1 January – A new unified command for Southwest Asia known as the U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM) was activated. The new command, made up of Army, Air Force, Navy and Marine units, is responsible for protecting U.S. security interests in the Middle East, Persian Gulf, and the Indian Ocean areas. USCENTCOM command took the place of the Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force and is empowered to draw from a pool of 230,000 troops in the U.S. in the event of a war emergency in that critical region.
1 January – The Basic Skills Education Program (BSEP) became effective to provide training in reading, mathematics, and English to Marines who were identified as deficient in any of the basic skills. Guidelines for screening eligible BSEP participants included motivation, level of basic skills required for satisfactory performance in a specific military occupation series, and military classification test scores.
1 January – The strength of the armed forces was 2,112,500, of which 195,700 were Marines.
3, 5, 7 and 12 January – Purple Heart Medals were awarded to three Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, Marines and the widow of another for wounds suffered 30 September 1982 at the Beirut International Airport, Lebanon, from an explosion of a cluster bomb during mine-clearing operations. Lance Corporal George Washington was presented the medal on 3 January, Corporal Anthony Morgan received his medal on 7 January, and Lance Corporal Leslie R. Morris was awarded the Purple Heart on 12 January. The widow of Corporal David L. Reagan, who was seriously injured by the blast and later died during surgery aboard the USS Guam, was presented his Purple Heart on 5 January.
6 January – Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron 361 (HMH-361) at Marine Corps Air Station, Tustin, California, achieved its 25,000th accident –free flight hour. Major General Clayton L. Comfort, commanding general of the 3d Marine Aircraft Wing, stated that the “Flying Tigers” of HMH-361 showed leadership, professionalism, and dedication to accomplish all tasks and missions safely and successfully for five years to achieve this milestone.
7 January – Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 314 (VMFA-314), the first tactical squadron of any service to receive the F/A-18 Hornet, began flight operations at Marine Corps Air Station, El Toro, California. VMFA-314 personnel were trained to operate the Hornet at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California, with joint Navy/Marine Fleet Readiness Squadron 125. The F/A-18 Hornet, as a replacement for the aging F-4 Phantom, provides a quantum improvement for Marine fighter-attack squadrons.
13 January – Retired General David Monroe Shoup, 78, a former Commandant of the Marine Corps, died of a heart ailment at Circle Terrace Hospital, Alexandria, Virginia. General Shoup served as the 22d Commandant of the Marine Corps from 1 January 1960 until his retirement from active service, 31 December 1963. As a colonel in World War II, General Shoup earned the Medal of Honor while commanding the Second Marines, 2d Marine Division on Tarawa. The highly decorated general was buried with full honors at Arlington National Cemetery on 17 January.
14 January – Retired Major General Samuel C. Cumming, 88, died in Sarasota, Florida. Major General Cumming entered the Marine Corps 1917 and served with the 5th Marines in World War I. He was commanding officer of the 25th Marines and the assistant division commander of the 4th Marine Division during World War II. The decorated general retired from the Marine Corps in 1946.
22 January - 1 February – The Commandant of the Philippine Marines, Brigadier General Rodolfp M. Pumsalang, visited the United States as a guest of the Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Robert H. Barrow. The purpose of this visit was to tour Marine Corps operational and support commands, observe equipment, individual and unit training, and amphibious operations.
___ February – Technology replaced the versatile World War II “steel pot” helmet with a synthetic fabric model weighing the same three pounds but offering 25 percent more protection to the wearer’s head, temple, ear and neck areas. The same Kevlar fabric developed by Dupont Corporation was also used in the manufacture of flak jackets. Marines of the 32d Amphibious Unit sported the Kevlar flak jackets during their deployments to Lebanon in 1982.
___ February – The first M198, 155mm towed artillery piece was received by the 1st Marine Division cannoneers at Marine Corps Base, Camp Pendleton, California. The regiment’s aging fleet of 105mm howitzer cannons were slowly retired in favor of the Corps’ new M198. The M198 has a range nearly 30 kilometers, weighs 15,700 pounds, and has a hydraulic pedestal so it can be rotated 360 degrees in 15 seconds.
2 February – Captain Charles B. Johnson, USMC, of Neenah, Wisconsin, drew and loaded his pistol while blocking an attempt by three Israeli tanks to pass through his checkpoint near the Beirut University Library, Lebanon. The lead tank in the Israeli formation stopped a foot in front of Captain Johnson of Company L of the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit. The confrontation appeared to be the most serious of six or seven reported between Israeli soldiers and U.S. Marines on peacekeeping duty in Lebanon.
7 February – A McDonald’s restaurant had a grand opening ceremony at Camp Pendleton, California, marking the first fast-food enterprise invasion of a U.S. military base. McDonald’s won the contract for an on-base operation through competitive bidding late in 1982 after the base commander approved a request from the Marine Corps Exchange. McDonald’s believed the company would have great potential at Camp Pendleton, a base for 40,000 Marines.
15 February – Marines of the 22d Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) replaced the 24th MAU in Beirut, Lebanon, as part of an international peacekeeping force. The 22d MAU was commanded by Colonel James Mead who also commanded the 32d MAU during the initial landings in Lebanon during August and September 1982. The 22d MAU was composed of Battalion Landing Team, 2d Battalion, 6th Marines, Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 264, and MAU Service Support Group 22.
15 February – Retired Brigadier General Robert Hugh Williams, 75, died of cancer at his farm “Bryn Mawr” near Wales, Wisconsin. During World War II, General Williams commanded the 1st Parachute Battalion and in 1943 became the first commanding officer of the 1st Parachute Regiment. He was awarded the Navy Cross for action at Gavutu, Solomon Islands, and was executive officer of the 28th Marines when the regiment captured Mount Suribachi and raised the flag on Iwo Jima.
16 February – Marine Helicopter Training Squadron 301 (HMT-301) of the 3d Marine Aircraft Wing at Marine Corps Air Station (Helicopter), Tustin, California, celebrated eight years of accident-free flying. In addition to training Marine Corps personnel, HMT-301 also trained pilots from the Naval Flight School at Pensacola, Florida.
21-24 February – The U.S. Marines in Lebanon conducted humanitarian relief operations in the town of Quartaba during Lebanon’s worst blizzard in memory. The operations consisted of snow removal, distribution of food and heating fuel, and medical assistance. U. S. Marine helicopters also flew into Syrian -- held territory in Lebanon’s central mountains -- and rescued four Lebanese men suffering from frostbite and exposure. The operation brought about a degree of cooperation between the Syrians, Israelis, Lebanese and the multinational force.
24 February – Marine Colonel Robert F. Overmeyer, who piloted the fifth flight of the space shuttle Columbia in November 1982, visited Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS), El Toro, California. Colonel Overmeyer presented the commanding general of MCAS El Toro, Brigadier General Richard M. Cooke, with plaques displaying Columbia patches and Marine Corps flags taken on the shuttle flight.
26 February – The honor platoon from Marine Corps Recruit Depot, San Diego, California, was on hand to welcome Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, on the first stop of their West Coast tour at San Diego. The Marines were part of a dual ceremonial guard which included a platoon of Navy recruits and a Navy/Marine Corps joint color guard. The Queen inspected the military units and toured the San Diego harbor area.
28 February – Major General David M. Twomey assumed command of Marine Corps Base, Quantico, Virginia, upon the retirement of Lieutenant General Richard E. Carey. Since June 1981, General Twomey was director of the Quantico Education Center, an 11-school complex. Prior to assuming his assignments at Quantico, General Twomey served as Commanding General of the 2d Marine Division at Camp Lejeune from July 1979 - June 1981; and Inspector General of the Marine Corps from July 1978 - June 1979.
1-3 March – Over 100 volunteers from the 3d Marine Aircraft Wing, Marine Corps Air Station, El Toro, California, assisted Huntington Beach, California, civil authorities in flood relief operations.
3-22 March – “Team Spirit 83,” a joint combined exercise involving some 188,000 U.S. and Republic of Korea Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force personnel, was staged in South Korea. III Marine Amphibious Force Marines stationed at Okinawa and Iwakuni, Japan, participated by forming a Marine Air Ground Task Force comprised of about 8,000. “Team Spirit 83” maneuvers were structured to train for a Korean contingency based on the defense of South Korea against North Korean aggression.
8 March – The 24th Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU), the second American MAU to serve as part of the international peacekeeping force in Beirut, Lebanon, arrived at Morehead City, North Carolina. The 24th MAU was relieved in Beirut by the 22d MAU on 15 February 1983.
9 March – Retired Brigadier General Robert Bostwick Carney, Jr., 63, former commander of Marine Barracks in Washington, D.C. from 1964-1968, died at his home in Arlington, Virginia. General Carney earned the Bronze Star Medal with Combat “V” for his service with the 5th Marine Division on Iwo Jima and was awarded the Legion of Merit with Combat “V” for his service in Vietnam. He retired from active duty in July 1972.
11-17 March – Elements of the 4th Marine Amphibious Brigade and ships of Amphibious Squadron 4 joined Naval and Air Forces of Norway, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands for exercise “Cold Winter ‘83” in Norway. The biennial exercise, sponsored by the Norwegian Brigade North, was designed to exercise coordination procedures between Norwegian and allied units in combat operations under winter conditions.
12-26 March – More than 3,200 Marines from the 4th Marine Aircraft Wing participated in “Operation Skyhawk,” the largest Marine air reserve exercise ever held. Approximately 100 aircraft from 48 units and personnel from all reserve units in the continental United States participated in the exercise consisting of close air support, combat air patrols, troop lifts, electronic warfare missions and aerial refueling. Marine units included elements of the 3d Marine Amphibious Brigade, elements of the 5th and 11th Marines, and Marine Aircraft Group 42. The exercise took place at Marine Corps Air Station, Yuma, Arizona, and other military installations in Nevada and California.
14 March – General Robert H. Barrow, Commandant of the Marine Corps, demanded that “firm and strong action” be taken to stop Israeli forces in Lebanon from putting Marines in “life-threatening situations” that are “timed, orchestrated and executed for obtuse Israeli political purposes.” The general’s charges were contained in a letter to Secretary of Defense, Caspar W. Weinberger. General Barrow had been concerned for months over what he considered deliberate Israeli provocations designed to discredit international peacekeeping forces in Lebanon.
16 March – Five Marines from Weapons Company, Battalion Landing Team 2d Battalion, 6th Marines, 22d Marine Amphibious Unit were wounded superficially during a foot patrol in an urban area called Warzia, northwest of Marine Corps positions at Beirut International Airport. An unknown assailant tossed a fragmentation hand grenade at the patrol marking the first direct attack against the 1,200-man force since American troops took up positions in Beirut during 1982. An Islamic fundamentalist group known as Jihad Islami, or Islamic Holy War, claimed responsibility for the attack on the Marines.
17 March – The 24th Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) was presented the Navy Unit Commendation by Major General Alfred M. Gray, Jr., Commanding General of the 2d Marine Division, for meritorious service from 29 October 1982 to 15 February 1983 as part of the multinational peacekeeping force in Lebanon. During that period, the 24th MAU was commanded by Colonel Thomas M. Stokes, Jr.
18 March – Marine Light Helicopter Squadron 267 (HML-267) celebrated 80,000 hours of accident-free flying. Major General Clayton L. Comfort, commanding general of the 3d Marine Aircraft Wing congratulated the Marines of HML-267 and praised them for soaring past aviation milestones.
18 March – The Bachelor Enlisted Quarters at Henderson Hall, Arlington, Virginia, were dedicated in honor of Marine Lance Corporal Miguel Keith, USMC (Deceased), a Vietnam War Medal of Honor recipient. Keith Hall consists of two separate five-story buildings which share a common garden and green area and a two-level underground parking complex. The facility has 260 individual rooms and houses 553 Marines. LCpl Keith was awarded a Medal of Honor posthumously for his actions as a machine gunner with Combined Action Platoon 1-3-2, III Amphibious Force in Vietnam.
18 - 22 March – Approximately 13,000 Marines, Navy, Army, and Air Force personnel participated in exercise “Gallant Knight ‘83.” Marines of the I Marine Amphibious Force participated in the exercise which was conducted under the aegis of the U.S. Central Command at Fort Bragg, North Carolina; San Diego, California; and Camp Pendleton, California. The exercise was designed to test command and control functions and employment plans. It also examined procedures of the U.S. Central Command.
21 March – Lebanon’s President, Amin Gemayel, visited U.S. Navy ships which directly supported the peace-keeping mission of the multinational force in Lebanon. He flew aboard the USS Nimitz (CVN-68) and was briefed on U.S. Sixth Fleet missions by Rear Admiral Edward H. Martin, Commander, Battle Force Sixth Fleet. He also toured the USS Guadalcanal (LPH-7) and was briefed by Captain George D. Bess, Commander, Amphibious Force Sixth Fleet, on the capabilities of Navy and Marine Corps forces in the Mediterranean.
21 March – Marine Fighter Attack Squadron 323 (VMFA-323) of the 3d Marine Aircraft Wing (3d MAW) at Marine Corps Air Station, El Toro, California, received the first of 12 F/A-18 “Hornet” aircraft. The “Death Rattlers” of VMFA-323 are the second 3d MAW squadron to convert to the strike fight jet.
22 March – The High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV) contract was awarded to AM General Corporation. A $59.8 million fixed price contract included an economic price adjustment for 2,334 vehicles with spare parts, provisioning support, publications, and training. This was the first of a five-year multi-year procurement. The total multi-year contract is $1,184,766,345 for 54,973 vehicles. The 5/4-ton HMMWV can be adapted for multiple missions, including reconnaissance, command and control, troop and weapons carrier, and utility roles.
24 March – President Reagan announced his intention to nominate General Paul X. Kelley, Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps and Chief of Staff since 1 July 1981, as the next Commandant of the Marine Corps. General Kelley was scheduled to succeed General Robert H. Barrow, Commandant of the Marine Corps, on 1 July 1983.
25 March – Retired Major General Samuel S. Jack who served with the 2d Marine Brigade in Nicaragua and commanded the Marine Corps, Navy, and Army fighter planes operating from Guadalcanal during World War II, died in San Diego, California. He was awarded the Navy Cross for actions in Nicaragua and three Legions of Merit during World War II and Korea.
26 March - 1 April – The presentation of the annual Navy League awards took place at the Navy League Convention in Washington, D.C. Five Marines were selected for the 1982 awards: Captain Kenneth T. McCabe, 2d Marine Division received the General John A. Lejeune Award for inspirational leadership; Colonel James M. Mead, Commanding Officer of the 22d Marine Amphibious Unit and Master Sergeant Steven R. Head of the 2d Marine Division received the General Gerald C. Thomas Award for inspirational leadership; and CWO-4 Bruce M. Wincentsen of Marine Corps Development and Education Command, Quantico received the Rear Admiral William S. Parsons Award for scientific and technical progress.
27 March – Retired Brigadier General Samuel Blair Griffith II, 76, a decorated veteran of World War II and an authority on Chinese military history, died of respiratory arrest at the Newport Naval Regional Hospital in Newport, Rhode Island. In the 1930s General Griffith was stationed at the U.S. Embassy in Peking as a Chinese language officer. He returned to China in 1946 and commanded Marine forces in Tsingtao for two years. After he retired from the Marine Corps in 1956, he took a doctorate in Chinese history at New College, Oxford University.
28 March – A CH-53 “Sea Stallion” helicopter from Marine Helicopter Squadron 362, 2d Marine Aircraft Wing, Marine Corps Air Station (Helicopter), New River, North Carolina, crashed near San Simon, Arizona, while enroute to Marine Corps Air Station, Yuma, Arizona. While flying, the tail section of the plane detached and caused the helicopter to crash. Six Marines were killed and one was injured.
5 April – The result of the third annual Colonel Robert D. Heinl, Jr. Award in Marine Corps History was announced at a meeting of the Board of Directors of the Marine Corps Historical Foundation. The 1982 award went to Lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Mattingly for “Who Knew Not Fear,” on article that appeared in Studies in Intelligence, a quarterly publication of the Central Intelligence Agency.
9 April – President Ronald Reagan designated this date as National POW/MIA Recognition Day in honor of all former American prisoners of war, those still missing, and their families. From World War I to the Vietnam conflict, more than 142,000 U.S. servicemen were taken prisoner and more than 1,700 died while in captivity. During the same period, more than 92,000 servicemen were lost in combat and their remains were never recovered.
11 April – Louis Gossett, Jr. won an Oscar for his performance as a Marine Corps drill instructor in “An Officer and a Gentleman,” one of 1983’s romantic smash-hits. Mr. Gossett was also the first black performer in 20 years to win an Oscar.
15 April – The Commandant of the Marine Corps approved the Commemorative Renaming of a portion of Malecon Drive at Marine Corps Recruit Depot, Parris Island, South Carolina, in honor of General Edwin A. Pollock, USMC (Deceased).
17 April - 11 May – More than 47,000 persons from the Marine Corps, Navy, Army, and Air Force participated in Exercise “Solid Shield ‘83”. It was the 21st in a series of annual Commander in Chief Atlantic joint exercise at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina; Fort Stewart, Georgia; and Morehead City, North Carolina. The exercise was designed to emphasize command and control of military forces in a simulated combat environment and included extensive air operations. Approximately 16,000 Marines from II Marine Amphibious Force and the 4th Marine Amphibious Brigade participated.
18 April – A large car bomb exploded just outside the U.S. Embassy in Beirut, causing massive structural damage including the collapse of portions of all seven floors. The French contingent of the multinational peacekeeping force in Beirut was first to respond and provided the initial security and relief efforts at the scene. Shortly afterward, U.S. Marines from the 22d Marine Amphibious Unit secured the area around the embassy. The explosion killed 61 people, including one Marine Security Guard and 16 other Americans, and wounded more than 100 persons. An Islamic group known as the Islamic or Muslim Holy War claimed responsibility for the attack.
25 April – A monument was dedicated at Arlington National Cemetery to the three Marines and five airmen who died in the attempt to rescue American hostages in Iran during 1980.
26 April – Lance Corporal Robert McMaugh of Manassas, Virginia, was buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Corporal McMaugh, a Marine Security Guard at the U.S. Embassy in Beirut, was one of 61 people killed when the embassy was bombed on 18 April. He was standing guard at Post 1, just inside the front entrance when the bomb exploded outside the door. The other seven Marine Security Guards in the building were wounded in the blast.
26 April – Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 266 was activated as part of Marine Aircraft Group 26, 2d Marine Aircraft Wing at Marine Corps Air Station (Helicopter), New River, North Carolina.
27 April – The USS Nicholas (FFG-47), a guided missile frigate, was launched at Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine. General Leonard F. Chapman, Jr., former Commandant of the Marine Corps, was the principal speaker at the ceremony. The ship was named in honor of Major Samuel Nicholas, the Revolutionary War Marine considered to be the Corps’ first Commandant.
27 April – A CH-53D “Sea Stallion” helicopter from Marine Heavy Helicopter Squadron 461, 2d Marine Aircraft Wing, Marine Corps Air Station (Helicopter), New River, North Carolina, crashed in Virginia Beach, Virginia. The helicopter was conducting an amphibious assault rehearsal in conjunction with Exercise “Solid Shield ‘83.” The crash killed one Marine and injured three others.
5 May – In Beirut, Lebanon, a UH-1 Huey helicopter carrying the commander of the American peacekeeping force, Colonel James Mead, was hit by machine gun fire. The six Marines aboard escaped injury. Colonel Mead and his crew had taken off in the helicopter to investigate artillery and rocket duels between rival Syrian-backed Druze Muslim militiamen and Christian Phalangists that endangered French members of the multinational force.
7-21 May – The Commandant General of the United Kingdom’s Royal Marines, Lieutenant General Sir Steuart R. Pringle, visited the Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Robert H. Barrow. The visiting general toured Marine Corps facilities in Washington, D.C. and southern California.
12 May – President Reagan nominated Lieutenant General John K. Davis, Commanding General, Fleet Marine Force, Pacific for promotion to full General and assignment as Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps. General Davis was scheduled to succeed General Paul X. Kelley, Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps, 1 July 1983.
15 May – The Veterans Administration dedicated its newest national cemetery in Quantico, Virginia. The first burial took place 16 May. The new cemetery will relieve pressures for burial space at Arlington National Cemetery which has been forced to restrict eligibility in recent years. Interment in the Quantico National Cemetery will be available to any veteran who was discharged under conditions other than dishonorable, regardless of rank or length of service. The creation and designation of the Quantico site was made possible when the Marine Corps transferred 725 acres of land to the Veterans Administration, thereby providing for the burial needs of more than 600,000 veterans and their dependents. When fully developed, the Quantico National Cemetery will include 275 interment acres, a memorial center, assembly areas, mausoleum, administrative and maintenance facilities, and a six-acre lake.
25 May – The Commandant of the Marine Corps announced the selection of Sergeant Major Robert E. Cleary as the next Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps effective 1 July 1983. Sergeant Major Cleary succeeded the retiring Sergeant Major Leland D. Crawford as the Marine Corps’ highest ranking enlisted Marine. He becomes the tenth Marine to hold the post.
26-27 May – General Robert H. Barrow, Commandant of the Marine Corps, and Sergeant Major Leland D. Crawford, Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps, visited with Marines and sailors of the 22d Marine Amphibious Unit in Beirut, Lebanon. The Commandant presented Purple Heart Medals to five Marines who were wounded in a grenade attack on 16 March. He also presented 12 awards to French Marines for their assistance after the bombing of the U.S. Embassy on 18 April.
27 May – Two explosions occurred outside the American Embassy at Lima, Peru. Marines took up defensive positions. No further incidents occurred and there were no injuries.
29 May – The Marine Corps provided assault amphibian vehicle support to the state of Louisiana due to the imminent danger of the Mississippi River flooding the Louisiana State Penitentiary at Angola, Louisiana. The extent of damage was minor water seepage along the inboard side of the 18-mile long levee and an unknown amount of water absorbed by the levee itself. The support was requested by the governor of Louisiana.
30 May – Marines of the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) took over peacekeeping duties in Beirut, Lebanon, and replaced 22d MAU Marines who had been ashore since 15 February 1983. The 24th MAU was commanded by Colonel Timothy J. Geraghty.
7 June – The U.S. Postal Service issued a stamp at a Pentagon ceremony commemorating the 120th anniversary of the Medal of Honor. Local postmasters planned ceremonies to present special stamp albums to Medal of Honor recipients in their communities. There are 260 living Medal of Honor recipients including 47 Marines.
7-13 June – More than 30,000 Marine Corps and Navy personnel participated in Exercise “Valiant Blitz ‘83” on Okinawa, Japan. The exercise was designed to provide forces with training in amphibious landing techniques and operations ashore. “Valiant Blitz” involved approximately 3,000 Marines plus 20 ships and 250 aircraft. It was the biggest exercise on Okinawa since “Fortress Gale” in 1979.
14 June – A bomb exploded under a van outside the residence of Marines assigned to the U.S. Embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina, damaging the vehicle but causing no injuries. The bombing came on the first anniversary of Argentina’s surrender to Britain in the 1982 Falklands war.
16 June - 13 December – Marines of the 2d Marine Division participated in Exercise “Unitas XXIV/West African Training Cruise 83” in the Caribbean, South American, and West African waters. It provided training opportunities and interactions for South American and West African Navies and Marine Corps to exercise in combined training operations and to support mutual interest in the defense of the free world. The exercise was conducted in eight phases followed by seven port visits to five West African countries.
17 June – Navy Hospital Corpsmen were honored at Camp Pendleton, California, with the dedication of the Hospital Corpsmen/Dental Technician/Marine Combat Memorial at the Naval Regional Medical Center. The monument was made by Oceanside, California, artist, Raul Avina, whose design was based on a scene he had witnessed at Iwo Jima while serving in the Marine Corps.
21 June – Marines of the 22d Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) arrived at Key West, Florida, after serving as part of the international peacekeeping force in Beirut, Lebanon, for four months. The 22d MAU was relieved in Beirut by the 24th MAU on 30 May 1983.
26 June – Before an estimated 3,400 Marines and visitors including President Ronald Reagan, the Commander in Chief, General Paul X. Kelley received the official battle color of the Marine Corps, relieving General Robert H. Barrow as Commandant of the Marine Corps. The ceremonies were conducted at Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C. General Kelley assumed command as the 28th Commandant of the Marine Corps and General Barrow officially retired. General Kelley’s command was effective 1 July 1983.
27 June – The U.S. Embassy in San Salvador, El Salvador, was sprayed with gunfire by unknown assailants in two passing vehicles. Seconds later, a rocket fired at the building hit a nearby tree and exploded. There were no reports of injuries in the attack and only minor damage was inflicted upon the embassy building. The attack caused some alarm since the embassy is located in a residential sector of the city.
27 June – The 22d Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) received a Navy Unit Commendation for meritorious service in Lebanon. The award was made during the promotion ceremony of Colonel James Mead, former commanding officer of the 22d MAU, to brigadier general.
30 June – The strength of the armed forces was 2,113,400 of which 193,993 were Marines.
5 July – Secretary of State, George Shultz, visited the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit in Beirut, Lebanon. A former Marine major who served in the Pacific during World War II, Secretary Shultz was enroute to Damascus, Syria, to discuss the withdrawal of Syrian and Israeli forces from Lebanon.
6 July - 1 August – More than 6,000 U.S. troops, along with air and sea support, participated in Exercise “Cobra Gold 83,” a joint military exercise with Thailand’s armed forces in and around the Gulf of Thailand. The exercise was designed to strengthen the ability of Thailand’s armed forces to defend their country. The exercise involved training in mine-laying and sweeping, explosive ordnance disposal, special warfare operations, simulated air and sea battle, and amphibious assault and shore operations by Thai and U.S. Marines. “Cobra Gold” was the first exercise for the USS New Jersey since it was recommissioned in 1982.
11 July – The U.S. Marine Band, the oldest continuously active military musical organization in the nation, observed its 185th birthday. A concert for the new Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Paul X. Kelley, was performed at the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C. with President Ronald Reagan in attendance. The Marine Band was under the leadership of Colonel John R. Bourgeois, its 25th director since its founding in 1798.
11 July – An exhibition of a new series of historical paintings titled “Marines in the Frigate Navy 1794-1834” by Lieutenant Colonel Charles Waterhouse opened at the Marine Corps Museum in Washington, D.C. The display illustrated Marine Corps activities during the first 40 years of the United States Navy. “Marines in the Frigate Navy” will remain on exhibition in the Marine Corps Museum through February 1984. It will then appear in a number of naval and maritime museums from Virginia to Massachusetts during 1984 - 1986.
18 July - 1 August – More than 2,000 Marine Corps reservists participated in a combined arms exercise “CAX 8-83” at Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center, Twentynine Palms, California. The live-fire exercise was designed to improve the proficiency of the reservists in all phases of modern combat skills. Scenarios involving all facets of Marine Corps combat training were brought into play as reservists combined forces and operated as they would under battle conditions. “CAX 8-83” also indoctrinated troops to techniques of desert warfare and survival.
22 July – A U.S. Marine stationed in Beirut, Lebanon, as part of the multinational peacekeeping force was hit by flying shrapnel and suffered a superficial shoulder wound when the Beirut International Airport came under heavy shellfire from unknown positions.
26 July – The 6th Marine Amphibious Brigade (MAB) was activated by Lieutenant General John H. Miller, Commanding General Fleet Marine Force, Atlantic at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. The 6th MAB was activated as part of the Maritime Prepositioning Ship program designed to provide rapid introduction of combat forces anywhere they are needed.
29 July – Sergeant Charles A. Light, Jr. was promoted to the rank of staff sergeant and awarded the Meritorious Service Medal for outstanding service when the American Embassy in Beirut, Lebanon, was devastated by a car bomb last April. In a ceremony at Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, the Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Paul X. Kelley, made the presentation to the former assistant non-commissioned officer in charge of the Marine Security Guard Detachment, U.S. Embassy, Beirut.
31 July – Unidentified gunmen fired a burst of shots at a group of U.S. Marines as they were jogging on the edge of their encampment near Beirut International Airport. The gunfire struck the ground between two groups of Marines jogging on the road and hit about 20-25 yards from the nearest Marine. There were no injuries. Jogging as part of the multinational peacekeeping force in Beirut, were changed after the attack.
10 August – U.S. Marines at the Beirut International Airport in Lebanon were on their highest state of alert following an airport shelling that wounded one Marine. The rocket attack by Druze militia in the mountains east of Beirut provided the opening shots for a day of warfare between Muslim militiamen and the government. Rockets also hit the Defense Ministry and the Presidential Palace. The daylong hostilities by Druze Muslims against the Christian government included the kidnapping of three cabinet ministers.
16-17 August – The Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Paul X. Kelley, visited with Marines of the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit in Beirut, Lebanon. In the Commandant’s press statement upon his arrival at the Beirut International Airport, he vowed that threats from Druze gunmen would not intimidate the 1,200 Marines in Lebanon. The Commandant later made a mobile/aerial tour of Marine positions.
17-24 August – Exercise “Bright Star/Eastern Wind 83,” a combined exercise involving military forces from the United States and Somalia, was held near Berbera, Somalia. The exercise was designed to allow forces of both nations to conduct combined training in a harsh desert environment and to enhance Somalia’s ability to defend itself. About 2,800 U.S. servicemen, including Marines from the 31st Marine Amphibious Unit and the 3d Marine Aircraft Wing, participated in the exercise.
26 August – Captain Ronald L. King of Battery I, 3d Battalion, 12th Marines, 3d Marine Division was the recipient of the 1983 Leftwich Trophy, as the battery’s commanding officer. The Leftwich Trophy, an award for a captain in Fleet Marine Force who best exemplifies the principles of leadership, was presented to Captain King at the Evening Parade, Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C.
28 August – Marines fought a 90-minute battle with militiamen thought to be Shiite Muslims in their first combat involvement since they went to Beirut, Lebanon, as part of the multinational peacekeeping force a year ago. The combat outpost manned by about 30 Marines and Lebanese army troops east of the Beirut International Airport came under fire by semiautomatic weapons and two rocket propelled grenades. The Marines returned the fire with M-16 rifles and M-60 machine guns. There were no Marine casualties.
29 August – Two Marines were killed and 14 were wounded when dozens of rocket, mortar, and artillery rounds landed in positions occupied by the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit on the eastern side of the Beirut International Airport. It was the second day of heavy fighting and the second day that the Marines struck back at their attackers.
31 August – The Department of Defense authorized hostile-fire pay for Marines and sailors of the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit in Lebanon. Each of the 1,200 U.S. Marine peacekeepers serving in Lebanon were eligible for up to $65.00 a month extra pay. The authorization was under a Pentagon regulation that did not trigger any War Powers Act provisions.
2 September – President Ronald Reagan ordered a second 1,800 man amphibious unit to reinforce the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) in Lebanon. The 31st MAU was not expected to go ashore, but rather act as a back up force on board ship.
3 September – The 35th Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) was activated for western Pacific contingency operations in relief of the 31st MAU ordered to Lebanon.
6 September – Two Marines were killed and two were wounded when rockets hit their compound in Beirut, Lebanon. Since 28 August 1983, when fighting broke out between Muslim and Christian militiamen and the Lebanese army, 4 Marines were killed and 24 were wounded. Heavy fighting continued for the peacekeeping force in the area near their positions around the Beirut International Airport.
8 September – The U.S. Navy unleashed its firepower in Lebanon for the first time destroying a Druze militia battery that shelled Beirut International Airport. The frigate Bowen fired four rounds from its five-inch guns as mountain fighting raged and the U.S. Marine base was shelled. Lieutenant General John H. Miller and Major General Alfred M. Gray were inspecting the Marine compound when the shelling started. Marine gunners responded with six rounds from a 155mm howitzer as the Bowen’s guns blasted away.
13 September – President Reagan authorized Marine commanders in Lebanon to call in air strikes from Navy fliers if such action is needed to defend U.S. troops in Beirut. Marines in Beirut could request air strikes from carrier-based fighters off shore and the request, if granted, would be approved locally, rather than in Washington. Additionally, such support could be sought if other troops in the multinational peacekeeping force were threatened or if threats to the Lebanese army could endanger the Marines.
14 September – The USS Tarawa, with its force of Harrier jets and combat helicopters, arrived off the coast of Lebanon bringing an additional 1,800 Marines into position to be deployed as needed. With the arrival of the 31st Marine Amphibious Unit, under the command of Colonel James H. Curd, the United States had a total of 14,000 Marines and sailors on shore and on board ships in the Beirut, Lebanon area.
15 September - 19 November – Exercise “Bold Eagle 84” took place at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida. Approximately 19,000 Marines, sailors, soldiers and airmen participated in the exercise. It was the sixth in a continuing series of U.S. Readiness Command exercises. It was designed to exercise and evaluate participating commanders, staff and forces in joint service tactics, techniques and procedures employed by forces operating in a sophisticated air environment.
16 September – The Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Paul X. Kelley, was the principal speaker at the keel-laying ceremony for the first two of thirteen maritime prepositioning ships (MPS) to be built at the Quincey, Massachusetts Shipbuilding Division of General Dynamics. General Kelley announced that the ships would be named in honor of two Marine Medal of Honor recipients: Second Lieutenant John P. Bobo and Private First Class Dewayne T. Williams. The MPS program is the key to the Rapid Deployment Force concept.
17 September – U. S. warships off the coast of Beirut, Lebanon, fired dozens of shells from their five-inch guns deep into Syrian-controlled parts of Lebanon. The Naval salvos marked the first time the United States responded to shelling on targets other than U.S. Marine positions around the Beirut International Airport. The naval gun fire from the destroyer John Rodgers and the frigate Bowen came in response to continued shelling in the area around the residence of U.S. Ambassador, Robert Dillon, and the Lebanese Defense Ministry about a mile from the ambassador’s house.
19-20 September – U.S. Navy warships shelled Syrian-backed Druze positions in the hills overlooking Beirut. A continuous, 15-minute barrage from the USS John Rodgers and USS Virginia were fired into the mountains. The battleships fired hundreds of five-inch shells, the heaviest naval bombardment since the Vietnam War, to stop anti-government Druze Muslim and Palestinian forces from taking the village of Souk el Gharb. It marked the first time U.S. naval gunfire was used directly in support of the Lebanese Army.
20 September – U.S. Marines operated on the Lebanese war front for the first time when six Marine and Lebanese army observers went to the front line of fighting between the U.S. backed Lebanese army and Druze Muslim militiamen near the village of Souk el Gharb. The observers relayed information to the Marines and to naval gunners as U.S. Navy ships bombarded Muslim positions.
20 September – The residence of the U.S. Ambassador, Robert Dillon, and the Lebanese Defense Ministry were bombarded by Syrian-backed insurgents in Beirut, Lebanon.
24 September – The Department of Defense announced that 1,600 Marines were ashore at Beirut, 400 more than the number called for in the agreement with Lebanon that set up the multinational force. Defense Department officials stated that the 400 extra men included members of ordinance disposal squads, public information units, and the American Forces Radio and Television staff. They also included American Embassy guard reinforcements, and communication, medical, Post Exchange, and helicopter maintenance personnel.
25 September – The USS New Jersey arrived off the coast of Lebanon to increase the firepower of the U.S. naval forces off Beirut. The USS New Jersey, capable of firing a one-ton shell 20 miles, would be able to shell anti-government artillery positions that hammered targets around the U.S. Marine peacekeeping force. The battleship joined 12 other American warships.
26 September – A cease-fire for Lebanon was announced by Saudi Arabian and Syrian officials in Damascus. The leader of the Druze force also announced that his troops were committed to the cease-fire. The U.S. Marines continued peacekeeping duties in Beirut as talks on the formation of a new coalition government began.
27 September – Two Marine aviators were injured when their AH-1T Cobra helicopter crashed into the sea. The USS Tarawa-based Cobra went down during a routine training mission about eight to nine miles from the beach adjacent to the Beirut International Airport. The cause of the accident was not a result of hostile fire. The two pilots were recovered shortly after the crash by a USS Tarawa search and rescue helicopter. The USS Tarawa was off-shore Beirut as a contingency to support U.S. Marine and Navy forces.
27 September – General Alfred Houston Noble, USMC (Retired), died at his home in La Jolla, California, at the age of 88. General Noble, who retired in 1956, was a company commander in World War I and was awarded a Navy Cross for gallantry in action during the battle of Belleau Wood. The highly decorated general served with the 1st Marine Amphibious Corps during World War II and was commanding general of Camp Pendleton, California, from 1950 – 1951.
29 September – The Senate voted to let the Reagan administration keep U.S. Marines in Lebanon for as many as 18 more months. The Senate approved a resolution essentially the same as the 18-month authorization passed by the House of Representatives on 28 September. The action by both chambers marked the first time Congress sought to invoke the War Powers Act which was passed in 1973 after U.S. troops were withdrawn from fighting in the undeclared war in Vietnam.
1 October – The Pentagon announced that the 31st Marine Amphibious Unit, an emergency force of about 2,000 U.S. Marines on board three American ships, was sailing toward the Indian Ocean reportedly to take up position off the Strait of Hormuz, the entrance to the Persian Gulf. There was speculation that this move was linked to threats by Iran to blockade the strait and cut off the movement of oil tankers.
2 October – Major General Robert Blake, USMC (Retired), died at the age of 89 in Oakland, California. A combat veteran of both world wars, General Blake was twice awarded the Navy Cross for his actions at Belleau Wood in World War I and for bravery during fighting in Nicaragua.
4 October – Marine Air Control Squadron 1 (MACS-1) was activated at Camp Pendleton, California, as part of Marine Air Control Group 38, 3d Marine Aircraft Wing.
14 October – One Marine was killed and another Marine was wounded in a series of small-arms attacks near Beirut’s international airport as sporadic violations of the 26 September cease-fire continued. The incident erupted a three-hour exchange of fire between Marines and Muslim militiamen. This marked the first Marine killed since the start of the cease-fire which ended three weeks of fighting in the mountains east of Beirut between Lebanese Army and factional militias.
15 October – Lieutenant Colonel William G. Barnes, Jr., the former commanding officer of Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 263 (HMM-263) that provided more than three months of accident-free airlift support for Marines in Beirut, received the Alfred A. Cunningham award for the Marine Corps Aviator of 1983 at the Marine Corps Association convention in San Diego, California. The CH-46 “Sea Knight” pilot earned the award for performance of duty with HMM-263, the aviation combat element of the 24th Marine Amphibious Force in Beirut, Lebanon from 29 October 1982 to 14 February 1983. HMM-263 was selected as the helicopter squadron of the year for 1983.
16 October – One Marine was killed and three other Marines were wounded as Muslim militiamen continued sporadic firing at peacekeeping troops in Beirut, Lebanon. The Marines responded by firing M-16 rifles and two Dragon rockets at a Muslim slum, the source of several attacks over the past few days. This marked the sixth combat death since the Marines arrived in Lebanon.
21 October – A ten-ship task force carrying 1,900 Marines of the 22d Marine Amphibious Unit was ordered to head for Grenada to signal the United States’ intentions to protect American citizens on the Caribbean Island. The force was in the Caribbean and was on its way to Lebanon when the orders were received.
23 October – A suicide terrorist driving a truck loaded with explosives blew up the headquarters of 1st Battalion, 8th Marines in Beirut, Lebanon, killing 220 and wounding approximately 70, the highest number of Marine casualties in a single day since World War II. 18 Navy and three Army U.S. servicemen were also killed in the blast. Almost simultaneously with the blast that devastated the Marine Corps building, a second suicide bomber drove a car into a building occupied by French paratroopers and destroyed it too.
23 October – An unspecified number of Marine replacements embarked for Beirut, Lebanon, to replace Marines killed or wounded by the terrorist attack. Major General Alfred M. Gray, commander of the 2d Marine Division based at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, said the departing troops would bring the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit back up to strength.
25 October – The Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Paul X. Kelley, visited seriously wounded Marines from the Beirut terrorist bombing at the Wiesbaden, West Germany, Air Force hospital. General Kelley presented 16 purple hearts there.
25 October – General Paul X. Kelley, inspected the flattened Marine headquarters at the Beirut International Airport. He viewed the devastation caused by the 23 October terrorist bombing that left 241 Marines and other U.S. servicemen dead.
25 October – An American force of up to 1,900 Marines, from the 22d Marine Amphibious Unit, and Army Rangers invaded the leftist-ruled Caribbean nation of Grenada. The force seized two airfields and the campus of an American-run medical school in an action that President Ronald Reagan said he ordered to protect 1,100 United States citizens living on the island. The airborne American units were joined by 300 soldiers from six neighboring Caribbean states that asked the U.S. to intervene to restore order after a new leftist government took power a few days earlier. The landing was the first large-scale American military intervention in the Western Hemisphere since the invasion of the Dominican Republic in 1965. Three Marine aviators died in the operation.
26 October – Vice President George Bush inspected the devastated Marine building where a bomb killed 241 U.S. servicemen and said “insidious terrorist cowards” would not change U.S. foreign policy. Accompanying Vice President Bush on the tour were: Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Paul X. Kelley; Reginald Bartholomew, the U.S. Ambassador to Lebanon; Colonel Timothy Geraghty, commander of the 1,600 Marines in Lebanon; and Mrs. Bush.
26 October – The Marine Corps took delivery of the first of its eight-wheeled, amphibious light armored vehicles, LAV-25s. Following a competitive evaluation in which U.S. armed forces compared vehicles from three manufacturers, a contract was awarded to Diesel Division, General Motors of Canada, Ltd. The joint Marine Corps/Army contract called for the delivery of 969 vehicles during a five-year period and options for 598 more vehicles.
29 October – Bodies of 14 Marines and one sailor killed in Beirut, Lebanon, on 23 October, arrived at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware, marking the first American casualties scheduled to return home in the upcoming weeks. The slain Marines were part of the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit from Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. The caskets, each draped with an American flag, were arranged in a row inside an aircraft hanger converted to a funeral chapel for the day’s ceremonies. The bodies of seven soldiers and one Marine killed in Grenada which arrived at Dover earlier, awaited their compatriots’ return along with the grieving families and U.S. military leaders including Marine Corps General Paul X. Kelley.
1 November – 300 Marines of the 22d Marine Amphibious Unit staged an amphibious and helicopter landing on the island of Carriacou, a dependency 15 miles northeast of Grenada’s main island, in a search for Cuban military installations or personnel. 17 Grenadian soldiers were captured, and arms, ammunition and training sites were found.
2 November – Marines of the 22d Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) pulled out of the Caribbean area and proceeded on route to Beirut, Lebanon, where the unit was scheduled to replace the 24th MAU later in the month.
4 November – President and Mrs. Ronald Reagan paid solemn tribute to the American servicemen killed and wounded in Grenada and Lebanon at a memorial service at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. A somber crowd of 5,000 assembled in the rain at Camp Lejeune’s natural amphitheater. Also in attendance were: Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Paul X. Kelley; Secretary of Defense, Caspar Weinberger; Secretary of State, George Schultz; and National Security Advisor, Robert MacFarlane.
4 November – The Department of Defense Commission on the Beirut International Airport Terrorist Attack, October 23, 1983, was established. The Secretary of Defense directed that this Commission make a thorough investigation into all circumstances connected with the attack, and report to him it findings of fact and opinions relating to the attack, the Rules of Engagement then in force, the adequacy of security measures in place at the time of the explosion, and the adequacy of security measures subsequently established. Heading the Commission was Admiral Robert L.J. Long, USN (Retired).
6 November – Staff Sergeant Farley Simon, a native of Grenada, became the first Marine to win the Marine Corps Marathon in Washington, D.C. Sergeant Simon, stationed at Camp Smith, Hawaii, completed the marathon in 2 hours, 17 minutes, and 45 seconds. More than 11,000 runners participated in the eighth annual marathon.
6 November – A religious service was held for the U.S. Marine Corps at the Washington Cathedral, Washington, D.C. It was the Marines’ turn for the yearly armed services religious gathering at the cathedral. The service paid special tribute to the Marines who died in the terrorist bombing in Beirut and in the invasion of Grenada. Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Paul X. Kelley and Sergeant Major Robert E. Cleary, the Marines’ top-ranking enlisted man, attended the hour-long service.
10 November – Major General Richard C. Schulze, USMC (Retired), died in Boca Raton, Florida. The decorated general, commissioned in 1951 served in the Korean War and the war in Vietnam. His assignments included: Commanding General of Marine Corps Recruit Depot, San Diego, California; Inspector General of the Marine Corps; and Director, Personnel Management Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps.
10 November – U.S. Marines throughout the world celebrated the 208th birthday of the Marine Corps. On this date in 1775, the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia founded the Marine Corps. In his birthday message, the Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Paul X. Kelley, said, “If there is a word which more accurately describes pride than any other, that word is Marine.”
15 November – General Paul X. Kelley returned a salute to Lance Corporal Jeffrey Lee Nashton, the Beirut bombing victim whose speechless devotion to the Marine Corps led him to scrawl “Semper Fi” as General Kelley stood by his hospital bed in West Germany on 25 October. In a brief ceremony at Bethesda Naval Hospital, Bethesda, Maryland, General Kelley presented the Marine, from Rome, New York, a plaque containing his four-stars and the words “Semper Fi.”
15 November – General Paul X. Kelley, Commandant of the Marine Corps, upgraded the command of the Marine force in Lebanon from colonel to brigadier general. General Kelley said in a statement that the move was necessary so that the commander of the U.S. contingent would be on the same level as leaders of the French and Italian elements of the multinational force in the Beirut area.
18-25 November – Approximately 1,000 Marines of the 28th Marine Amphibious Unit joined over 500 Honduran infantrymen in a joint amphibious landing exercise, “Ahuas Tara” (Big Pine II), on the Honduran coast. The joint maneuver was a major event in a series of exercises at sea around Central America and in Honduras which began during the summer. “Big Pine II” was designed to exercise and evaluate objectives in defending Honduras, which borders Nicaragua.
19 November – Marines of the 22d Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU), took over peacekeeping duties in Beirut, Lebanon. Commanded by Brigadier General James R. Joy, the 22d MAU replaced the 24th MAU which was stationed in Beirut since 30 May 1983. The 1,800 Marines of the 22d MAU was on its way to Beirut when it was sent to Grenada in October. The 22d MAU was the fifth Marine unit to serve in Beirut since the multinational peacekeeping force entered Beirut 25 August 1982. It was also the second time the 22d MAU was deployed to Lebanon.
29 November – The Pentagon announced that the U.S. Central Command, responsible for protecting United States interests in the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean area, would establish a small floating headquarters in that region. A staff of up to 20 officers and men would be placed aboard a Navy ship operating with a small flotilla of warships called the Middle East Force. The command could draw on a pool of thousands of Marines, Army, Navy, and Air Force personnel as needed for rapid deployment in a region covering 19 nations.
4 December – Eight Marines of the 22d Marine Amphibious Unit were killed in Beirut, Lebanon, by heavy shelling from Syrian positions. In retaliation, U.S. Navy warships opened fire on the militia positions. Earlier on this day, 28 American warplanes went on their first combat mission in Lebanon and attacked Syrian positions in the mountains east of Beirut in retaliation for repeated Syrian attacks on U.S. reconnaissance planes. This marked the first combat use of U.S. aircraft in the Middle East and the highest number of Marines to die in Lebanon combat in one day since they went there in 1982.
7 December – Marines of the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit (MAU) arrived at Moorehead City, North Carolina, after six-months of duty in Beirut, Lebanon. The 24th MAU suffered a loss of 220 Marines in the 23 October bombing of their headquarters. The unit was composed of Battalion Landing Team, 1st Battalion, 8th Marines; Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 162, and MAU Service Support Group 24.
14 December – Marines assigned to the U.S. Embassy Security Guard Detachment at Kuwait responded when a bomb-laden truck crashed through the gate at the compound and exploded in one of a series of coordinated terrorist attacks. The embassy suffered considerable damage. There were no American casualties, but five persons were killed and 37 were injured. In addition to the U.S. embassy attack, other explosions rocked the French Embassy, the Kuwait airport control tower, a Kuwaiti power station, a Raytheon Company headquarters compound, and a separate residential facility.
15 December – The USS New Jersey opened fire with its 16-inch guns on antiaircraft positions in the Syrian-occupied mountains southeast of Beirut. Last used in action off the Vietnam Coast in 1968, the ship was joined in the second straight day of offshore shelling by two smaller ships. They sent projectiles into the hills in an effort to silence Syrian firing at U.S. reconnaissance flights over the area. This marked the first time the USS New Jersey was put into action since arriving off the Lebanese coast 25 September.
18 December – Retired Lieutenant General Carson A. Roberts, 78, died in Pinehurst, North Carolina. Upon his retirement in March 1964, General Roberts was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal for exceptionally meritorious service as Commanding General, Fleet Marine Force, Pacific, from July 1962 to March 1964. Appointed a second lieutenant in 1929, the Marine aviator served in World War II and the Korean War. He was buried with full honors at Arlington National Cemetery on 21 December.
23-27 December – Comedian Bob Hope, flanked by a host of U.S. stars, brought the Marines in Lebanon a bit of America as a Christmas present with shows filled with pretty girls and hometown songs. His first series of Christmas shows to U.S. troops overseas since the Vietnam War, the 80-year-old comedian and his troupe hop-scotched among three ships of the U.S. Navy’s Sixth Fleet off the Lebanese coast. He also gave an unscheduled performance on Christmas Day to the Marines at their Beirut International Airport compound.
28 December – The Department of Defense Commission on the Beirut International Airport Terrorist Act released a 140 page unclassified report on the 23 October 1983 incident. A key recommendation by the Commission asked that the Secretary of Defense direct the development of doctrine, organization, force structure, education, and training necessary to defend against and counter terrorism.
31 December – The strength of the armed forces was 2,123,915 of which 193,858 were Marines.
1984
1 January – A four-percent pay increase for all military personnel, authorized by the Defense Authorization Act of 1984, went into effect. Those serving in the grade of Private (E-1) with less than four months service, were excluded from the pay raise.
1 January – The strength of the armed forces was 2,123,915, of which 193,858 were Marines.
8 January – A Marine was killed in Beirut, Lebanon, when unidentified gunmen opened fire on a helicopter unloading troops near the temporary American Embassy on Beirut’s northwest waterfront. The fatality was the first in the U.S. contingent of the multinational peacekeeping force in Lebanon, since 4 December 1983, when eight Marines were killed in a mortar attack.
11 January – General Paul X. Kelley, Commandant of the Marine Corps, saluted the New York Post for selecting the U.S. Marine as its first “Man of the Year.” The general expressed his appreciation for the positive portrayal which the New York Post has given the Marines. On the front page of the 23 December 1983 edition the New York Post described their “Man of the Year” as brown, black, yellow, red, and white, dressed in khaki touched with camouflage. The Post said the Marine charged forward in a year stained with his blood by bombs and bullets to raise the American flag.
12 January – The first McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II was welcomed to the Fleet Marine Force in ceremonies by the 2d Marine Aircraft Wing, at Marine Corps Air Station, Cherry Point, North Carolina. The Marine Corps’ second generation vertical or short takeoff and landing attack aircraft, the AV-8B represents an evolutionary, low-risk improvement over its predecessor, the AV-8A. Several technological advancements increase the AV-8B’s performance and readiness potential.
12 January – Aircrews of Marine Medium Helicopter Squadron 162 were presented the Combat Aircrew Insignia earned by flying combat missions in Beirut, Lebanon, while under hostile enemy fire. This marked the first time since the Vietnam War that this insignia was awarded. While in Lebanon, as the aviation element of the 24th Marine Amphibious Unit, the squadron accumulated almost 7,500 accident-free flight hours, a naval aviation record for a deployed squadron.
13 January – A two-hour movie entitled “Hard Knox” premiered on NBC-TV network. The movie starred Robert Conrad in the role of Marine Colonel Joseph Knox, who retires from the Marine Corps to take charge of a struggling military school he attended in his youth. Actor Robert Conrad previously portrayed Marine World War II ace, Gregory “Pappy” Boyington, in “Baa Baa Black Sheep” a few years ago.
15 January – For the first time since 18 December 1983, U.S. warships fired into the mountains above Beirut, Lebanon, to quell a heavy rock and mortar attack on Marine positions around the Beirut International Airport. The naval gunfire was provided by the battleship, USS New Jersey and the destroyer, USS Tattnall. Marines also responded with small arms fire, mortar rounds, and tank shells. There were no U.S. casualties.
16 January – Defense Secretary Caspar W. Weinberger announced that the Marine Corps would list Marines killed in Beirut, Lebanon, as battle casualties rather than non-combat deaths. Mr. Weinberger said that the Marines were casualties of a battle while not necessarily active participants in the conflict. For this reason, the Marine Corps redesignated all casualties suffered as a result of terrorist or other acts directed against them in Lebanon as battle casualties.
18 January – Marine Corps Bulletin 1742 of 18 January 1984 indicated that a lack of knowledge about the voting process was the most common reason for voter non-participation. In an effort to correct the situation, commanding officers were given the responsibility of establishing a command voter assistance program designed to encourage all eligible Marines to vote in the 1984 elections by providing information on absentee voting.
20 January – An enlisted club at Marine Corps Air Station (Helicopter) New River, North Carolina, was dedicated in honor of Corporal George N. Holmes, Jr., USMC (Deceased). Corporal Holmes was killed during the Iranian hostage rescue attempt in April 1980. The dedication date was selected in honor of the third anniversary of the release of the Iranian hostages.
30 January – One U.S. Marine was killed and three others were wounded when Marine Corps positions came under attack from suspected Muslim gunners in Beirut’s southern suburbs. Marines responded with tank guns, mortars, machine guns, and small arms fire. The attack coincided with intense U.S., French, and Saudi Arabian diplomatic efforts concentrated in Damascus to break the
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https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2019/10/09/2019-22210/addition-of-certain-entities-to-the-entity-list
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Federal Register :: Request Access
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2019-10-09T00:00:00
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Request Access
Due to aggressive automated scraping of FederalRegister.gov and eCFR.gov, programmatic access to these sites is limited to access to our extensive developer APIs.
If you are human user receiving this message, we can add your IP address to a set of IPs that can access FederalRegister.gov & eCFR.gov; complete the CAPTCHA (bot test) below and click "Request Access". This process will be necessary for each IP address you wish to access the site from, requests are valid for approximately one quarter (three months) after which the process may need to be repeated.
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https://www.atf.gov/laboratories/fire-research-laboratory
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|
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives
|
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Video of Fire Research Laboratory The Fire Research Laboratory (FRL) is the nation’s only large-scale fire science research laboratory dedicated to fire and arson criminal investigations. The FRL is located within the National Laboratory Center (NLC) in Ammendale, Maryland. It is accredited by the ANSI National Accreditation Board to the ISO/IEC 17025:2017 and AR 3125 (2023)
|
en
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https://www.atf.gov/sites/all/themes/custom/atf/favicon.ico
|
https://www.atf.gov/laboratories/fire-research-laboratory
|
Video of Fire Research Laboratory
The Fire Research Laboratory (FRL) is the nation’s only large-scale fire science research laboratory dedicated to fire and arson criminal investigations. The FRL is located within the National Laboratory Center (NLC) in Ammendale, Maryland. It is accredited by the ANSI National Accreditation Board to the ISO/IEC 17025:2017 and AR 3125 (2023) standards to conduct analysis and testing related to fire scene reconstructions as well as electro-mechanical evidence examinations.
FRL is the first laboratory in the United States to provide services such as on-scene support and remote technical assistance for fire investigations. Prior to FRL’s opening in 2003, large-scale fire research testing had to be done outdoors, which introduced problems such as weather and contamination.
The highly trained staff at FRL conduct flashover studies to show how fast fires can spread under different conditions. They also validate fire pattern analysis indicators, research the impact of accelerants on fire growth and spread, and analyze causes of electrical fires. They work closely with ATF’s certified fire investigators (CFIs) to help them identify a fire’s origin and determine its cause based on the collected evidence.
Research and Testing Facilities
ATF’s FRL is a one-of-a-kind facility featuring cutting-edge scientific methods used to measure data specific to fire behavior, including heat release rate, burning rate and smoke production. The 16,900-square-foot burn room can accommodate a three-story structure created to help investigators safely study large-scale fire behavior, perform engineering analyses, and improve computer models. This research space also allows ATF’s criminal investigators to conduct real-time fire scene analysis and test validation.
FRL also houses an electrical testing laboratory where staff perform forensic examinations for cases. They also conduct tests and failure analyses of residential and commercial electrical products including components, equipment and wiring.
To keep track of all the data from their tests and analyses, staff members use a proprietary Data Acquisition System (DAS) that allows them to collect more than 2,300 channels of data per second. In addition, the DAS has the ability to capture video in both standard and high definition. FRL uses high speed and forward-looking infrared (FLIR) thermal imaging cameras to capture burn test data. This allows experts to clearly review evidence and make sound conclusions.
FRL was designed around physical and environmental safety, featuring an extensive fire safety suppression system as well as on-site air and water pollution treatment facilities. These systems process and cleanse the building’s exhaust air before releasing it into the atmosphere, and eliminate the impact of pollution runoff into the community by collecting and recycling the water used to suppress test fires.
View all fire research publications
Training
FRL is staffed by certified fire protection, electrical and mechanical engineers who teach fire science courses as part of ATF’s CFI training. They also conduct training at the Advanced Fire and Arson Training Complex located at the National Center for Explosives Training and Research. They leverage their expertise to support nationally significant arson investigations by deploying as members of the ATF National Response Teams and International Response Teams. They maintain their scientific credentials by also working on local and state chapters of the International Association of Arson Investigators.
Collaboration
FRL staff collaborate with research institutions all over the world to joint research initiatives to improve fire investigation. FRL is a joint effort between law enforcement, fire services, and the private sector, positioning FRL as leaders in fire investigation science.
FRL staff use cutting edge scientific, technical, educational and training methods to prepare CFI candidates for real world scenarios. In addition, FRL engineers conduct scientific research in fire and forensic science. This information is used to develop improved investigative techniques and collected in a central repository for fire research data.
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https://afresearchlab.com/technology/successstories/starfire-optical-range/
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en
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STARFIRE OPTICAL RANGE – Air Force Research Laboratory
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https://afresearchlab.com/technology/successstories/starfire-optical-range/
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Space Domain Awareness
Freedom to maneuver in space is critical to meeting the United States Space Force and Air Force missions to fly, fight, and win in air, space, and cyberspace. The ability to exploit the characteristics of space gives the warfighter a competitive edge in virtually all engagements.
As satellites get smaller and the number of space objects increases, research in imaging and identification of space objects is paramount to meeting the Space Force’s mission.
To provide leadership in the area of space domain awareness, the Space Force conducts research and development in laser-beacon adaptive optics, beam control, and space object identification.
Facts about the Starfire Optical Range
Located within AFRL’s Directed Energy Directorate on Kirtland AFB, N.M.
Researchers are pioneers and leaders in the field of laser-beacon adaptive optics
Houses the Department of Defense’s second largest telescope, the 3.5-meter telescope
3.5-meter telescope achieved first light on February 10, 1994 when it produced its initial image of a space object
About the Starfire Optical Range
As part of AFRL’s Directed Energy, Space Electro-Optics Division, the Starfire Optical Range (SOR) is a vital resource in achieving the Department of the Air Force’s mission to operate freely in space. This world-class research facility is located on a hilltop 1,900 meters (6,240 feet) above sea level on Kirtland Air Force Base, New Mexico. SOR’s primary mission is to develop optical sensing, imaging, and atmospheric compensation technologies to support aerospace missions.
This facility leads research into laser-beacon adaptive optics for military uses and civilian applications, such as astronomy. It is a major component of the Air Force Research Laboratory’s support to the U.S. Space Force.The SOR operates one of the world’s premier telescopes capable of tracking low-earth orbiting satellites. It has a 3.5-meter (11.5-feet) diameter primary mirror and is protected by a retracting cylindrical enclosure that allows the telescope to operate in the open air. Using adaptive optics, the telescope can distinguish basketball-sized objects at a distance of 1,600 kilometers (1,000 miles) into space.
In addition to the 3.5-meter telescope, the SOR includes four other optical mounts: a 1.5-meter telescope, two 1.0-meter telescopes, and a 1.0-meter laser beam director. All are capable of tracking low-earth orbit satellites and most are equipped with high performance adaptive optics systems and highly sensitive scientific cameras. Other instrumentation includes numerous small telescopes and beam directors, multiple laser systems, and several optics and electronics laboratories.
The Terry S. Duncan Space Technology and Research Laboratory (STARLab) is the main facility supporting the SOR mission. This facility includes extensive optics and electronics laboratories where equipment design, construction, and testing occur before integration with telescopes and other experiment hardware. The STARLab also houses a large mirror coating chamber for the periodic recoating of the SOR’s 3.5-meter primary mirror.
The SOR staff includes physicists, mathematicians, astronomers, electronic and mechanical engineers, optical designers and technicians, sensor and computer specialists, laser technicians, meteorologists, electricians, plumbers, welders, machinists, and other specialists.
3.5-Meter Telescope Details
The primary mirror of the 3.5-meter telescope was cast in a spinning furnace. With a lightweight, ‘honey-comb-sandwich’ primary mirror, this telescope weighs 2,000 kilograms (4,500 pounds) even though its glass face sheet is only 25-millimeter (1-inch) thick. When polished, the mirror surface has a tolerance of 21 nanometers, or 3,000 times thinner than a human hair. The mirror is supported by 56 computer-controlled actuators that allow shaping of the mirror.
The telescope is located in a cylindrical enclosure that is often compared to a collapsible cup used by campers. This design has two major advantages over conventional domes, which are normally equipped with narrow slits: the enclosure itself does not have to rotate at high speed while satellite tracking and it improves image quality by not trapping warm air that could create optical distortions.
The protective enclosure was emulated when building a telescope on the SOR’s sister site in Maui, Hawaii. The Maui site, also part of the Space Electro-Optics Division within AFRL, houses telescopes similar to those found at the SOR, including the DoD’s largest telescope, a 3.6-meter (11.8-foot) telescope. The Maui research team conducts complementary experiments to those done at the SOR.
Thermal control of SOR’s telescopes and facilities is essential to maintain the highest image quality. A unique feature of SOR’s facility is the removal of heat with a closed-cycle system where water is chilled by a large icehouse located 400 meters (¼ mile) from the telescope. The ice is stored in an underground pit for use during telescope operations. Unlike conventional air-conditioning systems, this method prevents heat from being released into the air near the telescope, which could make atmospheric distortions much worse. The 9-meter (30-foot) pit beneath the floor of the icehouse can hold 2 million kilograms (4.5 million pounds) of ice. The icehouse also contains gas-fired boilers, which can generate up to 2 billion joules (2 million BTUs) for hot water. By mixing the right proportions of hot and chilled water, very precise temperature controls can be achieved for the optical labs and equipment.
The SOR is widely recognized as one of the world’s leading laser-beacon adaptive optics and beam control research sites. With its research and field experiments in real-time atmospheric turbulence compensation and low-earth orbit satellite acquisition, pointing, and tracking, the Starfire Optical Range is truly a national asset.
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https://www.texaschildrens.org/duncan-nri
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en
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Duncan Neurological Research Institute
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The Neurological Research Institute at TCH is dedicated to improving the lives of children with brain disorders & injuries through leading-edge research.
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|
/themes/custom/tc/favicon.ico
|
Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute
|
https://www.texaschildrens.org/duncan-nri
|
Duncan NRI
Discoveries that change lives
At the Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Baylor College of Medicine and Texas Children’s work together to demystify neurological diseases and help the world heal.
In partnership with Baylor College of Medicine
Devoted to understanding and treating brain disorders
Devoted to understanding and treating brain disorders
Duncan NRI directors, Drs. Huda Zoghbi and Joshua Shulman, and our entire faculty team of 30+ stellar investigators, are dedicated to advancing our understanding of brain disorders, and discovering novel treatments that will help millions around the world.
State-of-the-art core facilities
With ten shared labs, our facilities give investigators within Duncan NRI and elsewhere access to cutting-edge technologies and instrumentation.
Institute spotlight Celebrating more than 10 years of life-changing research
Since the Duncan NRI opened in 2010, our multidisciplinary faculty have continued to identify the underlying causes of brain disorders and discover new treatments for children and adults. Our deep-rooted generous and collaborative culture extends to local, national, and international partnerships, accelerating discoveries in neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative, and psychiatric conditions.
Cain Labs for Epilepsy Research
Determined to find the causes of and treatments for pediatric catastrophic epilepsies.
Groundbreaking discoveries start here
Help fund a better future
Your generous donations make our research possible. Give today, and you’ll help us continue our search for answers and give children with devastating neurological conditions the promise of a brighter tomorrow.
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https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/who-responsible-taliban
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Who Is Responsible for the Taliban?
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The roots of the Afghan civil war and the country's subsequent transformation into a safe-haven for the world's most destructive terror network began in the decades prior to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
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The Washington Institute
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https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/who-responsible-taliban
|
As the United States prepared for war against Afghanistan, some academics or journalists argued that Usama bin Ladin's al-Qa'ida group and Afghanistan's Taliban government were really creations of American policy run amok. A pervasive myth exists that the United States was complicit for allegedly training Usama bin Ladin and the Taliban. For example, Jeffrey Sommers, a professor in Georgia, has repeatedly claimed that the Taliban had turned on "their previous benefactor." David Gibbs, a political science professor at the University of Arizona, made similar claims. Robert Fisk, widely-read Middle East correspondent for The Independent, wrote of "CIA camps in which the Americans once trained Mr. bin Ladin's fellow guerrillas."(1) Associated Press writer Mort Rosenblum declared that "Usama bin Ladin was the type of Soviet-hating freedom fighter that U.S. officials applauded when the world looked a little different."(2)
In fact, neither bin Ladin nor Taliban spiritual leader Mullah Umar were direct products of the CIA. The roots of the Afghan civil war and the country's subsequent transformation into a safe-haven for the world's most destructive terror network is a far more complex story, one that begins in the decades prior to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
THE CURSE OF AFGHAN DIVERSITY
Afghanistan's shifting alliances and factions are intertwined with its diversity, though ethnic, linguistic, or tribal variation alone does not entirely explain these internecine struggles. Afghanistan in its modern form was shaped by the nineteenth-century competition between the British, Russian, and Persian empires for supremacy in the region. The 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention that formally ended this "Great Game" finalized Afghanistan's role as a buffer between the Russian Empire's holdings in Central Asia, and the British Empire's holdings in India.
The resulting Kingdom of Afghanistan was and remains ethnically, linguistically, and religiously diverse. Today, Pushtuns are the largest ethnic group within the country, but they represent only 38 percent of the population. An almost equal number of Pushtuns live across the border in Pakistan's Northwest Frontier Province. Ethnic Tajiks comprise one-quarter of the population. The Hazaras, who generally inhabit the center of the country, represent another 19 percent. Other groups -- such as the Aimaks, Turkmen, Baluch, Uzbek, and others comprise the rest.(3)
Linguistic divisions parallel, and in some cases, overlap ethnic divisions. In addition to Dari (the Afghan dialect of Persian that is the lingua franca of half the population) and the Pushtun's own Pashtu, approximately ten percent of the population speaks Turkic languages like Uzbek or Turkmen. Several dozen more regional languages exist.(4)
Tribal divisions further compound the Afghan vortex. The Pushtuns are divided among the Durrani, Ghilzai, Waziri, Khattak, Afridi, Mohmand, Yusufzai, Shinwari, and numerous smaller tribes. In turn, each of these tribes is divided into subtribes. For example, the Durrani are divided into seven sub-groups: the Popalzai, Barakzai, Alizai, Nurzai, Ishakzai, Achakzai, and Alikozai. These, in turn, are divided into numerous clans.(5) Zahir Shah, ruler of Afghanistan between 1933 and 1973, belongs to the Muhammadzai clan of the Barakzai subtribe of the Durrani tribe. Such clan, subtribal, and tribal divisions contribute already intense rivalries and divisions.
Religious diversity further complicated internal Afghan politics and relations with neighbors. Once home to thriving Hindu, Sikh, and Jewish communities as recently as the mid-twentieth century, Afghanistan today is overwhelmingly Muslim. The vast majority -- 84 percent -- are Sunni Muslims. However, the Hazaras are Twelver Shi'i, and so have sixty million co-religionists in Iran. In the northeastern Badakhshan region of Afghanistan, there are many Isma'ili Shi'ia. When I traveled along the Tajik-Afghan frontier in 1997, numerous Tajik villagers told me they had regular clandestine contacts with the Isma'ili communities "just across the river," despite the watchful guard of the Russian 201st brigade.
Many countries thrive on diversity. However, in the context of both Afghanistan and the civil war, the fact that most identifiable Afghan groups have co-linguists, co-ethnics, or co-religionists across national boundaries became a catalyst for the nation's collapse, as well as a major determinant in the coalition-building during both the years of Soviet occupation and post-liberation struggle. For example, the Pushtuns of Kandahar have traditionally looked eastward toward their compatriots in Pakistan, while the Persian-speakers of Herat have looked westward into Iran. Uzbeks in Mazar-i Sharif have more in common with their co-linguists in Uzbekistan than they have with their compatriots in Kandahar.
As various Afghan constituencies looked toward their patrons across Afghanistan's frontiers for support, they created an incentive for Afghanistan's neighbors to involve themselves in internal Afghan affairs. The blame cannot be placed only on outside interference in Afghanistan, though, for the Afghan government has a long though often forgotten history of interfering with the ethnic minorities in surrounding countries and especially Pakistan.
DOWN THE SLIPPERY SLOPE
Zahir Shah took the throne of Afghanistan in 1933 after the assassination of his father, Nadir Shah. Zahir was not a strong leader, though. As Louis Dupree, the preeminent anthropologist of Afghanistan observed, "King Mohammed Zahir Shah reigned but did not rule for twenty years."(6) Instead, real power remained vested in his uncles who sought to break Afghanistan out of both its isolation and dependence on either the Soviet Union or Great Britain. It was during this period that Afghanistan and the United States first exchanged ambassadors. The Afghan government awarded a San Francisco-based engineering firm the rights to develop hydroelectric and irrigation projects in the Hilmand River Valley. Slowly, Afghanistan began drifting toward the West, both politically and economically.
In 1953, Zahir Shah's first cousin, the 43-year-old Muhammad Daoud Khan became prime minister. Daoud sought to root out graft in the huge Hilmand scheme, speed up reforms, but he remained a firm opponent of the liberalization in Afghan society. Seeking to recalibrate Afghanistan's neutrality, Daoud sought closer relations with the Soviet Union.(7) However, neutrality in the Cold War was a fleeting phenomenon.
Both the Soviet Union and the United States increasingly plied Afghanistan with economic and technical assistance. Daoud's government sought to buy arms, and approached the United States several times between 1953 and 1955. However he was unable to come to an agreement with Washington, which tied arms sales to either membership in the anti-Communist Baghdad Pact or at least in a Mutual Security Pact.(8)
The Soviet Union, though, was eager to supply what the United States would not. In 1956, Afghanistan purchased $25 million in tanks, airplanes, helicopters, and small arms from the Soviet bloc, while Soviet experts helped construct or convert to military specifications airfields in northern Afghanistan. The Cold War had come to Afghanistan.
While acceleration of the Cold War competition in Afghanistan -- with its subsequent tragic impact on the country -- would be a major legacy of Daoud, it would not be his most important one. Rather, during Daoud's premiership Afghanistan's relations with neighboring Pakistan would irreversibly sour. Afghanistan increasingly saw in Pakistan both a competitor and a threat. Indeed, Daoud's quest for arms was in large part motivated by Afghanistan's own cold war with Pakistan. However, it was Daoud's support for a Pushtun nationalist movement in Pakistan that would have the greatest lasting repercussions.
THE QUESTION OF GREATER PUSHTUNISTAN
The root of the Pushtunistan problem begins in 1893. It was in that year that Sir Henry Mortimer Durand, foreign secretary of India, demarcated what became known as the Durand line, setting the boundary between British India and Afghanistan, and in the process dividing the Pushtun tribes into two countries.
The status quo continued until 1947, when the British granted both India and Pakistan their independence. Afghanistan (and many Pushtuns in Pakistan) argued that if Pakistan could be independent from India, then the Pushtun areas of Pakistan should likewise have the option for independence as an entity to be called "Pushtunistan," or "land of the Pushtun."(9) Once independent of Pakistan, Pushtunistan would presumably choose to unite with the Pushtun-dominated Afghanistan, to form a "Greater Pushtunistan" (and also bolster the proportion of Pushtuns within Afghanistan).
The Pushtunistan issue continued to simmer into the 1950s, with Afghanistan-based Pushtuns crossing the Durand Line in 1950 and 1951 in order to raise Pushtunistan flags. Daoud, prime minister from 1953 to 1963, supported the Pushtun claims. The issue soon became caught up in Cold War rivalry. As Pakistan ensconced itself more firmly in the American camp, the Soviet Union increasingly supported Afghanistan's Pushtunistan agitations.(10)
In 1955, Pakistan reordered its administrative structure to merge all provinces in West Pakistan into a single unit. While this helped rectify, at least in theory, the power discrepancy between West and East Pakistan (the latter of which became Bangladesh in 1971), Daoud interpreted the move as an attempt to absorb and marginalize the Pushtuns of the Northwest Frontier Province. In March 1955, mobs attacked Pakistan's embassy in Kabul, and ransacked the Pakistani consulates in Jalalabad and Kandahar. Pakistani mobs retaliated by sacking the Afghan consulate in Peshawar. Afghanistan mobilized its reserves for war. Kabul and Islamabad agreed to submit their complaints to an arbitration commission consisting of representatives from Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Turkey. Arbitration failed, but the process provided time for tempers to cool.(11)
Twice, in 1960 and in 1961, Daoud sent Afghan troops into Pakistan's Northwest Frontier Province. In September 1961, Kabul and Islamabad severed diplomatic relations and Pakistan attempted to seal its border with Afghanistan. The Soviet Union was more than happy to provide an outlet, though, for Afghanistan's agricultural exports, which the Soviets airlifted out from the Kabul airport. Between October and November 1961, 13 Soviet aircraft departed Kabul daily, transporting more than 100 tons of Afghan grapes.(12) The New Republic commented, "The Soviet Government does not intend to miss any opportunity to increase its leverage." Indeed, not only did the Soviet Union "save" the Afghan harvest, but Pakistan's blockade also effectively ended the U.S. aid program in Afghanistan.(13)
Pakistan, meanwhile, looked with growing suspicion on the apparent development of a Moscow-New Delhi-Kabul alliance.(14) For the next two years, Afghanistan and Pakistan traded vitriolic radio and press propaganda as Afghan-supported insurgents fought Pakistani units inside the Northwest Frontier Province. On March 9, 1963, Daoud stepped down. Two months later, with the mediation of the Shah of Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan reestablished diplomatic relations.
Nevertheless, the Pushtunistan issue did not disappear. In 1964, Zahir Shah called a loya jirga -- a general assembly of tribal leaders and other notables -- during which several delegates spoke out on the issue. Subsequent Afghan prime ministers continued to pay lip service to the issue, keeping the irritant in Afghan-Pakistani relations alive.
Even if Kabul's support for Pushtun nationalist aspirations did not pose a serious challenge to the integrity of Pakistan, the impact on Pakistan-Afghanistan relations was lasting. As Barnett Rubin commented in his 1992 study, The Fragmentation of Afghanistan, "The resentments and fears that the Pashtunistan issue aroused in the predominantly Punjabi rulers of Pakistan, especially the military, continue to affect Pakistani perceptions of interests in Afghanistan."(15)
THE RETURN OF DAOUD AND THE RISE OF THE ISLAMISTS
In 1973, Daoud overthrew his cousin Zahir Shah and declared Afghanistan a republic. Pakistan, still reeling from the secession of Bangladesh, feared a return of the fierce Pushtun nationalism of Daoud's first term. Meanwhile, Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev, embracing a strategy of Third World activism, sought to exploit Daoud's coup to retrench Soviet regional interests.(16)
In 1971, Pakistan fought a bloody and, ultimately unsuccessful, war to prevent the secession of East Pakistan which, backed by India, had declared its independence as Bangladesh. While Pakistan had been founded on the basis of Islamic unity, the 1971 war reinforced the point that in Pakistan, ethnicity trumped religion. Accordingly, Pakistan viewed Daoud's Pushtunistan rhetoric (and his simultaneous support for Baluchi separatists), as well as his generally pro-India foreign policy, as a serious threat to Pakistani security.
Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto responded by supporting an Islamist movement in Afghanistan, a strategy that Islamabad would replicate two decades later with the Taliban.(17) For Islamabad, the strategy was two-fold. Not only could Pakistan deter Afghan expansionism by pressuring Afghanistan from within, but also a religious opposition would have broad appeal in an overwhelmingly Muslim country without the implicit territorial threat of an ethnic-nationalist opposition. It was from this Islamist movement that Pakistan's intelligence agency, Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), would introduce the United States to such important later mujahidinfigures as Burhanuddin Rabbani, Ahmad Shah Masud, and Gulbuddin Hikmatyar. The latter is actually a Ghilzai Pushtun, but from the north, with only limited links to the Pushtuns of the south. Accordingly, he was not considered a Pushtun nationalist by his Pakistani benefactors (or most Afghans).(18)
In 1974, the Islamists plotted a military coup, but Daoud's regime discovered the plot and imprisoned the leaders -- at least those who did not escape to Pakistan. The following year, the Islamists attempted an uprising in the Panjshir Valley. Again they failed, and again the Islamist leaders fled into Pakistan. Islamabad found that supporting an Afghan Islamist movement both gave Pakistan short-term leverage against Daoud, and also a long-term card to play should Afghanistan again seek to strategically challenge its neighbor to the East. With a sympathetic force in Afghanistan, Pakistan would be better able to influence succession should the elderly Daoud die. It was thus in the mid-1970s, while both the United States and the Soviet Union continued to ply the Kabul regime with aid, that Pakistani intelligence -- with financial support for Saudi Arabia -- first began their ties to the Islamist opposition in Afghanistan.(19)
THE SAUR REVOLUTION
Under Daoud's presidency, Afghanistan became increasingly polarized. The Islamists were by no means the only opposition seeking to reshape the status quo. Just as Pakistan backed the Islamist opposition, the Soviet Union threw its encouragement behind the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), sometimes referred to by either of its two constituent factions, the Khalq and the Parcham. The Khalq and the Parcham effectively remained competitors under separate leadership between 1967 and 1977, when the Soviet Union pressured them to reunite.
Why did the Soviet Union shift its support from Daoud, with whom it previously had a good relationship? Barnett Rubin explains that Soviet policy toward the Third World underwent a fundamental shift in the 1970s. The ouster of President Sukarno in Indonesia and Anwar Sadat's decision to expel Soviet advisers from Egypt convinced Moscow that it could no longer rely on non-communist nationalists. Simultaneously, the American defeat in Vietnam had emboldened the Soviet Union to push harder and compromise less.(20)
In 1978, a leading Parcham official fell to an assassin's bullet. Massive demonstrations erupted against Daoud and the CIA, which Parcham blamed for the killing. Daoud responded by arresting the PDPA leadership, spurring military officers sympathetic to the PDPA to move against his government. On April 27, 1978, they seized power in a bloody coup. On April 30, a Revolutionary Council declared Afghanistan to be a Democratic Republic.
The Soviet Union welcomed the new regime with a massive influx of aid. However, the old rivalries between the Khalqis, who dominated the new government, and the Parchamis, crippled the regime. Hafizullah Amin sought to implement the Khalq's program through brute force and terror, alienating many of his former partners. The Soviet Union, witnessing the disintegration of state control, sought to salvage their influence in Afghanistan through a change of leadership, but Hafizullah Amin refused to accept Soviet dictates.
THE SOVIET INVASION
Having lost in Iran's Islamic revolution their staunchest regional ally, the United States again sought to engage Afghanistan. In December 1979, Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev, not willing to lose the tenuous Soviet advantage in Afghanistan, sent the Red Army pouring into the country. When Hafizullah Amin still refused to relinquish power, Soviet units stormed his palace and executed him. While the Red Army and its client regime in Kabul controlled the city, the Soviets were never fully able to gain control over the countryside. Pockets of resistance continued despite all attempts to stamp them out.
Despite the oversimplifications of some in academe and opponents of the military campaign against the Taliban, the mujahidin was not simply created by the CIA in the aftermath of the Soviet invasion. Rather, as Red Army crack soldiers flew on Aeroflot planes into Kabul, and as Soviet tanks rolled across the Friendship Bridge from what is now Uzbekistan, a cadre for the enlargement of the Afghan mujahidin already existed. This cadre had remained in Pakistani exile since their failed uprising four years before. However, even if the mujahidin existed prior to the Soviet invasion, it was the occupation of a foreign power that caused the mujahidin movement to grow exponentially in both influence and size as disaffected Afghans flocked to what had become the only viable opposition movement.
ARMING THE AFGHAN RESISTANCE
The decision to arm the Afghan resistance came within two weeks of the Soviet invasion, and quickly gained momentum.(21) In 1980, the Carter administration allocated only $30 million for the Afghan resistance, though under the Reagan administration this amount grew steadily. In 1985, Congress earmarked $250 million for Afghanistan, while Saudi Arabia contributed an equal amount. Two years later, with Saudi Arabia still reportedly matching contributions, annual American aid to the mujahidin reportedly reached $630 million.(22) This does not include contributions made by other Islamic countries, Israel, the People's Republic of China, and Europe. Many commentators cite the huge flow of American aid to Afghanistan as if it occurred in a vacuum; it did not. According to Pakistani journalist Ahmed Rashid, the Soviet Union contributed approximately $5 billion per year into Afghanistan in an effort to support their counterinsurgency efforts and prop up the puppet government in Kabul.(23) Milton Bearden, Central Intelligence Agency station chief in Pakistan between 1986 and 1989, commented that by 1985, the occupying Soviet 40th army had swollen to almost 120,000 troops and with some other elements crossing into the Afghan theater on a temporary duty basis.(24)
Initially, the CIA refused to provide American arms to the resistance, seeking to maintain plausible deniability.(25) (The State Department, too, also opposed providing American-made weapons for fear of antagonizing the Soviet Union.(26) The 1983 suggestion of American Ambassador to Pakistan Ronald Spiers, that the U.S. provide Stingers to the mujahidin accordingly went nowhere for several years.(27) Much of the resistance to the supply of Stinger missiles was generated internally from the CIA station chief's desire (prior to the accession of Bearden to the post) to keep the covert assistance program small and inconspicuous. Instead, the millions appropriated went to purchase Chinese, Warsaw Pact, and Israeli weaponry. Only in March 1985, did Reagan's national security team formally decide to switch their strategy from mere harassment of Soviet forces in Afghanistan to driving the Red Army completely out of the country.(28) After vigorous internal debate, Reagan's military and national security advisors agreed to provide the mujahidin with the Stinger anti-aircraft missile. At the time, the United States possessed only limited numbers of the weapon. Some of the Joint Chiefs of Staff also feared accountability problems and proliferation of the technology to Third World countries.(29) It was not until September 1986, that the Reagan administration decided to supply Stinger anti-aircraft missiles to the mujahidin, thereby breaking the embargo on "Made-in-America" arms.
[While there was significant fear of Stinger missiles falling into the wrong hands in the 1990s, very little attention was paid to the threat from the anti-aircraft missiles in the 2001 U.S. campaign against the Taliban. This may have been due to an early 1990s covert campaign to purchase or otherwise recover surplus Stinger missiles still in the hands of the mujahidin factions .](30)
The CIA may have coordinated purchase of weapons and the initial training, but Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) controlled their distribution and their transport to the war zone. John McMahon, deputy director of the CIA, attempted to limit CIA interaction with the mujahidin. Even at the height of American involvement in Afghanistan, very few CIA operatives were allowed into the field.(31) Upon the weapons' arrival at the port of Karachi or the Islamabad airport, the ISI would transport the weapons to depots near Rawalpindi or Quetta, and hence on to the Afghan border.(32)
The ISI used its coordinating position to promote Pakistani interests as it saw them (within Pakistan, the ISI is often described as "a state within a state").(33) The ISI refused to recognize any Afghan resistance group that was not religiously based. Neither the Pushtun nationalist Afghan Millat party, nor members of the Afghan royal family were able to operate legally in Pakistani territory. The ISI did recognize seven groups, but insisted on contracting directly with each individual group in order to maintain maximum leverage. Pakistani intelligence was therefore able to reward compliant factions among the fiercely competitive resistance figures.(34) Indeed, the ISI tended to favor Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, perhaps the most militant Islamist of the mujahidin commanders, largely because Hekmatyar was also a strong proponent of the Pakistani-sponsored Islamist insurgency in Kashmir.(35) Masud, the most effective Mujahid commander, but a Tajik, received only eight Stingers from the ISI during the war.
Outside observers were not unaware that Pakistan had gained disproportionate influence through aid distribution. However, India, the greatest possible diplomatic check to Washington's escalating relationship with Islamabad, removed herself from any position of influence because its unabashed pro-Soviet policy eviscerated any American fear of antagonizing India. The U.S. State Department considered India a lost cause.(36)
While beneficial to Pakistani national interests at least in the short-term, the ISI's strategy had long-term consequences in promoting the Islamism and fractiousness of the mujahidin. However, the degree to which disunity would plague the mujahidin did not become fully apparent until after the withdrawal of the Soviet army from Afghanistan.
Afghanistan was a bleeding wound for the Soviet Union. Each year, the Red Army suffered thousands of casualties. Numerous Soviets died of disease and drug addiction. The quick occupation had bogged down into a huge economic drain at a time of tightening Soviet resources. In 1988, Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev announced his intention to withdraw Soviet troops. Despite Gorbachev's continued military and economic assistance to Najibullah, Afghanistan's communist president, most analysts believed the Najibullah would quickly collapse. The CIA expected that, at most, Najibullah would remain in power for one year following the Soviet withdrawal.
However, Najibullah proved the skeptics wrong. Mujahidin offensives in the wake of the Soviet withdrawal failed. Washington had only budgeted money to support the mujahdin for one year following the Soviet withdrawal, but Saudi and Kuwaiti donors provided emergency aid, much of which went to Hikmaytar and other Wahabi commanders.(37) While the United States budgeted $250 million for the mujahidin in 1991, the following year the Bush administration allocated no money for military assistance. Money is influence, and individuals in the Persian Gulf continued to provide almost $400 million annually to the Afghan mujahidin.(38)
Many Afghan specialists criticized the United States for merely walking away from Afghanistan after the fall of the Soviet Union. Ed Girardet, a journalist and Afghanistan expert, observed, "The United States really blew it. They dropped Afghanistan like a hot potato."(39) Indeed, Washington's lack of engagement created a policy void in which radical elements in the ISI eagerly filled. However, to consider Afghanistan in a vacuum ignores the crisis that developed when, on August 2, 1990, Iraqi troops invaded Kuwait. Washington's attention and her resources shifted from the last battle of the Cold War to a different type of conflict.
Islamist commanders like Hikmaytar, upset with the U.S.-led coalition in the Persian Gulf, broke with their Saudi and Kuwait patrons and found new backers in Iran, Libya, and Iraq. [Granted, while the break was sudden, the relationship with Tehran was not. Hikmaytar had started much earlier to collaborate with Iran]. It was only in this second phase of the Afghan war, a phase that developed beyond much of the Western world's notice, that Afghan Arabs first became a significant political, if not military, force in Afghanistan.
THE EMERGENCE OF THE AFGHAN ARABS
One of the greatest criticisms of U.S. policy, especially after the rise of the Taliban, has been that the CIA directly supported Arab volunteers who came to Afghanistan to wage jihad against the Soviets, but eventually used those American arms to engage in terrorist war against the West. However, the so-called "Afghan Arabs" only emerged as a major force in the 1990s. During the resistance against the Soviet occupation, Arab volunteers played at best a cursory role.
According to a former intelligence official active in Afghanistan during the late 1980s, the Arab volunteers seldom took part in fighting and often raised the ire of local Afghans who felt the volunteers merely got in the way. In an unpublished essay, a military officer writing under the name Barney Krispin, who worked for the CIA during its support of the Afghan mujahidin's fight against the Soviet Army, summoned up the relationship between Afghan and non-Afghan fighters at that time:
The relationship between the Afghans and the Internationalists was like a varsity team to the scrubs. The Afghans fought their own war and outsiders of any stripe were kept on the sidelines. The bin Ladin's of this Jihad could build and guard roads, dig ditches, and prepare fixed positions; however, this was an Afghan Jihad, fought by real Afghans, and eventually won by real Afghans. Bin Ladin sat out the 'big one.'
Milton Bearden, former CIA station chief in Pakistan, was equally blunt, writing:
Despite what has often been written, the CIA never recruited, trained, or otherwise used the Arab volunteers who arrived in Pakistan. The idea that the Afghans somehow needed fighters from outside their culture was deeply flawed and ignored basic historical and cultural facts.
Bearden continued to explain though that while the Afghan Arabs were "generally viewed as nuisances by mujahidin commanders, some of whom viewed them as only slightly less bothersome than the Soviets," the work of Arab fundraisers was appreciated.(40)
In 1995, Ali Ahmad Jalali, a former Afghan Army Colonel and top military planner on the directing staff of the Islamic Unity of Afghan Mujahidin, along with Lt. Col. Lester W. Grau, US Army, ret., a career Soviet Foreign Area Officer, published a collection of essays by mujahidin commanders explaining their tactics in various engagements. Throughout their essays, various commanders make reference to the presence of Afghan Arabs, often in ways which indicate their combat role was marginal at best. For example, describing a 1987 mujahidin raid on a division garrison in Kandahar, Commander Akhtarjhan commented, "We had some Arabs who were with us for jihad credit. They had a video camera and all they wanted to do was to take videos. They were of no value to us."(41) Similar comments were made by other commanders.
So where did the Afghan Arabs come from? Many of the volunteers originated in the Muslim Brotherhood or other radical Islamist organizations. The Saudi Arabia-based Islamic Coordination Council organized both the new recruits, and disbursement of assistance. In Pakistan, Arab volunteers staffed numerous Saudi Red Crescent offices near the Afghan frontier.
The Arab volunteers also disproportionately gravitated to the Ittihad-i Islami (Islamic Union), led by Abd al-Rabb al-Rasul Sayyaf. Sayyaf was a Pushtun, but he long lived in Saudi Arabia, had studied at al-Azhar in Cairo, and spoke excellent Arabic. Sayyaf preached a strict Salafi version of Islam critical of manifestations of both Sufism and tribalism in Afghanistan. However, successful as he was with Saudi financiers, he remained unpopular among ordinary Afghans both because of his rampant corruption and also because Afghans considered both Sayyaf and his fundamentalist brand of Islam foreign.(42)
Even without a central role in the jihad, though, Afghan Arabs did establish a well-financed presence in Afghanistan (and the border regions of Pakistan). While he does not cite his source, Pakistani journalist Ahmed Rashid estimated that between 1982 and 1992, some 35,000 Islamists would serve in Afghanistan.(43)
Is the United States responsible for creating the Afghan Arab phenomenon? It would be a gross over-simplification to ascribe the rise of the Taliban to mere "blowback" from Washington's support of radical Islam as a Cold War tool. After all, while many mujahidin groups are fiercely religious, few adhere to the combative radicalism of the Arab mercenaries. Nor can one simply attribute the rise of Islamic fundamentalism to U.S. involvement, for this ignores the very real fact that a country preaching official atheism occupied Afghanistan. Nevertheless, by delegating responsibility for arms distribution to the ISI, the United States created an environment in which radical Islam could flourish. And, with the coming of the Taliban, radical Islam did just that.
THE RISE OF THE TALIBAN
The Taliban seemingly arose from thin air. Newspapers like The New York Times only deemed the Taliban worthy of newsprint months after it had become the dominant presence in southern Afghanistan.(44) The rise of the Taliban was accompanied by heady optimism. Just as many Iranian opponents of the Islamic Republic freely admit to having initially supported Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a wide variety of Afghans from various social classes and cities told me in March 2000 that they too were initially willing to give the Taliban a chance, even though few still supported the movement at the time of my travel through the Islamic Emirate. Teachers, merchants, teachers, and gravediggers all said that the Taliban promised two things: Security and an end to the conflict between rival mujahidin groups that continued to wrack Afghanistan through the 1990s and, indeed, until the ultimate victory of the Northern Alliance with U.S. air support in December 2001.
Following the 1989 withdrawal of the Soviet military, Afghan president Najibullah managed to maintain power for three years without his patrons. In 1992, ethnic Tajik mujahidin forces captured Kabul and unseated the communist president. However, Rabbani, Ahmad Shah Masud, and ethnic Uzbek commander General Rashid Dostum could not control the prize. Hikmatyar immediately contested the new government that, for the first time in more than three centuries (except for a ten-month interlude in 1929), had put Tajiks in a predominant position. Hikatyar's forces took up positions in the mountains surrounding Kabul preceded to shell the city mercilessly. Meanwhile, Ismail Khan controlled Herat and much of Western Afghanistan, while several Pushtun commanders held sway over eastern Afghanistan.
Kandahar and southern Afghanistan was in a state of chaos, with numerous warlords and other "barons" dividing not only the south, but also Kandahar city itself into numerous fiefdoms. Human Rights Watch labeled the situation in Kandahar "particularly precarious," and noted that, "civilians had little security from murder, rape, looting, or extortion. Humanitarian agencies frequently found their offices stripped of all equipment, their vehicles hijacked, and their staff threatened."(45) Pakistani journalist Ahmed Rashid argued that the internecine fighting, especially in Kandahar, had virtually eliminated the traditional leadership, leaving the door open to the Taliban.(46)
Afghanistan became a maelstrom of shifting alliances. Dostum defected from his alliance with Rabbani and Masud, and joined Himatyar in shelling the capital. The southern Pushtun warlords and bandits continued to fight each other for territory, while continuing to sell off Afghanistan's machinery, property, and even entire factories to Pakistani traders. Kidnappings, murders, rapes, and robberies were frequent as Afghan civilians found themselves in the crossfire.
It was in the backdrop to this fighting that the Taliban arose, not only in Afghanistan, but also among Afghan refugees and former mujahidin studying in the madaris (religious colleges) of Pakistan. Ahmed Rashid conducted interviews with many of the founders of the movement in which they openly discussed their distress at the chaos afflicting Afghanistan. After much discussion, they created their movement based on a platform of restoration of peace, disarmament of the population, strict enforcement of the shari'a, and defense of the "Islamic character" of Afghanistan.(47) Mullah Muhammad Umar, an Afghan Pushtun of the Ghilzai clan and Hotak tribe who had been wounded toward the end of the conflict with the Soviet army, became the movement's leader.
The beginning of the Taliban's activity in Afghanistan is shrouded in myth. Ahmed Rashid recounted what he deemed the most credible: Neighbors of two girls kidnapped and raped by Kandahar warlords asked the Taliban's help in freeing the teenagers. The Taliban attacked a military camp, freed the girls, and executed the commander. Later, another squad of Taliban freed a young boy over whom two warlords were fighting for the right to sodomize. A Robin Hood myth grew up around Mullah Umar resulting in victimized Afghans increasingly appealing to the Taliban for help against local oppressors.(48)
Territorial conquest began on October 12, 1994, when 200 Taliban seized the Afghan border post of Spin Baldak. Less than a month later, on November 3, the Taliban attacked Kandahar, the second-largest city in Afghanistan. Within 48 hours, the city was theirs. Each conquest brought the Taliban new equipment and munitions -- from rifles and bullets to tanks and MiG fighters, for their continued advance.(49) The Taliban maintained their momentum and quickly seized large swathes of Afghanistan. By February 11, 1995, they controlled 9 of Afghanistan's 30 provinces. On September 5, 1995, the Taliban seized Herat, sending Ismail Khan into an Iranian exile. Just over one year later, Jalalabad fell, and just 15 days later, on September 26, 1996, the Taliban took Kabul.
A stalemate ensued for almost eight months, but shattered when General Malik rebelled against Dostum, allowing Taliban forces into the north. On May 24, 1997, the Taliban seized Mazar-i Sharif, the last major city held by the mujahidin. However, after just 18 hours, a rebellion forced the Taliban from the city. When the Taliban again took the refugee-swollen city in August 1998, they took no chances, brutally massacring thousands. With Dostum in an Uzbek exile, the only major mujahidin commander remaining was Ahmad Shah Masud, nicknamed 'the Lion of the Panjshir' for his heroism during the war against the Soviets.(50)
While supported materially by Pakistan, the Taliban relied heavily upon momentum in its near-complete conquest of Afghanistan. Following the fall of Kandahar, thousands of Afghan refugees, madrasa students, and Pakistani Jamiat-i Ulama supporters rushed to join the movement. Ahmed Rashid estimates that by December 1994, more than 12,000 recruits joined the Taliban.(51) Each subsequent Taliban victory resulted in thousands of new recruits. Often these victories were less a result of military prowess than cooption of opposing warlords into the Taliban movement.
I was in Mazar-i Sharif in 1997, when the Taliban first marched on the city. Their advance was surprisingly fast (leaving foreigners in the city scrambling to evacuate). The reason was they had simply coopted General Dostum's deputy Malik, who was in command of the neighboring province. Rather than fighting their way through more than 100 kilometers, the Taliban force suddenly found themselves with free passage to within a dozen kilometers of the city.
Stalemate ensued as the Taliban were unable to gain significant ground against Masud, who retained control of between 5 and 10 percent of Afghan territory. The fight between the mujahidin forces commanded by Masud and the Taliban became a fight between those who had been beneficiaries of American assistance in the 1980s, and those who had sprung to prominence in the aftermath of American withdrawal from Afghan affairs.
PAKISTANI SUPPORT FOR THE TALIBAN
The Taliban became the latest incarnation of Pakistan's desire to support Islamist rather than nationalist rule in neighboring Afghanistan. The Taliban arose in madaris on Pakistani territory. Upon the capture of Spin Baldak, mujahidin commanders in Kandahar immediately accused Pakistan of supporting the new group. In late October 1994, the local mujahidin warlords intercepted a convoy containing arms, senior ISI commanders, and Taliban.(52) The men and material in this transport proved crucial in the seizure of Kandahar.
Even after the stalemate ensued between the Taliban and Ahmad Shah Masud, Pakistan provided the Taliban with a constant flow of new recruits. Rumors spread throughout the city while I was there that 5,000 new 'Punjabis' were on their way into Afghanistan to supplement the fight against Masud. Former Defense Intelligence Agency analyst Julie Sirrs gained access to Taliban prisoners held by Ahmed Shah Masud; among them were several Pakistani mercenaries.
Merchants in the book market in central Kabul talked about seeing many Pakistanis "here for jihad." In Rish Khor, on the outskirts of Kabul, operated a training camp for the Harakat ul-Mujahidin, a Pakistani-supported terrorist group waging a separatist campaign against India.(53) It was members of this group that hijacked an Air India flight from Nepal to Kandahar in December 1999, eventually releasing the hostages after Taliban mediation and escaping. Afghanistan provided a useful base not only to train pro-Pakistani militants and terrorists, but also to give them field experience.
While politicians in Islamabad repeatedly denied that Pakistan supported the Taliban, the reality was quite the opposite.(54) While some Taliban trade occurred with Turkmenistan and even Iran, and the Taliban benefited from the supply of opium to all of its neighbors, Pakistan remained the effective diplomatic and economic lifeline for the Taliban's Islamic Emirate. Senior ISI veterans like Colonel "Imam" Sultan Amir functioned as district advisors to the regional Taliban leadership. Pakistan also supplied a constant flow of munitions and recruits for the Taliban's war with the Northern Alliance, and provided crucial technical infrastructure support to allow the Taliban state to function.(55)
This did not represent a radical change in Pakistan's Afghanistan policy. Rather, Islamabad's support of the Taliban was simply a continuation of a pattern to support Islamist rather than nationalist factions inside its neighbor. Nor was the ISI the only supporter of the Taliban within the Pakistan government. Former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto's interior minister Nasrullah Babar also staunchly supported the group. Robert Kaplan, correspondent for The Atlantic Monthly went so far as to argue that Bhutto and Babar "conceived of the Taliban as the solution to Pakistan's problems."(56) Ahmed Rashid commented, "The Taliban were not beholden to any single Pakistani lobby such as the ISI. In contrast the Taliban had access to more influential lobbies and groups in Pakistan than most Pakistanis."(57)
Taliban volunteers, interviewed by Human Rights Watch, described Pakistani instructors at Rish Khor which, according to Afghans I interviewed, also served as a training camp for the Harakat ul-Mujahidin, the violent Kashmiri separatist group engaged in terrorist operations against India.(58) Citizens of Kabul derisively spoke of "Punjabis," volunteers from Pakistan. Guarding ministries in Kabul in March 2000 were Taliban officials who only spoke Urdu, and did not speak any Afghan language. The Pakistani government did not dispute reports that thousands of trained Pakistani volunteers serving with the Taliban.(59)
While the Pakistani government was directly complicit in some forms of support for the Taliban, just as important was its indirect support. In 1971, there were only 900 madaris (religious seminaries) in Pakistan, but by the end of President Zia ul Haq's administration in 1988, there were over 8,000 official madaris, and more than 25,000 unregistered religious schools.(60) By January 2000, these religious seminaries were educating at least one-half million children according to Pakistan's own estimates.(61) The most prominent of the seminaries -- the Dar al-Ulum Haqqania from which the Taliban leadership was disproportionately drawn -- reportedly had 15,000 applications for only 400 spots in 1999.(62)
Ahmed Rashid comments that the mullahs running most of the religious schools were but semi-literate themselves, and blindly preached the religious philosophy adopted by the Taliban. Visiting one such religious seminary in the aftermath of the World Trade Center attacks, students told a Western reporter that, "We are happy many kaffirs [infidels] were killed in the World Trade Center." Regarding Muslim casualties in the World Trade Center, one student responded, "If they were faithful to Islam, they will be martyred and go to paradise. If they were not good Muslims, they will go to hell." The seminary students generally learn only Islam, tainted with strong strain of anti-Westernism and anti-Semitism.(63)
TALIBAN SUPPORT USAMA BIN LADIN
Where does Usama bin Ladin fit into the picture? The Taliban and Usama bin Ladin's al-Qa'ida network retained distinct identities. Indeed, only in 1996 did Usama bin Ladin relocate from refuge with the Sudanese government to the Taliban's Afghanistan. Bin Ladin caused a seeming paradox for Afghanistan watchers. On one hand, the Taliban, recognized as the government of Afghanistan by only Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, sought to break its isolation. On the other hand, the Taliban continued to shelter Usama bin Ladin, even after his involvement in the 1998 bombings of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania.
As the media turned its attention to Afghanistan after September 11, many commentators sought answers as to why the Taliban continued to host Usama bin Ladin, despite the international ire that he brought to the regime. CNN's correspondent even went so far as to postulate that the Taliban could not turn over Usama bin Ladin because of Afghanistan's tradition of hospitality (something which did not stop the Afghans from killing nearly 17,000 British men, women, and children evacuating Kabul under a truce during the First Afghan War in 1842.)
The answer to the paradox is actually much more mundane, and also a result of the discrepancy in the fighting ability of the Taliban versus the mujahidin commanders like Ahmad Shah Masud who had received U.S. support and training in the 1980s. Masud remained undefeated against the Red Army and, lacking both men and material, he managed to stubbornly hold back the Taliban from the last five percent of Afghanistan not under their control. Masud's secret was superior training and a fiercely loyal cadre of fighters. While the Taliban's rank-and-file may have talked jihad, more often than not they would flee or hide when the bullets began to fly. Unlike Masud's men, the Taliban simply were incapable of fighting at night.
Bin Ladin brought with him to Afghanistan a well-equipped and fiercely loyal division of fighters-perhaps numbering only 2,000. While many of these trained in al-Qa'ida's camps for terrorism abroad or protected bin Ladin and his associates at their various safe-houses, bin Ladin made available several hundred for duty on the Taliban's frontline with Masud, where they assured the Taliban of at a minimum continued balance and stalemate. While the Taliban suffered a high international cost for hosting bin Ladin, this was offset by the domestic benefits the regime gained. The war with the Northern Alliance-not recognition by Washington or even the Islamic World-was the Taliban's chief priority.
WHO IS RESPONSIBLE?
In hindsight, and especially after the World Trade Center and Pentagon attacks, it is easy to criticize Washington's shortsightedness. But American policymakers had a very stark choice in the 1980s: Either the United States could support an Afghan opposition, or they could simply cede Afghanistan to Soviet domination, an option that might result in an extension of Soviet influence into Pakistan.
Contrary to the beliefs of many critics of American foreign policy, the United States is not able to dictate its desires even to foreign clients. Washington needed Pakistan's cooperation, but Pakistan was very mindful of its own interests. Chief among these, especially following the secession of Bangladesh in 1971, was minimizing the nationalist threat to Pakistani integrity. Islamabad considered Afghanistan, especially with successive Afghan government's Pushtunistan claims, to pose a direct challenge to Pakistani national security. Accordingly, Islamabad only allowed religiously based rather than nationalist opposition groups to operate on Pakistani territory. If American policymakers wanted to oppose Soviet imperialism in Afghanistan, then they simply would have to accede to Pakistani interests.
The United States is not without fault, however. Following the Soviet Union's collapse, Washington could have more effectively pressured Pakistan to tone down the support for Islamic fundamentalism, especially after the rise of the Taliban. Instead, Washington ceded her responsibility and gave Pakistan a sphere of influence in Afghanistan unlimited by any other foreign pressure.
NOTES
1. Robert Fisk, "Think-Tank Wrap-Up," United Press International, September 15, 2001; "Public Enemy No. 1, a title he always wanted," The Independent, August 22, 1998.
2. Mort Rosenblum, "Bin Ladin once thought of as 'freedom fighter' for United States." Chattanooga Times/Chattanooga Free Press, September 20, 2001. Even some foreign dignitaries have sought to promote the myth. In a December 7, 2001, interview with the pro-Syrian Lebanese daily al-Safir, Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak commented, "...When the so-called Mujahideen went to Afghanistan, they became more extreme, and began to disseminate extremist ideas. People like Omar Abd Al-Rahman and bin Laden were American heroes."
3. "Afghanistan," The World Factbook 2001 (Washington: Central Intelligence Agency, 2001) http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html . (After more than two decades of war, any statistics regarding Afghan demographics must be considered only approximations.)
4. Ibid.
5. Vartan Gregorian, The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan: Politics of Reform and Modernization, 1880-1946, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1969), pp.29-32.
6. Louis Dupree, Afghanistan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980,) p.477.
7. Dupree, p.507.
8. Dupree, pp.510-511.
9. Dupree, pp.485-494.
10. Barnett Rubin, Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the International System (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995,) p.82.
11. Dupree, pp.538-539.
12. Dupree, p.546.
13. "George Washington Ayub," The New Republic, October 30, 1961, p.7.
14. Amin Saikal, "The Regional Politics of the Afghan Crisis," in: Amin Saikal and William Maley, eds., The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989,) p.54.
15. Barnett Rubin, pp.63-64.
16. T.H. Rigby, "The Afghan Conflict and Soviet Domestic Politics," in: Amin Saikal and William Maley, eds. The Soviet Withdrawal from Afghanistan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989,) p.72.
17. Barnett Rubin, p.100.
18. Najmuddin A. Shaikh, "A New Afghan Government: Pakistan's Interest," Jang, (Internet edition) December 1, 2001. . For specifics about the Hikmatyar-ISI connection, see: Vaughn Forrest, Chief of Staff. "Memo to Task Force Members," Task Force on Terrorism and Unconventional Warfare. House Republican Research Committee. U.S. House of Representatives, March 1, 1990.
19. Barnett Rubin, pp.100-101.
20. Barnett Rubin, p.99.
21. Alan J. Kuperman, "The Stinger missile and U.S. intervention in Afghanistan," Political Science Quarterly, No. 2, Vol. 114, June 1999.
22. Barnett Rubin, pp.180-181.
23. Ahmed Rashid, Taliban: Islam, Oil, and the New Great Ga e in Central Asia. (London and New York: I.B. Tauris and Company, 2000,) p.18.
24. Milton Bearden, "Afghanistan, Graveyard of Empires," Foreign Affairs, November/December 2001.
25. Ibid.
26. George Schulz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State. (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1993,) p.692.
27. Kuperman, "The Stinger missile and U.S. intervention in Afghanistan"
28. Steve Coll. "Anatomy of a Victory: CIA's Covert Afghan War; $2 Billion Program Reversed Tide for Rebels," The Washington Post, July 19, 1992, p.A1.
29. Kuperman, "The Stinger missile and U.S. intervention in Afghanistan"
30. Interview with former CIA operative, November 1998.
31. Kuperman, "The Stinger missile and U.S. intervention in Afghanistan,"
32. Barnett Rubin, p.197.
33. Pamela Constable, "Pakistani Agency Seeks to Allay U.S. on Terrorism," The Washington Post, February 15, 2000, p.A17.
34. Barnett Rubin, pp.181,198-199.
35. Kuperman, "The Stinger missile and U.S. intervention in Afghanistan"
36. Amin Saikal. "The Regional Politics of the Afghan Crisis," p.59.
37. Barnett Rubin, p.182.
38. Barnett Rubin, p.183.
39. Mort Rosenblum, "bin Ladin once thought of as 'freedom fighter' for United States," Chattanooga Times/Chattanooga Free Press, September 20, 2001.
40. Bearden, "Afghanistan, Graveyard of Empires," Foreign Affairs, November/December 2001.
41. Commander Akhtarjhan, "Raid on 15 Division Garrison," In: Ali Ahmad Jalali and Lester W. Grau, eds. The Other Side of the Mountain: Mujahideen Tactics in the Soviet-Afghan War. (Quantico, Virginia: The United States Marine Corps Studies and Analysis Division, 1995,)p.396.
42. Rubin, 223-224; Rashid, p.85.
43. Rashid, p.130.
44. See: John Burns. "New Afghan Force Takes Hold, Turning to Peace," The New York Times, February 16, 1995, p.A3.
45. Afghanistan: Crisis of Impunity, Human Rights Watch, July, 2001, Vol. 13, No. 3, p.15.
46. Rashid, p.19.
47. Rashid, p.22.
48. Rashid, p.25-26.
49. Afghanistan: Crisis of Impunity, Human Rights Watch, July, 2001, Vol.13, No. 3, p.15.
50. See chronology in Rashid, p.226-235.
51. Rashid, p.29.
52. Rashid, p.28.
53. Michael Rubin and Daniel Benjamin, "The Taliban and Terrorism: Report from Afghanistan," Policywatch, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, No. 450, April 6, 2000.
54. For Pakistani denials of support for the Taliban, see: Pamela Constable. "Pakistani Agency Seeks to Allay U.S. on Terrorism," The Washington Post, February 15, 2000, p.A17.
55. Afghanistan: Crisis of Impunity, Human Rights Watch, July, 2001, Vol.13, No. 3, p.23.
56. Robert Kaplan, "The Lawless Frontier; tribal relations, radical political movements and social conflicts in Afghanistan-Pakistan border," The Atlantic Monthly, September 1, 2000.
57. Amit Baruah. "Pak. Ripe for Taliban-style revolution," The Hindu, February 24, 2000.
58. Afghanistan: Crisis of Impunity, Human Rights Watch, July, 2001, Vol. 13, No. 3, p.29.
59. Gregory Copley, "Pakistan Under Musharraf," Defense and Foreign Affairs' Strategic Policy, January 2000.
60. Rashid, p.89.
61. Gregory Copley, "Pakistan Under Musharraf," Defense and Foreign Affairs' Strategic Policy, January, 2000.
62. Reuel Marc Gerecht, "Pakistan's Taliban Problem; And America's Pakistan Problem," The Weekly Standard, Vol. 7, No. 8, 2001, p.24.
63. Barry Shlachter, "Inside Islamic seminaries, where the Taliban was born," The Philadelphia Inquirer, November 25, 2001. The views of the Pakistani madrasa students were equally anti-Western before the September 11 attacks. See: Robert Kaplan, "The Lawless Frontier; tribal relations, radical political movements and social conflicts in Afghanistan-Pakistan border," The Atlantic Monthly, September 1, 2000.
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https://www.childrenshospital.org/research/labs
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Boston Children's Hospital
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/sites/default/files/favicon.png
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Majmundar Lab
Lab
The Majmundar Lab explores the genetic basis of pediatric kidney diseases, with a focus on Mendelian genetic forms of nephrotic syndrome and kidney stone disease.
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https://www.tohoku.ac.jp/en/about/map_directions.html
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en
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Map & Directions
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Tohoku University is located in Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture. There are four main campuses: Katahira, Kawauchi, Aobayama, and Seiryo Campus.
>> View Tohoku University Interactive Map
Katahira Campus
Administrative Units
Research Institute
2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan 980-8577
Phone: +81-22-717-7800
Interactive Map
Printable Map
Directions:
By taxi :
5 minutes from Sendai Station. 40 minutes from Sendai Airport.
By subway :
Take the subway from Sendai Station to Aobadori Ichibancho Station (2 mins). Exit at South 1. Turn left and walk straight ahead for 550m towards the North Entrance of Katahira Campus.
Take the subway from Sendai Station to Itsutsubashi Station (2 mins). Exit at North 2 or North 4. Turn left and walk straight ahead for 450m towards the South Entrance of Katahira Campus.
By bus :
Catch a bus from platform 11 at the west entrance in front of Sendai Station.
bound for the"Miyagi University of Education / Aobadai" or "Dobutsukoen Circle via Aoba-dori"
get off at "Aoba dori ichibancho 1-A"
Approx. a 5 min ride, 10 min walk from the bus stop
By foot :
About 15 minutes from the Sendai Station west exit
Kawauchi Campus
Humanities and Social Sciences
First Two-Year Undergraduate Education
Kawauchi-Kita Campus:
41 Kawauchi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8576 Japan
Phone: +81-22-717-7800
Kawauchi-Minami Campus:
27-1 Kawauchi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8576 Japan
Phone: +81-22-717-7800
Interactive Map
Printable Map
Directions:
By subway :
Take the subway from Sendai Station to Kawauchi Station (6 mins) and exit at South 1 or 2.
Take the subway from Sendai Station to Kokusai Center Station (4 mins). Walk 5 mins from there.
By taxi :
15 minutes from Sendai Station
Aobayama Campus
Faculty of Science
School of Engineering
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Faculty of Agriculture
Faculty / Graduate School of Science
Faculty / Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Graduate School of Information Sciences
Cyberscience Center
Center for Integrated Electronic Systems
and other faculties / institutes :
6-3, Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578 Japan
Phone: +81-22-717-7800
School / Graduate School of Engineering
Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering
New Industry Creation Hatchery Center (NICHe) :
6-6 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579 Japan
Phone: +81-22-717-7800
Faculty of Agriculture
Graduate School of Agricultural Science
Graduate School of Environmental Studies
International Research Institute of Disaster Science
Center for Innovation Electronic Systems and other faculties / institutes :
468-1 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8572 Japan
Phone: +81-22-717-7800
Interactive Map
Printable Map(Aobayama North Campus)
Printable Map(Aobayama East Campus)
Printable Map(Aobayama New Campus)
Directions:
By subway :
Take the subway from Sendai Station to Aobayama Station (9 mins). Exit at North 1 for the Faculty of Science, or South 1 for the School of Engineering.
Aobayama Shuttle Bus Time Schedule
Bus Route
By taxi :
15 minutes from Sendai Station
Seiryo Campus
School of Medicine
School of Dentistry
University Hospital
University Hospital:
1-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8574 Japan
School / Graduate School of Medicine, Tohoku Medical Megabank Organization:
2-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8574 Japan
School / Graduate School of Dentistry, Institute of Development, Aging and Cancer:
4-1 Seiryo-machi, Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 980-8574 Japan
Phone: +81-22-717-7000
Interactive Map
Printable Map
Directions:
By taxi :
15 minutes from Sendai Station
By bus :
Catch a bus from platform 10 at the west entrance in front of Sendai Station.
bound for the"Tohoku Daigaku Byoin Mae"
get off at "Tohoku Daigaku Byoin Mae"
Approx. a 20 min ride
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https://blog.insidetracker.com/longevity-by-design-podcast-jennifer-garrison-1
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en
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Dr. Jennifer Garrison—Women's Health and Longevity Part 1
|
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In this episode, Dr. Jennifer Garrison discusses women's health, including the brain-ovary connection, reproductive health, ovarian aging, and the health implications of menopause.
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https://blog.insidetracker.com/longevity-by-design-podcast-jennifer-garrison-1
|
Listen to this episode of Longevity by Design on Apple Podcasts, Spotify, and Google Podcasts
This episode of Longevity by Design discusses concepts related to women's health, including the brain-ovary connection, reproductive health, ovarian aging, and the health implications of menopause. Our guest today is Dr. Garrison, a neuroscientist, and expert in reproductive health. Dr. Garrison talks about gender inequalities in research and how her research lab aims to progress the scientific understanding of women's health and longevity.
About Dr. Jennifer Garrison
Jennifer Garrison, PhD, is a passionate advocate for women’s health and is pioneering a new movement to advance science focused on female reproductive aging. She is the Co-Founder and Director of the Global Consortium for Reproductive Longevity & Equality (GCRLE) and an Assistant Professor at the Buck Institute for Research on Aging. She also holds appointments in the Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology at UCSF and the Leonard Davis School of Gerontology at USC. Her research lab studies the role of inter-tissue communication in systemic aging and how changes in the complex interactions between the ovary and brain during middle age.
The hypothalamus's role in the aging process
The hypothalamus is a brain region that plays an integral role in keeping us alive. This small structure is the control center that houses the neurons responsible for regulating homeostasis, for example, releasing hormones, regulating body temperature, controlling circadian rhythms, and linking the endocrine and nervous systems.
Neuroscientist Dr. Garrison has spent much of her career studying the hypothalamus and explains why she thinks of this brain region as a master regulator for systemic aging. "All of the physiologic functions that the hypothalamus controls are hallmarks of the changes observed during aging. Many labs have shown an age-related increase in inflammation that happens specifically in the hypothalamus." This increase in inflammation may contribute to what we observe as the aging process.
The brain-ovary connection and menstruation
In addition to her research on the hypothalamus, Dr. Garrison extensively researches female reproductive decline, beginning with the brain-ovary connection.
A woman’s ovaries are one of the most complex organs in her body. Throughout a 21-34 day hormonal cycle, ovaries experience a dynamic macroscopic remodeling, unlike any other organ. Dr. Garrison explains that this remodeling—the menstrual cycle—is the result of a constant, bidirectional chemical conversation between the brain and ovaries. “The brain-ovary connection is like an orchestra of signaling molecules that control the physiology of our ovaries. This signaling conversation includes hormones, proteins, and neuropeptides and is responsible for the menstrual cycle—including the buildup of the uterine lining and (when no pregnancy occurs) the shedding of the uterine lining,” Dr. Garrison says.
In addition to the unique physiological process of the menstrual cycle, Dr. Garrison notes that ovaries are also unique based on the speed at which they age compared to other organs.
Premature ovarian aging
In the absence of underlying conditions, general organ functioning starts to decline in one's seventies, eighties, and nineties. Comparatively, female reproductive function declines in the middle of a woman's life. More specifically, Dr. Garrison reveals that ovaries age at about two and a half times the rate of other tissues in the body. In fact, a woman's ovaries can show signs of aging in her late twenties and early thirties. "This very much falls off the curve in terms of the rest of the tissues in her body. While a healthy woman's tissues are functioning at peak performance, her ovaries are already aging in a drastic way," she concludes.
Dr. Garrison's lab is trying to understand this phenomenon better, namely how and why ovaries age prematurely. Ovarian aging impacts not only fertility but overall health as well.
How menopause and reproductive decline impact healthspan
Following her explanation of premature ovarian aging, Dr. Garrison talks about humans being one of the only species that experience menopause and the implications this has on healthspan. While reproductive decline impacts offspring generation in almost all mammals, menopause is surprisingly unique to humans. "It's humans, some whale species, and one species of non-human primates [who experience menopause]. It's not a biological imperative—so why it happens in humans is kind of a mystery," she says. And this predictable mid-life decline in ovarian function is associated with an increased risk for adverse health outcomes.
For example, research shows that postmenopausal women have an increased risk for heart disease, stroke, cognitive decline, and osteoporosis compared to premenopausal women, according to Dr. Garrison. Dr. Garrison believes that because the loss of ovarian function affects women's health, we need solutions to mitigate these side effects.
Equality and aging
Longevity research has become commonplace in the past decade. With this in mind, Dr. Garrison argues that if we lengthen lifespan without also lengthening reproductive longevity in women, women will live half or more of their lives in a compromised health state. "That, for me, is an issue of equality. Men don't have to deal with this—they don't have their risk of heart disease quadruple over five years due to one of their organs ceasing to work properly," says Dr. Garrison.
Dr. Garrison also distinguishes between menopause and perimenopause, explaining that many people don't fully understand the difference. Menopause is a single day in a woman's life—it is the day a woman has not experienced a period in 12 months. Perimenopause is the time leading up to menopause and is associated with symptoms including hot flashes, cognitive decline, and brain fog. Perimenopause can last between 4-10 years.
Interestingly, other primates that don't experience menopause can bear a child very late in life. "If the animal menstruates up to the end of their lives, and if all of the other organs are intact and functioning properly, then yes—they can have babies up until the end of their lives," Dr. Garrison says.
Implications of prolonging ovarian function
What if we could achieve the other benefits that ovaries provide without necessarily expanding the amount of time that women could become pregnant?
Dr. Garrison notes that separating ovarian aging from ovaries' reproductive ability may be possible. "Right now, the best treatment for postmenopausal women to mitigate the dramatic health risks is hormone replacement therapy (HRT). We know that replacing a few of those hormones—usually estrogen, progesterone and occasionally low-dose testosterone—can dramatically and beneficially impact the mentioned health outcomes. So it certainly is possible to decouple them," Dr. Garrison explains.
Dr. Garrison aims to find a way to improve egg quality mid-life and slightly increase egg quantity. "If you could increase the number of eggs by 1% or 2% at age 40, that would have a dramatic impact—not just on a woman's ability to choose when and how she has a healthy child, but it would also push out the age of menopause. Changing that number by a few years would be a game-changer in terms of health benefits for half the population," says Dr. Garrison. Ideally, a solution would impact both, but at this point, the science is not conclusive on how to do so.
Misrepresentation of female health in research
Dr. Garrison importantly notes that women are understudied in scientific research, leading to misinformation and confusion, and has even harmed a generation of women. Dr. Garrison shares examples:
Lack of funding: Research on women's health is historically underfunded. And without grant funding, scientists that study reproductive decline are incapable of doing so.
Inequitable inclusion: The male body has been biology's baseline in biomedical and clinical research. And historically, women have been excluded from research due to their biological complexity; ovulatory and hormonal cycles introduce 'noise' into the system. In fact, it wasn't until 1993 that it was mandated for females to be included in clinical trials in the United States. "As a graduate student, I was told only to use males because females would mess up the data. But it turns out that that variability is important—this overreliance on male models has blinded us to specific vulnerabilities that affect females," Dr. Garrison says. Today, the inclusion of women in clinical trials is increasing, a trend Dr. Garrison notes is crucial for our scientific understanding.
HRT controversy: Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) has a controversial history due to misrepresentation in the media. The first published results from the Women's Health Initiative in 2002 were flawed, leading to a whole generation of women being suddenly taken off HRT and doctors ceasing to prescribe it. Since that paper 20 years ago, updated research has disproved the initial results using the same data. Recent studies show HRT use in early postmenopausal women has beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system, effectively reducing coronary artery disease and all-cause mortality. [1]
Advice on living a healthier longer life
Dr. Garrison’s top tip for women’s health is to get adequate exercise and add variety to your exercise routine. Women lose muscle as their estrogen levels drop, so she advises women to participate in weight-bearing exercises to reduce the extent to which estrogen levels decline.
Longevity by Design
Longevity by Design is a podcast for individuals looking to experience longer, healthier lives. In each episode, Dr. Gil Blander and Ashley Reaver join an industry expert to explore a personalized health journey. The show helps you access science-backed information, unpack complicated concepts, learn what’s on the cutting edge of longevity research and the scientists behind them. Tune into Longevity by Design and see how to add years to your life, and life to your years.
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2793346/
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The physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing): evidence from field experiments in 24 forests across Japan
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[
"Bum Jin Park",
"Yuko Tsunetsugu",
"Tamami Kasetani",
"Takahide Kagawa",
"Yoshifumi Miyazaki"
] |
2010-01-28T00:00:00
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This paper reviews previous research on the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing), and presents new results from field experiments conducted in 24 forests across Japan. The term Shinrin-yoku was coined ...
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en
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/coreutils/nwds/img/favicons/favicon.ico
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PubMed Central (PMC)
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2793346/
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Environ Health Prev Med. 2010 Jan; 15(1): 18–26.
PMCID: PMC2793346
PMID: 19568835
The physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing): evidence from field experiments in 24 forests across Japan
,1 ,2 ,3 ,2 and 1
Bum Jin Park
1Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Chiba University, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882 Japan
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Yuko Tsunetsugu
2Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, 1 Matsunosato, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8687 Japan
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Tamami Kasetani
3Chiba Prefectural Agriculture and Forestry Research Center Forestry Research Institute, 1887-1 Haniya, Sammu, Chiba 289-1223 Japan
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Takahide Kagawa
2Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, 1 Matsunosato, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8687 Japan
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Yoshifumi Miyazaki
1Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Chiba University, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882 Japan
Find articles by Yoshifumi Miyazaki
1Center for Environment, Health and Field Sciences, Chiba University, Kashiwa-no-ha 6-2-1, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882 Japan
2Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, 1 Matsunosato, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8687 Japan
3Chiba Prefectural Agriculture and Forestry Research Center Forestry Research Institute, 1887-1 Haniya, Sammu, Chiba 289-1223 Japan
Bum Jin Park, Phone: +81-4-71348000, Fax: +81-4-71348008, Email: pj.u-abihc.ytlucaf@krapjb.
Corresponding author.
Copyright © The Japanese Society for Hygiene 2009
Abstract
This paper reviews previous research on the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing), and presents new results from field experiments conducted in 24 forests across Japan. The term Shinrin-yoku was coined by the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries in 1982, and can be defined as making contact with and taking in the atmosphere of the forest. In order to clarify the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku, we conducted field experiments in 24 forests across Japan. In each experiment, 12 subjects (280 total; ages 21.7 ± 1.5 year) walked in and viewed a forest or city area. On the first day, six subjects were sent to a forest area, and the others to a city area. On the second day, each group was sent to the other area as a cross-check. Salivary cortisol, blood pressure, pulse rate, and heart rate variability were used as indices. These indices were measured in the morning at the accommodation facility before breakfast and also both before and after the walking (for 16 ± 5 min) and viewing (for 14 ± 2 min). The R–R interval was also measured during the walking and viewing periods. The results show that forest environments promote lower concentrations of cortisol, lower pulse rate, lower blood pressure, greater parasympathetic nerve activity, and lower sympathetic nerve activity than do city environments. These results will contribute to the development of a research field dedicated to forest medicine, which may be used as a strategy for preventive medicine.
Keywords: Therapeutic effects of forest, Heart rate variability, Salivary cortisol, Blood pressure, Pulse rate
Introduction
The growing interest in environmental stress has been accompanied by a rapid accumulation of evidence indicating that environment can elicit substantial stress in people living in urban environments [1]. Furthermore, it is broadly conceived that the natural environment can enhance human health [2]. There have been several questionnaire studies on the psychological effects of forest environments. A previous study found an enhancement of positive emotions among subjects who were shown pictures of natural environments [3–6]. Moreover, other studies have also found that forest environments improve the psychological wellbeing of people [7–12].
The term Shinrin-yoku (taking in the forest atmosphere or forest bathing) was coined by the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries in 1982. It can be defined as making contact with and taking in the atmosphere of the forest: a process intended to improve an individual’s state of mental and physical relaxation [13]. Shinrin-yoku is considered to be the most widespread activity associated with forest and human health.
Nowadays, there is considerable interest in stress control and relaxation. Further, the field of medical science has always favored evidence-based medicine (EBM); this emphasizes the importance of scientific evidence in medical practice. With improved measurement techniques, the relaxation effect induced by forest settings can be clarified in a field test by measuring the changes induced in physiological parameters such as salivary cortisol, pulse rate, blood pressure, and heart rate variability (HRV).
With this social background, the Association of Therapeutic Effects of Forests was established in Japan in 2004, with the purpose of conducting a Therapeutic Effects of Forests project in Japan. At the European level, similar efforts were made through COST Action E39 on forest and human health from 2004 to 2008 [14], and on the global level, the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) launched a new taskforce on forests and human health in Finland in 2007 with the purpose of fostering cross-disciplinary dialogue between the different researchers in this field, especially forestry and health professionals.
As part of this effort, the Japanese Society of Forest Medicine was established in 2007 under the Japanese Society for Hygiene, with the purpose of promoting research in the field of forest medicine, including the effects of forest bathing trips and the therapeutic effects of forests on human health. At the same time, several field studies on the physiological effects of the natural environment were carried out [13, 15–19].
In this paper, we review selected field studies performed on the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku and a study dealing with the relationship between its psychological effects and physical environmental factors. In addition, we report new results from field experiments conducted in 24 forests across Japan.
Field methods
Subjects and study sites
We conducted physiological experiments in 24 areas from 2005 to 2006 in Japan. In each experiment, 12 normal male university students (280 in total; ages 21.7 ± 1.5 years) participated as subjects; none reported a history of physical or psychiatric disorders. The study was performed under the regulations of the Institutional Ethical Committee of the Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute in Japan. On the day before the experiments, subjects were fully informed of the aims and procedures of the experiment and their informed consent was obtained.
Physiological measurements
Seven physiological parameters were analyzed in the present study (Table ). For the measurement of salivary cortisol concentration, saliva was collected by holding two pieces of absorbent cotton in the mouth for 2 min and using a saliva collection tube (no. 51.1534, Sarstedt, Numbrecht, Germany). On collection, the tube was sealed with tape and immediately stored, refrigerated, and frozen; it was later analyzed for cortisol concentration (SRL, Inc., Japan). Heart rate variability (HRV) was analyzed for the periods between consecutive R waves in the electrocardiogram (R–R intervals) measured by a portable electrocardiograph (AC-301A, GMS Corporation). The power levels of the high-frequency (HF; 0.15–0.4 Hz) and low-frequency components (LF; 0.04–0.15 Hz) were calculated [20] every minute by the maximum-entropy method (Mem-Calc, GMS Ltd. [21]). The HF power is considered to reflect parasympathetic nervous activity [22]. Furthermore, the power ratios HF/LF and LF/(LF + HF) were determined to reflect the sympathetic nervous activity [23]. Systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and pulse rate were measured by a digital blood pressure monitor using oscillometric methods (HEM1000, Omron, Japan) on the right upper arm.
Table 1
Autonomic nervous activityPulse rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressureHeart rate variability (HRV)
HF component (parasympathetic nervous activity)
LF/HF or LF/(LF + HF) (sympathetic nervous activity)Endocrine system activitySalivary cortisol concentrationImmune system activitySalivary immunoglobulin A concentration
Psychological measurements
The Profile of Mood States (POMS) was used to gauge the psychological response [24]. The POMS consists of 30 adjectives rated on a 0–4 scale that can be consolidated into the following six effective dimensions: T–A (tension and anxiety), D (depression and dejection), A–H (anger and hostility), F (fatigue), C (confusion), and V (vigor). Because of its responsiveness, the POMS have been widely used in the assessment of mood changes resulting from a variety of interventions. For the Japanese subjects, the Japanese edition of the POMS was used.
Physical environmental factors
In the physical experiment, the temperature and relative humidity, radiant heat, wind speed, predicted mean vote (PMV), and predicted percentage dissatisfied (PPD) were measured using a portable amenity meter (AM-101, Kyoto Electronics Manufacturing Co. Ltd., Japan) at each study site. In addition, atmospheric pressure (Kestrel 4000, Nielsen-Kellerman, Japan) was also measured at some locations. Relative illumination was calculated from photos of the sky captured by a digital camera (Coolpix 4500, Nikon, Japan) equipped with a fisheye lens (FC-E8, Nikon, Japan).
Experimental design
After being given an orientation to the experiment on the day before the first day of experimentation, the subjects visited and previewed the forest and city study sites. Next, test measurements of all the physiological indexes and subjective feelings were conducted at the accommodation facility. In order to control the background environmental conditions, identical, separate rooms were prepared as lodgings for each subject and identical meals were served during the experiments.
The subjects were randomly divided into two groups. On the first day of the experiments, six subjects were sent to a forest site, and the other six subjects to a city site. On the second day, the subjects were sent to the other type of site as a cross-check. The first measurement was taken in the early morning at the accommodations before breakfast. After the first measurement, subjects were sent to either a forest or city site. It took almost the same amount of time to reach both the forest and city sites from the accommodations. As shown in Fig. , upon arrival at the given site, the subjects were seated on chairs and viewed the landscape (for 14 ± 2 min). They also walked around the given site (for 16 ± 5 min). The second and third measurements were taken before and after this walking. The fourth and fifth measurements were taken before and after the viewing. These measurements were taken for one person at a time. In addition to these five measurements, the R–R interval was measured continuously during the walking and viewing exercises at the given site. The HRV was calculated once a minute using the R–R interval data. The exercise loads during the walking exercise in the forest and city sites were estimated with an activity monitor (AC-301A, GMS, Japan); there was no difference in exercise load between walking in a forest site and walking in a city site.
The consumption of alcohol and tobacco was prohibited and caffeine consumption was controlled.
Review of field studies performed on the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku in Japan
We searched the major journals on medical science, physiological anthropology, and environmental science for reports on field studies on the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku in Japan. Only articles presenting evidence of the relaxing effects related to Shinrin-yoku have been reviewed in this paper. Table presents a summary of the reviewed papers.
Table 2
AuthorsStimuli versus controlResults of Shinrin-yokuPark et al. (2008) [17]FV versus UVDecreased PR and SC
Enhanced HFTsunetsugu et al. (2007) [19]FW versus UW or FV versus UVDecreased PR, SBP, DBP, SC, and LF/(LF + HF)
Enhanced HFPark et al. (2007) [13]FW versus UW or FV versus UVDecreased SC and THFuruhashi et al. (2007) [40]FW versus UW or FV versus UVDecreased PR, SBP, DBP, SC, and LF/(LF + HF)
Enhanced HFTsunetsugu et al. (2006) [18]FW versus UW or FV versus UVDecreased SC and IgAPark et al. (2006a) [15]FW versus UW or FV versus UVDecreased LF/(LF + HF)
Enhanced HFPark et al. (2006b) [16]FW versus UW or FV versus UVDecreased SC and IgAYamaguchi et al. (2006) [41]FV versus UV or FV versus UVDecreased SAAOhtsuka et al. (1998) [25]FW versus Non FWDecreased BG
An early study by Ohtsuka et al. [25] showed that blood glucose levels in diabetic patients decrease when they walk in a forest for 3 or 6 km, depending on their individual physical ability. By the middle of the decade in which the above-mentioned study was performed, research on the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku began in earnest, using improved technologies for measuring physiological indicators. These studies used a wide range of physiological indices such as salivary cortisol, pulse rate, blood pressure, and HRV. Moreover, the experiments were designed with full consideration for cross-checks and control stimuli. The studies showed that viewing forest landscapes and walking in forest settings leads to lower concentrations of cortisol, lower pulse rate, lower blood pressure, enhanced HF component of the HRV, and lower LF/HF [or LF/(LF + HF)]. In particular, Park et al. [13] showed that forest environments can lower the absolute value of the total hemoglobin concentration (t-Hb), an index of cerebral activity, in the left prefrontal area of the brain. The absolute value of hemoglobin concentration had never previously been measured in the field.
Though these studies focused on short-span exposures to stimuli (approximately 15 min of viewing and approximately 15 min of walking), the results strongly supported that participating in Shinrin-yoku activity could effectively relax the human body.
Results of a physiological experiment in 24 forests across Japan
Figure shows the average cortisol concentration in the saliva. Salivary cortisol was significantly lower in the forest area (13.4% decrease after the viewing; 15.8% decrease after the walking). Moreover, the average pulse rate was significantly lower (Fig. ) in the forest area (6.0% decrease after viewing; 3.9% decrease after walking). Figure shows that the average systolic blood pressure was significantly lower in the forest setting (1.7% decrease after viewing; 1.9% decrease after walking). Figure shows similar results for the average diastolic blood pressure (1.6% decrease after viewing; 2.1% decrease after walking). The average power of the HF components of the HRV, which is related to parasympathetic nervous activity, increases when we feel relaxed. This value was significantly enhanced in the forest settings (56.1% enhancement after viewing; 102.0% enhancement after walking; Fig. ). The average LF/HF ratio of the HRV, which is related to sympathetic nervous activity, increases when we feel stress. This value decreased when the subjects were walking in or viewing a forest (18.0% decrease after viewing; 19.4% decrease after walking; Fig. ).
Overall, the results show that viewing forest landscapes leads to lower concentrations of cortisol, lower pulse rate, lower blood pressure, enhanced HF components of HRV, and lower LF/HF. These results strongly support the findings of indoor research using heart rate and blood pressure on the effects of viewing a forest scene on recovery from stress [1, 26–28]. The effect of walking in a forest setting is the same as that of viewing a forest setting. This result corroborates Hartig et al.’s finding [27] that walking in a nature reserve initially fosters blood pressure changes that indicate greater stress reduction than that afforded by walking in city surroundings.
From the perspective of physiological anthropology, human beings have lived in the natural environment for most of the 5 million years of their existence. Therefore, their physiological functions are most suited to natural settings [29]. This is the reason why the natural environment can enhance relaxation. The results of the physiological experiments conducted in this study yield convincing answers explaining the relationship between the natural environment and the relaxation effects in a human being (e.g., decrease in blood pressure and pulse rates, inhibition of sympathetic nervous activity, enhancement of parasympathetic nervous activity, and decrease in cortisol concentration levels in human beings).
The endocrine stress system comprises two broad components with considerable central anatomic interconnection, namely, the sympathetic adrenal-medullary (SAM) axis and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis [30]. The SAM axis is involved in immediate sympathetic activation preparing an individual to deal with a stressor, resulting in changes such as increased heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP) [31]. Cortisol is released by the HPA axis in response to stress [32]. While subjects viewed forest landscapes or walked around forest environments, their pulse rate, blood pressure, and cortisol concentration decreased. This suggests that both the main components of the endocrine stress system reacted in response to Shinrin-yoku.
In particular, high cortisol levels can correspond to a low value of natural killer (NK) activity [33]. Further, cortisol concentration also holds great significance in terms of human immunological activity. Furthermore, the study of Li et al. [34–36] reported that forest surroundings could aid in the recovery of the human immune system, as determined from the perspective of NK activity.
For this reason, it can be suggested that not only forest environments but also other natural settings such as watersides or grasslands could promote relaxation in human beings. No evidence from field experiments conducted on other natural environments are available; however, Laumann et al. [28] have reported that, when subjects viewed natural environment through videos, including those of waterside scenes, they had a longer cardiac interbeat interval and lower heart rate, measured as the difference from the baseline, compared with subjects who viewed urban environment through videos.
All the indices were generally in excellent agreement with each other, implying that the forest environment possessed relaxing and stress-relieving effects. Our results also corroborate widely held beliefs that forest surroundings aid the physical relaxation of urban dwellers. In addition, these results suggest that physiological responses—pulse rate, blood pressure, salivary cortisol concentration, and HRV—can reflect the relaxing effects of forest environments.
Psychological effects and relationship between psychological effects and physical environmental factors in ten forests across Japan
The changes in the average POMS subscale scores after the viewing are presented in Fig. . Significant differences are seen between the changes resulting from viewing a forest landscape and those from viewing a city landscape. When subjects viewed a forest landscape, the POMS tension subscale score changed by –1.1 points, which is significantly lower than the change (3.5 points) after viewing a city landscape. The change in the POMS depression subscale score (–0.3 points) on viewing a forest landscape is also significantly lower than the score (0.1 points) on viewing a city landscape. There is a significant difference in the change in the POMS anger subscale score between viewing forest (–0.2 points) and city landscapes (1.0 points). The change in the POMS fatigue subscale score (–3.1 points) on viewing a forest landscape is significantly lower than the score (1.8 points) on viewing a city landscape. The change in the POMS confusion subscale score (–1.0 points) on viewing a forest landscape is also significantly lower than that (1.8 points) on viewing a city landscape. However, the change in the POMS vigor subscale score (1.9 points) on viewing a forest landscape is significantly higher than that (–1.9 points) on viewing a city landscape.
The changes in the average POMS subscale scores after walking are shown in Fig. . The results are the same as those for viewing. When walking, the changes in the average POMS subscales of tension (forest:–1.1 points, city: 3.2 points), depression (forest: –0.2 points, city: 0.8 points), anger (forest: –0.2 points, city: 0.8 points), fatigue (forest: –2.1 points, city: 1.3 points), and confusion (forest: –1.1 points, city: 1.1 points) are significantly different in the forest and city areas. And the change in the POMS vigor subscale score (4.2 points) on walking in forest settings is significantly higher than that (–0.2 points) on walking in city settings.
The POMS measurements show that forest environments can relieve human psychological tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion, and moreover, that they can enhance human psychological vigor. Furthermore, from the viewpoint of attention restorative theory (ART) [37], these results strongly support that the forest is a good restorative environment for human beings.
Kasetani et al. [38] reported that a relationship exists between the POMS score and the physical environmental factors (Fig. ). The POMS anger subscale score and relative illumination had a significant correlation coefficient (R = 0.66) in the forest areas. Moreover, the POMS fatigue subscale score and relative humidity had a significant correlation coefficient (R = 0.70). Finally, the POMS depression subscale score and atmospheric pressure had a significant correlation coefficient (R = 0.63).
When viewing a forest landscape, the low relative illumination reduces anger, and the low relative humidity lowers fatigue. Forests located at high elevations with low atmospheric pressure can reduce depression. We hope that these results can be used as basic guidelines in the design of therapeutic forest environments [39].
Conclusion
The results of studies performed on the physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku show that forest environments could lower concentrations of cortisol, lower pulse rate, lower blood pressure, increase parasympathetic nerve activity, and lower sympathetic nerve activity compared with city settings. The results of the physiological measurements suggest that Shinrin-yoku can aid in effectively relaxing the human body, and the psychological effects of forest areas have been correlated with the various physical environmental factors of forest. The studies of Shinrin-yoku provide valuable insights into the relationship between forests and human health.
These results of Shinrin-yoku studies will contribute to support the development of a research field dedicated to forest medicine, which may be used to develop new strategies in preventive medicine. The results of the field experiments also provide a platform for interested enterprises, universities, and local governments to promote the effective use of forest resources in stress management, health promotion, rehabilitation, and the prevention of disease.
Acknowledgments
This study was partly supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (S: 16107007) from The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT).
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38. Kasetani T, Takayama N, Park BJ, Furuya K, Kagawa T, Miyazaki Y. Relation between light/thermal environment in the forest walking road and subjective estimations for taking in the atmosphere of the forest (in Japanese). J Jpn Inst Lands Archit. 2008;71(5):713–6.
39. Gesler W. Therapeutic landscapes: theory and case study of Epidauros, Greece. Environ Plan D Soc Space. 1993;11:171–89.
40. Furuhashi S, Park BJ, Tsunetsugu Y, Hirano H, Kagawa T, Miyazaki Y. Physiological evaluation of the effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest) in Kayanodaira Highland, Kijimadaira Village, Nagano Prefecture (in Japanese). Kanto J For Res. 2007;58:219–22.
41. Yamaguchi M, Deguchi M, Miyazaki Y. The effects of exercise in forest and urban environments on sympathetic nervous activity of normal young adults. J Int Med Res. 2006;34:152–9. [PubMed]
Articles from Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine are provided here courtesy of The Japanese Society for Hygiene
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https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/communicating-evidence-shared-decision-making/2013-01
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Communicating Evidence in Shared Decision Making
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Shared decision making requires that physicians acknowledge their responsibility to the patient, their responsibility to be true to their own clinical judgment about the patient's best interest, their accountability to society, and the uncertainty of the evidence.
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Journal of Ethics | American Medical Association
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https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/communicating-evidence-shared-decision-making/2013-01
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Case
Dr. Garrison is a third-year resident in internal medicine who takes pride in helping patients make educated decisions regarding their health care, informing them of recent research and answering their questions.
One afternoon in the outpatient medicine clinic, Dr. Garrison spoke with Mr. Mendez, a 62-year-old man who had come in for a yearly physical. In reviewing Mr. Mendez’s chart, Dr. Garrison noted that his total cholesterol was high at 242 mg/dL, while his HDL cholesterol was low at 35 mg/dL. He was otherwise healthy, having normal blood pressure, no other symptoms or signs of cardiovascular disease, no family history of cardiovascular disease, and no history of smoking. According to the Framingham 10-year risk calculator, this picture corresponded to a 15 percent risk of a myocardial infarction in the next 10 years (“moderate risk”).
After discussing the findings of the physical exam with Mr. Mendez, Dr. Garrison entered into a discussion of the lab results. “Mr. Mendez, your lab results indicate that you have high cholesterol. Based upon your current state of health and lab results, you have about a 15 percent risk of experiencing a heart attack in the next 10 years. For patients in your situation, we typically recommend treatment with a drug known as a statin, which helps to lower your bad cholesterol.” Dr. Garrison proceeded to explain the benefits and side effects of statin therapy to Mr. Mendez, who stated that he was willing to try whatever the doctor thought was best.
Dr. Garrison added, “You should also know that, for the average person with your medical history and state of health, the number needed to treat—that is, the number of individuals who must be treated with a statin to prevent one death from a cardiovascular event such as a heart attack or stroke—is generally between 60 and 100, which means that if I treated 60 people in your situation, 1 would benefit and 59 would not. As these numbers show, it is important for you to know that most of the people who take a statin will not benefit from doing so and, moreover, that statins can have side effects, such as muscle pain, liver damage, and upset stomach, even in people who do not benefit from the medication. I am giving you this information so that you can weigh the risks and benefits and then make an informed decision.”
Mr. Mendez looked surprised. He said that he felt fine and, having heard the statistics, did not wish to start statin therapy at this time.
Later that day, Dr. Garrison met a fellow third-year internal medicine resident, Dr. Parra, for coffee in the hospital cafeteria. Discussing some of their cases from the day, Dr. Garrison remarked that several of her patients had elected to try lifestyle modifications rather than initiate drug therapy for hyperlipidemia and some other conditions. “That’s remarkable,” Dr. Parra observed, thinking that most of her patients elected pharmacologic treatment despite her encouragement to consider behavioral changes. Dr. Garrison continued, “I’ve found that providing patients more evidence regarding the effectiveness of drugs, and giving them information such as the number needed to treat, encourages them to think more realistically about the benefits and risks of pharmacologic treatment.”
Dr. Parra wondered about this and responded with concern: “Really? I don’t think our patients can make sense of all this information. They’re not trained in statistics and don’t know how to interpret scientific data. That’s our job.” Dr. Garrison asserted that it is an ethical obligation for physicians to provide information such as the number needed to treat and asked Dr. Parra, “How can our patients make informed decisions regarding their health care if they don’t know the evidence?”
Commentary
The disagreement between Dr. Parra and Dr. Garrison highlights one of the fundamental ethical issues surrounding Mr. Mendez’s care: How much information about evidence should physicians communicate to patients to enable them to make informed decisions? The answer will most likely depend upon the varying assessments of different physicians, the varying preferences of different patients, and the varying professional knowledge available in different clinical situations. Yet there is a general recognition in contemporary medicine that something needs to be said about the available research evidence related to a specific clinical decision in order to enable patients to make informed decisions about their health—even if wisdom is needed to understand how that evidence should be interpreted and communicated.
Shared Decision Making and the Need for Communicating Evidence
Communicating information about prognosis and treatment is recognized as one of the clinical cornerstones of respecting patient autonomy. The patient’s right to informed self-determination implies a corresponding obligation for physicians to provide relevant and understandable information. This is no small task when dealing with the complexities of risk communication. Patient numeracy, physician framing of risks, and embedded mental shortcuts that simplify complex information and decisions (i.e., heuristics) are but a few of the challenges physicians face when sharing treatment information. One critical issue is the degree to which Mr. Mendez understands his prognosis and the risks and benefits of his treatment options. Such challenges have been discussed in a recent Virtual Mentor article [1] and need not be recapitulated here.
Instead, we focus on fundamental questions of professional ethics that lie beneath the surface of Mr. Mendez’s case. Dr. Garrison’s and Dr. Parra’s disagreement about their perceived ethical obligations to share evidence reflects different conceptions about the balance of control over decision making in the patient-physician relationship, which can tilt more towards the patient or more towards the physician in any given patient-physician dyad.
These issues are given greater relevance in the context of shared decision making, which is characterized by the involvement of both the patient and the physician in the process of selecting among treatment options [2]. Through patient-physician dialogue, shared decision making aims to promote the ethical principle of respect for patient autonomy by empowering, or “conferring agency” on, patients [3]. It explicitly involves patients in decision making by eliciting their preferences and communicating information about treatment options [4]. The communication of evidence is therefore a necessary pillar of the shared decision-making model.
If it is agreed that respect for patient autonomy means that patients need to be informed about evidence pertaining to treatment options, then physicians have a professional obligation to provide such information. But if this obligation is viewed within the complex network of accountability that connects patients, physicians, and society [1], fulfilling it requires us to balance the principle of respect for patient autonomy with the ethical principles of beneficence and justice [3].
Because the complexities of striking such a balance may be underappreciated, we discuss below each of these principles and attempt to show how they can inform our understanding of the nature and extent of a physician’s obligation to disclose to patients evidence related to treatment options. Our purpose is to suggest that the decision regarding how much information a patient should receive depends on more than patient numeracy and lessons learned from the science of risk communication. More fundamentally, we believe this decision depends on a physician’s professional understanding of his or her ethical obligations that flow from the roles of patient and physician in the context of shared decision making.
Relational Autonomy and the Shared in Shared Decision Making
Respect for patient autonomy refers to a physician’s obligation to respect those patient preferences and decisions that accord with that patient’s values and beliefs [5]. Communicating treatment options, eliciting patient preferences, and explicitly recognizing the authority of the patient to make treatment decisions are all practices that promote patient autonomy. These practices stand in contrast to more paternalistic approaches in which the locus of decision making tilts more toward the professional authority of the physician.
While promoting patient involvement is a necessary corrective to paternalistic approaches [6], it would be misguided for physicians to assume that shared decision making is only about patient autonomy. As one author put it, “That one party becomes more responsible does not necessarily make the other party less responsible” [7]. This is particularly relevant when patient autonomy is framed as relational autonomy. Relational autonomy recognizes that an individual’s identity and values do not exist in a vacuum, but are “constituted in and by” interpersonal relationships and the broader social environment [8]. In this view, a patient’s social relationships (especially their relationships with physicians) inform his or her medical preferences and treatment decisions.
Seeing patients and their autonomy as existing in relation to other persons, including physicians, can help us think about how much evidence related to treatment options we should communicate to patients. If social relationships and circumstances shape a patient’s autonomy, physicians ought to be sensitive to how these factors may bear on treatment decisions [8]. For example, if difficult or negative prior encounters with health professionals or treatments have caused a patient to discount or prematurely dismiss what a physician perceives to be a good treatment option, part of the “relational work” to enhance autonomy may involve providing more detailed evidence, or more carefully explained evidence, in order to show respect through patient explanation and listening and, thereby, gain trust.
Relational autonomy also helps remind us to consider the question of who decides which treatment options should be offered in the first place, a role largely assumed by physicians. We acknowledge that access to information on the Internet about traditional and alternative therapies can have an extraordinary and independent impact on a patient’s understanding of treatment options. Nevertheless, it is important to appreciate that, when physicians communicate about evidence pertaining to treatments and define the treatment options available, they are contributing to the relational autonomy of their patients.
The principle of respect for patient autonomy is relevant to Mr. Mendez’s case in several ways. First, considering the notion of relational autonomy, we should ask: What social circumstances inform Mr. Mendez’s understanding of his high cholesterol? Are there circumstances that strongly discourage Mr. Mendez from taking a statin, even if his primary goal is to avoid a future cardiac event at all costs? How is Mr. Mendez’s capability to enact his goals for care shaped by these social circumstances? Secondly, what treatment options did Dr. Garrison present to Mr. Mendez, and how did these shape his decision-making autonomy? Exploring the answers to the above questions would have enabled Dr. Garrison to appreciate Mr. Mendez’s circumstances and how they shaped his ultimate treatment decision. They would have informed her approach to providing evidence such as the number needed to treat and provided an ethical rationale with which to engage Dr. Parra’s objections.
Beneficence
The principle of beneficence refers to a physician’s obligation to act for the good of the patient [5]. Implicit within this definition is the recognition that a physician must act in accordance with what he or she believes is best for the patient, as informed by his or her expertise and clinical judgment. With respect to deciding what treatment options to present to patients, beneficence plays a vital role. What “option set” a physician selects is inherently influenced by what the physician believes to be the best and most appropriate treatments for promoting the patient’s well-being [6].
With regard to communicating evidence, beneficence also supports efforts to promote a patient’s understanding of the treatment options offered (here one sees evidence of the interrelationship between autonomy and beneficence, since one of the ways to act for a patient’s good is to enhance his or her autonomy). For example, it has been well documented that people are often overly optimistic regarding health risks. In one study in which participants were informed that 4 out of every 100 persons would suffer a poor outcome, some people were unreasonably optimistic that they would not be among the unlucky 4 percent [9]. Thus, even if a patient selects a treatment that the physician favors, beneficence may oblige the physician to offer more information to ensure that the patient takes both the risks and benefits seriously.
Dr. Garrison proposed statin therapy as a reasonable treatment for someone in Mr. Mendez’s state of health. What she thinks is good for Mr. Mendez most likely influenced the information she shared about taking statins and the treatment alternatives she offered (if any). In describing the number needed to treat, Dr. Garrison may have been trying to make sure Mr. Mendez fully understood how the benefits and risks of treatment applied to him. Dr. Parra’s objection to Dr. Garrison’s approach most likely reflected her own notion of beneficence, which could include an interpretation of the evidence and making a recommendation for a preferred treatment (a recommendation that could be changed if side effects happened to occur).
Justice
Justice in the setting of health care usually pertains to questions of fair distribution (“distributive justice”) or to questions about what each person deserves, or is “due,” as an individual endowed with human dignity [5]. However, what exactly a person is due with respect to evidence pertaining to treatments is not clear, especially when that evidence pertains to populations as well as the individuals who comprise them. Physicians are traditionally trained to focus on the needs and preferences of individual patients, one at a time. But there are also times when physicians are called upon to weigh simultaneously the needs of an individual patient and the needs of a population or society. Such situations raise challenging questions of distributive justice.
Due to cost concerns, we appear to be in a time of increased attention to the needs of society, as can be seen in the new emphasis on “value-based” and “cost-conscious” health care that takes into account the health outcomes achieved per dollar spent [10]. According to a society-focused view, the success of a treatment is evaluated not only by its effect on the individual patient’s well-being but also on the cost-effectiveness of the treatment over the long term (e.g., prevention of hospitalization from a myocardial infarction) [11]. With limited health care resources, there is an increasing premium placed on treatments that are backed by quality evidence, offer more than marginal health gains for individuals, and come at acceptable costs to society.
We would suggest that there is often a deep tension at play when a physician is expected to act simultaneously in the interests of an individual patient and a population or society. A discussion of this tension is beyond the scope of this essay. Suffice it to say that there appear to be increasing expectations that physicians become more cost-conscious about the care they authorize and should see cost-consciousness as part of their accountability to society.
But it should be noted that the effort to balance the needs of individuals with populations (and societal costs) is not a new concern for physicians. Take vaccination programs, for example, and consider the similarities between statins and vaccines. Both statins and vaccines require a financial investment to prevent the occurrence of potentially fatal and costly outcomes. Both have possible side effects and adverse reactions. Both are less than 100 percent effective in preventing the disease in people who receive the treatment.
In the case of vaccines, there is also a societal expectation that patients should be encouraged to receive treatment to benefit society, not only themselves. The physician’s obligation is to encourage patients, insofar as it is medically and personally acceptable, to contribute to this societal benefit by being vaccinated. One could think about statin therapy in a similar way. A study evaluating the cost-effectiveness of expanding statin therapy to all low-risk patients found that such an expansion could prevent nearly 14,000 deaths from coronary heart disease and save approximately $1.4 billion per year [12]. One could imagine such cost savings translating into funding for other pressing health issues. On this view, does Mr. Mendez’s decision not to take a statin undermine the well-being of society by potentially diverting funds away from other causes? Does society expect Mr. Mendez to choose statin therapy as a cost-effective treatment plan? Most importantly for our discussion, how does (or should) a physician weigh these considerations when he or she thinks about an individual patient’s care? Will a physician’s thoughts about societal benefits impact what information he or she decides to communicate with patients about treatment options and their benefits?
We make the comparison of statins and vaccines not to advocate the use of statins, but to highlight how a physician’s perceived responsibility to society could have an impact on shared decision making in the patient-physician relationship. To the extent that calls to incorporate cost-consciousness in clinical decision making are justified by considerations of distributive justice, it is understandable that physicians should be encouraged to recommend treatments that promote individual health and are cost-effective for society. But such encouragements should not lose sight of the double responsibility this involves and the potential or actual tension between the well-being of individual patients and the cost savings for society.
In sharing the number needed to treat for statin therapy, Dr. Garrison may have provided evidence that discouraged Mr. Mendez from accepting a pharmacologic treatment that could have been personally beneficial and cost-effective for society. Alternatively, Dr. Garrison could be seen as having encouraged lifestyle modifications that, if successful, could also be beneficial to the patient and cost-effective for society. While Dr. Parra’s objection to Dr. Garrison’s practice appeared to focus upon the interpretability of the evidence, she might also have objected to Dr. Garrison’s disclosure of information that discouraged the acceptance of a potentially cost-saving therapy. One wonders whether Dr. Garrison should have considered communicating information to Mr. Mendez about potential cost savings to society, either as a matter of disclosure (since it could possibly have influenced her recommendations) or as a means of encouraging of civic cooperation. This is a very significant question, one we raise not to promote a position but to stimulate discussion about the tension between individual and societal benefit.
Evidence and Uncertainty
Our discussion would be incomplete if we did not acknowledge that evidence always carries a degree of uncertainty. Statistics such as the number needed to treat are derived from population studies, and probabilities from such studies do not map perfectly onto individual experiences. For Mr. Mendez, the treatment effects of the statin cannot be predicted with complete accuracy. This uncertainty is amplified when the evidence and opinions surrounding a certain treatment are conflicting, as is the case for prescribing statins to low-risk individuals [13]. Without a shared understanding of the uncertainty surrounding both the evidence provided and the decision to pursue a course of treatment, the potential for true patient involvement in decision making may be limited [6].
Shared Decision Making and the Balancing of Ethical Principles
How physicians understand their professional obligations will influence what information they communicate to patients and their approach to clinical decision making. To engage in shared decision making honestly requires that physicians acknowledge (1) their responsibility to the patient (respect for patient autonomy), (2) their responsibility to be true to their own clinical judgment about the best interests of the patient (beneficence), (3) their accountability to society (distributive justice), and (4) the uncertainty of the evidence. While it should also be acknowledged that these ethical principles interact within a broader web of treatment guidelines, local institutional practices, and payer policies—all of which influences the context of shared decision making [6]—how these principles are balanced in a given clinical scenario should be expected to influence what information about evidence a physician decides to share with his or her patient.
The complex interplay of ethical principles in this case reminds us that information about risks and benefits of treatment should not be seen as a self-interpreting package of data ready for delivery. Rather, the information we share with our patients reflects our own ethical values and our interpretations of the evidence. It also reflects our implicit understanding and balancing of our responsibilities to individual patients, ourselves, and society. Appreciating that a patient’s autonomy is relational and shaped in part by the information a physician provides does not weaken the ethical imperative for shared decision making. It strengthens it. Through the process of patient-physician communication, patient preferences can be elicited to help shape the evidence that physicians share. By recognizing the ethical principles and value judgments at stake in such dialogue, physicians should be in a better position to decide what evidence to share with patients and, we may hope, more likely to truly engage in shared decision making.
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Marianna Soil Test Laboratory provides accurate and timely routine soil analyses and unbiased nutrient management guidelines that are based on the best available science to Arkansas residents.
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Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station
|
https://aaes.uada.edu/technical-services/soil-testing-and-research-laboratory/
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Marianna
Soil Test
Laboratory
Marianna
Soil Test
Laboratory
Marianna
Soil Test
Laboratory
Marianna
Soil Test
Laboratory
Quick Information
Lab Hours
Contact
Location
Helpful Links
Videos
Monday through Friday
8:00 AM to 4:30 PM
Announcements:
New Web Address:
https://uasoiltest.uada.edu
Delivery:
Please contact the laboratory if you are delivering a large number of samples (870-295-2851) and make sure that soil samples are logged into the system before dropping the samples off.
Labor Day Holiday
The Soil Testing Laboratory will be closed on September 2, 2024 in observance of Labor Day. The lab will reopen on September 3, 2024 at 8 am. If you deliver soil samples to the drop-off box at the back of the laboratory, please be sure that they are logged into the system and fill out the drop-off form.
Cindy Herron & Diane Lafex
Soil Testing and Research Laboratory
8 Lee Rd 214
Marianna, AR 72360
Phone: 870-295-2851
Email: [email protected]
Soil Shipping Address:
PO Drawer 767
Marianna, AR 72360
General Mailing Address:
8 Lee Rd 214
Marianna, AR 72360
Virtual Tour
Collect Soil Sample
Potassium Deficiency
Potassium Management
Virtual Tour
Collect Soil Sample
Potassium Deficiency
Potassium Management
General Information
Lab Methods
Prices
Lab Proficiency Testing
Sample Retention Policy
Services and Methods
Routine soil analysis provides information on the pH and fertility status of the soil. Soil test results provide guidance on the types and amounts of fertilizer and lime to apply to optimize plant growth and yield. Soil testing is just one component of agronomic and environmental nutrient management that collectively helps sustain plant growth and minimize nutrient losses into the surrounding landscape using the best available science. In Arkansas, routine soil testing is done free of charge provided the soil is from Arkansas and the person submitting the sample is an Arkansas resident. The Fertilizer Tonnage Fee has supported soil testing services and enforcement of fertilizer laws in Arkansas since 1953 and provides free routine testing of soil at the Marianna Laboratory. Routine soil analysis includes measurement of soil water pH and extraction of plant available nutrients using the Mehlich-3 extraction method. A list of routine and non-routine (fee-based) services and references for the analytical methods used by the Marianna Soil Test Laboratory is given below. For information on how to collect and submit a soil sample, please go to How to Submit Soil Samples page.
Laboratory Methods and References
Routine analysis
Mehlich III (Index of nutrient availability for selected nutrients, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, and B)
Zhang, H., D.H. Hardy, R. Mylavarapu, and J. Wang. 2014. Mehlich-3. In: F.J. Sikora and K.P. Moore, editors, Soil test methods from the southeastern United States. Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 419. p. 101-110. Univ. of Georgia http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/sera6/?PUB/MethodsManualFinalSERA6.pdf.
Soil pH (1:2 soil:water mixture)
Sikora, F.J., and D.E. Kissel. 2014. Soil pH. In: F.J. Sikora and K.P. Moore, editors, Soil test methods from the southeastern United States. Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 419. p. 48-53. Univ of Georgia http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/sera6/?PUB/MethodsManualFinalSERA6.pdf
Non-routine procedures and prices
Soil Nitrate-N ($5.00 per sample) measured by ion-selective electrode
Gordon, G.V. 1992. Determination of nitrate-nitrogen by specific-ion electrode. In: S.J. Donahue, editor, Reference soil media diagnostic procedures for the Southern Region of the United States. Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 374. p. 25-27. Univ of Georgia. http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/sera6/?PUB/bulletinNo374.pdf
Zhang, H. and J.J. Wang . 214. Nitrate Nitrogen. In: F. J. Sikora, editor, Soil Test Methods from the Southeast Region of the United States. Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 419. p. 138-145. Univ of Kentucky. https://aesl.ces.uga.edu/sera6/?PUB/MethodsManualFinalSERA6.pdf
Soil Organic Matter ($6.00 per sample) measured by Weight Loss on Ignition
Zhang, H., and J.J. Wang. 2014. Measurement of soil salinity and sodicity. In: F.J. Sikora and K.P. Moore, editors, Soil test methods from the southeastern United States. Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 419. p. 155-157. Univ. of Georgia http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/sera6/?PUB/MethodsManualFinalSERA6.pdf
Miller, R. and L. Sonon. 214. Nitrate Nitrogen. In: F. J. Sikora, editor, Soil Test Methods from the Southeast Region of the United States. Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 419. p. 155-157. Univ of Kentucky. https://aesl.ces.uga.edu/sera6/?PUB/MethodsManualFinalSERA6.pdf
Soil Electrical Conductivity ($3.00 per sample) in 1:2 soil:water mixture
Wang, J.J., T. Provin, and H. Zhang. 2014. Measurement of soil salinity and sodicity. In: F.J. Sikora and K.P. Moore, editors, Soil test methods from the southeastern United States. Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 419. p. 185-193. Univ. of Georgia. http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/sera6/?PUB/MethodsManualFinalSERA6.pdf
Soil Texture ($15.00 per sample) by hydrometer
Huluka, G. and R. Miller. 2014. Particle size determination by hydrometer method. In: F.J. Sikora and K.P. Moore, editors, Soil test methods from the southeastern United States. Southern Coop. Ser. Bull. 419. p. 180-184. Univ. of Georgia http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/sera6/?PUB/MethodsManualFinalSERA6.pdf
Prices
Electrical Conductivity $6.00
Nitrates $6.00
Organic Matter $10.00
Chloride $10.00
Soil Texture $18.00
Soil Analyses for Out of State and Research $18.00
Laboratory Proficiency Testing
The Marianna Soil Testing and Research Laboratory participates in laboratory proficiency testing to ensure that our analytical procedures and results are accurate and precise. Starting in 2018, the Marianna Laboratory participates in the Agricultural Laboratory Proficiency Program (ALP). Prior to 2018, the laboratory participated in the North American Proficiency Testing (NAPT) Program. Current and past results from these programs are available upon request.
The Marianna Soil Test Laboratory guidelines on soil sample retention are outlined below. Please contact the laboratory immediately after receiving results if a request for reanalysis is needed.
Soil samples will be retained at the laboratory for a maximum of 30 days after analysis or until sample storage space becomes limited.
During the rush season (September thru April) sample retention may be as low as 2 weeks.
To request reanalysis of samples you will need to provide the laboratory identification number(s) of the sample(s) that need to be reanalyzed and indicate what analytes need to be reanalyzed (pH, Mehlich-3 extractable nutrients, or both).
Some soil samples may not contain enough soil for reanalysis.
To request sample reanalysis, login to the soil sample submission portal (https://uasoiltest.uada.edu/). Once logged in, click on “Request a Retest of a Sample” at the bottom of the menu page. Enter the Lab ID and the reason for requesting sample reanalysis and click on” Request sample retest” to submit the request.
Soil Samples
Crop Codes
Soil Test Results
County Agent Info
How to Submit Soil Samples
Directions for Consultants and Farmers (PDF)
LIMS Training Video
Soil samples must be submitted in a University of Arkansas System Division of Agriculture soil sample box that contains a barcode and sample identification number. Soil sample boxes are available free to Arkansas residents at Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service offices located in each county (https://uaex.uada.edu/counties/). Agriculture consultants needing large quantities of soil sample boxes should contact the Marianna Soil Test Laboratory (870-295-2851).
If information about how to collect a soil sample is needed, please watch the video available at https://uaex.uada.edu/environment-nature/soil/soil-test.aspx or contact the county Extension agent for further assistance.
Soil samples (about 1 pint of soil) may be brought directly to the Marianna Soil Test Laboratory as long as the samples are in barcoded soil sample boxes and sample information has been entered into the online system. Soil samples may also be delivered to the nearest County Extension Office (in a plastic bag or other suitable container and put into a barcoded soil sample box) and be shipped to the Marianna Soil Test Lab.
Soil sample information is now submitted to the laboratory electronically using the website https://uasoiltest.uada.edu/. The CES 435 form is no longer used. Clients must develop an account with a user id and a password to submit samples and view soil test reports. Clients who do not have an email address must submit soil samples through the county office and will receive a soil test report through the mail.
Sample information may be submitted directly by the client or the staff at any County Extension Office. Regardless of who electronically submits soil samples, the required information includes:
Phone number and mailing address
Email address (if available)
Field or sample name
Plant or crop to be grown ( see crop code Tab above)
For rice, the cultivar is also needed
For selected crops (e.g., corn and forages for hay production), a yield goal is needed.
Other information (non-essential)
Lime history (last 4 years)
Irrigation water source
Field leveling history (last 4 years)
Request and payment for fee-based analysis
Soil Association number Map
The online sample submission program allows users to view the soil samples that have been successfully submitted to the laboratory. Once soil samples have been analyzed, the client will receive an email stating that soil sample analysis is complete and the reports are ready to be viewed, downloaded, or printed. Clients that do not have an email address, will be mailed a hard copy of soil test results directly from the laboratory. Clients with an email address will need to create an account to receive notification of when soil test results are available.
Soils NOT Tested at Marianna Soil Testing Laboratory
If the native soils have been heavily amended with compost, bagged garden soils, mulch, etc the Marianna Soil Test Laboratory will not analyze the samples. Samples containing or comprised of mulch, potting soil, perlite, and vermiculite, and/or compost are not lab friendly and may contaminate laboratory equipment. Routine soil analysis is not an appropriate assessment of the suitability of these products for plant growth.
Crop Codes
Crop CodeCrop NameCrop Type 1Corn for Grain (Yield Potential up to 125 bu/acre)Row Crop 2Corn for Grain (Yield Potential up to 150 bu/acre)Row Crop 3Corn for Grain (Yield Potential up to 175 bu/acre)Row Crop 4Corn for Grain (Yield Potential ≥ 200 bu/acre)Row Crop 5Corn for SilageRow Crop 6CottonRow Crop 7Grain Sorghum for Grain - Non irrigated (NIR)Row Crop 8Grain Sorghum for Grain - Irrigated (IR, Yield Potential ~90 bu/acre)Row Crop 9Grain Sorghum for Grain - Irrigated (IR, Yield Potential ~110 bu/acre)Row Crop 10Grain Sorghum for Grain - Irrigated (IR, Yield Potential ≥130 bu/acre)Row Crop 11Grain Sorghum for SilageRow Crop 12OatsRow Crop 013-01DellaRow Crop Rice 013-02MarsRow Crop Rice 013-03Jasmine 85Row Crop Rice 013-04NortaiRow Crop Rice 013-05AlanRow Crop Rice 013-06JacksonRow Crop Rice 013-07MaybelleRow Crop Rice 013-08KatyRow Crop Rice 013-09MillieRow Crop Rice 013-10NewbonnetRow Crop Rice 013-11CypressRow Crop Rice 013-12PriscillaRow Crop Rice 013-13LafitteRow Crop Rice 013-14LemontRow Crop Rice 013-15MadisonRow Crop Rice 013-16DellmontRow Crop Rice 013-17EarleRow Crop Rice 013-18SaberRow Crop Rice 013-19JeffersonRow Crop Rice 013-20CL 121Row Crop Rice 013-21CL 141Row Crop Rice 013-22Rice Tec XL6Row Crop Rice 013-23Rice Tec XL7Row Crop Rice 013-24LagrueRow Crop Rice 013-25DrewRow Crop Rice 013-26AhrentRow Crop Rice 013-27BengalRow Crop Rice 013-28MedArkRow Crop Rice 013-29CL 161Row Crop Rice 013-30CocodrieRow Crop Rice 013-31CybonnetRow Crop Rice 013-32CheniereRow Crop Rice 013-33WellsRow Crop Rice 013-34BanksRow Crop Rice 013-35FrancisRow Crop Rice 013-36Rice Tec XL8Row Crop Rice 013-37Rice Tec CL XL8Row Crop Rice 013-38Rice Tec XP710Row Crop Rice 013-39Rice Tec XP716Row Crop Rice 013-40Rice Tec XL723Row Crop Rice 013-41CL 131Row Crop Rice 013-42SpringRow Crop Rice 013-43JupiterRow Crop Rice 013-44TrenasseRow Crop Rice 013-45PresidoRow Crop Rice 013-46Rice Tec CL XL730Row Crop Rice 013-47PirogueRow Crop Rice 013-48CL 171-ARRow Crop Rice 013-49Rice Tec CL XL729Row Crop Rice 013-50Rice Tec XP744Row Crop Rice 013-51Rice Tec CL XL745Row Crop Rice 013-52BowmanRow Crop Rice 013-53Arize 1003Row Crop Rice 013-54CatahoulaRow Crop Rice 013-55CL151Row Crop Rice 013-56JESRow Crop Rice 013-57NeptuneRow Crop Rice 013-58RiceTec CL XL 746Row Crop Rice 013-59TaggartRow Crop Rice 013-60TempletonRow Crop Rice 013-61CL 111Row Crop Rice 013-62CL 142 ARRow Crop Rice 013-63CL 181 ARRow Crop Rice 013-64CL 261Row Crop Rice 013-65JazzmanRow Crop Rice 013-66RexRow Crop Rice 013-67Roy JRow Crop Rice 013-68CL152Row Crop Rice 013-69CL162Row Crop Rice 013-70CaffeyRow Crop Rice 013-71Jazzman 2Row Crop Rice 013-72AntonioRow Crop Rice 013-73MermentauRow Crop Rice 013-74ColoradoRow Crop Rice 013-75Della 2Row Crop Rice 013-76RiceTec XP4523Row Crop Rice 013-77RiceTec XP4534Row Crop Rice 013-78RiceTec XL753Row Crop Rice 013-79LaKastRow Crop Rice 013-80CL163Row Crop Rice 013-81CL172Row Crop Rice 013-82CL271Row Crop Rice 013-83XL760Row Crop Rice 013-84DiamondRow Crop Rice 013-85TitanRow Crop Rice 013-86CL153Row Crop Rice 013-87CL272Row Crop Rice 013-88RT7311 CLRow Crop Rice 013-89Gemini 214 CLRow Crop Rice 013-90ThadRow Crop Rice 013-91PVL01Row Crop Rice 013-92PVL02Row Crop Rice 013-93CLL15Row Crop Rice 013-94CLM04Row Crop Rice 013-95RT7301Row Crop Rice 013-96RT7321 FPRow Crop Rice 013-97RT7501Row Crop Rice 013-98RT7521 FPRow Crop Rice 013-99JewelRow Crop Rice 013-100LynxRow Crop Rice 013-101Aroma 17Row Crop Rice 013-102CLL16Row Crop Rice 013-103CLL17Row Crop Rice 013-104ProGold1Row Crop Rice 013-105ProGold2Row Crop Rice 013-106DG263LRow Crop Rice 013-107Aroma 22Row Crop Rice 013-108CLL18Row Crop Rice 013-109OzarkRow Crop Rice 013-110PVL03Row Crop Rice 013-111TaurusRow Crop Rice 013-112RT7302Row Crop Rice 013-113R7331 MARow Crop Rice 013-114R7401Row Crop Rice 013-115RT7421Row Crop Rice 013-116RTv7231 MARow Crop Rice 013-117CLL19Row Crop Rice 013-118DG353MRow Crop Rice 013-119ProGold M3Row Crop Rice 013-120PVL04Row Crop Rice 013-127Other Rice VarietyRow Crop Rice 14Soybean - Full SeasonRow Crop 15Soybean - Doublecrop (DC) (requires small grain crop as first crop)Row Crop 16Wheat for GrainRow Crop 17Wheat for Grain and GrazingRow Crop 18Other Crop (Analysis only - contact State Extension Specialist for Recommendation, Fill in space with desired crop name)Row Crop 19Fallow (no recommendation/analysis only - crop code for rotation sequence)Row Crop 20Fish Ponds (Analysis only - contact State Extension Specialist for Recommendation)Row Crop 21Reg 5 AnalysisRow Crop 22Pollinator Production (NRCS)Row Crop 23HempRow Crop 24PeanutsRow Crop 101Alfalfa or Alfalfa + Cool-Season Grass Mixtures (EST)Forage Legumes 102Alfalfa or Alfalfa + Cool-Season Grass Mixtures (MNT) - 3 ton/acreForage Legumes 103Alfalfa or Alfalfa + Cool-Season Grass Mixtures (MNT) - 5 ton/acreForage Legumes 104Alfalfa or Alfalfa + Cool-Season Grass Mixtures (MNT) - 7 ton/acreForage Legumes 105Alfalfa or Alfalfa + Cool-Season Grass Mixtures (MNT) - 9 ton/acreForage Legumes 106Legumes + Cool-Season Grass (EST)Forage Legumes 107Legumes + Cool-Season Grass (MNT) - 2 ton/acreForage Legumes 108Legumes + Cool-Season Grass (MNT) - 3 ton/acreForage Legumes 109Legumes + Cool-Season Grass (MNT) - 4 ton/acreOzark 110Legumes + Cool-Season Grass (MNT) - 5 ton/acrePVL03 111Legumes + Warm-Season Grass (EST)Taurus 112Legumes + Warm-Season Grass (MNT) - 2 ton/acreRT7302 113Legumes + Warm-Season Grass (MNT) - 3 ton/acreR7331 MA 114Legumes + Warm-Season Grass (MNT) - 4 ton/acreR7401 115Legumes + Warm-Season Grass (MNT) - 5 ton/acreRT7421 116Legumes Over-Seeded into Grass Sod (EST)Forage Legumes 117Soybean for Hay (EST)Forage Legumes 118Wildlife Food Plots Including LegumesForage Legumes 121Cool-Season Grasses (EST)Forage Grass 122Cool-Season Grasses (MNT) - 2 ton/acreForage Grass 123Cool-Season Grasses (MNT) - 3 ton/acreForage Grass 124Cool-Season Grasses (MNT) - 4 ton/acreForage Grass 125Cool-Season Grasses (MNT) - 5 ton/acreForage Grass 126Native Warm-Season Grasses (EST)Forage Grass 127Native Warm-Season Grasses (MNT) - 2 ton/acreForage Grass 128Native Warm-Season Grasses (MNT) - 3 ton/acreForage Grass 129Native Warm-Season Grasses (MNT) - 4 ton/acreForage Grass 130Native Warm-Season Grasses (MNT) - 5 ton/acreForage Grass 131Warm-Season Grasses (EST)Forage Grass 132Warm-Season Grasses (MNT) - 2 ton/acreForage Grass 133Warm-Season Grasses (MNT) - 4 ton/acreForage Grass 134Warm-Season Grasses (MNT) - 6 ton/acreForage Grass 135Warm-Season Grasses (MNT) - 8 ton/acreForage Grass 136Winter Annuals Over-seeded into Grass Sod (MNT) - 1 ton/acreForage Grass 137Winter Annuals Over-seeded into Grass Sod (MNT) - 2 ton/acreForage Grass 138Winter Annuals Over-seeded into Grass Sod (MNT) - 3 ton/acreForage Grass 139Winter Annuals Over-seeded into Grass Sod (MNT) - 4 ton/acreForage Grass 140Wildlife Food Plots [No Legumes] {EST & MNT}Forage Grass 141Summer AnnualsForage Grass 142Mixed Cool and Warm Season Grasses - 2 ton/acreForage Grass 143Mixed Cool and Warm Season Grasses - 3 ton/acreForage Grass 144Mixed Cool and Warm Season Grasses - 4 ton/acreForage Grass 145Mixed Cool and Warm Season Grasses - 5 ton/acreForage Grass 201Cool-Season Cover Crops (EST, MNT)Pasture Forage 202Cool-Season Grasses (EST)Pasture Forage 203Cool-Season Grasses (MNT)Pasture Forage 204Legumes or Cool-Season Grasses/Legume Mixtures (EST)Pasture Forage 205Legumes or Cool-Season Grasses/Legume Mixtures (MNT)Pasture Forage 206Warm-Season Grasses (EST)Pasture Forage 207Warm-Season Grasses (MNT)Pasture Forage 208Legumes or Warm-Season Grasses/Legume Mixtures (EST)Pasture Forage 209Legumes or Warm-Season Grasses/Legume Mixtures (MNT)Pasture Forage 210Winter Annuals (EST/MNT)Pasture Forage 211Native Warm-Season Grasses (EST/MNT)Pasture Forage 212Mixed Cool and Warm-Season GrassesPasture Forage 213CRP (Conservation Reserve Program, Maintenance of Cover)Pasture Forage 301General Garden (No legumes)Vegetables 302General Garden (With legumes)Vegetables 303Asparagus [Year 1]Vegetables 304Asparagus [Year 2]Vegetables 305Asparagus [Year 3]Vegetables 306Beans [Bush, Lima, Pole, and Snap]Vegetables 307BeetsVegetables 308Cantaloupe and Muskmelons [Irrigated plasticulture]Vegetables 309Cantaloupe and Muskmelons [Irrigated on beds]]Vegetables 310Cole Crops [Broccoli, Brussel Sprouts, Cabbage, and Cauliflower]Vegetables 311Cucumber [Slicing]Vegetables 312Cucumber [Pickling/Processing]Vegetables 313Eggplant [Irrigated plasticulture]Vegetables 314Eggplant [Irrigated on beds]Vegetables 315Greens [Collard, Kale, Mustard, and Turnip]Vegetables 316Irish PotatoesVegetables 317Okra [Irrigated plasticulture]Vegetables 318Okra [Irrigated on Beds]Vegetables 319Onion, Garlic, and ShallotsVegetables 320Peas [English]Vegetables 321Peppers [Irrigated plasticulture]Vegetables 322Peppers [Irrigated on Beds]Vegetables 323PumpkinsVegetables 324Root Crops [Carrot and Radish]Vegetables 325Southern PeasVegetables 326SpinachVegetables 327Squash [Irrigated plasticulture]Vegetables 328Squash [Irrigated on Beds]Vegetables 329Sweet CornVegetables 330Sweet PotatoesVegetables 331Tomatoes [Irrigated plasticulture]Vegetables 332Tomatoes [Staked]Vegetables 333TurnipsVegetables 334Watermelon [Irrigated plasticulture]Vegetables 335Watermelon [Irrigated on Beds]Vegetables 401Athletic Field - Cool Season Grasses on a Sand Base [EST & MNT]Turf Production 402Athletic Field - Cool Season Grasses on a Soil Base [EST & MNT]Turf Production 403Athletic Field - Warm Season Grasses on a Sand Base [EST & MNT]Turf Production 404Athletic Field - Warm Season Grasses on a Soil Base [EST & MNT]Turf Production 405Bentgrass Greens on a Sand Base [EST]Turf Production 406Bentgrass Greens on a Soil Base [EST]Turf Production 407Bentgrass Greens on a Sand Base [MNT]Turf Production 408Bentgrass Greens on a Soil Base [MNT]Turf Production 409Bermudagrass Greens on a Sand Base [EST]Turf Production 410Bermudagrass Greens on a Soil Base [EST]Turf Production 411Bermudagrass Greens on a Sand Base [MNT]Turf Production 412Bermudagrass Greens on a Soil Base [MNT]Turf Production 413Bermudagrass Fairways [EST & MNT]Turf Production 414Zoysiagrass Fairways [EST & MNT]Turf Production 415Seeded Rough Cool-Season Grass [EST & MNT]Turf Production 416Seeded Rough Warm-Season Grass [EST & MNT]Turf Production 417Bermudagrass Tees & Fairways [EST]Turf Production 418Bermudagrass Tees & Fairways [MNT]Turf Production 419Zoysiagrass Tees & Fairways [EST]Turf Production 420Zoysiagrass Tees & Fairways [MNT]Turf Production 421Parks/Playgrounds Cool Season Grass [EST & MNT]Turf Production 422Parks/Playgrounds Warm Season Grass [EST & MNT]Turf Production 423Sod - Bermudagrass Commercial Production [EST & MNT]Turf Production 424Sod - Centipede Commercial Production [EST & MNT]Turf Production 425Sod - Zoysiagrass Commercial Production [EST & MNT]Turf Production 426Lawn Turf - Bermudagrass [EST & MNT]Turf Production 427Lawn Turf - Bluegrass [EST & MNT]Turf Production 428Lawn Turf - Centipedegrass [EST & MNT]Turf Production 429Lawn Turf - Ryegrass [EST & MNT]Turf Production 430Lawn Turf - St. Augustine [EST & MNT]Turf Production 431Lawn Turf - Fescues [EST & MNT]Turf Production 432Lawn Turf - Zoysiagrass [EST & MNTTurf Production 501Fruit Trees & Small Fruits, General Production for Home Owners [EST]Fruit Tree 502Fruit Trees & Small Fruits, General Production for Home Owners [MNT]Fruit Tree 503Apples, Commercial Production [EST]Fruit Tree 504Apples, Commercial Production [MNT]Fruit Tree 505Cherries, Commercial Production [EST]Fruit Tree 506Cherries, Commercial Production [MNT]Fruit Tree 507Figs, Commercial Production [EST]Fruit Tree 508Figs, Commercial Production [MNT]Fruit Tree 509Nectarines, Commercial Production [EST]Fruit Tree 510Nectarines, Commercial Production [MNT]Fruit Tree 511Peaches, Commercial Production [EST]Fruit Tree 512Peaches, Commercial Production [MNT]Fruit Tree 513Pears, Commercial Production [EST]Fruit Tree 514Pears, Commercial Production [MNT]Fruit Tree 515Plums, Commercial Production [EST]Fruit Tree 516Plums, Commercial Production [MNT]Fruit Tree 517PecansFruit Tree 518WalnutsFruit Tree 519Blueberries - 1st YearFruit Tree 520Blueberries - 2nd & 3rd YearFruit Tree 521Blueberries - 4th YearFruit Tree 522BramblesFruit Tree 523Grapes - 1st year and 2nd Year [Immature vines}Fruit Tree 524Grapes - 3 years old [Mature vines]Fruit Tree 525Strawberries - Matted Row Commercial ProductionFruit Tree 526Strawberries -Small bed/home gardenFruit Tree 527Blueberries (all ages) - Home GardenFruit Tree 601RosesOrnamental Plant 602Acid Group Shrubs [Azaleas, Camellia, Gardenia, Hydrangea, & Rhododendron]Ornamental Plant 603Non-Acid Group Shrubs and TreesOrnamental Plant 604Bedding plants, Annual and Perennial Flowers, Groundcovers, and Herbs & FernsOrnamental Plant 605Shade Tree Field NurseryOraimental Plant 606Pine Nursery SeedlingsOrnamental Plant 607Leyland CypressOrnamental Plant 608Christmas Tree PlantationOrnamental Plant 609Pine Plantation - Commercial ProductionOrnamental Plant
Access Soil Test Results
Generate a Report
Soil Analytical Data
2024
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https://www.shimadzu.com/about/offices.html
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Our Offices
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Details of Shimadzu Corporation's world wide office location.
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https://www.montgomerycollege.edu/academics/departments/engineering-physical-computer-sciences-rockville/faculty-staff.html
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Faculty and Staff for the Engineering, Physical, and Computer Sciences Department - Rockville Campus
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Biography
Dr. Fitzgerald received her MS and PhD degrees in physics from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and holds a BS degree in Physics from Stetson University. She joined the department during the fall 2009 semester, after working as a senior scientist at National Security Technologies Remote Sensing Laboratory. Prior to that, she was awarded a National Research Council Associateship with the Space Sciences Division at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL).
Currently she is teaching Astronomy (AS101) and is actively engaged in getting the new observatory facility on the roof of the Science Center ready to use for astronomy education, student research, and community outreach. Dr. Fitzgerald organizes the twice monthly observatory public nights and special astronomy events. Additionally, she serves as the faculty advisor for the Astronomy Club (the 2012 “Club of the Year” at Montgomery College).
Website: Carrie Fitzgerald
Biography
Dr. Grinberg holds a B.S, a M.S. and Ph.D. from State Technical University, St. Petersburg, Russia, in Mechanical Engineering. He joined the department in Fall 2001. Dr. Grinberg has taught all levels of Computer Science and Information Technologies courses. He is one of the organizers of the annual programming competition for high school students that has been offered since 2007.
Dr. Grinberg’s research interests are in mobile programming, such as iPhone, iPad, and Android programming.
Biography
Professor Joy holds a B.S. from Inter-American University in Puerto Rico, an M.S. from City University of NY (Brooklyn College) in Computer Science, and a M.Ed. in TESOL (ESL) from Shenandoah University.
She joined Montgomery College full time in spring 2009. Prior to joining Montgomery College, Professor Joy taught computer science at Northern Virginia Community College, Trenton State College and LaGuardia Community College in New York. She also worked as a programmer for several years.
Professor Joy is especially interested in online learning and the use of online technology to enhance learning. She has developed two educational websites, hello-world.com for language learning, and zebra0.com for computer science education. She creates educational games and activities using Flash, ActionScript, PHP, and Javascript.
Website: zebra0.com/MC
Biography
Dr. Kuijt graduated summa cum laude with a B.S. in computer science from the University of Maryland College Park, where he later earned a Ph.D. after completing a computer science dissertation on "An Object-Oriented Approach to Parallel Spatial Indexing of Vector-Format Polygons." After serving as an adjunct professor who taught courses in computer science and electrical engineering, Dr. Kuijt joined Montgomery College as a full-time associate professor at the start of the fall 2015 semester.
Prior to joining MC, Dr. Kuijt taught both undergraduate- and graduate-level computer and information systems courses at the American University. He has also taught in the College Park and University College divisions of the University of Maryland.
Dr. Kuijt was born in Vancouver, BC, Canada. He is director of the MC Grand Challenges Scholars Program and faculty mentor for the MC NASA Swarmathon competition team.
Educational Background
Professor Thai holds a BS in electrical engineering from the University of Maryland, a MS in electrical engineering from The Johns Hopkins University, and a MBA from the Keller Graduate School of Management. In addition, he is a certified Project Management Professional (PMP) from the Project Management Institute (PMI).
Professor Thai has taught on-campus, on-line and blended courses in the business, computer science and computer applications disciplines at Montgomery College (MC) for more than ten years. Prior to teaching at MC, he taught undergraduate and graduate courses at the University of Phoenix. Professor Thai has more than 20 years of software development and project management experience, working as a project manager managing IT projects for various organizations in the Washington D.C. area.
Professor Thai enjoys sharing his knowledge with his classes, and he is passionate about teaching. His current interests include mobile and web development, and software development in the engineering discipline.
Biography
Dr. Palma Catravas holds a BS in Electrical Engineering and a BM in piano performance from the University of Maryland at College Park and an MS and PhD in Electrical Engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). She performed research in the area of radiation-based electron beam diagnostics and plasma based accelerators at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
Prior to joining Montgomery College, Dr. Catravas mentored undergraduates as a faculty member in Electrical and Computer Engineering at Union College, where she was a finalist for the Stillman Teaching Prize in 2014 and the recipient of the Student-nominated Brate Advising Award in the spring of 2018. Dr. Catravas developed a specialized laboratory at the interface of Electrical Engineering and Music (Phasor Lab) and has received a patent on a spectral analysis technique derived from music visualization.
In addition to traditional EE topics, her teaching interests also include nanoscale microscopy, including scanning electron and atomic force microscopy.
Biography
Professor Garrison-Mogren holds a B.S. from Clarkson University and a M.S. from Syracuse University. He joined the department in spring 2006 semester. Prior to joining us Professor Garrison-Mogren was Professor and department chair at the Montgomery College Takoma Park/Silver Spring Campus where he taught chemistry, engineering, and physics courses.
He was an international service engineer for Westinghouse Power Service Company. His research work at Syracuse was in studying the kinetic properties of molecules in free molecular flow inside capillaries. He designed, organized, and built the graduate and undergraduate mechanical engineering laboratories at Johns Hopkins University. At the Maryland Science Center, he worked with the educational programs and advised on various technical questions in developing the programs.
He has since been a consultant engineer on the mechanical analysis of scaling down of chemical reactions in microplates, lifespan of flexing fiberglass plates, and mechanical properties of elastic membranes. He is currently working on design of residential energy systems (solar photo-voltaic systems, ground loop HVAC, energy efficient residential construction). Professor Mogren is also the faculty advisor for the Montgomery College chapter of Engineers Without Borders (EWB-USA).
Biography
Dr. He received her M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in mechanical engineering from the University of Maryland Baltimore County and a B.S. degree in applied mechanics from the National University of Defense Technology, China. She joined the department in the Fall 2005 semester. Dr. He worked in the aerospace industry for five years where her duties included mechanical design, thermal stress, and heat transfer analysis of rocket engines. Prior to joining Montgomery College, Dr. He was an assistant professor of mechanical engineering at Lake Superior State University, where she taught the complete range of general engineering courses and supervised senior research projects involving the development of an underwater robotic arm and associated control systems.
Dr. He’s research work includes the design of mechanical testing and numerical modeling on biomaterials and biomechanical design for the chromatography column, which had been collaborated with Holland Laboratories (of American Red Cross) in Rockville, Maryland. Dr. He is a member of the Society of Mechanical Engineers, the Society of Women Engineers, and the International Society on Oxygen Transport to Tissue.
Biography
Dr. Hou holds a B.S. from National TsingHwa University in Taiwan and a M.S. and Ph.D. from Ohio State University. Dr. Hou joined the department in fall 2002. Dr. Hou taught Mechanical Engineering for more than ten years at Howard University. He also has five years experience working in the aerospace industry and for the federal government as a computer systems engineer. He holds a Professional Engineer (PE) license in DC and has co-authored more than 20 research articles and served as chair of many professional conferences.
He is the Engineering Program Coordinator responsible for coordinating engineering events and activities. His primary teaching responsibilities cover almost all Engineering Science (ES) courses. He has served as the Robotics Club advisor since 2003, leading students to national competitions. From 2008 to 2013, Dr. Hou was the Principal Investigator (PI) of NSF S-STEM grant that provided more than a half million dollars in MC and transfer scholarships. In fall 2013, he was invited as a visiting honorary professor to teach and conduct research at China University of Science and Technology (CUST) in Taiwan.
Dr. Hou's research interests are in CAD/CAM, robotics, numerical mechanics, and engineering education.
Website: https://info.montgomerycollege.edu/faculty/chou/index.html
Biography
Dr. Kuijt graduated summa cum laude with a B.S. in computer science from the University of Maryland College Park, where he later earned a Ph.D. after completing a computer science dissertation on "An Object-Oriented Approach to Parallel Spatial Indexing of Vector-Format Polygons." After serving as an adjunct professor who taught courses in computer science and electrical engineering, Dr. Kuijt joined Montgomery College as a full-time associate professor at the start of the fall 2015 semester.
Prior to joining MC, Dr. Kuijt taught both undergraduate- and graduate-level computer and information systems courses at the American University. He has also taught in the College Park and University College divisions of the University of Maryland.
Dr. Kuijt was born in Vancouver, BC, Canada. He is director of the MC Grand Challenges Scholars Program and faculty mentor for the MC NASA Swarmathon competition team.
Biography
Dr. Cutler holds a B.A. in geology from Carleton College, a M.S. in geology from the University of Rochester, and a PhD, in geosciences from the University of Arizona. Over his career he has worked as a scientific researcher, exhibit developer, science writer at the Smithsonian Institution and taught geoscience courses at the University of Rochester, University of Chicago, National Louis University, and Northern Virginia Community College. Before joining the department in fall 2010, Dr. Cutler was a science writer and publications officer at the Carnegie Institution for Science.
Dr. Cutler’s book, the Seashell on the Mountaintop: A Story of Science, Sainthood, and the Humble Genius Who Discovered a New History of the Earth, was a Barnes & Noble Discover Great New Writers 2003 summer selection and won the National Association of Geoscience Teachers James H. Shea Award in 2008. His writings have appeared in Science magazine, the Washington Post, Geotimes, and numerous other publications.
Dr. Cutler’s primary research interests are in paleobiology, paleoecology, the history of geology, and the geology of Montgomery County. He also continues an active interest in science writing.
Biography
Dr. Cetina received her PhD degree in experimental nuclear physics from the George Washington University based on work performed at the Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility in Newport News, VA. She studied fission of heavy nuclei induced by photons in the few-GeV energy range.
Dr. Cetina won the National Research Council award for postdoctoral research at the Naval Research Laboratory and worked in applied physics at the lab's multipurpose 3-MV accelerator facility. She concentrated on accelerator mass spectrometry and specialized in high-precision isotope analysis, but also performed accelerator-based ion-beam implantations and Rutherford backscattering spectrometry.
Dr. Cetina started teaching physics to engineering students in her home country – Romania. She later returned to teaching at Northern Virginia Community College, where she was also co-advising the undergraduate research activity within the local chapter of the Society of Physics Students. She joined the physics faculty at Montgomery College, Rockville, in fall 2013 and is currently serving as STEM representative on the General Education Restructuring Committee.
Educational Background
Dr. Williams holds a B.A. in Physics from the University of Pennsylvania and an M.A. and a Ph.D. – both in physics – from American University. He has taught from high school through all college levels. Other institutions at which he has taught include T.C. Williams High School in Alexandria, VA; Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology; Northern Virginia Community College (Annandale); The American University; and, Trinity University.
The emphases of his master’s thesis and Ph.D. research dissertation were in acoustical physics, since music has always been a major key (B#) of his life.
Dr. Williams is a member of the Acoustical Society of America and continues his lifelong love affair with music by participating in various live music events, where he mainly plays bass (guitar) and sings (often in harmony). He is a longtime member of a local choir.
His current responsibilities at Montgomery College are teaching physics to enthusiasts and non-enthusiasts, alike.
Biography
Ms. Hosseini received her BS in Physics from Razi University in Iran and her MS in Condensed Matter Physics from Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. After receiving her MS, she continued her studies as a Physics PhD candidate and completed all PhD courses. During this time, she conducted research in areas such as growth of semiconductor, electrodeposition of thin films, surface hardening and microstructure development in complex alloys, and surface analysis using X-ray diffraction, optical and scanning electron microscopes. Ms. Hosseini started her teaching career in 2010. She continued teaching college level Physics and Math courses until June 2017 when she joined the Montgomery College Engineering, Physical, and Computer Sciences Department as the Physics Instructional Lab Coordinator.
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https://www.childrensmercy.org/childrens-mercy-research-institute/about/
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en
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About the Children’s Mercy Research Institute
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The Children’s Mercy Research Institute is creating an integrated research environment where no boundaries exist between science and medicine.
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en
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https://www.childrensmercy.org/childrens-mercy-research-institute/about/
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Research driven by the needs of children
Dedicated to research with a purpose, our priorities are driven by the specific needs of the children and families Children’s Mercy serves. This approach further strengthens the interconnectedness and impact of the hospital’s clinical and research programs, bringing science to the bedside to accelerate the pace of discovery and enhance care.
The CMRI’s world-class research enterprise includes a team of internationally recognized scientists and researchers whose sole focus is to serve the needs of children.
Led by Shawn St. Peter, Surgeon-in-Chief and interim Chief Scientific Officer, and Steven Leeder, interim Executive Director, The CMRI, Associate Chair-Research, Department of Pediatrics, a distinguished and highly experienced leadership team supports the CMRI’s mission and vision of improving the health and wellbeing of children through world-class translational research. The dedicated leadership team at the CMRI includes:
Mark Hoffman, PhD, Chief Research Information Officer
Steven Leeder, PharmD, PhD, Deputy Director, interim Executive Director
Jeanne James, MD, MBA, FAAP Chair of Pediatrics
Shawn St. Peter, MD, Surgeon-in-Chief and interim Chief Scientific Officer
Mary Tomlinson, Vice President of Research Administration
Learn more about our leadership team.
An unprecedented investment
The CMRI’s new building was kickstarted by two of Kansas City’s most iconic families who together generously donated $150 million to transform pediatric research. The donation from the Hall Family Foundation and the Sunderland Foundation represents the largest one-time gift ever made to a children’s hospital for pediatric research.
The gift not only transforms research at Children’s Mercy but the Kansas City skyline as well, with a dynamic window configuration featuring different colors that represent the genetic anomalies found in the DNA of children with specific rare diseases – just some of the difficult cases and questions the CMRI researchers are trying to solve.
Explore ways you can help support our work at the CMRI.
Setting a high bar for clinical research
Children and their families are the most valuable resource at the CMRI, and every interaction at a child’s bedside or in the clinic is an opportunity for our researchers and staff to learn. Discoveries made today that can change the course of a child’s health tomorrow are not possible without the children and families who volunteer in our clinical studies.
Protecting the health and wellbeing of these research volunteers, often called human subjects, is of utmost importance at the CMRI. Our human subjects research program has earned full accreditation by the Association for the Accreditation of Human Research Protection Programs, Inc. (AAHRPP), an independent, nonprofit organization. Children and their families are the most valuable resource at the CMRI, and every interaction at a child’s bedside or in the clinic is an opportunity for our researchers and staff to learn. Discoveries made today that can change the course of a child’s health tomorrow are not possible without the children and families who volunteer in our clinical studies.
As the “gold seal,” AAHRPP accreditation ensures children and their families who research volunteers in clinical studies that our program meets the highest standards for ethics, quality and protections.
Learn how to get involved in a clinical study at Children's Mercy.
Areas of Emphasis
Several dedicated Areas of Emphasis enhance the quest to find answers to pediatric medicine’s most challenging questions. These Areas of Emphasis – Genomic Medicine, Health Care Innovation, Population Health and Precision Therapeutics – provide a supportive framework for discovery through access to expertise and state-of-the-art resources for researchers and teams striving to translate scientific discoveries into medical advances. Read more about the CMRI’s Areas of Emphasis.
The CMRI also features the latest medical technologies, a robust applied informatics program, and state-of-the-art biorepository that further drive research and innovation.
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https://bioone.org/journals/mammal-study/volume-48/issue-4/ms2022-0034/Demographic-Parameters-of-Asian-Black-Bears-in-Central-Japan/10.3106/ms2022-0034.full
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en
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Demographic Parameters of Asian Black Bears in Central Japan
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[
"Kahoko Tochigi",
"Keita Fukasawa",
"Misako Kuroe",
"Tomoko Anezaki",
"Tomoko Naganuma",
"Chinatsu Kozakai",
"Akino Inagaki",
"Koji Yamazaki",
"Shinsuke Koike"
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Mammal Study publishes on all aspects of mammalogy, and is particularly interested in the study of the mammals of Asia.
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https://bioone.org/journals/mammal-study/volume-48/issue-4/ms2022-0034/Demographic-Parameters-of-Asian-Black-Bears-in-Central-Japan/10.3106/ms2022-0034.full
|
Estimation of reproductive parameters
We used PWI data of bears that were at least five years old to estimate age at first reproduction and reproductive interval. Although female bears are sexually mature and able to reproduce from four years old (Katayama et al. 1996; Yamanaka et al. 2011b), PWI for four-year-old females can be obtained from the annulus width only between the ages of three and four, because the annulus width from four to five years old is still in the process of formation (Tochigi et al. 2019). Therefore, we used the PWI of female bears ≥ five years old. Previous studies indicated that the PWI was significantly smaller in years when female bears gave birth successfully and raised cubs until at least August (Tochigi et al. 2018; Tochigi et al. 2019). We used the threshold reported by Tochigi et al. (2018); a PWI < 0.25 indicated that the bear probably had a cub or cubs until at least August (i.e., a “cub-year”). If two or more consecutive “cub-years” were detected, then female bears were possibly accompanied by cubs during all the consecutive cub-years. Consecutive litter production occurs largely when a female loses her cubs-of-the-year (Garrison et al. 2007) and then produces another litter in the subsequent year. Therefore, detection of consecutive cub-years likely indicates that the female lost her cubs-of-the-year before the end of the mating season (Medill et al. 2010). Furthermore, there was a low chance that females lost cubs-of-the-year before the end of the mating season during the final year of consecutive cub-years (Fig. 2). We defined a non-consecutive cub-year or the final year of consecutive cub-years as a reproduction year (Fig. 2). For example, in Fig. 2a, where the PWI indicated three consecutive cub-years from age five to age seven, we assumed that the bear lost the cubs that she gave birth to at ages five and six, making year seven her “first reproduction.”
We estimated the age at first reproduction by recording the minimum age during a cub-year for each female bear. We determined the reproductive interval by tallying the number of years between a cub-year and the next cub-year for each female bear. The 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the age at first reproduction and the reproductive interval were generated from bootstrapping (2000 resamplings) by using the simpleboot (Peng 2019) and boot packages (Canty and Ripley 2021) in R software v. 4.0.3 (R Core Team 2022).
To estimate litter size at birth, we tallied the placental scars for each female bear. This method is widely used (e.g., Helle and Kauhala 1995; Wooding and Bukata 1996), because the number of placental scars corresponds to the number of blastocysts that implant in the uterine wall (Tsubota et al. 1990) and is positively correlated with observed litter size (Strand et al. 1995). In addition, we defined the minimum age at which placental scars were detected as minimum age at primiparity. The 95% CI for the litter size was also generated from bootstrapping (2000 resamplings).
Estimation of mortality rates
To estimate the mortality rates of subadult and adult female bears (one to 21 years old), we used the mark–recapture–recovery (MRR) model based on the Cormack–Jolly–Seber process (Langrock and King 2013), which can estimate both natural and human-caused mortality separately. An individual bear has three possible fates in any given year: remaining alive, dying of natural causes, and being killed by humans. The process model of MRR was described by a multinomial distribution that determines the transition of an individual's fate. For simplicity, natural mortality and human-caused mortality were assumed to be additive; this is a good approximation for animals with low mortality rates such as ursids (Hebblewhite et al. 2003; Beston 2011; Bischof et al. 2018). To impose a sum-to-one constraint on the multinomial probabilities, we implemented the following vector of probabilities of survival rate, natural mortality rate, and human-caused mortality rate:
where pn and ph are parameters of the natural mortality rate and human-caused mortality rate, respectively. When pn and ph are small enough (say, pnph < 0.01), Φ ≈ (1 – pn – ph, pn, ph). The detection of an individual by trapping can be regarded as a Bernoulli trial in which the observation probability depends on the trapping effort in year t. A simple Poisson catchability model (Fukasawa et al. 2020) was assumed for the detection probability qt = 1 – exp(–cEt), where c is the detectability coefficient (i.e., detection probability per unit effort) and Et is the trapping effort in year t. Tags of individuals killed by humans were assumed to be recovered with certainty. We defined the structure of our MRR model as natural or human-caused mortality with a certain probability per unit time step; living individuals are captured with a probability corresponding to the trapping effort and then released alive, and individuals killed by humans are recovered with a probability of 1. As the dataset for model estimation, we constructed detection histories of each female bear in each year and used the histories as input data to fit models containing parameters for natural mortality, human-caused mortality, and detectability over the year. To ensure the identifiability of the model, we assumed that human-caused mortality was constant over the study period. We defined the trapping effort as a product of the total number of traps and number of nights. Because the maximum value of effort was more than 300 000, we divided the detectability by 1000 to avoid numerical overflow in the parameter estimation. The model fit was conducted by using a non-linear optimization function, nlm(), with a self-written log-likelihood function in R ( Supplementary Material S1 (ms2022-0034-supplS1.r)). The 95% CI was calculated by using profile likelihood methods.
We used a generalized linear model with binomial error and a logit link function to estimate cub mortality. Although we considered the possibility of variance across mothers, the sample size was too small to be used as a random effect. Therefore, we set the number of cubs that survived until at least August and the number of cubs first observed with a particular female (i.e., immediately after the mother had given birth) as the response variable, with only the intercept as the predictor term.
Reproductive parameters
The mean age at first reproduction (5.44 years old; range four to seven years) of our study population was in the range of previously reported ages of sexual maturity (Katayama et al. 1996; Nakamura et al. 2011; Yamanaka et al. 2011b). Additionally, more than half of the female bears had a successful first reproduction at age four or five years. This finding also indicates that several primiparous mothers that had given birth as soon as they reached sexual maturity were able to successfully raise cubs through the first summer.
Along with age at first reproduction, reproductive interval duration in Asian black bears was previously unknown. The reproductive interval observed here (2.38 years) indicates that female Asian black bears take two years or more before their next reproduction. In several American black bear (U. americanus) and brown bear (U. arctos) populations, offspring separate from their mother at one–two years of age (Rogers 1987; Steyaert et al. 2012). This might indicate that mothers are unable to raise cubs the year after separation, even if they separate from their yearlings (i.e., the cubs survive to the following year) and have the opportunity to mate with males during the mating season. Alternatively, mothers might not separate from their yearlings and might therefore continue to raise their two-year-old cubs (i.e., the yearlings survive to the following year). However, we did not observe female bears caring for two-year-old cubs at our long-term study site; we therefore infer that females may not be able to give birth to another litter immediately after separation. We expect that limiting factors such as low food availability may delay the next chance of successful reproduction (Costello et al. 2003). We think it possible that Asian black bears depend on pulsed resources—that is, resources whose availability changes in space and time with a low frequency, a large magnitude, and a short duration (Yang et al. 2008). Alternatively, since related female Asian black bears form matrilineal assemblages and have overlapping home ranges (Kozakai et al. 2017), the reproductive intervals of daughters may become longer if they stay close to their mothers even after natal dispersal (Støen et al. 2005; Ordiz et al. 2008). In addition, longer intervals may be a consequence of estimating reproductive interval duration for primiparous females only; the reproductive intervals of these females can be longer than those of multiparous females, as documented in brown bears (Zedrosser et al. 2009). We removed consecutive cub-years from our calculations because females would likely have lost their cubs during such years. Thus, our reproductive interval represents the time interval between two litters of cubs that have a high chance of surviving until at least August of their birth year. Therefore, our “reproductive interval” is most certainly longer than the interbirth interval (i.e., the time interval between the birth of a female's litter and the birth of her next litter; Stringham 1990), which is one of the key representations of the reproductive interval.
Although we did not perform a statistical analysis, the mean litter size in this study (1.58 ± 0.09), as determined by observation of placental scars, appears to have been smaller than that in previous studies (2.00 ± 0.00 in Katayama et al. 1996; 1.8 in Nakamura et al. 2011; and 1.88 ± 0.12 in Yamanaka et al. 2011b). This may be explained by the average age of bears or the duration of the sampling period in our study. Our sample contained younger females (6.45 ± 0.57 years for individuals with placental scars) and covered a longer period (11 years) than in previous studies (female age 10.6 ± 1.22 years and study period over three years in Katayama et al. [1996]; about 10.8 ± 0.63 years and over one year in Nakamura et al. [2011]; and 10.6 ± 0.50 years and over nine years in Yamanaka et al. [2011b]). It is possible that younger females have smaller litter sizes because of a lack of reproductive experience (Zedrosser et al. 2009). In addition, good environmental conditions, such as high food availability, could lead to larger litter sizes (Czetwertynski et al. 2007; Johnson et al. 2020). If the samples had been collected over a short period of time, then the litter size might have been either under- or overestimated, because it is difficult to account for changes in food availability over time. However, our sample spanned 11 years, enabling us to determine the litter size over many years, during which time food availability fluctuated. Additionally, had we checked both the placental scars and the corpus albicans, we could have determined whether the cubs had been born during the current or the previous year (Yamanaka et al. 2011b). However, given the difficulty of sectioning and staining our samples for microscopic examination, uncertainty exists regarding whether the estimated litter was born during the year in which the female was captured or the year before.
Moreover, the mean litter size based on the number of placental scars (1.58) was lower than the mean litter size observed in the core distribution area (number of cubs first observed = 1.80; number of cubs surviving after the mating season = 1.70). In general, the number of cubs observed would be smaller than the number of placental scars because of partial litter loss (Katayama et al. 1996; Yamanaka et al. 2011b), but our litter size estimates showed an opposite relationship. Our litter size estimates based on placental scars may have been biased because our sample contained younger females, or because our estimation was based on individuals culled at the periphery of the distribution, or both.
We confirmed that placental scars could be formed in relatively young bears (two years old), which is younger than the previously reported age of sexual maturity (four years old; Katayama et al. 1996). The inference that bears may give birth at two years old does not contradict the results from previous studies suggesting that ovulation may occur in females one–three years old (Katayama et al. 1996) or at least two years of age (Yamanaka et al. 2011b). The maximum observed age of females with placental scars was 20 years. Because placental scars persist for one or two years after giving birth (Tsubota et al. 1990), it is likely that the maximum reproductive age was 19. The possibility that bears 19 or 20 years old might still be of reproductive age is concordant with previous reports or observations of 16–18-year-old mothers with cubs (Katayama et al. 1996; Yamanaka et al. 2011b). Nakamura et al. (2009) also documented ovulation in a 22-year-old female. Our results and those of these previous studies suggest that Asian black bears produce cubs until their 20s.
In general, reproductive parameters (age at first reproduction, reproductive interval, litter size, and minimum age at primiparity) are affected by external factors such as habitat condition, population density, and magnitude of conflict with humans (e.g., Bischof et al. 2018; van de Walle et al. 2018). In addition, internal factors such as nutritional condition and the length of maternal care would affect reproductive parameters (van de Walle et al. 2018). Therefore, the reproductive parameters of the Echigo–Mikuni population may differ from those of other populations of Asian black bears, because females in other populations may live in habitats with different nutritional conditions or exhibit a different age structure from that of the Echigo–Mikuni population. Additionally, we should be cautious about interpreting the reproductive parameters from our study, because our data included those on nuisance bears. Nevertheless, Asian black bears culled as nuisances in mast failure condition of hard mast in Japan do not differ substantially from nuisance bears in better masting condition with regard to stored body fat, indicating that poor nutritional condition is not directly related to nuisance behavior (Yamanaka et al. 2011a). Given that nutritional condition, which could affect reproductive parameters, possibly does not significantly differ between culled bears and free-ranging bears, the reproductive parameters observed here may be similar to those of free-ranging Asian black bears.
Mortality parameters
Human-caused mortality, such as from sport hunting and culling, was relatively low (0.005, 95% CI: 0.002–0.021) compared with natural mortality (0.101, 95% CI: 0.059–0.167). The Ashio–Nikko Mountains are located in an area where nuisance killing and sport hunting are conducted (Tochigi Prefecture 2021; Gunma Prefecture 2022). In both prefectures, most bears were killed during control operations (more than 50%; Tochigi Prefecture 2021; Gunma Prefecture 2022). Our recovery records, which are all for nuisance kills, reflect this situation (Fig. 6). However, human access is controlled in most of our study area. Thus, culling pressure and human–bear conflicts are lower in our study area than in other areas inhabited by the Echigo–Mikuni population. If future population size estimates or population trend estimates are conducted by using our data for human-caused mortality, it may lead to overestimation of population size. Therefore, estimating specific human-caused mortality before population analysis is critical.
Mortality and survival rates vary by season, year, age class, reproductive status, and other factors in brown bears, American black bears, and polar bears (U. maritimus) (Hebblewhite et al. 2003; Regehr et al. 2010; Krofel et al. 2012; Bischof et al. 2018). Here, we estimated the average natural mortality across a 19-year period for individuals ranging in age from one to 21 years, thereby smoothing variation in age structure and over time. The mortality rates for each age group and season must be confirmed in order to estimate how each parameter contributes to population dynamics. However, for ursids, adult survival rate is an essential parameter affecting population growth and fluctuation (Hebblewhite et al. 2003; Mitchell et al. 2009). Considering the absence of reports on the mortality rate of Asian black bears, our finding is important and constitutes fundamental biological data.
In Japan, the number of Asian black bears that are culled fluctuates among seasons and years (Echigo–Mikuni population: Tochigi Prefecture 2020; Gunma Prefecture 2022; Nagano Prefecture 2022; Japan: Oka 2006; Ministry of the Environment 2022). Although there may be seasonal and annual variations in human-caused mortality in our study area, we were unable to account for fluctuations, because our sample size was small and there was no annual change in culling pressure. In the future, we should conduct an analysis using more samples across a wider area to take temporal fluctuations into account and estimate general human-caused mortality. This would help us understand the bear-culling situation in Japan and the impact of culling on bear population dynamics.
Cub mortality (0.235) during the first half year after birth was higher than natural mortality (0.108) and human-caused mortality (0.005) in subadult and adult female bears. We expect that sexually selected infanticide (the killing of dependent offspring by adult males to generate mating opportunities) (Steyaert et al. 2014) may have an impact on cub survival rates in our study system. Factors affecting cub mortality remain unclear for Asian black bear so far, but a previous study showed evidence for male infanticide during the mating season in our study area (Yamazaki 2017) and in another population in Japan (Naganuma et al. 2021). We suggest that more observations and field verifications are needed to clarify the main causes of cub mortality and the occurrence of sexually selected infanticide in our study system. Cub mortality also varies with mother-related factors: age, nutritional condition, and the length of maternal care, as is for example the case in brown bears (Zedrosser et al. 2009; van de Walle et al. 2018). This finding indicates that reproductive experience may also affect cub mortality, and it may also apply to Asian black bears. We need more samples to evaluate the factors that impact cub mortality and to reduce uncertainty in future studies.
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https://news.northeastern.edu/2018/04/10/northeastern-army-research-lab-partner-to-develop-technologies-to-keep-warfighters-safe-effective/
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Northeastern, Army Research Lab partner to develop technologies to keep warfighters safe, effective
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The Army Research Laboratory selected Northeastern University as its innovation hub for the Northeast region. The George J. Kostas Research Institute for Homeland Security will be home to Army staff and Northeastern researchers who will work side by side to develop technologies to keep the nation’s warfighters safer and more effective on the battlefield.
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Northeastern Global News
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https://news.northeastern.edu/2018/04/10/northeastern-army-research-lab-partner-to-develop-technologies-to-keep-warfighters-safe-effective/
|
The Army Research Laboratory has located its Northeast regional hub at Northeastern University’s George J. Kostas Research Institute for Homeland Security, it was announced Monday morning. The partnership will place Army Research Lab staff with university researchers and other regional partners to work on innovative technologies aimed at keeping the nation’s warfighters safe on the battlefield. The move is part of ARL’s extended campus program where the co-located teams are able to bring multiple perspectives into developing homeland security and defense technologies and bring them out of the labs and onto the battlefields at an accelerated speed.
Northeastern was selected as the host for ARL Northeast due to the university’s expertise in defense and homeland security research, including cybersecurity and materials research, as well as its commitment to defense and homeland security research and strong track record of establishing unique and innovative partnerships with industry leaders and other academic institutions.
ARL Northeast will leverage expertise and facilities throughout the Northeast region to accelerate research and innovation. Specific to Northeastern, the partnership is expected to build upon the university’s existing work in areas such as tactical shelters and drones.
Northeastern and the Army Research Lab leaders were joined by elected officials and representatives from higher education, industry, and the military for the announcement, which was held at Northeastern’s Innovation Campus in Burlington, Massachusetts.
“We have an enormous responsibility,” said Joseph E. Aoun, president of Northeastern University. “This responsibility is to be a convener, to bring the best and brightest from the universities, from Hanscom [Air Force Base], from [the U.S. Army Natick Soldier Systems Center], and from industry to work together to make this nation evermore secure and to make this nation No. 1 in the world when it comes to security. We can do it together.”
Melissa Flagg will serve as the leader of ARL Northeast. Through this partnership, ARL staff will be located on-site at the Kostas Research Institute in order to tap into defense-related research and innovation taking place at Northeastern, in Massachusetts, and across the Northeast.
Massachusetts Gov. Charlie Baker noted that a year ago he visited Northeastern’s Burlington campus to announce a $3 million state grant to lead a university-industry partnership focused on developing smart sensors and nanomaterials to be used for a range of medical, defense, and energy applications. He said he was pleased that ARL is recognizing the Kostas Research Institute as the ideal location to advance its own work.
“Congratulations to all of you for the big signal this sends by having the ARL decide to put its Northeast location here in the commonwealth,” Baker said.
The U.S. Army Research Laboratory is part of the U.S. Army Research, Development and Engineering Command. ARL Northeast is the fourth and final extended campus location announcement, following the establishment of campuses at the University of Texas (ARL South), the University of Southern California (ARL West), and the University of Chicago (ARL Central).
“I see the basic research being done now at ARL and its partners as the foundation of the capabilities for the future force that we will need,” said Maj. Gen. Cedric T. Wins, commanding general of the U.S. Army Research, Development and Engineering Command. He noted the importance of keeping technology in the pipeline, and said he looks forward to developing lasting relationships from this partnership to strengthen both the Army and the nation.
The Massachusetts congressional delegation in attendance—U.S. Sens. Elizabeth Warren and Edward Markey, and U.S. Rep. Seth Moulton—emphasized the importance of public-private collaborations such as ARL Northeast and underscored the need to keep pace globally on innovation and research to ensure national security.
Warren said that as a member of the Senate Armed Services Committee, she sees everyday “the importance at the intersection between our defense work and our research work, and how this is what protects America’s future.”
Markey hailed Northeastern’s focus on applied research “and making it work in the real world,” adding that housing ARL Northeast at Northeastern will “be paying big dividends for the Army and for the security of our country for generations to come.”
Moulton, a Marine Corps veteran who represents the Massachusetts 6th Congressional District that includes Burlington, noted his excitement that Massachusetts is bringing together the best in academia, leadership, and public-private partnerships “to ensure the survival of success and liberty here at home and around the globe.”
Northeastern’s Kostas Research Institute was designed in accordance with Department of Defense standards and gives Northeastern the capability and clearances to conduct restricted-area research in arenas critical to national security—including materials, additive and nano manufacturing, cybersecurity, autonomous systems, electromagnetics, cryptography, data security, explosives detection, and energy storage and harvesting.
Located on a former U.S. Army Nike missile base site, the Kostas Research Institute was funded by a $12 million investment from alumnus George J. Kostas, E’43, H’07. In his remarks, Aoun highlighted that industry-academic partnerships were an integral part of Kostas’ vision for the institute. The institute, which officially opened in 2011, would go beyond advancing security science and research—it would also enable industry-academic partnerships.
David Luzzi, vice president for the Northeastern University Innovation Campus and vice provost for research innovation and development, said the Kostas Research Institute is committed to results-driven partnerships with government, industry, and other universities aimed at solving the grand challenges in defense and homeland security. He said Rogers Corporation was the institute’s original corporate partner, and that 17 companies are now active at the Burlington campus.
“Today’s most forward-looking government laboratories, corporations, and research universities recognize that going alone doesn’t get the job done anymore,” Luzzi said. “It is partnerships that are critical, and if you’re going to move things from technology in the research lab to application, these partnerships become essential.”
Northeastern’s commitment to the military is underscored not only by its myriad research projects and partnerships, but also by the support it gives to the ROTC program, service members, and veterans. The university’s Veterans Memorial is located in the heart of campus on Neal F. Finnegan Plaza. In the past few years alone, Northeastern has launched the Dolce Center for the Advancement of Veterans and Servicemembers; opened a Veterans of Foreign Wars post—the first to be opened in Massachusetts since 2009 and only the second in the nation to be led by student veterans on a college campus; and secured a cooperative agreement with the U.S. Army Research Laboratory to conduct critical defense research, specifically in designing and developing advanced engineered materials.
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https://www.cbd.int/ebsa/about
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Contact
CBD Secretariat
413, Saint Jacques Street, suite 800
Montreal QC
H2Y 1N9 Canada
[email protected] »
www.cbd.int »
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https://www.cato.org/cato-university/home-study-course/module9
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https://www.resonac.com/corporate/network
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/themes/resonac/favicon.ico
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Resonac
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https://www.resonac.com/corporate/network
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Detrick
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Fort Detrick
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Military base and biological laboratory in US
Fort Detrick ( ) is a United States Army Futures Command installation located in Frederick, Maryland. Fort Detrick was the center of the U.S. biological weapons program from 1943 to 1969. Since the discontinuation of that program, it has hosted most elements of the United States biological defense program.[1]
As of the early 2010s, Fort Detrick's 1,200-acre (490 ha) campus supports a multi-governmental community that conducts biomedical research and development, medical materiel management, global medical communications and the study of foreign plant pathogens. The lab is known to research pathogens such as Ebola and smallpox.[2]
Fort Detrick US Army facility is home to the U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command (USAMRDC), with its bio-defense agency, the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID). It also hosts the National Cancer Institute (NCI) Frederick Campus, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research[3] and is home to the National Interagency Confederation for Biological Research (NICBR),[4] National Interagency Biodefense Campus (NIBC), National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center and the National Center for Medical Intelligence (NCMI).
In August 2019, its deadly germ research operations were shut down following serious safety violations, in particular relating to the disposal of dangerous materials.[5][6]
Fort Detrick is the largest employer in Frederick County, Maryland.
History
[edit]
Five farms originally constituted what is today known as "Area A" with 800 acres (320 ha), or the main post area of Fort Detrick, where most installation activities are located. "Area B" – known as "The Farm" and consisting of nearly 400 acres (160 ha) – was purchased in 1946 to provide a test area west of Rosemont Avenue, then called Yellow Springs Pike. In addition, the post's water and waste water treatment plants comprise about 16 acres (6.5 ha) on the banks of the Monocacy River.
Detrick Field (1931–43)
[edit]
Fort Detrick traces its roots to a small municipal airport established at Frederick, Maryland, in 1929. It was operated by a single person and the field was one of a string of emergency airfields between Cleveland, Ohio, and Washington, D.C., until 1938. The field was named in honor of squadron flight surgeon Major Frederick L. Detrick who served in France during World War I and died in June 1931 of a heart attack. The first military presence there was the encampment, on 10 August 1931 (two months after the Major's death), of his unit: the 104th Observation Squadron of the 29th Division, Maryland National Guard. The Squadron flew de Havilland observation biplanes and Curtiss JN-4 "Jennies".[7]
A concrete and tarmac airfield replaced the grass field in 1939, and an upgraded Detrick Field served as a Cadet Pilot Training Center until the country's entry into World War II. Detrick Field was formally leased from the City of Frederick in 1940 (having previously been leased from the state for just two weeks per year). The last airplanes departed Detrick Field in December 1941 and January 1942 after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. All aircraft and pilots in the 104th and the cadet program were reassigned after the Declaration of War to conduct antisubmarine patrols off the Atlantic Coast. The 2nd Bombardment Squadron, U.S. Army Air Corps was reconstituted at Detrick Field between March and September 1942, when it deployed to England to become the nucleus of the new Eighth Air Force headquarters. Thereafter, the base ceased to be an aviation center. The airfields buildings, runway and tarmac have all disappeared which ran along today's Hamilton Street from Beasley Drive to about Neiman Street.[8]
Camp Detrick (1943–56)
[edit]
On 9 March 1943, the government purchased 154 acres (62 ha) encompassing the original 92 acres (37 ha) and re-christened the facility "Camp Detrick".[9] The same year saw the establishment of the U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories (USBWL), responsible for pioneering research into biocontainment, decontamination, gaseous sterilization, and agent purification. The first commander, Lt. Col. William S. Bacon, and his successor, Col. Martin B. Chittick, oversaw the initial $1.25 million renovation and construction of the base.[10]
World War II and BW research (1943–45)
[edit]
During World War II, Camp Detrick and the USBWL became the site of intensive biological warfare (BW) research using various pathogens. This research was originally overseen by pharmaceuticals executive George W. Merck and for many years was conducted by Ira L. Baldwin, professor of bacteriology at the University of Wisconsin. Baldwin became the first scientific director of the labs. He chose Detrick Field for the site of this exhaustive research effort because of its balance between remoteness of location and proximity to Washington, D.C. – as well as to Edgewood Arsenal, the focal point of U.S. chemical warfare research. Buildings and other facilities left from the old airfield – including the large hangar – provided the nucleus of support needed for the startup. The 92 acres (37 ha) of Detrick Field were also surrounded by extensive farmlands that could be procured if and when the BW effort was expanded.[11]
The Army's Chemical Warfare Service was given responsibility and oversight for the effort that one officer described as "cloaked in the deepest wartime secrecy, matched only by … the Manhattan Project for developing the Atomic Bomb".[12] Three months after the start of construction, an additional $3 million was provided for five additional laboratories and a pilot plant. Lt. Col. Bacon was authorized 85 officers, 373 enlisted personnel, and 80 enlisted Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) members under two WAAC officers. At its peak strength in 1945, Camp Detrick had 240 officers and 1,530 enlisted personnel including WACs.[13]
After the defeat of Japan, the researchers working at Unit 731 were given immunity from prosecution. In return, director Shirō Ishii provided "8,000 slides of tissue from human and animal dissections" from the experiments, which were reportedly stored at Fort Detrick.[14]
Post-war years (1946–55)
[edit]
The elaborate security precautions taken at Camp Detrick were so effective that it was not until January 1946, four months after VJ Day that the public learned of the war-time research in biological weapons.[15]
In 1952, the Army purchased over 500 acres (200 ha) more of land located between West 7th Street and Oppossumtown Pike to expand the permanent research and development facilities.
Two workers at the base died from exposure to anthrax in the 1950s. Another died in 1964 from viral encephalitis.[16]
There was a building on the base, Building 470, locally referred to as "Anthrax Tower". Building 470 was a pilot plant for testing optimal fermentor and bacterial purification technologies. The information gained in this pilot plant shaped the fermentor technology that was ultimately used by the pharmaceutical industry to revolutionize the production of antibiotics and other drugs. Building 470 was torn down in 2003 without any adverse effects on the demolition workers or the environment. The facility acquired the nickname "Fort Doom" while offensive biological warfare research was undertaken there. 5,000 bombs containing anthrax spores were produced at the base during World War II.[16]
From 1945 to 1955 under Project Paperclip and its successors, the U.S. government recruited over 1,600 German and Austrian scientists and engineers in a variety of fields such as aircraft design, missile technology and biological warfare. Among the specialists in the latter field who ended up working in the U.S. were Walter Schreiber, Erich Traub and Kurt Blome, who had been involved with medical experiments on concentration camp inmates to test biological warfare agents. Since Britain, France and the Soviet Union were also engaged in recruiting these scientists, the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency (JIOA) wished to deny their services to other powers, and therefore altered or concealed the records of their Nazi past and involvement in war crimes.[17]
Testing performed on Seventh-day Adventists (1940–1974)
[edit]
The U.S. General Accounting Office issued a report on September 28, 1994, which stated that between 1940 and 1974, DOD and other national security agencies studied hundreds of thousands of human subjects in tests and experiments involving hazardous substances.
The quote from the study:
Many experiments that tested various biological agents on human subjects, referred to as Operation Whitecoat, were carried out at Fort Detrick, Maryland, in the 1950s. The human subjects originally consisted of volunteer enlisted men. However, after the enlisted men staged a sitdown strike to obtain more information about the dangers of the biological tests, Seventh-day Adventists (SDAs) who were conscientious objectors were recruited for the studies.[18]
The Army purchased an additional 147 acres (59 ha) in 1946 to increase the size of the original "Area A" as well as 398 acres (161 ha) located west of Area A, but not contiguous to it, to provide a test area known as Area B.[19] In 1952, another 502.76 acres (203.5 ha) were purchased between West 7th Street and Oppossumtown Pike to expand the permanent research and development facilities.[20]
Jeffrey Alan Lockwood wrote in 2009 that the biological warfare program at Ft. Detrick began to research the use of insects as disease vectors going back to World War II and also employed German and Japanese scientists after the war who had experimented on human subjects among POWs and concentration camp inmates. Scientists used or attempted to use a wide variety of insects in their biowar plans, including fleas, ticks, ants, lice and mosquitoes – especially mosquitoes that carried the yellow fever virus. They also tested these in the United States. Lockwood thinks that it is very likely that the U.S. did use insects dropped from aircraft during the Korean War to spread diseases, and that the Chinese and North Koreans were not simply engaged in a propaganda campaign when they made these allegations, since the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Secretary of Defense had approved their use in the fall of 1950 at the "earliest practicable time". At that time, it had five biowarfare agents ready for use, three of which were spread by insect vectors.[21]
Fort Detrick (1956–present)
[edit]
Cold War years (1956–89)
[edit]
Camp Detrick was designated a permanent installation for peacetime biological research and development shortly after World War II, but that status was not confirmed until 1956, when the post became Fort Detrick. Its mandate was to continue its previous mission of biomedical research and its role as the world's leading research campus for biological agents requiring specialty containment.
The most recent land acquisition for the fort was a parcel of less than 3 acres (1.2 ha) along the Rosemont Avenue fence in 1962, completing the present 1,200 acres (490 ha).
On Veterans Day, November 11, 1969, President Richard M. Nixon asked the Senate to ratify the 1925 Geneva Protocol prohibiting the use of chemical and biological weapons. Nixon assured Fort Detrick its research would continue. On November 25, 1969, Nixon made a statement outlawing offensive biological research in the United States. Since that time any research done at Fort Detrick has been purely defensive in nature,[22] focusing on diagnostics, preventives and treatments for BW infections. This research is undertaken by the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) which transitioned from the previous U.S. Army Medical Unit (USAMU) and was renamed in 1969.
As he ended the offensive biological research done at Fort Detrick, Nixon pledged to make former laboratories and land available by the disestablishment of the offensive biological warfare program transferred to the U.S Department of Health and Human Services during the 1970s and later. The Frederick National Cancer Research and Development Center (now the Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research) was established in 1971 on a 69-acre (28 ha) parcel in Area A ceded by the installation.[22]
In 1989 base researchers identified the Ebola virus in a monkey imported to the area from the Philippines.[16]
Post-Cold War (1990–present)
[edit]
In 1990, Hazelton Research Products' Reston Quarantine Unit in Reston, Virginia suffered a mysterious outbreak of fatal illness among a shipment of crab-eating macaque monkeys imported from the Philippines. The company's veterinary pathologist sent tissue samples from dead animals to the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) at Fort Detrick, where a laboratory test known as an ELISA assay showed antibodies to Ebola virus. Thereafter, a team from USAMRIID euthanized the surviving monkeys, bringing the carcasses to Ft. Detrick for study by the veterinary pathologists and virologists, and eventual disposal under safe conditions. The Philippines and the United States had no previous cases of Ebola infection, and upon further study researchers concluded it was another strain of Ebola, or a new filovirus of Asian origin, which they named Reston ebolavirus (REBOV) after the location of the incident.[23]
In 2009, author H. P. Albarelli published the book A Terrible Mistake: The Murder of Frank Olson and the CIA's Secret Cold War Experiments about Frank Olson's death and the experiments conducted at Fort Detrick. The book is based on documents released under FOIA and numerous other documents and interviews to the police and investigators.[24][25]
In the 1980s and 1990s, KGB disinformation agent Jakob Segal claimed that Fort Detrick was the site where the United States government "invented" HIV.[26]
USAMRIID had been the principal consultant to the FBI on scientific aspects of the 2001 Anthrax Attacks, which had infected 22 people and killed five.[27] While assisting with the science from the beginning, it also soon became the focus of the FBI's investigation of possible perpetrators (see Steven Hatfill). In July 2008, a top U.S. biodefense researcher at USAMRIID committed suicide just as the FBI was about to lay charges relating to the incidents. The scientist, Bruce Edwards Ivins, who had worked for 18 years at USAMRIID, had been told about the impending prosecution. The FBI's identification of Ivins in August 2008 as the Anthrax Attack perpetrator remains controversial and several independent government investigations which will address his culpability are ongoing. Although the anthrax preparations used in the attacks were of different grades, all of the material derived from the same bacterial strain. Known as the Ames strain, it was first researched at USAMRIID. The Ames strain was subsequently distributed to at least fifteen bio-research labs within the U.S. and six locations overseas.
In June 2008 the Environmental Protection Agency said it planned to add the base to the Superfund list of the most polluted places in the country.[16] On 9 April 2009, "Fort Detrick Area B Ground Water" was added to the list which currently includes 18 other sites within Maryland.
The Forest Glen Annex of the Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Silver Spring, Maryland was transferred to the command of Fort Detrick in 2008 as a result of the Base Realignment and Closure process.[28]
As of 2008 about 7,900 people worked at Fort Detrick. The base has been the largest employer in Frederick County and contributed more than $500 million into the local economy annually.[29]
In 2020, a conspiracy theory regarding COVID-19 arose that alleged that the SARS-CoV-2 virus was developed by the United States Army at Fort Detrick.[30] This allegation has been promoted by Chinese government officials, most notably Ministry of Foreign Affairs spokesman Zhao Lijian, who has called for an inspection of the facility, although the allegation remains baseless.[31] A petition organized by the Chinese Communist Party-owned tabloid Global Times urging the WHO to investigate Fort Detrick for COVID origins reportedly amassed 25 million signatures.[32]
Environmental contamination
[edit]
Fort Detrick Area B is a 399-acre proving ground and was a disposal area for chemical, biological, and radiological material until 1970. In 2009, it was listed as a superfund site on the National Priorities List with four so-called "source areas": chemical waste disposal pits, a landfill, the Area B-Grid and the Area B-20 South burn area. There are 30 additional possible areas. Groundwater has been known to be contaminated with volatile organic compounds trichloroethylene (TCE) since 1992, as well as tetrachloroethene, both onsite and offsite.[33] Eight 55-gallon drums of TCE buried in Area B in 1968 are believed to be one source of the contamination.[34] Groundwater plume modeling is difficult due to underlying karst formations. No "Records of Decision" about how each site will be remediated have been signed by EPA and Army.[33]
In 2012, the United States National Research Council published a report after reviewing two investigations of potential health hazards at Fort Detrick: a 2009 public health assessment conducted by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry and a cancer investigation in Frederick County by the Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene and the Frederick County Health Department.[35] The report found neither study could show whether people were harmed by contaminated groundwater from Area B. It is unlikely that additional studies could establish a link, because no data on early exposures were collected and data cannot be obtained or reliably estimated now.[35]
In May 2014, a developer who had bought 92 acres near the Center for Biological Research sued the U.S. Army for negligence in its chemical disposal practices, which led to levels of TCE of up to 42 times the federal maximum contaminant level.[34] A U.S. attorney representing Fort Detrick argued in July 2014 that nonexistent EPA regulation at the time is an exception to the Federal Tort Claims Act and "protects the Army's waste disposal practices".[36] The $37 million lawsuit was dismissed in January 2015.[37]
After the Army denied claims of health problems in 106 Frederick families and individuals in February 2015, the residents filed a class action lawsuit, seeking $750 million for wrongful death and pain and suffering in August 2015.[37]
The installation's Restoration Advisory Board has released a report on some of the findings in relation to the spillage of waste. The public Fort Detrick website provided a copy of the archive from the meeting of an environmental committee.[38]
2019 closure and resumption of operations
[edit]
During an inspection by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of the United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) BSL-3 and BSL-4 laboratories at Ft Detrick in June 2019, six violations including two breaches of containment were identified. The inspection was followed up by a letter of concern from the CDC on July 12, 2019 and then a cease and desist order on July 15, 2019.[39]
Following the cease and desist order from the CDC the USAMRIID laboratories at the base were shut down in August 2019. The announcement to resume operations on a "limited scale" was made on November 25, 2019.
The CDC cited “national security reasons” as the reason for not informing the public about its decision.[5] The two breaches reported to the CDC by USAMRIID staff demonstrated failures of biosafety level 3 and 4 protocols in the Army laboratory to "implement and maintain containment procedures sufficient to contain select agents or toxins".[39]
After approximately eight months of closure and restrictions, the USAMRIID BSL-4 lab had been authorized to resume full operational status by April 2020, to the applause of Maryland lawmakers including Senator Ben Cardin, who stated "it is a relief to have USAMRIID fully operational with the current COVID-19 outbreak"'.[40][41]
Tenant units and organizations
[edit]
Each branch of the U.S. military is represented among Fort Detrick's 7,800 military, federal and contractor employees. Four cabinet-level agencies are represented by activities on the garrison: The U.S. Department of Homeland Security, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and the U.S. Department of Defense. The offices and laboratories include the Agriculture Department's Foreign Disease and Weed Science Research Institute, the National Cancer Institute, the Naval Medical Logistics Command and the Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center. Currently under construction is a biotechnology campus that will house civilian and military research centers including units of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), as well as USAMRIID.[29]
The following units and organizations (military and otherwise) are located on the Fort Detrick installation:
U.S. Department of Defense
U.S. Army Medical Research and Development Command (USAMRDC)
U.S. Army Medical Materiel Agency (USAMMA)
U.S. Army Medical Materiel Development Activity (USAMMDA)
U.S. Army Medical Research Acquisition Activity (USAMRAA)
U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID)[42]
Telemedicine and Advanced Technology Research Center (TATRC Archived 2022-03-08 at the Wayback Machine)
U.S. Army Center for Environmental Health Research (USACEHR; currently part of USAMRICD)
114th Signal Battalion
21st Signal Brigade
302nd Signal Battalion
6th Medical Logistics Management Center (6MLMC)
Company A, 53rd Signal Battalion (SATCON)
Air Force Medical Logistics Office (AFMLO)
Air Force Medical Support Agency, Global Medical Support Training and Exercises (AFMSA/SGPX)
National Center for Medical Intelligence (NCMI), formerly the Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (AFMIC)
Chemical Biological Medical Systems (CBMS), Joint Project Management Office
Company B, 4th Light Armored Reconnaissance Battalion, 4th Marine Division Marine Forces Reserve
Defense Contract Management Agency, DCMA Baltimore
Detachment 1, 301st Signal Company (Cable & Wire)
Joint Medical Logistics Functional Development Center (JMLFDC)
Joint Readiness Clinical Advisory Board (JRCAB)
Medical Communications for Combat Casualty Care (MC4)
Naval Medical Logistics Command (NMLC)
Technology Applications Office (TAO)
U.S. Army Information Systems Engineering Command, Fort Detrick Engineering Directorate
In addition, Fort Detrick is the support facility for the Raven Rock Mountain Complex.[43]
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
The National Cancer Institute campus at Frederick (NCI Frederick)[3]
Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Foreign Disease Weed Science Research Unit
U.S. Department of Homeland Security
National Bioforensic Analysis Center (NBFAC)
National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC)
On post historic sites
[edit]
Fort Detrick has three sites (and four structures) on the National Register of Historic Places:
The Nallin Farm House (circa 1835)
The Nallin Farm Springhouse and Bank Barn (pre-1798)
The One Million Liter Sphere, the "Eight Ball" (1947–48)
In addition, the following sites on the installation are of historic interest:
A rocky knoll overlooking Frederick, and located near the Old Farm Gate (northwest gate) of Fort Detrick, was the site of historic structures. The Novitiate Academy of Frederick built an impressive estate, Saint Joseph's Villa, on the hill in 1895. This was located there because of Restoration Spring just to the north at the base of the hill. The Academy moved to New York in 1903 and the Villa was subsequently demolished. Dr. Rudolph Rau, a Frederick surgeon, bought the land in 1911 and constructed an imposing white mansion with colossal columns, a third-floor ballroom and carriage house. This estate, "Wide Pastures", also included an extensive Italianate woodland and terraced garden. This property was sold in 1929 to Robert Bright who used it as a summerhouse until 1943. Three years later, the U.S. government bought it and it was used as the Fort Detrick post commander's residence until it too was demolished in 1977. Today, only retaining walls and some flagstone paths remain, but photos of both the Novitiate Academy building and Dr. Rau's mansion can be seen as part of interpretive signage at the site.
Building 470, a pilot plant known as "Anthrax Tower" (1953; demolished in 2003)
See also
[edit]
Deseret Test Center
Fort Terry
Human experimentation in the United States
MKNAOMI
Operation Paperclip
Plum Island Animal Disease Center
Porton Down
Kurt Blome
William C. Patrick III, veteran bioweaponeer
Erich Traub
Allegations of biological warfare in the Korean War
STARCOM (communications system), the East Coast Relay station at Fort Detrick
References
[edit]
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dbpedia
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https://www.mbl.edu/
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Biological Discovery in Woods Hole
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The Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) is an international center for research and education in biological and environmental science located in Woods Hole, MA.
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en
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/themes/_custom/sd/favicon.ico
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https://www.mbl.edu/
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Visit for the day
We welcome you to visit us and experience the Marine Biological Laboratory for yourself!
Stay for the season
The MBL convenes biologists from around the world to collaborate and conduct research, advancing our mission of biological discovery.
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https://www.meijijingu.or.jp/en/map/
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Precinct map｜Meiji Jingu
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Precinct map｜Meiji Jingu Official Website|Meiji Jingu is one of the Shinto shrines in Japan, with the vast land of the forest (70 ha.), located in the middle of the megacity, Tokyo.
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Torii Gate1
A torii, which is a gate that consists of two pillars topped with a double lintel and a tie beam, marks the entrance to a shrine, separating the sacred world from the secular. This torii is in the myojin style, which is differentiated by a curved upper lintel and a long tie beam.
There are three sixteen-petal chrysanthemum-shaped crests decorating the upper lintel. The chrysanthemum crest is the crest of the Imperial Family and indicates the connection between the Imperial Family and Meiji Jingu. The crest has been incorporated throughout the shrine grounds, for example in the design of the lanterns.
This is the first of three torii along the Minami sando approach to the main shrine. You will see people bowing to show respect when they pass under a torii as they enter and leave the shrine precincts.
Temizusha, Ritual Purification2
When entering a shrine, visitors purify themselves ritually before proceeding toward the main sanctuary. This is done at a temizuya, ritual purification building. There are ladles provided so that you can wash your hands and cleanse your mouth. Everyone, regardless of faith, is welcome to participate.
Honden, Main Shrine3
The honden main shrine is the most sacred building in the Meiji Jingu shrine. The inner sanctum is at the heart of the main shrine, and is where the kami deities are enshrined. Many rituals are carried out daily inside the inner sanctum, including the offering of sacred food and prayers known as onikkusai, which is held at 8 a.m. and 2 p.m. every day.
The honden and the buildings around it are of Japanese cypress wood, while the roofs are clad with copper. The timber used is mainly from Kiso in Nagano Prefecture, a district famous for the cultivation of large Japanese cypress trees.
The main shrine is built in the nagare zukuri style, which is a popular style of shrine architecture found throughout Japan. In this style of architecture, the roof at the front of the shrine is much longer than at the back, as the front roof is extended to cover the steps up to the shrine building.
The structures of the honden include the noritoden or Shinto prayer recital hall, the naihaiden, inner shrine hall, and the gehaiden, or outer shrine hall. The gehaiden is at the front of the shrine, and is where visitors pray.
The main shrine building was originally completed in 1920, but was burnt down during the air raids at the end of World War II. The present building was completed in 1958. For reasons of fire proofing, copper was used for the roofs of the new buildings rather than the tree bark which had been used for the original buildings.
Minami Shinmon, Main Gate4
This gate is the most important of the three gates that open onto the main shrine complex, and is the main entrance. The importance of this entrance is reflected in the gate's being a two-story building, whereas the other two gates are single story. The gate was built in 1920 when Meiji Jingu was dedicated, and is one of the few structures to have survived the air raids of World War II. The gate is made from Japanese hinoki cypress, roofed with copper.
If you look closely, you will see small heart-shaped patterns carved into the ornamental metal fittings and woodwork. This is a design feature with ancient roots known as inome in Japanese. Today, the Chinese characters for the word might be read as ‘eye of the wild boar’, but it also has the nuance of warding off fire. This was of particular importance when most structures in Tokyo were still made of wood.
When passing through the gate, be sure to step over the wooden beam, not on it. It is considered respectful to bow your head while passing through.
Kaguraden, Hall of Shinto music and dance5
This building is the Kaguraden, where devotees can receive blessings or participate in Shinto rituals. Kigansai are held here regularly at 9.30 am. A kagura, or sacred music and dance performance called the yamato mai, which is unique to Meiji Jingu, is performed as an offering to the kami. Kigansai would include a baby’s first shrine visit and a child’s shichi-go-san, a celebratory occasion held in November for girls turning three or seven and boys turning five. Kigansai are also held to ward off evil, usually at a specific age (25 or 42 for men, 19 or 33 for women).
The building was completed in 1993 and has three floors, two of them underground. The main ceremony hall on the ground level can accommodate up to 800 people. Please note that entry to the Kaguraden is reserved for those taking part in a ceremony. Vermillion shrine seals or goshuin are available in the Kaguraden as a token of your visit to the shrine. These are usually entered into a goshuincho, a book dedicated to goshuin.
Juyosho, Amulet Office6
Amulets known as omamori and protective talismans known as ofuda are available here. There are omamori for traffic safety, health, or success in education. Meiji Jingu also offers the sowa mamori, a special omamori for luck in love, infused with the aroma of camphor trees and inspired by the Meoto Kusu husband and wife camphor trees. Omamori are usually attached to or put into a bag, purse or pocket, and kept until they have fulfilled their purpose. The amulets should not be opened.
Meoto Kusu, Camphor Tree Couple7
This pair of camphor trees is known as Meoto Kusu, or ‘husband and wife camphor trees’. They are joined by a rope called a shimenawa, which signifies their sacred connection. The shimenawa in Shinto is used to indicate sacredness, and also wards off evil spirits.
These two trees were planted as saplings when Meiji Jingu was established in 1920, and have been growing here side by side ever since. Hence they are seen as a symbol of a happy, solid marriage like that of Emperor Meiji and Empress Shoken, and of a healthy family. The trees are a popular spot for people searching for a partner, and for those looking for success in marriage.
Ema-kake (Votive tablet rack)8
Ema, or votive tablets, are wooden plaques with a picture specific to the shrine on one side, and a blank space for writing a message of gratitude or prayer on the other. They are available at the juyosho amulet office for ¥ 500 and decorated with either a Meiji Jingu crest or, over the New Year period, the zodiac animal for that year.
The word ema literally means ‘picture of a horse’, and dates back to ancient times when devotees would donate horses to shrines. Over time pictures of horses came to replace actual horses, and further developed into the ema of today.
Messages written on ema can be anything from pledges to the kami to expressions of gratitude, aspirations for the year, or other heartfelt messages. Messages can be written in any language and by anyone, regardless of faith. Once you have written yours, please hang your ema on the votive tablet rack, which surrounds a camphor tree. The ema are offered by the shrine priests to the kami at the mikesai, held every morning. The tablets are eventually burned in a ritual fire.
Vehicle Purification9
This covered parking spot is used for vehicle purification rituals. When a car or other vehicle is brought here, a shrine priest will perform a ritual to ward off bad luck, and pray for safe driving free of accidents. People normally do this when they buy a new car.
Consecrated Sake Barrels14-a
Emperor Meiji (1852–1912) encouraged the technological development of many domestic industries, including the sake production industry, as part of the modernization of Japan. These straw-covered sake barrels are offered to Meiji Jingu annually by the members of the Meiji Jingu Nationwide Sake Brewers Association. The brewers make this donation to show their deep respect for the enshrined souls of Emperor Meiji and Empress Shoken (1849–1914). The barrels, which are decorative and empty, are offered to the kami deities along with the sake in bottles.
Sake plays an important role in Shinto. It is considered to be one way to connect people and the kami. While sake is normally called nihonshu in Japanese, the sake used at shrines is referred to as miki or omiki, written with the Chinese characters for ‘kami’ and ‘alcohol’. Omiki is offered daily to the kami, and distributed to followers after rituals and festivals held at the shrine.
The juxtaposition of wine and sake at Meiji Jingu is symbolic of the culture of the Meiji period. Led by the efforts of Emperor Meiji, the combining of overseas influences with Japanese traditions was a key aspect of this period.
Barrels of Consecrated Wine14-b
During his reign, Emperor Meiji (1852–1912) was keen to adopt Western culture and constructs, while maintaining Japan’s age-old traditions. Japanese society followed the Emperor's lead in his adoption of Western technologies and traditions.
The Emperor loved Western cuisine and wine. In memory of Emperor Meiji and his love of French wine, a number of famous wineries in the Bourgogne region of France each donated a barrel of wine to Meiji Jingu in 2006. Wine donated from Burgundy is now offered to the shrine every year.
These barrels are a symbol of the strong intercultural ties enjoyed by France and Japan. They are donated in the expectation of the continued enjoyment of a long and fruitful relationship between the two countries, and with profound gratitude for the spirit of friendship and for world peace.
Ootorii, Great or Second Torii Gate15
This torii is the largest wooden myojin style torii of its kind in Japan, standing 12 meters tall and 17.1 meters wide. Each pillar is 1.2 meters in diameter, and together the two pillars weigh 13 metric tons. The torii is built in the same style as the first torii at the southern entrance, with curved upper lintels. It is located at the intersection of the northern and southern approaches to the main shrine, and is also known as the ootorii or ‘large torii’. This torii has come to symbolize Meiji Jingu for many because of its impressive size.
The original ootorii was built in 1920 from a 1,200-year-old Japanese cypress from the Alishan Mountain Range in Taiwan. Unfortunately, it was destroyed by lightning in 1966. The current ootorii was made from a 1,500-year-old Japanese cypress.
The tree that provided the wood for this torii was found on a hillside on the Danda Mountain in Taiwan by a Tokyo-based timber merchant. The merchant had vowed to help rebuild the tori after the original was destroyed by lightning in 1966, in order to thank the kami for protecting his business. Since no tree of the right size could be found in Japan, he visited Taiwan many times in search of just the right tree. With considerable help from many people, the tree was finally cut down and transported to Meiji Jingu. The new torii was completed on December 23, 1975.
Kita Ike and Shibachi Lawn (North Pond and Lawn)20
The expansive Shibachi lawn is a quiet place to relax and enjoy nature, against the backdrop of the impressive contrast of the skyscrapers of Shinjuku in the distance.
Various species of ducks, including mandarin ducks, can be seen swimming on the Kita Ike, or North Pond, near the Shibachi lawn. For the annual hina matsuri, the doll festival or girls’ festival celebrated on March 3 (the exact date of festivities may differ), the pond is used for the nagashi bina ritual. Dolls made from soluble paper are set afloat on the water. In this ancient tradition, impurity is ritually transferred to the paper doll and washed away.
Next to the pond is the kame ishi, literally ‘turtle stone’, after its likeness to the animal. Along with Kiyomasa’s Well inside Meiji Jingu Gyoen, this is popularly considered to have strong positive spiritual connotations.
The lawn is part of the shrine grounds, so please relax and enjoy the view but remember that you are still within the shrine. Please dress and behave appropriately. The drinking of alcoholic beverages is not permitted here.
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Second [Intelligence] Department
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A profile of Chinese intelligence agencies.
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Second [Intelligence] Department
The Second [Intelligence] Department of the PLA General Staff Headquarters is responsible for collecting military information. Activities include military attaches at Chinese embassies abroad, clandestine special agents sent to foreign countries to collect military information, and the analysis of information publicly published in foreign countries.
The Second Department oversees military human intelligence (HUMINT) collection, widely exploits open source materials, fuses HUMINT, signals intelligence (SIGINT), and imagery intelligence data, and disseminates finished intelligence products to the CMC and other consumers. Preliminary fusion is carried out by the Second Departments Analysis Bureau which mans the National Watch Center, the focal point for national-level indications and warning. In-depth analysis is carried out by regional bureaus.
Although traditionally the Second Department of the General Staff Department was responsible for military intelligence, it is beginning to increasingly focus on scientific and technological intelligence in the military field, following the example of Russian agencies in stepping up the work of collecting scientific and technological information from the West.
The research institute under the Second Department of the General Staff Headquarters is publicly known as the Institute for International Strategic Studies; its internal classified publication MOVEMENTS OF FOREIGN ARMIES [WAI JUN DONGTAI] is published every 10 days and transmitted to units at the division level.
The PLA Institute of International Relations at Nanjing comes under the Second Department of the General Staff Department and is responsible for training military attaches, assistant military attaches and associate military attaches as well as secret agents to be posted abroad. It also supplies officers to the military intelligence sections of various military regions and group armies. The Institute was formed from the PLA "793" Foreign Language Institute, which moved from Zhangjiakou after the Cultural Revolution and split into two institutions at Luoyang and Nanjing.
The Institute of International Relations was known in the 1950s as the School for Foreign Language Cadres of the Central Military Commission, with the current name being used since 1964. The training of intelligence personnel is one of several activities at the Institute. While all graduates of the Moscow Institute of International Relations were employed by the KGB, only some graduates of the Beijing Institute of International Relations are employed by the Ministry State Security. The former Institute of International Relations, since been renamed the Foreign Affairs College, is under the administration of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and is not involved in secret service work. The former Central Military Commission foreign language school had foreign faculty members who were either Communist Party sympathizers or were members of foreign communist parties. But the present Institute of International Relations does not hire foreign teachers, to avoid the danger that its students might be recognized when are sent abroad as clandestine agents.
Those engaged in professional work in military academies under the Second Department of the PLA General Staff Headquarters usually have a chance to go abroad, either for advanced studies or as military officers working in the military attache's office of Chinese embassies in foreign countries. People working in the military attache's office of embassies are usually engaged in collecting military information under the cover of "military diplomacy". As long as they refrain from directly subversive activities, they are considered as well-behaved "military diplomats."
Some bureaus under the Second Department which are responsible for espionage in different regions, of which the First Bureau is responsible for collecting information on Taiwan and Hong Kong. Agents are dispatched by the Second Department to companies in Hong Kong like the China Resources Group. In addition, the military also dispatches agents to the Everbright Group, Bank of China Group, and other local corporations to gain cover.
The "Autumn Orchid" intelligence group assigned to Hong Kong and Macao in the mid-1980s mostly operates in the mass media, political, industrial, commercial, and religious circles, as well as in universities and colleges. The "Autumn Orchid" intelligence group is mainly responsible for the following three tasks:
Finding out and keeping abreast of the political leanings of officials of the Hong Kong and Macao governments, as well as their views on major issues, through social contact with them and through information provided by them.
Keeping abreast of the developments of foreign governments' political organs in Hong Kong, as well as of foreign financial, industrial, and commercial organizations.
Finding out and having a good grasp of the local media's sources of information on political, military, economic, and other developments on the mainland, and deliberately releasing false political or military information to the media to test the outside response. It is understood that news of the the so-called "fourth-wave military exercise" last spring was spread by the Japanese media on tips supplied by a correspondent assigned by the Chinese Communists to Hong Kong. The correspondent was recalled in early May.
The "Autumn Orchid" intelligence group was awarded a Citation for Merit, Second Class, in December 1994. It was further awarded another Citation for Merit, Second Class, not long ago.
Sources and Resources
"Communist China's Intelligence, External Affairs Research Organs" by Tan Po CHENG MING, [Hong Kong] 1 Sep 96 No 227, pp 28-31 (PRC: Analysis of CPC Intelligence, Other Organs FBIS-CHI-96-196 1 Sep 1996)
"Spy Headquarters Behind the Shrubs -- Supplement to `Secrets About CPC Spies'" by Tan Po Cheng Ming [Hong Kong], 01 March 1997, No 233, pp 34-37 Cheng Ming on Chinese Spy Headquarters FBIS-CHI-97-047 01 March 1997
"Intelligence Background of Zhou Borong, deputy commander of Hong Kong Garrison" by Huang Yung-nien CHIEN SHAO [Hong Kong], 01 April 1996 No 4, pp 48-51 [PRC: Profile of PLA Hong Kong Garrison Intelligence Chief FBIS-CHI-96-083 01 April 1996]
"Red Agents Infiltrate Celebrity Circles" by Chen Pei-chiung in Washington, Ho Yung-hsiung in Hong Kong, and Yu Hui-hsin in Beijing YI CHOU KAN [Hong Kong] No 255, 27 Jan 95 pp 48-50, 52, 54-55 [Article Views Intelligence Work in Hong Kong FBIS-CHI-95-046 27 Jan 1995]
"Secrets About CPC Spies -- Tens of Thousands of Them Scattered Over 170-Odd Cities Worldwide" by Lo Ping Cheng Ming [Hong Kong ], 1 Jan 97 No 231, pp 6-9 [Journal Discloses `Secrets' About PRC Spy Network FBIS-CHI-97-016 1 Jan 1997]
CHINA'S STRATEGIC MODERNIZATION: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE UNITED STATES Mark A. Stokes [U.S. Army Strategic Studies Institute] -- September 1999
FAS | Intelligence | World Agencies | China | PLA |||||
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Dana-Farber has led the way in cancer breakthroughs for more than 75 years. Our national advertising campaign highlights our momentum of discovery and shows how what we do here changes lives everywhere.
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute remains true to Dr. Sidney Farber's vision of a cancer center that is as dedicated to discoveries in cancer research as it is to delivering compassionate, patient-centered care. Discoveries made by Dana-Farber researchers today become tomorrow’s breakthrough treatments.
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A Study of the Patient Acceptance Capacity of the Yamanashi Prefecture Medical System amid the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic
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Whether healthcare providers can secure the number of beds that may be required during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic remains unclear. This study aimed to determine the sufficiency of the hospital beds available to the healthcare system ...
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7872785/
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JMA J. 2021 Jan 29; 4(1): 24–31.
PMCID: PMC7872785
PMID: 33575500
A Study of the Patient Acceptance Capacity of the Yamanashi Prefecture Medical System amid the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic
,1 ,2 and 3
Hiroyuki Kojin
1Department of Quality and Patient Safety, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
Find articles by Hiroyuki Kojin
Osamu Inoue
2Department of Infection Control, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
Find articles by Osamu Inoue
Hiroyuki Kinouchi
3Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research Faculty of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
Find articles by Hiroyuki Kinouchi
1Department of Quality and Patient Safety, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
2Department of Infection Control, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research, Faculty of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
3Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate Faculty of Interdisciplinary Research Faculty of Medicine, University of Yamanashi, Chuo, Japan
Corresponding author: Hiroyuki Kojin, [email protected]
Copyright © Japan Medical Association
JMA Journal is an Open Access journal distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view the details of this license, please visit (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Abstract
Introduction:
Whether healthcare providers can secure the number of beds that may be required during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic remains unclear. This study aimed to determine the sufficiency of the hospital beds available to the healthcare system of Yamanashi, Japan, in accommodating hospitalized and severely ill patients during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Methods:
In total, 60 hospitals, with > 20 beds each, were included in this study (n = 10,684). However, beds in the psychiatric and tuberculosis wards (n = 2,295), nonoperational beds (n = 376), and beds for patients in the recovery and chronic phases (n = 3,494) were excluded. The projected occupancy rate was calculated based on the estimated number of patients, including severely ill patients requiring hospitalization during the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on the number of hospitalized patients, we created an adjusted model to calculate the mean occupancy rate of beds for each medical area in the prefecture (Model 1), which is free of areal occupancy rate biases. Moreover, we created an adjusted model that places severely ill patients in the two advanced acute hospitals in Yamanashi, thereby calculating the bed occupancy rates in other hospitals with > 200 beds (Model 2).
Results:
A total of 4,519 beds were analyzed. Although the existing infectious disease beds may not be able to accommodate the projected number of severely ill patients, the existing capacity can accommodate all patients projected to require hospitalization during the pandemic. In Model 1, the mean bed occupancy rate was 50%. Conversely, in Model 2, advanced acute hospital beds were insufficient for the projected number of severely ill patients, and the mean bed occupancy rate was 72.5%.
Conclusions:
Adjustment of patients across the medical area borders enables the existing hospital beds to accommodate the estimated number of patients requiring hospitalization or those who are severely ill.
Keywords: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, COVID-19, Bed occupancy, Pandemics, Medical system
Introduction
On December 31, 2019, the Wuhan Municipal Health Commission publicized the results of an epidemiological study conducted on 27 patients with “pneumonia of unknown origin.” (1) On January 9, 2020, the cause was publicly declared as a new strain of coronavirus (2), which became known as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). With each passing day, the number of patients has increased, and SARS-CoV-2 has infected people worldwide. Human coronaviruses, such as the SARS-CoV and the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, cause respiratory diseases (3), (4). SARS-CoV-2 also infects humans and causes a serious, sometimes fatal, pneumonia infection known as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) (5), (6). As of March 11, 2020, > 120,000 individuals in 114 countries worldwide were infected. This prompted the WHO to declare COVID-19 a pandemic (7). In Italy, epicenter of the European Union outbreak, the rise in infections has recently led to a shortage of ventilators and hospital beds in certain regions, thereby causing partial breakdown of the healthcare system (8), (9).
On January 14 (10), the first COVID-19 case in Japan was reported, and the first case of person-to-person transmission was confirmed on January 18 (11), (12). Since then, the number of COVID-19 patients has increased. As of April 25, a total of 12,681 patients have confirmed positive for the virus via polymerase chain reaction analysis (13). In a press conference conducted on February 29, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe requested all designated infectious disease medical institutions to operate at their maximum capacities; this was part of the designed guidelines to increase the infectious disease bed count from 2,000 to 5,000 nationwide (14). In accordance with this guideline, on March 6, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare’s Headquarters for Novel Coronavirus Disease Control instructed the healthcare systems in all prefectures to prepare for an increased patient load (15). To facilitate this preparation, the agency published formulas for estimating the number of patients requiring hospitalization as well as those that may require intensive care, respirators, and other special considerations (15). According to these estimates, the 47 prefectures of Japan will have approximately 2.2 million patients requiring hospitalization. Moreover, even if the 5000 beds outlined in Prime Minister Abe’s guidelines are arranged, the hospitals will only be able to accommodate 2.3% of these patients. Particularly, calculations that depend on mere patient count may not appropriately reflect the reality of the situation due to regional differences in the patient peak timings. Nevertheless, even if the scope of our consideration is limited to one prefecture, it remains unclear whether healthcare providers can secure the number of beds that may be required.
Thus, this study aimed to elucidate whether the number of hospital beds available for the healthcare system in Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan, is sufficient to accommodate the number of hospitalized and severely ill patients during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to a survey conducted by the Japan Medical Association Research Institute, the level of medical resources in Yamanashi Prefecture, i.e., the total number of beds, general beds, doctors, and nurses in the hospital, ranks average among the 47 prefectures in Japan (16). Thus, an understanding of the situation in Yamanashi will provide a better idea on the national scenario. Moreover, it can help us proactively avoid healthcare system breakdown during patient peak.
Materials and Methods
The present study was designed as an observational study. The targets of our survey included hospital beds in Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan. Yamanashi ranks 42nd out of Japan’s 47 prefectures in population, with 810,000 inhabitants (17), (18). It shares a border with Tokyo, Japan’s capital city. In 2018, the Japan Medical Association Research Institute conducted a nationwide survey about the healthcare system in the 47 prefectures in Japan and ranked the level of medical resources in Yamanashi as average across the country (16). Based on this ranking, examination of the situation in Yamanashi Prefecture will help infer the average situation during the COVID-19 pandemic in Japan.
In this analysis, hospital beds were included if, as of July 1, 2018, they were placed inside a medical institution in Yamanashi Prefecture that possessed ≥20 beds per facility (19). The hospital beds in the psychiatric and tuberculosis wards were excluded from this analysis. Nevertheless, in accordance with the Infectious Disease Law, the beds for infectious diseases placed in the designated infectious disease hospitals were not excluded. Eventually, the beds that were left unused as of July 1, 2018 were also excluded. Based on reports on hospital bed function that are required pursuant to Article 30-12 of the Medical Care Act,the hospital beds were categorized into four phases: advanced acute, acute, recovery, and chronic (20). The recovery-phase beds are primarily used for rehabilitation, whereas the chronic-phase beds are used by patients requiring long-term recuperative care. Thus, beds categorized as either recovery-phase or chronic-phase were also excluded from this analysis.
Hospitals with the target beds were categorized into two: those with >200 beds and those with <200 beds. Hospitals with >200 beds can reasonably be assumed to possess the doctors, nurses, and other human resources required for administering acute-phase care.
Yamanashi Prefecture is geographically divided into four medical areas: the mid-north area, in which the prefectural capital of Kofu is located, the East-Valley area, the South-Valley area, and the Mt. Fuji-East area. Because of uneven geographic distribution of hospitals that possess the target beds, an analysis that separately considers each medical area was also conducted.
To calculate the patient load (21), the following equation, published by the Japanese government and supported by Nishiura et al. for estimating the daily count of newly hospitalized COVID-19 patients during the peak infection periods (15), was used (22):
(population aged 0–14)×0.05/100+(population aged 15–64)×0.02/100 + (population aged ≥65)×0.56/100
Furthermore, the following equation, also published by the government, was applied to calculate the daily number of new severely ill patients requiring intensive care, respirators, and other special considerations during the COVID-19 pandemic (15), (21), (22):
(population aged 0–14) × 0.002/100+(population aged 15–64) × 0.001/100 + (population aged ≥65) × 0.018/100
This equation was estimated using a mathematical model based on the COVID-19 epidemic scenario, as of February 29, 2020, to calculate the standards for ensuring an appropriate healthcare system in each prefecture (23). Because the proportion of patients who were hospitalized and severely ill varied with age, the patients are divided into three age groups: 0–14 years, 15–64 years, and ≥65. The coefficients for each age group were calculated based on a survey conducted on all 38,818 people in China from December 8, 2019, to February 1, 2020 (24). Therefore, it is important to consider the possibility of deviation from the model in Japan. In this study, we determined whether the use of such equation is appropriate based on the fact that the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare informed the prefectures on March 6, 2020, that they should review their healthcare systems based on this equation.
The number of projected patients in each medical area was distributed per the population ratio for each medical area calculated using the census data published by Yamanashi Prefecture on February 1, 2020 (25). While the rates of aging of each medical area remain nonidentical, areas with higher aging rates are uniformly and less densely populated, thus making it unlikely for infection clusters to occur. Thus, adjustment for the aging rates was not performed.
After obtaining the number of patients requiring hospitalization, the occupancy rate (%) of the target beds was calculated. Then, hospitals with <200 beds were excluded, and the occupancy rate (%) of beds in hospitals with ≥200 beds was calculated. These steps were repeated using the estimated number of severely ill patients; the occupancy rates (%) of all infectious disease beds and infectious disease beds in hospitals with ≥200 beds were calculated.
Moreover, to avoid saturation, indicated by occupancy rates >100%, adjusted models were constructed. In Model 1, the patient loads were adjusted across hospitals with ≥200 beds to achieve occupancy rates that are as close as possible to the areal mean. In Model 2, severely ill patients were placed in the two advanced acute hospitals, located in the mid-north area. The remaining patients requiring hospitalization were adjusted across all other hospitals with ≥200 beds to achieve occupancy rates that are as close as possible to the areal mean. The allocation of severely ill patients in Model 2 was set based on the plan for securing hospital beds in Yamanashi Prefecture as of April 16 (26).
Based on the above considerations of Models 1 and 2, we also considered whether medical equipment and personnel at medical institutions accepting severely ill patients could cope with the situation. To determine the number of required medical devices and clinical practitioners, we used the results from an emergency survey, released on March 9 and conducted by the Japanese Society of Respiratory Care Medicine and the Japan Association for Clinical Engineers (27). Moreover, we considered the number of intensive care units required for severely ill patients. This information was based on the results of the FY 2017 Reports on Medical Functions of Hospital Bed (28).
Models were created using Microsoft Excel 2016.
Results
Yamanashi prefecture has a total of 60 hospitals and 10,684 hospital beds ( ). After excluding specific-purpose beds (n = 2,295), nonoperational beds (n = 376), and recovery- and chronic-phase beds (n = 3,494), a total of 4,519 beds were analyzed.
presents the number of beds in each bed category, infectious disease bed count, total hospitals, and population distribution for each of the four medical areas of Yamanashi ( ). Yamanashi Prefecture comprises 1,149 advanced acute beds. Of the 66 beds, 49 advanced acute beds in the Mt. Fuji-East area are located in a hospital with less than 100 beds that specializes in orthopedic surgery and neurosurgery. By excluding these 49 beds, considered unsuitable for the treatment of infectious diseases, 17 advanced acute beds are left in the Mt. Fuji-east area, bringing the total number of beds in Yamanashi Prefecture to 1,100, 98.5% of which are placed in the mid-north area. Contrarily, of the 3,370 acute-phase beds in the prefecture, approximately 50% are placed in the mid-north area; the East-Valley and Mt. Fuji-East areas have approximately 20% each, and the South-Valley area has <10%. Each area has infectious disease beds, including a total of 28 beds across 7 hospitals, comprising 0.6% of all target beds.
Table 1.
Medical areaMid-North%East-Valley%South-Valley%Mt. Fuji East%TotalNumber of all beds
category 2,74660.872716.13076.873916.44,519Advanced acute phase*1,08394.3
(98.5) none-none-66
(17) 5.7
(1.5) 1,149
(1,100) Acute phase1,66349.372721.63079.167320.03,370Beds for designated
infectious diseases 1242.9414.3414.3828.628Number of hospitals1847.4923.7513.2615.838>=200 beds666.7111.1none-222.29200 beds <1241.4827.6517.2413.829Resident population457,78156.5130,79816.148,0565.9173,38221.4810,017
In total, 38 hospitals throughout the prefecture have the target beds for this analysis, and 29 of them (76.3%) have <200 target beds each. The South-Valley area is home to zero medical institutions with ≥200 target beds, whereas the East-Valley is home to one medical institution. Approximately 56% of Yamanashi’s permanent population resides in the mid-north area, whereas the South-Valley area is home to only about 6%.
presents the occupancy rates of target beds based on the calculated estimates of the number of severely ill patients and those requiring hospitalization. It also presents the results of our adjusted models. Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic in Yamanashi, an estimated number of 1,530 patients require hospitalization, and an estimated number of 50 individuals are classified as severely ill patients (21). The breakdown of patients requiring hospitalization by the medical area: 865 patients in the mid-north area (56.5%), 327 in the Mt. Fuji-East area (21.4%), 247 in the East-Valley area (16.1%), and 91 in the South-Valley area (5.9%). Moreover, the breakdown of severely ill patients: 28 in the mid-north area (56.0%), 11 in the Mt. Fuji-East area (22.0%), 8 in the East-Valley area (16.0%), and 3 in the South-Valley area (6.0%).
Table 2.
Medical AreaMid-NorthEast-ValleySouth-ValleyMt. Fuji EastTotalRequiring hospitalization (person)865247913271,530Number of total beds2,7467273077394,519Occupancy rate (%)31.534.029.644.233.9 Only >=200 hospitals (beds)2,401293none5753269Occupancy rate (%)36.084.3>10056.946.8Severely ill patients (person)28831150Number of beds for infectious diseases1244828Occupancy rate (%)233.3200.075.0137.5178.6 Only > =200 hospitals (beds)84none416Occupancy rate (%)350200>100275312.5Model 1Adjusted patients requiring hospitalization (person)1,09514702881,530Increase or decrease+230-100-91-39Only > =200 hospitalOccupancy rate (%)45.650.2-50.146.8Model 2Adjusted severely ill patients (person)50nonenonenone50Increase or decrease22-8-3-11Only > =200 hospital without two advanced acute hospitalNumber of beds1,242293none5752,110Adjusted patients requiring hospitalization (person)901212-4171,530Increase or decrease+36-35-91+90Occupancy rate (%)72.572.5-72.572.5
The bed occupancy rate of patients requiring hospitalization was determined to be 33.9% of all the target beds. These occupancy rates ranged from 29.6% to 44.2% across the medical areas. Thus, a comparison of all the target beds indicates the projected patient count requiring hospitalization. Contrarily, in terms of the bed occupancy rates of hospitals with >200 beds, the South-Valley area is completely saturated due to the lack of such hospitals, and the East-Valley area is highly occupied, with an occupancy rate of 84.3%.
The occupancy rate of severely ill patients is 178.6% of the total number of infectious disease beds available throughout Yamanashi, thus indicating the total saturation of the medical system. With regard to the areal occupancy rates, the South-Valley area is the only area with a rate of <100%, at 75%; however, the rates of the other three areas range from 137.5% to 233.3%, all of which exhibit saturation. Furthermore, if only infectious disease beds in hospitals with >200 beds are considered, the South-Valley area, which has no such beds, also becomes saturated. Moreover, the three other areas exhibit bed occupancy rates ranging from 200% to 350%.
In Model 1, patients requiring hospitalization were adjusted to allow bed occupancy rates at hospitals with >200 beds to achieve the nearest areal mean rates. If each of the three other areas sends 230 patients to the mid-north area, the bed occupancy rates of each area will be approximately 50%. Likewise, in Model 2, 22 severely ill patients located in the three other areas were sent to the two advanced acute hospitals located in the mid-north area. Thus, after excluding the beds in the two hospitals of the mid-north area that houses severely ill patients, the bed count in hospitals with ≥200 beds reduced from 2,401 to 1,242. The adjustment of the patient count in each area to achieve a uniform areal mean requires the East-Valley area to send approximately 35 patients to the mid-north area and the South-Valley area to send approximately 90 patients to the Mt. Fuji-East area. This enables all medical areas to exhibit an occupancy rate of 72.5%.
According to the results of an emergency survey conducted by the Japanese Society of Respiratory Care Medicine and the Japan Association for Clinical Engineers (27), the total number of ventilators in Yamanashi Prefecture was 208, of which 126 were on standby as of March 9. Moreover, there were 10 units of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), 9 of which were on standby. The same survey indicates that there is a total of 115 clinical engineers employed by hospitals in Yamanashi Prefecture as of March 9.
According to the results of the FY 2017 Reports on Medical Functions of Hospital Beds (28), in Yamanashi Prefecture, there were 3 ICUs and 28 ICU beds, of which one ICU with six beds was located in the Mt. Fuji-East area; two units had 10 and 12 beds in two advanced acute hospitals, placed in the mid-north area.
Discussion
This investigation on the rates of hospital bed occupancy in the healthcare system of Yamanashi Prefecture, which ranks at or near the mean level of medical resources available throughout Japan, reveals that the existing capacity of the healthcare system is sufficient to accommodate the projected number of patients requiring hospitalization during the COVID-19 pandemic. Contrarily, the existing number of infectious disease beds makes it impossible to accommodate the projected number of severely ill patients requiring the repurposing of beds in advanced acute hospitals. For an estimated number of 50 severely ill patients, there were 126 ventilators on standby as of March 9, and a maximum of 115 clinical engineers could be secured. Meanwhile, as of March 9, there were nine ECMO units on standby, and approximately 20% of severely ill patients were considered to be at the upper limit of demand. For an estimated number of 50 severely ill patients, the number of ICU beds in Yamanashi Prefecture was 28. Thus, this divergence clearly indicates that care for severely ill patients needs to be provided by facilities other than ICUs. Particularly, in the distribution of severely ill patients in Model 2, there are only 10 and 12 ICU beds in each of the two advanced acute hospitals. Thus, if 25 patients are accepted in each model, 13–15 patients will always need to be managed outside the ICU. This is a major challenge to staffing and equipment allocation and thus strongly suggests the requirement of preventive measures to curb the incidence of severely ill patients.
In 2015, the number of hospitalized beds in Japan was 13.2 per 1,000 people compared with 4.9 in an average of other Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries (29). This study revealed that the hospital beds available during the COVID-19 pandemic in Yamanashi are able to avoid saturation through regional coordination, despite the high occupancy rate. The reason for this disparity is that Japan has the largest number of beds per 1000 people in the OECD.
Infectious disease hospitals were established in accordance with Article 38 of the Act on the Prevention of Infectious Diseases and Medical Care for Patients with Infectious Diseases. In Japan, a total of 410 hospitals with 1871 beds were established. In Yamanashi (30), 7 hospitals with 28 beds were established and were expected to be a crucial part of the first line of defense against new infectious diseases. About three of these facilities are small- to medium-scale medical institutions with <200 beds (19). Thus, only 4 hospitals with >200 beds each, collectively housing a maximum of 16 beds, can be used to provide infectious disease treatments to severely ill patients requiring the use of significant healthcare resources. Thus, as presented by the results of the adjusted model constructed in this study, the plans for interareal medical exchange are warranted.
An adjusted model in which all patients hospitalized for COVID-19 are placed in hospitals with ≥200 beds has estimated that approximately 50% of such beds will be occupied throughout the prefecture. This indicates that 50% of the normal capacity of the hospital care system will be effectively reduced. While some standby surgeries or educational hospitalization can be waived off, certain individuals, such as cancer patients or patients with emergency conditions, require prompt hospitalization. In Yamanashi, the “Yamanashi Action Plan for Pandemic Influenza and New Infectious Diseases” was enacted on February 4, 2014, and was revised twice, that is, in 2018 and 2019 (31). The Action Plan indicates the need for business continuity management via a business continuity plan (BCP), which needs to be primarily managed by administrative agencies. In particular, during the spread of a new infectious disease, the continuation of the healthcare system entirely depends on the BCPs individually developed by the medical institutions (31). Under this system, the adjustment of the healthcare services inside a medical area and the healthcare provision between medical areas seem impossible. The results of this research indicate that if advanced acute hospitals are burdened with care of severely ill patients, then 72.5% of the beds in hospitals with >200 beds will be occupied by COVID-19 patients. In such circumstances, the normal capacity of hospitals providing care will be significantly limited, and a medical surge (an emergency situation in which medical need outperforms the accommodative and responsive capacity of healthcare services) is likely possible.
In 2015, the “Yamanashi Infectious Disease Network” commenced its operations, along with the involvement of the Yamanashi Health Promotion Division, Director of Public Health Centers, Yamanashi Prefectural Central Hospital, Association of Infection Control Nurses, Japan Pediatric Association, and University of Yamanashi, thereby including individuals from various professions, such as doctors, nurses, public health nurses, pharmacists, clinical technicians, and administrative officials (32). While this network was intended to serve as a platform for medical exchange inside the prefecture during the emergence of a new infectious disease, currently, it lacks sufficient participation of the stakeholders of medical exchange services. This prevents the network from fulfilling its role. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the core members of this network worked collaboratively to create a specialist council for medical exchange inside Yamanashi (33). They are presumed to have the ability to develop a framework that allows medical exchange not only during crisis but also during normal times.
Similarly, a wide-area transport across the prefectures is also a challenge. In late April, >90% of hospital beds for COVID-19 patients in Tokyo were filled (34). Simultaneously, it was estimated that 150 of the 200 beds in the ICU that were redirected to COVID-19 patients were already in use (35). At this time, the hospitals in Yamanashi Prefecture had sufficient capacity to accommodate COVID-19 patients. In this study, we examined the movement of patients across medical areas in Yamanashi Prefecture. Such movement is expected to reduce the saturation of beds. As prefectural governments are the main body for infectious disease control, the involvement of the central government is necessary to achieve successful transfer of patients across prefectures.
The present study has several limitations. First, the occupancy rate was calculated based on the assumption that all hospitals are operating normally. In practice, it is assumed that the medical surge will worsen due to dropout of medical personnel or deterioration of hospital functions caused by the occurrence of hospital-acquired infection (36). The results of this study indicate that it is important to operate the healthcare system as normal as possible to avoid medical surges during the COVID-19 pandemic. Second, as this study focused on hospitalization and beds during the COVID-19 pandemic, it did not consider outpatient care services. Outpatient care, such as visits for fevers, will also require patient care and other medical resources, which is presumed to overwhelm the activity of the prefectural hospitals. Taking this into consideration, it may be practical for hospitals with unused beds to provide hospitalized care, hospitals with <200 beds, and hospitals specializing in recovery- and chronic-phase beds to fully contribute to this work front, to prevent a medical surge. Finally, this study did not make special considerations for children, pregnant mothers, and other populations with specific needs. Furthermore, research on the estimates of the number of COVID-19 patients requiring special considerations and a more comprehensive analysis of the functions of the healthcare system are warranted.
Article Information
Conflicts of Interest
None
Acknowledgment
We would like to thank the support provided by Ms. Shiho Amagasa of the Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Tokyo Medical University. We also thank Editage (http://www.editage.com) for editing and reviewing this manuscript for English language.
Author Contributions
All authors were involved in drafting the article or revising it critically for important intellectual content and have read and approved the final version of the manuscript. Hiroyuki Kojin was responsible for the design, analysis, interpretation, and drafting of the manuscript. Osamu Inoue and Hiroyuki Kinouchi revised the manuscript.
Approval by Institutional Review Board (IRB)
The approval was not required in our research.
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Click any column header to sort table data. Instruction/Note/PolicyDirective DateSubject/TitleCancelled ByCancellation Date NAVMED POLCIY 08-0166/20/2018POLICY GUIDANCE FOR ANALYSIS OF REMOVED COMBAT-RELATED METAL FRAGMENTSBUMEDINST 6270.95/21/2018 NAVMED POLICY 08-0086/10/2008POLICY FOR DEPLOYMENT FOLLOWING REFRACTIVE EYE SURGERYBUMEDINST 6490.16/8/2018 NAVMED POLICY 08-02212/18/2008POLICY AND GUIDANCE ON LASER-ASSISTED IN SITU KERATOMILEUSIS (LASIK)6490.16/8/2018 NAVMED POLICY 09-0021/27/2009POLICY ON FOCUSED PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE EVALUATION (FPPE); AND ONGOING PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE EVALUATION (OPPE)6010.33/27/2015 NAVMED POLICY 10-0045/3/2010POLICY ON INSULATION TESTING OF REUSABLE LAPAROSCOPIC ELECTROSURGICAL INSTRUMENTS (LEI) AND USE OF DISPOSABLE ELECTROSURGICAL HOOKS AND SPATULASNOTE 60105/22/2018 NAVMED POLICY 10-0118/11/2010REGISTRATION OF NAVY MEDICINE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) SYSTEMS, APPLICATIONS AND DATABASESDHA PI 8160.017/15/2019 NAVMED POLICY 08-1506/13/2008TRICARE PRIME ENROLLMENT AND ENROLLMENT TRANSFER OF ACTIVE DUTY SERVICE MEMBERS IN APPELLATE LEAVE STATUSBUMEDINST 6320.103 NAVMED POLICY 10-01511/18/2010NOTIFICATION OF ACTIVE DUTY HOSPITALIZATION IN NAVY MEDICAL TREATMENT FACILITIESBUMEDINST 6320.103 NAVMED POLICY 07--012DIVERSITY INITIATIVES POLICY10/21/2022 NAVMED POLICY 08-004ACTIVITY MANNING DOCUMENT (AMD) REVIEW10/21/2022 NAVMED POLICY 08-005E-MAILING PERSONALLY IDENTIFIABLE INFORMATION (PII) AND PROTECTED HEALTH INFORMATION (PHI)Superseded by DHA-PI 8140.0110/21/2022 NAVMED POLICY 08-028NAVY MEDICINE USE OF THE TERM CODE DELTA10/21/2022 NAVMED POLICY 05-002POLICY GUIDANCE FOR IMPLEMENTING TRAUMATIC INJURY PROTECTION UNDER THE SERVICEMEMBER’S GROUP LIFE INSURANCE (SGLI)5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 06-004IMPLEMENTATION OF THE POST DEPLOYMENT HEALTH REASSESSMENT POLICY IN NAVY MEDICINE FACILITIESInformation contained within BUMEDINST 1300.55/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 06-005DEPLOYMENT READINESSInformation contained within BUMEDINST 1300.45/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 07-005PRESCRIBING, DISPENSING, AND DISTRIBUTION OF PLAN B (LEVONORGESTREL)Superseded by NAVMED 10-0065/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 07-007POLICY GUIDANCE FOR MEDICAL PERSONNEL ATTENDING COMMERCIAL COMBAT TRAUMA TRAININGSuperseded by DHA-PI 6000.035/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 07-011ANOREXIANT AND WEIGHT LOSS MEDICATIONS USE IN NAVAL MEDICAL TREATMENT FACILITIES (MTFs)5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 07-013POLICY ON REPROCESSING OF MEDICAL SINGLE-USE DEVICES (SUD)5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 08-005E-MAILING PERSONALLY IDENTIFIABLE INFORMATION (PII) AND PROTECTED HEALTH INFORMATION (PHI)Superseded by DHA-PI 8140.015/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 08-021REVISED DOD POLICY ON BLOOD DONOR SCREENING, DEFERRAL AND LOOKBACK FOR WEST NILE VIRUS (WNV)Superseded by Program Letters5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 08-024APPROPRIATE USE OF HAND-HELD X-RAY UNITS FOR ORAL AND MAXILLOFACIAL RADIOGRAPHY5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 08-028NAVY MEDICINE USE OF THE TERM CODE DELTA5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 09-001POLICY GUIDANCE OF REPORTING INFECTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL DATA TO THE CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 09-003POLICY GUIDANCE ON REGION ACCESS TO MEDICAL TREATMENT FACILITY (MTF) JOINT COMMISSION EXTRANET SITE5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 09-005POLICY GUIDANCE ON SYRINGE AND NEEDLE REUSE AT NAVY MEDICAL TREATMENT FACILITIES5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 09-007VAGINAL DELIVERY SPONGE COUNTS ON LABOR AND DELIVERY UNITSSuperseded by NAVMED POLICY 10-0035/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 09-009TOBACCO USE FOR NAVY MEDICINE PERSONNEL IN UNIFORMSuperseded by BUMEDINST 6200.12A5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 09-011POLICY FOR PRESERVATION OF HUMAN REMAINS TRAININGTraining provided in the Patient Administration Course5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 09-013UNIFORM COLOR-CODED PATIENT ALERT WRISTBANDS AT NAVY MEDICAL TREATMENT FACILITIES5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 09-015NAVY MEDICINE TRICARE OVERSEAS PROGRAM (TOP) HEALTH CARE SERVICES SUPPORT CONTRACT MEMORANDUM OF UNDERSTANDING (MOU) POLICY5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 09-016PERSONALLY IDENTIFIABLE INFORMATION (PII) INCIDENT REPORTING REQUIREMENTSSuperseded by DONCIO Memo of 30 Mar 22, DoDM 5400.11, Volume 2, and DHA-PI 8140.015/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 10-003VAGINAL DELIVERY SPONGE COUNTS ON LABOR AND DELIVERY UNITSSuperseded by DHA-PIs 6025.35 and 6025.445/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 10-005NAVY PHARMACY ASSESSMENT OF BARRIERS TO LEARNING POLICYInformation contained within NAVMED P-117, chapter 215/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 10-006PRESCRIBING, DISPENSING, AND DISTRIBUTION OF (LEVONORGESTREL 0.75MG) NEXT CHOICE OR PLAN B, GENERIC TABLETSSuperseded by DHA-PI 6200.025/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 11-002IMPLEMENTATION OF THE INTEGRATED CLINICAL DATABASE (ICDB)/REFERRAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM TRACKING REPORT (RMSTR) FOR CLEAR AND LEGIBLE REPORTING (CLR)5/15/2023 NAVMED POLICY 11-005IMPLEMENTATION OF OVERSEAS INTEGRATED DISABILITY EVALUATION (IDES) CHANGESRescinded by ASN Memo of 20 Mar 205/15/2023 MANMED CHANGE 1391/24/2012NAVMED P-117, MANUAL OF THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, CHANGE 139, CHAPTER 15, (Revises Article 15-105, Special Operations Duty) MANMED CHANGE 1474/4/2014NAVMED P-117, MANUAL OF THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, CHAPTER 15, ARTICLE 15-103, NUCLEAR FIELD DUTY AND ARTICLE 15-106, SUBMARINE DUTY 1001.2B11/14/2002ASSIGNMENT OF MEDICAL DEPARTMENT RESERVE NAVY OFFICER BILLET CLASSIFICATION (NOBC) AND SUBSPECIALTY (SSP), AND ADDITIONAL QUALIFICATION DESIGNATOR (AQD) CODES1001.2C9/20/2018 1001.2C9/20/2018RESERVE OFFICER CLASSIFICATION, SUBSPECIALTY, AND QUALIFICATION DESIGNATOR CODES1001.2D6/22/2022 102011/26/2012UNIFORM AND PERSONNEL INSPECTION11/26/2012 1050.3B1/19/2007LIBERTY AND LEAVE FOR NAVAL PERSONNEL 111012/23/2013FISCAL YEAR 2014 GUIDANCE ON USE OF HEALTH PROFESSIONS LOAN REPAYMENT PROGRAM FOR RETENTION OF NURSE CORPS OFFICERS 11102/14/2019FISCAL YEAR 2019 NURSE CORPS HEALTH PROFESSIONS LOAN REPAYMENT PROGRAM GUIDANCE1/1/2020 11101/31/2018FISCAL YEAR 2018 GUIDANCE ON USE OF HEALTH PROFESSIONS LOAN REPAYMENT PROGRAM FOR RETENTION OF NURSE CORPS OFFICERS11102/14/2019 111011/23/2012FISCAL YEAR 2013 GUIDANCE OF HEALTH PROFESSIONS LOAN REPAYMENT PROGRAM FOR RETENTION 11102/1/2017FISCAL YEAR 2017 HEALTH PROFESSIONS LOAN REPAYMENT PROGRAM FOR RETENTION OF NURSE CORPS OFFICERS11101/31/2018 11101/5/2022FISCAL YEAR 2022 NURSE CORPS HEALTH PROFESSIONS LOAN REPAYMENT PROGRAM 12/16/2022 1200.12/17/2017WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION/CHEMICAL BIOLOGICAL RADIOLOGICAL NUCLEAR MEDICAL SPECIALIST PROGRAM 1200.1A2/16/2022 1214.110/27/1992ASSIGNMENT OF MEDICAL DEPARTMENT OFFICER SUBSPECIALITY CODES 1214.1 CH-11/29/2002ASSIGNMENT OF MEDICAL DEPARTMENT OFFICER SUBSPECIALTY CODES 13004/27/2015CONSOLIDATION OF CENTRAL SCREENING COMMITTEE LOCATIONS 14105/19/2016ACTIVE COMPONENT CAREER MILESTONE POSITIONS � APPLICATION PROCEDURES FISCAL YEAR 20175/10/2017 14105/10/2017APPLICATION PROCEDURES FOR FISCAL YEAR 2018 NAVY MEDICINE CAREER MILESTONE SCREENING BOARD14105/1/2018 14125/9/2014ANNOUNCEMENT OF FISCAL YEAR 2015 NAVY MEDICINE COMMANDING OFFICER AND EXECUTIVE OFFICER SCREENING BOARDBUMED NOTE 14125/7/2015 1412/1 NAVMED Form4/1/2014FISCAL YEAR 2015 COMMANDING OFFICER/EXECUTIVE OFFICER SCREENING APPLICATIONNAVMED Form 1412 14124/2/2018APPLICATION PROCEDURES FOR FISCAL YEAR 2019 NAVY MEDICINE COMMAND SCREENING BOARD14124/17/2019 14126/6/2019APPLICATION PROCEDURES FOR FISCAL YEAR 2020 RESERVE COMPONENT NAVY MEDICINE COMMAND SCREENING BOARD5/1/2020 14124/21/2022FISCAL YEAR 2023 RESERVE COMPONENT NAVY MEDICINE COMMAND SCREENING BOARD 1412.1B3/31/2017COMMAND QUALIFICATION PROGRAM1412.1C4/17/2019 1412.1C with CH1 to CH4 4/14/2023COMMAND QUALIFICAION PROGRAM FOR ACTIVE COMPONENT MEDICAL DEPARTMENT OFFICERS1412.1D3/25/2024 15001/2/2019FISCAL YEAR 2019 ENTERPRISE-WIDE COURSE ASSIGNMENTS1/13/2020 15006/19/2018PHASED MEDICAL READINESS TRAUMA TRAINING REQUIREMENTS6/1/2019 15008/27/2014IMPLEMENTATION AND USE OF THE NAVY MEDICAL ENTERPRISE-WIDE LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 150005/07/2020MILD TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY TRAINING FOR MEDICAL PERSONNEL08/26/2021 1500 3/1/2021NAVY MEDICINE FLEET TRAINING MANAGEMENT AND PLANNING SYSTEM UTILIZATION 4/1/2022 150011/17/2022FISCAL YEAR 2023 ENTERPRISE-WIDE COURSE ASSIGNMENTS11/21/2023 1500.15E with CH-11/15/2015RESUSCITATION EDUCATION AND TRAINING1500.15F10/17/2017 1500.18C8/27/2010POLICIES AND PROCEDURES FOR FUNDING PROFESSIONAL CREDENTIALS AND CERTIFICATION EXAMINATIONS 1500.19A5/14/1997NAVY MEDICAL DEPARTMENT INTEGRAL PARTS OF TRAINING 1500.19B8/6/2007NAVAL MEDICAL CORPS INTEGRAL PARTS OF TRAINING1524.1C 1500.2010/7/2014POLICIES AND PROCEDURES FOR FUNDING PROFESSIONAL CREDENTIALS AND CERTIFICATION EXAMINATIONS1500.20A11/3/2017 1500.227/9/1997REVIEW AND EVALUATION OF OPERATIONAL READINESS TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR MEDICAL DEPARTMENT PERSONNEL 1500.23A11/25/2009INSTITUTIONAL AND PROGRAMMATIC ACCREDITATION OF MEDICAL DEPARTMENT ENLISTED TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING 1500.25A6/2/2010NAVY MEDICINE MASTER TRAINING SPECIALIST PROGRAM1500.25B4/16/2014 1500.29A5/22/2014NAVY MEDICINE COMMAND TRAINING PROGRAM1500.29B10/15/2015 1500.327/26/2015NAVY MEDICINE EDUCATION AND TRAINING REQUIREMENTS INTEGRATION PROCESS1500.32A6/2/2022 1500.3310/23/2015STANDARD ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY FOR NAVY NURSING CLINICAL CORE COMPETENCY AND CLINICAL SUSTAINMENT1500.33A5/21/2018 1500.53/25/1985RADIATION HEALTH TRAINING FOR DESIGNATED MEDICAL DEPARTMENT PERSONNEL 1510.168/31/1990INSERVICE TRAINING PROGRAM FOR ALL E-6 AND BELOW ENLISTED PERSONNEL ATTACHED TO THE BUREAU OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY 1510.173/15/1991SEARCH AND RESCUE (SAR) MEDICAL TECHNICIAN (HM-8401) TRAINING REQUIREMENTS 1510.19A12/17/1998NAVY INTEGRATED TRAINING RESOURCES AND ADMINISTRATION SYSTEM (NITRAS)1510.19B6/17/2015 1510.19B6/17/2015CORPORATE ENTERPRISE TRAINING AND ACTIVITY RESOURCE SYSTEM1510.19C6/11/2021 1510.209/14/1993SELECTED RESERVE HOSPITAL CORPSMAN (SELRES HM) PROFICIENCY COURSES 1510.225/21/1996ENLISTED TECHNICAL TRAINING PROGRAM GRADES 1510.23A5/23/2006HOSPITAL CORPSMAN SKILLS BASIC PROGRAM 1510.23B3/31/2008HOSPITAL CORPSMAN SKILL BASIC (HMSB)/TACTICAL COMBAT CASUALTY CARE (TCC) PROGRAM 1510.24 6/8/2012 ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES FOR THE RESERVER HOSPITAL CORPSMAN TO BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING DEGREE PROGRAM11/30/2021 1510.255/7/2015NAVY MEDICINE TACTICAL COMBAT CASUALTY CARE PROGRAM1510.25A12/7/2016 152010/1/2014ANNOUNCEMENT OF SUPPLEMENTAL MEDICAL SERVICE CORPS FISCAL YEAR 2015 DUTY UNDER INSTRUCTION PROGRAM FOR FULL-TIME OUTSERVICE/FULL-TIME INSERVICE DEGREE AND NON-DEGREE PROGRAMS AND APPLICATION PROCEDURES 15208/14/20142014 GUIDANCE FOR STUDENT FLIGHT SURGEON AND STUDENT UNDERSEA MEDICAL OFFICER TRAINING APPLICATIONS1520.426/4/2015 15203/12/2019FISCAL YEAR 2020 DENTAL RESIDENCY TRAINING AND POSTDOCTORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING3/12/2020 15203/9/2017FISCAL YEAR 2018 DENTAL RESIDENCY TRAINING POSTDOCTORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING, AND ADVANCE CLINICAL PROGRAMNote 15203/1/2018 15203/21/2019FISCAL YEAR 2020 MEDICAL SERVICE CORPS OFFICER � DUTY UNDER INSTRUCTION DEGREE AND NON-DEGREE PROGRAMS3/1/2020 15204/7/2014ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEDICAL SERVICE CORPS FISCAL YEAR 2015 DUTY UNDER INSTRUCTION PROGRAM FOR FULL-TIME OUTSERVICE/FULL-TIME INSERVICE DEGREE AND NON-DEGREE PROGRAMS AND APPLICATION PROCEDURES 15202/20/2015ANNOUNCEMENT OF FISCAL YEAR 2016 DENTAL RESIDENCY TRAINING, POSTDOCTORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING, AND ADVNACED CLINICAL PROGRAMS 15204/11/2103ANNOUNCEMENT OF MEDICAL SERVICE CORPS FISCAL YEAR 2014 DUTY UNDER INSTRUCTION PROGRAM FOR FULL-TIME OUTSERVICE/FULL- TIME INSERVICE DEGREE PROGRAMS AND NON-DEGREE PROGRAMS APPLICATION PROCEDURESNOTE 1520 (April 2014)4/7/2014 15209/29/2014CLINICAL TRAINING REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DRAWOVER ANESTHESIA VAPORIZER 1520 with CH-17/12/2013REVISED ANNOUNCEMENT OF FISCAL YEAR 2014 NAVY MEDICINE COMMANDING OFFICER AND EXECUTIVE OFFICER SCREENING BOARD 15202/20/2014ANNOUNCEMENT OF FISCAL YEAR 2015 DENTAL RESIDENCY TRAINING, POSTDOCTORAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING, AND ADVANCED CLINICAL PROGRAMS 15208/3/2012APPLICATION INSTRUCTIONS FOR ADVANCED EDUCATION IN GENERAL DENTISTRY AND GENERAL PRACTICE RESIDENCY PROGRAMS 15204/17/2017MEDICAL SERVICE CORPS OFFICER � DUTY UNDER INSTRUCTION DEGREE AND NON-DEGREE PROGRAMS FOR FISCAL YEAR 2018Note 15204/23/2018 15204/9/2021ACADEMIC YEAR 2022 MEDICAL SERVICE CORPS DUTY UNDER INSTRUCTION PROGRAMS 15204/8/2022ACADEMIC YEAR 2023 MEDICAL SERVICE CORPS DUTY UNDER INSTRUCTION PROGRAMS 15205/25/2022ACADEMIC YEAR 2023 NURSE CORPS FULL-TIME DUTY UNDER INSTRUCTION 1520.27J with CH-14/3/2017NURSE CORPS OFFICERS - FULL-TIME DUTY UNDER INSTRUCTION1520.432/1/2018 1520.27J10/4/2016NURSE CORPS OFFICERS - FULL-TIME DUTY UNDER INSTRUCTION1520.432/1/2018 1520.30A5/12/1997CLERKSHIP TRAINING1520.30B7/14/2015 1520.30B7/14/2015CLERKSHIP TRAINING1520.30C4/12/2021 1520.31C9/22/2000MEDICAL EDUCATION POLICY COUNCIL (MEPC)4/22/2004 1520.34A3/17/1997CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS FOR MEDICAL CORPS AND NURSE CORPS OFFICERS1520.34B5/26/2015 1520.37A6/10/1997NAVY DENTAL OFFICER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION (Searchable)1520.37B 1520.37B11/24/2014NAVY DENTAL OFFICER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION1520.37C8/30/2017 1520.3811/12/1993APPLICATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF FULL-TIME OUTSERVICE TRAINING FOR TECHNICAL NURSE WARRANT OFFICERS AND APPOINTMENT OF NURSE CORPS OFFICERS1/10/2005 1520.40A3/9/2000MEDICAL SERVICE CORPS (MSC) FULL-TIME OUTSERVICE TRAINING AND FULL-TIME IN-SERVICE TRAINING (FTIST) PROGRAMS11/3/2004 1520.416/14/2010POLICIES AND PROCEDURES FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE POST GRADUATE DENTAL EDUCTATION PROGRAM1520.41A6/1/2021 1520.447/1/2020NAVY MEDICINE ACCESSIONS DEPARTMENT HANDBOOK1520.44A4/8/2022 15246/29/2018JOINT SERVICE GRADUATE MEDICAL EDUCATION SELECTION BOARD APPLICATION PROCEDURES6/29/2019 15246/13/20172017 JOINT SERVICE GRADUATE MEDICAL EDUCATION SELECTION BOARD APPLICATION PROCEDURESNOTE 15246/29/2018 152406/24/20222022 JOINT GRADUATE MEDICAL EDUCATION SELECTION BOARD APPLICATION PROCEDURES 1524.1A9/22/2000POLICIES AND PROCEDURES FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF GRADUATE MEDICAL EDUCATION (GME) PROGRAMS4/22/2004 1524.24/21/2004MEDICAL EDUCATION POLICY COUNCIL (MEPC)1524.1C 1530.2A6/12/1997ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES FOR THE MEDICAL ENLISTED COMMISSIONING PROGRAM (MECP) 1532.1K6/4/1997U.S. NAVY AND MARINE CORPS AVIATION SELECTION TEST BATTERY 1540.13/18/1997ACADEMIC REVIEW BOARDS 1540.22/11/1997TECHNICAL INSTRUCTOR EVALUATION 1543.14/21/2009NAVY MEDICAL CLINICAL MODELING AND SIMULATION (M&S) AUTHORIZATION AND USE IN TRAINING 1543.14/21/2009NAVY MEDICAL CLINICAL MODELING AND SIMULATION (M&S) AUTHORIZATION AND USE IN TRAINING 1543.1A3/13/2015NAVY MEDICINE MODELING AND SIMULATION MANAGEMENT1543.1B6/1/2021 1553.1 CH-15/14/1997MANAGEMENT OF THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS FOR MEDICAL DEPARTMENT EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAMS 1553.23/18/1997STUDENT TESTING AND EVALUATION 1553.35/14/1997CURRICULUM CHANGE PROCEDURE 15718/17/2011CALCULATION OF OBLIGATED SERVICE DATES AND ACTIVE DUTY OBLIGATION11/26/2012 16105/29/2012CAPTAIN PERIODIC FITNESS REPORTS FOR THE PERIOD ENDING 31 July 201211/26/2012 16105/23/2014CAPTAIN PERIODIC FITNESS REPORTS FOR THE PERIOD ENDING 31 JULY 2014 16106/10/2013CAPTAIN PERIODIC FITNESS REPORTS FOR THE PERIOD ENDING 31 JULY 2013 161010/18/2013LIEUTENANT PERIODIC FITNESS REPORTS FOR THE PERIOD ENDING 31 JANUARY 2014 16102/3/2014LIEUTENANT JUNIOR GRADE PERIODIC FITNESS REPORTS FOR THE PERIOD ENDING 28 FEBRUARY 2014 16102/26/2013COMMANDER PEROIDIC FITNESS REPORTS FOR THE PEROID ENDING 20 APRIL 2013 1610.1A8/13/2013NAVY PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND COUNSELING SYSTEM1610.1B8/13/2013 16163/13/2014MASTER CHIEF PETTY OFFICER PERIODIC EVALUATIONS FOR THE PERIOD ENDING 15 APRIL 2014 16162/7/2014SECOND CLASS PETTY OFFICER PERIODIC PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS FOR THE PERIOD ENDING 15 MARCH 2014 161610/2/2014FIRST CLASS PETTY OFFICER PERIODIC PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS FOR THE PERIOD ENDING 15 NOVEMBER 2013 16508/1/2013IDENTIFICATION OF BSO-18 REGIONAL COMMANDS INCLUDING MEDICAL CENTERS PORTSMOUTH AND SAN DIEGO AS NAVY DEPARTMENT AWARDS WEB SERVICE ADMINISTRATORS 1650.16/27/2006PROCESSING OF AWARD RECOMMENDATIONS FOR 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dbpedia
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0
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https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/2250279/cnrj-hosts-joint-emergency-management-symposium/
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en
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CNRJ Hosts Joint Emergency Management Symposium
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Commander, Navy Region Japan (CNRJ) hosted an inaugural emergency management symposium Jan. 19 for joint U.S. forces and local Japanese emergency management officials from nine cities that work
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https://www.navy.mil/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.navy.mil%2FPress-Office%2FNews-Stories%2FArticle%2F2250279%2Fcnrj-hosts-joint-emergency-management-symposium%2F
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https://warroom.armywarcollege.edu/articles/new-doctrine-mission-command/
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en
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WILL NEW DOCTRINE FIX MISSION COMMAND?
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2019-10-09T06:00:55+00:00
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Can revamped doctrine finally give mission command the boost it needs in the U.S. Army? Orsi and Mundell feel it goes much deeper and starts in-garrison.
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en
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War Room - U.S. Army War College
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https://warroom.armywarcollege.edu/articles/new-doctrine-mission-command/
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But is updating the doctrine sufficient to answer its critics? Persistent execution challenges may go beyond what any doctrine can address.
It is no secret that the U.S. Army has struggled to implement mission command in garrison or non-tactical environments since the rollout of the 2012 Army Doctrinal Publication (ADP) and Army Doctrinal Reference Publication (ADRP) 6-0, Mission Command. The authors confirmed this by analyzing 52 U.S. Army War College Strategy Research Projects related to mission command. Students identified overly bureaucratic garrison processes as one of the trends that inhibited mission command. In April 2019, General Stephen Townsend, Major General Douglas Crissman, and Major Kelly McCoy wrote, “Reinvigorating the Army Approach to Mission Command: It’s OK to ‘Run with Scissors,’” which highlighted the underlying and persistent issue of “garrison bureaucracy often [being] at odds with our Army’s mission command doctrine.” Their July 2019 follow-up, subtitled “Leading with Mission Command” with Major General Gary Brito, addressed the need to practice mission command daily, “whether in garrison, during training, or while deployed for operations around the world.” The recent publication in July 2019 of the updated ADP 6-0 Mission Command: Command and Control of Army Forces, shows the Army is moving forward in a new direction to address this problem.
But is updating the doctrine sufficient to answer its critics? Persistent execution challenges may go beyond what any doctrine can address. These challenges include a lack of trust and risk aversion engendered by bureaucracy, which hinder the application of mission command principles by Army leaders in garrison environments. Resolving these issues could allow the Army to make mission command something substantially valued by the force.
According to ADP 6-0, “Mission command is the Army’s approach to command and control that empowers subordinate decision making and decentralized execution appropriate to the situation. Mission command supports the Army’s operational concept of unified land operations and its emphasis on seizing, retaining, and exploiting the initiative.” Compare this to the previous definition from the 2012 version: “Mission command is the exercise of authority and direction by the commander using mission orders to enable disciplined initiative within the commander’s intent to empower agile and adaptive leaders in the conduct of unified land operations.” This new definition has removed the term “commander” from its original definition, yet the heart of mission command is still command-centric. The new definition retains the term “unified land operations,” which unfortunately undermines the acceptance of mission command in a garrison environment. Too many leaders, both soldiers and civilians, interpret mission command as principally applicable in combat, with little relevance to garrison environments.
Command-Centric
The updated language of ADP 6-0 still focuses the philosophy of mission command on the commander, who exercises formal leadership over his or her organization as expressed in Army Command Policy. The commander gives guidance, orders, and directs the staff. Yet, leaders in non-command positions, such as other officers and noncommissioned officers (NCOs) do the same. The Army’s leader development process for officers and NCOs prepares them to assume leadership positions in troop and staff assignments alike, including leading and directing subordinates to execute missions. The principles of mission command from ADP 6-0 (e.g., Competence; Mutual Trust; Shared Understanding; Commander’s Intent; Mission Orders; Disciplined Initiative; and Risk Acceptance) prescribe the ways commanders can most effectively accomplish the mission at all echelons from company/battery levels, to the enterprise level. Yet, these same principles also prescribe ways leaders who are not commanders can lead effectively.
Unified Land Operations
The Army’s raison d’être is to conduct prompt and sustained land combat as part of the joint force. Accordingly, the priorities of mission command are accomplishing a tactical and operational mission while deployed and preparing for missions during home station training or during maneuver Combat Training Center rotations. Each environment is critical to developing and honing the application of mission command principles, yet leaders tends to ignore or not use the seven principles in garrison environments. Using mission command in the operational environment rather than in garrison is not an either-or scenario; rather, it is required in both. Embedding the principles of mission command within the garrison environment will yield dividends, as soldiers learn to expect mission command as part of the Army culture — as they operate in the tactical through strategic/enterprise levels. Why, therefore, is it so difficult for the Army to implement the principles of mission command in a garrison environment?
Lack of Trust and Risk Aversion
The Army does not fully embrace mission command in garrison (or elsewhere) because leaders are risk averse and lack trust in their subordinates, and these pathologies only increase in garrison environments. A leader’s tolerance for risk decreases in a non-tactical environment. Why is this? Risk tolerance is related to control and judgement. In their article, “Trust: Implications for the Army Profession,” Charles D. Allen and William G. “Trey” Braun, III assert that the Army’s culture is heavily reliant on, and influenced by, control or the use of “…organizational procedures (policies and regulations) … for the common and greater good.” Typically, this interpretation of the greater good leans on the side of centralization and rigidity, and it lowers a leader’s risk.
Tom Guthrie’s article, “Mission Command: Do We Have the Stomach For What Is Really Required?” asks a hypothetical question: “When ‘bad’ things happen under mission command, will we feel the need to control the outcomes better by increasing the approval level on a particular issue?” The answer is unequivocally yes. When things go wrong, the Army’s instinct is to exert control, create a checklist, and make the entire chain of command approve similar issues. When opportunities to empower subordinates exist, leaders often prefer, or default to, retaining more control, creating systems and policies to address risk or leadership failures. Unfortunately, those systems and policies often limit or impede initiative and foment risk aversion, as leaders become more concerned with the negative consequences of noncompliance. The updated ADP 6-0 addresses this issue: “Employing the mission command approach during all garrison activities and training events is essential to creating the cultural foundation for its employment in high-risk environments.” Yet, how are we to fix this problem?
Too many leaders, both soldiers and civilians, interpret mission command as principally applicable in combat, with little relevance to garrison environments.
Negative perceptions about subordinates’ competence can further erode trust between leaders and subordinates. Allen and Braun argue that lack of interpersonal trust is one of two major threats to the Army. Focus group interviews with commanders at the lieutenant colonel and colonel levels, as well as with senior noncommissioned officers (command sergeants major), revealed a perceived lack of trust and confidence in subordinate leaders’ expertise (knowledge, skills, and abilities) for garrison (home station) operations. These leaders cited a lack of experience among midgrade officers (captains and majors) and noncommissioned officers (staff sergeants through sergeants first class) required for competence in home station training. ADP 6-0 addresses the need for the commander to “continually assess the competence of their subordinates and their organizations. This assessment informs the degree of trust commanders have in their subordinates’ ability to execute mission orders in a decentralized fashion at acceptable levels of risk.” These perceptions combined with rigid and bureaucratic policies and regulations cause many senior leaders to micromanage routine garrison tasks, as opposed to enabling disciplined initiative and empowering subordinates. The root cause may be attributed to the ever present but often unspoken risk to career.
For mission command to be successful, leaders must be comfortable letting go. In the field, this may be relatively simple, as leaders find it difficult to micromanage formations spread out across kilometers of battlespace. In garrison, however, where missions and people are more centralized, the tendency to over control is significant. If a leader is concerned that their subordinates’ failure will reflect badly on them, they may fall prey to this pattern. Leaders must fight this urge. Guthrie calls this “consciously abdicating the responsibility of the outcome to subordinates.” Things will always go wrong. It was the impetus behind the Elder Moltke’s often quoted “No plan survives first contact with the enemy.” If we are serious about implementing mission command, senior leaders must not crush subordinates when bad things happen. Of course, leaders must do the right thing, and negligence should neither be accepted nor overlooked. But the garrison environment should enable leaders at all levels to practice and encourage mission command.
The difference between the Army’s application of mission command in the field and in garrison is striking, and it is a problem. In the field, leaders are given wide latitude to make decisions, while in garrison, leaders rely on bureaucracy and managing systems. Consider the constraints on leaders to run a weapons range at home station, or even to travel for leisure, given the mandate that they complete a Travel Risk Planning System (TRiPS) worksheet before going. They must also verify mandatory training whenever they request mileage passes. (Of note, the U.S. Army is far from alone in its overzealous regulation in garrison. A British soldier, “Nick” writes about the “Erosion of Mission Command in Barracks” and describes the British military bureaucracy’s overregulation of government vehicles in garrison operations. Anyone who has ever signed out a U.S. government vehicle for official travel can relate.)
The Mission Command Mindset
Mission command must become a 24-hour, 365-day mindset in the Army. Every leader must commit to executing mission command in the field, in training, and in garrison, and whether they are in command or not. Leaders must not “put on” mission command only when signing their weapon out of the arms room or snapping on a helmet’s chinstrap. Using a mission command philosophy must be second nature. As stated in Townsend et al’s article, “[g]ood leaders practice mission command daily, continuously applying its principles during everything their units do in order to maximize the repetitions essential for making the principles second nature to everyone on the team.”
While leaders apply mission command across the Army in different units and formations, the amount of control shifts, based on the level of training, experience, and competence of leaders, soldiers, and civilians. Imagine two infantry companies. Both company commanders rely on mission command, but one commander encourages autonomy among his subordinate leaders and their platoons due to their experience and competence. The second company commander maintains greater control because her subordinate leaders lack experience and she has some doubts about their competence due to the complexity of the mission. This difference is OK. It wouldn’t be mission command if every situation demanded the same judgement. Each leader, however, must communicate with their subordinates on the “why” to create shared understanding and to build trust.
In any environment, senior leaders must empower their subordinates and model the principles of mission command. They must ruthlessly eliminate over-control or micro-management from their behavior. And if centralization is required, they must explain why. In Todd South’s recent article, “How changes to mission command will mean soldiers taking risks and taking charge on complex battlefields,” he quotes General Townsend as saying, “[t]here’s too much top down direction, too much philosophy of compliance in mission command.” Just as important as shared understanding and empowerment is trust.
Trust is the basis of all cohesion in the Army. The new ADP 6-0 states. “Mutual trust is essential to successful mission command,” and continues “Subordinates are more willing to exercise initiative when they believe their commander trusts them. They will also be more willing to exercise initiative if they believe their commander will accept and support the outcome of their decisions. Likewise, commanders delegate greater authority to subordinates who have demonstrated tactical and technical competency and whose judgment they trust.” If the goal is to truly to build cohesive teams through mutual trust, all leaders, not just commanders, must actively embrace using the principles of mission command. In “Cutting Our Feet to Fit the Shoes: An Analysis of Mission Command in the U.S. Army,” Army major Amos C. Fox writes, “[r]egardless of the method of command and control stated in doctrine, commanders have always and will always evaluate their units and subordinates based on how much they trust them.” By using the principles of mission command in the garrison environment, leaders will reinforce its use and inculcate it in all the Army does.
Doug Orsi and Bobby Mundell are both retired Army Colonels, currently supporting the Center For Strategic Leadership, U.S. Army War College. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of U.S Southern Command, U.S. Army, or Department of Defense.
Photo Description: Lt. Gen. Mike Lundy, Commanding General of the U.S. Army Combined Arms Center and Fort Leavenworth, Kansas and Commandant of CGSC, hosted the address and Q&A session with the Command and General Staff College (CGSC) class of 2018 on Aug. 14, 2017 and the Lewis and Clark Center, Fort Leavenworth, KS.
Photo Credit: U.S. Army Photos. Composite by Buck Haberichter
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National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility
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Protecting the Nation's Food Supply and Public Health
Historically, the United States did not have a laboratory facility with maximum biocontainment (BSL-4) space to study high-consequence zoonotic diseases affecting large livestock and U.S. scientists had to rely on other countries’ facilities for that type of research.
NBAF has biosafety level-2 and -3 laboratories and is the first facility in the United States with biosafety level-4, or BSL-4, containment capable of housing large livestock. NBAF’s BSL-4 containment laboratories require the highest level of safety protocols and equipment so scientists can safely study and diagnose a variety of high-consequence animal pathogens.
NBAF also features a Biologics Development Module (BDM) for the pilot scale development of vaccines and other countermeasures, augmenting laboratory research and accelerating technology transfer to industry partners.
NBAF’s location in Manhattan, Kansas, places it within the Kansas City Animal Health Corridor, the largest concentration of animal health companies in the world. NBAF is constructed and operated on a secure federally-owned site, adjacent to Kansas State University’s Biosecurity Research Institute and the Kansas Department of Agriculture.
View FAQ (PDF, 2.5 MB)
Why is A New Facility Necessary?
Animal disease research, diagnostics and training are currently performed at the Plum Island Animal Disease Center (PIADC). However, the center is more than 65 years old and does not have the capability to meet research needs relating to emerging and zoonotic animal disease threats. As USDA mission requirements expand to meet these challenges, a new facility with enhanced biocontainment capabilities and modern laboratory designs is necessary to fulfill future needs. Additionally, NBAF is necessary to meet the requirements of Homeland Security Presidential Directive 9 (HSPD-9).
Designed to Ensure Safety and Security
The National Academies of Science (NAS) 2012 review of the Updated Site-Specific Biosafety and Biosecurity Mitigation and Risk Assessment for NBAF, found the design to “meet or exceed” modern biocontainment standards. The laboratory’s critical systems include redundant safety and biocontainment features. In the event of a tornado, the facility’s biocontainment areas are designed to a standard like those applied in the nuclear industry for structural and containment integrity. All recommendations identified in prior risk assessments were incorporated into the NBAF design.
The NAS report also found that the current NBAF design incorporates best practices used in other animal and zoonotic pathogen laboratory facilities in the United States and abroad. NBAF is the nation’s only large animal BSL-4 facility built to safely handle pathogens that do not currently have treatments or countermeasures.
The USDA and the Centers for Disease Control will not issue a certificate of registration allowing select agent research at NBAF until all requirements are satisfied. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) previously made the commitment to the safety of the community, the workers in the facility, and local livestock that the facility would not be operational unless it could be done safely. USDA is continuing that longstanding commitment as NBAF transitions into USDA’s owner/operator role.
NBAF Construction & Operations
DHS Science & Technology Directorate reported construction was completed in May 2022 and contractor commissioning was completed in December 2022.
USDA team started a phase called the operational endurance period. During this phase, USDA’s work processes must be tested and validated in accordance with the building systems. Scientists will confirm laboratory set-up, evaluate standardized laboratory work processes for consistency and safety, and ensure equipment is functioning appropriately. These are critical initial steps to ensure all research and diagnostics can be accomplished safely and effectively.
Before any work with biological select agents and pathogens can begin, the facility and personnel must undergo a series of inspections and reviews by the Federal Select Agent Program, or FSAP. This step is required by law to evaluate the safety and security of any laboratory that will work with high-consequence viruses, bacteria, microorganisms or toxins.
Even after USDA takes ownership of the facility from DHS, it will still take at least a couple of years to transfer the full science mission from the Plum Island Animal Disease Center in New York to NBAF in Kansas.
The USDA is working with several federal partners for a seamless transfer of the science mission from PIADC to NBAF that includes an overlap of operations to make certain there is no interruption of the critical science and operational capabilities during this transition period.
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The Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute sends weekly emails about opportunities to apply for funding, newly funded research studies and engagement projects, results of our funded research, webinars, and other new information posted on our site.
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Garrison Institute on Aging: A New Hope for Elderly Individuals and Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease
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"P. Hemachandra Reddy",
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2015-08-14T00:00:00
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The Garrison Institute on Aging (GIA) is an established institute within Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, whose mission is to promote healthy aging through cutting-edge research on Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and other diseases of aging ...
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THE GARRISON INSTITUTE ON AGING
The Garrison Institute on Aging (GIA), formerly the Institute for Healthy Aging, was established in 1999 by the Texas Board of Regents to meet Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center’s (TTUHSC) strategic priority on aging and as a collaborative initiative with the TTUHSC schools of Allied Health, Medicine, Nursing, and Pharmacy. The GIA is a unique organization, whose mission is to promote healthy aging through cutting-edge research on Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and other diseases of aging through innovative educational opportunities for students, clinicians, researchers, health care professionals, and the public. The vision of the GIA is to become nationally and internationally recognized as a center of excellence for the creation and application of new knowledge about healthy aging through research, innovative interdisciplinary education, and collaborative community outreach efforts.
Initially, the Institute formulated its mission and worked with an interdisciplinary team to foster research on aging with the assistance of a multi-million dollar grant from the U.S. Administration on Aging from 2000–2003. In 2004, through an endowment funded by Mr. and Mrs. Shirley Garrison and by private donations, the Garrison Institute on Aging was created to support aging research and education programs. Paula Grammas, PhD, was then recruited to serve as the GIA Executive Director and conduct research on neurodegenerative diseases, specifically AD, and establish an educational component. With the leadership of Dr. Grammas and the GIA staff, an education and community outreach division was established that focused on aging and preventive health. Thus, the Geriatric Education and Training Academy was created with the assistance of a grant from the U.S. Department of Education and private donations. From 2004–2012, the GIA educated more than 1,700 health care professionals and paraprofessionals through the Certified Nurse Aide (CNA) program. The CNA program focused on training health care professionals that assisted the elderly populations. In 2007, researchers designed a collaborative, multidisciplinary study known as the Cochran County Aging Study, which researches cognitive decline and dementia syndromes of the elderly in rural Texas, who are mainly under-served Mexican-American persons. The GIA also developed the first multidisciplinary, multi-school program—the Student Scholars program—that trains university-level seniors from Texas Tech University (TTU) and TTUHSC in health care issues of the elderly. The community outreach division has grown from providing health fairs through Healthy Lubbock to providing new programs that focus on chronic disease self management, healthy eating and active living.
In the GIA research laboratories, academic professionals lead cutting-edge research projects aimed at understanding AD and other diseases of aging, as well as developing novel therapeutic approaches to cure or prevent age-related disorders. Former GIA Executive Director Paula Grammas, Ph.D., is a leader in researching inflammation and cardiovascular aspects of aging and AD. Dr. Grammas has published over 130 peer-reviewed papers, and her research has been continuously funded since 1990. Dr. Grammas has received several honors, including the Presbyterian Health Foundation Chair in Neuroscience Award for Outstanding Achievement in Alzheimer Research, the Alzheimer Research Award from the Fraternal Order of American Eagles, and the Zenith Award from the Alzheimer’s Association.
In 2014, P. Hemachandra Reddy, Ph.D. joined the TTUHSC as the new GIA Executive Director and Chief Scientific Officer, and a Professor of Cell Biology & Biochemistry, Neuroscience & Pharmacology, and Neurology Departments. He also holds the Mildred and Shirley L. Garrison Chair in Aging. Dr. Reddy’s research on aging and neurodegenerative diseases, including AD, Huntington’s disease (HD), and multiple sclerosis (MS), has been peer-reviewed and recognized as groundbreaking. Dr. Reddy has received continual funding since 2000 and has been the principal investigator on multiple research projects funded by the National Institutes of Health, Alzheimer’s Association, and other national and local foundations and Pharmaceutical Companies. Since 2007, Dr. Reddy has served as a charter member of the VA Merit Review Study Section, and has served on many other NIH study sections and foundation panels, such as the Alzheimer’s Association and the Medical Research Council. Dr. Reddy is also a charter reviewer for the NIH Study Section, Neural Oxidative Metabolism and Death. Dr. Reddy serves as an editor and as an associate editor for many scientific journals, and he is also a member of more than 20 editorial boards. In 2014, Dr. Reddy was elected Fellow of the American Neurological Association.
looseness-1Dr. Reddy’s research laboratory at the GIA focuses on understanding molecular and cellular bases of aging and age-related neurodegenerative diseases. The Reddy Laboratory is interested in the following areas of research: aging, neurodegenerative diseases including AD, HD, Parkinson’s disease, and MS, mitochondria, oxidative stress, diabetes/obesity, and gender-based neuronal changes. Currently, the Reddy Laboratory is involved in multiple projects, including investigating: 1) the roles of amyloid-β (Aβ), synaptic pathology, impaired mitochondrial dynamics, mitochondrial damage, and neuronal dysfunction in the development and progression of AD; 2) mitochondria-targeted molecules and AD therapeutics; 3) the role of Aβ with phosphorylated tau interactions in causing synaptic dysfunction and neuronal damage in AD neurons; 4) the role of the mutant Huntington protein in inducing impaired mitochondrial dynamics and mitochondrial damage, synaptic damage, and neuronal dysfunction in HD; and 5) the roles of oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in MS.
PROGRAMS AT THE GARRISON INSTITUTE ON AGING
As shown in , the GIA has multiple aging programs: 1) community outreach and education on healthy aging and Alzheimer’s dementia, 2) caregiving, 3) Lubbock Retired Senior Volunteer Program (RSVP), 4) Healthy Lubbock, 5) the GIA Brain Bank, 6) scientific research on aging and AD and other dementias, 7) the GIA healthy aging lecture series, 8) the GIA research seminars, and 9) collaborations and scholarships.
Community outreach and education
The top priority for the GIA community outreach and education staff is to increase information available to lay and scientific audiences about factors relating to healthy aging, risks of developing chronic diseases, AD and other dementias, and age-related diseases particularly in individuals 50 years of age and older. The staff focuses on developing physical and mental exercises for older individuals and explaining the benefits. The goal is to raise awareness about health care, nutrition, and exercise. The GIA outreach programs are non-profit and are designed to fill in gaps often left by the services provided by the state and federal government. The programs target the elderly population, individuals with chronic diseases, and low-income neighborhoods. Most of the GIA staff is actively involved in outreach programs that educate the community through informational booths at health fairs and farmers’ markets. In addition, health screenings and on-site nutritional information is provided in area neighborhoods. The GIA community outreach activities are well received and appreciated within the areas they serve.
Caregiving
The GIA collaborates with the Alzheimer’s Association, family medicine, and aging agencies to provide resources associated with activities of daily living, health care, financial matters, companionship, and social interaction for caregivers in the Lubbock and rural communities near Lubbock.
The GIA also conducted a pilot respite program. Respite for family caregivers provides the caregiver relief from their daily care responsibilities and also supports the physical, social, and psychological health of care recipients. Few family caregivers are able to access the amount of respite that they need, particularly family caregivers in rural areas. The Cochran County Community-Based Respite Program was a pilot program of the Cochran County Aging Study generously funded by the Carl B. & Florence E. King Foundation. Volunteers from the community provided respite services for family caregivers once a week for four hours at the Griffith Senior Citizens Center in Morton, TX. The program was provided to families at no cost and was sustained by the support of community volunteers.
Retired Senior Volunteer Program
The Lubbock Retired Senior Volunteer Program (RSVP) began in 1979 and in 2008 was moved to the GIA from the Texas Tech University College of Human Sciences. Since 2008, the Lubbock RSVP program has obtained funding. RSVP matches adults 55 and older with volunteer services in the community. Currently, the RSVP program has 600 active volunteers that serve over 50 agencies. Under GIA sponsorship, Lubbock RSVP also connects senior citizens with health care professionals, through a variety of programs, as shown in . Throughout the year, the Lubbock RSVP Director makes presentations on healthy aging to community groups and explains how the program matches senior citizens with volunteer opportunities.
Healthy Lubbock
In September 2007, the GIA community outreach division, along with business organizations and health care professionals, created a coalition and established the Healthy Lubbock program. Healthy Lubbock established several new programs including Healthy Lubbock Day and GET FiT Lubbock. Healthy Lubbock Day is a collaborative effort between the City of Lubbock Parks and Recreation Department and other Lubbock health organizations that organize a one-day event to promote Lubbock’s health resources. Over 30 vendors and 500 participants attend the event yearly.
GET FiT Lubbock is a community-wide fitness challenge in which individuals from the community, ranging in age from 18 to 80, earn points for weight loss, minutes of daily exercise, and attendance at community health events. The GIA staff created a web-based tracking system that allows participants to create an account, establish a profile, and log their exercise time and nutritional information. The fitness challenge includes an opportunity to exercise independently, listen to educational lectures from experts in both exercise and nutrition, and to attend community events. The GIA staff encourages independent exercise, but also hosts exercise sessions in local gyms. Since its launch in 2007, community participants have lost more than 12,000 pounds and have logged over 90,000 hours of exercise. GET FiT Lubbock was recognized by the Texas Council on Cardiovascular Disease and Stroke as the Outstanding Program for the 2008 Texas Cardiovascular Health Promotion Award. Details of Healthy Lubbock are shown in .
The programs established through the efforts of Healthy Lubbock have resulted in grant funding and collaboration with the Texas Department of State Health Services (DSHS). In 2011, the GIA received a grant from the Texas DSHS Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity Prevention (NPAOP) program, and was renewed in 2012. The grant was tasked with the following directives: 1) the effects of additional nutritional information on concession stand menus at local swimming pools and sports complexes—whether persons select healthier eating choices given such nutritional information before they order; 2) the impact of providing demonstrations on how to prepare healthy meals, at health fairs and farmers’ markets—whether persons who saw the demonstrations applied the information to meals prepared at home; 3) the effect of a symposium on worksite wellness for local healthcare professionals, human resources professionals, business owners, and employees; and 4) whether walking trails marked as such at a local sports complex increased their use by patrons attending the sports events.
In 2012, the GIA received a grant from the DSHS Transforming Texas Program to implement the following projects in Lubbock County, Texas and in the nearby rural community of Hale County, Texas: a) prevent and reduce the exposure to second-hand smoke by establishing coalitions and educating the community about the effects of second-hand smoke; b) promote active living and healthy eating through a marketing campaign that promotes shared-use paths; c) improve community access to fresh fruits and vegetables through a farm-to-work program in which farmers’ markets are set up at worksites for TTUHSC employees and students; and d) create a public educational campaign that encourages adults who have been diagnosed with diabetes in the previous 12 months to have their blood pressure and cholesterol checked at local medical facilities.
In 2014, DSHS Texas Healthy Communities awarded the GIA Community Outreach Department a grant to conduct a health assessment of Lubbock County, produce an active living plan, and activate a dashboard for the community. The DSHS Texas Healthy Communities Program assists communities to assess their existing environments, implement changes in local environmental and policy infrastructure, and adopt priority public health practices to reduce risk factors for chronic diseases. Through this collaboration, the GIA has established the Physical Activity Committee. They are leading the charge in developing the active living plan that will be shared with community leadership.
GIA Brain Bank
The GIA Brain Bank was established in 2007, with funding support from Mr. Shirley L. Garrison and the Garrison Family Foundation ( ). This program was created for two reasons: 1) to provide a free brain autopsy to families who wish to confirm the clinical diagnosis of dementia on their loved one; and 2) to provide brain tissue for research to scientists at the GIA and other qualified scientists. By providing specimens for research to scientists will better understand neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD. The GIA hopes not only to elucidate the origins of neurodegenerative diseases but also to improve the treatment and care of patients with dementia.
While it is important to enroll specimens from patients with dementia, it is equally important to do so from individuals with no dementia. Studying tissue from both demented and non-demented persons will enable researchers to identify and compare changes in the brain, changes that are associated with aging and with neurodegenerative diseases. The GIA Brain Bank receives specimens not only from the state of Texas, but also from New Mexico, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and other states.
The GIA Brain Bank staff educates and promotes the program at health fairs, community events, via the Internet and by word of mouth. It is important that arrangements be made well in advance, as information about the patient, procedural arrangements, and proper documentation should be made and completed in order to conduct a brain autopsy. To assist, the GIA Brain Bank has prepared Documentation of Intent for Autopsy packets. Within the packet are forms that are intended for different scenarios and, depending on where the patient is being cared for (at home, hospital, or nursing home), will dictate which forms the family need to complete. The GIA staff will review these forms with family members and answer any questions or concerns regarding the documents and actual autopsy procedures. Once the appropriate forms are identified for the family’s situation, they are then distributed to physicians, hospital personnel, nursing homes personnel, home care personnel, and funeral directors. An example follows of how a donation to the GIA Brain Bank is handled, when the brain bank is contacted directly by a family member: 1) A family member will contact the GIA Brain Bank coordinator with questions about the program and procedures. 2) The coordinator will answer all questions and concerns family members have and should the family request or decide to enroll in the program, the coordinator will mail the family the Documentation of Intent for Autopsy packet. 3) Once the packet is received, additional questions may follow from the family and they are encouraged to contact the GIA Brain Bank coordinator. 4) Should the family decide not to enroll, and then no other follow up will be done. 5) If the family decides to enroll, then the Patient History document, Funeral Home document, and Housing document will be completed by the family and returned to the GIA Brain Bank coordinator. 6) The coordinator will then follow up with the contacts listed on all the above forms to confirm the family’s intention of a brain autopsy and to answer any questions they may have. 7) The coordinator then will locate/contact a qualified professional to do the actual brain autopsy. The GIA Brain Bank has established contacts in certain cities and states to assist in this procedure. 8) When all parties have agreed to provide their individual services, then the coordinator will share all the pertinent information with all parties involved. The patient’s housing facility will be informed to contact the GIA Brain Bank coordinator at the time of death and the coordinator will be responsible to initiate the other procedures for the brain autopsy. The funeral home will be informed where the body will be located at the time of death and also be provided the information of the facility of where the body will be transported for the brain removal. 9) The autopsy is conducted within 10 hours of the time of death and the actual procedure usually takes 15 to 20 minutes. 10) Once the brain is removed, it is weighed and processed according to GIA Brain Bank protocols, which includes freezing the left half of the brain, fixing the right half of the brain in formalin, collecting demographics on the patient, such as the patient’s age, and age at disease onset. 11) The body is released to funeral home for the prearranged funeral arrangements once the brain tissue is removed. 12) The frozen and fixed brains are sent to our laboratory for storing. After two weeks, the fixed tissue is sent to a neuropathologist for diagnosing. 13) Once received by the neuropathologist, an autopsy report is generated usually within 6 to 9 months after the patient’s death with the final diagnosis. 14) A copy of the autopsy report is sent to the family and any other family or medical personnel the family requested/listed during the time of completing the enrollment process. Details of GIA Brain Bank can be found at http://www.ttuhsc.edu/centers/aging/brainbank.aspx
Current Research Projects at GIA
The GIA is home to a large number of scientists and their research staff, all of whom are dedicated to researching aging, AD, HD, and MS. A few projects that are currently underway at the Reddy Laboratory of GIA are summarized below.
Project 1: Amyloid-β, synaptic pathology, and mitochondrial dysfunction in AD
According to the Alzheimer’s Association, an estimated 5.4 million Americans were identified as suffering from AD [1]. The disease usually begins to manifest after age 60, and the risk of AD onset increases with age. It is estimated that by the year 2050, 50% of people worldwide who are 85 years of age or older will be afflicted with AD. Two-thirds of women and one-third of men are at lifetime risk for AD. Despite tremendous progress in AD research, there is still no clear understanding of why more women than men are at risk for AD, and there are still no early detectable markers and no drugs or agents that can delay or prevent AD in men or women. Aging is considered the number one risk factor for late-onset AD. Several cellular mechanisms are reported to be involved in AD pathogenesis. However, mitochondrial dysfunction and synaptic damage stand out as early events in AD progression.
The Reddy Laboratory has undertaken a global gene-expression study that uses a transgenic mouse model of AD (a model with the amyloid-β protein precursor; AβPP). Dr. Reddy and his research team found that genes related to mitochondrial energy metabolism and apoptosis were upregulated in 2-, 5-, and 18-month-old AβPP mice, compared to age-matched wild-type mice [2]. These results suggest that mitochondrial energy metabolism might be impaired by mutant AβPP and Aβ, and that the upregulation of mitochondrial genes may be a compensatory response to this impairment. Further, Aβ was found to be associated with mitochondria in AD neurons and for generating reactive oxygen species, mitochondrial dysfunction, and synaptic damage, all of which have been implicated in AD pathogenesis [3]. For the first time, the Reddy Laboratory demonstrated that Aβ interacts with a mitochondrial fission protein, dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1), which is known to induce excessive GTPase enzymatic activity and to cause excessive mitochondrial fragmentation and abnormal mitochondrial distribution in AD neurons [4, 5]. Further, Dr. Reddy recently found that the voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1; a mitochondrial permeability transition pore protein) interacts with Aβ and phosphorylated tau, and causes mitochondrial damage in neurons affected by AD [6]. Reddy’s group is currently investigating the physiological relevance of these abnormal interactions in neurological disease processes, such as AD, in order to develop molecular inhibitors to reduce Aβ-and phosphorylated tau-induced neuronal toxicities in disease progression.
Project 2: Mitochondria-targeted molecules and AD therapeutics
In the mitochondrial therapeutics project, the Reddy research team is investigating whether mitochondria-targeted molecules can reduce oxidative damage and Aβ pathology, increase neurite outgrowth, and ameliorate cognitive deficits in AβPP transgenic mice [7]. To study mitochondrial function and dysfunction, Aβ pathology, and cognitive behavior, Reddy and his research team are: 1) treating Aβ PP mice with mitochondria-targeted molecules and 2) crossing them with mitochondria-targeted catalase transgenic mice (MCAT) mice, which are known to survive 5 months longer than normal, wild-type mice [8]. Further, they are also studying gender-based protective effects of MCAT in double mutant AβPPxMCAT mice relative to AβPP mice.
Project 3: Abnormal interaction of Aβ with phosphorylated tau in AD neurons: Implications to synaptic dysfunction and neuronal damage
Using postmortem brains from AD patients at different stages of disease progression and control subjects, and brain tissues from multiple lines of AD mice, including AβPP, AβPPxPS1, and 3xTg-AD mice, the Reddy team studied the physical interaction between Aβ and phosphorylated tau. We found monomeric and oligomeric Aβ interacted with phosphorylated tau in neurons affected by AD [9]. Further, these interactions progressively increased with the disease process. These findings led to conclude that Aβ interacts with phosphorylated tau and may damage neuronal structure and function, particularly at synapses, leading to cognitive decline in AD patients. These findings suggest that binding sites between Aβ and phosphorylated tau need to be identified and molecules developed to inhibit this interaction. Currently, the Reddy Laboratory is identifying the molecular inhibitors that may reduce abnormal interactions between Aβ phosphorylated tau to reduce Aβ- and phosphorylated tau-induced neuronal toxicities in disease progression.
Project 4: Mutant huntingtin, mitochondrial dynamics, and HD
Using postmortem brains from patients with HD and brains from transgenic mice with HD, the Reddy Laboratory is exploring the role of abnormal mitochondrial dynamics in the progression of HD [10–13]. Using primary neurons from the transgenic mouse models of HD; state-of-the-art, live-cell imaging tools; and transmission electron microscopy, the Reddy Laboratory is investigating axonal transport of mitochondria, mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial dynamics (e.g., fission and fusion balance), and synaptic activity in AD neurons [13]. Recently, the Reddy Laboratory is studying the efficacies of mitochondria-targeted molecules, Mdivi 1, MitoQ, and SS31, in vitro (using stably expressed expanded polyglutamine repeats in mouse striatal neurons) and in vivo HD transgenic mice [14, 15]. Further, they are studying primary neurons and mammalian cells with high throughput screening tools, and are screening small molecule libraries in order to identify molecules that protect neurons in patients with HD and other neurodegenerative diseases.
Project 5: Experimental therapeutics of multiple sclerosis
Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are involved in the progression and pathogenesis of MS [16]. Using an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mouse model (mice that mimic MS symptoms) and the mitochondria-targeted molecule MitoQ, the Reddy research team is studying the beneficial effects of MitoQ on EAE mice. Initial results are revealing that pretreatment and treatment of EAE mice with MitoQ reduce neurological disabilities associated with EAE and lead to significantly suppressed inflammatory markers of EAE, including the inhibition of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines [17]. Currently, they are studying the neuroprotective mechanisms of MitoQ in EAE mice and also preparing to study the effects of multiple neuroprotective molecules on MS patients in a series of clinical trials.
The GIA Healthy Aging Seminars
The GIA sponsors the Healthy Aging Seminars, a series of 1-hour seminars designed to educate senior citizens, patients with AD and their family members, nurses, caregivers, and other health care professionals about new advances in healthy aging and Alzheimer’s dementia. The GIA routinely invites experts on aging, AD, and other age-related diseases to give seminars in the Lubbock community, such as at a local community center, and also on the TTUHSC campus. Each fall, the yearlong seminar series is announced, and each seminar series is very well attended, with audiences ranging from 30 to 200 persons. Details about this seminar series can be found at http://www.ttuhsc.edu/centers/aging/healthyaging.aspx.
The GIA Research Seminars
The GIA Research Seminars, a new program started in 2014 by Dr. Hemachandra Reddy, focus on research experts presenting new research findings on aging, AD, and dementia-related and age-related diseases. This program is open to the public and to persons in the scientific community. The details can be found at http://www.ttuhsc.edu/centers/aging/researchseminar.aspx.
Collaborations and scholarships
The Reddy Laboratory of GIA is actively collaborating with investigators at TTU and the TTUHSC-School of Medicine, and investigators from outside TTUHSC, including Johns Hopkins University and Baylor College of Medicine and others. In addition, the GIA also participates in multiple student training programs: 1) The Student Scholars in Geriatrics, 2) The SOM Student Summer Research Program, and 3) The High School Student Scholars Research Program.
The Student Scholars in Geriatrics (SSG)
The SSG is an inter-professional program that offers students from TTUHSC and TTU who are interested in the geriatric field. Students attend lectures, clinical practicum, community service, and an inter-professional geriatric service event. Students participate in the program for one academic year with the option to re-apply for additional terms in the program. Select students will have the opportunity to attend regional and national meetings of the American Geriatrics Society and the Gerontological Society of America.
The purpose of the SSG Program is to develop a cadre of students from multiple disciplines who have a long-term commitment to advancing geriatric healthcare and are actively engaged in inter-professional projects designed to extend the years of active, healthy life for older adults. Creating leaders in geriatrics is key to the long-term success of this program; therefore, the students are charged with developing learning activities for themselves and others.
The goals of the project include 1) providing hands-on opportunities to work with the geriatric population in academic, community service, and clinical care settings; 2) provide exposure to the field of Geriatrics in classroom- and practice-based environments; 3) provide an opportunity to participate in a longitudinal clinical project; and 4) provide students with the experiences that will help them to become leaders who promote geriatrics to their fellow students and the community at large.
The SOM Student Summer Research Program
The GIA also participates in the SOM Student Summer Research Program, an 8-week program designed to help students gain experience in an area of research interest. First-year medical students in Lubbock are encouraged to coordinate with interested faculty members on project proposals that are to be submitted for approval to the Office of the Dean. A stipend in the amount of $2,240 will be paid to each participating student in accordance with this guideline, and students are required to present information regarding summer research activities during the Student Research Week in Spring 2016. Two SOM students are working in the Reddy Laboratory of GIA and conducting research. One project is focused on molecular basis of amyloid beta and phosphorylated tau in the progression and pathogenesis of AD. The purpose of the second project is to investigate the role of synaptic damage, oxidative stress/mitochondrial dysfunction in relation to Aβ and phosphorylated tau in the progression and pathogenesis of AD.
The High School Student Scholars Research Program
The High School Student Scholars Summer Research Program is a new initiative by Dr. Reddy, to help high school students gain experience in the research areas of aging and neurodegenerative diseases. It is an 8-week program, supported by GIA. Currently, one student is working in the Reddy Laboratory of GIA to understand the molecular basis of synaptic damage using neuronal cultures of AD.
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https://mahouka-koukou-no-rettousei.fandom.com/wiki/Magician_Research_and_Development_Institutes
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Magician Research and Development Institutes
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2024-07-29T22:27:06+00:00
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The Magician Research and Development Institutes (魔法技能師開発研究所) were ten research laboratories established by Japan, each with a specific research theme. Certain laboratories have been shut down, one after another due to inhuman research conducted among other reasons, with half of them still...
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https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/mahouka-koukou-no-rettousei/images/4/4a/Site-favicon.ico/revision/latest?cb=20230312021620
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Mahouka Koukou no Rettousei Wiki
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https://mahouka-koukou-no-rettousei.fandom.com/wiki/Magician_Research_and_Development_Institutes
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Spoiler Alert: This page contains spoilers. Read at your own risk.
The Magician Research and Development Institutes (魔法技能師開発研究所) were ten research laboratories established by Japan, each with a specific research theme. Certain laboratories have been shut down, one after another due to inhuman research conducted among other reasons, with half of them still running as of 2095. [1]
The Army General Headquarters established a secret research institute in 2002. During the 2010's and 2020's there were research institutes that operated, which were structured off the secret institute to develop the Elements; all of which were closed due to a change made in Magician development policy. Then these ten research laboratories were built in accordance with the new Magician development policy. [2]
Currently, only the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 6th and 8th laboratories are still in operation. [2]
Background[]
These laboratories for Magician development were established one after the other in the 2030’s by the Japanese government in response to the increasing international tensions leading to World War III. The laboratories' aim was not Magic development but Magician development, and so genetic research to manufacture the perfect Magicians for their target magic was included. [2]
Kudou Retsu himself underwent strength enhancement measures at the Army General Headquarters research institute before he joined the Ninth Institute. [2]
1st Research Institute[]
Established 2031 in Kanazawa. Currently shut down.
It had been closed before 2092, and is currently the Kanazawa Magic Science Institute where Kichijouji Shinkurou is a member and who utilized the Cardinal Code Hypothesis, and discovered the Weight Type Magic Invisible Bullet. [3]
Research Subject: Its specialty was the development of magic for direct interference of organic bodies in anti-personnel warfare. The vaporization magic "Rupture" is the derivative from that research. However, research on human movement control magic led to "Puppet Terrorists" (suicide terrorists manufactured from puppeteer humans) and was halted. [2]
Families Involved:
Ichijou (Ten Master Clans) - Developed magic that interfered with fluids in living organisms.
Ichinokura (18 Assistant Houses)
Isshiki (18 Assistant Houses) - Magic that Directly Interferes with Living Organism
Ichihana (Extra Family)
2nd Research Institute[]
Established 2031 in Awaji Island. Currently in operation.
Research Subject: In contrast to First Institute's magic, its focus is magic for direct interference of inorganic substances, especially the development of oxidation to de-oxidation branch of Absorption Type Magic. [2]
Families Involved:
Futatsugi (Ten Master Clans)
Nikaidōu (18 Assistant Houses)
Nihei (18 Assistant Houses)
3rd Research Institute[]
Established 2032 in Atsugi. Currently in operation.
The Mitsuya Family actively provides the know-how to Magicians of the Defense Forces and about the applications of the Third Research Institute, meanwhile cooperating alongside the Houses of 'Three'. [4]
Research Subject: In developing Magicians that can independently handle multiple situations, it implemented multi-casting technology. Exploring limits on the maximum number of magic’s that can be cast simultaneously and continuously, it is developing Magicians able to cast multiple magic’s simultaneously. [2]
Families Involved:
Mitsuya (Ten Master Clans)
Mikazuki (18 Assistant Houses)
Saegusa (Ten Master Clans) - (Moved to 7th Research Institute)
4th Research Institute[]
Details are unknown.
Believed to be located near the borders of old Metro Tokyo and old Yamanashi prefecture. Believed to be established in 2033. Now shut down, but even its true status is unknown. Rumors exist that the Old Fourth Research Institute was set up by an independent non-government sponsor whom bears strong clout with countries, and it currently operates under said sponsor's support. There are also rumors that thanks to said sponsor, it was effectively operating before the 2020s. [2]
Known to be publicly shut down due to extreme human rights violations. [1]
Research Subject: Using Mental Interference Magic, it aims to strengthen the Magic Calculation Area, the reservoir of the superpower so-called magic that resides in a magician's unconscious mind. [2]
Families Involved:
Yotsuba (Ten Master Clans)
5th Research Institute[]
Established 2035 in (Uwajima, Ehima). Currently in operation.
Research Subject: It focuses on Material Phase Manipulation Magic. Though the technically easy Fluid Control has turned mainstream, it has succeeded in Solid-State Phase Manipulation. The result is the Strategic-Class Magic co-developed with the USNA, "Bahamut". Along with the Fluid Control Magic "Abyss", the laboratory won international fame for the magic development of two Strategic-Class Magics. [2]
Families Involved:
Itsuwa (Ten Master Clans)
Gotō (18 Assistant Houses)
Itsumi (18 Assistant Houses)
6th Research Institute[]
Established 2035 in Sendai. Currently in operation.
Research Subject: Heat Control Magic. Along with Eighth Institute, it is strong on theoretical magic research but light on practical military magic research. Nevertheless, it was said that this lab alone (apart from the Fourth Institute) has conducted more genetic engineering experiments than any other Magician Development Laboratory. [2]
Families Involved:
Mutsuzuka (Ten Master Clans)
Rokkaku (18 Assistant Houses)
Rokugou (18 Assistant Houses)
Roppongi (18 Assistant Houses)
7th Research Institute[]
Established 2036 in Tokyo. Currently shut down.
The Shippou Family's Magic created by the Seventh Research Institute, called "Herd Control". Here, the term herd does not refer to a group of biological organisms, but instead referred to a group that was connected together without any rules. Multiple independent objects, or even phenomena, were manipulated together as if they were one body. [5]
Research Subject: It developed Magic that focused on anti-unit warfare. Their results are Herd Control Magics'. This in contrast to the non-militaristic Sixth Institute, and it was set up as a Magician Development Institute that took on the additional role of emergency capital defense. [2]
Families Involved:
Saegusa (Ten Master Clans) - (Moved from 3rd Research Institute)
Shippou (Ten Master Clans) - (Elected to Ten Master Clans in 2097)
Tanabata (18 Assistant Houses)
Nanase (18 Assistant Houses)
Nanakura (Extra Family)
8th Research Institute[]
Established 2037 in Kitakyushu. Currently in operation.
Research Subject: It researches on magic that manipulate the Four Fundamental Interactions (gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear, weak nuclear). It is a laboratory even more focused on theoretical research than the Sixth Institute. However, it differs strongly from the Sixth Institute when it comes to relations with the National Defense Force. The Eight Institutes research can easily lead to nuclear weapons development; and so with National Defense Force's approval, it has been quashing suspicions that it was developing nuclear missiles. [2]
Families Involved:
Yatsushiro (Ten Master Clans)
Hassaku (18 Assistant Houses)
Hachiman (18 Assistant Houses)
9th Research Institute[]
Established 2037 in Nara. Currently shut down.
The Old Ninth Research Institute, which was officially closed after WWIII, and is currently a joint civilian research facility operated by the Kudou, Kuki, and Kuzumi Families that researches Perception-Type Magic. [6]
In a fusion of Modern and Ancient Magic, by taking in Ancient Magic know-how to Modern Magic, it aimed to resolve many issues that plague Modern Magic like fuzzy magic sequence operation.
Research Subject: To develop Magicians who could implement streamlined and re-systematized Ancient Magic into Modern Magic.
Ancient Magic users, including Kokonoe Yakumo's predecessor, cooperated with the 9th Institute out of their own free will, in the hopes that they could improve the Ancient Magic that had been passed down with science and create even stronger magic. However, from the beginning, the 9th Institute's goal was to develop stronger Modern magic by taking components of Ancient Magic and producing Magicians that were superior to them as weapons.
As a result, the Ancient Magic users only ended up with getting the techniques they used being stolen. Even into today, Ancient Magic users feel hostility to Magicians produced by this Institute and bear the number 9 in their names.
Families Involved:
Kudou (18 Assistant Houses) - (Stepped down from Ten Master Clans in 2097)
Kuki (18 Assistant Houses)
Kuzumi (18 Assistant Houses)
Kokonoe (Ancient Magic Clan) - Taught magic "Matoi" to the Kudou Family which became the magic "Parade".
10th Research Institute[]
Established 2039 in Tokyo. Currently shut down.
In addition to capital defense like the 7th, it focuses on Wide-Area Magic that generates virtual structures in space as a defensive countermeasure to heavy firepower. The results are the many varieties of anti-physical attack barrier magics.
In addition, the 10th sought to increase magic capabilities with methods different from that of 4th. Specifically, not by strengthening the Magic Calculation Zone itself but by temporarily overclocking it; it dealt in developing magicians that can cast powerful magic when the situation calls for it. However the results were not publicized.
Used the research data from the 3rd Institute to allow the Juumonji Family to use multiple magics other than Phalanx.
Families Involved:
Juumonji (Ten Master Clans)
Tooyama (18 Assistant Houses)
Toogami/Tookami (Extra Family)
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https://www.quartermasterfoundation.org/army-operational-rations-historical-background/
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Army Operational Rations – Historical background
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Gives an excellent historical overview of Operational Ration development from the Revolutionary War to the end of World War II. Focuses on World War II development and fielding of the C, D, K, 5 in 1 and 10 in 1 rations. From Chapter 1 of "Special Rations for the Armed Forces, 1946-53", By Franz A.
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Army Quartermaster Foundation, Inc. - Preserving the history and traditions of the United States Army Quartermaster Corps
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https://www.quartermasterfoundation.org/army-operational-rations-historical-background/
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Gives an excellent historical overview of Operational Ration development from the Revolutionary War to the end of World War II. Focuses on World War II development and fielding of the C, D, K, 5 in 1 and 10 in 1 rations.
From Chapter 1 of “Special Rations for the Armed Forces, 1946-53”, By Franz A. Koehler, QMC Historical Studies, Series II, No. 6, Historical Branch, Office of the Quartermaster General, Washington D.C. 1958
Table of Contents
Early Army Rations
Special Rations in World War I
Reserve Rations
Trench Rations
Emergency Rations
Ration Development 1918-36
Ration Development 1936-41
Field Ration D
Field Ration C
Operational Rations in World War II
The D Ration
Ration, Type C
The K Ration
The Mountain Ration
Jungle Ration
The 5-in-1 Ration
The 10-in-1 Ration
Assault Lunch
Type X Ration
Aircrew Ration
AAF Combat Lunch
Sandwich Packs
Parachute Emergency Rations
Airborne Lifeboat Ration
Liferaft Ration
Kitchen Spice Pack
Hospital Supplement
Aid-Station Beverage Pack
Red Cross Food Pack Summary
End Notes
Note: Illustrations & Tables for this document were not reproduced here.
CHAPTER I
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Early Army Rations
The problem of feeding an armed force engaged in combat, whether in alien or in home areas, has occupied the attention of military leaders since the beginning of organized warfare. Leaders learned that the ability of men to fight was related to the way they were fed and that the answer to the feeding problem often determined victory or defeat. The axiom that an army travels on its stomach is as good today as it has ever been, only now that classical stomach rides in airplanes, ships, tanks, submarines, and jeeps in every terrain and climate of the world. But there is no question that the problems of the army stomach have entered the age of specialization. This fact is increasingly evident as the story of army subsistence unfolds from the early simplicity to the contemporary complexity of the military feeding program.
The earliest rations of the United States Army were all-inclusive in purpose. For more than a century after 1776, the basis of all troop feeding–for soldiers in camp, on the march, in action, or just surviving–was the simple fare of meat and bread, and sometimes vegetables, known as the garrison ration. From the Revolutionary War to World War I, the garrison ration served the unit, the small group, and the individual. Moreover, it was intended to serve them in organized messes, in isolated groups, and in individual situations of combat and survival.
In the Revolutionary War, this all-purpose ration established by resolution of Congress, included beef, pork, or salt fish; bread or flour; peas or beans (or “vegetable equivalent”); milk; rice or Indian meal; and spruce beer or cider. Candles and soap also were authorized “essentials.” 1 Ordinarily, preparation of the food was up to the soldier. To provide fresh meat, cattle and hogs were driven to camp at “proper seasons” for slaughter and curing. Depending on the availability of supplies, other occasional variations were provided from time to time. One of the most welcome was “spirits”2.
Immediately after the Revolutionary War, the issue of meat was reduced and fresh foods virtually disappeared from the ration. The changes were not without their effect on the health of the soldier nor was this result to go unnoticed. Dr. Benjamin Rush, Army Surgeon in 1777-78, and others, complained of the lack of fresh vegetables and pointed out that more soldiers died from sickness than were killed by the sword.3 There was, however, little that could be done to increase the supply of fresh foods-food preservation and transportation facilities were primitive and undeveloped and decades were to pass before these factors helped improve military subsistence.
Some attempt was made after the Revolution to increase the fare of the soldier serving on the frontier. In recognition of the severity of frontier life, Congress, in 1796, authorized the issue of additional amounts of flour or bread, beef, pork, and salt as supplementary items to the regular garrison ration.4 Coffee appeared in the ration in October 1832, when President Andrew Jackson substituted coffee and sugar for rum and brandy. This Presidential substitution was recognized by Congress in the Act of July 5, 1838, which declared “that the allowance of sugar and coffee to the noncommissioned officers, musicians, and privates, in lieu [of whiskey], shall be fixed at six pounds of coffee and twelve pounds of sugar to every one hundred rations, to be issued weekly when it can be done with convenience of the public service, and, when not so issued, to be provided for in money.” 5
To provide a better diet for the Civil War soldier than the Revolutionary soldier had, Congress, on August 3, 1861, authorized the following “temporary” increases in the garrison ration:
That the Army ration shall be increased as follows viz: Twenty-two ounces of bread or flour, or one pound of hard bread, instead of the present issue; fresh beef shall be issued as often as the commanding officer of any detachment or regiment shall require it, when practicable, in place of salt meat; beans and rice or hominy shall be issued in the same ration in the proportions now provided by the regulation, and one pound of potatoes per man shall be issued at least three times a week, if practicable, and when these articles cannot be issued in those proportions, an equivalent in value shall be issued in some other proper food, and a ration of tea may be substituted for a ration of coffee upon the requisition of the proper officer. Provided, that after the present insurrection shall cease the ration shall be as provided by law and regulations on the first day of July, 1861. 6
The principle of soldier-acceptance of foods-now a cardinal requirement for Army rations-was given recognition during the Civil War. Coffee extract, preserved meats, and desiccated vegetables were authorized for procurement if they were “not more expensive” and were “acceptable to the men.” 7 Much of the canned food, however, was found to be defective and subsequently became the target of investigations of suppliers and the supply system. Condiments and flavorings were sanctioned in the Act of March 3, 1863, which stated that “the Army ration shall hereafter include pepper, in the proportion of four ounces to every hundred rations.” 8 At the close of the Civil War, the basic ration for the soldier included ž -pound of pork or bacon, 1 ź pounds of fresh or salt beef, and 18 ounces of flour. In varying proportions based on 100 rations, he was provided with potatoes, peas, beans or rice; coffee or tea; sugar; vinegar; salt and pepper; candles; and soap. On campaigns or marches, corn meal and hard bread were issued.9 For those items not officially approved nor always available, it was expected that the soldier would resort to forage to augment the food supplied to him.
During the Indian campaigns of the period 1865-1890, the rations, still based on the pattern inherited from the Civil War, were described as monotonous, unpalatable, and clumsy. The generally good health of the frontier soldier was attributed less to the ration than to vigorous life in the open, hard work and physical exercise, and ability to adapt the bounty of the countryside to his needs. When fresh foods were not available, the nutritional inadequacy of the ration could and did result in scurvy and other ailments. In some instances, permanent garrisons made attempts at gardening and farming in order to supplement the ration with fresh vegetables. Desiccated and dehydrated vegetables also were supplied to troops on the frontier and the items-dried onions, cabbage, beets, turnips, carrots, and green peppers-generally were well received. Dehydrated items were adapted as “trail rations” to be eaten by the troops as they rode or trudged along. “Pemmican” was another trail-type ration in use during this period. An historical account described the process of making pemmican as follows:
This food [pemmican], called wasna by the Dakota Sioux, was made by pounding buffalo meat into shreds, mixing dried berries or wild choke cherries into the meat, stuffing it into a hide bag, and sealing the bag with melted tallow. The choke cherries were usually pounded, stones and all, into the dried buffalo meat. Wild plums, gooseberries, and currants were also used in the pemmican and it has been asserted that grasshoppers were included in some recipes-probably to increase the range of amino acids available or otherwise fortify the product.10
Jerked beef and pinole were other Indian items adopted for Army use on the frontier during this era. Their manufacture was described in the following fashion:
Jerked beef is simply strips of lean beef hung out in the air of dry climate until nearly all of the moisture disappears, while the nutritive parts remain. . . . “Pinole” is parched and ground wheat or corn; the packing renders the grain tender, easily masticated and digestible. Like the jerked beef, it is deprived of most of its moisture.11
During the Spanish-American. War, the prescribed ration was beef (or its equivalent), flour or bread, baking powder, beans, potatoes (fresh), green coffee, sugar, vinegar, salt, pepper, soap, and candles. Progress in the preparation, handling, shipping, and storage of foods was then considered to be sufficiently advanced to justify the procurement of large supplies of fresh and canned meats. The spoilage of great quantities of those items, with deleterious effects on the health of the soldier, remains a controversial blot on the military subsistence record. The lack or spoilage of fresh foods was at least a contributory cause to mortality statistics, which showed that fourteen soldiers died from illness and disease for every one who died from battle causes. 12
Special rations for specific purposes may be said to have originated in definitions of rations issued by the Army in 1901. Rations were then divided into five categories:
For troops in garrison (garrison ration).
For troops in the field in active campaign (field ration).
For troops when traveling otherwise than marching, or when for short periods they are separated from cooking facilities (travel ration).
For troops traveling in vessels of the United States Army transport service.
For use of troops on emergent occasions in active campaign (emergency ration). 13
The standard items listed for troops in garrison included fresh beef; flour; beans and potatoes; prunes; coffee and sugar; vinegar, salt, and pepper; and soap and candles. Fresh mutton, bacon, canned meats, and dried, pickled, and canned fish were to be used when it was impracticable to secure the standard items. Peas, rice, hominy, onions, canned tomatoes, and fresh and “desiccated” vegetables were added to the vegetable components. Apples and peaches were alternated with prunes; tea was a substitute for coffee; and cucumber pickles joined with the “seasoning components.” Substitutions were particularly foreseen in the Alaskan service and for situations in which transportation was a factor. 14
The field ration included the basic components of the garrison ration-meat, bread, vegetables, fruit, coffee and sugar, seasoning, and soap and candle. Substitutes included fresh mutton, canned meat and bacon; soft and hard bread; hops and dried or compressed yeast; rice, onions, desiccated potatoes and onions, and canned tomatoes; tea; and cucumber pickles.
Soft or hard bread, canned corned beef, baked beans, tomatoes; roasted and ground coffee, and sugar were provided for troops traveling otherwise than by marching. Food for troops on transports was to be prepared from garrison subsistence stores varied, when required, by the substitution of other authorized articles of equal money value.
The emergency ration was for issue on active campaigns only when regular rations were unobtainable. It was a packaged ration carried in haversack or saddlebag. Its form and substance were determined by the War Department.
The components of garrison and field rations were revised again in 1908 when corned beef was authorized for the garrison ration when fresh meat was not available. Chicken or turkey was approved for issue on national holidays. Fresh vegetables were to be issued when obtainable in the vicinity or when they could be transported in a wholesome condition from a distance. Evaporated and unsweetened milk were other important additions. 15
Thus, throughout the early wars of the nation, from the Revolution to World War I, the chief food for the soldier for all purposes-in camp, field, and combat-was the Congress-enacted garrison ration, which consisted basically of meat, bread, and some vegetables. In its gradual development, it came to include some of the newer components provided by progress in food technology. Although the garrison ration was the backbone of the feeding program, the necessity of special foods for extraordinary conditions of warfare or military campaigns was not overlooked. The advent of World War I, with its tremendous accent on mass movement and mass supply to far-off centers, brought to life those concepts of specialized rations with which this history will deal. Some of the wartime rations had prototypes or genesis in the earlier programs. Nevertheless, it was the great development in the production, distribution, and storage of food that came after the turn of the century that laid the basis for special-purpose rations. The problem of feeding the soldier, engaged in military activities at home and at many and varied points throughout the world, was to become a problem of specialization. Its solution was to require the combined efforts of science, the food industry, and the food supply services of the military establishment.
Special Rations in World War I
Reserve Ration
Three special-purpose rations came into general use in World War I-the reserve ration, the trench ration, and the emergency ration.16 The first of these was an individual packaged ration which the soldier carried on his person for utilization when regular food was unavailable. The reserve ration, which sought to provide a complete food allowance for one man for one day, included a one-pound can of meat (usually corned beef), two 8-ounce tins of hard bread, 2.4 ounces of sugar, 1.12 ounces of roasted and ground coffee, and 0.16 ounce of salt. It weighed about 2 ž pounds and contained about 3300 calories. The food was considered ample and satisfying but the packaging, in cylindrical cans of one-pound capacity, was far from practical or economical.17
Trench Ration
As its name implies, the trench ration was designed to provide subsistence under conditions of trench warfare. The unit consisted of sufficient canned meats and canned hard bread to provide 25 men with food for one day. The canned meats were roast beef, corned beef, salmon, and sardines. Other components included salt, sugar, soluble coffee, solidified alcohol, and cigarettes. The unit was packed in large, galvanized containers designed to protect contents from poison gas.15 Although the trench ration was to be prepared as a hot meal, it could be utilized without preparation or cooking. The ration had the advantage of convenience, afforded excellent protection against poison gas, and provided a wider diet than the reserve ration. Its disadvantages were an excessive use of iron and tinplate, which made it heavy and difficult to handle; the unsuitability of the units for a single meal; the invitation to spoilage and contamination offered by opened containers; and its nutritional inadequacy.
Emergency Ration
The emergency ration, popularly known as the “Armour” or “iron” ration, was a packaged unit of concentrated food carried by the soldier to sustain life during emergencies when no other source of subsistence was available. It consisted of three 3-ounce cakes of a mixture of beef powder and cooked wheat and three one-ounce chocolate bars. These hardy items were contained in an oval-shaped, lacquered can which fitted the soldier’s pocket. At the time of the Armistice, about two million rations had been shipped to France.19 Manufacture was discontinued after the war, and in 1922 the item was officially eliminated from the list of Army rations. Some of the emergency rations procured in World War I were subsequently used by aircraft pilots on Mexican border patrols, a usage which suggests that the item has some claim to parentage of modern Air Force flight rations.
* * *
In retrospect, the development and utilization of the reserve, trench, and emergency rations provided ample evidence that special types of rations were required for special military situations. It was recognition of this need that gave impetus to the ration development program which reached its high point during World War II when United States troops, and their feeding problems, were found in every corner of the world.
Ration Development 1918-36
While the trench ration died a natural death and the emergency ration became obsolete, some attention was given by the Quartermaster Corps to further development of the reserve ration. In 1920, it was suggested that the ration could be improved by making its container easier to carry, by dividing the unit into separate meals, by adding chocolate, and by replacing roasted and ground coffee with the soluble variety. There were, however, no suggestions for radical departures from the basic pattern of canned meat, tinned bread, and beverage. Probably because of the lack of interest then evident, it was generally considered that the ration was “good enough” in its wartime version.
Attempts by the Quartermaster Corps Subsistence School 20 to improve the ration did produce an Army specification for the item in 1922. 21 Under its terms, the components of the ration were to include:
Corned beef or Chocolate____ 3 oz.
dried sliced beef_____1 lb. Soluble coffee
Hard bread_________ 14 oz. Tablet sugar
The meat was packed in two small, sardine-type cans, each about 1 by 4 by 4 inches in size. There were two tins for the bread, chocolate, and coffee, each tin about 1 by 2 by 8 inches in size. The components were packed in a unit carton overwrapped with oiled paper. It was a considerable achievement that 10,000 of these rations (costing about $1.33 each) were procured in 1923.
The reserve ration was revised again in 1925 when the quantity of bread and corned beef was reduced and the dried beef was replaced by pork and beans. Oblong cans were still specified, although it was known that quantity production of that item was impossible. In 1930, the Army War College called the revised ration superior, termed its keeping qualities excellent, and pointed to the high degree of its utility.22 Further development nearly came to a standstill in the depression of the 1930’s although some experimental reserve rations were packed in round cans by the Subsistence School in 1932. Four years later, the newly created Quartermaster Subsistence Research and Development Laboratory23 produced an experimental pack of a reserve ration containing an A unit with corned beef and a B unit with pork and beans. There was no change in the remaining components-the planners stood pat on hard bread, soluble coffee, chocolate, sugar, and cylindrical can.24
This meager bit of postwar experimentation, aimed at improving the one special ration then possessed by the Army, soon faded before the import of new tactical doctrines, relying on masses of airplanes and fast-moving tanks, that altered the entire concept of warfare and of special rations. Trench rations gave way to foods that could be utilized on the move. The development of such rations was beginning to take form in 1936 just as the specter of war began to loom over Europe.
Ration Development 1936-41
The period beginning in 1936 marked the inauguration of modem ration research. The impetus for this development was the impending threat of war; the means of development were provided by the Quartermaster Subsistence Research and Development Laboratory whose birth in 1936 chronicled the start of the modern era of ration research. In the next five years, the Laboratory produced two new rations-Field Ration D and Field Ration C-and, more important, laid the foundation for the wartime program.
Field Ration D
An emergency ration, proposed for the cavalry in 1932, is generally considered the direct forerunner of Field Ration D. The item then suggested was a 12-ounce bar of equal parts of bitter chocolate, sugar, and peanut butter. Although palatable, the experimental bar had poor keeping qualities, was thirst-provoking, and had poor acceptance. While it did not progress beyond the experimental stage, it did provide groundwork for experiments on -a concentrated ration which were initiated by the Subsistence School in 1935.
Originally, the 1935 development was called the Logan bar in recognition of Col. Paul Logan, then head of the Subsistence School. The Logan bar was designed to provide the highest possible caloric value in the smallest package and yet retain sufficient palatability to be used daily. Its ingredients were chocolate, sugar, oat flour, cacao fat, skim milk powder, and artificial flavoring. Three 4-ounce bars-wrapped in aluminum foil, then overwrapped and sealed in parchment paper-constituted a ration. Despite the requirement that it qualify for continued daily use, the Logan bar was never considered by its developers for other than emergency or stopgap purposes. It was procured on an experimental basis in 1937 and was submitted for field trials during the ensuing year. Although judged by the tests to be satisfactory only as an emergency ration, the bar was proposed for “standardization” in 1939 in the dual capacity of both a “reserve” and an “emergency” ration. The spirited discussion of the conflicting concept of the new ration implied in this dual designation had the happy result of bringing about a revision of the Army regulation covering rations and of identifying the bar as Field Ration D, the official emergency ration.25
By June of 1940, a tentative specification had been written and the Army was in position to inaugurate large-scale procurement of D bars. Trial production brought refinements to the method of manufacture but wrought no basic change in original structure and composition. Full-scale production was initiated in 1941 and monthly output swelled from 200,000 in September 1941 to ten million a year later.
Field Ration C
This ration resulted from prewar attempts to produce a stable, palatable, nutritionally balanced combat ration which would provide the individual soldier with three full meals per day.26 Although isolated attempts to develop “meals-in-a-can were reported as early as 1932, 27 the initial research for the C ration was credited to Maj. W. R. McReynolds, first director (1936-38) of the SR&DL. McReynolds proposed to supplement the reserve ration with a complete meal-such as beef stew, beef with noodles, family-style dinner, lamb stew, and Irish stew-packaged in 12-ounce rectangular cans. By June 1938, this plan evolved into a proposed ration which was to consist of three meat units and three bread units.28 The six-can proposal was looked upon with favor and its development, as a replacement for the reserve ration, was recommended by the Quartermaster Corps Technical Committee. Historians and others have stressed the fact that only $300 was awarded to the Laboratory for continuation of this original development.
By 1939, the Laboratory had proposed ten varieties of meat combinations for the ration. Also it recommended that the 12-ounce rectangular can be discontinued and that the ration units be packaged in 16-ounce cylindrical cans. Thus increased, the six-can ration contained 4,437 calories and weighed five pounds ten ounces. By September 1939, it was recognized that the suggestion for ten varieties of meat combinations was probably visionary since manufacturing processes were not yet ready to produce untried combinations. It was necessary, therefore, to reduce the variety of M-units to meat and beans, meat-and-vegetable hash, and meat-and-vegetable stew.
This was the form and content of U. S. Army Field Ration C when the revised Army regulation on rations was announced in 1939. It was also the ration procured for the Army maneuvers of
1940 where it was subjected to stern field trials. From that test emerged a range of criticisms: the cans were too large and bulky; the meat lacked variety, was too rich, and contained too many beans. Yet, there was agreement that the new C ration was nutritionally adequate and was “one of the best field rations . . . ever issued to the Army.” 29
As a result of the field recommendations, the 16-ounce can was abandoned and a 12-ounce can adopted as the standard size for the ration. The number of biscuits in the B unit also was reduced and chocolate and soluble coffee added. Production experiences brought improvement in the quality of the meat components. Later changes, effected before the end of 1941, introduced individually wrapped hard candies and chocolate caramels.
The first large-scale procurement for 1,500,000 rations, was initiated in August 1941 as the ration was being readied for the under-fire role it occupied during the ensuing war years as “the chief operational ration . . . in use for tactical situations in which the field kitchen cannot be used.” 30
Operational Rations in World War II
As a result of these developments, the Army entered World War II with two established special-purpose rations-Field Ration D and Field Ration C. Ration D was used throughout the war as the Army’s emergency ration and as a supplement to other rations. The C ration went through an evolution which ultimately produced an outstanding ration for the purpose it was designed to meet-a daily food which the soldier could carry and use when he was cut off from regular food supply sources.
The use of these rations after 1941 revealed their inability to meet all the many feeding problems imposed by new combat conditions. Therefore, a succession of rations, individual food packets, and ration supplements was developed and came into use before the war’s end. The haste attached to the initial wartime ration development indicated that the country was no better prepared to cope with the food problem in 1941 than with other problems of war supply. The early trial-and-error method was proof, too, that haste made waste. Nevertheless the food program ultimately evolved for the American soldier was firmly based on the premise-“that all troops . . . be fed the best food available in the best and most appetizing form within the realm of reasonable possibility particularly . . . troops in combat.” 31 For the citizen soldier, for the most part accustomed to good food in civilian life, “what do we eat” became as important, if not more so, than “when do we eat.” In addition to providing an acceptable answer to this query, ration developers had to pay equal attention to military utilization, to stability and storage requirements, to nutritional values, to demands for shipping space, and to the necessity of going beyond commercial practices to protect packaged foods on the long journey from American factories to theaters of action. Add factors of warborn shortages of material and the continued necessity for providing adequate interim substitutes and the magnitude of the ration-development problem in World War II becomes evident.
Despite obstacles, many varied and excellent rations, packets, and supplements were developed and supplied to the World War II soldier. In volume, approximately one billion special rations, costing about 675 millions of dollars, were procured between 1941 and 1945 (see table 1).
The list includes such individual rations as the lightweight K ration, the emergency D ration, and the food-for-a-day C ration. Need of rations in specific climates produced the mountain, jungle, and desert rations. Packets produced for subsistence requirements in flight were an aircrew lunch, a parachute-emergency packet, and an in-flight combat meal. At-sea survival called for lifeboat and liferaft rations and pointed to the desirability of all-purpose survival foods. Supplements were designed to augment other rations:
namely, the aid-station and hospital beverage packs that provided beverages for casualties at advance medical posts, and the kitchen spice pack for use by mobile kitchens. At the end of the war, the assault packet, intended to provide a quick-energy snack before combat, was in production.
The D Ration
Specifications governing the composition of the D ration were only slightly changed during the entire life of the ration. The ingredients were chocolate, sugar, dry milk, cacao fat, oat flour, and flavoring-a mixture providing 600 calories per bar. Some changes in packaging requirements were necessitated by material shortages and by suggestions for improvement. In 1944, when emphasis was given to use of the bar as a supplement to other rations, a half-size or two-ounce bar was introduced to provide a smaller unit.
The D ration was procured in quantity almost from its inception. The 600,000 rations purchased in 1941 were followed by 117,800,000 rations in 1942. By then, the volume on hand was so great that the rations were stockpiled overseas and none procured in 1943. A final procurement of 52 million rations was made in 1944.
Misuse of the D ration as a combat food led to its unpopularity and replacement before the end of the war by the C and K rations. In 1945, it was classified as “limited-standard” and recommendations followed that the governing specification be cancelled.32
Utilization of the oversea stockpile of D rations was of concern to The Quartermaster General early in 1945 when he requested that the Laboratory study the possibility of using excess D bars in some acceptable food product for Army or civilian feeding.33 The Laboratory asked candy manufacturers for recommendations regarding such utilization and also queried them on their ability to absorb some of the bars.34 Industry offered no suggestions and naturally was reluctant to take over the rations on hand. The oat flour in the chocolate and the cost of stripping the wrappers from the bars were understandable reasons for this reluctance. It was suggested that excess bars be unwrapped by prisoners-of-war, packed in containers, and shipped to plants for reprocessing into a chocolate confection that could be used for emergency feeding of civilians in war areas.35
A salient omission in the development of the ration had been the lack of a program to inform the user of the purpose of the bar. There was in consequence little effort to confine the D ration to its proper place as an emergency food. While it admirably met the requirements for an emergency pack as to weight and space, was nutritionally adequate, and had good storage and keeping qualities, it was not a popular item. Misuse of it added to this unpopularity. The D bar nevertheless had been the ration that led the way to the intensive research conducted in Army subsistence during the war.
Ration, Type C
The other Army ration available when the country entered World War II, Field Ration, Type C, as a ration of meat and bread components, had the prewar characteristics of the 1918 “reserve ration” but had a better balance than its predecessor, good keeping qualities, and sturdy packaging. Its disadvantages were that it was troublesome to carry and that its manufacture posed difficult production problems. These difficulties provided the incentive for the improvements which produced today’s individual “combat” or C ration. The ultimate form in which this ration emerged from the war, however, came only as hostilities were ending and before wide distribution could be made.
A major problem of the C ration concerned its meat components. Procurement was at first of necessity confined to items which could be produced in volume, and variety in consequence was of secondary importance. Hence, the early waves of criticism from the field were aimed at the monotonous meat diet offered by the first C ration. Troops not only encountered repetitious meat-and-hash combinations but also met them on returning to central messes where they were served duplicates of these combinations in B rations.
It was little wonder that there was much early denunciation of the C ration.
Despite constant effort, attempts to increase the component variety, and hence ration acceptance, were not easily or quickly successful. New or substitute items could be introduced only after productive ability had been coordinated with laboratory research. Early improvements embraced a better selection of confection items, inclusion of cigarettes in the B unit of the ration, and modifications required by wartime advances in packaging technology.
Until early 1944, separate specifications were used for the so-called B or bread unit of the ration and for related components. In June of that year, the component specifications were consolidated into one specification which abandoned the title “U.S. Army Field Ration C” and adopted the nomenclature “Ration, Type C, Assembly, Packaging and Packing.” 36 Under its terms the ration consisted of three cans of B units, three cans of M or meat units, and one accessory pack. Six combinations of components or menu arrangements were specified to provide variety to the ration. Six B units were listed, two each for breakfast, dinner, and supper. B unit components, varied in accordance with a grouping which would fit the meal, included biscuits, compressed and premixed cereal, candy-coated peanuts or raisins, soluble coffee, sugar, lemon- or orange-juice powder, hard candies, jam, cocoa beverage powder, and caramels. The accessory packet included nine “good-commercial-quality” cigarettes, halazone water-purification tablets, book matches, toilet paper, chewing gum, and an opener for the meat cans. The varieties of canned meats were meat and beans; meat-and-vegetable stew; meat and spaghetti; ham, egg, and potato; meat and noodles; pork and rice; frankfurters and beans; pork and beans; ham and lima beans; and chicken and vegetables. The unpopular meat-and-vegetable hash and English-style stew-which were the first additions to the original three-were abandoned because of poor acceptance.
The final wartime version of the specification was published in April and amended in July 1945. It contained still more improvements resulting from field tests and combat experiences. Hard candy and candy-coated peanuts and raisins were deleted from the B units because of poor keeping quality, and a fudge disc and cookie sandwich were substituted. Salt tablets to alleviate heat exhaustion were added to the accessory pack. The ultimate revision also substituted sugar tablets for the granulated type, increased the variety of beverage powders, and added a compressed cocoa disc to the list of B components. At the request of The Surgeon General, halazone tablets were deleted from the accessory pack. Beef stew was a new canned meat component. The accessory pack was divided into two packets, first named the “long” and the “short” pack and later, the “accessory pack” and the “cigarette pack.” Gum, toilet paper, can opener, granulated salt, salt tablets, and wood spoons were included in the “long” pack.38 The cigarette pack consisted of three units of three or one unit of nine cigarettes, and matches.
Due to the natural lag between development and supply and the extensive stockpiling of “old” C rations, this “new” version was not procured in sufficient time to win in wartime the praise that later became attached to “Ration, Combat, C-2.” The criticisms of monotony and unacceptability, though often made for reasons attributable to misuse and overuse rather than to ration content, held true as far as the World War II user of C rations was concerned.
The K Ration
The K ration was the Laboratory’s answer to the demand for an individual, easy-to-carry ration that could be used in assault and combat operations. It was noted for compactness and superior packaging and was acknowledged as the ration that provided the greatest variety of nutritionally balanced components within the smallest space.
Although other related items appear in its ancestral background the actual prototype of the K ration was a pocket ration for paratroopers developed by the SR and DL at the request of the Air Force early in the war. Two original samples (one with pemmican biscuits, a peanut bar, raisins, and bouillon paste; the other with pemmican biscuits, a small D bar, a meat preparation, and beverage (powder) evolved into the one-package breakfast-dinner-supper combination used first by paratroopers. The three-meal combination contained such common units as pemmican biscuits and gum. In addition, the breakfast unit furnished malted milk tablets, canned veal loaf, soluble coffee, and sugar; the dinner package had dextrose tablets, canned ham spread, and bouillon cubes; and for the supper unit there were the D bar chocolate, sausage, lemon powder, ant sugar. The Army quickly noted the success of the new ration with the paratroops and in 1942 the item was adopted for all-service use as Field Ration, Type K.39 The instantaneous success of the ration with attendant popular publicity, was a source of amazement to the developers.
Success was not a deterrent to continued research. Many change were effected in the components and packaging of the K ration during the seven revisions of the ration before the final World War II specification was published.40 During that period the variety of biscuits was increased, newer and more acceptable meat products were introduced, malted milk tablets and D bars gave way to a variety of confections, additional beverage components were provided in improved packages, and cigarettes, matches, salt tablets, toilet paper and spoons were ultimately included as accessory items.
The cartons containing the individual meals also were subject to many changes. The first cartons were coated both inside and out with a thermoplastic compound. Later they were wax-coated on the outside only, wrapped in waxed paper, then coated with’ a commercial product made from “unmilled crepe rubber and blended waxes,” specified not to melt at 135 degrees nor “crack, chip, or otherwise become separated” from the surface of the carton at minus 20 degrees below zero. Other types of packages were tested, including a “thread opening fiber bodied can with metal ends.” The wax-impregnated materials prevailed, however, and the ultimate requirements were for the familiar wax-coated inner carton placed in a second carton labeled and colored to indicate whether its content was breakfast, dinner, or supper.
As finally specified, the breakfast packet contained a canned meat product, biscuits, a compressed cereal bar, soluble coffee, a fruit bar, gum, sugar tablets, four cigarettes, water-purification tablets, a can opener, toilet paper, and a wooden spoon. The dinner carton had a canned cheese product, biscuits, a candy bar, gum, a variety of beverage powders, granulated sugar, salt tablets, cigarettes, and matches, a can opener and spoon. The supper packet included a canned meat product, biscuits, bouillon powder, confections and gum, soluble coffee, granulated sugar, cigarettes, can opener, and spoon. The biscuits, beverages, sugar, fruit bar, confections, gum, and spoon were packaged in a laminated cellophane bag while the canned meat and cheese product were put in a chipboard sleeve-type box. The two units were assembled and sealed in a waxed carton inclosed in the nonwaxed outer carton labeled with the K ration design and color. Twelve complete rations were packed in a fiberboard box which was overpacked in a nailed wood box for oversea shipment.41
K Ration BreakfastK Ration DinnerK Ration Supper
The first million K rations were ordered in May 1942 and were followed by increasing millions. In 1944, the peak year of production, more than 105 million rations were procured. Toward the end of the war, the usefulness of the K ration was coming to an end as a result of the emergence of a superior C ration. In postwar 1946, an Army Food Conference recommended that the K be discontinued and in 1948 the ration was declared obsolete by the Quartermaster Corps Technical Committee.42 It was then recommended that depot stocks be disposed of by utilization in the civilian feeding program overseas.
Like other unpopular items, misuse was a contributing factor to the waning popularity of the K ration. Although designed to be used for a period of two or three days only, the ration occasionally subsisted troops for weeks on end. There were times when this application was unavoidable; there were also occasions when the K was employed because it was easiest to issue. Continued use reduced the acceptability and diminished the value of the ration.
The Mountain Ration
In the history of rations, it was nowhere better demonstrated than in small-group rations that there should be clear-cut lines of central authority for evaluation of needs before ration development was begun. This was evident during the early days of World War II when three small-group rations made an almost simultaneous debut because diversified groups sought special rations for unusual but not clearly defined military purposes. Eventually, the three were replaced by one ration with characteristics common to all. Although the consolidation was preceded by confusion, loss, and delay, the initial threefold development had the important result of entrenching the Quartermaster Corps Research and Development Laboratory as the central agency responsible for ration development. It was the Laboratory product that emerged as the ultimate World War II group ration. The original trio were the Mountain, Jungle, and 5-in-1 rations; their common successor was called “ration, 10-in-1.” 43 The activation of mountain troops in 1941 led to a demand for a ration suitable for use in cold, high-altitude climates. The Laboratory was asked to provide a ration that would not exceed 40 ounces in weight, be easy to cook at high altitudes, stress compact packaging, contain 4,800 calories and items of adequate roughage capable of slow digestion.44 The resultant specification in November 1942 proposed that the mountain ration consist of food for four men for one day. The basic components of three menus making up the ration included Carter’s spread (a butter substitute), soluble coffee, dry milk, biscuits, hard candy, cereal (three varieties), dehydrated cheese, D ration bars, fruit bars, gum, lemon-juice powder, dehydrated soup, salt, sugar, tea, cigarettes, and toilet paper. Menu 1 offered variety with luncheon meat and dehydrated baked beans; menu 2 added corned beef and dehydrated potatoes; and pork sausage meat and precooked rice were included in menu 3. The components were assembled in a solid fiber carton labeled “U. S. Army Mountain Ration.” Three cartons, one of each menu, were over-packed in a similarly labeled outer carton.45
Before the specification was available, and despite Laboratory warning that purchases should be limited pending determination of specification adequacy, procurement of more than 600,000 rations was underway. An additional one and one-quarter millions were procured early in 1943. Procurement halted completely there-after.46
Jungle Ration
Awareness that extensive fighting would take place in tropical regions brought the request for a jungle ration. Specifications were hurriedly produced without a clear-cut idea of what a ration assembled especially for jungle troops should consist and the basic pattern-food for four men for one day-followed the mountain-ration design.47 The Jungle ration included canned meat, dry milk, peanuts, biscuits, precooked cereal, gum, cigarettes, hard candy, cocoa beverage powder, soluble coffee, fruit bars, lemon powder, raisins, salt, sugar, and toilet tissue. Components were compactly assembled in a specially constructed solid fiber carton.48
The Subsistence Laboratory participated in the development only to the extent of determining packaging and packing requirements. It warned that the reasons for developing the ration had not been made clear and indicated that the tactical situation presented was one for which the K ration had been designed. Despite the warranted lack of Laboratory enthusiasm, more than 9,600,000 rations were bought in 1942 and 425,000 more early in 1943. After the latter procurement, the Jungle ration went hand-in-hand with the Mountain ration toward obsolescence.
The 5-in-1 Ration
World War historians, who had no reason to foresee that the title would re-emerge to designate the postwar group ration, classified the 5-in-1 with the jungle and mountain rations, described its “short life,” and ultimately considered that it, too, had passed into obsolescence. Of the three, the 5-in-1 was the only ration that was strictly a development of the SR&DL. As introduced early in 1942, it was intended to provide a specialized ration for motorized combat groups operating in desert areas. The goal of this development was a ration that would be convenient to issue and could be prepared by small groups of men with a minimum of cooking equipment and skill. Another objective was to furnish sufficient food to take care of five men for one day.49 The first specification for a 5-in-1 ration proposed a unit of three menus, each consisting basically of B ration components such as Army spread, vegetables, meat combinations, evaporated milk, fruit juice, fruits, dehydrated soups, cereal, and beverages as well as such common items as biscuits, hard candy, salt, sugar, and toilet paper. These items were packed as a group, with noncanned components placed in a separate carton overpacked in a larger carton with the canned products. Menus were inclosed in the carton as a guide in the selection of meals. Extensive procurement based on these requirements ended in 1943 when the 10-in-1 was introduced. Use of 5-in-1 stocks continued throughout the war, however, and the ration was still winning praise when hostilities ended. The specification remained in effect and later became the basis for the postwar revision under which the 5-in-1 nomenclature was reestablished.50
The 10-in-1 Ration.
Although the possibility of packing the B ration in units of ten was suggested early in the war, progress on such an arrangement did not begin until 1943 when the Mountain, Jungle, and 5-in-1 rations were discontinued. The success of the British “compo” or 14-in-1 ration during the North African campaign in 1942 and the movement to classify field rations into four categories added other reasons for the interest in a 10-in-1 ration. A guide to its rapid development was furnished in the following 1943 definition:
A small-group field ration [shall be] composed of components of the standard field ration type B (modified to reduce bulk and weight) packed in basic packages of five complete rations each. . . . The inner and outer packages are to be proof against water, vapor, moisture, and chemical agents. They are to be of such shape and dimensions as to be suitable for either animal-pack or man-carry, and sufficiently sturdy as to material and construction to withstand normal handling and transportation in motor vehicles, on pack animals or by man carry.51
Specification requirements were quickly published 52 and the ration was standardized as the replacement for the other group rations. Although superseding the 5-in-1, the 10-in-l was essentially two 5-in-1’s packed in one unit. Within such a combination, it was possible to offer a greater variety of components. This was effected by increasing the number of “menus” to five in comparison to the three-menu arrangement of the 5-in-1. In ensuing war years, several revisions were made to the original specification but the basic plan of five menus, each containing sufficient food for ten men for one day, remained unaltered. Within the daily plan, complete group meals were specified for breakfast and supper while a “partial dinner unit was provided for the luncheon meal.
A typical menu included such canned items as butter spread, soluble coffee, pudding, meat units, jam, evaporated milk, and vegetables as well as biscuits, cereal, beverages, candy, salt, and sugar. Accessory items were cigarettes, matches, can opener, toilet paper, soap, towels, and water-purification tablets. The partial dinner unit was inclosed in a cellophane bag-in-carton for easy distribution to the individual soldier for his noontime meal. Within the unit were biscuits, a confection, beverage powder, sugar, gum, and a can opener. These items were provided on the theory that an individual “snack” was sufficient for midday meals when there would be neither time nor opportunity to prepare the ration for group feeding.
The similarity of the partial unit to the K ration was a chief reason for the proposed revision of the 10-in-1 in 1945. It was planned to eliminate the unit and to assemble the entire ration on the basis of three group meals rather than two group meals and one individual luncheon package. Although it was recognized that the over-all weight of the ration would be increased thereby, it was felt that the added weight would be offset by the increased acceptability and nutritional value which a greater variety of components would provide. The end of the war prevented realization of such a plan in the 10-in-1.
Over 300 million rations, costing about 85 cents each, were procured under the 10-in-1 title from mid-1943 to the war’s close. No other group ration was procured during that period. Hence, in actuality as well as nomenclature, “Ration, 10-in-1” was the final small-group ration of World War II. 54
Assault Lunch
The need for a lightweight, small, and concentrated ration to provide assault troops with an easily carried prepared food, which would bridge the gap between the beginning of actual combat and the restoration of normal supply functions, became evident during the amphibious campaigns in the Pacific in 1944. An early improvisation of such a ration packed in the Hawaiian Islands included such commercial products as hard candy, chocolate bars, gum, cigarettes, and matches. The packet was assembled in a waterproof, flexible bag and distributed to troops just prior to the assault landings. The candy theme was followed in the subsequent development of the Assault Lunch. Progress was accelerated late in 1944 when the military characteristics for such a lunch were defined by the Army Ground Forces. An assault ration, AGF stated, should provide 1,500 to 2,000 calories; be unaffected by temperatures ranging between -60 F. and 130 F.; be packaged to protect contents from mold, moisture, rough handling, and pilferage, be easy to open and remain stable for six months. During the period preceding the specification, consideration was given to adding fruit Juices, soluble coffee, and compressed cereal but such items were not in the end included.56 As specified, the Lunch contained chocolate bars, caramels, dried fruit (prunes and raisins), chewing gum, peanuts, salt tablets, cigarettes, matches, and water-purification tablets. The components were placed compactly in a plastic-film packet with an adhesive-tape reclosable feature. Forty-five packets were packed in a 6˝-gallon metal drum for shipment and distribution.
Because the item came at the close of hostilities, its effectiveness was never fully established. In September 1947, the specification was cancelled for the cryptic reason that the item was “no longer required for quartermaster supply.” 57
Type X Ration
A “confidential” specification for Ration, Type X was issued early in 1944. 58 This ration was intended as an assault-type item to be issued to troops ‘just before or during invasion.” Components were K biscuits, chocolate or D bars, bouillon powder, soluble coffee, fruit bars, sugar, gum, hard candy, canned meat, and multi-vitamin tablets. Packaging designated a partial assembly of components in a water-vapor-resistant box. The entire ration was packed in a wax-dipped or wax-paper-wrapped carton. The theme of secrecy was carried out in the labeling requirements which stated that “there shall be no labels, printing, or identifying marks of any kind on any packaging materials for this ration nor on any component parts of the ration.” It was reported that 600,000 rations were procured in December 1943 and an additional 250,000 in December 1944. No results of tests or field experiences are contained in the records, probably because the participation of SR&DL was limited to preparing the packaging requirements for the specification. The X ration may have some claim to being a predecessor of the Assault Lunch in purpose but there the resemblance ends. This “confidential” item proved to be one of the rations of World War II which was developed for a special purpose and then disappeared.
Aircrew Lunch
The need of special rations for the Air Force originated in the important role the AAF played in the transportation, combat, and bombing phases of World War II. Although many types of rations were indicated as required by the varied activities of aircraft and air crews throughout the world, AAF and Quartermaster Corps research groups reduced those needs to four basic situations:
For pilots in single-seater or combat planes.
For bail-out (parachute) emergency purposes.
For crews and passengers in large planes equipped with heating devices for cooking.
For survivors in crash landings 60
This determination of ration requirements resulted in a series of special-ration specifications in 1943 and 1944 covering “Lunch, Aircrew” “Lunch, Combat, AAF,” and “Ration, Parachute, Emergency, respectively designed for pilots in pursuit planes, for crews on long-range missions, and for emergency parachute landings. Other rations designed for emergency flight conditions were the “Ration, Lifeboat, Airborne,” and “Ration, Liferaft.” In addition to these rations, the Air Force employed other standard Army rations during the war. The 10-in-1, C, and K rations were used, in that order, in unorganized ground functions where regular messing facilities were not available. The K ration was carried on planes for use in forced landings and ditchings; individual kits containing K rations or D bars were used in bailouts; and improvisations of C and K rations were employed by search and rescue parties.61
In the early days of the war, candies, fruits, and other snacks were carried by pilots, crewmen, and passengers as self-supplied inflight food items. In 1943, the popularity of the candies led to the development of an “American” candy supplement used by United States fliers in Great Britain. Such supplements contained gum, fruit bars, D bars, and hard candy, all packaged for easy opening. This supplement was the basis of the Air Forces Pocket Lunch (a confection-type ration procured in 1943) and a successor Aircrew Lunch which made its debut in September 1944. 62
The Aircrew Lunch contained a selection of small loose candies, candy bars, and gum packaged in a two-compartment box with sliding sleeve. In one compartment were the loose candies-chocolate drops, pancoated cream centers, fondant creams, gum drops, jelly and licorice drops, and pancoated peanuts; the opposite compartment contained a vanilla and a fudge bar and gum. Easy one-hand manipulation of the red-and-blue package permitted the items to drop out of the selected compartment. Eighty of the packages were put in a five-gallon can for shipment and distribution. The lunch retained its standing throughout the war and postwar periods. The development of the item during the Korean Emergency-when it was renamed “Food Packet, Individual, Fighter Pilot” is discussed later in this monograph.
AAF Combat Lunch
The original combat lunch to subsist air crews on long-range flight missions consisted of unprepared and dehydrated items which were to be cooked or reconstituted by crew members during flight.68 Despite the general absence of heating or cooking equipment aboard military aircraft, these types of foods were listed in the initial specification 64 and persisted throughout the war. The specification described the ration as a unit package consisting of food for three men for one meal with extra beverages.65 Components were dry milk, chili powder or tomato paste, bouillon cubes, hard candy, gum, precooked rice, salt, tea tablets, and can opener, all packaged in a waxed fiberboard box. Subsequently, the variety of components was increased by specifying two menus or combinations of components.66 The ration was to be placed aboard the plane in quantities sufficient to provide meals for all crew members. It was assumed that water would be provided for reconstituting the dehydrated components and making the beverages. Crew members were to carry out preparation procedures in the plane.
A limited procurement of the combat lunch was made in 1943 and 1944. In December 1944, the Air quartermaster, recognizing that preparation of foods in flight was too much to expect of aircrews, discontinued the ration and sought various means of using up the quantity on hand. By July 1945, the ration was recognized as obsolete and eventually the specification was cancelled.67
The following concise criticism of the AAF Combat Lunch was expressed by the Laboratory after the war:
The consensus of the crew members is that the food is not sufficiently desirable to compensate for the effort required in preparation. Such a large variety of items is not deemed necessary. The majority of crew members think that a few cans of prepared soup, a thermos jug of coffee, a few meat or cheese sandwiches, some fresh fruit (preferably oranges) and a few candy bars would be much more suitable than these flight lunches. The chewing gum, chocolate and Charms (hard candy) included in these flight lunches are the only items considered desirable……
Sandwich Packs
The review of rations used by groups in flight would not be complete without mention of the efforts to provide sandwich packs. These efforts often were negated at flight bases by lack of supplies and by inadequacies of equipment. To facilitate preparation of sandwich lunches at such bases, the Subsistence Laboratory, in May 1945 started to develop a “sandwich-beverage pack,” which was to contain the ingredients for preparing sandwiches and beverages. The cessation of the war caused the work to be abandoned just when a promising start had been made, but the effort did leave some spade work which was utilized in 1950 in the development of the inflight food packet.
Parachute Emergency Ration
The predecessor to the parachute emergency ration used in the latter part of World War II was the bailout ration procured by the Air Forces in 1942. The bailout was designed as a survival item to be contained in the parachute pack and used after emergency parachute landings. In the final procurement in 1943, it included a combination of D bars, fruit bars, hard candy, lemon-juice powder, and K biscuits. After 1943, the bailout was abandoned in favor of the “ration, parachute, emergency,” a pack designed to fit the pocket of the Air Force emergency vest. The components for the new parachute pack included sweet chocolate, hard candy, dehydrated cheese and crackers, bouillon cubes, sugar, cigarettes, water-purification tablets, soluble coffee, chewing gum, and a small cellophane bag to contain the uneaten food after the can had been opened. The ration weighed 11˝ ounces and contained about 1,062 calories.69 The parachute ration went through the war without major change and remained in official standing until February of 1952 when the specification was cancelled.70
Airborne Lifeboat Ration
An airborne lifeboat ration was developed in 1944 to meet an Air Force requirement for a ration suitable for stowing in lifeboats dropped from aircraft to survivors of airplane ditchings or parachute drops over water. Initial requirements of the ration were governed by the storage space allotted for the purpose within the lifeboat. As standardized, the packaged ration contained food for two men for one meal, each package including a breakfast and supper unit. Two menus or component groupings lent variety to the units. The breakfast menu included a B unit from the C ration, a canned meat-food combination (four types were specified), condensed soup, matches, and toilet paper. In the supper menu, the B units and meat items were augmented with liferaft rations. Each menu was packaged in a fiberboard container and stowed in the lifeboat at the boat manufacturer’s plant.71 The ration was unchanged in composition during the period it was in production. Procurement was halted in 1944 and development discontinued. The specification was cancelled in 1949.
Liferaft Ration
The request of a commercial airline for a ration to be used on liferafts has been cited by a World War II historian as the origin of the Liferaft ration.72 Although the quartermaster Corps produced a four-pound ration comprised of nine items suitable to the purpose in view, the ration was not adapted to Army use because of its bulk. A highly concentrated ration, weighing less than one pound and occupying a space not greater than 6 by 2 by 4 inches, was suggested as a substitute for the commercial prototype. To meet these physical requirements and on the supposition that food of high carbohydrate content was most satisfactory for sustaining life when water intake was restricted, the quartermaster Corps developed the confection Ration, Liferaft. The confections selected were fruit-flavored hard-candy tablets. Ten packages of these candies were contained in a key-opening, rectangular metal can approximately 4 by 3 by 3 inches in size. Chewing gum and six B-complex vitamin tablets were included to utilize all the can’s space.73 Directions for use printed on the can declared that “one to two packages of candy and one vitamin pill should be eaten each day by each man-chewing the gum will help keep your mouth clean.” Additional instructions appeared on a printed sheet placed in the can. They assured the user that the contents were “the best solid food for eating while living on a liferaft,” directed him to eat two packages of candy and one vitamin pill each day, informed him how long the ration would last and how to open the bag for unused components, and instructed him not to open a second can until the contents of the first were used. They also told him to conserve the ration if he was successful in catching fish.74
A “lifeboat and liferaft ration” was procured as early as 1942 for use by the Coast Guard and the merchant marines. Components included C biscuits, pemmican, chocolate tablets, and milk tablets. Packaging was in airtight containers. Components were purchased by the Chicago quartermaster Depot for shipment to depots or ports where the complete ration was assembled under the supervision of the Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation.75
Kitchen Spice Pack
Three packaged assemblies of kitchen and hospital food items were designed in World War II as supplementary subsistence items. A Kitchen Spice Pack, containing an assortment of spices, flavorings, condiments, and miscellaneous food items, was unit-packaged to provide more appetizing B rations at mess centers. The Hospital and Aid-Station supplements provided suitable nourishment for patients in field medical installations and hospitals. The need for the supplements was indicated early in the war when existing subsistence items were adapted to fill the needs for which the supplements were later designed. Development, however, followed a slow course and formal requirements were not definitely established until late in the war.76
The failure of the bulk-issue plan to supply field kitchens with the right spices at the right time led to development of a special “condiment pack.” The requirements for such a kitchen spice pack, based on the components of the Field Menu, were submitted by the Subsistence Laboratory early in 1944. The pack was to supply a condiment unit of spices and flavorings sufficient for 1,000 rations (100 men for 10 days). Since the components were predetermined, laboratory interest was chiefly directed toward packaging and packing requirements. Procurement furnished the experience for further improvement in the selection of components for readjusting the quantities and proportions employed, and for improving the component containers.78 The supplement gained procurement momentum in 1945 and was well received. Attention to continued development halted when the buying program was suspended.
Although the specification had been approved, the supplement was in an unclassified status at the war’s end. The spice pack was officially baptized as “Ration Supplement, Spice Pack, Kitchen,” in the 1948 change to Army Regulation 30-2210.
Hospital Supplement
The hospital supplement was developed to provide easily digestible foods such as beverages, soups, and fruits to patients being treated at evacuation and base hospitals. Early in the war, a hospital ration was packed at the Cumberland quartermaster Depot to supply items for that purpose. Because of faulty packing of the items, the Subsistence Laboratory developed a better package in 1943 which contained the following items:
1 No.10 can of fruit
2 46-ounce cans of orange juice
20 14˝-ounce cans of evaporated milk
1 2-lb. tin of coffee
1 5-lb. package of dehydrated soup
1 5-lb. bag of sugar79
Procurement on the original requirements exceeded 87,000 cases in 1943 and 1944.
A 1944 revision 80 recognized the pack as a “supplement” and made extensive additions and changes in the basic components. The new version substituted soluble coffee for the roasted and ground variety, powdered milk for evaporated milk, and condensed soups for dehydrated soups. Other components were premixed cereal, cocoa beverage powder, malted milk tablets, tea, and tomato juice. Added accessory items included toilet paper, plastic sippers, and paper towels. The complete supplement was packed in suitable wood boxes for shipment. Requirements for 175,000 cases of the “new” ration were filled before the war ended.
Aid-station Beverage Pack
The aid-station beverage-pack supplement was designed for application at forward-area aid-stations as supportive subsistence for battle casualties and exhaustion cases. Interest of the Laboratory in the initial development concerned the assembly and packaging of components designated by The Surgeon General. Components included coffee, tea, cocoa beverage powder, evaporated milk, and sugar. Accessory items included plastic sippers, a can opener, and toilet paper. As ultimately developed, the supplement provided ingredients for the preparation of 290 twelve-ounce drinks.81
A forerunner of the supplement was the B-C (Battle-Casualty or Bouillon-Cigarette ration) kit containing cigarettes, bouillon cubes, and matches. The packaging of the B~C was assigned to the Laboratory in 1944. Field experience revealed that the kit was inadequate as far as providing desired hot drinks and it was recommended that a new pack, containing coffee, cocoa, sugar, bouillon, and paper cups, form the basis for a new specification.82 Approximately 9,000 cases of the aid-station pack were procured before the end of 1945.
The ration was standardized for issue to ground battalion aid stations in 1944 and ever since then has maintained a “standard item” classification. Postwar interest in the ration was casual although it must be noted that a Marine Corps research report, completed just as the war ended, indicated that the aid station had potential peacetime use. The report agreed that the pack did “not represent an essential item during peacetime,” but suggested applications in maneuvers, by airplane crews and rescue craft, and for parachute supply to isolated units.83
Red Cross Food Package
The prisoner-of-war packet, known as the Food Package, Red Cross, was generally regarded as a Quartermaster Corps “service” rather than “development.” The packet was produced in 1945 when the American Red Cross asked the Quartermaster Corps for a suitable food package for prisoners-of-war in the Far East. The specification, produced in cooperation with the relief organization, listed the following food items: Army spread, canned bacon, luncheon meat, salmon, dehydrated corned beef, canned cheese product, soluble coffee, powdered whole milk, and chocolate D bars. Toilet paper, soap, paper towels, and can openers were provided as accessory items. A sundry unit in one large can included buttons, needles, thread, and patching cloth. Vitamin capsules, salt, and tobacco were also packed in the sundry can.84 Packaging directions provided that the individual package weigh not more than twelve pounds, that the shipping case containing the individual packages not exceed 50 pounds, and that the over-all packaging requirements stress “good keeping quality under adverse conditions of storage.” 85
Production and distribution did not reach extensive levels in the short five-month period between the adoption of the specification and the end of the war.86 Cancellation of the specification was included in the general house-cleaning of obsolete rations in 1949.
Summary
It has been shown that little attempt was made from the Revolution to the advent of World War I to provide the American soldier with special rations for use under specific military conditions. During that near century-and-a-half period, military subsistence, as prescribed by the Congress, was a one-purpose “garrison” ration consisting chiefly of meat and bread and occasional vegetables. This ration was intended to feed the soldier not only in garrison, but on the march, in the field, in combat, and under conditions threatening individual survival. As contributory to this “oneness” of military feeding, it should be remarked that in’ the same period the methods of warfare and the manner and means of food production and distribution were also little changed. Some need for special-purpose rations was recognized on the frontiers, as evidenced by the introduction of pemmican, jerked beef, desiccated vegetables and other similar items providing emergency sustenance to troops separated from sources of regular supply. These items were the forerunners to the packaged, special-purpose, operational rations essential to the modern military feeding program.
Except for isolated instances on the frontiers and elsewhere, little attention was paid to the development of special rations until after the turn of the century. In 1901, after the Spanish-American War, it was officially recognized that the garrison-type ration was not all-inclusive in purpose. In that year, five separate conditions under which a “different” ration or food list was to be issued to troops were designated, i.e., in garrison, in the field, traveling overland, embarked on vessels, and under emergency conditions of survival. While this concept recognized the inadequacy of one type of ration for every purpose, the menus that were legislated for use under the five categories were little more than substitutive adaptations of the garrison ration.
Packaged rations for special purposes were introduced in the first World War. Then, the “reserve” and “emergency” rations were developed for individual use and a “trench ration” was issued for groups fighting in trenches. Little further progress was made in ration development between the wars although some groundwork was laid when the Quartermaster Subsistence School was established in 1920 and, within its curriculum, undertook research toward improving existent rations. This work was continued by the Quartermaster Subsistence Research and Development Laboratory after its activation at the Chicago Quartermaster Depot in 1936 under the direction of the Research and Development Branch of the Office of The Quartermaster General. The establishment of the Laboratory, since named the Quartermaster Food and Container Institute for the Armed Forces, heralded the commencement of the emergency period prior to World War II and marked the actual beginning of modern ration research and development. Since that date, the Institute has been assigned the task of developing special rations for the Armed Forces.
The Combat ration (later called the C ration) and the emergency D bar were developmental enterprises of the Laboratory during the 1936-41 period. An important end product in that period was the establishment of a definition of a “ration” and a subsequent classification dividing all “field” rations into four groups: Field Rations A, B, C, and D. Field Ration A, a counterpart to the garrison ration, provided fresh food for central messing purposes in nongarrison areas. Field Ration B was similar to the A ration except that canned items replaced the fresh foods. Field Ration C was defined as a complete food-for-a-day packaged ration to be carried and utilized by the individual soldier. An emergency bar to sustain life when other sources of food supply failed was Field Ration D.
This four-fold concept of field rations, particularly as applied to the packaged C and D, underwent considerable revision as a result of feeding requirements imposed by World War II. The progress of air transportation and the growth and use of mechanized equipment made for rapidly changing fronts in the many and diversified types of terrain and climate attendant on global conflict. These factors provided abundant reasons for the special packaged rations which were needed to accompany the soldier moving faster and further than his regular source of food supply. Ultimately, such “rations” were defined under three categories: rations, food packets, and ration supplements. These general categories were further broken down in line with varying individual and group utilization, survival-feeding conditions, and special requirements of other services, particularly the Air Force.
The combat or C ration emerged as the preeminent individual ration of World War II, completely superseding a K ration which also had been introduced and extensively procured for combat purposes. A series of early-war group rations was eventually combined into one ration called the 10-in-1. Throughout the war the D bar was procured in volume as the emergency ration. Survival-type rations included airborne lifeboat and liferaft rations. The Aircrew Lunch, the AAF Combat Lunch, and the Bail-Out and Parachute Emergency rations were created primarily for the Air Force. Supplements to the feeding program included a spice kit for use by organized kitchens and two beverage-type packs designed to provide nourishing foods to wounded evacuees at aid stations and field hospitals. An assault lunch was a late-war development to provide the soldier with quick-energy snacks and morale accessories prior to anticipated combat.
The procurement of a billion special rations in World War II was a reflection of the need, the development, and the use of packaged operational rations between 1941 and 1945. The key organization in the development was the Quartermaster Food and Container Institute. It earned the recognition given by its designated assignment-to provide the research and development and to prepare the specifications for foods, rations, and food containers required by the Armed Forces. Within that assignment, the cardinal principles governing special Army rations were established, i.e., that they be nutritionally adequate, remain stable under conditions of storage and use, be geared to the productive ability of industry, and, above all, be acceptable for consumption by the eventual user-the combat soldier.
End Notes
1 Raphael P. Thian, Legislative History of the General Staff of the Army of the United States (GPO, 1901), p 241.
2 Thian (pp 285-310) noted that in 1778, one gill of whiskey or spirits was included in the ration fixed by General Washington. In 1789, this issue was apparently too good to be true, at least for the “GI,” for, because of “irregularities” in issue, individual status determined who was to get whiskey and how much. Allowances ranged from a half-gallon a week for a colonel to a pint-and-a-half for a subaltern; for the ordinary soldier, the issue of rum was limited to rainy weather and fatigue duty and then at the rate of only a gill per man.
3 Herbert R. Rifkind, Fresh Foods for the Armed Forces-The Quartermaster Market Center System, 1941-1948 (QMC Historical Studies No.20, Washington, D. C., 1951), pp 1-2. In tracing the decrease in the ration after the Revolution, Rifkind cited John W. Barriger, Legislative History of the Subsistence Department of the United States Army (2d ed,Washington, D. C., 1877) and Elliott Cassidy, The Development of Meat, Dairy, Poultry and Fish Products for the Army (QMC Historical Studies No. 7, Washington, D. C., 1944), and others as sources of information.
4 As noted by Thian (p 330) the Act of May 30, 1796, provided “that every noncommissioned officer, private, and musician shall receive the following rations of provisions, to wit: One pound of beef or three-quarters of a pound of pork, one pound of bread or flour, half a gill of rum, brandy, or whiskey; and . . . one quart of salt, two quarts of vinegar, two pounds of soap, and one pound of candles to every hundred rations.”
5 (1) Barriger, Leg Hist, pp 90-91. (2) For a more extended discussion of the introduction and early use of coffee in the Army ration, see Franz A. Koehler, Coffee for the Armed Forces: Military Development and Conversion to Industry Supply (QMC Historical Studies, Series II, No. 5, Washington, D. C., 1958), pp 1-11.
6 Thian, Leg Hist, pp 344-345.
7 Act of July 5, 1862, qtd by Thian in Leg Hist, p 345.
8 Ibid, p. 346.
9 Barriger, Leg Hist, pp 102-103.
10 Martin S. Peterson, “Rations of Indian Wars,” Activities Report (QMF&CI, Oct 1951). Information for the rations of the Indian Wars is from Peterson’s account.
11 Col W. C. Brown, The Army Ration-Old and New (reprint, WD pam, Jeffersonville QM Dep, Dec 15, 1921).
12 Samuel C. Prescott, Troop Feeding Programs: A Survey of Rationing and Subsistence in the United States Army, 1775 to 1940, cited by Rifkind, Fresh Foods for the Armed Forces, pp 4-5.
13 GO No.56, AGO, Mar 26, 1901, cited by Thian, Leg Hist, pp 687-688.
14 GO No.56, AGO, Mar 26, 1901, annotated by Thian, Leg Hist, pp 687-689. Thian noted the kinds and quantities of components for the five categories in complete detail.
15 Art 75, Subs Dept, USA Reg, qtd by Prescott, Troop Feeding Programs, 1944, p 63 (IV).
16 Ensuing data of World War I rations is from Walter Porges, “The Subsistence Research Laboratory-Ration Research, 1920-43,” CQMD Hist Study No. 1 (CQMD, May 1943); and Harold W. Thatcher, The Development of Special Rations for the Army (QMC Hist Study No.6, Washington, D. C., 1944).
17 After the war, it was proposed to issue the ration in half-portions within one container, thus providing a separate morning and evening meal. It was also planned to include a “chocolate-shredded wheat bar” for a portion of the hard bread and to introduce soluble coffee. Hope, too, was expressed that the future makeup of the ration would eliminate the condiment can and that the meat component would he other than corned beef (Brown, The Army Ration).
18 Capt W. J. Allen, “History of the General Supply Depot, Chicago, 1919,” pp 37-38, reported that 40,000 containers (resembling a washboiler in appearance), representing one million rations, were assembled and packed at the Chicago Depot between June 8 and July 15, 1918. By the end of August of the same year orders for 8 million rations, costing approximately 6 million dollars, had been received. Maj. Herbert J. Barr, QMC (ret), then and still in 1953 connected with the procurement division of the Depot, told the writer that candy, cigarettes, and tobacco were provided by a Chicago-wide public subscription and included in the containers as fill-in items.
19 Allen, “Hist of Gen Sup Dep,” pp 40-41.
20 The QM Subsistence School had been activated at the Chicago QM Depot in1920 to instruct Army officers in subsistence technology and supply, to write Army subsistence textbooks, and to assist in preparing food specifications. Some opportunity was also offered for subsistence research.
21 USA Spec 22-131, Oct 25, 1922.
22 An unpubl memo, Comdt, ARWC, Jan 31, 1930, qtd by Porges, Subs Lab, p 41.
23 The QM Subsistence Research and Development Laboratory came into being at the Chicago QM Depot July 24, 1936. The Subsistence School had been transferred to Philadelphia in June of the same year. The initial research efforts of the Laboratory, carried out on the meagerest of funds, expanded at the advent of World War II into a full-scale food research and development program for the entire Department of Defense. In 1946, the laboratory was renamed the Quartermaster Food and Container Institute for the Armed Forces. Hereafter, it will be referred to by initials SR&DL, QMF&CI, or by the more general words, “Laboratory” or “Institute.”
24 Thatcher, Dev of Sp Rat, p 2. Thatcher stated: “In 1942, The Quartermaster General concurred with the suggestion of the Chicago QM Depot that several thousand of these rations, which had been packed in 1936 and which still remained in edible condition in storage at Chicago, should be shipped to the nearest concentration camp for issue.” In a footnote, he explained the status of the rations as follows: “A report on the condition of these rations indicated that all items of both A and B rations, except the pork and beans of A, were still usable.”
25 “The controversy as to the nomenclature and purpose of the ration which ensued in 1939 between The Quartermaster General and The Adjutant General is discussed in detail in Thatcher, Special Rations, pp 6-8. The revision of AR 30-2210 was announced in WD Cir 88, 7 Nov 1939. The regulation, published 15 March 1940, established the basic pattern for rations which endured throughout the war. In lieu of the terms reserve,” emergency,” etc., four types of field rations were created: Field Ration A-the field counterpart of the garrison ration; Field Ration B-corresponding to the A type except that nonperishable processed or canned products replaced the perishable items of the A ration; Field Ration C-a ration consisting of six cans of prepared food, three containing a meat-and-vegetable combination and three containing crackers, sugar, and soluble coffee; and Field Ration D-the 4-ounce bar of concentrated chocolate.
26 Although the accumulation of research and experience has since produced amplifications of this definition, the original concept stated by The Quartermaster General in 1940 covered the major characteristics of the C ration. In a letter to Maj. W. R. McReynolds, June 10, 1940 (Thatcher, Dev of Sp Rat, p 16), Quartermaster General E. B. Gregory stated:
There are certain fundamental principles that must be met by a ration of this type:
a. It should contain not less than 4,000 calories and preferably contain 4,500 as it has been found that this much food is required for the average soldier under field conditions.
b. It must be divisible into at least two, and preferably three meals.
c. It must be as light as possible and still contain the necessary food value and bulk.
d. It must be suitable for use over a period of three or four days or longer, and therefore, must be as palatable as possible, well balanced and not highly seasoned.
e. It must be suitable for production in large numbers and at a reasonable cost. This statement of objectives provides the guiding clue in the development of the C ration. The ration went through many changes since its formal inception as Field Ration C but basically its progression continued to be guided by the original concept of a full and satisfying ration for one man for one day and one that he could carry on his person.
27 Thatcher, Dev of Sp Rat, p 13, recorded that such a meal, “consisting of a pound of stew composed of no less than twelve vegetables and nine meats,” was submitted to the Subsistence School for evaluation. The excessive number of ingredients, plus limited research facilities brought an end to this early inspiration.
28 “Chronology of C Rat,” mt Rept, SR&DL, Sep 1945, p 21.
29 Lt Gen J L. DeWitt to TAG, Jun 17, 1940, qtd by Porges, Subs Lab, footnote 61, p 19.
30 Capt V. 0. Wodicka, “Food Requirements for Overseas Use,” Industrial and Engineering Chemistry (Jan 1943), qtd by Porges, Subs Lab, p 60.
31 Rept of Com on Rat, Army Food Conf, ARWC, Washington, D. C., Apr.1946.
32 Ltr, TQMG to SR&DL, 3 Dec 1945, sub: Cancellations. The specification was not officially cancelled. however, until after 1946. In that year, Col. Charles Lawrence, CO, QMF&CI, wrote that although the bar had been declared “nonstandard” by the QMC Tech Com “the Specification still holds or is still in force although the ration to which it pertains is not being used.”
33 Ltr, TQMG to SR&DL, 10 Apr 1945, sub: Possible Use for Excess Type D Rat.
34 Ltr, Capt L. A. Wright, SR&DL, to M. L. Blumenthal and others, 15 Apr 1945.
35 Ltr, Col R. A. Isker, SR&DL to TQMG, 2 May 1945, sub: Possible Use for Excess Type D Rat.
36 QMC Tent Spec CQD 183, 28 Jun 1944.
37 QMC Tent Spec “Rat, Type C,” CQD 183B, 12 Apr 1945 and Amend thereto, 23 Jul 1945. The “Combat” nomenclature was not added to the specification title until after the war (CQD 183C, “Rat, Cmbt, Type C-2,” 22 May 1947). A “new” ration, “Ration, Type E, Complete (Combat),” (CQD 398), in which canned bread was substituted for biscuits or crackers, was proposed and a specification was published on 27 August 1946. It is discussed in a subsequent chapter.
38 Capt Hewitt A. Conway and Alice I. Meyer, eds, “Ration Development,” QMF&CI Operation Studies No.1 (1946), p 37, declared that spoons and granular salt were not procured. Procurement ended just as directives were issued to change the accessory pack.
39 The selection of the letter K was of no significance other than a phonetic differentiation from C and D. Col. Logan speaking before the Army Food Conference. ARWC, 1 April 1946. described its christening: K Ration started out entirely for paratroopers. We established a change when we received a letter one day from Patton asking, “please take the name paratrooper off that ration, as I want to use it for my tanks.” So we gave it an alphabetical designation and called it the K ration, –
40 QMC Tent Spec CQD 28, “U. S. Army Fld Rat K, Assy and Pkgng,” Dec 1941; CQD 28H, “Assy, Pkgng, and Pkgng, Rat, Type K, Complete,” 31 Aug 1945.
41 CQD 28G, 31 Oct 1944. The “final” specification, CQD 28H, 31 August 1945, was published just at the war’s close and no procurements were made under it. The specification was very similar to the immediate predecessor described above.
42 Excrpt, Min of QMC Tech Com Mtg No.9, 26 May 1948.
43 Although he could not foresee the ultimate changes which took place in the title nomenclature, Thatcher, Dev of Sp Rat. pp 88-90, drew the following conclusion concerning the development and short life of the Jungle, Mountain, and 5-in-1 rations:
[The rations] illustrate in pointed style the dynamics of research and development in the field of special rations-the importance of trial-and-error procedure, and constant search for something better, and the willingness to discard the old for the new when the latter seemed to offer reasonable prospect of improvement. … Each had been developed to meet a special need. All had shown promise, and at least two, the Mountain and 5-in-l rations, had proved relatively satisfactory for the purpose for which each was intended. When it appeared, however, that the same purposes for which these rations were created could be served satisfactorily by a single ration, and problems of procurement and distribution thereby greatly simplified, all three were promptly dropped into the land of limbo. Free reign was given to the inexorable law of change-and presumably of progress.
44 Oper Study, “Rat Dev,” p 76. A detailed account of the preliminary formulations and the ultimate product is contained in this account as well as in Thatcher, Dev of Sp Rats pp 64-72.45 Info from cy of QMC Tent Spec, unnumbered and not dtd, “USA Mountain Rat,” Spec Ofe file, QMF&CI. This copy is purported to be a duplicate of the draft forwarded to TQMG on 20 November 1942 Evidence indicates the date of the draft as 26 October 1942.
46 Although the Mountain Ration was a dead issue from this date on, it was not until 1948 that it was officially declared obsolete (Mm, QMC Tech Com Mtg No. 3, 1948).
47 QMF&CI Oper Study, “Rat Dev.” p 78.
48 QMC Tent Spec “USA Jungle Rat,” 26 Oct 1942.
49 (1) Erna Risch, The Quartermaster Corps: Organization, Supply, and Services (U. S. Army in World War II, The Technical Services, Washington, D. C., 1953), Vol I, pp 177-192. (2) Rept 125-42, 10 Oct 1942, cited in QMF&CI Oper Study, “Rat Dev,” p 81.
50 QMC Tent Spec CQD 126A, “Rat, 5-in-1,” 27 Aug 1946. The postwar history of the 5-in-1 is discussed in a subsequent chapter.
51 Col. G. F. Doriot to Hq, ASF, 9 Jun 1943, cited by Thatcher, Dev of Sp Rat, p 110.
52 QMC Tent Spec CQD 140, “Rat, 10-in-1,” 10 Aug 1943.
53 Spec CQD 140B, 1 Aug 1944 and Amend-3, thereto, 13 Mar 1945 listed the final requirements for the 10-in-1 ration.
54 As a result of the return to the 5-in-1 pack recommended by the Army Food Conference in April 1946 and consummated thereafter in the development of “Ration, Small-Detachment, 5-in-1,” the specification for “Ration, 10-in-1” (CQD 140B) was cancelled in May 1948 (1st Ind, TQMG to R&D Labs (Phila), 6 May 1948, sub: Cancellation of Subs Specs). That action officially marked the end of the10-in-1 although it has been noted that no procurement was made after 1945. In regard to an apparent conflict between the specification titles 5-in-1 and 10-in-1, both of which were recognized and in effect after the war, it might be well to remind the reader that for all practicable purposes, the 10-in-1 was two 5-in-1’s in one container; and subsequently, the 5-in-1 became one-half of a 10-in-1.
55 Ltr, AGF to ASM, 1 Nov 1944, sub: Aslt Candy Rat, cited in QMF&CI Oper Study “Rat Dev,” p 50.
56 QMC Tent Spec CQD 386, “Lunch, Aslt,” 24 Sep 1945.
57 Rept, Spec Sec, R&D, Mil Plan Div, OQMG, 4 Sep 1947.
58 QMC Tent Spec CQD 171, “Rat, Type X,” 2 Feb 1944. Eight copies were
published and distributed to the interested research and procurement officers. Limited procurement and the lack of records concerning application of the X-Ration give some indication that the imposed secrecy was unwarranted in view of the ultimate lack of success for the item.
59 Ltr, Spec Ofc (QMF&CI) to Spec Qual Con Br (PQD), 2 Feb 1950, sub: Hist of CQD 171, “Rat, Type X.”
60 Summary of Conf, AAF and QMC, Wright Field, 13-15 Oct 1942, reviewed by Thatcher, Dev of Sp Rat, p 99.
61 Memo, Capt R. Buchsbaum to Dir, ADTIC, 10 Jun 1944, sub: Emerg Rat for the Air Forces with Sp Ref to Pemmican.
62 QMC Tent Spec CQD 319, “Lunch, Air Crew,” 15 Sep 1944.
63 An early menu included beverage powder, soluble coffee, dehydrated eggs, dehydrated beef, butter spread, biscuits, fruit bars, and sugar.
64 QMC Tent Spec CQD 156, “Lunch, Cmbt, Army Air Force,” 4 Oct 1943.
65 It will be noted that the Air Crew lunch was in actually a ration designed for an individual pilot in a single-seater aircraft. The combat lunch herein described was provided for air crew groups. This confusing nomenclature existed throughout the war and was not truly clarified until 1950; then, under the new pattern of ration nomenclature established by AR 30-2210, the Air Crew Lunch became Food Packet, Individual. Fighter Pilot; the “Combat” Lunch became Food Packet, Individual, Inflight (so named because it was packed in units for individual use).
66 QMC Tent Spec, CQD 156A, “Lunch, Cmbt, AAF,” 24 Mar 1944.
67 Memo, Spec Ofc, QMF&CI, 2 Jul 1945, included the ration under a heading of obsolete rations. Rept, Spec and Qual Con Ofc, OQMG, 1 July 1948, listed CQD 146A under “Specifications Cancelled in June 1948” as “no longer required.” A new type of inflight lunch, which eliminated meal preparation, was developed in the postwar era and procured in volume then and during the Korean Emergency. It came to be called “Food Packet, Individual, In-Flight.”
68 Oper Study, “Rat Dev,” p 103.
69 QMC Tent Spec CQD 302, “Rat, Prcht, Emerg, Vest-Pocket Type,” 17 Jul 1944. A subsequent amendment changed the title to “ration, parachute, emergency.” The “vest-pocket” nomenclature was used because of concurrent consideration of a proposed “seat-type” parachute kit. This development was subsequently discontinued although a few seat-type rations, evidently for test use, were reported to have been procured (ltr, Lt W. M. Fosdick, SR&DL, to Hq, Ferrying Div, ATC, 30 May 1944).
70 TQMG (ltr to QMC Tech Com, 2 Jan 1948, sub: Fid Rat) recommended that the ration be retained as “standard.” The ration, however, was reclassified as “obsolete” by the QMC Technical Committee (Mtg No. 3, 1948) although it was apparent that the reclassification did not immediately result in cancellation of the specification. The tentative specification was converted to the military series as JAN-R-l024, “Ration. Parachute. Emergency” in March 1949.
71 QMC Tent Spec CQD 320, “Rat, Lifeboat, Abn,” 27 Sep 1944.
72 Thatcher, Dev of Sp Rat, p 102. The components of the ration were dehydrated beans, dehydrated ground beet, butter spread, cheese spread, soluble coffee, cereal briquettes, K biscuits, flight “bars,” and dried apricots.
73 QMC Tent Spec CQD 164, “Rat, Liferaft,” 4 Dec 1943. Subsequent specification revisions added ascorbic acid to the candy, eliminated the vitamin tablets, and included a plastic bag to hold unused components after the can had been opened. A size 5/2 by 3 by l 5/16 inch can, to conform in size to the pocket provided in parachute equipment, was specified in the ultimate specification (CQD 164B, 11 Sep 1945). The September 1945 changes were of importance only as far as the specification was concerned as ration procurement was by then suspended.
74 QMF&CI Oper Study, “Rat Dev,” p 64.
75 This ration should not be confused with Food Packet, Survival, Lifeboat proposed in 1948 and its subsequent successor, Ration, Lifeboat (Mil Spec MIL-R2406, 24 Aug 1950) developed during the Korean Emergency (see chapter VIII dealing with abandon-ship rations).
76 The war-designed supplements retained status in the postwar era and were ready to play their part in the reactivated ration development and procurement program of the Korean campaign.
77 This plan, based on Expeditionary Force Menus, proposed to supply spices, flavorings, and other general cooking items to field mess centers on the basis of one issue for a ten-day period.
78 Requirements were eventually standardized in QMC Tent Spec CQD 354, 26 Feb 1945. The components specified included: baking powder, baking soda, bouillon cubes, celery salt, chili powder, cinnamon, cloves, cornstarch, garlic salt, gravy and table-sauce base, lemon powder, maple-flavoring tablets, mustard, nutmeg, paprika, pepper, sage, vanilla, and dry yeast. The individually packaged components were assembled in a fiberboard box which in turn was inserted in a three-ply kraft asphalt-laminated bag to protect the contents from moisture. The unit was packed in a wood box for shipment.
79 QMC Tent Spec CQD 148, “Rat, Hosp, Sp,” 9 Sep 1943.
80 QMC Tent Spec CQD 148A, “Rat, Suplmt, Hosp,” 9 Nov 1944.
81 QMC Tent Spec CQD 347, “Beverage Pk, Aid Sta,” 5 Jan 1945.
82 Ibid.
83 “Rept on the Army Beverage Pk, Aid Sta,” M&S Re’s Proj No. X-624, Med Fld Res Lab (Camp LeJeune, N. C.), 10 Aug 1945.
84 QMC Tent Spec CQD 363, “Food Pkg, Red Cross,” 26 Mar 1945.
85 Ltrs, TQMG to SR&DL, sub: Dev of Red Cross Food Pkg, 29 and 30 Dec 1944. It was further indicated that the Army was to pay for its “proportionate share of these packages with the remainder to be paid by other interested nations,” and that the first procurement would he “approximately 200,000 packages.”
86 Procurement records indicate a total of 300,000 packages purchased in 1945.
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OBJECTIVES: Drummond checklist is a detailed tool for evaluating the methodological rigor of health economic (HE) studies, requiring a time-consuming review process. The use of large language models (LLMs) such as ChatGPT4.0 can significantly reduce the efforts required by a human reviewer. This study aimed at evaluating the performance of ChatGPT4.0 versus a trained human reviewer in assessing the quality of HE studies using the Drummond checklist.
METHODS: A list of HE studies was randomly selected from an existing review and each study was anonymized to ensure an unbiased evaluation by ChatGPT4.0 and the human reviewer. We developed standardized prompts using an iterative process by providing explicit instructions on the Drummond checklist, which encompasses 36 questions across study design and data collection methods, measurement and evaluation of outcomes, analysis and interpretation of results. These prompts included an appraisal guidance document, a response template and the study documents to be assessed for quality appraisal. The primary outcome of the analysis was the level of agreement assessed by Kappa statistics between ChatGPT4.0 and the human reviewer.
RESULTS: We piloted the prompt using 10 studies and post-standardization further expanded the assessment to another 27 studies. After standardization of the prompt, meantime in minutes to complete the checklist was significantly shorter with ChatGPT4.0 compared to the human reviewer (8 mins/study vs 25 mins/study, a 68% reduction). Our assessment indicated that the level of agreement between ChatGPT4.0 and the expert reviewer across the three domains ranged between 2.7% to 94.5%. Differences were noted in specific areas such as the generalizability of the study results which are more subjective and require human judgement.
CONCLUSIONS: LLMs such as ChatGPT4.0 can expedite the quality appraisal of health economic studies, but it should be utilized only as an adjunct to human expertise rather than a standalone reviewer, particularly for domains requiring subjective evaluation.
OBJECTIVES:Our objective was to extract disease severity scores for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients from electronic health record unstructured clinical notes using a transformer-based retriever-reader architecture and assess the accuracy.
METHODS:Deidentified clinical note paragraphs of IBD patients (International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision: K50*, K51*) from two hospital systems (2017-2022) in the OMNY Health real-world data platform were written to a document store. To retrieve paragraphs relevant to the severity scores of interest, queries were composed inquiring about four severity scores: 9-point Mayo score, 6-point Mayo score, Endoscopic Mayo score, and short Crohn’s Disease Activity Index (CDAI). Relevant paragraphs were retrieved using the Best Match 25 algorithm. A Robustly Optimized Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers Pre-training Approach (RoBERTa)-based question-answering model was used to identify the tokens in each paragraph corresponding to the severity scores. Results were sorted and manually examined to select an optimal confidence score cutoff for each query, and 25% of the records scoring above the cutoffs were randomly sampled and manually annotated for accuracy.
RESULTS:39,338 IBD patients were included; 3.36 million paragraphs were written to the document store. For severity scores listed above, score cutoffs of 0.810, 0.650, 0.490, and 0.694 were selected, respectively, yielding overall score (unique patient) counts of 428 (167), 425 (170), 317 (146), and 402 (161), respectively. Accuracy for the four scores was 100%, 100%, 96%, and 100%, respectively.
CONCLUSIONS:The results show that a retriever-reader architecture extracts severity scores from clinical notes of IBD patients with >95% accuracy. Improvements in accuracy and discrimination between several scores in the same paragraph were observed in this pipeline compared to previously published pipelines. This model demonstrates that key clinical outcomes may be extracted at scale. Further development and deployment of the model would increase patient yields and isolate Endoscopic Mayo scores for various intestinal regions.
OBJECTIVES: Directed Acyclic Graphs (DAGs) are structured diagrams describing the assumed underlying causal relationships between treatments, outcomes, and covariates. As evidence generation using real-world data (RWD) continues to expand, DAGs can help identify biasing paths, inform selection of covariates, and generate a more valid causal effect estimate. This study systematically built DAGs to elucidate causal pathways between first-line (1L) treatment (immune-oncology (IO) versus non-IO therapy) and survival among patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC).
METHODS: The study design comprised three components: 1) two targeted literature searches to identify relevant variables related to treatment (IO [nivolumab, ipilimumab, or pembrolizumab] versus non-IO [standard of care chemotherapy]) and outcomes (progression-free/overall survival); 2) plausibility assessments of each proposed relationship to be captured in the DAG, and 3) a case study utilizing Carelon Research’s Healthcare Integrated Research Database (HIRD). Using US integrated claims and clinical data from 2014-2023, we differentiated measured from unmeasured variables and estimated bivariate relationships between each covariate, treatment, and overall survival via logistic regression to refine the proposed relationships.
RESULTS: The two targeted literature searches identified 94 RCTs and 22 RWD studies, from which 28 variables were extracted. These potential confounders (e.g., tumor characteristics, performance status, health care access) or colliders (e.g., data collection methods) relative to the treatment-outcome relationship were built into the DAG. We identified 9,046 patients with mCRC from the HIRD, of whom 213 patients initiated IO therapy (mean age 60 years, 47% female, 80% Non-Hispanic White). Age, performance status, prior chemotherapy, and BRAF mutation status demonstrated large effect sizes and statistically significant associations with both treatment (IO versus non-IO) and overall survival.
CONCLUSIONS: Creating DAGs in a systematic and efficient manner, informed by existing literature and plausibility assessments, provides transparency when estimating causal effects from RWD and can reduce bias in the chosen statistical model.
OBJECTIVES:The burgeoning field of healthcare data analysis is continually confronted with the dual challenges of data privacy and the need for high-quality datasets with which to perform cutting edge data analysis and research. We aim to use a synthetic data generation pipeline to bridge the gap between these challenges by producing synthetic patient data capable of performing real research.
METHODS:We utilize GuardantINFORM, which includes anonymized genomic and structured payer claims data, to generate lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) patient cohorts. We process this data into a tabular format before decomposing it into an internal sequential format that is able to leverage advanced transformer-based large language models. This innovation allows for the creation of synthetic datasets that not only retain the statistical properties of the original data but also preserve the privacy of underlying data points.
RESULTS:We show that there is a 0.993 R2 correlation between real and synthetic variable probabilities, demonstrating the robustness of the synthetic data in mimicking real-world data distributions. We then use a membership inference attack test, with a resulting accuracy of 49% or roughly a random guess, to underscore the effectiveness in preserving patient privacy while generating that data. Finally, we replicated a real study using the synthetic data by showing that LUAD patients with the KRAS G12C mutation were more susceptible to earlier loss of life in the face of a cancer diagnosis and that this problem compounded upon co-occurring STK11 mutations. This not only validates the practical utility of synthetic data but also highlights its potential in facilitating groundbreaking research.
CONCLUSIONS:We present a promising solution for the healthcare research community. It enables the sharing of privatized, synthetic data that retains the integrity and utility required for significant scientific discoveries, paving the way for more liberalized, responsible, and effective data sharing practices in healthcare research.
ISSUE:While it’s clear that family members can be profoundly affected by the ill health of a child, how to capture family member spillover health effects in pediatric economic evaluation is fraught with controversy. In the case of life-extending interventions, the “Carer-QALY trap” suggests that whereas small quality-adjusted life year (QALY) gains may be experienced by the patient, the extensive QALY losses experienced by family members due to prolonged caregiving may paradoxically make treatment appear less favourable than death. Inclusion of caregiving effects is also subject to bias associated with the number of caregivers available, with treatments demonstrating better outcomes in families with larger caregiving circles. The inclusion of family member spillover health effects is increasing, but a wide range of study designs, preference-based health-related quality-of-life instruments and modeling approaches are being used, revealing a lack of consensus on the optimal design, tool and modelling approach. This international panel will examine and debate different approaches to capturing family member/caregiver health effects in pediatric economic evaluation.
OVERVIEW:Mick Tilford will moderate and provide context. Ramesh Lamsal will address the appropriateness of including spillover health effects and will contrast the different approaches used, such as measuring parent and child health state utilities in a single or separate models, deriving joint health states, summing QALY gains across family members, or deriving a household/family utility function. Wendy Ungar will illustrate the issue using economic evaluation of pediatric genetic testing, where testing is often directed at families (through cascade testing or trio sequencing), and present how family member health effects and resource use can be included in the reference case analysis. After the presentations, the moderator will pose questions to panelists to spark debate and each speaker will be asked to suggest ways forward. The session will end with an audience Q&A.
ISSUE: The cost-effectiveness of diagnostic tests hinges on their ability to correctly diagnose a condition and guide appropriate treatment, which is expected to improve clinical outcomes. How might diagnostic tests be valued for conditions that lack optimal treatment? Many infectious diseases provide good examples – e.g. norovirus, rhinovirus, bacterial vaginosis. There are currently no treatment options for norovirus and rhinovirus. Despite antibiotics being available for bacterial vaginosis, symptom persistence/recurrence rates are high. For these conditions where improvements in clinical outcomes may not be achieved through treatment, how is the value of diagnostic information (VODI) perceived? How does the valuation criteria differ for diagnostics intended for conditions with good treatment options? Does disease severity affect the perceived value? The aims of this issue panel are: 1) to use infectious disease examples to explore more complex relationships between treatment effectiveness and diagnostic value across multiple perspectives; 2) explore different value parameters for diagnostics and how these may be captured in cost-effectiveness analysis.
OVERVIEW: The moderator will present a 10-minute overview of the issue. Each panel member will then have 10 minutes to present their perspective. This will include the concept of VODI and how VODI supports broader value assessment of diagnostics beyond treatment outcomes; clinician perspective on the real-world clinical and economic benefits of molecular diagnostics for infectious diseases; and payer perspective on current priorities and considerations for diagnostic reimbursement. After the presentations, the moderator will summarise and pull out the key themes and consider wider applicability to additional disease areas before a 20-minute panel discussion with audience participation. It’s expected that researchers and manufacturers in the diagnostic tests field and payers would benefit from this discussion.
PURPOSE: Since 2018, China has adopted a centralized drug review and price negotiation process to inform national coverage decision making. Quality-adjusted life year (QALY) is a recommended outcome measure for this process. However, all existing patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) were developed in western countries. There was a need for PROMs that measure important aspects of health perceived by Chinese populations. The China Health-Related Health Outcome Measures (CHROME) were developed for this purpose. CHROME is a system of preference-based PROMs that consists of a core module for generic use and a series of disease-specific modules for measuring disease or condition-specific impact. This system has a novel design in which both generic and disease specific measurement needs are integrated throughout the conceptualization, validation, and valuation. Therefore, they can be used in clinical and economic evaluations with consistency and transitivity, while maintaining independence. The primary goal of this workshop is to introduce the development and validation of the CHROME system and its application to support drug price negotiation in China.
DESCRIPTION:
This workshop will start with an introduction of health technology assessment (HTA) and drug price negotiation process in China (10 minutes, by Dr. Kun Zhao). Dr. Feng Xie will provide an overview of the design, concept and structure of the CHROME system (15 minutes). Dr. Xue Li will present the development of CHROME instruments and their validations using both classic testing theory and item response theory in large representative samples (n=2,929) in China (20 minutes). The workshop will be concluded by discussion on the implications of the CHROME systems for HTA and drug price negotiation in China (10 mins by Dr. Qiang Fu), followed by a Q&A session (5 minutes). This workshop may benefit the audience who is interested in the PROMs development and validation for HTA and drug coverage decision making in China.
PURPOSE: Anchored covariate-adjusted indirect treatment comparisons (ITCs) inform reimbursement decisions when (1) there are no head-to-head trials between the treatments of interest, (2) there is a common comparator arm shared by two studies, and (3) there are patient-level data limitations. Matching-adjusted indirect comparison (MAIC) is currently the most widely used method in HTA but is not always possible. We begin with an overview of newly proposed MAIC weighting schemes and approaches for assessing the numerical feasibility of conducting an MAIC. We then consider the "two-stage MAIC", an extension to MAIC which has been recently proposed and shown to yield improved precision and efficiency, while maintaining similarly low levels of bias when assumptions are met. We review the two-stage MAIC and how it has recently been applied to achieve greater precision. Finally, certain approaches in causal inference are known to be “doubly-robust” meaning that they will provide unbiased estimates so long as either the trial allocation model or the outcome model is correctly specified. However, doubly-robust methods for ITCs have not yet been proposed. Here we consider the potential of “augmented” MAIC for doubly-robust estimation in anchored ITCs.
DESCRIPTION: Workshop attendees will review the main advantages and limitations of MAIC and be introduced to newly proposed methods. The audience will be asked (real-time polling) to consider if these “advanced” methods should be more widely considered in HTA . Ms. Cope will chair the session and introduce the main issues involved with existing MAIC methods and summarize recent work on alternative weighting schemes and feasibility assessment (20 min). Dr. Remiro-Azócar will summarize his recent work on the two-stage MAIC method (15 min) and Dr. Campbell will consider the potential of “augmented” methods for doubly-robust estimation (15 min). To conclude, an audience discussion will consider the potential and priorities for MAIC methods research (10 min).
PURPOSE:Real world evidence (RWE) is only trusted by regulatory bodies, health technology assessment (HTA) organizations, payers, clinicians and patients if the underlying real-world data (RWD) is demonstrated to be high quality and fit-for-purpose. Electronic health records (EHRs) are an important source of real-world data: they are the primary record of the patient symptoms, diagnoses, treatments, outcomes, and in many cases, preferences and experiences. However, EHRs were not designed for research, and clinician engagement and interaction with EHRs varies widely from scope of practice to health care organization type. Clinician documentation in EHRs can often be limited by time pressure and administrative burden. Moreover, much information is captured in unstructured formats within the EHR, and coding systems and other factors often vary between health system EHRs. Patient records may also be split between multiple health systems and private practice EHRs. In this workshop, we will explore how all of these factors impact RWE generated from EHR data, and how these challenges can be overcome to improve trust and transparency around uses and the reliability of EHR data for research and regulatory purposes.
DESCRIPTION:In this workshop, Rachele Hendricks-Sturrup will describe health system practices in generating RWE to support learning health system goals, and Duke-Margolis’ current focus on operationalizing EHR data relevance, reliability, and quality to build trust and transparency among health system stakeholders. Mac Bonafede, Elise Berliner and Louis Ehwerhemuepha will take some of those examples and describe the strengths and weaknesses of EHR data for the specific questions and how they are working to improve the validity and quality of EHR data to answer these questions. The panel will take questions on specific challenges audience members are facing using EHR data and other RWD, and brainstorm solutions with panel and audience members.
OBJECTIVES: For patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), selexipag is often added several months from initiating double oral therapy (DOT) with an endothelin receptor antagonist (ERA) and phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor (PDE5i). To appropriately assess the effectiveness of escalation to triple oral therapy (TOT) compared with DOT, it is critical to account for the DOT duration prior to selexipag initiation. This study compared the effectiveness of adding selexipag within 3, 6, and 12 months to DOT versus DOT alone for risk of hospitalization and PAH-related disease progression using a target trial design.
METHODS: A hypothetical, pragmatic trial protocol was developed to analyze real-world claims data from Komodo. Eligible study patients with PAH on DOT for 60 days between July 2015–June 2022 were cloned to both treatment groups and artificially censored when their observed treatment deviated from their assigned treatment strategy. Randomization was emulated using inverse probability treatment weight, and censoring-induced selection bias was accounted for using inverse probability censoring weight. A pooled logistic model was used to estimate the per-protocol effect between the treatment arms. Time to all-cause hospitalization, PAH-related hospitalization, and PAH-related disease progression were compared via adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs).
RESULTS: The risk of all-cause hospitalization (aHR=0.82;95%CI:0.72–0.94), PAH-related hospitalization (aHR=0.81;95%CI:0.70–0.95), and PAH-related disease progression (aHR=0.82;95%CI:0.70–0.95) were significantly lower among patients who added selexipag within 6 months of DOT compared with DOT alone. More pronounced treatment effects were observed when patients added oral selexipag early (3-months), or when continuous treatment was defined using a shorter gap in treatment (45 versus 90-days).
CONCLUSIONS: Adding selexipag as early as 3 months from initiation of DOT of ERA and PDE5i significantly reduced the risk of hospitalization among patients with PAH. Delays in selexipag initiation (≥12 months) and treatment gaps may contribute to suboptimal outcomes.
OBJECTIVES: Colon cancer (CC) constitutes approximately 6% of global cancer incidence. Post-curative surgery, current guidelines recommend adjuvant chemotherapy for high-risk patients, as defined by clinicopathologic factors, followed by routine surveillance and monitoring. However, some patients face ongoing risk of recurrence. We developed a novel comprehensive microsimulation model for this population within the framework of current guidelines, providing a nuanced understanding of CC management.
METHODS: A microsimulation model, replicating disease progression and guideline recommendations, was developed using a lifetime horizon with monthly cycles. The starting age of the cohort was 65 years. Treatment decisions post-curative-surgery, post-recurrence, and surveillance algorithms were incorporated into the model following the current guidelines. Disease progression parameters and performance characteristics of the recommended testing modalities were derived from the published literature. The model was validated using the National Cancer Database records following ISPOR validation guidelines.
RESULTS: Our model predicted a 10-year recurrence-free survival of 71.5% for high-risk Stage II and 62.8% for Stage III patients. The 10-year overall survival rate was 73.7% for high-risk Stage II and 68% for Stage III survivors, with post-surgery average life expectancy of 17.1 years and 16.0 years, respectively. The model predicted 810 recurrences per 10,000 high-risk Stage II survivors (250 locoregional and 560 distant) and, 1,820 recurrences for Stage III survivors (570 locoregional and 1,250 distant) over 10 years. However, only 510 (63%) and 1,370 (75%) of recurrences were detected by the current surveillance modalities.
CONCLUSIONS: Our clinically validated model enables the evaluation of long-term clinical outcomes in high-risk Stage II and Stage III CC survivors. Model predictions highlighted suboptimal recurrence detection rates under the current screening modalities. Given the newer emerging molecular residual disease tests, this model could serve as a foundational tool for evaluating both current clinical practices and the potential of these new tests to improve early detection.
OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to assess clinical impact of replacing PCV13 with PCV15 in the national immunization program (NIP) for infants in Costa Rica.
METHODS: A state-transition Markov model was utilized to simulate the occurrence of cases and deaths associated with pneumococcal disease (PD) in Costa Rica population. The model incorporated three health states: no PD, post-meningitis sequelae (PMS), and death; and tracked the occurrence of acute PD events, including acute otitis media (AOM), non-bacteremic pneumococcal pneumonia (NBPP), and invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD). Health outcomes, including life-years (LYs), were reported. The initial birth cohort in 2024, consisting of 69,654 newborns, and the subsequent 100 cohorts were eligible to receive either PCV13 or PCV15 according to the 2+1 schedule, administered at 2, 4, and 12 months. Costa Rican-specific data from official sources/literature were used, with data from other Latin America countries as proxy, when necessary. A life table was included to account for all-cause mortality among the cohorts. The same vaccine-type efficacy and waning profile was assumed for both vaccines. For the two additional PCV15 serotypes (22F and 33F), the average overall PCV13 vaccine efficacy was applied, including indirect effect for the first five years following PCV15 introduction.
RESULTS:Replacing PCV13 with PCV15 in the Costa Rican NIP was projected to avoid additional 740 IPD cases (53 meningitis, 158 bacteremia without focus, and 528 bacteremic pneumonia), 4,260 NBPP cases (1,865 inpatient and 2,395 outpatient NBPP), 3,297 AOM cases and 16 PMS cases over a 100-year time horizon. Additionally, PCV15 was estimated to avoid 84 IPD/NBPP deaths compared to PCV13, resulting in gains of 1,606 LYs over the 100-year time horizon.
CONCLUSIONS: PCV15 is projected to prevent more PD-related cases and deaths compared with PCV13. These findings highlight the additional impact of PCV15 in preventing PD mortality and morbidity in Costa Rica.
OBJECTIVES: To investigate (1) whether payers have higher willingness to pay (WTP) for interventions that meet novel value criteria: groundbreaking durable/curative, disease severity, and health equity; and (2) for relevant interventions reviewed by ICER from 2021‒2023, how many additional treatments would be deemed cost-effective at higher WTP thresholds.
METHODS: A double-blinded web-based survey of US healthcare payers was fielded in July 2023 through Cencora’s research panel, the Managed Care Network, to assess payer WTP for interventions meeting novel value criteria. Identified ICER reports assessing pharmaceutical interventions published between Mar 2021 and Nov 2023 that included an appraisal committee (AC) meeting (N=54). Determined whether an intervention met novel value criteria based on surrogate measures: (1) groundbreaking durable/curative: use of single and short-term therapies (SST) framework (n=6); (2) disease severity: ≥50% AC voted disease had high acuity of need (n=7); and (3) health equity: ≥50% AC voted intervention would have positive impact on health inequities (n=5).
RESULTS: A total of 48 payers participated in the survey. Most payers strongly agreed/agreed they would pay more per unit of health gained for groundbreaking durable/curative treatments (75%). Fewer strongly agreed/agreed they would pay more per unit of health gained for interventions that treated higher-severity diseases (40%) or reduced health inequities (33%). At a WTP threshold of $100,000, ICER found 3 “groundbreaking durable/curative” treatments cost-effective (50%), 1 “disease severity” treatment cost-effective (14%), and 1 “health equity” treatment cost-effective (20%). At WTP threshold of $200,000, the respective numbers rose to: 6 (100%), 4 (80%), and 2 (29%). At $300,000, the numbers rose to: 6 (100%), 5 (100%), and 3 (43%).
CONCLUSIONS: Some payers are willing to pay more for interventions meeting novel value criteria. With increased WTP thresholds, more interventions meeting novel value criteria would be considered cost-effective, with potential implications for formulary decision-making and patient access.
OBJECTIVES: Regulatory and payment pathway guidance are emerging related to digital health technologies (DHTs). As DHT applications are commercialized, healthcare technology assessment (HTA) agencies will play an increasingly important role in assessing their potential value. The goal of this study was to identify and review available DHT value assessment frameworks.
METHODS: We conducted a targeted review using PubMed and HTA sites to identify DHT assessment frameworks from HTA authorities in North America and Europe. We prioritized DHT frameworks published in English from January 1, 2018-November 10, 2023. Frameworks limited to DHT subcategories (e.g., mobile health apps, personalized medicine solutions) were excluded. Twelve EUnetHTA HTA Core Model domains (Health problem and current use of technology; Technical technology characteristics; Safety; Clinical effectiveness; Patient and social aspects; Economics; Legality; Ethics; Organizational impact; Usability; Data security; Interoperability) informed descriptive analysis.
RESULTS: Three DHT frameworks met inclusion criteria from the US (ICER), the UK (NICE), and Finland (Digi-HTA). All 3 frameworks covered 5/12 domains: ‘safety,’ ‘clinical effectiveness,’ ‘economics,’ ‘usability,’ and ‘data security.’ ‘Technological characteristics’ (ICER, Digi-HTA), ‘patient and social aspects’ (NICE, ICER), and ‘interoperability’ (NICE, Digi-HTA) were addressed by 2/3 frameworks. ‘Health problem and current use of technology’ was covered in ICER's framework. NICE addressed both ‘legal’ and ‘ethical’ guidance. No framework covered ‘organizational impact.’ NICE's framework encompassed the most domains (9/12), followed by ICER (8/12) and Digi-HTA (7/12). Related to the ‘economics’ category, budget-impact analysis was recommended by ICER and NICE, and cost-effectiveness analysis was suggested by NICE (for costly interventions) and Digi-HTA.
CONCLUSIONS: Few HTA agencies have published broad DHT assessment frameworks. Among existing frameworks, assessment criteria vary, and domains salient to DHT evaluation—including technological characteristics, interoperability, and ethics—are not universally considered. Establishment of clear, explicit evidence standards is needed to facilitate robust DHT value assessment.
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Meet the Team
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Operations Team:The Operations Team, comprised of the clinical and laboratory teams, is integral to the daily operations of the biobank. The clinical team collaborates closely with partners at the Cornell University Hospital for Animals and the Department of Clinical Sciences, overseeing sample collection and processing, including case selection, biospecimen collection, and obtaining owner consent. Meanwhile, stationed at the Baker Institute for Animal Health, the laboratory team manages blood and tissue processing, as well as the long-term storage of samples..
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Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine
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https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/cornell-veterinary-biobank/about-biobank/meet-team
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Operations Team:
The Operations Team, comprised of the clinical and laboratory teams, is integral to the daily operations of the biobank. The clinical team collaborates closely with partners at the Cornell University Hospital for Animals and the Department of Clinical Sciences, overseeing sample collection and processing, including case selection, biospecimen collection, and obtaining owner consent. Meanwhile, stationed at the Baker Institute for Animal Health, the laboratory team manages blood and tissue processing, as well as the long-term storage of samples..
Marta Castelhano, DVM, MVSc
Associate Research Professor, Director of the Biobank,
Governance Committee Member
An expert in veterinary biobanking and medical genetics, Dr. Castelhano manages the collections and allocation of samples for ongoing and future research projects. She is a collaborator in several projects at Cornell and other institutions, in addition to conducting her own studies. Dr. Castelhano creates and oversees the organizational structure of our Biobank, leading the team through daily operations and representing the Cornell Veterinary Biobank in specialty conferences worldwide.
Susan Garrison, LVT
Assistant Director, Biobank Clinical Services
With clinical experience in shelter medicine, anesthesia, medical genetics and ten years of biobanking experience, Mrs. Garrison is a licensed veterinary technician responsible for recruiting, collecting and storing high-quality tissue and blood samples. As the Biobank’s Assistant Director of Clinical Services, she oversees clinical sample recruitment, and acquires and manages relevant clinical data associated with these samples, consulting with clinical specialists for phenotypic confirmation to ensure accurate data entry in the Biobank database. Mrs Garrison is also involved in project management, tissue sample distributions, and handling client and researcher communications during studies and ahead of clinical trial protocol development. As part of the quality assurance team that developed the quality management system, she helped prepare the Biobank for accreditation. In addition to her two human children, Susan lives with her two adorable (and mischievous) feline children, Lily and Gus.
Lisa Mitchell, LVT
Veterinary Technician
Ms. Mitchell is a licensed veterinary technician who has worked with the Equine Performance Clinic helping diagnose airway disease, cardiac issues and lameness problems. She bridges the clinical team with Cornell’s large animal hospital – and is responsible for the collection and processing of tissue samples, particularly from horses. She is an active owner of four dogs who likes to compete in performance events and field training.
Lin Lin, BS
Laboratory Specialist
Ms. Lin, equipped with a strong background in chemistry and over 34 years of expertise in molecular biology technologies acquired through work in both medical school and research laboratories, adeptly conducts various procedures, including nucleic acid purifications, Plasma and serum preparations, as well as PBMC preparations. Beyond her professional work, she finds joy in travel, indulging in gourmet foods, immersing herself in literature, exploring documentaries, and nurturing her garden where she grows vegetables. She takes pride in being the devoted guardian of two cats, CC and Pepper, along with two parakeets, and seven delightful chicken hens.
Ahmed Atef
Biobank Operations Manager
As the Biobank Operations Manager, Dr. Ahmed Atef focuses on optimizing operations to enhance efficiency and provide superior services for our clients. He firmly believes in the pivotal role of sample quality and service excellence in driving successful research outcomes. Originally from Egypt, he holds a bachelor’s degree in veterinary medical sciences from Menoufiya University and an MBA from Dakota State University. With a diverse background spanning banking, high-tech manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, and healthcare, Ahmed's passion centers on project management within academic environments. Across 14 years, he has collaborated across three countries, valuing cultural diversity. Ahmed is a proud father, and his compassion for animals is reflected in his active involvement with rescue organizations, where he mentors his children in caring for and training fostered animals. While soccer tops his list of favorite sports, he also enjoys gaming, albeit conceding victory to his kids in that arena.
Statistical Unit:
Comprised of specialists in genetics and genomics research, the statistical unit is responsible for the data analysis of all Biobank samples, and provides genotypic data that’s associated with each sample and each animal’s clinical phenotypes.
Jess Hayward, PhD
Senior Research Associate
As a member of the Biobank statistics team, Dr. Hayward analyzes data generated by the clinical and laboratory teams of the Biobank. Her expertise lies in canine genetics and genomics, particularly in using genome-wide association studies (GWAS) to identify loci associated with traits and disorders. She shares her home and kibble with Blueberry, a golden retriever.
Elisa Benedetti, PhD
Translational Data Specialist
Dr. Elisa Benedetti has more than 9 years of experience in biostatistics and omics data analysis, leading high-impact collaborative research teams in precision medicine and metabolic health, and is passionate about using her skills in integrating translational datasets to improve the healthspan of our canine companions and their humans. She leads our team’s translational data integration efforts from Munich, Germany. Elisa serves at the pleasure of 11-year-old “Luf”, an Italian of-its-own-breed, bigger-than-life canine.
Quality Assurance:
By overseeing its quality management system, the quality assurance team helps our Biobank maintain compliance with ISO 20387 standard. This ensures authentication and traceability of biological materials and associated data along with validation of the processes, thereby providing our clients with the assurance that they are receiving fit-for-purpose products and services.
Denise L. Archer, BA
Quality Manager
Ms. Denise Archer assisted the team with creation and implementation of our Biobank's quality management system and helped us prepare and acquire ISO 20387 accreditation. With over twenty years of experience in manufacturing and academic laboratory environments, expertise in quality systems development and implementation, training, assessment and consultation of laboratories to Good Laboratory Practices (GLP), Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) and ISO standards, Denise continues to oversee CVB's quality management system. Denise enjoys spending downtime with her aptly named mare, Moxie.
Alyssa P. Stablein, MBA
Quality Assurance Lead
Ms. Alyssa Stablein has more than 18 years of research experience, spending 8 of those within the quality assurance landscape, in AAVLD, ISO 17025, and GLP environments. In her previous role in the Cornell Comparative Coagulation Lab, Alyssa served as a supervisor and trainer to their high-impact team, and as a member of the Cornell Animal Health Diagnostic Center QA advisory team. Alyssa is passionate about creating functional teams in highly collaborative environments. Alyssa is a proud graduate of our Cornell Johnson Graduate School of Management, where she completed her MBA. Alyssa currently leads the team's quality efforts at the Dog Aging Project and Cornell Veterinary Biobank. At home, she serves as a devoted dog-mother to “Pixie”, a food enthusiast.
Marketing and Communications:
With a shared mission to enhance and preserve the university's brand and reputation, marketing and communications works closely with University Relations to raise the visibility of the Biobank and its world-renowned discoveries and thought leadership.
Debra Jaramilla
Assistant Director, Business Development
Ms. Debra Jaramilla has over 15 years of experience in managing and directing roles in marketing at several private sector companies. Her skills and expertise in strategic marketing, product marketing, campaign management, content creation, events, and social media are vital to driving awareness and sustainability to the biobank. Debra leads the formulation and execution of the biobank's marketing and business development strategies. She is based in Los Angeles, California with her family, including a tenacious bulldog named Maximus.
Karli Rizzo
Biobank Marketing and Communications Manager
Ms. Karli Rizzo is a strong advocate for storytelling and creative communication using modern technology and media. With 15 years of experience spanning industries from NASCAR to cryogenic electron microscopy, she brings a wealth of expertise to our team. Karli is a graduate of Syracuse University's S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications. Outside of work, she is a proud dog mom to Mega, her 7-year-old furry companion.
Governance committee:
The governance committee provides oversight and strategic planning to ensure sustainable growth of the Biobank. Aiming to provide perspective and guidance in various subjects, its members are specialized in different areas.
Dr. Rory Todhunter BVSc, MS, PhD, DACVS
The Maurice R. and Corinne P. Greenberg Professor of Surgery, Governance Committee Member
Dr. Todhunter is the visionary behind the Cornell Veterinary Biobank. He started the CVB in 2006 initially as an archive for genetic material from dogs with orthopedic conditions. As the project grows, Dr. Todhunter provides guidance by defining the goals and strategies critical for the Biobank’s continuing impact. He is also a veterinary specialist in small animal orthopedic surgery and medical genetics the Director of The Cornell University Richard P. Riney Canine Health Center.
Dr. Adam Boyko, PhD
Assistant Professor, Governance Committee Member
Dr. Boyko is an evolutionary geneticist specializing in canine genomics with broad research interests in population genetic analyses, particularly complex trait mapping and inference of demography and selection in domesticated species. Besides being an active contributor and user of the Biobank resource, he also works as a researcher and committee member to develop collaborative research projects that contribute to the core scientific mission of the Biobank and ensure its continued success and growth.
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Harte Research Institute
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HRI Initiatives
The Harte Research Institute has a number of initiatives to further focus on specific issues, opportunities, or collaborations in the Gulf of Mexico. They are made possible by generous supporters and funders and allow HRI to further connect with our coastal communities.
Research Programs
The Harte Research Institute is set apart from other marine research institutions by its use of the HRI Model, a unique interdisciplinary way of working that integrates our science with economic, policy and sociological expertise. Each of our nine research programs are dedicated to working together to develop science-driven solutions™ that aim to conserve coastal and marine resources, while also developing resilient communities and economies in the United States, Mexico, and Cuba.
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Number Nine Research Laboratory
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The 9th Army Technical Research Laboratory (第9陸軍技術研究所, Dai kyū Rikugun Gijutsu Kenkyūjo?), also called the Noborito Laboratory (登戸研究所, Noborito Kenkyūjo?), was a military development laboratory run by the Imperial Japanese Army from 1937 to 1945. The lab, based in Noborito, Tama-ku, Kawasaki...
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Military Wiki
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https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Number_Nine_Research_Laboratory
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9th Army Technical Research LaboratoryActive 1937 - 1945Country Empire of JapanBranch Imperial Japanese ArmyType Military research and development and unconventional warfareGarrison/HQ Noborito, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Prefecture, JapanNickname(s) Noborito Laboratory
The 9th Army Technical Research Laboratory (第9陸軍技術研究所, Dai kyū Rikugun Gijutsu Kenkyūjo?), also called the Noborito Laboratory (登戸研究所, Noborito Kenkyūjo?), was a military development laboratory run by the Imperial Japanese Army from 1937 to 1945. The lab, based in Noborito, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan focused on clandestine activities and unconventional warfare, including energy weapons, intelligence and spycraft tools, chemical and biological weapons, poisons, and currency counterfeiting. One of the weapons developed by the lab was the fire balloon, thousands of which were launched against the United States in 1944 and 1945. The unit, which at its peak was staffed by 1,000 scientists and workers, was disbanded upon Japan's defeat at the end of World War II.
On 7 April 2010, a museum, called the Noborito Institute for Peace Education, was opened at the lab's former site. The museum exhibits artifacts from the lab and gives information on the unit's mission and operations. The museum sits on the Ikuta campus of Meiji University.
References[]
Cook, Haruko Taya; Theodore F. Cook (1993). Japan at War: An Oral History. New Press. ISBN 1-56584-039-9.
Schreiber, Mark (17 October 2010). "Balloon bombs, poisons all in a day's work at Noborito" (Newspaper article). Japan Times. p. 7. Archived from the original on 27 December 2012. https://archive.is/1vdg .
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The Liberator. [Vol. 9, no. 45 (November 8, 1839)]
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The Liberator. [Vol. 9, no. 45 (November 8, 1839)] | | With previous owner's signature ([I.] Stearns) in top margin of first page. Contains a letter from John Pierpont, a diagram of Marlborough Hall during the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Fair, and miscellaneous other reports. Garrison serves as editor, Isaac Knapp as printer, and Oliver Johnson as general agent. Discolored and slightly torn in creases.
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https://www.gilderlehrman.org/collection/glc0887556
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Gilder Lehrman Collection #: GLC08875.56 Author/Creator: Garrison, William Lloyd, 1805-1879 Place Written: Boston, Massachusetts Type: Newspaper Date: 8 November 1839 Pagination: 4 p. : newspaper ; 62.3 x 46.3 cm. Order a Copy
People
Garrison, William Lloyd, 1805-1879
Johnson, Oliver, 1809-1889
Knapp, Isaac, 1804-1843
Pierpont, John, 1785-1866
Sub Era
Citation Guidelines for Online Resources
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Shionogi and Osaka University Establish a New Joint Research Lab on Post-COVID-19 Condition (Long COVID)
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https://www.shionogi.com/global/en/news/2024/03/e_20240301.html
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OSAKA, Japan, March 1, 2024 – Shionogi & Co., Ltd. (Head Office: Osaka, Japan; Chief Executive Officer: Isao Teshirogi, Ph.D.; hereafter “Shionogi”) announced that Shionogi and Osaka University (Location: Suita, Osaka, President: Shojiro Nishio) have established a joint research laboratory (research lab’s name: Joint Research Laboratory for Long COVID) at the Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, Osaka University, aiming to establish prevention methods for post-COVID-19 condition (Long COVID).
Many people infected with COVID-19 experience post-infection symptoms such as fatigue, shortness of breath, hair loss, and decreased concentration, commonly known as "Long COVID," which has become a significant global issue1,2,3,4. However, treatments and prevention methods for Long COVID have not yet been established. In the phase 2/3 clinical trial (SCORPIO-SR) of the COVID-19 therapeutic drug, ensitrelvir fumaric acid (marketed in Japan as Xocova®, hereafter “ensitrelvir”), it has shown the possibility to reduce the risk of persistent and new late-onset symptoms associated with Long COVID5,6,7. However, further accumulation of data is necessary to establish treatments and preventive methods.
Therefore, in order to promote collaborative research between Shionogi and Osaka University, where Shionogi offers potential therapeutic drugs that can address social issues, and Osaka University provides specialized expertise and healthcare infrastructure, we have established a new joint research chair as a base for fostering swift research advancement through industry-academia collaboration.
Furthermore, in this joint research laboratory, we will conduct clinical research to evaluate the efficacy and safety of ensitrevir for Long COVID. This clinical research is a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study that evaluates the suppression of Long COVID and safety of ensitrelvir once-daily, 5 days oral treatment in 2,000 patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection（jRCTs051230184）.
Shionogi is committed to the principle “Protecting people worldwide from the threat of infectious diseases” as our key focus, and is working on the realization of total care for infectious diseases. Shionogi is continuing to progress its extensive global development program for ensitrelvir, and will continue research and development for COVID-19 so as to be prepared for the swift provision of therapeutic drugs and vaccines as necessary depending on the situation, such as the emergence of new variants or increases in the future prevalence of, or threat from, the disease.
About overview of joint research laboratory and research
In this laboratory, research will be led by Professor Kenji Kutsuna of the Infection Control Department at the Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, Osaka University
1. Laboratory name: Post-COVID-19 condition treatment joint research laboratory
2. Location: Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, Osaka University
3. Period: March 1, 2024 to February 28, 2027
4. Principal Investigator: Kenji Kutsuna (Professor, the Infection Control Department at the Graduate School of Medicine Faculty of Medicine, Osaka University)
5. Research details: To verify the efficacy and safety of ensitrelvir once-daily, 5 days oral treatment in 2,000 patients with mild SARS-CoV-2 infection
6. Research site: Osaka University Hospital (only 1 site)
7. Number of subjects: 2,000 cases
8. Research method: Decentralized Clinical Trial (DCT) method that do not require a visit to Research site
9. Number of partner medical sites: 150 (planned)
About ensitrelvir
Ensitrelvir (known in Japan as Xocova®), an oral antiviral drug for COVID-19 currently approved under the emergency regulatory approval system in Japan, is a 3CL protease inhibitor created through joint research between Hokkaido University and Shionogi. SARS-CoV-2 has an enzyme called 3CL protease, which is essential for the replication of the virus. Ensitrelvir suppresses the replication of SARS-CoV-2 by selectively inhibiting the 3CL protease. Ensitrelvir is the first antiviral agent to show both clinical symptomatic efficacy for five typical Omicron-related symptoms (primary endpoint) and antiviral efficacy (key secondary endpoint) in a predominantly vaccinated population of patients with mild-to-moderate SARS-CoV-2 infection, regardless of risk factors, in the results of the Phase 3 part of the Phase 2/3 study conducted during the Omicron-dominant phase of the epidemic8. With regard to safety, most adverse events were mild in severity and no deaths were seen in the study. Among the most common treatment-related adverse events were temporary decreases in high-density lipoprotein and increased blood triglycerides, as observed in previous studies. Initial exploratory analyses from the Phase 2/3 study also indicated a potential for reduced risk of development of Long COVID and further evaluations in this regard are still ongoing.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted Fast Track designation to ensitrelvir for COVID-199. FDA Fast Track designation is designed to facilitate the development and expedite the review of potential new therapies that treat serious conditions and fulfill an unmet medical need. Ensitrelvir was approved in Singapore in November 2023 based on the Special Access Route application10. Ensitrelvir remains an investigational drug outside of Japan and Singapore. In addition, the brand name Xocova® has not been approved for use outside of Japan and Singapore and pertains only to the approved drug in Japan and Singapore.
About the ensitrelvir Clinical Development Program
As SARS-CoV-2 continuously evolves, Shionogi is studying its investigational oral antiviral, ensitrelvir, across a range of patient populations and disease severity to evaluate how ensitrelvir may address the current needs. Shionogi has a comprehensive, global clinical development program underway for ensitrelvir that includes four Phase 3 trials, including SCORPIO-HR11, a trial for non-hospitalized, symptomatic COVID-19 patients who have tested positive for COVID-19. SCORPIO-HR is also evaluating the potential effect of ensitrelvir on the symptoms of Long COVID. An investigator-initiated research study is also ongoing in hospitalized patients for the management of COVID-19 as part of the new Strategies and Treatments for Respiratory Infections & Viral Emergencies (STRIVE) platform protocol12. SCORPIO-PEP is evaluating the safety and efficacy in the prevention of symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection when exposed to household contacts who are symptomatic and tested positive for SARS-CoV-213. Lastly, Shionogi is studying the safety and efficacy of ensitrelvir in Japan for children between the ages of 6 to 11 years old14.
About Shionogi in Infectious Disease
Shionogi is committed to “Protect people worldwide from the threat of infectious diseases” with research and development of therapeutics, whilst also working towards total care through awareness building, epidemiologic monitoring, prevention, diagnosis, and addressing exacerbations, as well as treating infections directly. As SARS-CoV-2 continues to have a major impact on people’s lives and to represent a global threat, Shionogi will seek to contribute to re-establishing the safety and security of society by developing new products and services to address this pandemic. Shionogi is committed to equitable access worldwide, including by working with the Medicines Patent Pool to provide access to low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), and by strengthening its manufacturing and global supply chain15,16.
Forward-Looking Statements
This announcement contains forward-looking statements. These statements are based on expectations in light of the information currently available, assumptions that are subject to risks and uncertainties which could cause actual results to differ materially from these statements. Risks and uncertainties include general domestic and international economic conditions such as general industry and market conditions, and changes of interest rate and currency exchange rate. These risks and uncertainties particularly apply with respect to product-related forward-looking statements. Product risks and uncertainties include, but are not limited to, completion and discontinuation of clinical trials; obtaining regulatory approvals; claims and concerns about product safety and efficacy; technological advances; adverse outcome of important litigation; domestic and foreign healthcare reforms and changes of laws and regulations. Also for existing products, there are manufacturing and marketing risks, which include, but are not limited to, inability to build production capacity to meet demand, lack of availability of raw materials and entry of competitive products. The company disclaims any intention or obligation to update or revise any forward-looking statements whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise.
For Further Information, Contact:
SHIONOGI Website Inquiry Form: https://www.shionogi.com/global/en/contact.html
References
1. New policy brief calls on decision-makers to support patients as 1 in 10 report symptoms of “long COVID”
2. Persistence of somatic symptoms after COVID-19 in the Netherlands: an observational cohort study September 27, 2023. Lancet 2022; 400: 452–461.
3. https://www.mhlw.go.jp/content/10906000/001146453.pdf
4. https://www.pref.kanagawa.jp/documents/82314/05122501.pdf
5. Shionogi Presents Pivotal Ensitrelvir Fumaric Acid Phase 3 Data and Exploratory Long COVID Data at CROI Accessed February 22, 2023. Available at: https://www.shionogi.com/global/en/news/2023/02/20230222.html
6. Shionogi Presents New Ensitrelvir Clinical and Real-World Data Reinforcing Potential Across COVID-19 Populations at ESWI 2023 Accessed September 19, 2023. Available at:
https://www.shionogi.com/global/en/news/2023/9/20230919.html
7. http://hokuryukan-ns.co.jp/cms/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/PM_2023_04_039_web.pdf
8. Shionogi Announces Achievement of the Primary Endpoint for Ensitrelvir Fumaric Acid (S-217622) in the Phase 3 part of the Phase 2/3 Clinical Trial in Asia Accessed September 28, 2022. Available at: https://www.shionogi.com/global/en/news/2022/09/20220928.html
9. Shionogi Receives U.S. FDA Fast Track Designation for Ensitrelvir Fumaric Acid, an Investigational Oral Antiviral for COVID-19 Accessed April 4, 2023. Available at: https://www.shionogi.com/global/en/news/2023/04/20230404.html
10. Execution of Sub-license Agreement from Ping An-Shionogi Hong Kong to Juniper Therapeutics and SAR approval in Singapore regarding ensitrelvir fumaric acid, a treatment drug for the novel coronavirus infection (COVID-19) Accessed December 19, 2023. Available at: https://www.shionogi.com/global/en/news/2023/12/e20231219.html
11. Shionogi Announces the Results of Comprehensive Maternal and Child Health Support Activities undertaken in Kenya under the “Mother to Mother SHIONOGI Project” -Health of Maasai Mothers and Children has Improved- Accessed March 16, 2022. Available at: https://www.shionogi.com/global/en/news/2022/03/e-20220316.html
12. Shionogi Advances Ensitrelvir Fumaric Acid COVID-19 Antiviral Clinical Program Accessed February 15, 2023. Available at: https://www.shionogi.com/global/en/news/2023/02/20230215.html
13. Shionogi Enrolls the First Participant in Japan in its Global Phase 3 Trial of Ensitrelvir for the Prevention of Symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Infection Accessed June 9, 2023. Available at: https://www.shionogi.com/global/en/news/2023/6/20230609.html
14. Initiation of a Phase 3 Clinical Trial in Japanese Pediatric Patients of Ensitrelvir for COVID-19 Accessed June 29, 2023. Available at: https://www.shionogi.com/global/en/news/2023/6/20030629.html
15. Shionogi and the Medicines Patent Pool (MPP) sign licence agreement for COVID-19 oral antiviral treatment candidate to increase access in low- and middle-income countries Accessed October 4, 2022. Available at: https://www.shionogi.com/global/en/news/2022/10/20221004.html
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https://m.facebook.com/NatickSSC/videos/857868955106815/%3Flocale2%3Dps_AF
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Check out the full video from last week's Garrison Change of Command Ceremony. (U.S. Army video by Rob Hawley)
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Check out the full video from last week's Garrison Change of Command Ceremony. (U.S. Army video by Rob Hawley)
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https://www.facebook.com/NatickSSC/videos/nssc-garrison-change-of-command-ceremony-july-1-2021/857868955106815/
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https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/30/9/24-0356_article
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Cocirculation of Genetically Distinct Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N5 and H5N1 Viruses in Crows, Hokkaido, Japan
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[
"Yik Lim Hew",
"Takahiro Hiono",
"Isabella Monne",
"Kei Nabeshima",
"Saki Sakuma",
"Asuka Kumagai",
"Shunya Okamura",
"Kosuke Soda",
"Hiroshi Ito",
"Mana Esaki"
] | null |
Avian Influenza H5N5 and H5N1 Viruses, Japan
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en
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/eid/content/images/app-icon/app-icon-touch-196x196.png
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Emerging Infectious Diseases journal
|
https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/30/9/24-0356_article
|
The Study
We conducted passive surveillance of HPAIV infections in wild birds in a public garden in Sapporo, the prefectural capital of Hokkaido, Japan; ≈2,000 crows flock together during winter and are observed by garden staff. We isolated viruses from tracheal and cloacal swab samples collected from dead crows in the garden by inoculating 10-day-old embryonated eggs; we confirmed results by using reverse transcription PCR (Appendix). On November 23 and 24, 2023, we isolated H5N1 HPAIVs from 2 dead large-billed crows (Corvus macrorhynchos), designated as A/large-billed crow/Hokkaido/B067/2023 (H5N1) and A/large-billed crow/Hokkaido/B068/2023 (H5N1). The hemagglutinin (HA) gene sequences from those 2 H5N1 HPAIVs indicated they clustered with the G2d subgroup of HPAIVs found in Hokkaido during the winter seasons 2021–22 and 2022–23. In contrast, HA genes of 3 H5 HPAIVs isolated from dead crows on January 8–11, 2024, were closely related to the G2a subgroup of H5N5 HPAIVs found in northern Europe and North America. Subsequent whole-genome sequencing analysis of the 3 G2a HPAIVs confirmed their subtype was H5N5; we named them A/large-billed crow/Hokkaido/B073/2024 (H5N5), A/large-billed crow/Hokkaido/B074/2024 (H5N5), and A/crow/Hokkaido/B075/2024 (H5N5) (Table 1).
Figure
We phylogenetically analyzed virus isolates along with reference sequences obtained from GISAID (https://www.gisaid.org); the HA genes of H5N5 HPAIVs isolated in Hokkaido diverged considerably from HPAIVs isolated in Japan during winter 2020–21 (10), forming a distinct branch within the G2a subgroup (Figure). In addition, the other gene segments of H5N5 HPAIVs from Hokkaido were genetically distant from those in HPAIV strains isolated in Japan during winter 2021–22 (Appendix Figures 1–6). BLAST (https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov) analysis of sequences from GISAID revealed that all 8 gene segments of H5N5 HPAIVs from Hokkaido were very close (genetic similarity >99%) to H5N5 HPAIVs detected in northern Europe since 2022, in contrast to those from North America (Table 2), suggesting a low possibility of virus transmission from North America. H5N5 HPAIVs from Hokkaido shared a common ancestor with H5N5 HPAIV from Europe assigned the genotype EA-2021-I by the European Food Safety Authority (11). Parent strains of H5N5 HPAIVs from Europe, represented by A/swan/Rostov/2299-2/2020 (H5N5), were proposed to originate in western Russia during autumn 2020. Those viruses underwent genetic evolution via reassortment events involving H5N8 HPAIVs circulating in Europe since 2018 (12) and the N5 NA gene derived from concurrently circulating LPAIVs (13). H5N5 HPAIVs reported in northern Europe during 2022–2023 exhibited specific genetic differences compared with H5N5 HPAIVs detected in Europe during autumn 2020, particularly in the N5 NA gene. Those differences included a 66-bp nucleotide deletion within the N5 NA gene, which we also observed in the H5N5 HPAIVs from Hokkaido. Truncation of the NA stalk has been attributed to the adaptation of those viruses from wild birds to Galliformes spp. birds (14). However, most H5N5 HPAIV infections in Europe were detected in wild birds, and no cases have been detected in Galliformes spp. birds since 2022 (15). Further investigation is needed to clarify whether NA stalk truncation affects pathogenesis of H5N5 HPAIVs.
During winter 2023–24, we confirmed H5N5 HPAIV infections in wild birds, especially in crows, in Erimo (December 19, 2023, in south-central Hokkaido) and in Kushiro (January 18, 2024, in eastern Hokkaido); we also confirmed infection in a peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) in Tamana, Kumamoto Prefecture, Kyushu Island, on January 16, 2024. We classified the isolate from Tamana, A/peregrine falcon/Kumamoto/4301C001/2024 (H5N5), into the G2d subgroup according to its HA gene sequence, whereas its NA gene sequence was similar to that of LPAIVs isolated in East Asia (Table 2). Although this combination had not been observed in Japan, reassortment events between the HPAIV H5N1 G2d subgroup and LPAIVs have been documented (9). We detected H5N5 HPAIVs in Hokkaido in January 2024; a total of 85 crows were found dead in the Sapporo garden, 80 of which we diagnosed as HPAIV positive by the end of April. No HPAIVs were detected in birds within the garden after April 2024. The continuous detection of H5N5 HPAIVs in the Sapporo garden during January–April without unusual deaths of birds other than crows and multiple isolations of H5N5 HPAIVs in other areas of Hokkaido suggest the potential for widespread dissemination of H5N5 HPAIVs within the Hokkaido region.
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9811704/
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CpG sites preference in G:C > A:T transition of TP53 in gastric cancer of Eastern Europe (Poland, Romania and Hungary) compared to East Asian countries (China and Japan)
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[
"Hiroko Natsume",
"Kinga Szczepaniak",
"Hidetaka Yamada",
"Yuji Iwashita",
"Marta Gędek",
"Jelena Šuto",
"Keiko Ishino",
"Rika Kasajima",
"Tomonari Matsuda",
"Felix Manirakiza"
] |
2023-08-14T00:00:00
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Mutation spectrum of TP53 in gastric cancer (GC) has been investigated world-widely, but a comparison of mutation spectrum among GCs from various regions in the world are still sparsely documented. In order to identify the difference of TP53 mutation ...
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en
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/coreutils/nwds/img/favicons/favicon.ico
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PubMed Central (PMC)
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9811704/
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Genes Environ. 2023; 45: 1.
PMCID: PMC9811704
PMID: 36600315
Non-CpG sites preference in G:C > A:T transition of TP53 in gastric cancer of Eastern Europe (Poland, Romania and Hungary) compared to East Asian countries (China and Japan)
,#1 ,#1,2 ,#1 ,1 ,1,3 ,1,4 ,1 ,5,6 ,7 ,1 ,1 ,8 ,9 ,10 ,9,10 ,9,11 ,1,12 ,13,14 ,14 ,15 ,16 ,17 ,18 ,19 ,9 ,6 ,13 and 1,20
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1Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higasi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
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Kinga Szczepaniak
1Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higasi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
2Medical University of Warsaw, 1B Banacha Street, Warsaw, Poland
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Hidetaka Yamada
1Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higasi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
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Yuji Iwashita
1Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higasi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
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Marta Gędek
1Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higasi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
3Medical University of Lublin, ul. Radziwiłłowska 11, wew, 5647 Lublin, Poland
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Jelena Šuto
1Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higasi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
4Department of Oncology, Clinical Hospital Centre Split, Split, Croatia
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Keiko Ishino
1Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higasi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
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Rika Kasajima
5The Center for Cancer Genome Medicine, Kanagawa Cancer Center, 2-3-2 Nakao, Asahi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 241-8515 Japan
6Molecular Pathology and Genetics Division, Kanagawa Cancer Center Research Institute, 2-3-2 Nakao, Asahi-ku, Yokohama, 241-8515 Japan
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Tomonari Matsuda
7Research Center for Environmental Quality Management, Kyoto University, 1-2 Yumihama, Otsu, Shiga 520-0811 Japan
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Felix Manirakiza
1Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higasi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
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1Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higasi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
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Yijia Wu
8Lujiang People Hospital, 32 Wenmingzhong Road, Lujiang, Hefei, 231501 China
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Nong Xiao
9Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, 210093 China
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Qiong He
10Department of Pathology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210003 China
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Wenwen Guo
9Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, 210093 China
10Department of Pathology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210003 China
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Zhenming Cai
9Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, 210093 China
11Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Immune Microenvironment and Diseases, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166 China
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Tsutomu Ohta
1Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higasi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
12Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Tokoha University, 1230 Miyakoda-cho, Kita-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-2102 Japan
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Tıberiu Szekely
13Department of Pathology, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology, Targu Mures, Ghe Marinescu 38 Street, 540139 Targu Mures, Romania
14Department of Oncology, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology, Targu Mures, Ghe Marinescu 38 Street, 540139 Targu Mures, Romania
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14Department of Oncology, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology, Targu Mures, Ghe Marinescu 38 Street, 540139 Targu Mures, Romania
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15Department of Clinical Laboratory, Kanagawa Cancer Center, 2-3-2 Nakao, Asahi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 241-8515 Japan
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16Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Kanagawa Cancer Center, 2-3-2 Nakao, Asahi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 241-8515 Japan
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17Department of Gastric Surgery, National Cancer Center Hospital, 5-1-1 Tsukiji, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0045 Japan
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Akira Tsuburaya
18Department of Surgery, Ozawa Hospital, 1-1-17, Honcho, Odawara, Kanagawa 250-0012 Japan
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19Department of Chemistry, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
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9Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, 210093 China
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6Molecular Pathology and Genetics Division, Kanagawa Cancer Center Research Institute, 2-3-2 Nakao, Asahi-ku, Yokohama, 241-8515 Japan
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Simona Gurzu
13Department of Pathology, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology, Targu Mures, Ghe Marinescu 38 Street, 540139 Targu Mures, Romania
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Haruhiko Sugimura
1Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higasi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
20Sasaki Foundation Sasaki Institute, 2-2, KandaSurugadai, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 101-0062 Japan
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1Department of Tumor Pathology, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higasi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
2Medical University of Warsaw, 1B Banacha Street, Warsaw, Poland
3Medical University of Lublin, ul. Radziwiłłowska 11, wew, 5647 Lublin, Poland
4Department of Oncology, Clinical Hospital Centre Split, Split, Croatia
5The Center for Cancer Genome Medicine, Kanagawa Cancer Center, 2-3-2 Nakao, Asahi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 241-8515 Japan
6Molecular Pathology and Genetics Division, Kanagawa Cancer Center Research Institute, 2-3-2 Nakao, Asahi-ku, Yokohama, 241-8515 Japan
7Research Center for Environmental Quality Management, Kyoto University, 1-2 Yumihama, Otsu, Shiga 520-0811 Japan
8Lujiang People Hospital, 32 Wenmingzhong Road, Lujiang, Hefei, 231501 China
9Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, 210093 China
10Department of Pathology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210003 China
11Department of Immunology, Key Laboratory of Immune Microenvironment and Diseases, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166 China
12Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Tokoha University, 1230 Miyakoda-cho, Kita-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-2102 Japan
13Department of Pathology, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology, Targu Mures, Ghe Marinescu 38 Street, 540139 Targu Mures, Romania
14Department of Oncology, George Emil Palade University of Medicine, Pharmacy, Sciences and Technology, Targu Mures, Ghe Marinescu 38 Street, 540139 Targu Mures, Romania
15Department of Clinical Laboratory, Kanagawa Cancer Center, 2-3-2 Nakao, Asahi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 241-8515 Japan
16Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Kanagawa Cancer Center, 2-3-2 Nakao, Asahi-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 241-8515 Japan
17Department of Gastric Surgery, National Cancer Center Hospital, 5-1-1 Tsukiji, Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0045 Japan
18Department of Surgery, Ozawa Hospital, 1-1-17, Honcho, Odawara, Kanagawa 250-0012 Japan
19Department of Chemistry, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, 1-20-1 Handayama, Higashi-ku, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka 431-3192 Japan
20Sasaki Foundation Sasaki Institute, 2-2, KandaSurugadai, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 101-0062 Japan
Hidetaka Yamada, Email: pj.ca.dem-amah@adamay-h.
Corresponding author.
#Contributed equally.
Copyright © The Author(s) 2023
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Data Availability Statement
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Abstract
Aim
Mutation spectrum of TP53 in gastric cancer (GC) has been investigated world-widely, but a comparison of mutation spectrum among GCs from various regions in the world are still sparsely documented. In order to identify the difference of TP53 mutation spectrum in GCs in Eastern Europe and in East Asia, we sequenced TP53 in GCs from Eastern Europe, Lujiang (China), and Yokohama, Kanagawa (Japan) and identified the feature of TP53 mutations of GC in these regions.
Subjects and method
In total, 689 tissue samples of GC were analyzed: 288 samples from East European populations (25 from Hungary, 71 from Poland and 192 from Romania), 268 from Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan and 133 from Lujiang, Anhui province, China. DNA was extracted from FFPE tissue of Chinese, East European cases; and from frozen tissue of Japanese GCs. PCR products were direct-sequenced by Sanger method, and in ambiguous cases, PCR product was cloned and up to 8 clones were sequenced. We used No. {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"NC_000017.11","term_id":"568815581","term_text":"NC_000017.11"}}NC_000017.11(hg38) as the reference sequence of TP53. Mutation patterns were categorized into nine groups: six base substitutions, insertion, deletion and deletion-insertion. Within G:C > A:T mutations the mutations in CpG and non-CpG sites were divided. The Cancer Genome Atlas data (TCGA, ver.R20, July, 2019) having somatic mutation list of GCs from Whites, Asians, and other ethnicities were used as a reference for our data.
Results
The most frequent base substitutions were G:C > A:T transition in all the areas investigated. The G:C > A:T transition in non-CpG sites were prominent in East European GCs, compared with Asian ones. Mutation pattern from TCGA data revealed the same trend between GCs from White (TCGA category) vs Asian countries. Chinese and Japanese GCs showed higher ratio of G:C > A:T transition in CpG sites and A:T > G:C mutation was more prevalent in Asian countries.
Conclusion
The divergence in mutation spectrum of GC in different areas in the world may reflect various pathogeneses and etiologies of GC, region to region. Diversified mutation spectrum in GC in Eastern Europe may suggest GC in Europe has different carcinogenic pathway of those from Asia.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s41021-022-00257-y.
Keywords: Gastric cancer, TP53, Molecular epidemiology, Mutation spectrum, Mutation signature, Gene-environmental interaction, Adductomics, Geographic, Pathology
Introduction
Gastric cancer (GC) is the fifth most common cancer and the third most common cause of cancer-related mortality (https://gco.iarc.fr/today/home) [1]. GC incidence differs with the region, and its prevalence changes over time [1]. In most western countries, the occurrence of GC is declining but remains a substantial cause of cancer-related deaths. East Asian countries, such as China and Japan, have the highest incidence of GC in the world. Meanwhile, several countries or areas in Europe, such as Italy, Spain, and East Europe [2], are known to have a considerably higher incidence of GC than other parts of Europe [3].
The time trends and geographic variation reflect the difference in causative factors of GC, such as differences in environmental factors, lifestyle, infection, traditional foods, and salty diet, as well as the genetic structure of individual populations.
The spectrum of somatic TP53 mutations, the most prevalent gene mutations found in human tumors, has provided important clues for environmental carcinogenesis [4]. In the last 40 years, the mutation spectrum linking some aspects of human environmental carcinogenesis has been explored by studying TP53 mutations in various human cancers in specific settings, such as tobacco smoking, UV damage, and aflatoxin exposure [4]. For example, cancer mutations related to etiological pathways include the G to T transition in tobacco smokers’ cancers, CC > TT in skin cancer via ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, and TP53 (AGG > AGT, p.Arg249Ser) in aflatoxin B-related hepatocellular carcinoma. These specific mutation spectra are currently being recapitulated as mutation signatures based on next-generation sequencing data, including single base substitution (SBS) 4, SBS 7, and SBS24 corresponding to tobacco, UV, and aflatoxin B, respectively [5]. However, the populations used for generating these data are known to be biased, and the information on tumors from some countries is less scrutinized than that in several urbanized areas [6–8].
The TP53 database was created from voluminous mutation spectrum data in various cancers collected from different populations around the world. The IARC TP53 database by the NCI and other published reports indicated that the TP53 mutation observed in GC mainly involves G:C > A:T transitions [9].
Although there are anecdotal reports on GC mutations from Poland [10, 11], information on GC in East Europe is generally sparse. There is often missing or vague ancestry or cultural information regarding subjects of European or white descent in several databases. In The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, TP53 mutations in GC have mainly been found in Asians, Whites, Blacks, American Indians, Alaskan Natives, and Hawaiian natives.
In this report, for the first time, we characterized considerable numbers of TP53 mutations in GC samples from East European countries (Romania, Poland, and Hungary) and compared these with mutation spectra observed in GC samples from East Asian countries (China and Japan).
Materials and methods
Samples
In total, 689 GC tissue samples from three populations worldwide were analyzed: 288 samples from the European population (25 from Hungary, 71 from Poland, and 192 from Romania), 268 from Japan, and 133 from China. The clinical profiles of the patients are summarized in Table . Histological classification was conducted according to the Lauren classification by attending pathologists in each area; thus, the sizes and numbers of blocks (coverage of pathological examination) varied among the three regions.
Table 1
Eastern EuropeChinaJapan n = 188 n = 133 n = 268 p-valuec Age Mean62.661.263.70.02 Range22-9840-77b 25-85n%n%n% p-valued Sex Male19066.29674.416669.7 Female9733.83325.67230.3 Unknown1a 430 Subtype Diffuse12744.16951.915056.02 × 10−5 Intestinal16155.96045.18331.0 Others or unknown43.03513.1
DNA extraction
The pathology archives of GC formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues (FFPE) were collected from three countries in Eastern Europe and Lujiang County, Anhui Province, China. Fresh GC tissues were obtained from the Pathology Department of Kanagawa Cancer Center, Yokohama. DNA was extracted from the FFPEs using the QIAamp DNA FFPE Tissue Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA, United States) [12, 13], while DNA extraction from fresh frozen tissue was performed according to a previously published report [14].
PCR amplification and sequencing
TP53 gene sequencing was performed by direct sequencing using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) product amplified using respective primer sets for each exon. Fragments covering exons 2 to 11 and the boundary regions of the TP53 gene were amplified via PCR using the HotStarTaq DNA polymerase (Qiagen). The PCR products were purified with Exo-SAP-IT (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) and sequenced via the Sanger method using the BigDye Terminator Cycle Sequencing Reaction Kit, ver.3.1 and ABI 3130xL Genetic Analyzer (Thermo Fisher Scientific). PCR products exhibiting multiple bands were sequenced after subcloning them into a pGEM-T Easy vector system (Promega, Madison, WI, USA). Up to eight clones were sequenced, particularly upon confirming the presence of insertion/deletion mutations. The primers used are listed in Table S1. Primer design was performed based on the TP53 reference sequence (Accession No. {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"NC_000017.11","term_id":"568815581","term_text":"NC_000017.11"}}NC_000017.11(hg38 and GRCh38)). For the DNA samples from FFPEs that were difficult to amplify, and when amplification was not successful, the primer designs were modified to amplify different segments of TP53. The resulting sequences were assigned to the reference sequences. DNA mutations were described according to the international guidelines for gene nomenclature [15]. In this experiment, the DNA sequences covered were exons 4 to 9 in samples from China, exons 4 to 8 in samples from Japan, and exons 2 to 11 in those from Eastern Europe.
Categorization of TP53 mutations
TP53 mutation patterns were categorized as follows: G:C > A:T, A:T > G:C, G:C > C:G, G:C > T:A, A:T > C:G, A:T > T:A, deletion, deletion-insertion, insertion, and splice-site mutations in exons 4 to 8. G:C > A:T mutations were subclassified based on their localization in CpG or non-CpG sites. We also grouped TP53 mutations found here according to the following hotspots proposed by Hainaut P [16]: c.524G > A (R175H), c.586C > T (R196*), c.637C > T (R213*), c.659A > G (Y220C), c.733G > A (G245S), c.742C > T (R248W), c.743G > A (R248Q), c.818G > A (R273H), c.817C > T (R273C), c.844C > T (R282W), c.916C > T (R306*), and c.1024C > T (R342*), in which 11 of these 12 hotspots were localized in exons 4 to 8.
Distribution of TP53 mutations
A distribution map of TP53 mutations was drawn using cBioPortal MutationMapper (https://www.cbioportal.org/mutation_mapper) [17] to determine the difference between the distribution of G:C > A:T at CpG and non-CpG sites.
Percentage of base substitutions in Caucasian and Asian cases in the TCGA dataset
Information on somatic mutations except for synonymous mutations in the TP53 gene was downloaded for Caucasian (n = 278) and Asian (n = 89) populations from the Stomach Adenocarcinoma (TCGA, PanCancer Atlas) data in cBioPortal. The downloaded dataset included 148 Caucasian and 47 Asian patients with intrasomatic mutations. The percentage of base substitution patterns obtained for each race was determined. Since the nucleotide sequence files were not available, we extracted the patterns of G > A or C > T gene mutations to determine if they were in the CpG region, and the sequences of the mutations were compared against the reference genome (GRCh38) by extracting the sequences before and after the base substitution. Base substitutions at the splice site or region were preferentially classified as splice mutations.
Mutational signature analysis
Substitutions in the coding sequence were determined from the somatic TP53 mutations. Ninety-six substitution types and sequence contexts were counted for each population. The percentage of each of the 96 substitution types was calculated from the total number of substitutions in each population. The SBS for each population was estimated using Signal (https://signal.mutationalsignatures.com) [18].
Ethics
This study was a retrospective, anonymous, and non-intervention study, and informed consent from the patients was waived. The research plan was agreed upon by all researchers and approved by the IRB of the Hamamatsu University School of Medicine (G-260 and 20-110), Kanagawa Cancer Center, and the Ethical Committee of the University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Targu-Mures, Romania (Agreement no. 124/28.07.2016).
Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were performed using the chi-square test, t-test, and Fisher’s exact test with JMP, ver.11.
Results
TP53 mutations and clinicopathological attributes
Pathological findings showed that the intestinal type of GC was predominant in Eastern Europe. Diffuse-type GCs were more prevalent in Japanese subjects than in those from Eastern Europe. Chinese samples showed almost equal proportions of intestinal and diffuse types. There were significant differences in the histological types of GC among the three areas (χ2 test, p = 2 × 10− 5). Japanese patients were older than Chinese patients (t-test, p = 0.02). There were no significant differences in sex among the three populations (Table ).
A total of 689 genomic samples were successfully analyzed for TP53-sequencing. Among them, 285 samples (41%) had TP53 mutations, and 404 (59%) were wild-type. The ratios of mutated cases were 29.5% (85/288), 57.1% (76/133), and 46.3% (124/268) in Eastern Europe, China, and Japan, respectively (χ2-test, p = 7 × 10− 8, Table ). Based on the histological type, the mutation ratios of both intestinal and diffuse-type GCs were approximately 30% in Eastern Europe. In East Asian groups, the mutation ratios were 40-60% in both histological types, which were relatively higher than those in Eastern Europe. The TP53 mutation prevalence was more than 50% in both histological types in Chinese subjects, while prevalence was more than 50% only in the intestinal type in Japanese subjects (Table S2). The prevalence of TP53 mutations differs among areas. The prevalence of TP53 mutations in the available exon sequences was significantly different (χ2 test, p = 7 × 10− 8) among the three regions; when the prevalence in Japan and China were combined (as East Asia), the prevalence was greater in East Asia than in Eastern Europe (χ2 test, p = 9 × 10− 8).
Table 2
TP53 mutationEastern EuropeChinaJapan P-valuea P-valueb n%n%n%Mutant (n = 285, 41.4%)8529.57657.112446.37 × 10−8 9 × 10−8 Wild type (n = 404, 58.6%)20370.55742.914453.7
Distribution of the mutations
Lollipop plots (cBioPortal) for the three areas are presented. Mutation-accumulated codons, such as R175H/G, R248W/Q, and R273C/H/P, were observed in each population in five to ten cases (Fig. ). G:C > A:T mutations at the non-CpG sites of TP53 were relatively evenly distributed among the three groups. Those at CpG sites involved several mutation assemblies, such as R175H and R248W/Q in Eastern Europe and Japan, and R273C/H in China (Supplementary Fig. S1). These were consistent with hotspot mutations at the CpG sites.
Mutations in exons 4 to 8 in the three populations are shown in Fig. and Table S3. In this study, 272 (94.4%) out of 285 mutations were found in exons 4 to 8. In Japanese patients, only this coding region was sequenced. Meanwhile, 13 mutations outside these exons were found in samples from Eastern Europe and China and sequenced in exons 2, 3, 9, 10, and 11. As shown in Fig. , mutations were the most prevalent in exons 4 to 8 in all regions.
Mutation type
Missense mutations were predominant in all three regions (Fig. , Table S4); the second most common mutation was a nonsense mutation. The ratios of missense and nonsense mutations were approximately 60-65% and 10-18%, respectively, in all three groups (Fig. , Table S4). As for histological types, missense mutations were approximately 60-70% in both intestinal and diffuse-type GCs in all three groups. The total ratios of nonsense, silent, and deletion mutants were 25-40% in both intestinal and diffuse types in all three groups. Silent mutations were absent in the diffuse-type GC in China (χ2 test, p < 0.01) (Supplementary Fig. S2, Table S4).
Mutation spectrum of TP53
Among the six types of nucleotide alterations, G:C > A:T transition showed the highest frequency of 61.1, 50.7, and 47.6% in exons 4 to 8 in Eastern Europe, China, and Japan, respectively (Fig. ).
When G:C > A:T mutations were divided into CpG and non-CpG sites, we discovered that G:C > A:T mutations at non-CpG sites were relatively more prevalent in Eastern Europe than in China and Japan. The prevalence of G:C > A:T in non-CpG sites among all the mutations was significantly different in Eastern Europe (29.9%), China (17.8%), and Japan (15.6%) (χ2 test, p = 0.04) (Fig. , Table S5). Although it was impossible to determine whether the prevalence of the different mutations reflects an increase in one type of mutation, a decrease in another, or a combination of the two, the A:T > G:C mutation was mainly found in GC samples from East Asia (χ2 test, p = 0.03) (Fig. ). The prevalence of G:C > T:A was 3.9, 9.6, and 9.8% in Eastern Europe, China, and Japan, respectively. The prevalence in Asian countries was higher than that in Eastern Europe; however, there was no significant difference (Table S5).
G:C > A:T mutations were predominant in both intestinal and diffuse types in all three groups, representing 45-70% of all mutations in each group. The prevalence was prominently high (69.6%) in the diffuse type of GC in Eastern Europe, in which the prevalence of G:C > A:T at non-CpG sites was significantly higher (30.3%) (p = 0.04) than in East Asian countries. On the other hand, A:T > G:C showed a significantly higher prevalence in China and Japan than in Eastern Europe, especially in diffuse-type GCs (Supplementary Fig. S3, Table S5).
Results of the TCGA data set
TCGA categorizes data from different races, including White, Black, Asian, American Indian/Native Alaskan, and Native Hawaiian/ Other Pacific Islanders in the United States. It does not discriminate between Chinese and Japanese; both are designated as “Asian”. The findings are consistent even though the categorization of “Whites” and “Asians” may not be completely the same as our categorization of “East Europeans” and “East Asians”. The G:C > A:T mutations at non-CpG sites were more prevalent in the “White” population than in the Asian population (17.6% vs. 6.4%) (Fig. and Supplementary Fig. S4).
Mutational signature analysis of TP53
Mutational signatures were generated from 63, 61, and 101 substitutions from samples from Eastern Europe, China, and Japan, respectively. The estimated SBS values were SBS1 and SBS5 in Eastern Europe and SBS1 in both China and Japan (Supplementary Fig. S5). The percentage of T > C substitutions appeared to be higher in China and Japan than that in Eastern Europe, although the difference was not significant due to the small number of mutations. A similar trend was observed in both Whites and Asians in TCGA.
Mutations in the hotspots proposed by Hainaut et al.
The mutations detected here were assigned to recently proposed hotspots [16]. According to Hainaut et al.’s proposal, the mutations in 10 out of 11 hotspots in exons 4 to 8 are G:C > A:T mutations at CpG sites. In this study, the G:C > A:T mutations at the CpG sites in samples from all three areas corresponded to these hotspots. However, the hotspot distribution of these mutations, whose prevalence is more than 5%, appeared different among the three areas. For example, R213* mutations, the most common in the US database, were prevalent in East Asia but not in Eastern Europe, while R175H was shared in all regions. The prevalence of R248Q, also common in U.S. patients, was 5.7% in Japan; that of R273C was 5.5% in China. The prevalence of R248W was 3.9, 0, and 2.5% in Eastern Europe, China, and Japan, respectively. The prevalence of R273H, common in U.S. patients, was 3.9, 4.1, and 1.6% in Eastern Europe, China, and Japan, respectively. To summarize, ≥80% of G:C > A:T mutations belong to the “hot spot mutations” in all three groups. In particular, all mutations in the Chinese population were assembled into hotspots (Table S6).
Newly identified mutations
Dozens of previously reported mutations were identified in this study, and their functional significance presumed by the software is shown in Table .
Table 3
PopulationcDNA descriptionProtein descriptionMutation functionLocationHungaryc.97-39G > AintronsubstitutionIntron 3c.99_100insGTCCp.(Pro34Valfs*10)insExon 4Polandc.484_488delinsCp.(Ile162Profs*7)delinsExon 5c.672 + 83 T > CintronsubstitutionIntron 6Romaniac.412_422delp.(Ala138Profs*7)delExon 5c.450_478delp.(Pro151Glyfs*20)delExon 5c.622_623insGATAp.(Asp208Glyfs*2)insExon 6c.672 + 3C > Tp.?substitutionIntron 6c.782 + 23G > Ap.?substitutionIntron 7c.*1C > Tp.(=)substitution3′-UTR (Exon 11)Chinac.323_339delp.(Gly108Valfs*35)delExon 4c.98_99insAGTCp.(Pro34Valfs*10)insExon 4c.255_265delp.(Ala86Leufs*59)delExon 4c.369_375delp.(Cys124Thrfs*44)delExon 4c.195_235delp.(Arg65Serfs*70)delExon 4c.646_647insTAGp.(Val218dup)insExon 6c.729_732delp.(Gly244Alafs*2)delExon 7c.820_825dupp.(Val274_Cys275dup)dupExon 8Japanc.99_112delp.(Pro34Serfs*4)delExon 4c.503_541delp.(His168_Glu180del)delExon 5c.514_532delp.(Val172Thrfs*69)delExon 5c.449_459delp.(Thr150Argfs*27)delExon 5c.473_474delinsCTp.(Arg158Pro)delinsExon 5c.576_599delp.(Gln192_Asn200delinsHis)delExon 6c.588_589delp.(Val197Glyfs*11)delExon 6c.755_757delinsCTp.(Leu252Profs*93)delinsExon 7c.776_782 + 1dupp.?splice sitea Intron 7c.97-23_97-13delp.?splice siteb Intron 3
Discussion
Our study revealed different TP53 mutation profiles in GCs among populations from three regions in the world. All three populations studied here showed the G:C > A:T transition as the most common mutation profile, which is consistent with previous data [9]. Notably, the G:C > A:T mutation at non-CpG sites was more prevalent in GC cases from Eastern Europe than in those from China and Japan. The prevalence of the A:T > G:C mutation was significantly higher in GC cases from East Asia than in those from Eastern Europe. Although studies on the genetic changes in GC cases in Europe are scarce, Palli et al. sequenced the TP53 gene in GC samples from Florence, Italy, which they claimed to be a “high prevalence area” [19]. Among the 105 cases, 33 mutations were detected, of which 19 had G:C > A:T transitions at CpG sites, and the remaining 14 had transversions, deletions, and transitions at non-CpG sites. Hongyo et al. summarized the published TP53 mutations in GCs in their TP53 mutation data in Florence, Italy [20].
Recently, TP53 mutations in GC in Poland have been reported [10, 11]; among these, four of eight G:C > A:T transitions were documented at non-CpG sites. Our findings were consistent with our analysis of the TCGA data set even though the categorization of “Whites” and “Asians” in TCGA may not be completely the same for Europeans and East Asians in this study. A comprehensive analysis of genetic ancestry shows that the frequency of somatic TP53 mutations differs among ethnicity [21, 22]. The genetic ancestry and geographical differences described here are not the same, and these studies were not analyzed for GC. Our findings also verify a previous observation in Italy [20] and the presumption of several authors [19, 23] that the pathogenesis of GC in Eastern Europe and East Asia could be different.
The higher frequency of G:C > A:T mutations at CpG sites in GC in Asia probably reflects chronic inflammation, specifically, chronic gastritis caused by chronic H. pylori infection [24–27]. Chronic inflammation induces spontaneous deamination of 5-methyl cytosine at CpG sites [28, 29]. G:C > A:T mutations at CpG sites reflect inflammation-mediated carcinogenesis [30–32]. Inflammation-induced DNA methylation via DNMT1 and DNMT3 activation was also investigated using the cytotoxin-associated gene A of H. pylori (CagA) [33]. Recently, Ushijima et al. showed that TET genes and methylation erasers were downregulated in mice with gastric inflammation, causing aberrant methylation [34]. Thus, the mutation spectrum of TP53 in East Asia, specifically G:C > A:T at CpG sites in GC, reflects the common infectious status of the stomach there. The increased ratio of G:C > T:A in GC in East Asian countries (not statistically significant) may also reflect increased oxyradical DNA damage caused by continued inflammation in the stomach. Non-environmental mechanisms may also play a role in the process. A considerable number of G:C > A:T mutations were also found in Eastern European cases, and the issue of whether G:C > A:T mutations at CpG and non-CpG sites are related to the histological type of GC is still an enigma.
The implication of the difference in TP53 mutations at CpG and non-CpG sites reminds us of several aspects of environmental gastric carcinogenesis [19]. The epidemiological survey in the cohort by Palli included the diet history of the subjects, which showed that patients with GC with TP53 mutations at non-CpG sites had a more traditional dietary history, including nitrite, protein, and fat, particularly from animal sources, than in those with mutations at CpG sites. In addition, nitric oxide induced by gastritis may be used to produce N-nitroso compounds [35]. N-Nitroso compounds can also be taken up by the human body through water, drugs, cosmetics, and tobacco. Since a successful experimental model of GC using N-nitroso compounds has been established [36], many investigators have sought evidence of human GC being caused by N-nitroso compounds [37]. N-Nitroso compounds can generate alkylated guanine adducts, which contribute to G:C > A:T transitions. In contrast, deamination after the nitrosation of guanine and adenine produces xanthine and hypoxanthine, respectively. Hypoxanthine induces A:T > G:C transitional mutations [38]. These adducts may be the first step in human gastric carcinogenesis [39]; however, determining whether the G:C > A:T mutations at non-CpG sites of GC in Eastern Europe involve diet-related N-nitroso compounds remains a challenge. The generation of DNA adducts has been attributed to alkylating agents hypothetically [40–42]; however, definitive evidence of the presence of alkyl adducts in the human stomach is still unavailable.
The mutation spectrum of TP53 in understudied populations may encourage us to pursue the etiological varieties of GC in populations worldwide. We were not able to explain the exact causes of A:T > G:C in GC samples from East Asia. Hongyo et al. have already shown this mutation spectrum in their summary tables and stated that A:T > G:C mutations are prevalent in “Oriental” regions but did not expound much on this finding [20]. Lee DH reported that the metabolites of butadiene, an industrial chemical, including 1,3-butadiene, induced A:T > G:C mutations, exon deletion, and G:C > A:T mutations at the HPRT locus in CHO-K1 cells [43]. Some environmental alkyl adducts, which are environmental carcinogens and toxicants [44], may also be involved in A:T > G:C mutations. However, detailed information about the impact of these compounds as possible causes of GC has not yet been provided. Several mutagenic adenine modifications are known; some of them were detected in the gastric mucosa of human GC subjects [40–42]; however, the origins of exposure, the exact chemical process in human tissue, including the production of the intermediates, and the consequences presenting as mutation spectra have not been described yet.
Our study has several obvious limitations. First, we only studied TP53 mutations, and the sample size was smaller than that generated by the international consortium. As such, hundreds of tumors from Eastern European residents were not compared with those from East Asian residents. It is necessary to confirm our findings by analyzing a large-scale sample set. Second, the designated “Chinese” samples originated from a single institution (Lujiang People Hospital) only; thus, generalizing our findings in this population for Chinese patients with GC would be inappropriate, considering the extensive variations in environmental exposures for these patients. Third, the FFPE quality may not be perfectly controlled. No central pathological diagnosis was made. Primer coverage was not the same; thus, the detectability of splice site mutations may have differed. Currently, data on somatic mutations in human cancers using next-generation sequencing are accumulating, and the implications of our results may need to be re-evaluated. The mutation spectrum of ARID1A, which is currently the most prevalent mutated gene in all cancers, is also of interest.
Another problem is the subjective bias of histological typing of GC in these three regions. G:C > A:T mutation prevalence was high (69.6%), especially in the diffuse type of GC in Eastern Europe, in which the ratio of G:C > A:T at non-CpG sites was significantly high (30.3%) (p = 0.04 in the two groups, East Europe vs. Asian countries). This apparent difference in the mutation spectrum in different histological subtypes is interesting; however, we must be careful in accepting this finding because we did not use a centralized pathological diagnosis system in this study. In each region, the numbers of blocks that were pathologically investigated were very different, and the method of histological subtyping differed among pathologists from each region. A more comprehensive approach, such as Massive Parallel Sequencing accompanied by centralized pathological assessment, will yield greater information.
We can discuss TP53 mutations at CpG and non-CpG sites by parsing each mutation signature. Among these mutation signatures, SBS2, presumably associated with activated APOBECs, prefers TpCs. APOBEC functions as an intrinsic off-target deaminase under normal conditions [45]. The consensus target sequences of APOBECs are WpRpC (W = A or T, R = A or G) and TpC, especially TpCpW > TpTpW or TpCpW > TpGpW. The C to T transition at the TpC may explain the G:C > A:T transition in GC in East Asia. Another signature, SBS11, which targets NpCpC/T, is also associated with temozolomide, an anti-cancer alkylating agent. We do not have a demonstrated example of cancers caused by exogenous alkylating agents in natural settings. However, this also rationalizes the pursuit of environmental procarcinogens in the human stomach.
Mutational signature analysis in various populations did not reveal SBSs associated with environmental mutagenic agents. T > C substitutions tended to be higher in China and Japan than in Eastern Europe. Moody et al. reported that the TP53-mutation spectrum in alcohol drinkers with esophageal squamous cell carcinoma revealed enrichment of mutations with the characteristic profile of SBS16 compared to the spectrum in non-drinkers [46]. SBS16 had a higher percentage of T > C substitutions than the other substitutions. The difference in the percentages of T > C substitutions between Eastern Europe and East Asia may be due to differences in drinking habits. Genetic variants of ALDH2 and CYP2E1 are involved in alcohol metabolism, and the frequency of these variants differs between Caucasians and Asians [47, 48]. These variants may contribute to the differences in somatic mutation profiles between Eastern Europe and East Asia [47, 49]. Again, the number of substitutions in our study was not sufficient to yield a mutation signature; thus, our interpretation must be handled carefully.
Currently, in many parts of the world or particular accident settings [50, 51], the only available data would be from pathology archives, and a TP53 mutation spectrum search would still be the most feasible and economical way to speculate the carcinogenesis process. The introduction of cancer gene panels in oncology practice in more areas, including Eastern Europe, may provide more data on these mutation spectra in the future. Expansion of preparations would be necessary to accumulate more extensive data on various geographical characteristics of tumors worldwide. A region-to-region comparison and analyses of different mutation spectra and mutation signatures in populations with different ethnicities, cultures, and habits, as well as of genetic polymorphisms according to ethnicity, may help understand the varied pathways of individual GC carcinogenesis [52, 53].
Supplementary Information
Additional file 1: Supplementary Figure S1. Localization of TP53 mutations at CpG and non-CpG sites in GC samples from Eastern Europe, China, and Japan (exon 4-8). Mutation-distribution maps were created using the cBioPortal mutation mapper (http://www.cbioportal.org/mutation_mapper). Black dots indicate truncating mutations (nonsense and frameshift mutations). The light purple dot indicates a silent mutation. P53_TAD, TP53 transcriptional activation domain; P53, TP53 DNA-binding domain; P53 tetramer, TP53 tetramer domain.(752K, pptx)
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge K. Kobayashi (Hamamatsu University School of Medicine) for his technical assistance. Part of this work was performed at the Advanced Research Facilities & Services (ARFS) of the Hamamatsu University School of Medicine. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP22659072, JP24659161, JP26670187, and JP16K15256, AMED Grant Numbers JP19ck0106264 and JP20ck0106545, the Smoking Research Foundation, and HUSM Grant-in-Aid by the Hamamatsu University School of Medicine. We would like to thank Editage (www.editage.com) for English language editing.
Authors’ contributions
HN, KS, and HY contributed equally to the study. HN and KS performed experiments and drafted the manuscript. HY coordinated the study design, performed the experiments, and helped draft the manuscript. YI coordinated the study design and drafted the manuscript. MG, JŠ, KI, and RK participated in some experiments. TM, AN, YW, NX, QH, WG, ZC, TS, ZK, AK, TO, TK, NK, and AK provided the samples needed for this study and discussed them from a geographical point of view. TO provided technical advice regarding the interpretation of TP53 mutations. YW, YM, SM, and HS conceived the study, participated in its design and coordination, and drafted the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant Numbers JP22659072, JP24659161, JP26670187, and JP16K15256), AMED (Grant Numbers JP19ck0106264 and JP20ck0106545), the Smoking Research Foundation, and a HUSM Grant-in-Aid by the Hamamatsu University School of Medicine.
Availability of data and materials
Available on reasonable request.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
All procedures were performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the use of residual pathological tissues in this study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Hamamatsu University School of Medicine (G-260 and 20-110), Kanagawa Cancer Center, and the Ethical Committee of the University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Targu-Mures, Romania (agreement no. 124/28.07.2016).
Consent for publication
Not applicable for the subjects.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Hiroko Natsume, Kinga Szczepaniak and Hidetaka Yamada contributed equally to this work.
Contributor Information
Hidetaka Yamada, Email: pj.ca.dem-amah@adamay-h.
Yaping Wang, Email: nc.ude.ujn@paygnaw.
Yohei Miyagi, Email: pj.amahokoy.ihasa.necnag@igayim.
Simona Gurzu, Email: moc.oohay@uzruganomis.
Haruhiko Sugimura, Email: pj.ca.dem-amah@rumigush.
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William Tecumseh Sherman and Total War
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Bill of Rights Institute
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https://billofrightsinstitute.org/essays/william-tecumseh-sherman-and-total-war
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Written by: Mackubin Owens, Foreign Policy Research Institute
Major General William Tecumseh Sherman’s actions after the capture of Atlanta and his subsequent March to the Sea are sometimes seen as anticipating the pattern of total war in the twentieth century. Some have claimed that Sherman was a war criminal, authorizing plunder and looting of civilian property. But the matter is more complex than either of these charges indicate. In fact, Sherman’s actions were the culmination of a Union policy toward civilians that evolved during the course of the war.
Initially, the Union adhered to a policy of “conciliation,” waging a somewhat limited war based on the notion that the majority of individuals in the seceded states did not support the breakup of the Union and that the governments of these states were illegal and did not represent their people’s will. Thus, early in the Rebellion, Union generals ordered their soldiers to respect the private property, including slaves, of all civilians, even those who were actively working against them. Even such generals as Ulysses Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman, who later advocated “hard war,” adhered to the policy of conciliation.
Conciliation seemed to be working until George McClellan’s stalemate on the Virginia peninsula in the early summer of 1862 and the emergence of Robert E. Lee, whose subsequent victories substantially strengthened the rebellion. As a result, Union generals such as Henry Halleck in Missouri and Benjamin Butler in New Orleans began to use what historians have called “pragmatic” policies, treating Unionists and those who were neutral better than they treated those who opposed the Union. The prominence of guerrilla warfare in Missouri and Tennessee meant that pragmatic policies took hold more quickly in the West than in Virginia.
By 1863, pragmatism began to give way to “hard war,” according to which Southerners who were identified as secessionists were the target of “directed severity,” a policy characterized by destruction of public property but also by a general unwillingness to harm civilians. Like pragmatism, hard war gained traction earlier in the West than it did in the East.
A milestone of sorts was reached in early 1863 when General Halleck published General Order 100, which provided “a generalized set of regulations” regarding the legal aspects of conducting war. The document, signed by President Lincoln in April 1863, authorized hard war but placed clear limits on its conduct.
The Vicksburg Campaign signaled the beginning of the Union’s hard war policy, permitting whatever was necessary including the destruction of civilian property to bring the conflict to an end. During the Vicksburg Campaign, Grant lived off the land for a time, allowing his army to take what it needed from civilians in its path. Approximately seven months after the fall of Vicksburg, Sherman applied the “hard hand of war” against central Mississippi during the Meridian operation.
This operation was different in that, for the first time, Sherman instructed Union troops to wage a war of destruction, leaving civilians with enough for survival but not enough to support military activity. The Meridian operation, which provided a blueprint for Sherman’s March to the Sea, was also an example of psychological warfare, meant to destroy any hope the people might have had of a Confederate victory.
In September 1863, Sherman laid out his emerging philosophy in a long letter to Halleck. He wrote that “every member of the nation is bound by natural and constitutional law to ‘maintain and defend the Government against all its opposers whomsoever.’ If they fail to do it they are derelict,” he maintained, “and can be punished or deprived of all advantages arising from the labors of those who do.” Sherman came to Georgia to command an army in that theater and put this policy into operation after the fall of Atlanta during his famous March to the Sea.
It is sufficient for my Government to know that the removal of the inhabitants has been made with liberality and fairness; that it has been attended by no force, and that no women or children have suffered, unless for want of provisions by their natural protectors and friends. My real reasons for this step were, we want all the houses of Atlanta for military storage and occupation. We want to contract the lines of defenses so as to diminish the garrison to the limit necessary to defend its narrow and vital parts instead of embracing, as the lines now do, the vast suburbs. This contraction of the lines, with the necessary citadels and redoubts, will make it necessary to destroy the very houses used by families as residences. Atlanta is a fortified town, was stubbornly defended and fairly captured. As captors we have a right to it. The residence here of a poor population would compel us sooner or later to feed them or see them starve under our eyes. The residence here of the families of our enemies would be a temptation and a means to keep up a correspondence dangerous and hurtful to our cause.
Sherman’s correspondence with Halleck also included the letters he exchanged with the Confederate commander General John Bell Hood. Sherman wrote:
You cannot qualify war in harsher terms than I will. War is cruelty, and you cannot refine it; and those who brought war into our country deserve all the curses and maledictions a people can pour out. I know I had no hand in making this war, and I know I will make more sacrifices to-day than any of you to secure peace. But you cannot have peace and a division of our country. If the United States submits to a division now, it will not stop, but will go on until we reap the fate of Mexico, which is eternal war. The United States does and must assert its authority, wherever it once had power; for, if it relaxes one bit to pressure, it is gone, and I believe that such is the national feeling.
After the fall of Atlanta, Sherman asked for and received permission from Grant to march to Savannah. On this march, Sherman deployed 62,000 troops in two wings. He departed Atlanta on November 15 and, for the next month, he cut a swath of destruction 60 miles wide from Atlanta to Savannah, systematically destroying anything that could benefit the Rebel military effort.
Sherman’s goal was to “make Georgia howl.” “We are not only fighting hostile armies, but a hostile people, and we must make old and young, rich and poor, feel the hard hand of war.” The hard war was here for Georgia. “We cannot change the hearts and minds of those people of the South, but we can make war so terrible . . . [and] make them so sick of war that generations would pass away before they would again appeal to it.” Sherman contended that the United States and its representatives had the right to “remove and destroy every obstacle if need be, take every life, every acre of land, every particle of property, everything that to us seems proper [and] that all who do not aid are enemies, and we will not account to them for our acts.”
Some still believe Sherman’s army burned every home in its path. In fact, although the men destroyed public buildings, they largely left individual homes intact. But the myth of terrible destruction, rather than the truth of directed severity, has persisted.
The March to the Sea was meant to demonstrate to Southern civilians that “they could be hurt” and that “the Confederate government was powerless to protect them.” It was also meant as a policy to end the horrific Civil War, which had killed more than 600,000 soldiers.
Review Questions
1. Under the Union policy of pragmatism
it was safer for the Union army to attack and kill civilians than to confront the Confederate army
Union generals ordered their soldiers to respect private property in the Confederacy, including slaves, of all civilians
the Union destroyed any public and civilian property that could aid the war effort
Unionists and those who were neutral were treated better than those who supported the Confederacy
2. The use of “hard war” by the Union army was
meant to accelerate the end of the war by ending any Confederate hope for victory
a new military strategy developed by General Ulysses S. Grant
a precursor to “conciliation” that would be used in the world wars of the twentieth century
considered a “crime against humanity” and never used again by the U.S. military
3. The strategy of hard war was first used during the Battle of
Vicksburg
Meridian
Atlanta
Gettysburg
4. In General Sherman’s use of hard war, the Battle of Atlanta included the destruction of
all useful structures
public buildings that could be useful to the Confederate cause
private homes that could be used as housing or supply depots by the Confederate army
military installations only
5. What was the Union’s initial policy toward civilians and Confederate territory?
Limited war
Total, massive destruction
Conciliation
Pragmatism
6. The conduct of hard war was made possible when
General Ulysses S. Grant used it in Vicksburg
President Abraham Lincoln issued an executive order for the hard war strategy
General Henry Halleck issued General Order 100
General William T. Sherman captured Meridian, Mississippi
Free Response Questions
Explain how the Union policy toward civilians evolved during the Civil War.
Explain why General Sherman used hard war tactics on his March to the Sea.
AP Practice Questions
“I attach more importance to these deep incisions into the enemy’s country, because this war differs from European wars in this particular: we are not only fighting hostile armies, but a hostile people, and must make old and young, rich and poor, feel the hard hand of war, as well as their organized armies. I know that this recent movement of mine through Georgia has had a wonderful effect in this respect. Thousands who had been deceived by their lying newspapers to believe that we were being whipped all the time now realize the truth, and have no appetite for a repetition of the same experience. . . . But I think faith in him [Jefferson Davis] is much shaken in Georgia, and before we have done with her South Carolina will not be quite so tempestuous. . . . When I move, the Fifteenth Corps will be on the right of the right wing, and their position will naturally bring them into Charleston first; and, if you have watched the history of that corps, you will have remarked that they generally do their work pretty well. The truth is, the whole army is burning with an insatiable desire to wreak vengeance upon South Carolina. I almost tremble at her fate, but feel that she deserves all that seems in store for her.”
General William T. Sherman, “Letter to General Henry Halleck,” December 24, 1864
Refer to the excerpt provided.
1. The most significant reason for General Sherman’s explanation of hard war in the excerpt was that
until 1864, the Confederacy had been winning the Civil War
it was necessary to make the entire Confederate population, not just the military, feel the pain of war in order to defeat the rebellion
the Confederate army had used the same strategy in its invasion of Maryland and the Union wanted revenge
the nonmilitary population in the South needed to be rescued from Confederate oppressors
2. Which of the statements is the most accurate paraphrase of General Sherman’s statement, “Thousands who had been deceived by their lying newspapers to believe that we were being whipped all the time now realize the truth, and have no appetite for a repetition of the same experience”?
Georgia citizens who had believed the South was winning the war were beginning to understand the strength of the Union army.
Newspaper editors who published false reports had been whipped in the streets as an example to others.
Southerners had experienced such severe shortage of food and consumer items that they had come to have no appetite.
This war was similar to European wars in that all the fighting was carried out by organized armies.
3. Which of the following would have supported General Sherman’s strategy?
Henry Clay
John C. Calhoun
Thomas Jefferson
Frederick Douglass
Primary Sources
Sherman, William T. “Letter of William T. Sherman to James M. Calhoun, E.E. Rawson, and S.C. Wells, September 12, 1864.” Civil War Era NC. https://cwnc.omeka.chass.ncsu.edu/items/show/23
Suggested Resources
Caudill, Edward, and Paul Ashdown. Sherman’s March in Myth and Memory. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008.
Grimsley, Mark. The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy Toward Southern Civilians, 1861 1865. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
McDonough, James Lee. William Tecumseh Sherman: In the Service of My Country: A Life. New York: W. W. Norton, 2016.
Owens, Mackubin. T. “From Atlanta to Durham Station and Spring Hill to Nashville.” http://ashbrook.org/publications/oped-owens-09-sherman/
Witt, John Fabian. Lincoln’s Code: The Laws of War in American History. New York: Free Press, 2013.
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https://www.usa.gov/agencies/national-laboratories
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en
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National Laboratories
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The National Laboratories conduct scientific research and development in areas related to energy and technology.
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en
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/themes/custom/usagov/images/Favicon_USAGov.png
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https://www.usa.gov/agencies/national-laboratories
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USAGov is the official guide to government information and services
An official website of the U.S. General Services Administration
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https://cprit.texas.gov/
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Cancer Prevention and Research Institute of Texas
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"Cancer Prevention Research Institute Texas"
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[] | null |
Texans voted in 2007 to create the Cancer Prevention & Research Institute of Texas (CPRIT) and to invest $3 billion in the state’s unprecedented fight against cancer. On November 5, 2019, Texas voters overwhelmingly approved a constitutional amendment to continue CPRIT’s work and invest an additional $3 billion for finding and funding the best cancer research and prevention opportunities in the state. CPRIT is now a $6 billion, 20-year initiative – the largest state cancer research investment in the history of the United States and the second largest cancer research and prevention program in the world.
|
en
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favicon.ico
| null |
Oversight Committee
CPRIT will host its next Oversight Committee Meeting on November 20, 2024 at 8:30AM at the Barbara Jordan State Office Building Room 2.035A
1601 Congress Ave.
Austin, TX 78701
The public is invited!
Our Programs
Learn More
CPRIT advances its mission by awarding merit- based grants through three programs:
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https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/guillain-barre-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20362793
|
en
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Guillain-Barre syndrome - Symptoms and causes
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2024-06-07T00:00:00
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en
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/-/media/web/gbs/shared/images/apple-touch-icon-152x152.svg
|
Mayo Clinic
|
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/guillain-barre-syndrome/symptoms-causes/syc-20362793
|
Overview
Guillain-Barre (gee-YAH-buh-RAY) syndrome is a condition in which the body's immune system attacks the nerves. It can cause weakness, numbness or paralysis.
Weakness and tingling in the hands and feet are usually the first symptoms. These sensations can quickly spread and may lead to paralysis. In its most serious form, Guillain-Barre syndrome is a medical emergency. Most people with the condition need treatment in a hospital.
Guillain-Barre syndrome is rare, and the exact cause is not known. But two-thirds of people have symptoms of an infection in the six weeks before Guillain-Barre symptoms begin. Infections can include a respiratory or a gastrointestinal infection, including COVID-19. Guillain-Barre also can be caused by the Zika virus.
There's no known cure for Guillain-Barre syndrome. Several treatment options can ease symptoms and help speed recovery. Most people recover completely from Guillain-Barre syndrome, but some serious illnesses can be fatal. While recovery may take up to several years, most people are able to walk again six months after symptoms first began. Some people may have lasting effects, such as weakness, numbness or fatigue.
Symptoms
Guillain-Barre syndrome often begins with tingling and weakness starting in the feet and legs and spreading to the upper body and arms. Some people notice the first symptoms in the arms or face. As Guillain-Barre syndrome progresses, muscle weakness can turn into paralysis.
Symptoms of Guillain-Barre syndrome may include:
A pins and needles feeling in the fingers, toes, ankles or wrists.
Weakness in the legs that spreads to the upper body.
Unsteady walk or not being able to walk or climb stairs.
Trouble with facial movements, including speaking, chewing or swallowing.
Double vision or inability to move the eyes.
Severe pain that may feel achy, shooting or cramplike and may be worse at night.
Trouble with bladder control or bowel function.
Rapid heart rate.
Low or high blood pressure.
Trouble breathing.
People with Guillain-Barre syndrome usually experience their most significant weakness within two weeks after symptoms begin.
Types
The symptoms of Guillain-Barre syndrome can vary based on the type. Guillain-Barre syndrome has several forms. The main types are:
Acute inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (AIDP), the most common form in North America and Europe. The most common sign of AIDP is muscle weakness that starts in the lower part of the body and spreads upward.
Miller Fisher syndrome (MFS), in which paralysis starts in the eyes. MFS also is associated with an unsteady walk. MFS is less common in the U.S. but more common in Asia.
Acute motor axonal neuropathy (AMAN) and acute motor-sensory axonal neuropathy (AMSAN) are less common in the U.S. But AMAN and AMSAN are more frequent in China, Japan and Mexico.
When to see a doctor
Call your healthcare professional if you have mild tingling in your toes or fingers that doesn't seem to be spreading or getting worse. Seek emergency medical help if you have any of these serious symptoms:
Tingling that started in your feet or toes and is now moving up your body.
Tingling or weakness that's spreading quickly.
Trouble catching your breath or shortness of breath when lying flat.
Choking on saliva.
Guillain-Barre syndrome is a serious condition that requires immediate hospitalization because it can worsen quickly. The sooner treatment is started, the better the chance of a complete recovery.
Causes
The exact cause of Guillain-Barre syndrome isn't known. It usually appears days or weeks after a respiratory or digestive tract infection. Rarely, recent surgery or vaccination can trigger Guillain-Barre syndrome.
In Guillain-Barre syndrome, your immune system — which usually attacks only invading organisms — begins attacking the nerves. In AIDP, the nerves' protective covering, known as the myelin sheath, is damaged. The damage prevents nerves from transmitting signals to your brain, causing weakness, numbness or paralysis.
Guillain-Barre syndrome may be triggered by:
Most commonly, an infection with campylobacter, a type of bacteria often found in undercooked poultry.
Influenza virus.
Cytomegalovirus.
Epstein-Barr virus.
Zika virus.
Hepatitis A, B, C and E.
HIV, the virus that causes AIDS.
Mycoplasma pneumonia.
Surgery.
Trauma.
Hodgkin lymphoma.
Rarely, influenza vaccinations or childhood vaccinations.
COVID-19 virus.
Risk factors
Guillain-Barre syndrome can affect all age groups, but the risk increases as you age. It's also slightly more common in males than females.
Complications
Guillain-Barre syndrome affects your nerves. Because nerves control your movements and body functions, people with Guillain-Barre syndrome may experience:
Trouble breathing. Weakness or paralysis can spread to the muscles that control your breathing. This can potentially be fatal. Up to 22% of people with Guillain-Barre syndrome need temporary help from a machine to breathe within the first week when they're hospitalized for treatment.
Residual numbness or other sensations. Most people with Guillain-Barre syndrome recover completely or have only minor, residual weakness, numbness or tingling.
Heart and blood pressure problems. Blood pressure fluctuations and irregular heart rhythms are common side effects of Guillain-Barre syndrome.
Pain. One-third of people with Guillain-Barre syndrome experience nerve pain, which may be eased with medicine.
Trouble with bowel and bladder function. Sluggish bowel function and urine retention may result from Guillain-Barre syndrome.
Blood clots. People who are not mobile due to Guillain-Barre syndrome are at risk of developing blood clots. Until you're able to walk independently, you may need to take blood thinners and wear support stockings to improve blood flow.
Pressure sores. You may be at risk of developing bedsores, also known as pressure sores, if you're not able to move. Changing your position often may help avoid this problem.
Relapse. A small percentage of people with Guillain-Barre syndrome have a relapse. A relapse can cause muscle weakness even years after symptoms ended.
When early symptoms are worse, the risk of serious long-term complications goes up. Rarely, death may occur from complications such as respiratory distress syndrome and heart attacks.
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https://www.aflcmc.af.mil/WELCOME/Leadership/Display/Article/3092484/john-kurian/
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en
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JOHN KURIAN
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Colonel John Kurian is the Deputy Commander of the Air Force Life Cycle Management Center.
|
en
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/Portals/79/favicon (20).ico?ver=9VDmFTsivNt2NbiBjGtEfg%3d%3d
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Air Force Life Cycle Management Center
|
https://www.aflcmc.af.mil/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aflcmc.af.mil%2FWELCOME%2FLeadership%2FDisplay%2FArticle%2F3092484%2Fjohn-kurian%2F
|
Col. John Kurian is the Deputy Commander, Air Force Life Cycle Management Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. As one of six Air Force Materiel Command centers, AFLCMC is responsible for total life-cycle management of all aircraft, engines, munitions and electronic systems.
In his previous assignment, Col. Kurian was the Senior Materiel Leader, Simulators Division, Agile Combat Support Directorate. In this role, he led the execution of 75 programs, comprising 2,300 training devices and three high fidelity distributed networks, supporting nine Major Commands, Air National Guard, 29 Program Offices, United States Navy and 20 countries.
Col. Kurian is a graduate of the Illinois Institute of Technology with a degree in Electrical Engineering. He has held engineering and program management positions in multiple program offices, led research and development efforts, served in staff positions at various levels, and supported the National Intelligence Community. Col. Kurian’s program management tours include Material Leader for E-8C Modernization and JSTARS Recap Mission Systems; Kill Chain IPT Lead for B-21 Raider Program; and Branch Chief for C4ISR Requirements at National Reconnaissance Office. His staff positions include Engineering Assignments Officer at Air Force Personnel Center, Chief of AFMC Senior Leader Management Office, and Deputy Chief for F-35A Fleet Management Office. He was also deployed to Kuwait and Iraq for Operation INHERENT RESOLVE as the CJTF-OIR Director for Internal Review and External Oversight.
EDUCATION
1998 Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL
2003 Master of Science in Electrical Engineering, Air Force Institute of Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH
2005 Squadron Officer School, by correspondence
2005 Squadron Officer School, Maxwell AFB, AL
2009 Air Command and Staff College, by correspondence
2011 Master of Science in Strategic Intel, National Defense Intelligence College, Bolling AFB, Washington D.C
2014 Program Manager’s Course, Fort Belvoir, VA
2014 Executive Program Manager’s Course, Ft Belvoir, VA
2015 Air War College, by correspondence
2017 Joint Inspector General Course
ASSIGNMENTS
1. August 1998 – August 2001, System Acquisitions Program Officer, Plans and Program Directorate,
Headquarters Air Force Weather Agency, Offutt AFB, NE
2. August 2001 – March 2003, Student, Graduate School of Engineering and Management, Air Force Institute of
Technology, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH
3. March 2003 – May 2005, Senior Radar Engineer, Sensors Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-
Patterson AFB, OH
4. May 2005 – January 2006, Executive Officer to Executive Director, Headquarters Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH
5. January 2006 – July 2008, Deputy Chief, Data Acquisition and Information Technology Division, Special United States Liaison Advisor, Yongsan Army Garrison, South Korea
6. July 2008 – June 2009, Engineer Assignment Officer, Headquarters Air Force Personnel Center, Randolph AFB, TX
7. June 2009 – August 2010, Executive Officer to Director of Assignments, Headquarters Air Force Personnel Center, Randolph AFB, TX
8. August 2010 – August 2011, Student PME, National Defense Intelligence College, Defense Intelligence Agency, Bolling AFB, Washington D.C
9. August 2011 – August 2012, Chief, NRO Architecture Management Branch, System Engineering Directorate, National Reconnaissance Office, Chantilly, VA
10. August 2012 – July 2013, Chief, C4ISR Requirements Development Branch, System Engineering Directorate, National Reconnaissance Office, Chantilly, VA
11. July 2013 – September 2014, Materiel Leader, E-8 Modernization Program Manager, C4ISR Division, Battle Management Directorate, Air Force Life Cycle Management Center, Hanscom AFB, MA
12. September 2014 – July 2016, Materiel Leader, JSTARS Recap Mission Systems Program Manager, JSTARS Recap Division, Battle Management Directorate, Air Force Life Cycle Management Center, Hanscom AFB, MA
13. July 2016 – June 2017, Chief, Senior Leader Management Office, Headquarters Air Force Materiel Command, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH
14. August 2017 – April 2018, Director, External Oversight / Internal Review, Combined Joint Task Force, Operation Inherent Resolve, Iraq/Kuwait
15. April 2018 – June 2019, PM, B-21 Kill Chain IPT, Fighter Bomber Directorate, Air Force Life Cycle Management Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH
16. June 2019 – March 2020, Deputy Chief, F-35A Fleet Management Office, Plans and Programs Directorate, Air Force Life Cycle Management Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH
17. March 2020 – July 2022, Senior Materiel Leader, Simulators Division, Agile Combat Support Directorate, Air Force Life Cycle Management Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH
18. July 2022 – Present, Deputy Commander, Air Force Life Cycle Management Center, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH
MAJOR AWARDS AND DECORATIONS
Defense Meritorious Service Medal with oak leaf cluster
Meritorious Service Medal with four oak leaf cluster
Joint Service Commendation Medal
Air Force Commendation Medal
Joint Service Achievement Medal
National Defense Service Medal
Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal
Global War on Terrorism Service Medal
Korea Defense Service Medal
OTHER ACHIEVEMENTS
2013 National Reconnaissance Office Meritorious Service Medal
2008 Military Intelligence Corps Knowlton Award
2003 Association of Old Crows Academic Research (Electronic Warfare) Award
2000 Armed Force Communications & Electronics Association CGOY / Western U.S
1998 Illinois Institute of Technology Student Laureate
EFFECTIVE DATES OF PROMOTION
Second Lieutenant June 13, 1998
First Lieutenant June 13, 2000
Captain June 13, 2002
Major March 1, 2008
Lieutenant Colonel August 1, 2013
Colonel September 1, 2019
(Current as of July 2022)
AFLCMC
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https://www.jetro.go.jp/en/invest/region/data/chiba.html
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Regional Information - Investing in Japan
|
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[
""
] | null |
[] |
2024-08-14T00:00:00
|
en
|
/library/icons/touch-icon-180x180.png
|
ジェトロ
|
https://www.jetro.go.jp/en/invest/region/data/chiba.html
|
Chiba Prefecture has the advantage of being located adjacent to Tokyo, nation's capital. There are Narita International Airport, which handles international airline passengers and freight from around the world, and the Port of Chiba, which boasts one of the largest volumes of cargo handled in Japan.
The prefecture also has an advanced network of extensive trunk highways, including the Tokyo Bay Aqua-line, making it a superior location for access to the Japanese and global markets. Makuhari New City is home to foreign-affiliated and foreign companies in various industries. With Makuhari Messe, Japan's largest convention facility, it is an international business city with facilities for work, housing, study, and recreation.
Kashiwa-no-ha,located in the northwestern area of Chiba, there is a campus of the University of Tokyo, and a Japanese branch of the prestigious British school, Rugby School, has also opened. This highlights Chiba Prefecture's well-developed educational environment for your children.
Subsidies equivalent to real estate acquisition tax on buildings and fixed assets taxes on depreciable assets are granted (subject to some conditions) to companies establishing the following facilities in Chiba Prefecture:
- Head office (total floor area of 500sqm or more, 50 or more employees)
- Laboratory (site area of 1000sqm or more, 10 or more employees (5 or more in specific promotion areas)
- Factory or distribution processing facilities (site area of 1000sqm or more, 10 or more employees (5 or more in specific promotion areas))
Food-related industries are concentrated mainly around the Chiba Food Industrial Complex. Chiba Prefecture's soy sauce production is the largest in Japan, and it is sold both domestically and overseas. In addition to soy sauce production, which has flourished since the Edo era, Chiba is also renowned as a miso production center. In recent years, new industries utilizing microorganisms' functions from the fermentation research process have been thriving.
Chiba Prefecture is home to Narita International Airport. It has clusters of international and new logistics and airport-related industries, which serve as a supply base for the metropolitan area. There are freight facilities of forwarders and rental properties of logistics specialist real estate companies around Narita Airport.
Chiba Prefecture is in the metropolitan area with an enormous market, and access to Tokyo takes an hour or less. It also has Japan's largest international airport, Narita International Airport, and the Port of Chiba designated as a Major Port.
Chiba has a well-developed transport infrastructure, including an extensive network of major highways, such as the Tokyo Bay Aqua-line, and a railroad network. The Tsukuba Express, a rail line linking Akihabara in Tokyo with Tsukuba Science City began service in August 2005, dramatically improving access between northwestern Chiba prefecture and Tokyo or Tsukuba.
Air: Approx. 30 minutes from Narita International Airport and Haneda Airport to Chiba City
Land: Approx. 30 minutes by train from Tokyo Station to Chiba City
|
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4101
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dbpedia
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3
| 80 |
https://anthropology.osu.edu/research/laboratories/brl
|
en
|
Bioarchaeology Research Laboratory (BARL)
|
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https://anthropology.osu.edu/themes/asc_bootstrap_bux/favicon.ico
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BARL Associated FacultyDirector: Dr. Clark Spencer LarsenDr. Debra Guatelli-SteinbergDr. Samuel D. StoutDr.
|
en
|
/themes/asc_bootstrap_bux/favicon.ico
|
https://anthropology.osu.edu/research/laboratories/brl
|
BARL Associated Faculty
Director: Dr. Clark Spencer Larsen
Dr. Debra Guatelli-Steinberg
Dr. Samuel D. Stout
Dr. Mark Hubbe
BARL Facilities, Equipment, and Other Resources
The Bioarchaeology Research Laboratory is a large, shared laboratory space for research programs in bioarchaeology and skeletal biology. The main laboratory space includes a sink with a hazardous waste trap, fume hood, eyewash station, burn cabinet for storage of contain hazardous chemicals, and a whiteboard. The main laboratory space also includes two large central laboratory benches that can seat eight workers each. A long laboratory bench provides workstations for several microscopes and a desktop computer. Cabinets underneath these benches are used to store equipment for sample preparation and microscopy. Six glass cabinets extend above this long counter and provide space for laboratory equipment and microscopic slide storage. Three cubicles with desks each house a dual-screen desktop computer and provide workspace for graduate students and visiting researchers. Beyond the cubicles, floor-to-ceiling metal cabinets provide storage space for research materials. A smaller room is adjacent to the main laboratory space and primarily houses workspace for visiting researchers, students, and faculty personnel. The room houses an extensive dental cast research collection (Renee M. Menegaz-Bock Dental Anthropology Collection). There are three primary office spaces for graduate students, Clark Larsen, and visiting researchers.
Computer Facilities
The Bioarchaeology Research Laboratory houses five Dell OptiPlex 980 computers with dual-screen monitors, a Windows 10 Enterprise operating system, and a Microsoft Office 2018 suite that are available to anyone working in the laboratory. The laboratory, office, computer lab, and personal computers all have access to the following software programs through The Ohio State University Office of the Chief Information Officer: Adobe Acrobat Professional Version XI, statistical computing software SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc.), statistical computing software SPSS version 23 64-bit, and spatial analysis software ArcGIS version 10.2, ImageJ (NIH) and FIJI (NIH) and the statistical computing software R x64 3.2.2 (The R Foundation). All departmental computers are connected to a printer.
The laboratory computer connected to the Olympus BX51 computer and SPOT digital camera also includes the software SPOT Advanced 4.7 to run the digital camera and Adobe Photoshop CS2 for photomerging adjacent images into a single image. This computer is also connected to a Wacom Intuous 9” x 12” digital tablet.
Department of Anthropology Resources
The Department of Anthropology employs one administrative assistant who assists with ordering laboratory materials, one graduate program coordinator who assists graduate students with completing graduation requirements, one systems manager who maintains and repairs computer equipment, and one fiscal officer who oversees grant fund and other expenditures. The Ohio State University Office of the Chief Information Officer provides technical support for university computer networks, university-supplied software, university computer accounts, and computer hardware in university locations. The Ohio State University Office of Environmental Health and Safety provides, collects, and disposes of containers for disposal of biohazardous waste, chemical waste, and sharps, all of which are present in the Bioarchaeology Research Laboratory. This office also provides online training modules to certify researchers to work in the Bioarchaeology Research Laboratory, currently classified as Biosafety Level 2.
Other Equipment/Materials
Preparation of bone and tooth thin sections: Anatomical dissection kit, Dremel 400 XPR (with cut-off wheels No. 409, 429, and 540), Buehler Isomet 1000 Diamond Blade Saw (with series 15LC diamond wafering blades of diameters 4 inches and 6 inches, and a measured kerf of 534 µm), dressing sticks for diamond blade saw, Cool2 Cutting Fluid for diamond blade saw (Concentrated, 1 L), chucks for holding bone to saw (screw chuck, large and small wafer chuck, target holder for petrographic slides, assorted slide holder chucks), xylenes for slide cleaning, (1 gallon), 75 x 50 x 1 mm glass slides (15 boxes of 72 slides each), 75 x 25 x 1 mm glass slides (16 boxes of 72 slides each), 1 x 3 inch petrographic slides (7 boxes of 72 slides each), mounting media for mounting bone to slide (crystal bond, super glue, duco cement, permount), a Mitutoyo digimatic micrometer for measuring section thickness, a Waterpik cordless water flosser for washing out bone marrow, ultrasonic cleaner, and distilled water (~1 gallon). Buehler Metaserv 2000 grinding and polishing wheel, Apex Diamond Grinding Discs (15 µm, 35 µm, 45 µm, 75 µm), polishing cloths (Microcloth x 10, Trident Polishing Cloth x 10, Ultra-Pol Cloth x 10), CarbiMet SiC 8” Abrasive Paper (120 grit x 1, 250 grit x 1 , 360 grit x 2, 400 grit x 1, 600 grit x 3), MasterPrep Polishing Suspension, 0.05 µm (~2 L), MicroPolish Alumina, 0.3 µm (6 oz), Minimet 1000 polisher/grinder, CarbiMet SiC 3” Abrasive Paper (320 grit, 600 grit), Microcloth 3”, Texmet 3”, Diamond paste (1 µm x 2, 9 µm x 1, 6 µm x 1).
Imaging bone and tooth sections: Olympus BX51 microscope with attached SPOT digital camera, two Olympus CX41 microscopes, one Olympus SZ-PT stereomicroscope, and three packs of microscope lens paper (4” x 6”).
Staining solution preparation: Pyrex beakers (1000 mL, 600 mL, 250 mL, 100 mL, 50 mL), Fisher Scientific RT Basic Magnetic Stirrer 170US, Ohaus Digital Scale (0.1 g precision) with 6”x6” FisherBrand Weighing Paper, ParaFilm 4” x 250’, Ethyl Alcohol Absolute 200 Proof (100%) (~900 mL), heavy duty aluminum foil to wrap sample containers during staining, and a Buehler Vacuum Impregnation Pump system with 1/4” tubing.
General safety and cleaning equipment: Six trays for setting objects in fume hood, safety glasses, lab coats, kimwipes, nitrile gloves small, nitrile gloves.
BARL Ph.D. Graduates
|
|||
4101
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 79 |
https://www.nasa.gov/ames/
|
en
|
Ames Research Center
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[] |
[] |
[
"Ames Research Center",
"NASA Centers & Facilities"
] | null |
[
"Jerry Colen"
] |
2023-03-07T17:42:00-05:00
|
Social Media
|
en
|
NASA
|
https://www.nasa.gov/ames/
|
NASA’s Ames Research Center, one of ten NASA field centers, is located in the heart of California’s Silicon Valley. Since 1939, Ames has led NASA in conducting world-class research and development in aeronautics, exploration technology and science aligned with the center’s core capabilities.
Learn More About Ames about Ames Research Center
Featured Video
NASA’s Next-Generation Solar Sail Mission
NASA is developing new deployable structures and materials technologies for solar sail propulsion systems destined for future low-cost deep space missions. Just as a sailboat is powered by wind in a sail, solar sails employ the pressure of sunlight for propulsion, eliminating the need for conventional rocket propellant.
Learn More
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|||||
4101
|
dbpedia
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2
| 19 |
https://www.moaart.or.jp/en/about/architecture/lab/
|
en
|
New Material Research Laboratory (NMRL)
|
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[] |
[] |
[
"MOA美術館",
"MOA Museum"
] | null |
[] |
2021-11-24T01:07:45+09:00
|
The main concept for the design of MOA Museum of Art is
|
en
|
https://www.moaart.or.jp/en/wp-content/themes/moa/favicon/favicon-16x16.ico
|
MOA MUSEUM OF ART - MOA MUSEUM OF ART
|
https://www.moaart.or.jp/en/about/architecture/lab/
|
A perfect space with supreme light
I wanted to see the Japanese cultural treasures at MOA Museum of Art displayed in the best possible space with the best possible lighting.
For me, that meant the same light that Ashikaga Yoshimasa saw in the Togudo at Jishō-ji Temple or that Sen no Rikyū, the tea master, saw in his Taian tea house. To achieve this kind of premodern lighting in the museum interior, I insisted on the use of premodern materials: Yakusugi cypress, black plaster and tatami. The mission I set to myself was to showcase the premodern world inside a museum, which is itself a modern invention. After considerable experimentation, I overcame all the challenges and was able to include the latest optical technology in a very discreet, behind-the-scenes manner. I transformed what is oldest inside of me into something new.
The lacquer front door by Murose Kazumi
I have spent a great deal of time thinking about the origin of civilizations. Since the dawn of civilization, humankind has used its hands to craft the most marvellous treasures. But can we still create masterpieces like the old days? I'm not sure. Will the art of today be awarded National Treasure status one thousand years hence? When it comes to art, no one really knows if it advances or decays with time.
Still, I saw a glimmer of hope. Lacquering is a technique that embodied the aesthetics of the Muromachi period. This medieval tradition lives on in the hands of Living National Treasure Murose and I asked him to make the front doors for the museum. His door, while resembling the paintings of Mark Rothko and the Negoro trays of the Tōdai-ji Temple, is different from both. It glows with a sheen and color well suited to a portal that will take people away from the present and back into premodern times. The door compels visitors to focus on what awaits them.
When I started planning the renovation, I visited the sister museum Hakone Museum of Art to get to know the works of art on display and the spaces surrounding them. I tried to absorb founder Mokichi Okada’s philosophy of beauty and his words about “contributing to the elevation of culture and giving pleasure to people everywhere through beauty.” I decided that the best approach was to respect and preserve the way MOA Museum of Art presented itself. As such, the challenge I faced was to seek out an aesthetic element that was uniquely Japanese and could add a contemporary feel to the older, attractively aged parts of the museum by using Japanese materials and techniques. The idea of making display cases that resemble tokonoma (an alcove) in a traditional Japanese tatami room was inspired by the Hakone Museum of Art.
The MOA Museum of Art was constructed in 1982 and uses Indian sandstone and Japanese marble extensively. With the passage of time, the building has developed a rich texture and settled into its natural environment. We never wanted to simply replace something old with something new. Our aim was to get the museum’s new elements and existing elements to coexist symbiotically, so that the museum could be reborn and yet retain the history it has built up. We kept the Indian sandstone of the exterior walls which extends from the outdoor plaza to the indoor entrance hall, while adding contemporary elements such as the entrance door and slope, and the background of the white walls and ceiling, to create highly visible contrasts of the new versus old. To make the view over the sea off Atami from the main lobby even more attractive, we made the ceiling slope down as you get closer to the windows so that the plain white walls and ceiling form a neat frame around the sea. I planned all the important public areas—the entrance hall, the lobby, the galleries—in an integrated manner; extending to the museum shop and café area.
I configured the galleries so that the wonderful artworks in the collection could be shown to even greater advantage. I inserted black plaster walls in the middle of the gallery spaces and used low-reflection glass for the display cases. The Tea-leaf Jar with Design of Wisteria (National Treasure) is placed in a special encased area surrounded by black plaster walls to make it the focus of the visit. The addition of low-reflection walls and the dedicated room for this masterpiece breaks up the space, creating a variety of different settings and giving a sense of sequentiality to the exhibition space. With their antique cypress frames, low-reflection glass and tatami floors, the display cases we installed are designed to evoke traditional toko alcoves. Another highlight is the display cases with Yakusugi cypress boards incorporated into the seismic isolation bases. In another exhibition gallery, we created a new space for contemporary art, enabling the museum to accommodate a broad range of content, from traditional Japanese art to contemporary art.
The New Material Research Laboratory which Sugimoto and I set up is founded on the idea that traditional methods and materials are actually the most innovative ones. We believe that traditional Japanese techniques, building methods, and materials should not be treated as a relic of the past but as a resource to be handed down to future generations. For the MOA Museum of Art renovation project, our main materials were Japanese conifers (Yakusugi, Gyōjasugi, Yoshino Hinoki etc.), low-fired floor tiles, plaster, mud walls and metal fittings with the patina of age—all of which play a key role in composing the space. The materials used in most contemporary buildings are focused on rational criteria so much that one loses just as much as one gains with them. Japanese conifer woods, plaster, and tiles which retain the trace of the craftsman’s hand, possess an actuality which the standardized contemporary materials do not have. Our method is to combine these old materials with contemporary touches so that the old and the present-day coexist.
Adding something new to an existing structure is always a trial-and-error experience. Our approach is to respect and to learn from the existing building and only then to design new elements for it. The ideals of the museum’s founder and the museum itself both served as valuable signposts for our redesign.
|
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4101
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 58 |
https://stationhypo.com/2018/07/16/nsga-kami-seya-part-1-of-5/
|
en
|
NSGA Kami Seya (Part 1 of 5)
|
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2018-07-16T00:00:00
|
The Establishment of Kami Seya By the end of 1950, the need for a new NSG station was critical. It was obvious that further expansion of the facilities at Yokosuka and Kannon Zaki was no longer possible. Several sites were surveyed in early 1951 and on 15 March the site at Kami Seya in Kanagawa…
|
en
|
https://s1.wp.com/i/favicon.ico
|
Station HYPO
|
https://stationhypo.com/2018/07/16/nsga-kami-seya-part-1-of-5/
|
The Establishment of Kami Seya
By the end of 1950, the need for a new NSG station was critical.
It was obvious that further expansion of the facilities at Yokosuka and Kannon Zaki was no longer possible. Several sites were surveyed in early 1951 and on 15 March the site at Kami Seya in Kanagawa Prefecture was procured. It was located near Atsugi Air Station, about six miles east of Camp Fuchinobe, and just to the north of Seya-Mura (Seya Village).
The Kami Seya station was largely the brain child of Captain Wesley A. Wright, a pioneer US Navy cryptologist who was Chief of NSA Pacific (NSAPAC) at Yokosuka at the time. He believed that a hardened concrete bunker which had survived the Japanese demolitions would make a wonderful receiving location and ‘a secure operating location. Twenty-two buildings were constructed, many connected to the original bunker (which became Building 42), creating a complex of buildings which mostly remained when the station was eventually closed in 1995.
CAPT George McGinnis, USN
The Kami Seya station was commissioned on December 12, 1952, although it had achieved an initial operational capability a few months before that. The Kannon Zaki site was deactivated on August 7, 1952, and operations ceased at Yokosuka on December 2, 1952. Captain George McGinnis was in total charge of moving the station from Yokosuka to the new site. The operations area was centered inside and attached to a large bunker, which measured some 50-75 feet wide, several hundred feet long and 20 feet or so high, in the middle of rice fields. Operations were conducted in both Building 42 (the tunnels) and the adjoining Building 1. Manual Morse interception (CTR Branch) and non-Morse interception (CTT Branch) were handled in Building 42. Some non-Morse operations were also located on the ground floor of Building 1. Building 1 also served as the Administration building, and housed the officer-in-charge as well as the Processing and Reporting (P&R) and printing sections. Communications and COMSEC activities were housed in Building 25. In 1956, there were 69 positions in the tunnels where Morse code was copied 24-hours a day, seven days a week. The Western Pacific (WESTPAC) HFDF Net Control Operations (NCO) center was located in Tunnel 2.
Antenna Systems
Several large antenna systems were constructed at Kami Seya in 1952 and through the next five years or so. According to McGinnis, electronic reception at Kami Seya was wonderful. The primary interception system in 1952 consisted of nine rhombic antennas laid out in a rosette, located on the southern side of the operations area. One part of the system was a rotatable switch on the antenna input panel at the supervisors position in the bunker; by rotating the switch to each antenna in turn, the supervisor could pick out the antenna that worked best for the targeted signal and switch that antenna to the intercept operator. Coaxial cables ran from the rhombic antenna poles to the antenna vault next to the mid-section of Tunnel 1. Two other nine-rhombic rosettes were later installed. Three rosettes, with their nine rhombics double-ended, effectively provided 54 antenna elements, or one every 6.6 degrees, which McGinnis thought was a reasonable beam width for a rhombic. The rhombics were targeted mainly against Soviet Navy communications stations in the Far East. In addition to the rhombic arrays, VHF antennas were mounted on the roof of the bunker; they were able to obtain reception via Sporadic-E propagation from areas of interest.
The HFDF site was located in the southwest part of the base, west of the rhombic fields and operations areas. The HFDF antenna fields were leased out to Japanese farmers. The first HFDF system was a huge AN/FLR-7 CDAA with an AN/FRA-44 recorder/ analyses sub-system. The AN/FLR-7 system consisted of a large circular antenna array, about 1,000 feet in diameter, laid on a ground screen of about 1,050 feet in diameter, and consisting of 120 15 feet high monopoles. Inside the monopole ring was a vertical screen, about 60 feet tall, with a diameter of about 950 feet. It reportedly provided DF accuracy to within 2-3 degrees.
Project Boresight
In the early 1950s, the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) in Washington, D.C. developed Project Boresight, which permitted a radical improvement in the performance of HFDF networks. The key to the project was the AN/FRA-44 recorder/analyses system, which allowed the operators to record Soviet signals and analyses them after the fact, and then determine the bearing to the source of the transmission. This retrospective direction finding capability was later acknowledged to be one of the NRL’s most significant achievements through its long and impressive history. The capability became critically important after November 1958 when Soviet submarines ceased their Manual Morse code transmissions and effectively went silent. A research program called Project Clarinet Bullseye was initiated in December 1958 to investigate the issue and develop possible solutions. It was discovered in 1959 that the submarines had switched to HF microbursts for their communications. Microbursts lasted only about seven tenths of a second, whereas Morse transmissions had usually taken many seconds or even minutes.
The intercept and DF operators used R-390A/URR high-performance HF radio receivers, designed by Collins Radio Company, which covered the spectrum from 0.5 to 32 MHz. First produced in 1954, it was smaller than the R-390s, and became the standard radio receiver used in US Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) activities through to the 1980s. For example, R-390A receivers were also used with the AN/TRD-4 HFDF system employed at Sasebo, the rhombic system at Torii Station, the AN/FRD-10 at Hanza and the AN/FLR-9 at Misawa. Each intercept position had at least one R-390A. Some operators used two of them positioned side-by-side with a pair of headsets split between them so you could monitor both ends of a [Morse] conversation.
|
||||
4101
|
dbpedia
|
2
| 5 |
https://www.teikyo-u.ac.jp/en/affiliate/laboratory/cultural_labo
|
en
|
Institute for Cultural Properties
|
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[] |
[
""
] | null |
[] |
2023-06-08T10:34:08+09:00
|
Introducing research institutes and centers. | People have "talents". In order to "bloom" that talent, there is an "environment" that gives awareness and one's own efforts. Teikyo University provides an environment where each person's talents can flourish.
|
en
|
https://www.teikyo-u.ac.jp/application/files/2815/8927/4150/favicon.ico
|
Teikyo University
|
https://www.teikyo-u.ac.jp/en/affiliate/laboratory/cultural_labo
| |||||
4101
|
dbpedia
|
3
| 34 |
https://www.dhs.gov/science-and-technology/office-national-laboratories
|
en
|
National Laboratories
|
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The S&T Office of National Laboratories (ONL) oversees a coordinated network of five Department of Homeland Security (DHS) laboratories.
|
en
|
/themes/custom/dhs_uswds/favicon.ico
|
U.S. Department of Homeland Security
|
https://www.dhs.gov/science-and-technology/office-national-laboratories
|
The DHS Science and Technology Directorate transferred ownership and operational responsibility for the new National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility (NBAF) to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). For the most up-to-date information on NBAF, please visit the USDA’s NBAF web site athttps://www.usda.gov/nbaf.
S&T's archived NBAF, Design and Construction, and Document Library web pages may contain outdated information and do not reflect current policy or programs.
About ONL
ONL develops and utilizes a coordinated network of DHS and Department of Energy (DOE) national laboratories to deliver enduring capabilities vital to DHS and the national homeland security mission. This extensive network of laboratories houses state-of-the-art science and technology capabilities that the Homeland Security Enterprise leverages to support long-term and day-to-day operational requirements. More about ONL
5 in-house laboratories
ONL capabilities are spread across five states (AL, FL, MD, NJ and NY). These laboratories and sites are national assets to DHS operational components and partners, and anchor a science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) presence in the areas in which they reside. Whether the mission need requires applied research supporting requirements definition, threat characterization, detection, mitigation or response, S&T’s lab network provides technologies and knowledge to help prevent terrorism, secure the homeland, and strengthen national preparedness and resilience.
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2
| 97 |
https://www.chikyu.ac.jp/rihn_e/__backup/
|
en
|
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature [RIHN], Kyoto JAPAN
|
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/rihn/common/img/favicon.ico
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Research Institute for Humanity and Nature
FY2023 Call for Proposals for Research Project Incubation Studies (IS) and Feasibility Studies (FS)
Submission deadline: January 23, 2023 (Monday), 10:00 a.m. (Japan Standard Time)
About RIHN
The Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN)
was established in 2001 by the Government of Japan to promote 'integrated cooperative research toward the solution of global environmental problems' and to create the field of global environmental studies.
>> Message from Director-General and Features of RIHN >> Research Structure >> Research Facilities >> Administrative Structure >> Communication
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4101
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dbpedia
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https://www.biwahaku.jp/english/guide-e/index.html
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en
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Lake Biwa Museum
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This website uses cookies
The Museum collects access logs for this website. The access logs include the domain name and IP address of the person who accessed it, the type of browser used, the date and time of access, etc., but no information that can identify a visitor. Access logs are for determining what kind of service is preferred by users, and is not linked to personal information.
A cookie is a mechanism that saves information, such as usage history and input contents sent and received between the browser and the server, as a file on the user's computer when the user browses a web page.
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4101
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dbpedia
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https://www.chhs.niu.edu/services/research-laboratory.shtml
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Behavior Evaluation through Survey Teledata (BEST) 4 Health Laboratory
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Northern Illinois University
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https://www.chhs.niu.edu/services/research-laboratory.shtml
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The BEST 4 Health Lab consists of an experienced team of surveyors who conduct live telephone interviews. Currently, the lab’s project includes fielding a behavioral health study, the Illinois Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (IL-BRFSS). This study helps state and county health departments to allocate resources to address current health trends. The results from those surveys can be utilized in healthcare policy and healthcare resources decisions.
Telephone Interviewers Needed
We’re looking for telephone interviewers! Paid training is provided. Extra-help and student positions are available with flexible hours; 10-20 hours a week for students, and 10-25 hours a week for extra-help.
Become a Client
The Best 4 Health Lab also offers mixed-method survey administration. We are capable of conducting research projects of varying scope, budget and complexity. Quotes can be tailored based on individual client needs.
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4101
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dbpedia
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https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/94573v1
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en
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The transcriptional landscape underlying larval development and metamorphosis in the Malabar grouper (Epinephelus malabaricus)
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[
"Roger Huerlimann",
"Natacha Roux",
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2024-08-09T00:00:00+00:00
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Introduction
Most teleost fishes have a stage-structured life cycle that includes a transition between larval and juvenile phases known as metamorphosis; this transition is regulated by thyroid hormones (TH)1,2. Of all teleost fishes, flatfishes experience one of the most extreme metamorphosis, with significant changes occurring in their body organization and appearance during this period, switching from a symmetrical to an asymmetrical body plan3,4. However, metamorphic changes are not always as pronounced in other fish species. For example, the metamorphosis of zebrafish is mainly marked by relatively discrete pigmentation changes that appear to be regulated by TH5–8.
Metamorphosis in teleost fishes is not only marked by visible changes in the body, but also by a range of ecological, physiological, biochemical, and behavioral changes. These changes are thought to be initiated and coordinated by a surge of TH, which regulates various signaling pathways through the action of specific transcription factors known as thyroid hormone receptors (TRα, TRβ). For example, there is evidence that TH is associated with the transition between oceanic and coral reef environments in the convict surgeonfish9, controls pigmentation changes in zebrafish, clownfish, and grouper10,11, regulates ossification processes in zebrafish and flatfishes12,13 and is involved in the shift of visual perception by controlling the expression of opsin genes in many species14,15. More recently, it has also been suggested that the metabolic changes that occur during larval development in teleosts may be regulated by TH, as demonstrated in clownfish15.
Beside TH signaling pathway, other actors have been shown to be important in metamorphosis regulation. For example, studies have provided clear evidence that corticoids and TH are interacting together to regulate amphibian metamorphosis16–18. But as far as we know, there is limited information available regarding the interaction between corticoids and TH during fish metamorphosis. Although a synergistic effect of cortisol and TH has been observed in flatfish metamorphosis (advancement of morphological changes), there has been insufficient investigation into the communication between corticoids and TH pathways during teleost metamorphosis19,20. More research is needed, and the use of genomic analysis would be a good way to investigate if those pathways are associated with metamorphosis.
The use of high-throughput sequencing techniques, such as transcriptomics, has made it possible to study gene expression in greater detail, especially when combined with a high-quality annotated genome, which has enabled the identification of genes that may be involved in the key biological changes that occur during metamorphosis. These techniques have provided valuable insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms that drive metamorphosis in teleost fishes21. Most of the studies investigating the transcriptomic changes during marine fish larval development have been focused on commercial fish species used in aquaculture to: (i) gain insight into the key biological processes that occur, (ii) identify the genes involved in these processes, and (iii) find ways to improve rearing conditions to ensure high survival rates and harmonious development21. However, these studies rarely mentioned metamorphosis to explain the onset of these processes, whereas it is likely that they correspond to the transition between the larval and the juvenile stages. This is another reason why studying the molecular changes occurring during the metamorphosis of the Malabar grouper Epinephelus malabaricus is very relevant. Indeed, this will allow for a better understanding of the biological processes at play and to understand the carry-over effect in the context of aquaculture. Indeed, it is well known that rearing conditions may impact welfare and growth at later stages and understanding the molecular changes occurring during the development of this species might be useful to enhance survival rates22–24.
Grouper (Family Serranidae, Subfamily Epinephelinae) are a group of fish of both economic and ecological importance. Inhabiting temperate and tropical waters of eastern and southern regions Indo-Pacific region, East Atlantic, Mediterranean regions, and the intertropical American zone, they comprise 165 species in 16 genera25,26. Despite wide variations in growth rate, body size, and color, groupers share many biological traits and lifestyles, such as protogynous hermaphroditism and complex social structure27. Ecologically, groupers provide a wide variety of important functions as large top-level predators28. However, due to their high economic value on the food market, more than 40 species are at risk of extinction29,30. This has led to the widespread development of grouper aquaculture farms, which produced 155,000 tons per year according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in 2015, with 95% of global production occurring in Asia31,32.
In order to gain insight into the molecular pathway involved during grouper metamorphosis, we assembled a chromosome-scale genome of E. malabaricus and conducted a transcriptomic analysis of nine developmental stages ranging from freshly hatched larvae to roughly two-month-old juveniles. We investigated the expression patterns of genes involved in the TH pathway and four biological processes known to be regulated by TH in other teleost species: ossification, pigmentation, visual perception, and metabolic transition. In addition, we used TH pathway and downstream regulated biological processes activation as indicators to look for the potential involvement of corticoids in metamorphosis. We observed the activation of the TH pathway during the regression of fin spines, which in other grouper species coincides with the surge of TH and marks the beginning of metamorphosis. Interestingly, the activation of the TH pathway at this stage was associated with the activation of corticoids pathways as well as the four biological processes we investigated. Very interestingly and unexpectedly, we observed an earlier activation of the two regulatory pathways (TH and corticoids) occurring before the formation of the elongated fin spines.
Results and Discussion
Genome assembly, phasing, scaffolding, and annotation
A total of 46 Gbp of PacBio HiFi reads (~43X coverage, Supp. Table S1) were assembled into a fully haplotype phased genome of the Malabar grouper (Epinephelus malabaricus) with the primary phase consisting of 298 contigs across 1.09 Gbp genome length, a contig N50 of 7.4 Mbp, and a genome level BUSCO completeness of 93.6% with 1.3% duplication (Table 1, Supp. Table S2). The raw assembly was further scaffolded by Phase Genomics using HiC data, resulting in a 1.03 Gbp assembly across 24 pseudo-chromosomes (Table 1). The scaffolded pseudo-chromosomes ranged from 22.5 Mbp to 50.6 Mbp in size and contained 90.5 % of the contigs and 92.8 % of the contig length (Supp. Fig. S1). The gene model annotation resulted in 26,140 protein coding genes, with a BUSCO completeness of 95.5% and a duplication level of 1.3%. The final GC content was 41.3 % and the assembly contained 56.4% repeat regions overall, which were mainly made up of DNA transposons (28.9%), followed by LINEs (5.3%), and LTR elements (2.2%) (Table 1, Supp. Tables S2 and S3). The genome length, GC content, repeat content, number of gene models, and BUSCO values are similar to other published chromosome-level grouper genomes, for example Epinephelus lanceolatus33, E. akaara34, and E. moara35.
General transcriptomic results
Transcriptomic analysis of E. malabaricus larval development was performed on grouper larvae raised in the Okinawa Prefectural Sea Farming Center. An average of 77.1 M reads were obtained per sample, which after quality control and mapping resulted in an average of 65.8 M uniquely mapped reads (85.6%) per sample for differential gene analysis. Sampled larvae from one day to two months old were sorted according to their morphology allowing us to sequence nine developmental stages (D01, D03, D06, D10, D13, D18, D32, D60, Juvenile) (Table 1). Principal component analysis (PCA) performed on all genes allowed to distinguish between three distinct groups: early developmental phase (composed of D01), intermediate developmental phase (composed of D03, D06, D10, D13 and D18) and late developmental phase (composed of D32, D60 and Juvenile) (Fig. 1A).
The analysis of upregulated genes during this post-embryonic development series revealed two major peaks of gene expression that underlies the clusters of regulated genes. Indeed, the cluster analysis shows 2,651 genes upregulated on D03 and to a lesser degree on D32 (clusters 1 and 2), 1,515 genes upregulated on D32 (cluster 3), and 785 genes upregulated on D32 and to a lesser degree on D03 (cluster 4) (Fig. 1B). Unsurprisingly, these two transitions, D01 to D03 and D18 to D32, also show the highest number of differentially expressed genes with 14,830 genes (7,151 up, 7,679 down) between D01 and D03, and 10,774 genes (5,320 up and 5,454 down) between D18 and D32 (Supp. Table S4). This suggests that there are two major events occurring in terms of gene expression: one early on, at day 3 and one later around day 32. This last event corresponds to the separation between the intermediate and late developmental phase and is concomitant with the regression of the elongated spines, an overall change of shape and progression of the pigmentation. In other grouper species, the regression of the elongated spines corresponds to the onset of metamorphosis and is associated with an increase of TH levels36. However, the very early event is more striking as such a global gene expression change very early on has, to our knowledge, never been reported in other teleost fish species.
Two periods of activation of the TH signaling pathway during grouper post-embryonic development
We investigated the expression patterns of key genes involved in the hypothalamo-pituitary-thyroid axis (tshb, trhr1a, trhr1a-like, trhr1b, trhr2) as well as in TH synthesis (tg, tpo, nis), TH metabolism (dio1, dio2, dio3), and finally the genes encoding thyroid hormone receptors (trα, trαβ, trβ). These genes all play important roles in the regulation of TH levels and TH signaling in the body, and understanding their expression patterns during grouper metamorphosis can illuminate the underlying mechanisms that drive this process.
The gene encoding the pituitary thyroid stimulating hormone (tshb) is strongly expressed very early on during larval development at D01, decreases from D03, and then strongly increases again at D32, therefore following the two peaks mentioned earlier (Fig. 2A). Accordingly, we also observed two surges of expression for the hypothalamic factors trhr1aa, trhr1a like, trhr1b, and trhr2, at D03 and between D32 and D60, suggesting two distinct periods of stimulation of TH synthesis, one early on around D03 and one later at around D32. This pattern can also be seen in the expression of the corticotropin-releasing hormone (crhb) and receptors (crhr1a, crhr1b, and crhr2), which stimulates the synthesis of THS37 (see section “Possible involvement of corticoid pathways in metamorphosis” and Fig. 5 below). Interestingly, we also observed a peak of expression for tg at D03, the gene encoding for the TH precursor, and a strong increase of expression starting at D32 (Fig. 2B). A similar expression pattern was obtained for tpo, the gene encoding for the enzyme adding iodine to TH precursor, as well as for sis, gene encoding for the symporter involved in transferring iodide into thyrocytes. Once produced, TH, particularly T4, are transported into target cells where they convert them into the active form T3 mostly by dio2 and dio1 or degraded by dio3 and dio1. As it has been observed for HPT factors, tg, tpo, and sis, we first noticed two peaks of expression of dio2 with a very early one at hatching (D01) and a second one at D32 suggesting two distinct periods in which active TH (that is T3) is required. In accordance with this observation, we notice a minimal expression of the T3 degrading enzyme dio3 at these two periods followed by a final late increase after D32. dio1, whose net function is unclear38, shows a regular increase of expression that becomes maximal at the juvenile stages (J) (Fig. 2C). Finally, thyroid hormones receptors (TRs) expression levels increased throughout the entire larval development with a stronger increase of trβ at D60 (Fig. 2D). Taken together, these data reinforce the existence of two distinct periods of TH signaling activity, one early on at D3, and one late corresponding to the classical metamorphosis at D32 (Fig. 2C).
These results suggest the activation of the TH axis around D32, which coincides with the regression of the elongated spines and the appearance of the juvenile pigmentation pattern, indicating that metamorphosis in E. malabaricus occurs around D32 in our rearing conditions. These observations are consistent with what has been observed in E. coioides, in which TH levels peak around 40 dph when spines regression and pigmentation pattern formation are ongoing36. Interestingly, the high expression levels of tshb, trhr, tg, tpo, sis, dio3, and TRs at the very beginning of development (D1-D3) suggest a precocious activation of TH synthesis, which, to our knowledge, has not been observed in groupers nor in other teleost fishes so far (Fig. 2). Measurements of TH levels during these early development stages showed an early peak of T4 at D3, confirming the early activation of the TH pathway observed with gene expression patterns (Fig. 2E).
TH involvement in spine elongation and regression
In many marine fish larvae, there are several morphological features that help the larvae to improve its buoyancy during their pelagic phase39. This is what we observe in grouper with the formation of elongated spines of the dorsal and pelvic fins that have also an obvious defensive function40–42. These spines then regress during metamorphosis. It is well known that during fish larval development genes involved in ossification are under the control of TH. In zebrafish, TH control the proper morphogenesis and ossification in the majority of the bones, during post-embryonic development and metamorphosis43. This is why we investigated the expression changes of some of these genes in E. malabaricus. Interestingly, we observed, once again, two surges in the expression of the following genes: bone gamma-carboxyglutamate (bglap), periostin (postnb), and phosphate regulating endopeptidase (phex), three key genes implicated in the mineralization of tissues. The first at D13 following the early surge in thyroid hormone (TH) signaling genes, and the second starting at D60 (Fig. 3A). The first surge of gene expression coincides with the appearance and growth of the dorsal and pelvic elongated spines starting at D10 (Fig. 3B, shown by green arrowhead), while the second surge coincides with the regression of these spines, a process known to be regulated by TH in E. coioides36. The coincidence of both the growth and the regression of the elongated spines with the activation of the TH pathway in E. malabaricus suggests that in groupers TH may play a role not only in the regression of these spines but also in their formation.
Other TH regulated biological processes are also activated during grouper metamorphosis
Pigmentation changes are often the most visible changes in some teleost species such as clownfish11. In grouper, the pigmentation changes are accompanied by the regression of the dorsal and pelvic spines. The acquisition of an adult pigmentation pattern is characterized by the formation of brown and white vertical bars in E. malabaricus (Fig. 3C, juvenile stage). To reveal the molecular regulations driving these pigmentation changes, we assessed the expression of key pigmentation genes involved in white (iridophore genes), black (melanophore genes) and yellow (xanthophore genes) pigment cells known to be regulated by TH in zebrafish and clownfish10,11).
The expression level of the iridophore gene flh2a showed a strong increase from D03, followed by a decrease at D32 and a new surge at D60 (Fig. 3C). The first increase may correspond to the appearance of iridophores on the ventral cavity whereas the second may coincide with the formation of the white bars. In contrast, its paralogue fhl2b remained relatively stable throughout the development. Xanthophores start colonizing the larval body at D10, which may explain the increase of the expression level of two xanthophores markers, gtsm3 and perp6, which play a role in concentrating and trafficking lipophilic pigments44. On the other hand, scarb1, which is involved in carotenoid deposition in zebrafish, increased slightly at D03 (Fig. 3C). Similarly, melanophore genes are displaying a strong increase of their expression level at D03 and D06 that may be related to the colonization of melanophores on larval body (tyrp1b, tyr, Fig. 3C).
During their metamorphosis in the wild, fish larvae also undergo ecological changes such as habitat transition (from ocean to coastal environment) and food habits. It is well known that in many fish species this ecological transition is accompanied by a change in color vision45. Since TH appeared critical in the regulation of genes involved in vision in salmonids, zebrafish and clownfish14,15,46,47, we investigated the regulation of genes encoding for visual opsin. We expected to find at least eight visual cone opsin genes in E. malabaricus according to the phylogeny of opsin genes in teleosts48 (opnsw1, opnsw2Aa, opnsw2Ab, opnsw2B, rh2A, rh2B, rh2C, opnlw) and one rhodopsin gene (rh1)48,49. These genes were indeed expressed in our transcriptomic data. We observed that the medium wavelength opsin (rh2A, rh2B, rh2C), and the long wavelength opsin (opnlw) were highly expressed at the beginning of the larval development (at D03 for rh2B, rh2C and opnlw, and at D10 for rh2A) (Fig. 3D). These surges of expression are followed by the increase of the expression levels of opnsw2B, opnsw2Bb and opnlw from D32. From D18 the rhodopsin involved in scotopic vision (rh1) increases. The expression level opnsw1 remained low and stable during the entire development (Fig. 3D). It is again very interesting to note that these changes coincide with both TH signaling peaks. As these genes are regulated by TH in other species and according to the observed expression patterns, we may assume that this is also the case in E. malabaricus.
The timing of cone opsin (opnsw2a1, opsnw2a2 and opnlw) expression in E. malabaricus is similar to E. bruneus50, but different from E. akaara where opnsw2 is strongly expressed early and then decreases51. However, the expression levels of mid wavelength opsins and opnlw are similar between E. malabaricus and E. akaara, suggesting their involvement in cone photoreceptor differentiation, while rod photoreceptors differentiate during metamorphosis in E. akaara and E. malabaricus larvae.
Metamorphosis is accompanied by a metabolic shift
Because metamorphosis is known to be energetically demanding and because the ecology of the planktonic larvae and the demersal juveniles are different, we investigated metabolic gene expression. Fig. 4 shows the expression profile of the genes encoding for the rate limiting steps enzymes involved in glycolysis, (phosphofructokinase, pfkma and pfkmb), and citric acid cycle (citrate synthase, cs; isocitrate dehydrogenase, idh3a; oxoglutarate dehydrogenase complex, ogdhl, dlst2). The expression profile of all the genes associated with these pathways are shown in Supp. Fig. 2.
These profiles revealed a clear overall pattern: glycolysis genes are poorly expressed at the very beginning of the larval development while their expression increases throughout the development. This is particularly visible for pfkma which starts to increase from D10 and reaches its highest expression level at D32, likely coinciding with the onset of metamorphosis, and then decreases until juvenile stage (J) (Fig. 4A). The genes involved in the rate limiting steps of the citric acid cycle (cs, idh3, dlst) are more expressed during early larval stages and then decrease progressively. It is also worth noting that several genes involved in both glycolysis and TCA cycle are encountering these two peaks of expression during the larval development (gpi1b, aldoaa, gapdh1, pgam1a, pgam1b, pgam2, eno1b, pkma, dlsta, dldh, sdhb, mdh2, Supp. Fig. 2). The lactic acid fermentation genes show an increase throughout the larval development with peaks of expression at D18 for ldha and at D03 for ldhc (Supp. Fig. 2). Taken together, these results reveal that at the very beginning of the development larval fish mainly rely on the citric acid cycle for aerobic energy production and then switch progressively to anaerobic energy production via glycolysis and lactic fermentation. This trend is similar to what has been observed in other fish species such as sea bass21,52, but contrasts with the situation of other species such as the clownfish. Thyroid hormones are known to play a role in the regulation of metabolism in mammals53, so it is likely that a similar regulatory process occurs during the development of E. malabaricus larvae, as it has been recently observed in the development of clownfish larvae15. Larval development and metamorphosis are very sensitive periods during which larvae must face a myriad of challenges: disperse into the open ocean, find food, escape from predators, locate and swim toward a suitable habitat, metamorphose and settle. All these challenges are highly demanding in terms of energy, it is thus very important for the larvae to properly allocate this energy to ensure the success of these various challenges. The regulation by TH of genes involved in processes such as glycolysis, lactic fermentation and citric acid cycle might be a way for larvae to tune their energetic source to enhance their survival and the success of metamorphosis.
Possible involvement of corticoid pathways in metamorphosis
Synergistic action of cortisol and THs has been encountered during flatfish metamorphosis, but crosstalk between corticoids and TH pathways has remained poorly investigated during fish metamorphosis20. For this reason, we decided to investigate eight key genes genes involved in the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Interrenal axis: crha, crhb, crhr1a, crhr1b, crhr2, pomc-a1, pomc-a2, pomc-b, mr, gr1, gr2 which encode respectively for the corticotropin releasing hormone (which stimulates the production of POMC and the stress hormone ACTH), the receptors of the CRH which are involved in the production of the stress-related hormone ACTH the pro-opiomelanocortin A1, A2 and B (precursors of several hormones such as ACTH) and corticoid receptors: mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR1&2) (Fig. 5) We also scrutinized the expression levels of genes encoding for key proteins involved in corticoid synthesis: star, fdx1, fdx2, fdxr, cyp11a1, hsd3b1, cyp17a1, cyp21a2, cyp11c1, hsd11b1, hsd11b2. Among these genes we were particularly interested in the expression of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR) which is a rate-limited step in steroid hormone biosynthesis, the ferredoxin proteins (FDX1 & 2) and ferredoxin reductase involved in providing electrons to allow corticoid synthesis, the cytochrome p450 monooxygenase (or side cleavage enzyme) involved in the catalyzation of the cleavage of cholesterol into pregnenolone (CYP11A1), the 3 β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD3B1) which catalyzes the transformation of pregnenolone into progesterone, or the 17-OH-pregnenolone into 17-OH progesterone, the cytochrome P450 17A1 enzyme catalyzes the transformation of Pregnenolone into 17-OH-pregnenolone and progesterone into 17-OH progesterone, the cytochrome P450 21A2 catalyzes the transformation of progesterone into 11 deoxycorticosterone and the transformation of 17-OH-Progesterone into 11 deoxycortisol, the cytochrome P450 11C1 catalyze the transformation of 11 deoxycortisol into cortisol and finally the two 11 β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD11B1 & 2) catalyze the reaction to form either cortisol or cortisone.
Most of the genes of this pathway displayed a similar pattern as described previously above with a surge of expression between D03 and D10 and a second one between D32, D60 (crhb, crhr1b, crhr2, pomc-a2, mr, gr1) (Fig. 5A). The expression level of the gene encoding for CRHR2 started to increase after D01 and remained relatively stable all along whereas crha was lowly expressed (Fig. 5A). A surge of expression was observed for pomc-a1 at D03 followed by a constant decrease until the juvenile stage. High expression of pomc-b was observed at D13, D18 and Juvenile stage. Finally, gr2 expression level increased strongly at D03, then remained stable and increased again at D60. The relatively high expression of the crhr genes may suggest an increase in the sensitivity to CRH to mediate the production of POMC by the pituitary gland, a process that seems to occur twice during E. malabaricus larval development.
Concomitantly, a two-step increase in star is observed: first at D03 and a second at D32. This may suggest an increase in the production of cortisol following the high expression of pomc-a2. Indeed, POMC is the precursor of the Adreno Cortico Trophic Hormone (ACTH) which is the pituitary factor stimulating cortisol production by the inter-renal gland54. The expression levels of genes involved in cortisol production corroborate this hypothesis. Indeed, we observe an increase of expression around D03 and D06 for fdx1, cyp11a1, hsd3b1, cyp11c1, hsd11b1, hsd11b2, as well as a second increase of expression from D32 for fdx1, fdxr, hsd3b1, cyp11c1, hsd11b1, hsd11b2. Interestingly, measurements of cortisol levels during early larval development (between D1 and D10) showed that cortisol concentration starts to increase from D3, coinciding with the expression levels of star, and is followed by a stronger increase from D10. Those results first indicate that HPI axis and cortisol production are activated during metamorphosis suggesting a possible interaction between TH and corticoid pathways during metamorphosis. However, there is contrasting evidence of communication between these two pathways in teleost fish with some data suggesting a synergic and other an antagonistic relationship. In terms of synergy, an increase in cortisol level concomitantly with an increase in TH levels has been observed in flatfish19, golden sea bream100 and silver sea bream101.
Cortisol was also shown to enhance in vitro the action of TH on fin ray resorption (phenomenon occurring during flatfish metamorphosis) in flounder20. TH exposure increases MR and GR genes expression in zebrafish embryo55. It has also been shown that cortisol regulates local T3 bioavailability in the juvenile sole via regulation of deiodinase 2 in an organ-specific manner56. On the antagonistic side, it has been shown that experimentally induced hyperthyroidism in common carp, decreasing cortisol levels57, whereas cortisol exposure decreases TH levels in European eel58. Given this scattered evidence, the existence of a crosstalk active during teleost metamorphosis has never been formally demonstrated. The results we obtained in grouper are clearly indicating that HPI axis and cortisol synthesis are activated during early development and during metamorphosis and this may suggest that in some aspect cortisol synthesis can work in concert with TH, as has been shown in several different contexts in amphibians17. It is worth to note, however, that the increase of the gene encoding POMC-A2 may not only be linked to cortisol synthesis as POMC is also a precursor of other hormones and notably melanocytes-stimulating hormones54. Those hormones belong to the melanocortin system that is involved in body pigmentation, but also in social behavior, appetite, and stress physiology59. The increase in pomc-a2 observed during E. malabaricus may thus also be involved in the onset of pigmentation pattern. Taken together, these results brought a first insight into the potential role of corticoids in the metamorphosis of E. malabaricus and call for functional experiments directly testing a possible synergy. Given the results obtained in our study, E. malabaricus could be a good model to investigate the role of corticoids in teleost metamorphosis. The interplay between corticoids and thyroid hormones could have relevant consequences in terms of aquaculture and claim for an examination of the role of stress in triggering metamorphosis.
Overall, the results obtained in this study revealed a very precocious surge of expression of genes involved not only in two connected key pathways (corticoids and TH) that are known to control ontogenetic transitions and to control many biological processes 60,61. This indicates that the early post-embryonic period in grouper may correspond to such an ontogenetic transition that has been ignored until now. More generally, the fact that the outcome of metamorphosis is very variable from one species to another (e.g., differences in metamorphosis between clownfish and grouper) and that it also allows exquisite acclimation of the juveniles to their local environment37 highlights the capacity of this transitional step, controlled by environmentally connected hormonal systems, to change rapidly in accordance with ecological needs. Finally, considering that rearing conditions during larval metamorphosis in an aquaculture context may impact growth and welfare at later life stages, understanding the molecular changes occurring during the development of a species might prove useful to enhance survival rates.
Material and Methods
Larval husbandry
This study was conducted in partnership with the Okinawa Prefectural Sea Farming Center, Motobu-cho, Okinawa, Japan. Epinephelus malabaricus larvae and juveniles were obtained from various clutches obtained from natural spawning in 2020, 2021 and 2023. Larvae were reared under natural condition in 50,000 L of natural sea water in circular tanks. Light exposure duration followed natural daylight hours, salinity (approximately 33-34 ppm) and temperature (approximately 27°C on average) remained relatively stable as the tanks were constantly renewed with natural seawater. Microalgae (Nannochloropsis sp.) was added from hatching until 15 days post hatching (dph) to maintain the nutritional value of live-feed organisms and create a green-water environment. Rotifers Brachionus sp. (S type) were enriched with fish oil and distributed twice a day from 1 dph to maintain a concentration of 10 ind/mL until 13 dph. Artemia nauplii were added twice a day from 13 dph to 20 dph. Frozen copepods were given five times a day from 13 dph until 20 dph. Artificial food was given from 20 dph during daytime by automatic feeding (one distribution every hour).
Sample collection and tissue collection
Tissues for genome sequencing and transcriptome sequencing were collected on 08. September 2020 from two approximately four-month-old fish sourced from the Okinawa Prefectural Sea Farming Center. The fish were euthanized by cervical dislocation, and immediately dissected. Liver and muscle tissues of one fish were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen for PacBio HiFi and Hi-C sequencing, respectively. Brain, gill, liver, heart, caudal fin, eye, spleen, stomach, intestine, muscle, skin spinal cord and spinal nerve tissues were taken from the second fish and stored in RNAlater™ (ThermoFisher Scientific) for tissue specific transcriptome sequencing.
Larvae and juveniles were sampled between 30. April 2021 and 02. June 2021 ranging from 1 dph to approximately 2 months juveniles. A total of four clutches spawned in early and late April were sampled during this period and larvae were collected and sorted according to their morphology allowing us to sequence 8 developmental stages. For the developmental transcriptome, whole individuals were sampled from the same farming center from 30. April 2021 to 02. June 2021, ranging from one day old larvae to roughly two-month-old juveniles (Table 2). Larvae and juveniles were euthanized in the afternoon (between 13:00 and 15:00) with MS222 solution (200 mg/L, Sigma-A5040) before being placed in RNAlater. Larger fish were cut open for improved RNAlater penetration and samples were kept at 4°C for two to eight days before being stored at -20°C until extraction. Larvae for TH and cortisol measurements were sampled in triplicates between 17. June 2023 and 26. June 2023 at D1 (n=120 per replicate), D3 (n=120 per replicate), D6 (n=60 per replicate) and D10 (n=40 per replicate). Larvae were collected as in Roux et al.102 and kept at -80 until further analysis. TH and cortisol extraction and measurement were outsourced to ASKA Pharmaceutical Medical Co., Kanagawa, Japan. Detailed protocols can be found in Supp. protocol S1 for TH and Supp. protocol S2 for cortisol.
All sampling conducted in this study was done under the approval from the Animal Care and Use Committee at the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University (approval N°2021-328).
DNA extraction and sequencing
Genomic DNA was extracted from liver tissue using the NucleoBond HMW DNA extraction kit (Machery-Nagel). Library preparation was carried out with the SMRTbell Express Template Prep Kit 2.0 and SMRTbell Enzyme Cleanup Kit, Sequencing primer v2, Sequel II Binding Kit 2.0, and Sequel II Sequencing Kit 2.0 (Pacific Biosciences). Sequencing was done on a Sequel II System, using three SMRT Cell 8M flow cells through diffusion loading of 60-100pM library. Hi-C library preparation and sequencing was carried out by Phase Genomics from muscle tissue using the Phase Genomics Proximo Animal Kit v3.0 and sequenced on a Illumina HiSeq 4000 with 150 bp PE.
RNA extraction and sequencing
For the tissue specific transcriptomics, samples were homogenized using a Kinematica Polytron PT1200E Homogenizer and RNA was extracted using the Maxwell RSC simplyRNA Tissue Kit (Promega: AS1340). Individually barcoded IsoSeq Express libraries of all 13 tissues were prepared by the OIST Sequencing Section using the SMRTbell Express Template Prep Kit 2.0. The libraries were sequenced on a PacBio Sequel 2 across two SMRT Cell 8M flow cells.
For the larval stage transcriptomics, samples from 1 to 32 dph were homogenized in thioglycerol using metal beads lysing matrix tubes (MPB) in an automated homogenizer (FastPrep-24 5G MPB). Bigger samples (60 dph and juveniles) were manually crushed in thioglycerol using 14 mL round bottom tubes and a tissue grinder (Tissue Ruptor II, Qiagen). Samples from 1 and 3 dph consisted of pools of three larvae in triplicates, while all remaining timepoints consisted of triplicates of single individuals. RNA Extraction was then carried out as for tissue samples using the Maxwell RSC simplyRNA Tissue Kit (Promega: AS1340). Library preparation was carried out at the OIST Sequencing Section using the NEBNext Ultra II Directional RNA Library Prep Kit. Sequencing was carried out with the pooled library split across two Illumina Nova Seq SP flowcells with 150 bp PE reads.
Genome assembly, scaffolding and phasing
The genome assembly was carried out using unprocessed PacBio HiFi reads with the diploid aware Improved Phased Assembler (IPA, V1.3.1, https://github.com/PacificBiosciences/pbipa), resulting in two phased genomes. The two phased genomes were assessed using purge_haplotigs62 to generate a genome-wide read-depth histogram; however, no purging was necessary. Completeness of the final assembly was assessed using BUSCO63 (V4.1.2) with the actinopterygii_odb10 database. Scaffolding and phasing were outsourced to Phase Genomics (See Supp. Protocol S3 for detail).
Genome and functional annotation
Genome annotation was carried out as described Ryu et al.64. Briefly, repeat content analysis was done in RepeatModeler65 (V2.0.1), RepeatMasker66 (V4.1.1), the vertebrata library of Dfam67 (V3.3), and GenomeTools68 (V1.6.1). Annotation was done using BRAKER269 and associated programs70–81. For this, the ISO-seq data from the adult tissue and RNA-seq data from the larval samples (see below for quality control process) were used together with publicly available protein data (Supp. Table S5). Post-processing was carried out as described by Ryu et al.64 using the Swiss-Prot protein database82 (UniProt) with Diamond74 (V2.0.9) and Pfam domains83 identified by InterProScan84 (V5.48.83.0). Gene model statistics were calculated using the get_general_stats.pl script from the eval package85 (V2.2.8). Finally, functional annotation was carried out with the filtered gene models produced by BRAKER. The amino acid sequences were blasted against the non-redundant protein database (downloaded 15. November 2021) using blastp86 (V2.10.0+; parameters: -show_gis -num_threads 10 -evalue 1e-5 -word_size 3 -num_alignments 20 -outfmt 14 -max_hsps 20). Additionally, protein domains were assigned using InterProScan84 (V5.48.83.0; parameters: --disable-precalc -- goterms --pathways -f xml). The blast and interproscan results were then loaded into OmicsBox87,88 for post-processing.
Differential gene expression analysis
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noborito_Research_Institute
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Noborito Research Institute
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Imperial Japanese Army research institute
Army Ninth Technical Research Institute第9陸軍技術研究所 (Dai-kyū Rikugun Gijutsu Kenkyūjo)Active1939–1945CountryEmpire of JapanBranchImperial Japanese ArmyTypeMilitary research and developmentGarrison/HQNoborito, Tama-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Prefecture, JapanNickname(s)Noborito Research InstituteCommandersNotable
commandersRyo Shinoda [ja]
Military unit
The Noborito Research Institute (Japanese: 登戸研究所, Hepburn: Noborito Kenkyūjo), officially the Army Ninth Technical Research Institute (第9陸軍技術研究所, Dai-kyū Rikugun Gijutsu Kenkyūjo), was a military development laboratory run by the Imperial Japanese Army from 1939 to 1945. Based at a compound in the Noborito area of Tama-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, the institute developed special weapons and equipment for covert operations. Noborito's projects included intelligence and spycraft items, counterfeit Chinese currency, chemical and biological weapons, and the Fu-Go balloon bomb.
History
[edit]
In 1919, the Imperial Japanese Army established the Army Science Research Institute (陸軍科学研究所, Rikugun Kagakukenkyūjo) in Tokyo to conduct basic research in military science and technology. In 1927, the institute added a section for covert warfare, led by Captain Ryo Shinoda [ja]. A new facility for the section was built in 1939 in the Noborito area of Tama-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa Prefecture, located across the Tama River from Tokyo. It was opened as the Noborito Research Institute (登戸研究所, Noborito Kenkyūjo), and in 1942 was named the Army Ninth Technical Research Institute (第9陸軍技術研究所, Dai-kyū Rikugun Gijutsu Kenkyūjo). By the start of the Pacific War, the compound had grown to 36 hectares (89 acres) and contained two dozen buildings, including several laboratories, a factory, and surrounding fields. Shinoda, a military engineer who studied chemistry at Tokyo Imperial University, oversaw its growth to a peak of almost 1,000 employees, with the largest budget of the 10 numbered research institutes. It was the only Army institute to develop items for covert warfare.[1]
As the war deteriorated in early 1945, the institute's researchers left the compound for the mountains of Nagano Prefecture and other secure sites. Near the end of the war, the Army General Staff ordered all evidence of covert research at Noborito destroyed, and it was disbanded after Japan's surrender.[1]
Operations
[edit]
Research and development at Noborito was conducted under utmost secrecy, and covered four main areas: intelligence, counterintelligence, covert action, and propaganda. The institute was divided into four research sections: Section 1, under Major General Sueki[2] Kusaba, worked on balloon bombs, radio communications gear, death rays, and mines; Section 2, under Colonel Sakura Yamada, developed secret inks and papers, poisons, pathogens, miniature cameras, microdots, and other weapons; Section 3, under Colonel Kenzo Yamamoto, produced the materials for counterfeit foreign currencies and forged documents; and Section 4, under Colonel Masao Hatao, manufactured items developed in Sections 1 and 2. Shinoda, who by the end of the war achieved the rank of lieutenant general, and Major Shigeo Ban, who led a group in Section 2, later wrote that they looked to spy novels and movies for new ideas.[1]
Between 1939 and 1941, the institute produced billions of yen worth of counterfeit Chinese currency to damage the Chinese economy as part of Operation Sugi. The Imperial Army used items produced by Noborito in a variety of operations, including special incendiary devices for raids on jungle camps in New Guinea and hydrogen cyanide for assassinations. Reliable and compact shortwave radio equipment developed at the institute kept operatives and soldiers on Iwo Jima and Okinawa in contact with the mainland for months after the islands were captured by the U.S. in 1945. Noborito also helped the Kempeitai (military police) in countering intelligence threats across the empire, developing equipment and techniques for examining fingerprints, footprints, tire tracks, and tooth marks; inspecting packages by X-ray; detecting secret resistance messages; and recording conversations in the open and over the telephone.[1] The institute also developed bugging devices, explosives disguised as tins of food and coal, and false pens which dispensed bacteria for poisoning wells.[3]
Some Noborito researchers worked with Army units involved in training and development in the fields of chemical and biological warfare. One of the more unique weapons developed at Noborito was the Fu-Go balloon bomb, about 9,300 of which were launched from Japan against the U.S. in 1944 and 1945. The project, initiated after the Doolittle Raid in 1942, was a technical success but a strategic failure, with about 300 reaching North America but failing to start the intended forest fires. One weapon that did not come to fruition was the microwave death ray, a project started in 1939; after the move to Nagano Prefecture in 1945, the institute's researchers built a never-used parabolic antenna 10 metres (33 ft) in diameter, intended to bring down U.S. bombers.[1]
After World War II
[edit]
The U.S. Army secretly enlisted some members of the institute after the war. Shigeo Ban, for example, led a secret chemical unit at Yokosuka Naval Base during the Korean War.[3] In 1950, the former institute's complex became the Ikuta campus of Meiji University. A museum, the Noborito Institute for Peace Education, opened on the campus in 2010.[4] A documentary film which interviewed former employees, Army Noborito Laboratory, was released in 2013.[5]
References
[edit]
Further reading
[edit]
"Dedicated research uncovers dark history of former Noborito military lab". Mainichi Shimbun. 19 August 2014. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014.
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Japan's Nuclear Fuel Cycle
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Japan has a full nuclear fuel cycle set-up, including enrichment and reprocessing of used fuel for recycle. Nuclear energy has been a national strategic priority since 1973.
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Japan has a full fuel cycle set-up, including enrichment and reprocessing of used fuel for recycle.
Japan has been a leading country in nuclear R&D, notably with fast reactors.
Following the Fukushima accident its regulatory structure was completely overhauled.
Despite being the only country to have suffered the devastating effects of nuclear weapons in wartime, with over 100,000 deaths, Japan embraced the peaceful use of nuclear technology to provide a substantial portion of its electricity. See Nuclear Power in Japan paper.
Uranium supply
Japan has no indigenous uranium. Its annual requirements (of up to 8000 tU prior to the Fukushima accident) are normally met from Australia (about one-third), Canada, Kazakhstan and elsewhere.
Japanese companies have taken equity in overseas uranium projects.
In Kazakhstan, Itochu agreed to purchase 3000 tU from Kazatomprom over ten years in 2006, and in connection with this Japanese finance contributed to developing the West Mynkuduk deposit in Kazakhstan (giving Sumitomo 25%, Kansai 10%). In 2007 Japanese interests led by Marubeni and Tepco bought 40% of the Kharasan mine project in Kazakhstan and will take 2000 tU/yr of its production. A further agreement on uranium supply and Japanese help in upgrading the Ulba fuel fabrication plant was signed in May 2008. In March 2009 three Japanese companies – Kansai, Sumitomo and Nuclear Fuel Industries – signed an agreement with Kazatomprom on uranium processing for Kansai plants.
In Uzbekistan, a Japan-Uzbek intergovernmental agreement in September 2006 was aimed at financing Uzbek uranium development and in October 2007 Itochu Corporation agreed with Navoi Mining & Metallurgy Combinat (NMMC) to develop technology to mine and mill the black shales, particularly the Rudnoye deposit, and to take about 300 tU/yr from 2007. Then in February 2011 Itochu signed a 10-year "large-scale" uranium purchase agreement with NMMC.
In Australia, Mitsui joined Uranium One's Honeymoon mine project in 2008 as a 49% joint venture partner. Then early in 2009, a 20% share in Uranium One Inc was taken by three Japanese companies, giving overall 59% Japanese equity in Honeymoon. In July 2008 Mitsubishi agreed to buy 30% of West Australia's Kintyre project for US$ 495 million, with Cameco (70%). In February 2009 Mega Uranium sold 35% of the Lake Maitland project to the Itochu Corporation (10% of Japanese share) and Japan Australia Uranium Resources Development Co. Ltd. (JAURD), acting on behalf of Kansai Electric Power Company (50%), Kyushu Electric Power Company (25%) and Shikoku Electric Power Company (15%) for US$ 49 million.
In Namibia, Itochu Corporation bought a 15% stake in Kalahari Minerals, in March 2010, for US$ 92 million. Kalahari owns 41% of Extract Resources, which is developing the Husab project. Then in July 2010 Itochu bought a 10.3% direct stake in Extract for US$ 153 million, mostly from Polo Resources, giving it 16.43% overall in the project.
Fuel cycle – front end
Japan has been progressively developing a complete domestic nuclear fuel cycle industry, based on imported uranium.
Enrichment
The Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) operated a small uranium refining and conversion plant, as well as a small centrifuge enrichment demonstration plant, at Ningyo Toge, Okayama prefecture, but these facilities are now decommissioned.
While most enrichment services are still imported, Japan Nuclear Fuel Ltd (JNFL) operates a commercial enrichment plant at Rokkasho – RE2A. This began operation in 1997 using indigenous technology and had seven cascades each of 150,000 SWU/yr, though only one had been operating. The plant is being equipped with a new centrifuge design, and 37,500 SWU/yr came fully online in March 2012 after a 15-month break in operations. A further 37,500/yr SWU came online in May 2013, and in mid-2014, 1.05 million SWU was operational. The design capacity of 1.5 million SWU/yr is expected to be reached in about 2021. JNFL's main shareholders are the power utilities. In May 2017, Japan's Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) approved its operation in line with 2013 standards.
Japan had 6400 tonnes of uranium recovered from reprocessing (RepU) and stored in France and the UK, where the reprocessing was carried out. In 2007 it was agreed that Russia's Atomenergoprom would enrich this for the Japanese utilities who own it.
Fuel fabrication
At Tokai-mura, in Ibaraki prefecture north of Tokyo, Mistubishi Nuclear Fuel Co Ltd (MNF) operates a 440 tU/yr fuel fabrication facility, which started up in 1972 and has had majority shareholding by Mitsubishi Materials Corporation (MMC). In April 2009 this was restructured as a comprehensive nuclear fuel fabrication company to supply Japanese customers with uranium fuel assemblies for pressurized water reactors (PWRs), boiling water reactors (BWRs) and high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTRs), as well as mixed oxide (MOX) fuel assemblies. It would also provide related services, including uranium reconversion from 2014. The new shareholdings are MHI 35%, MMC 30%, Areva 30% and Mitsubishi Corporation 5%, with capital of JPY 11.4 billion. In October 2009 it was announced that a new 600 t/yr plant using Areva's dry process technology would be built by the company. MMC has a plant at Okegawa, Saitama prefecture, to make zirconium alloy tubing, with a capacity of 800 tU/yr. As part of the new partnership, MHI and Areva in 2010 announced a 50-50 joint venture to manufacture APWR fuel at Areva’s Richland plant in Washington state, but this has not proceeded.
At Kumatori and Tokai, Nuclear Fuel Industries (NFI) operates two fuel fabrication plants which have operated from 1976 and 1980 respectively. Kumatori (284 tU/yr) produces PWR and BWR fuel, Tokai (250 tU/yr capacity) is also set up to produce HTR and FNR fuel. NFI is also involved in a project to design MOX fuel for Areva to manufacture for Japanese power plants. In 2009 Westinghouse bought the 52% share of NFI owned by Furukawa and Sumitomo for $100 million.
Global Nuclear Fuel - Japan (GNF-J) is part of the GE-led Global Nuclear Fuel joint venture with Hitachi and Toshiba set up in 1970, which designs and manufactures fuel for BWRs. It has a 750 tU/yr plant at Yokosuka in Kanagawa prefecture. In March 2017 the NRA approved this as meeting 2013 safety standards and METI approved its restart.
JAEA has some experimental mixed oxide (MOX) fuel fabrication facilities at Tokai for both the Fugen ATR and the FBR program, with capacity about 10 t/yr for each. See also MOX section below.
Fuel Cycle – back end
For energy security reasons, and notwithstanding the low price of uranium for many years, Japanese policy since 1956 has been to maximise the utilisation of imported uranium, extracting an extra 25-30% of energy from nuclear fuel by recycling the unburned uranium and plutonium as mixed-oxide fuel (MOX). The AEC reaffirmed this in 2005.
At the end of 2013 Japan’s ten power companies were reported to have 55,610 used fuel assemblies, 13,236 tonnes, stored at 18 nuclear power plants. These occupied 55% of available pool storage space. In September 2016, FEPC reported that there were 14,830 tonnes of used fuel in wet and dry storage at Japan’s power plants, filling about 71% of the existing storage capacity. This excludes about 3000 tonnes of used fuel stored at the Rokkasho reprocessing plant.
Tokai
Tokai is the main site of JAEA's R&D on HLW treatment and disposal.
At Tokai, JNC (now JAEA) operated a 90 t/yr pilot reprocessing plant using Purex technology which treated 1140 tonnes of used fuel between 1977 and its final batch early in 2009. Of this, 653 tU was from BWRs, 276 tU from PWRs and 111 tU from the 165 MWe Fugen prototype advanced thermal reactor. It processed 5401 used fuel assemblies, with a Pu-U mixed product as well as reprocessed uranium. Since 2006 when commercial contracts ran out the plant has focused on R&D, including reprocessing of MOX fuel from the Fugen ATR reactor. It was listed as having 40 t/yr MOX reprocessing capacity. In September 2014 JAEA announced that it would close down the whole facility rather than spend JPY 100 billion ($915 million) to upgrade it to new safety, especially seismic, standards. The Rokkasho plant would take over further work. In June 2017 it presented decommissioning plans to the Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA), with work to take 60 years and cost JPY 987 billion. JAEA said the fuel pool at the reprocessing plant stores 265 spent fuel assemblies, equivalent to 40.7 tonnes of heavy metal, from JAEA's Fugen ATR.
JAEA also operated the associated pilot high-level waste (HLW) vitrification facility at Tokai from 1994 to 2007, producing 247 canisters of vitrified waste. This was restarted in January 2016 to vitrify 400 m3 of liquid HLW, and shut down in June 2017 after vitrifying 48 tonnes of liquid HLW, filling 59 canisters, but leaving much more to do. Problems were reported as being similar to those encountered by JNFL at Rokkasho in 2008. In November 2017 the NRA approved restarting the plant in April 2019 to treat the remaining 379 m3 of HLW by early 2029.
JAEA operates spent fuel storage facilities at Tokai containing 110 tonnes of fuel in 2014, and was proposing a further one.
Reprocessing in Europe
Until a full-scale plant was ready in Japan, the reprocessing of used fuel has been largely undertaken in Europe by BNFL and AREVA (4193 tU and 2944 tU respectively), with vitrified high-level wastes being returned to Japan for disposal. Areva's reprocessing finished in 2005, and commercial operation of JNFL's reprocessing plant at Rokkasho-mura was scheduled to start in 2008 (now 2021). Used fuel has been accumulating there since 1999 in anticipation of its full-scale operation (shipments to Europe finished in 1998). Japan at the end of 2012 had a total of 14,460 tonnes of used fuel in storage, mostly at reactors. In March 2017 JNFL had 2968 tonnes of used fuel in storage at Rokkasho, with a capacity of 3000 tonnes.
Reprocessing involves the conventional Purex process, but Toshiba is developing a hybrid technology using this as stage 1 to separate most uranium, followed by an electrometallurgical process to give two streams: actinides (plutonium and minor actinides) as fast reactor fuel, and fission products for disposal.
Government reviews
In April 2012 the government announced a full review of nuclear fuel cycle options, considering both economic and other criteria. The review committee started by considering technical options: one scenario involved direct disposal of used reactor fuel, two scenarios involved this being reprocessed and with fuel materials recycled as mixed-oxide fuel. Two more scenarios looked at the use of fast reactors and fast breeder reactors. A review of policy options based on these then followed. Finally, these were combined with the addition of a time axis with mid-to-long term scenarios. This review quantified the amount of plutonium and used fuel generated by each option as well as looking at broader impacts such as energy security, the international perspective, and the impacts of the changes resulting from each of the potential policies.
Meanwhile the AEC fuel cycle subcommittee has updated cost estimates for different used fuel options considering both 20% and 35% nuclear contributions to electricity in 2030. In each case reprocessing and recycle of used fuel is economically much better – by about 20% – than direct disposal.
In June 2012 the AEC brought all this together focused on three options to 2030, and sent them to the Energy & Environment Council (Enecan) along with a recommendation that any R&D on fast reactors should continue with international cooperation and as a means of waste treatment. Enecan in mid-September 2012 confirmed that reprocessing would continue. It was abolished later in the year, and METI’s Advisory Committee for National Resources and Energy became responsible for such energy plans.
Spent Fuel Reprocessing Organisation from 2016
In May 2016 parliament passed a bill aimed at "taking measures necessary for the steady implementation of the reprocessing of used nuclear fuel" and MOX fuel fabrication, to go into effect within six months, amending a 2005 law on funding these activities. The bill creates a new entity responsible for reprocessing, the Spent Fuel Reprocessing Organisation (SFRO), which will collect funds and contract out reprocessing and MOX fuel fabrication to JNFL. It requires Japan's nuclear utilities to pay annual 'contributions' to the SFRO to cover the expected cost for reprocessing of all spent fuel they produce in the previous fiscal year, and for turning all of the resulting separated plutonium into MOX fuel. The contributions will be based on the amount of the electricity generated. This is in place of the former ‘deposit system’ which was restricted to the Rokkasho plant. The organisation was established in October 2016 in Aomori, and the ten nuclear generating companies and EPDC/J Power have notified the Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) of their assent to the new arrangements. In November 2016, the SFRO commissioned JNFL to continue reprocessing used fuel and to receive and manage HLW to be returned from France. The SFRO plans to assign MOX production to JNFL in 2019.
After consulting the AEC the METI minister must approve the organisation’s plan from year to year and ensure that all used fuel is reprocessed and the plutonium separated for MOX. METI had noted that while reprocessing and the use of MOX fuel are key parts of the Basic Energy Plan approved by the cabinet in April 2014, they could be adversely impacted by impending full liberalisation of the electricity market, hence the new law.
Until the new system takes effect, Japan's ten power companies deposited fees for future reprocessing at Rokkasho with the Radioactive Waste Management Funding Research Centre (RWMC). The fee is JPY0.5 (0.4 US cents) per kilowatt-hour of nuclear electricity generated. This is supervised by METI's energy arm, the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE). ANRE reported that the fee deposits at RWMC amounted to JPY 2.4 trillion ($21 billion) as of March 2015.
Rokkasho complex – reprocessing and wastes
In 1984, the Federation of Electric Power Companies (FEPC) applied to the Rokkasho-mura village and Aomori prefecture for permission to construct a major complex including uranium enrichment plant, low-level waste (LLW) storage centre, HLW (used fuel) storage centre, a reprocessing plant, and a MOX fuel fabrication plant.
To undertake all these activities, Japan Nuclear Fuel Ltd (JNFL) was set up in 1992 as a joint stock company by the electric power utilities, with some wider shareholding. Pending commercial reprocessing, the ten power companies deposit fees for future reprocessing with the RWMC on the basis of kilowatt-hours generated, as described above. A new entity to take over from RWMC is proposed, along with a new basis for funding.
In 2015, 91% of JNFL is owned by ten power companies. Currently JNFL operates both LLW and HLW storage facilities at Rokkasho at the north end of Honshu (main island), near Higashidori nuclear power plant. Its 800 t/yr reprocessing plant is under construction and is being commissioned. The used fuel storage capacity is 20,400 tonnes.
In October 2004 the Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC) advisory group decided by a large majority (30 to 2) to proceed with the final commissioning and commercial operation of JNFL's 800 t/yr Rokkasho reprocessing plant (RRP), costing some JPY 2.4 trillion (US$ 20 billion). The Commission rejected the alternative of moving to direct disposal of spent fuel, as in the USA. This was seen as a major confirmation of the joint industry-government formulation of nuclear policy for the next several decades.* The cost had then increased to JPY 2.94 trillion ($25 billion), with 2021 operation anticipated.
In November 2011 the AEC released results of a further study on the same matter. At the reference 3% discount rate, direct disposal after interim storage would cost about JPY 1 per kWh, while immediate reprocessing of all Japanese spent fuel would cost JPY 1.98 per kWh. Storage for 20 years followed by reprocessing would cost JPY 1.39 per kWh. JNFL policy from May 2018 is to store used fuel for 15 years before reprocessing.
The Rokkasho reprocessing plant was due to start commercial operation in November 2008, following a 28 month test phase plus some delay at the end of 13 years construction. The test phase treated 197 t in PWR fuel and 134 t in BWR fuel in four cycles to January 2008. Based on previous figures, this would have yielded about 1.8 tonnes of fissile plutonium (in reactor-grade material). The intended start date was then moved to October 2013, the five-year delay being due to problems in the locally-designed vitrification plant for HLW at the end of the line (see below). The main plant is based on Areva's La Hague technology, and in late 2007 the twenty-year cooperation agreement with Areva was extended and related specifically to Global Nuclear Energy partnership (GNEP, now IFNEC) goals. The modified PUREX process now employed leaves some uranium with the plutonium product – it is a 50:50 oxide mix recovered through a mixed denitration process, so there is no separated plutonium at any time, alleviating concerns about potential misuse.
Active testing at the new vitrification plant attached to the Rokkasho reprocessing plant commenced in November 2007, with separated high-level wastes being combined with borosilicate glass. The plant takes wastes after uranium and plutonium are recovered from used fuel for recycle, leaving 3% of the used fuel including minor actinides as high-level radioactive waste. However, the furnaces (developed at Tokai, rather than being part of the French technology) proved unable to cope with impurities in the wastes, and commissioning was repeatedly delayed. The vitrification plant was shut down in October 2008 and in 2010 JNFL decided to redesign the unit to better control temperature of the molten glass. One of the two rebuilt furnaces was tested successfully in July 2012, producing ten batches of vitrified HLW, and a second test run successfully produced 33 canisters by mid-January 2013, confirming its 70 litres/hour HLW rate. The other system was tested similarly by May 2013, producing 25 logs of vitrified HLW, each from 70 litres of liquid HLW.
JNFL was ready to commission the reprocessing plant in October 2013, but had to await Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) inspections, following new NRA fuel cycle facility regulations published in November 2013. The NRA found no problem with the plant in respect to earthquake and tsunami issues – it approved a seismic increase to 700 Gal, but its overall safety review took much longer than envisaged. In addition, a report on reprocessing commissioned by METI's Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE) in mid-2015 was delivered to the Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC) in January 2016. It considered the role of the new Spent Fuel Reprocessing Organisation (see subsection above), albeit using the services of JNFL. In July 2017 JNFL said that it needed to spend an extra JPY 700 billion to meet NRA requirements, bringing the total plant cost to JPY 2.94 trillion ($26 billion). JNFL expected to complete the work in 2018, but has since deferred the start-up date to 2021.
The total reprocessed in the active test phase to March 2015 was 219 tU in BWR fuel and 206 tU in PWR fuel, yielding 364 tU as uranium oxide and 6.7 tU+Pu as well as 3.6 tPu in MOX powder (2.3 t fissile Pu). The vitrified waste was in 346 canisters. However, in November 2014 and again in November 2015 JNFL announced that due to the slow NRA safety checks, the plant would not start commercial operation until September 2018. In its first six months JNFL plans to reprocess 282 BWR fuel assemblies (48 t fuel) and 73 PWR assemblies (128 t fuel). In FY 2019 (from April 2019) it plans to reprocess 1129 BWR assemblies (192 t fuel) and 291 PWR ones (128 t) – these being the same amounts earlier intended for FY 2015.
The new Rokkasho plant will treat 14,000 tonnes of used fuel stockpiled to end of 2005 plus 18,000 tonnes of used fuel arising from 2006, over some 40 years. Eventually at 800 t/yr it will produce about 4 tonnes of fissile plutonium per year, enough for about 80 tonnes of MOX fuel. It is not planned to treat fast reactor fuel there.
The Rokkasho facility has storage capacity for 2880 canisters of vitrified HLW. In April 2015 it had 1574 canisters, 1310 of these from La Hague and 264 from Sellafield. In October 2016 it accepted the last batch of used fuel from utilities so that it had 2968 tonnes of used fuel stored, its capacity being 3000 tonnes.
In December 2013 new NRA regulations came into effect, including seismic design basis of 600 Gal (up from 375 Gal). JNFL filed requests in January 2014 for safety reviews of the reprocessing plant, the J-MOX fuel fabrication plant (annual capacity of 140 tonnes), a uranium enrichment plant (1,050 SWU/yr capacity), and for a waste storage facility – all at Rokkasho. In February 2016 the NRA approved an increase to 700 Gal for the reprocessing plant, for which JNFL had hoped to get an operating licence by September 2018.
The NRA approved safety checks in May 2020. The plant is now expected to start operation in 2022.
The 2013 NRA regulations specified that interim storage of spent fuel should be in dry storage with convection cooling. This applies principally to Mutsu.
Mutsu storage
In 2010 Recyclable-Fuel Storage Co (Tepco 80%, Japco 20%) obtained approval to construct a facility at Mutsu in the northern Aomori prefecture to store used fuel from Tepco and Japco nuclear plants for some 50 years before reprocessing at the Japan Nuclear Fuel plant in that region. Initial capacity is 3000 tonnes, in dry casks, and a further stage after 10-15 years will add 2000 t capacity. NISA approved this in August 2010. Construction was completed in October 2013, but it awaited full NRA review according to the new regulations including earthquake and tsunami countermeasures. In August 2017 the NRA approved a Ss level of 620 Gal for it. Following full approval in September 2020, it is expected to come into service in fiscal year 2021. About 70% of the JPY 100 billion cost (2006 estimate) is reported to be the casks.
Mixed-oxide fuel
All Japanese nuclear reactor operators will use will use plutonium as mixed oxide (MOX) fuel. This was planned to be in 16-18 reactors from 2015 under the 'pluthermal' programme, but the target date is now indefinite. About 6 tonnes of fissile plutonium per year (in about 9 tonnes of reactor-grade Pu) was expected to be loaded into power reactors, slightly more than anticipated annual arisings from reprocessing. Meanwhile MOX fuel fabricated in Europe from some 40 tonnes of separated reactor-grade plutonium from Japanese spent fuel can be used. However, local concerns about MOX fuel use has slowed implementation of the 1994 'pluthermal' programme, and not until late 2009 was there a commercial Japanese reactor running with MOX.
By end of 2010 the Nuclear & Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) on behalf of the Ministry (METI) had approved the use of MOX fuel in ten reactors, including: Takahama 3&4, Fukishima I-3, Kashiwazaki-Kariwa 3, Genkai 3, Hamaoka 4, Onagawa 3, Ikata 3 and Shimane 2. This was expected to occur progressively to 2012, after modifications to the reactors to take a one-quarter or one-third core of MOX. NRA permission for MOX use in Tomari 3 was pending.
In 2008 the Shizuoka prefecture accepted Chubu's plans to use MOX in its Hamaoka 4 plant. Fukui prefecture accepted Kansai's planned use of MOX at Takahama 3 and 4 from 2010. Hokkaido accepted Hokkaido Electric Power's use of MOX at Tomari 3, and in 2010 Fukushima prefecture agreed to MOX use in TEPCO's Fukushima I-3 reactor, making a total of 12 reactors allowed to use it. In the event only Takahama 3, Fukishima I-3, Genkai 3, and Ikata 3 were using it in 2011.
So far, Japan has received five shipments containing over two tonnes of its (reactor-grade) plutonium from Europe. The first shipment, in 1992, was simply plutonium oxide and earmarked for use in the Monju prototype FBR.
Subsequent shipments have been in the form of MOX fuel for light water reactors. The first MOX shipment was in 1999. Part of this shipment from BNFL and intended for use in Kansai Electric Power Co's Takahama plant was found to contain falsified quality control data, so that material was returned to the UK in 2002. The balance was for Tepco's Fukishima I-3. The second MOX shipment in 2001 consisted of fuel from BNFL for use in TEPCO's Kashiwazaki-Kariwa 3 reactor. The third MOX shipment was fuel for Chubu's Hamaoka BWR, Shikoku's Ikata PWR and Kyushu's Genkai PWR, and arrived from France in May 2009. The fourth MOX shipment in 2010 from France contained 12 assemblies for Kansai's Takahama 4 and 20 for the second load at Genkai 3. The fifth shipment which arrived in June 2013 contained 20 assemblies for Kansai’s Takahama 3 plant. The sixth shipment in 2017 was for 16 assemblies for Takahama 4.
In November 2009 Kyushu Electric Power started using MOX in its Genkai 3 reactor. During a scheduled refuelling outage the company replaced about one-third of the 193 PWR fuel assemblies, 16 of them comprising MOX fuel. Shikoku Electric Power Co started Ikata 3 with some MOX fuel in March 2010, and Tepco started up Fukishima-Daiichi 3 BWR with MOX fuel in September 2010. Kansai started using MOX in its Takahama 3 PWR in January 2011, but in mid 2011 deferred its use in unit 4. It plans to use it in both Ohi reactors. Chubu postponed MOX use in Hamaoka 4. Hokkaido plans to load MOX into Tomari 3 and Shika 1 by 2016. Tohoku plans to use MOX in Onagawa 3. In 2016 Areva in France started making 16 MOX fuel assemblies for Takahama 4, and in August 2017 Areva New NP signed an agreement with Nuclear Fuel Industries to supply 32 MOX assemblies for Kansai’s Takahama 3&4. These will be made at Melox in France.
In March 2018 the Federation of Electric Power Companies (FEPC) reiterated to the Japan Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC) its members' intention to use plutonium as MOX fuel in 16-18 nuclear units. FEPC said it would be more specific when the Rokkasho reprocessing plant was closer to operation in 2021.
For its new Ohma ABWR plant, designed to run on a full MOX core, J-Power has signed a contract with Areva to supply the first three years' fuel, fabricated from Japanese plutonium separated in France. Areva also has MOX fabrication contracts with Chubu, Kyushu, Shikoku and Kansai.
At the end of 2018 there was 9 tonnes of separated reactor-grade plutonium (about 66% fissile) stored domestically, plus a total of 36.6 t in the UK and France. That total of 45.6 t was a modest decrease from an estimated 47.3 t at the end of 2017.
J-MOX plant
In April 2005 the Aomori prefecture approved construction of the JNFL's J-MOX plant at Rokkasho, adjacent to the reprocessing plant. The Governor urged the Federation of Electric Power Companies "to step up their efforts towards realisation of the MOX-use program." The approval was seen as a significant step forward in closing the fuel cycle in Japan, and was strongly supported by the federal government, JAEC, and utilities.
JNFL applied for two of the four licences needed to build and operate the 140 t/yr plant. Construction of the plant started in October 2010 after a three-year delay due to revision of seismic criteria, which have since become 700 Gal. Operation of J-MOX is now expected from September 2022, and the cost has escalated to JPY 210 billion (US$ 2.05 billion). It will produce MOX with 4-9% plutonium.
In November 2006 Shikoku Electric Power contracted with Mitsubishi to manufacture 21 MOX fuel assemblies for its Ikata nuclear plant using 600 kg of reactor-grade plutonium. The plutonium had been recovered by Areva at La Hague from Shikoku's used fuel and the MOX was fabricated at Areva's Melox plant in France and shipped to Japan in March 2009.
With the delay in construction of the J-MOX plant, several other utilities have sought MOX fuel supplies from Areva in France.
Once MOX fuel is fully in routine use in Japan, it is expected that the Japanese stockpile of separated plutonium in Europe will be used up in about 15 years, with demand being about 6 tonnes per year of fissile plutonium (Puf) and output from Rokkasho only 4 tonnes Puf.
METI approved construction a used fuel storage facility for Tepco and Japco in Mutsu, at the same time as approving J-MOX. Government approval for both followed.
High-level waste
In 1995, Japan's first high-level radioactive waste (HLW) interim storage facility opened in Rokkasho-mura – the Vitrified Waste Storage Centre. The first shipment of vitrified HLW from Europe (from the reprocessing of Japanese fuel) also arrived in that year. The last of twelve shipments from France was in 2007, making a total of 1310 canisters. Shipments from UK started in 2010, with 1850 canisters to go in about 11 shipments. These include an equivalent amount of HLW to avoid the need to transport greater amounts of low-level waste (LLW). The first shipment from UK arrived in March 2010, the fourth in April 2014.
In 2005 Tepco and JAPC announced that a Recyclable Fuel Storage Centre would be established in Mutsu, with 5000 t capacity, to provide interim storage for up to 50 years before used fuel is reprocessed. See fuller description above.
Japan’s R&D program for HLW started in 1976, and progress reports on technical feasibility were published in 1992 and 2000. In May 2000, the Japanese parliament (the Diet) passed the Law on Final Disposal of Specified Radioactive Waste (the 'Final Disposal Law') which mandates deep geological disposal of high-level waste (defined as only vitrified waste from reprocessing spent reactor fuel). In line with this, the Nuclear Waste Management Organisation (NUMO) was set up in October 2000 by the private sector to implement a project for geological disposal of HLW. NUMO initiated the siting process with open solicitation of volunteer host municipalities for exploring the feasibility of constructing a final repository. This open solicitation approach was announced in December 2002 and information packages were sent to all municipalities in Japan. The Final Disposal Law was revised in 2007 to include transuranic wastes for geological disposal: some types of long-lived, low heat-generating waste from fuel reprocessing and other processes in the nuclear fuel cycle.* NUMO was responsible for making plans for disposal, including site selection, demonstration of technology there, licensing, construction, operation, monitored retrievable storage for 50 years and closure of the repository. Some 40,000 canisters of vitrified HLW are envisaged by 2020, needing disposal – all the arisings from the Japanese nuclear plants until then.
NUMO’s open solicitation process aimed to shortlist those sites that were proffered and potentially suitable. The promising ones would be subject to detailed investigation from 2012. A third phase to 2030 would end with site selection. However, the government decided to become more involved in the process, and in October 2013 METI’s Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE) established a working group to re-evaluate geological disposal technology and developments since 2000, taking account of NUMO’s work. It reported in April 2014 that potential repository sites were available across Japan. The minister said in 2013: "The government will play an active role in choosing a permanent place. We will abandon the current system of waiting for volunteers to raise their hands."
In April 2014, HLW disposal was part of the new Basic Energy Plan, which included facilitating construction and use of new intermediate and dry storage facilities. Then in May 2015 the cabinet endorsed the proactive approach. Once possible locations are short-listed with AEC oversight, the government will seek local government consent to pursue plans for a deep geological repository. In January 2016 ANRE invited opinions from experts on an interim report concerning specific requirements and standards for "scientifically promising sites" for the final disposal of HLW. Based on two calls for public comment in August 2016 and March 2017, as well as other information, the Geological Disposal Working Group under METI's Advisory Committee for Natural Resources and Energy presented a report in April titled Summary of Requirements and Criteria for a Nationwide Map of Scientific Features for Geological Disposal.
Then in July 2017 METI published on the NUMO website a scientific characteristic map based on these identified requirements and criteria. The map identifies regions that are likely to meet the necessary geological requirements for hosting a repository and could be included in a future detailed site selection survey. The map shows areas not suitable for a repository due to their proximity to volcanoes or active faults. Areas which have mineral resources are also excluded due to the potential of future drilling activities. Fukushima prefecture is also excluded to avoid any further “burden”, as is Aomori prefecture hosting Rokkasho, due to a 1995 agreement. This leaves about two-thirds of the country as potentially suitable.
In November 2020 Japan's trade and industry minister approved investigation of potential sites in Suttu and Kamoenai. The two sites are south and north of Hokkaido Electric Power's Tomari reactors.
The ¥3700 billion ($33 billion) cost of the repository will be met by funds accumulated at ¥0.2/kWh from electricity utilities (and hence their customers) and paid to NUMO. By 2015 ¥1 trillion had been collected thus. This sum excludes any financial compensation paid by the government to local communities.
The technical aspects of Japan's HLW disposal concept is based on several decades' work under JAEA involving generic evaluation of repository requirements in Japan's geology. Since 2000 the Horonobe Underground Research Centre on Hokkaido has been investigating sedimentary rocks about 500m deep, and in November 2005 construction of the underground shafts and a 760-metre gallery was launched. This is a seismically stable area of Japan. JAEA runs the Tona Geoscience Centre at Toki, in Gifu prefecture, and has built a similar facility, the Mizunami Underground Research Laboratory (MIU) also in Gifu prefecture, in igneous rock about 1000m deep.
The basic repository concept involves sealing about 20 HLW canisters in a massive steel cask or overpack and surrounding this by bentonite clay. NUMO has built design options on this including those allowing inspection and retrieval over long periods. In particular the Cavern Retrievable (CARE) concept has emerged, involving two distinct stages: ventilated underground caverns with the wastes in overpacks (hence shielded) fully accessible, followed by backfilling and sealing the caverns after 300 years or so. The initial institutional control period allows radiological decay of the wastes so that thermal load is much reduced by stage 2 and hence the concept allows a much higher density of wastes than other disposal concepts.
The CARE concept can be adapted for spent fuel, the cask then being similar to shipping casks for such except that a layer of shielding required due to higher thermal and radiation output could be removable before the cavern is backfilled and sealed. However, for spent fuel retrieval would be likely rather than merely possible, since it represents a significant potential fuel resource (via reprocessing), whereas vitrified HLW does not. Also spent fuel would require ease of access due to the need for safeguards inspections. Eventual backfill could include depleted uranium if that is then considered a waste.
In 2004 METI estimated the costs of reprocessing spent fuel, recycling its fissile material and management of all wastes over 80 years from 2005. METI's Electricity Industry Committee undertook the study, focused on reprocessing and MOX fuel fabrication including the decommissioning of those facilities (but excluding decommissioning of power reactors). Total costs over 80 years amount to some JPY 19 trillion, contributing almost one yen (US 0.9 cents) per kilowatt-hour at 3% discount rate. About one third of these costs would still be incurred in a once-through fuel cycle, along with increased high-level waste disposal costs and increased uranium fuel supply costs. Japan's policy however is based on energy security rather than purely economic criteria.
Funding arrangements for HLW were changed in October 2005 under the new Back-end Law which set up the Radioactive Waste Management Funding and Research Centre (RWMC) as the independent funds management body. All reserves held by utilities were to be transferred to it and companies then refunded as required for reprocessing.
Low- and Intermediate-level waste
JNFL operates a large LLW storage facility at Rokkasho. METI, with JNFL and FEPC, is seeking permission from the Aomori prefecture to build further low-level waste storage capacity there, adjacent to the reprocessing plant. In particular this will be for LLW and what is internationally designated as ILW returned from France from 2013.
JNFL announced in May 2018 that it planned a new facility at Rokkasho for the disposal of 42,240 cubic metres of LLW, including metals and plastics. Construction is to begin in April 2020, with commissioning in 2023. It will be adjacent to the two present LLW storage plants which can hold 40,000 m3 each – one for liquid and ash, the other for metals and plastics. Early in 2018 these were 75% full.
Tests are under way at Rokkasho regarding disposal of intermediate-level waste.
Decommissioning
The Japan Power Demonstration Reactor (JPDR) decommissioning program, following its closure in 1976, established techniques for the decommissioning of commercial power reactors by the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI). Phase I of the program started in 1981 to develop a set of techniques and Phase II was actual dismantling of JPDR over 1986-92.
The original Tokai 1 power station, a British Magnox reactor which started up at the end of 1965 and closed down in March 1998, is being decommissioned over 20 years, the first ten as "safe storage" to allow radioactivity to decay. Phase 1 (to 2006) comprised preliminary work, in Phase 2 (to 2011) the steam generators and turbines are being removed, and in Phase 3 (to 2018) the reactor will be dismantled, the buildings demolished and the site left ready for re-use. All radioactive wastes will be classified as low-level (LLW), albeit in three categories, and will be buried – the 1% of level I wastes 50-100 metres deep. The total cost is expected to be JPY 93 billion – JPY 35 billion for dismantling and JPY 58 billion for waste treatment including the graphite moderator (which escalates the cost significantly).
Fugen ATR (148 MWe, started up in 1978) closed in March 2003, and JAEA plans to decommission it and demolish to clear the site by 2029, at a total cost of about JPY 70 billion, including waste treatment and disposal. Plans for this were approved in February 2008.
Chubu's Hamaoka 1&2, earlier closed for safety-related upgrades, remained shut down following the 2007 earthquake, were written off, and are now being decommissioned. However, the company has not found a storage site for the wastes, so they remain on site. It expects to have about 20,000 tonnes of wastes by 2036 when the work is due to be completed.
In March 2011 units 1-4 of the Fukushima Daiichi plant (2719 MWe net) were seriously damaged in a major accident, and are written off to be decommissioned. Units 5&6 were basically undamaged, but are written off from January 2014 to appease public opinion. Tepco established an internal entity, the Fukushima Daiichi Decontamination & Decommissioning Engineering Company, to focus on measures for decommissioning units 1-6 and dealing with contaminated water. The company commenced operations in April 2014.
In March 2015, Kansai announced that Mihama 1&2 PWRs would be retired, and Japan Atomic Power Co (Japco) said it would decommission its Tsuruga 1 BWR, all in Fukui prefecture. Then Chugoku Electric Power Co announced decommissioning of its Shimane 1 BWR in Shimane prefecture, and Kyushu Electric Power Co did the same for its Genkai 1 PWR in Saga prefecture. Some JPY 176.5 billion ($1.47 billion) has been set aside by the four utilities for decommissioning (Mihama 1&2: JPY 68 billion, Tsuruga JPY 36 billion).
Kansai and JAPC submitted plans for decommissioning to the Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) in February 2016 for approval. The amount of wastes arising is estimated in each application. JAPC estimates about 40 tonnes of high-level waste, 1990 tonnes of intermediate-level waste and 10,760 tonnes of low-level waste being included in the Tsuruga total. In April 2015 the All Japan Council of Local Governments with Atomic Power Stations (Zengenkyo) submitted a written request to METI, asking the national government to work responsibly on the decommissioning of nuclear power plants and to develop appropriate regulatory standards.
Kyushu submitted plans for decommissioning in December 2015, and it plans to decommission and dismantle Genkai 1 over 28 years, to 2043. To 2021 used fuel will be unloaded and some transferred to the Rokkasho reprocessing plant by 2029. Then the secondary steam supply system will be dismantled, followed by the main reactor vessel and internals and the steam generators all by 2036. The containment and buildings will be demolished over 2037 to 2043. Some 7000 tonnes of highly radioactive materials will result, along with 800 t low-level wastes and 2000 t of concrete and other very low-level wastes. In March 2020 the NRA approved decommissioning plans for Genkai 2.
Chugoku plans to decommission and dismantle Shimane 1 over 30 years to 2045, and in May 2016 filed an application with the NRA to this end. The reactor itself will be dismantled from 2030.
The NRA approved decommissioning plans for all five reactors in April 2017. Estimated costs for Mihama 1&2 are JPY 32.3 billion and JPY 35.7 billion; for Tsuruga 1, JPY 36.3 billion; for Shimane 1, JPY 38.2 billion; and for Genkai 1, JPY 36.4 billion.
Shikoku decided to retire Ikata 1 in March 2016 and the NRA approved the decommissioning plan in June 2017. Estimated cost is JPY 40.7 billion. In March 2018 it decided to decommission Ikata 2.
Tohoku announced in October 2018 that Onagawa 1 would be decommissioned, at an estimated cost of JPY 43.2 billion, with 69% of that already provided.
A plan for decommissioning JAEA’s Monju prototype fast breeder reactor (FBR) has been officially adopted by the government-appointed team to consider the task, and it has approved JAEA’s outline plan to carry it out over some 30 years. The government's policy calls for used fuel to be removed from the reactor and placed in an onsite storage pool within six years. This fuel – together with sodium coolant and other radioactive waste – is to then be removed from Fukui prefecture and reprocessed. Reprocessing may be in France, since the Rokkasho plant is not equipped for MOX from fast reactors. The government estimates that decommissioning will cost more than JPY 375 billion ($3.2 billion), including JPY 225 billion for maintenance, JPY 135 billion for dismantling and an initial JPY 15 billion for defuelling and preparations.
Japanese reactors being decommissioned
JAEA has been responsible for research on reactor decommissioning. However, in August 2013 an International Research Institute for Nuclear Decommissioning (IRID) was set up in Japan by JAEA, Japanese utilities and reactor vendors, with a focus on Fukushima 1-4.
JAEA in June 2017 submitted its decommissioning plan for the Tokai reprocessing plant to the NRA, which was approved in June 2018.
In August 2014 the Nuclear Damage Compensation and Decommissioning Facilitation Corporation (NDF) was set up by government as a planning body with management support for R&D projects, taking over IRID’s planning role. It will work closely with IRID, whose focus then became developing mid- and long-term decommissioning technologies, though early in 2015 it presented as a private consortium of companies bidding for Japanese government national research projects. NDF will also work closely with Tepco Fukushima Daiichi D&D Engineering Co. which has responsibility for operating the actual decommissioning work there. The NDF will be the main body interacting with government (METI) to implement policy.
Research & development
The Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute (JAERI) and the Atomic Fuel Corporation were set up in 1956. The latter was renamed PNC in 1967 and reconstituted as Japan Nuclear Cycle Development Institute (JNC) in 1998. A merger of JNC and JAERI in 2005 created the Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) under the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science & Technology (MEXT). JAEA is now a major integrated nuclear R&D organization, with 4400 employees at ten facilities and annual budget of ¥161 billion (US$ 1.7 billion).
JAEA runs a number of research reactors including JRR-3, a 20 MW unit supporting neutron beam experiments, and JRR-4, a 3.5 MW reactor used for medical irradiation, activation analysis and training. The Nuclear Safety Research Reactor (NSRR) is used for that purpose.
JAEA's Japan Materials Testing Reactor (JMTR) at the Oarai R&D Centre was refurbished for 2011 resumption of operation, to produce some radioisotopes, notably Mo-99, as well as enable basic research on LWR fuel and materials, and other applications. The JMTR was initially converted from 93% HEU fuel to 45% enriched fuel in 1991, and then to 19.8% enriched fuel in 1994.
High temperature reactors
At the end of 1998 JAERI's (now JAEA's) small prototype gas cooled reactor, the 30 MWt High Temperature Engineering Test Reactor (HTTR) started up at the Oarai Nuclear Hydrogen and Heat Application Research Centre near Tokyo. This was Japan's first graphite-moderated and helium-cooled reactor. It runs at 850°C and in 2004 achieved 950°C, then demonstrated stable heat at this level over 50 days in 2010. This will allow its application to chemical processes such as thermochemical production of hydrogen. Its fuel is ceramic-coated particles with low-enriched (average 6%) uranium incorporated into hexagonal graphite prisms, giving it a high level of inherent safety. It is designed to establish a basis for the commercialisation of second-generation helium-cooled plants running at high temperatures for either industrial applications or to drive direct cycle gas turbines. Fuel burn-up of 90 GWd/t has been established, with the help of tests at the WWR-K research reactor in Kazakhstan. Fuel with target burn-up of 160 GWd/t is being developed (100 GWd/t was previously achieved in Germany and the USA).
By 2015 an iodine-sulfur (IS) plant producing 1000 m3/h of hydrogen was expected to be linked to the HTTR to confirm the performance of an integrated production system. Silicon carbide ceramic components have been developed to survive the high-temperature acidic environment. However, HTTR was shut down in February 2011 for planned inspections and remained closed pending new post-Fukushima regulations which were announced in July 2013. In May 2020 the NRA approved modifications, and JAEA expected to restart it as soon as possible. JAEA then plans to connect a helium gas turbine and hydrogen production system and to prove the operation of these through to 2030 – the HTTR-GT/H2 plant. This is designed to produce 1 MWe of electricity plus 30m3/h of hydrogen from 0.7 MWt.
Based on the HTTR, JAEA has designed a 600 MWt high temperature reactor (HTR) called the GTHTR300C using Brayton cycle at 850-950°C to produce up to 300 MWe. Fuel is prismatic type TRISO with 14% uranium enrichment. Average burn-up is 120 GWd/t with 48-month fuel cycle. Up to four modules would comprise a power plant. This is for thermochemical hydrogen production at 120 t/day, or alternatively to produce 300 MWe and use the waste heat in multi-stage flash (MSF) desalination, the projected water cost for 55,000 m3/day being half that of using gas-fired CCGT. It is being developed with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI), Toshiba/IHI and Fuji, and target for commercialisation is about 2030.
JAEA's small HTR50S reactor based on the HTTR is a conceptual design for industrial process and heat and/or power generation. This is 50 MWt with dual reactor outlet temperatures of 750°C and 900°C with maximum use of conventional technologies in order to deploy them in developing countries in the 2020s. Initially this would use steam cycle for power generation, then improve the fuel, and then Increase the reactor outlet temperature to 900°C and install an intermediate heat exchanger to demonstrate helium turbine and hydrogen production using the IS process.
Early in 2019 the Japan Atomic Energy Agency (JAEA) formed a joint venture with Penultimate Power UK to build a 10 MWe SMR there based on the HTTR, for power and process heat. Plans include scaling up the design to 100 MWe and building a factory in the UK for multiple plants.
MHI and JAEA have proposed a modular HTR for power generation using steam cycle, with 50-100 MWe output (120 or 250 MWt), and similar fuel arrangement to HTTR. MHI has started the conceptual design of the MHR-100GT.
In 2014 the government included HTR research in its draft basic energy plan, and in May the Nuclear Science and Technology Committee of MEXT established a working group to evaluate the current R&D situation of HTRs and discuss their future direction, based on domestic and foreign needs. In July 2018 the government confirmed HTRs as part of its energy policy, and in June 2019 the Cabinet affirmed HTRs for thermochemical hydrogen production.
JAEA has a major agreement with Kazakhstan’s National Nuclear Centre relating to the design, construction and operation of an HTR of about 50 MW at Kurchatov city. See also Kazakhstan information page. It also has HTR research agreements with South Korea and China.
JAEA is proposing to develop a 100 MW demonstration HTR at Abu Dhabi in the UAE, with Emirates Nuclear Energy Corp (ENEC), and expedited by the Japan Engineers Federation (JEF).
Under a 2007 cooperation agreement with Indonesia’s National Atomic Energy Agency (BATAN), JAEA in 2014 agreed to include research and development of HTRs. Prior to the introduction of commercial reactors in Indonesia, BATAN plans to build a test and demonstration HTR of about 3-10 MWe, though this is contracted to Russia.
Reduced-moderation water reactor
The reduced-moderation water reactor (RMWR) being developed in Japan is a light water reactor, essentially as used today, with the fuel packed in more tightly to reduce the moderating effect of the water. Considering the BWR variant (resource-renewable BWR – RBWR), only the fuel assemblies and control rods are different. In particular, the fuel assemblies are much shorter, so that they can still be cooled adequately. Ideally they are hexagonal, with Y-shaped control rods. The reduced moderation means that more fissile plutonium is produced and the breeding ratio is around 1 (instead of about 0.6), and much more of the U-238 is converted to Pu-239 and then burned than in a conventional reactor. Burn-up is about 45 GWd/t, with a long cycle. Initial seed (all??) MOX fuel needs to have about 10% Pu. The void reactivity is negative, as in conventional LWR. A Hitachi RBWR design based on the ABWR-II has the central part of each fuel assembly (about 80% of it) with MOX fuel rods and the periphery uranium oxide. In the MOX part, minor actinides are burned as well as recycled plutonium. Power is quoted at 1346 MWe. Little has been heard of the project for several years.
The main rationale for RMWRs is extending the world's uranium resource and providing a bridge to widespread use of fast neutron reactors. Recycled plutonium should be used preferentially in RMWRs rather than as MOX in conventional LWRs, and multiple recycling of plutonium is possible. JAERI started the research on RMWRs in 1997 and then collaborated in the conceptual design study with the Japan Atomic Power Company (JAPCO) in 1998. Hitachi has also been closely involved.
A new reprocessing technology is part of the RMWR concept. This is the fluoride volatility process, developed in 1980s, and is coupled with solvent extraction for plutonium to give Hitachi's Fluorex process. In this, 90-92% of the uranium in the used fuel is volatalised as UF6, then purified for enrichment or storage. The residual is put through a Purex circuit which separates fission products and minor actinides as HLW, leaving the unseparated U-Pu mix (about 4:1) to be made into MOX fuel.
Fast neutron reactors
The 2014 Strategic Energy Plan sets R&D on fast neutron reactors (FNRs) as a priority, including that on waste volume reduction and toxicity decrease.
Among several critical assemblies, JAEA has operated the Fast Critical Assembly (FCA) at Tokai since 1967 to study the neutronic characteristics of fast reactors. It has been used for both Joyo and Monju development. In the course of this the facility has accumulated some hundreds of kilograms of separated plutonium (reported as being weapons-grade) and high-enriched uranium. In March 2014 it was agreed to send all of this to the USA for disposal or downblending and civil use respectively under the auspices of the Global Threat Reduction Initiative (GTRI) set up by the USA in 2004. The FCA itself will be converted to use low-enriched uranium and reassigned to transmutation and disposition of wastes.
The Joyo experimental fast breeder reactor at Oarai operated from 1977 with a succession of three cores, was boosted to 140 MWt in 2003, and has accumulated a lot of technical data. It has been shut down since 2007 due to damage to some core components. The upper core structure had to be replaced, and this was completed in 2014. After substantial upgrading, in 2016 JAEA sought permission from the NRA to restart it in 2021. It intends to complete engineering work on it by the end of 2020, and expects to operate it at 100 MWt from mid-2022 with its Mk IV core comprising up to 79 MOX fuel assemblies.
JAEA said Joyo had irradiated around 100 MOX fuel assemblies during about 71,000 hours of operation, and was significant in Japan’s fuel cycle policy. Later it said that 342 fast reactor fuel assemblies had been irradiated over 1982-2000 at 100 MWt, and then 130 at 140 MWt over 2003-2007.
The 280 MWe Monju prototype FBR reactor started up in April 1994 and was connected to the grid in August 1995, but a sodium leakage in its secondary heat transfer system during performance tests in December 1995 meant that it was shut down after only 205 days of actual operation.
In mid-2012, the Education, Science & Technology Ministry, MEXT, outlined to the AEC some options for the future of Monju, for which it is responsible through JAEA. If Japan opts for direct underground disposal of used fuel, Monju would be terminated. If the closed fuel cycle with reprocessing is continued, Monju would continue with its original mission to prepare for commercial use of FBRs from 2050, with a demonstration unit to operate from 2025. Monju is reported to have cost JPY 1 trillion ($12.5 billion) to build and operate, and its budget for 2012 was JPY 17.5 billion. Early in 2014 its maintenance was reported as costing JPY 50 million per day.
Monju is discussed in the Fast neutron reactors section of the information paper on Nuclear Power in Japan. It has been shut down for most of its life, and in December 2016 the government confirmed that it would be decommissioned.
In May 2014 Japan committed to support the development of the French Astrid fast reactor project, and in August 2014 JAEA, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Mitsubishi FBR Systems concluded an agreement with the French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) and Areva to progress cooperation on Astrid. Astrid was envisaged as a 600 MWe prototype of a commercial series of 1500 MWe sodium-cooled fast reactors which were planned to be deployed from about 2050 to utilise the abundant depleted uranium available by then and also burn the plutonium in used MOX fuel. Astrid will have high fuel burnup, including minor actinides in the fuel elements, and great flexibility in breeding ratios. Astrid is called a 'self-generating' fast reactor rather than a breeder in order to demonstrate low net plutonium production. It arises from a 2006 French government commission to the CEA to develop a fast neutron reactor which is essentially a Generation IV version of the sodium-cooled type which already has 45 reactor-years' operational experience in France. In mid-2009 Astrid (Advanced Sodium Technological Reactor for Industrial Demonstration), was given high priority in R&D on account of its actinide-burning potential. The CEA sought partnerships with Japan and China to develop it.
The Astrid programme includes development of the reactor itself and associated fuel cycle facilities: a dedicated MOX fuel fabrication line (AFC) and a pilot reprocessing plant for used Astrid fuel (ATC) about 2023. Fuel rods containing actinides for transmutation are scheduled to be produced from 2023, though fuel containing minor actinides would not be loaded for transmutation in Astrid before 2025. In 2014, in line with their October 2010 agreement on fast reactor R&D, France had asked Japan to test fuel for Astrid in the Monju fast reactor.
In June 2018 the French government stated that Astrid will have its capacity scaled down from the initially planned 600 MWe to between 100 and 200 MWe to reduce construction costs and also due to development of a commercial fast reactor no longer being a high priority. Following the decision, Toshiba said that the smaller Astrid would be a step back for Japan's fast reactor development process, possibly forcing the country to build its own larger demonstration reactor in Japan rather than rely on Astrid.
Thorium and MSRs
Japan's Research Institute for Applied Sciences based in Kyoto with Chubu Electric at Hamaoka are developing thorium-fueled molten salt reactor technology, from 2013.
Regulation and safety
The Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC) was set up in 1956 under the Science & Technology Agency (STA) but has been part of the Cabinet Office since 2001. It was a senior policy body except for a period in 2011 to 2012, though in 2001 it was reduced to an advisory role. A government panel in 2013 recommended that it become simply a committee focused on such issues as the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, nuclear non-proliferation, and the treatment and disposal of radioactive waste. The panel said that it should no longer be involved with formulating nuclear policy or estimating funding requirements, but should remain within the Cabinet Office. In 2014 parliament reduced its role to the supervision of Japan’s plutonium and advising on radioactive wastes.
The former Nuclear & Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) within the Ministry of Economy Trade & Industry (METI, the successor of MITI) was responsible for nuclear power regulation, licensing and safety. It conducted regular inspections of safety-related aspects of all power plants.
In mid-2011, following the Fukushima accident, the government established a new and more independent Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) under the Environment Ministry. This commenced in September 2012 and combined the roles of NISA and NSC, and also the monitoring functions of the Education & Science Ministry (MEXT). The four commissioners and chairman were appointed in February 2013. It started with a staff of 473, nearly three quarters of whom were from NISA, and a budget of ¥50 billion/yr (about $600 million). It is modelled on the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
The first task of the NRA was decide on reactor restarts (see section in the information paper on Nuclear Power in Japan). In July 2013 the NRA published two sets of regulations with regard to detailed design of nuclear power plant systems and severe accident management procedures. Following an IAEA Integrated Regulatory Review Service (IRRS) mission to Japan in 2016 the NRA revised its prescriptive checklist approach to reactor inspections and is “fully acting on the IAEA recommendations,” with bills to amend reactor and fuel facility inspection reform laws being submitted to the government in February 2017. The proposed new reactor and fuel law stipulates that the revised inspection system "will come into force within three years after promulgation." This is intended to provide both the companies and the NRA with ample time to prepare.
Regulations relating to the fuel cycle and research reactors including Monju took effect in mid-December 2013. The new regulations apply to two used fuel reprocessing plants – JNFL’s Rokkasho commercial plant and the older JAEA facility at Tokai (shut down since 2007); seven fuel fabrication facilities, including JNFL’s partially completed mixed-oxide fuel facility; Recyclable-Fuel Storage Co.’s partially completed interim spent fuel storage facility at Mutsu; four waste storage facilities; 22 research reactors; and 15 large and 196 small facilities using nuclear fuel for research. They require facility operators to assume stricter earthquake and tsunami standards in line with new safety guidelines for nuclear reactors implemented in July, and they require improved safety measures to prevent hydrogen explosions and criticalities during emergencies.
Also coming under the remit of the Ministry of the Environment is the new five-member Nuclear Safety Investigation Commission (NSIC), which replaced the Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC) – a senior government body set up in 1978 under the Atomic Energy Basic Law and responsible for formulating policy, alongside the Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC). NSIC will review the effectiveness of the NRA and be responsible for the investigation of nuclear accidents. The Environment Ministry already handles disposal of radiation-contaminated debris around the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant. The lower house of parliament (Diet) passed the enabling legislation in mid June 2012, with the support of all three main parties, and the upper house endorsed it a week later. The reform was implemented in September. Key issues will be addressed toward creating a stronger and more effective safety regulatory organization, with a plan to be issued by year end. As an expression of its determination to strengthen nuclear safety regulation Japan plans to receive an IAEA Integrated Regulatory Review Service mission later in 2012.
The Japan Nuclear Energy Safety Organisation was set up in 2003 to inspect nuclear installations and nuclear reactor facilities and undertake safety analysis and evaluations of the design of nuclear installations and nuclear reactor facilities. It had 401 staff (as of October 2013, compared with 527 in NRA then) and functioned as technical support for NRA. The law that established NRA in September 2012 stipulated that JNES must be integrated into NRA, and in October 2013 NRA outlined provisions for the merger by March 2014, when 384 staff transferred. As well as the staff from both organisations, 81 will be added to boost capacity for inspections, making a total of over 1000. The merger substantially enhances the professional competence and experience base of NRA.
In December 2013 the NRA with its China and South Korean counterparts agreed to form a network to cooperate on nuclear safety and quickly exchange information in nuclear emergencies. In addition to exchanging information on nuclear accidents, the three countries will share standard information such as safety plans.
Following the Fukushima accident, the Energy and Environment Council Council (Enecan or EEC) was set up by the cabinet office in mid 2011 as the energy arm of the National Policy Unit, being chaired by that minister. The Atomic Energy Commission (JAEC) and Central Environment Council apparently came under Enecan until it was abolished by the new government at the end of 2012.
The Science & Technology Agency was responsible for safety of test and research reactors, nuclear fuel facilities and radioactive waste management, as well as R&D, but its functions were taken over by NISA in 2001.
In June 2012 parliament amended the 1955 Atomic Energy Basic Law to stipulate that nuclear plant operators must prevent the release of radioactive materials at abnormal levels following severe accidents, and that the NRA is to formulate regulations to achieve this.
A new inspection system of nuclear facilities came into effect in 2009, following deliberations on the matter since November 2005. Under the new system, the number of nuclear power plants approved for operation over 40 years was expected to increase, starting with Tsuruga 1.
The Atomic Energy Society of Japan (AESJ) has a Committee for Investigation of Nuclear Safety.
Nuclear safeguards remained with METI after the regulatory functions were removed.
Regulatory history
Well before the Fukushima accident, public support for nuclear power in Japan had been eroded since the 1990s due to a series of accidents and scandals. The accidents to 2011 were the 1996 sodium leak at the Monju FBR, a fire at the JNC waste bituminisation facility connected with its reprocessing plant at Tokai, and the 1999 criticality accident at a small fuel fabrication plant at Tokai. The criticality accident, which claimed two lives, happened as a result of workers following an unauthorised procedures manual. None of these accidents were in mainstream civil nuclear fuel cycle facilities. However, the 1999 accident did lead to safety improvements at nuclear power plants, notably the establishment of emergency off-site facilities (EOF) at all of them.
Following the 1999 Tokai criticality accident, electric power companies, along with enterprises involved with the nuclear industry established the Nuclear Safety Network (NSnet). The network's main activities were to enhance the safety culture of the nuclear industry, conduct peer reviews, and disseminate information about nuclear safety. In 2005 this was incorporated into the Japan Nuclear Technology Institute ( JANTI), as the Safety Culture Division. Peer reviews 'tailored to the corporate structure' are implemented periodically for members of NS net involve in the nuclear fuel cycle of Japan. JANTI's Operating Experience Analysis Division collects and analyses operating experience information that was previously handled by the Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI) Nuclear Information Center. The Safety Culture Division cooperates with US Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO) and WANO.
Japan's former Nuclear Safety Commission (NSC) confirmed in April 2002 that using mixed oxide (MOX) fuel is safe, and that its use at up to 18 reactors by 2010 was supported. Senior members of the government have reaffirmed that the country's use of MOX "must happen", and that the government will initiate educational and information programs to win wider acceptance for it.
In 2002 a scandal erupted over the documentation of equipment inspections at Tepco's reactors, and extended to other plants. While the issues were not safety-related, the industry's reputation was sullied. Inspection of the shrouds and pumps around the core is the responsibility of the company, which in this case had contracted it out. In May 2002 questions emerged about data falsification and the significance of cracks in reactor shrouds (used to direct water flow in BWRs) and whether faults were reported to senior management. By May 2003 Tepco had shut down all its 17 reactors for inspections, and by the end of 2003 only seven had been restarted. Replacement power cost on average over 50% more than the 5.9 yen/kWh (5.5 cents US) nuclear generation cost. Tepco eventually had all its reactors back on line, with the whole fiasco costing it about JPY 200 billion (US$ 1.9 billion).
In 2007 NISA ordered reactor owners to check their records for incidents which should have been reported at the time but were not. This revealed a brief (15 minute) criticality incident during refuelling at Hokuriku's Shika 1 BWR in 1999. A series of deficiencies and errors contributed to the incident, and clearly more should have been learned from it to benefit other operators of boiling water reactors such as Chubu and Tohoku, which have also had control rod anomalies over the last 20 years. Tepco said that its Fukishima I-3 BWR may have experienced criticality over seven hours during an outage in 1978, when control rods slipped out of position. NISA ordered the Shika-1 reactor to be shut down for detailed checks.
Seismic concerns
Because of the frequency and magnitude of earthquakes in Japan, particular attention is paid to seismic issues in the siting, design and construction of nuclear power plants. In May 2007 revised seismic criteria were announced which increased the design basis criteria by a factor of about 1.5 and required utilities to undertake some reinforcement of older plants. See also paper on Nuclear Power Plants & Earthquakes.
In July 2007 the Niigata Chuetsu-Oki earthquake occurred on a fault very close to the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa nuclear power plant, and the ground acceleration exceeded the design parameters for the plant, i.e. it was more severe than the plant was required to be designed for. The operating reactors shut down safely and there was no damage to the main parts of the plant. The government (METI) then set up a 20-member Chuetsu Investigation and Countermeasures Committee to investigate the specific impact of this earthquake on the power station, and in the light of this to identify what government and utilities must address to ensure nuclear plant safety. It acknowledged that the government was responsible for approving construction of the first units in the 1970s very close to what is now perceived to be a geological fault line. It was also agreed that the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) would join Japan's Nuclear Safety Commission in a review of the situation. The second IAEA team confirmed after inspecting key internal components that there was apparently "no significant damage to the integrity of the plant". Ground subsidence damaged much equipment around the seven reactors, but the main part of each plant is built on bedrock, which had entailed excavation in some places to 45 metres.
In October 2008 NISA presented to the NSC its evaluation of Tepco's report on Kashiwazaki Kariwa, assessing it as "appropriate". It contained the results of Tepco's inspections and assessments of equipment, buildings and other structures at the plant following the July 2007 earthquake. In 2009 the NSC endorsed NISA's recommendation that units 6 & 7 be restarted.
Tsunamis are also a feature of Japan and Kuril Islands. Since 1498 there have been 16 tsunamis with maximum amplitudes above 10 metres (some much more), these having arisen from earthquakes of magnitude 7.4 to 9.0, on average one every 30 years. The accident arising from the 11 March 2011 tsunami is described in the paper on the Fukushima Accident.
International outlook and exports
Apart from some active interest in uranium exploration and mine investment in Australia and Canada to help secure fuel supplies, for many years the Japanese nuclear industry was focused domestically, but in the 1990s it started to look at export possibilities and international collaboration.
Companies such as Hitachi, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) and Toshiba formed important alliances internationally or took over major foreign nuclear companies. Their export initiatives are in collaboration with an operator such as Tepco and the Japan Bank for International Cooperation.
In heavy manufacturing, particularly of large forgings, Japan Steel Works (JSW) is generally regarded as the main company and world leader. Other enterprises are also active in export of major reactor components. JSW spent JPY 40 billion ($330 million) from 2007 to increase capacity in advance of orders expected from both China and the USA. It has production and research bases in Hiroshima, Yokohama and Muroran. The Muroran centre, in Hokkaido, hosts the heavy steel works and research laboratory relevant to power generation. Muroran manufactures reactor pressure vessels, steam generator components, generator & turbine rotor shafts, clad steel plates and turbine casings for nuclear power plants. JSW has been manufacturing forgings for nuclear plant components to US Nuclear Regulatory Commission standards since 1974, and around 130 JSW reactor pressure vessels are used around the world – more than one-third of the total.
See also the information paper on Heavy Manufacturing of Power Plants.
At the government level, there were agreements with several governments including Kazakhstan. Then NISA set up the International Nuclear Power Safety Working Group in 2008 to cooperate in the field of nuclear safety with emerging countries, primarily in Asia, planning to introduce and expand their use of nuclear power.
This led in 2009 to an industry-based group, the JAIF International Cooperation Center (JICC), established with government backing to support countries planning to introduce nuclear power generation, and the International Nuclear Energy Cooperation Council, a forum for the relevant Japanese government authorities and private institutes to collaborate in international aid.
In October 2010 industry and government set up the International Nuclear Energy Development of Japan Co Ltd (JINED) to export nuclear goods and services collaboratively. The new company will solicit orders for nuclear power plants from countries such as Vietnam starting their own nuclear power programs, and advise on project and infrastructure development, bolstered by legislative and financing support from the Japanese Government. A separate company will be set up to act as engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contractor. JINED is associated with JAIF and JICC, and is owned by the government (METI, through Innovation Network Corporation), nine utilities (Chubu, Kansai and Tepco being main shareholders), and three manufacturers (MHI, Toshiba and Hitachi).
For Vietnam's second nuclear power plant, Japan Atomic Power Co. and JINED in 2010 signed an agreement with Electricity of Vietnam (EVN) to undertake the Ninh Thuan II project. The government has appointed Mitsubishi to prepare a PWR proposal and Hitachi to prepare one using BWR technology. The project is seen as a METI initiative.
However, following the Fukushima accident reactor manufacturers are reported to be finding it difficult to do business abroad because Tepco, the main operator partner, is preoccupied with remediation at Fukushima. Establishment of its internal entity, the Fukushima Daiichi Decontamination & Decommissioning Engineering Company, to focus on measures for decommissioning units 1-6 and dealing with contaminated water, may ease this.
The only significant export deal in recent years is MHI’s involvement with Areva in contracting to build the Sinop nuclear plant in Turkey. Itochu is also involved. Here, GdF Suez is to be the operating partner. The deal is under a government-level nuclear energy cooperation agreement. In April 2014 the House of Representatives approved this agreement and the export of Japanese nuclear power plants to Turkey and also to the United Arab Emirates. The approval was backed by the ruling Liberal Democratic Party and junior partner New Komeito, as well as the opposition Democratic Party of Japan.
Another initiative which will lead to exports is Hitachi’s purchase of Horizon Nuclear Power PLC in the UK, which will lead to construction of four to six ABWR units at Wylfa and Oldbury. Hitachi plans to sell its interest in Horizon once the plants are operating.
In June 2008 an agreement on high-temperature gas-cooled reactor research was initialled by JAEA and the Kazakhstan Atomic Energy Committee, focused on small cogeneration plants.
Nuclear liability
Japan has not been party to any international liability convention but its law generally conforms to them. Two laws governing them have been revised about every ten years: the Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage and Law on Contract for Liability Insurance for Nuclear Damage.
Plant operator liability is exclusive and absolute, and power plant operators must provide a financial security amount of JPY 120 billion (US$ 1.4 billion). The government may relieve the operator of liability if it determines that damage results from “a grave natural disaster of an exceptional character”, though it did not do this after the Fukushima accident in 2011, and in any case liability is unlimited. For the Fukushima accident the government set up a new state-backed institution to expedite payments to those affected.
In line with a 2013 undertaking by the Minister for Foreign Affairs and confirmed in the 4th Basic Energy Plan adopted in April 2014, a bill to ratify the IAEA’s Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC) was passed by both houses of parliament in November 2014, along with amended domestic compensation laws. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has now filed a formal document with the IAEA so that Japan became the sixth member country of the CSC, enabling it to enter force globally in mid-April 2015.
Non-proliferation
The Atomic Energy Basic law prohibits the military use of nuclear energy and successive governments have articulated principles reinforcing this. In 1976 Japan became a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty with its safeguards arrangements administered by the UN's International Atomic Energy Agency, and in 1999 it was one of the first countries to ratify the Additional Protocol with IAEA, accepting intrusive inspections.
Japan is noteworthy in being the only non-weapons state under the NPT with major fuel cycle facilities, which are thus under full safeguards. The Rokkasho reprocessing plant is the first such plant to be under full IAEA safeguards (others are under Euratom safeguards). Monitoring equipment funded by IAEA was built in to the plant, which was a novel challenge for both IAEA and JNFL.
Japan also has bilateral safeguards arrangements with its major nuclear supplier states and has long been a member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group which restricts export of nuclear equipment.
Notes & references
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https://www.lerner.ccf.org/cancer-biology/brown/
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en
|
Lerner Research Institute
|
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The J. Mark Brown lab studies the relationship between diet, microbe, host metabolism and chronic cardiometabolic disease.
|
en
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https://www.lerner.ccf.org/cancer-biology/brown/
|
Research
A long-term goal of my laboratory is to understand the fundamental pathways that dictate how our bodies make, store, and degrade fats or lipids. Most chronic diseases that we are faced with today like coronary heart disease, obesity, diabetes, cancer, and even infectious disease are driven by underlying alterations in lipid metabolism. Our research is focused on lipid metabolic metabolic alterations driven by our commensal bacteria as well as our own human cells. All of our projects aim to translate basic discoveries into new therapeutic regimens for cardiometabolic disease.
Biography
Dr. Brown is Associate Staff in the Department of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Sciences and Director of Research in the Center for Microbiome & Human Health.
Education & Professional Highlights
Appointed
2013
Education & Fellowships
Fellowship - Wake Forest University Bowman Gray School of Medicine
Lipid Atherosclerosis
Winston-Salem, NC USA
2009
Medical Education - University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Cellular & Molecular Nutrition
Greensboro, NC USA
2004
Undergraduate - University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Nutrition/Diabetes
Greensboro, NC USA
2000
Research
My research is focused on the interrelationship between the diets we eat, microbe and host metabolism, and the development of chronic disease. We have three active research programs, and we are always looking for highly motivated young scientists to participate in our multidisciplinary training program.
Research Focus 1) Metaorganismal Endocrinology: Gut Microbe-Derived Hormones in Human Health & Disease.
Microbes resident in the human intestine represent a key transmissable factor contributing to a wide variety of human diseases. Here we are studying how gut microbes generate an array of small molecule metabolites that impact host physiology and disease. This line of investigation is studying the role of diet-microbe-host interactions in the context of obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer.
Research Focus 2) Diet and Gene Interactions Driving the Progression of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) & Alcohol-Associated Liver Disease (AALD).
The progression of AALD and NAFLD to advanced fibrosis and end stage liver disease is driven by a combination of dietary and genetic factors. Here we are studying the interaction between metaorganismal nutrient metabolism (i.e. microbe and host metaboism) and host genetics (i.e. common and rare genetic variants), with the hopes of identifying new therapeutic strategies for those suffering from advanced liver disease.
Research Focus 3) Mechanisms by Which Nutrition & Obesity Drive Gastrointestinal (GI) Cancers.
Several common malignancies are associated with poor nutrition and obesity, particularly GI malignancies. In this series of projects, we are beginning to understand how metaorganismal nutrient metabolism impacts obesity and how this can be mechanistically tied to malignancies in the gut, liver, and kidneys.
Selected Publications
View publications for J. Mark Brown, PhD
(Disclaimer: This search is powered by PubMed, a service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine. PubMed is a third-party website with no affiliation with Cleveland Clinic.)
1) Temel, et al. (2010) Biliary sterol secretion is not required for macrophage reverse cholesterol transport. Cell Metab. 12(1): 96-102.
2) Lord, C.C., et al. (2012) CGI-58/ABHD5-derived signaling lipids regulate systemic inflammation and insulin action. Diabetes 61(2): 355-363.
3) Cantley, J.L., et al. (2013) CGI-58 knockdown sequesters diacylglycerols in lipid droplets, preventing DAG-mediated PKCε translocation to the plasma membrane and hepatic insulin resistance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 110(5): 1869-1874.
4) Koeth, R.A., et al. (2013) Intestinal microbiota metabolism of l-carnitine, a nutrient in red meat, promotes atherosclerosis. Nat. Med. 19(5): 576-585.
5) Thomas, G., et al. (2013) The serine hydrolase ABHD6 is a critical regulator of the metabolic syndrome. Cell Rep. 5(2): 508-520.
6) Warrier, M., et al. (2015) The TMAO-generating enzyme flavin monooxygenase 3 is a central regulator of cholesterol balance. Cell Rep. 10: 1-13.
7) Schreiber, R., et al. (2015) Hypophagia and metabolic adaptations in mice with defective ATGL-mediated lipolysis cause reisstance to HFD-induced obesity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 112(5): 13850-13855.
8) Zhao, S., et al. (2014) alpha/beta hydrolase domain-6 accessible monoacylglycerol controls glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Cell Metab. 19(6): 993-1007.
9) Zhu, W., et al. (2016) Gut microbial metabolite TMAO enhances platelet hypperreactivity and thrombosis risk. Cell 165: 111-124.
10) Lord, C.C., et al. (2016) Regulation of hepatic triacylglycerol metabolism by CGI-58 does not require ATGL co-activation. Cell Rep. 16, 939-949.
11) Schugar, R., et al. (2017) The TMAO-producing enzyme flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 regulates obesity and the beiging of what adipose tissue. Cell Rep. 19, 2451-2461.
12) Gromovsky, et al. (2017) Δ-5 fatty acid desaturase FADS1 impacts metabolic disease by balancing pro-inflammatory and pro-resolving lipid mediators. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 38(1): 218-231.
13) Roberts, A.B., et al. (2018) Development of a gut-microbe targeted non-lethal therapeutic to inhibit thrombosis potential without enhanced bleeding. Nat. Med. 24(9): 1407-1417.
14) Helsley, R.N., et al. (2019) Obesity-linked suppression of membrane-bound O-acyltransferase 7 (MBOAT7) drives non-alcoholic fatty liver disease progression. Elife e49882.
15) Gimple, R.C., et al. (2019) Glioma stem cell specific super enhancer promotes polyunsaturated fatty acid synthesis to support EGFR signaling. Cancer Discov. 9(9): 1248-1267.
16) Zhou, H., et al. (2020) IL-1 induces mitochondrial translocation of IRAK2 Myddosome to suppress oxidative metabolism. Nat. Immunol. 21(10): 1219-1231.
17) Neumann, C.K.A., et al. (2020) MBOAT7-driven phosphatidylinositol remodeling promotes the progression of clear cell renal carcinoma. Mol. Metab. 34: 136-145.
18) Li, S., et al. (2020) Hepsin enhances liver metabolism and inhibits adipocyte browning in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 117(22): 12359-12367.
19) Orabi, D., et al. (2021) A novel surgical method for continuous intra-portal infusion of gut microbial metabolites. JCI Insight (In Press)
20) Tan, S.Z., et al. (2021) The obesity-dependent adipokine chemerin suppresses fatty acid oxidation to confer ferroptosis resistance. Cancer Discov. (In Press)
|
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4101
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1
| 40 |
https://www.buckinstitute.org/lab/verdin-lab/
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en
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Verdin Lab
|
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2018-06-05T16:45:49-07:00
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Understanding epigenetic regulators of the aging process
|
en
|
BUCK
|
https://www.buckinstitute.org/lab/verdin-lab/
|
Dr. Verdin is the president and chief executive officer of the Buck Institute for Research on Aging. A native of Belgium, Dr. Verdin received his Doctorate of Medicine (MD) from the University of Liege and completed additional clinical and research training at Harvard Medical School. He has held faculty positions at the University of Brussels, the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and the Picower Institute for Medical Research. Dr. Verdin is also a professor of medicine at University of California, San Francisco.
Dr. Verdin studies how metabolism, diet, and small molecules regulate the activity of HDACs and sirtuins, and thereby the aging process and its associated diseases, including Alzheimer’s. He has published more than 270 scientific papers and holds more than 18 patents. He is a highly cited scientist (top 1 percent) and has been recognized for his research with a Glenn Award for Research in Biological Mechanisms of Aging and a senior scholarship from the Ellison Medical Foundation. He is an elected member of several scientific organizations, including the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Society for Clinical Investigation, and the Association of American Physicians. He also serves on the advisory council of National Institute on Drug Abuse at the National Institutes of Health.
Dr. Verdin has extensive experience working with biotech companies. He is a founder of Acylin (purchased by Abbvie). He served on the scientific advisory boards of Elixir, Sirtris (purchased by GSK), Calico (Google), and Nokia, and he also served as advisor to Sofinnova Ventures. Dr. Verdin has also worked for several years as a consultant to Novartis, GSK, J&J, Altana, Roche, Pfizer, and other biotech companies.
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https://www.tokuyama.co.jp/eng/company/address/japan.html
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en
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Business Sites in Japan
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https://www.tokuyama.co.jp/images/favicon.ico
|
https://www.tokuyama.co.jp/images/favicon.ico
|
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en
|
/images/favicon.ico
| null |
Tokuyama Corporation's operations in Japan are based around the Tokyo Head Office and the Tokuyama Factory, its main production facility located in Yamaguchi Prefecture. Other business sites include the Kashima Factory, the Tsukuba Research Lab and six regional branch offices.
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https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/9620/chapter/8
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en
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4 Overview of Garrison, Field, and Supplemental Protein Intake by U.S. Military Personnel
|
https://nap.nationalacademies.org/cover/9620/450
|
https://nap.nationalacademies.org/cover/9620/450
|
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Protein and Amino Acids, 1999
Pp. 93-108. Washington, D.C.
National Academy Press
4
Overview of Garrison, Field, and Supplemental Protein Intake by U.S. Military Personnel
LTC (ret) Alana D. Cline1 and John P. Warber
INTRODUCTION
Adequacy of nutrient intake by military personnel has been evaluated on a periodic basis since World War II; the responsibility for evaluating the nutritional status of military personnel and prescribing standards for operational rations has been that of the Army Surgeon General (U.S. Department of the Army, 1945; U.S. War Department, 1944). As new rations have been developed, their acceptability and effects on the health and performance of military personnel have been assessed. Subsequently, modifications have been recommended after evaluation of their nutritional impact.
The nutrient composition of operational rations is designed by food technologists at the U.S. Army Natick Research, Development and Engineering Center (NRDEC) to meet nutritional standards that are based on published
recommendations such as the Recommended Dietary Allowances (NRC, 1980) and those of other recognized bodies of nutrition scientists. Ideally, rations should be designed to meet not only the minimum nutritional requirements, but the requirements for optimal nutrition. In practice, however, the requirements for optimal nutrition have yet to be determined, and may differ among individuals. During World War II, recommendations of the first Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) (NRC, 1941, 1945) were used as a metric for determining adequacy of the rations. Since 1947, standards have been specifically established for the military, based on the FNB Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), and adapted for emerging physical requirements.
Food intake by military personnel has been monitored periodically over several decades to determine whether changes in consumption of various nutrients have occurred. Because of recent public interest in strength training and body building, which has been associated with increased intake of various protein and amine acid supplements by individuals who have the expectation that their muscle strength, size, and performance will improve, the Army has recently surveyed military personnel to determine the extent of supplement use.
What has not been determined is whether protein intake recommendations established during World War II and still used remain appropriate for military personnel today. A related question is what was the general range of protein intake by soldiers during that time, and how has it changed since those guidelines were initially established.
This chapter presents an overview of ration studies that were conducted during World War II and compares them with more recent studies on energy and protein intake and requirements of military personnel in garrison and operational settings. Reported consumption of amine acid and protein supplements will also be addressed, with frequency of consumption identified by gender, age, and military specialty.
PROTEIN AVAILABILITY FROM OPERATIONAL RATIONS
Operational rations have been divided into those prepared in field kitchens for groups of military personnel and those the individual soldier must carry, prepare, and consume. By design, they provide an excess of calories and protein, when possible, to allow for some food choice by the individual and still allow for adequate nutrient intake (Samuels et al., 1947). Former and current rations most widely used for tactical consumption are compared in Table 4-1.
The individual ration most widely used during World War H was the C Ration, which provided a combination of canned foods and packaged dehydrated or dried foods. Nutritional composition was 2,794 kcal and 121 g protein. To provide a ration with the greatest caloric density in the smallest weight and space, the K Ration was developed in 1941; it provided 2,842 kcal and 79 g protein.
TABLE 4-1 Energy and Protein Content of Operational Rations
Ration Type
Energy (kcal)
Protein (g)
% Energy
C Ration
2,794
121
17
K Ration
2,842
79
11
5-1
3,383
98
12
10-1
4,188
124
12
B Ration
4,300
140
13
MRE
3,819
136
14
UGR
3,973
142
14
Ration, Cold Weather
4,500
90
8
Go-to-War Ration
3,600
144
16
NOTE: 5-1, Five-in-One; 10-1, Ten-in-One; MRE, Meal, Ready-to-Eat; UGR, Unitized Group Ration.
The most widely used rations packaged for group feeding in World War II were the Five-in-One Ration (5-1), providing 3,383 kcal and 98 g protein, and the Ten-in-One Ration (10-1), providing 4,188 kcal and 124 g protein. These rations were designed to provide adequate food for 1 day's consumption by a unit of 5 or 10 men, respectively, and required minimal food preparation for small groups of individuals away from food preparation facilities. The B Ration was developed to provide foods in bulk for a minimum of 100 individuals. It comprised packages and cans of bulk foods not requiring refrigeration, but needing reconstitution or rehydration during meal preparation. A series of 10 days' menus were provided, complete with recipes. Kitchen-prepared A (perishable foods, needing refrigeration) or B Rations were those on which the military depended for regular daily feeding; they were required to be fully adequate for all nutrients, meeting standards set by the National Research Council to provide at least 3,000 kcal and 70 g protein.
Current operational rations include the MRE for individual consumption and the UGR for group feeding, each exceeding the operational ration standards of 3,600 kcal and 100 g protein (AR 40-25, 1985). In addition, vegetarian MRE meals have been recently added (2/case of 12) to provide choices for individuals not consuming meat products. The Ration, Cold Weather (4,500 kcal, 90 g protein) is used to sustain an individual during operations occurring under frigid conditions, and the Go-to-War Ration (3,900 kcal, 156 g protein) was designed for the early stages of mobilization until such time that the ration industry can meet deployment demands. Both rations are designed to provide short-term support, so they do not meet the full nutritional requirements for operational rations.
HISTORIC RATION INTAKE
Major ration studies from 1941 to 1946 utilized several methods of data collection for troops deployed worldwide to varying environmental conditions. Techniques used for data collection included both field tests and individual and group surveys conducted on site; most subjects were Army soldiers, with the exception of several Air Force units and flight crews.
Studies evaluating male soldiers during World War H reported mean intakes of energy in garrison ranging from 3,400 to 3,800 kcal with protein intake from 110 to 132 g; intakes during field training were similar: 3,200 to 4,100 kcal and 100 to 125 g protein, with percentage of energy from protein at 13 percent for both garrison and field (Table 4-2).
In one of the first rigorous ration tests during World War II (Johnson and Kark, 1946), the B Ration was tested (Camp Lee, Va.) on soldiers who were placed on a rigid activity program that would reflect the ordinarily increased energy expenditure of deployment. During the pre-experimental or control period, test subjects consumed dining hall A Rations and participated in a work schedule that resulted in an estimated energy expenditure of 3,100 kcal/d. Energy intake (3,800 kcal) was highest during the control phase of the study while protein intake was 116 g (Table 4-2). As the physical activity schedule
TABLE 4-2 Energy and Protein Intake by Male Soldiers: Selected Trials 1940s
Study
N
Ration Type
Energy (kcal)
Protein (g)
%
Energy
Camp Lee, 1943 (G)*, (Johnson and Kark, 1946)
65
A
3,800
116
12.2
Camp Lee, 1943 (G), (Johnson and Kar, 1946)
65
B
3,600
132
14.7
Mess Survey, 1941-1943 (G), (Howe and Berryman, 1945)
†
A
3,790
125
13.2
Camp Carson, 1944 (F)‡, (Bean et al., 1944)
118
B
3,930
125
12.7
Camp Carson, 1944 (F), (Bean el al., 1944)
125
10-1
4,100
125
12.2
Pacific Islands, 1945 (G), (Bean et al., 1946)
50
A
3,400
110
12.9
Luzon, 1945 (F), (Bean et al., 1946)
50
C
3,200
100
12.5
Average (G)
3,648
1 21
13.3
Average (F)
3,743
117
12.5
* G = Garrison study.
‡ F = Field study.
† Calculated from average ration intake from 455 garrison messes.
became more intense (4,000 kcal) during the test period, energy intake actually decreased while protein intake increased. Although the B Ration offered during the test phase provided 3,800 kcal, soldiers consumed only 3,600 kcal, and 132 g protein and generally complained of hunger.
Additional food consumption studies conducted at U.S. Army training camps from 1941 to 1943 were reported by Howe and Berryman (1945). Surveys took place at 50 posts and 455 mess facilities using the difference between weights of food issued and food discarded or wasted. Although consumption of foods away from the mess was not recorded, it was estimated that 350 to 400 kcal/d were purchased at the canteen or were received in personal packages. Results again showed a daily consumption of approximately 3,800 kcal of energy and 125 g of protein.
In 1944, acceptability and adequacy of several field rations were tested at 2,700 m elevation in the Rocky Mountains with Army troops from Camp Carson during summer maneuvers. Daily energy intake ranged from 2,880 kcal for a small group consuming the K Ration to 4,100 kcal, with protein intake averaging 12 percent of energy (110-125 g). Over a study period of 55 days, measurements of physical fitness, nutritional status, biochemical indices, and rifle firing all improved, with no differences seen between ration types (Bean et al., 1944).
Surveys of the health, fitness, and nutrition of troops in the Pacific were conducted in 1945 to compare nutrient intake of noncombat garrison soldiers with those who had been in combat continuously for 41/2 months. Average nutrient intake of garrison soldiers in the Pacific was similar to intake by soldiers in training camps in the United States, in part due to ample supplies of fresh and frozen foods. Troops living exclusively on packaged rations (C Rations) in Luzon had a daily caloric intake 200 to 300 kcal less than garrison troops, but protein intake remained similar among the soldiers at 13 percent of total energy consumed (Bean et al., 1946).
CURRENT RATION INTAKE
More recent (1994-1996) studies have reported intakes by men in garrison ranging from 2,773 to 3,173 kcal and 98 to 132 g protein, averaging 15.2 percent of energy from protein; field intakes have ranged from 2,009 to 3,050 kcal and 86 to 126 g protein, or 16 percent of energy from protein (Table 4-3). Intakes by women have also been reported, with intakes in garrison ranging from 1,832 to 2,592 kcal and 75 to 96 g protein, and intakes in field exercises ranging from 1,668 to 2,343 kcal and 68 to 82 g protein, with approximately 15 percent of energy from protein in both garrison and field assessments (Table 4-4). It should be noted that mean weight of male soldiers increased from 68.4 kg in the 1940s to a current mean weight of 78.9 kg; current mean weight of female soldiers is 63.6 kg. In data recently collected from the Army Food and
under winter conditions were assessed for adequacy of nutritional intake over a 10-d field training exercise. Although individuals were given 4 MREs/d, consumption again remained significantly lower than the Military Recommended Dietary Allowances (MRDAs) for energy and protein (Edwards et al., 1989).
Because of concerns that logistical problems with food supply may require individuals to subsist solely on the MRE for up to 30 days, a study was conducted at Fort Chaffee, Arkansas, to assess the ability of the MRE to meet soldiers' nutritional needs and maintain performance in a field environment for an extended period (Thomas et al., 1995). Participants were combat engineers on a regularly scheduled 30-d field training exercise; they were divided into one group eating three MREs and two pouch bread (190 kcal, 5 g protein each) per day and one group eating two A Rations and one MRE per day. Nearly one-third of the subjects indicated they wanted to lose weight during the training exercise, and this was reflected in a low mean energy intake of 2,462 kcal for the MRE group and 2,911 kcal for the A Ration group. Even with incomplete consumption of the MREs provided, soldiers in both groups obtained 100 percent of their MRDA for protein and demonstrated a positive nitrogen balance, which indicates that although caloric intake was low, performance and overall nutritional status were not impaired when soldiers consumed only MREs for 30 days.
A test was conducted with a Marine battery-sized field artillery unit in 1994 at Chocolate Mountain Desert Gunnery Range, California (Tharion et al., 1997). The primary purpose of the test was to assess the ability of the new Unitized Group Ration (UGR) to meet nutritional requirements of individuals working in a desert environment. The UGR used in this study was a combination of A, B, and T Rations, which provided hot meals in a group feeding setting for two meals per day, with the third meal a MRE. Either a carbohydrate or a placebo beverage was also provided ad libitum to two supplemental groups to assess effects of additional nutrient intake and hydration status. In the placebo group, mean energy intake was 73 percent of MRDA (2,631 kcal), while protein intake was 105 percent (105 g). Although protein intake appeared to be adequate, energy intake was well below the calculated energy expenditure of approximately 4,300 kcal/d. The carbohydrate beverage did increase mean daily energy consumption (3,050 kcal), but protein intake was lower (93 g). This study provides further evidence that even when troops in field training exercises are provided two hot meals per day and consume adequate protein, their caloric intake may be inadequate for energy needs.
Alternately, studies of nutrient intake in garrison dining facilities continue to show that soldiers are consuming adequate energy and protein. Reports on assessment of nutritional status of soldiers at Fort Riley, Kansas; Fort Lewis, Washington (Szeto et al., 1987); and Fort Devens, Massachusetts (Szeto et al., 1988, 1989), concluded that dining facility consumption provided adequate daily energy and protein intakes for individuals, even when some meals and
snacks were being consumed elsewhere. By contrast, air defense artillery soldiers at Fort Polk, Louisiana (Cline et al., 1997) consumed only approximately half of their meals in the dining facility. Overall nutrient intake from all foods, including those consumed elsewhere, was adequate in energy and protein. Nutrient intakes were reported to be 3,091 kcal and 105 g protein, with 13.6 percent of total energy obtained from protein. Although mean energy intake was below the MRDA, protein intake was adequate.
A nutritional assessment of Army Rangers at Hunter Army Airfield in 1996 was the first of an Army Special Operations unit (Champagne et al., 1997). Rangers are routinely involved with extensive deployments and field training exercises. This study was designed to compare dietary intake of Rangers before deployment with that during a field training exercise and during recovery after return. Phase I (predeployment) assessed a group subsisting in a garrison dining facility for the 6 days immediately prior to deployment on the exercise, while Phase II (training) assessed the dietary intake of the same unit during the 6-d field training exercise while consuming MREs (Table 4-3). Phase III assessed postdeployment garrison intake of a subgroup (n = 40) of subjects for the 2 days immediately after return from the field; mean recovery intake was 2,965 kcal and 98 g protein (13.2% of total energy). Mean energy and protein intakes for all phases were lower than what have been reported on previous studies. As with the soldiers at Fort Polk, a substantial amount of food (33% of energy) was consumed away from the dining facility. This trend is similar to eating patterns reported in national nutrition monitoring studies of eating patterns of nonurban households, where more than one-third of total food dollars were spent on food away from home (Interagency Board, 1993).
Energy and Protein Intakes of Military Women
Until recently, few studies have assessed nutritional intake of military women during field exercises or deployment. Women who were members of an Army engineering group deployed to high altitude in Bolivia were assessed for nutrient intake while consuming a combination of two B Ration meals and one MRE per day. They were also given a high-carbohydrate supplemental pack to consume between meals to determine whether increased carbohydrate intake was preferable at high altitude. Energy and protein intake were well below MRDA; approximately half of the subjects indicated they had acute mountain sickness (AMS) symptoms, which most likely affected appetite (Edwards et al., 1991).
Two field studies that included women as subjects were completed with Army Reserve hospitals conducting their annual field training exercises and subjects consuming operational rations. At Fort Hood, Texas, two A Ration meals and one MRE per day were provided during an 8-d test period; individuals also had access to additional foods they brought or that could be purchased from a PX mobile kitchen or fast-food establishments in the vicinity
of the field site. Although 26 percent of the subjects stated that they were attempting to lose weight during the training exercise, mean energy intake was 2,343 kcal and mean protein intake was 82 g, both of which exceeded the MRDA for women (M.S. Rose et al., 1989). Similar results were reported in an Army Reserve hospital unit training at Camp Parks, California (Hirsch et al., in press).
When comparing nutrient intakes between women in enlisted basic training at Fort Jackson, South Carolina (R.W. Rose et al., 1989; King et al., 1994) and women in officer basic training at Fort Sam Houston, Texas (Cline et al., 1998), a difference was observed in both energy and protein intakes. Meals for enlisted women are provided in a dining facility at scheduled times, with free access to a variety of food selections. Alternately, officers are given a monetary allowance to purchase food, but they live in temporary housing, such as motels or officers quarters, that has limited or no cooking facilities. This could account for lower energy and protein intake by the officers. No recent studies have been completed on nutrient intake of career military women in garrison.
DETERMINATION OF PROTEIN REQUIREMENTS FOR OPERATIONAL RATIONS
The first standard recommendations for nutrient requirements for military personnel were formulated by the FNB of the National Research Council, a project that was organized in 1940 in connection with the defense program (Samuels et al., 1947). Recommendations by the board addressed allowances needed to maintain optimal nutritional status. Of concern was the fact that rations designed for short-term use, not previously required to be nutritionally adequate, were being used over long periods of time. Maximum nutrient availability was emphasized in all but a few of the survival rations.
The standard originally established for protein was 70 g/3,000 kcal, for a reference man weighing 70 kg. This recommendation was equivalent to 9 percent of energy from protein, and 0.8 to 1.0 g/kg of body weight (kcal requirements of 3,000-3,600). After reviewing research on energy consumption and expenditure of soldiers during World War II, the Army raised energy requirements to 3,600 kcal for physically active personnel in temperate climates, with a protein requirement of 100 g (AR 40-250, 1947). The RDA (NRC, 1989) for protein is 58 to 63 g for males and 46 to 50 g for females in the age categories of military personnel; recommendations are lower because reference weights and activity levels used for calculations are less than those for the military population.
Several investigators have recommended that the RDA for protein be increased to 1.5 g/kg for endurance athletes and to 2.0 g/kg for strength athletes (Brotherhood, 1984; Williams, 1995; Lemon, 1996). Recent research has shown an increase in the weight of Army soldiers from 68 to 78 kg for men and 61 to 62 kg for women (Gordon et al., 1989) which would increase recommendations
to 117 g of protein (1.5 g/kg) for operational rations if soldiers are involved in heavy work. If protein in rations is increased to accommodate recommendations of 1.5g/kg for endurance activity in men, it would contribute 13% of food energy at the 3,600 kcal level. Food consumption data on the U.S. population from NHANES III (Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) indicate that 14 to 16 percent of the total food energy intake is derived from protein (Interagency Board, 1995). This proportion remains similar for both sexes.
Energy requirements should be evaluated with full consideration of the fuel necessary to balance energy expenditure. For example, energy expenditure during field operations for Special Forces students has been reported at levels up to 6,000 kcal/d (Shippee et al., 1994).
SUPPLEMENT INTAKE
In data from the Army Food and Nutrition Survey I (Warber el al., 1996) at 33 Army installations worldwide, supplementation with amino acid (AA) products or protein powders (PP) was reported by military members, with usage differing by age and military job specialty (Table 4-5). Individuals less than 30 years old reported the highest use by age, with approximately one-third using both types of products. When classified by military job specialty, individuals in combat arms reported the highest usage, followed by combat service support and combat support. Percentages of men using AA (33% vs. 16%) or PP (27% vs. 11%) are at least double that of women, and individuals required to eat in military dining facilities report a higher percentage of usage (AA = 35%, PP = 29%) than those who receive food allowances to eat elsewhere (AA = 30%, PP = 24%).
Many amino acid and protein powder supplements have become available for purchase in military commissaries and exchanges, as well as in fitness centers on military installations. Newly established ''nutrition store" franchises are also opening on numerous bases, offering products with a myriad of claims for benefit to performance. An expanding selection of fitness magazines is also available for purchase, providing advertisements as well as feature articles on claims of the benefits of the protein and amino acid products. Thus, military personnel have increased their consumption of these products because of their desire to improve physical performance and the belief that they will receive some benefit from using them on a regular basis.
Considerable variability persists, however. During a nutrient intake study at Fort Polk, Louisiana, in 1995 (Cline et al., 1997), only 4 percent of young male soldiers in an Air Defense Artillery company replied that they were using protein supplements. These responses contrasted with a 44 percent consumption rate among Army Rangers participating in a similar study at Hunter Army Airfield, Georgia, in 1996 (Unpublished data, J.P. Warber, USARIEM, Natick, Mass, 1997).
TABLE 4-5 Percentage of Military Personnel Reporting Use of Protein Supplements
In a recent study on women entering the Army for basic training, only 2 of 105 replied that they had consumed supplemental protein products prior to entry for training (Cline and Pusateri, 1996). Women who have been on active duty for a longer period of time have reported a much higher rate of consumption (Table 4-5), leading one to question whether they have been influenced by the performance and fitness attitudes of their male counterparts with whom they exercise.
AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Male military personnel maintain high protein intakes from food consumption in garrison as well as during field operations. Females, however, generally consume less energy and protein than MRDA guidelines require during field exercises where access to foods is limited to operational rations.
Protein supplements are being used by a substantial number of military personnel, although no documented benefits from their use have been reported. This practice has been encouraged by easy access to products for purchase on military installations and a very active informal information network among military personnel that indicates perceived benefits of these products.
What has not been addressed in detail is whether a change has taken place in the food contribution of protein. Is the highest proportion of protein consumed provided by meats and dairy products, or have other food groups
gradually replaced these in their contribution of protein to the diet? Dietary protein quality and digestibility of proteins in specific foods consumed need further investigation.
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Szeto, E.G., J.A. Gallo, and K.W. Samonds. 1989. Passive nutrition intervention in a military-operated garrison dining facility. Ft. Devens II. Technical Report No. T7-89. Natick, Mass: U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine.
Tharion, W.J., A.D. Cline, N. Hotson, W. Johnson, P. Niro, C.J. Baker-Fulco, S. McGraw, R.L. Shippee, T.M. Skibinski, R.W. Hoyt, J.P. Delany, R.E. Tulley, J. Rood, W.R. Santee, S.H.M. Boquist, M. Bordic, M. Kramer, S.H. Slade, and H.R. Lieberman. 1997. Nutritional challenges for field feeding in a desert environment: Use of the Unitized Group Ration (UGR) and a supplemental carbohydrate beverage. Technical Report No. T97-9. Natick, Mass.: U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine.
Thomas, C.D., K.E. Friedl, M.Z. Mays, S.H. Mutter, R.J. Moore, D.A. Jezior, C.J. Baker-Fulco, L.J. Marchitelli, R.T. Tulley, and E.W. Askew. 1995. Nutrient intakes and nutritional status of soldiers consuming the Meal, Ready-To-Eat (MRE XIII) during a 30-day field training exercise. Technical Report No. T95-6. Natick, Mass.: U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine.
U.S. Department of the Army. 1947. Army Regulation 40-250. "Nutrition" Washington, D.C.
U.S. Departments of the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force. 1995. Army Regulation 40-25/Naval Command Medical Instruction 10110.1/Air Force Regulation 160-95. Nutritional Allowances, Standards and Education. May 15. Washington, D.C.
U.S. War Department. 1944. Nutrition. War Department Circular No. 98. Washington, D.C.
Warber, J.P., F.M. Kramer, S.M. McGraw, L.L. Lesher, W. Johnson, and A.D. Cline. 1996. The Army Food and Nutrition Survey, 1995-97. Technical Report. Natick, Mass.: U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine.
Williams, C. 1995. Macronutrients and performance. J. Sports Sci. 13 Spec No: S1-10.
Discussion
PATRICK DUNNE: The Savannah study subjects, in part, were by design a test population who consumed a diet that was purposefully lower in protein but higher in carbohydrate. I think we need to look at the trade-offs here because we got them to achieve well above the military 400 grams of carbohydrate intake, and it was designed to be a hot-weather study. So that was a designed diet, not a free choice; it was rather selective. What we really want to do is look at impact and overall turnover of water and hydration as part of that study. Jim hopefully has some data for us on that.
I think that one of the drivers that leads the ration developers and the logistics community to look at protein is not just performance but it is actually the cost of the ration. So there are some major trade-offs in overall metabolism. If you want to trade protein for carbohydrate, maybe that is good, but not protein for fat. That was our design.
ALANA CLINE: The data that I used for that study actually were from the control group that did not have the higher carbohydrate intake. The protein intake was even lower with the test group. So I went ahead and just used the control group for that and it is still a little bit lower.
DOUGLAS WILMORE: Thank you for the presentation. Do you have information on the source of the dietary protein over the period of 30 years or so?
ALANA CLINE: I do not have the historical data on the source of the protein. Some of our more recent studies are showing that there is a higher intake now of protein from non-meat sources. That is something that we would want to consider because there is a difference in the quality of the protein that is being consumed. That is something that we do need to look at more closely.
DOUGLAS WILMORE: So we have no idea about protein efficiency?
ALANA CLINE: Not for the historical data.
ROBERT NESHEIM: One last question.
ROBERT WOLFE: On that slide showing. voluntary intake of supplements you had two columns, amino acids and protein, and one was like 36 percent and the other was 30. Does that mean that 36 percent were taking amino acids and a separate 30 percent were taking protein.
ALANA CLINE: Yes. There were two separate questions.
ROBERT WOLFE: So that was the total of the two things they were taking in terms of dietary supplements?
ALANA CLINE: No, I am sorry. It was either one or the other. So it would be about 30 percent. They could be taking both, We were not able to really clarify that with the questionnaire that we had.
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https://www.hanzaki.net/english-page/
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What is the Hanzaki Research Institute of Japan?
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] |
[] |
[] |
[
"兵庫県",
"朝来市",
"生野町",
"黒川",
"オオサンショウウオ",
"ハンザキ",
"研究所",
"生野",
"栃本",
"武良",
"夜間観察会",
"あんこう",
"黒川小学校",
"自然観察",
"生き物",
"両生類"
] | null |
[] | null |
It is a professional research institute of the Japanese Giant Salamander and represents a generic name for a collection of facilities for research, environmental education, community exchange as well as a museum. “Hanzaki” was once the standard Japanese name for the Japanese Giant Salamander and “Ankou” is a local name in this area. The common name in Japanese is now Ōsanshōuo (オオサンショウウオ). *Please be noted that the institute is not open to the public. Please contact us at [email protected] if you could like to visit the institute. We strive to respond to your email within 72 hours. However, we are understaffed and would appreciate your understanding in case that we were not able to respond in a timely manner.
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ja
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https://u.jimcdn.com/cms/o/sbf77ce30b0895e6d/img/favicon.ico?t=1493276025
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日本ハンザキ研究所
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https://www.hanzaki.net/english-page/
|
It is a professional research institute of the Japanese Giant Salamander and represents a generic name for a collection of facilities for research, environmental education, community exchange as well as a museum. “Hanzaki” was once the standard Japanese name for the Japanese Giant Salamander and “Ankou” is a local name in this area. The common name in Japanese is now Ōsanshōuo (オオサンショウウオ).
*Please be noted that the institute is not open to the public. Please contact us at [email protected] if you could like to visit the institute. We strive to respond to your email within 72 hours. However, we are understaffed and would appreciate your understanding in case that we were not able to respond in a timely manner.
Announcement of Mr. Tochimoto’s Death
Mr. Takeyoshi Tochimoto, former director of the NPO Hanzaki Research Institute of Japan, passed away on May 28, 2019, at 13:22 pm. On behalf of the deceased, we would like to thank all of you for supporting the institute for many years.
Because of the fever of an unknown cause that started in May 2019, he became weak for a long period and eventually returned to Himeji for hospitalization.
We regret deeply for his death especially because we were informed that he was able to take meals little by little and was recovering.
Please understand that the funeral was held only by the family, and they decline condolatory calls and flowers.
We sincerely pray that Mr. Tochimoto’s soul may rest in peace.
We look forward to your continued support and cooperation.
Sumio Okada, PhD
Director of the NPO Hanzaki Institute of Japan
Our New Director
Dr. Sumio Okada succeeded the directorship of the institute from Mr. Tochimoto in 2017 who was active as an honorary president until his death. Now the institute made a new start under Dr. Okada’s directorship. Dr. Okada is the world’s leading authority on Japanese giant salamanders with 20+ years of experience with this species. His research currently focuses on parental care behaviors, breeding ecology, population assessment, and human impacts. He has published extensively and appeared on numerous nature documentaries.
The Hanzaki Institute and Asago City are hosting 17th Annual Japanese Giant Salamander Conference in 2020!
We are excited to announce that we are the host for the next Annual Conference. The past conferences have been domestic and targeted only Japanese participants. In 2020, we are making the conference international and inviting not only Japanese but also international participants. Please be noted that it is an invitation-only conference. If you are a member of CIG (Cryptobranchid Interest Group), you will receive an invitation. If you are not a CIG member but are involved in amphibian conservation research/education, please contact us for the details of the conference.
On-going Research Projects
Whereas we work with the Prefectural and the local governments for outsourcing population surveys, we actively seek grants from private companies and organizations for our own research summarized below.
Population Monitoring
Our main research project is to monitor the giant salamander population in Ichikawa River. We regularly wade through the river at night, find giant salamanders, and take various measurements. To date, we identified over 1700 individuals and most of them are identified with microchips. By comparing data and measurements over time, we are working to resolve mysteries behind the life cycle of the Japanese Giant Salamander such as longevity and growth rate.
Population Assessment - Collaboration with Bucknell University
Dr. Mizuki Takahashi’s lab at Bucknell University and we are assessing populations in small un-surveyed tributaries using the environmental DNA method. We currently know little about the importance of those small streams (1 to 3 order streams) to the cycle history of giant salamanders. Despite the small size, those streams may provide important habitats for larval and juvenile giant salamanders. Dr. Takahashi led a summer research program with three Bucknell Students during the summer of 2018. They stayed at the Institute for about a month, conducted the eDNA research, and interacted with the locals including students from Ikuno High School.
Breeding Ecology - Collaboration with Azabu University
Dr. Kumi Matsui’s lab at Azabu University and we are assessing breeding status of salamanders by analyzing reproductive hormones in blood samples and using a portable ultrasound device. Dr. Matsui’s lab visits the institute throughout the year and monitor how reproductive organs and hormones change in response to their breeding activity.
Population Monitoring within our Community - Collaboration with Ikuno High School
Students from the local Ikuno High School and we just started monitoring of the giant salamander population in front of the Ikuno High School located in Ikuno Town. It is our mission to engage our community members in conservation and promote environmental education among the young. We are developing a long-term collaborative relationship with the high school.
Future Collaborators
We are actively seeking collaborators to promote research and conservation of Japanese Giant Salamanders. Please contact us if you are interested.
Donations to the Institute
We sincerely thank to the following organizations and individuals for their generous supports. We are a non-profitable organization that solely depends on memberships, grants, and donations for the management of the institute. In particular, donations enable us to continue and expand our research. We would greatly appreciate your support.
Honolulu Zoo (2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020)
- Laura Debner
Curator of Reptiles/Amphibians and Children's Zoo/ Conservation Chair
San Antonio Zoo (2016)
- Danté Fenolio, PhD
Vice President of Conservation and Research
Detroit Zoological Society (2017, 2018, 2019, 2020)
- Mark Vassallo
Curator of Amphibians
If you are able to support us, please contact us at [email protected]. If you prefer sending us donation directly, here’s the information.
BENEFICIARY'S BANK
SHINKIN CENTRAL BANK
BENEFICIARY'S BANK SWIFT CODE
ZENBJPJT
BENEFICIARY'S BANK ADDRESS
8-1 KYOBASHI 3-CHOME CHUO-KU TOKYO JAPAN
ACCOUNT NO.
1696 - 001 - 5085835
ACCOUNT WITH BANK
(Paying Bank)
THE TANYO SHINKIN BANK,IKUNO BRANCH
BENEFICIARY'S NAME
NPOhojin Nihonhanzakikenkyusho rijicho Okada Sumio
BENEFICIARY'S ADDRESS
292 KUROKAWA IKUNO-CHO ASAGO-SHI HYOGO JAPAN
Grant
“Development of Best Management Practices Conservation Guide for Giant Salamanders”
Cryptobranchus Interest Group “Ron Goellner Grant”. 2020.
Research Unit
In 2021, we officially established Research Unit. Please see the aim, qualification, and the researchers of our Research Unit as follows.
Aim
In order to achieve the aim of the Hanzaki Research Institute, which is
conservation and restoration of the giant salamander and its natural
environment, it is vital to work with partners who can engage in long-term
research. For this reason, the Hanzaki Research Institute welcomes
researchers who can devote themselves to research with enthusiasm, and will
provide research funds as needed within the budget. Researchers are obliged
to return their research results to society by submitting annual reports,
presenting research findings at domestic and international conferences.
Qualification
Those who, regardless of nationality, has a doctoral degree or are enrolled
in a doctoral program who can engage in research on the giant salamander,
other local wildlife, and their natural environment in cooperation with the
Hanzaki Institute. Those who have not obtained a doctoral degree or who are
not enrolled in a doctoral program may be qualified to be as an Hanzaki
institute researcher based on a recommendation by the president and vice
president.
Director
Sumio Okada
Education
Ph.D., United Graduate School of Agriculture Sciences at Tottori University
Research Interest
My research interests are the ecology and conservation biology of the Japanese giant salamander, especially, larval life history, paternal care behaviors, population dynamics, and the impact of human activities with long-term monitoring.
【Related publications】
Tapley, B., ST Turvey, S Chen, F Xie, J Yang, Z Liang, H Tian, M Wu, S Okada, J Wang, J Lü, F Zhou, J Xu, H Zhao, J Redbond, T Brown and AA Cunningham. 2021. Range-wide decline of Chinese giant salamanders Andrias spp. from suitable habitat. Oryx 2021:1-9.
Bjordahl, B., S Okada and MK Takahashi. 2020. Assessment of small tributaries as possible habitats for larvae and juveniles of Japanese giant salamanders, Andrias japonicus, by coupling environmental DNA with traditional field surveys. Salamandra 56: 148-158.
Turvey, ST., S Chen, B Tapley, G Wei, F Xie, F Yan, J Yang, Z Liang, H Tian, M Wu, S Okada, J Wang, J Lü, F Zhou, SK Papworth, J Redbond, T Brown, J Che and AA Cunningham. 2018.
Imminent extinction in the wild of the world’s largest amphibian. Current Biology 28: R592-R594.
Takahashi, M.K., S Okada and Y Fukuda. 2017. From embryos to larvae: seven-month-long paternal care by male Japanese giant salamander. Journal of Zoology 302: 24-31.
Okada, S., Y. Fukuda, and M.K. Takahashi. 2015. Parental care behaviors of Japanese giant salamander, Andrias japonicus in natural populations. Journal of Ethology 33:1-7. (Editor's Choice 2015 Article)
Tapley,B., S Okada, J Redbond, ST Turvey, S Chen, J Lü, G Wei, M Wu, Y Pan, K Niu and AA Cunningham. 2015. Failure to detect the Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus) in Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve, Guizhou Province, China. Salamandra 51: 206-208.
Okada, S., T Utsunomiya, T Okada, ZI Felix and F Ito. 2008. Characteristics of Japanese giant salamander (Andrias japonicus) populations in two small tributary streams, in Hiroshima Prefecture, western Honshu, Japan. Herpetological Conservation and Biology 3: 192-202.
Okada, S., T Usunomiya, T Okada and ZI Felix. 2006. Radio Transmitter attachment by suturing for the Japanese Giant Salamander (Andrias japonicus). Herpetological Review 37:431-434.
Senior Researcher
Mizuki Takahashi
Educational Background
· Ph.D., The University of Memphis
· M.S., Marshall University
· M.S., The University of Tokyo
· B.S., The University of Tsukuba
Research Interests
My research interests broadly rest on ecology, ethology and conservation of amphibians. Using various research tools such as aquatic mesocosms, behavioral assays, and molecular analyses, our current projects focus on: 1) Interspecific interactions between wood frogs and spotted salamanders, 2) Effects of road salt pollution on an aquatic community, 3) Parental care behaviors of Japanese giant
Researcher
Yuichi Ikegami
Educational Background
· M.S., The University of Shimane
· B.S., The University of Shimane
Research Interests
Since my retirement, I started studying Chinese and Japanese classic literature and found it interesting to see how such classic literature provides the foundation for modern society and culture. With this background, I am interested in histories and folklores surrounding giant salamanders.
Researcher
Kaori Takagi
Educational Background
Ph.D., The University of Tokyo
M.S., The University of Tokyo
B.S., Tokyo Gakugei University
Research Interests
Salamander, dispersal, landscape genetics, local adaptation, metapopulation dynamics, conservation ecology.
I seek to understand the survival strategies of salamanders from the perspective of dispersal and local adaptation. Especially, I am interested in how dispersal and local adaptation contribute to the maintenance of metapopulations. Ultimately, I would like to apply these pieces of knowledge to the management and conservation of salamanders.
【Related publications】
Takagi, K. and Miyashita, T. 2019 “Larval Prey Preference of Pond-breeding salamander Hynobius tokyoensis Living in a Stream” Current Herpetology in East Asia. Herpetological Society of Japan, Kyoto
口頭発表
“Salamander population persistence from a spatially explicit cross-ecosystem perspective” The 9th World Congress of herpetology, Dunedin, New Zealand,（2020/1）
“Salamander population persistence from a spatially explicit cross-ecosystem perspective” The Annual meeting of The Ecological Society of Japan, Kobe International Conference Center, Kobe, Japan,（2019/3）
Researcher
Kyosuke Hamanaka
Educational Background
· M.S., Kyoto University
· B.S., Kyoto University
Research Interests
I have been interested in ethological and evolutionary research on reptiles and amphibians. My main interests are food habits, prey recognition, and the foraging behavior of pit vipers. I usually conduct lab experiments under controlled conditions using various methods, but I also put great emphasis on basic observations in the field. I have participated in surveys on diverse herptiles including giant salamanders over 10 years.
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https://militarycompatibility.maryland.gov/Pages/Military-Installations-in-Maryland/blossom-point-home.aspx
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Blossom Point Research Facility
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An official website of the State of Maryland.
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/_layouts/15/MDSharePointToolkit/egov/img/favicon.ico?v=1
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Military and Community Compatibility
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https://militarycompatibility.maryland.gov:443/Pages/Military-Installations-in-Maryland/blossom-point-home.aspx
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A Compatible Use Study, formerly referred to as a Joint Land Use Study, represents a community-driven, cooperative, and strategic planning process to protect and preserve military readiness and defense capabilities while supporting continued community growth and economic development. The study is based upon technical information the military service provides to describe current military operations. The compatibility analysis results in a series of recommended actions included in an implementation strategy to guide compatible community development in support of continued military operations.
Charles County, with financial support from the Office of Local Defense Community Cooperation (formerly known as Office of Economic Adjustment), Department of Defense, completed the Blossom Point Joint Land Use Study (JLUS), in April 2012. The JLUS represents a collaborative effort among BPRF, Charles County, local elected officials, planning commissioners, local military base command staff, community business leaders, including the Charles County Chamber of Commerce, homebuilders, real estate interests, landowners, and neighboring residents. The JLUS includes an analysis of compatibility factors that may adversely impact the installation and military operations and subsequent recommendations to address the identified concerns.
The specific objectives of the Blossom Point JLUS included Charles County working with the U.S. Department of the Army and Naval Research Lab to:
Provide an environment in which, to the extent possible, land uses in proximity to Blossom Point remain compatible with the operations of the Blossom Point Research Facility;
Facilitate the ability of Blossom Point Research Facility to achieve its mission, maintain military readiness, and support national defense objectives; and
Promote health, safety, and welfare of military and civilian personnel living and working near Blossom Point Research Facility. 9
The most significant compatibility issues identified in the Blossom Point JLUS include frequency interference, noise, vibration, vertical obstructions, and trespassing. To address these issues, the JLUS includes a series of recommended actions for Charles County, the U.S. Army, and other agencies and stakeholders to implement. The six primary recommendations include changes to the Charles County Comprehensive Plan that incorporate BPRF, review of special exception applications to include BPRF involvement, when appropriate, updates and expansions to real estate disclosures so that potential buyers are made aware of potential issues related to BPRF, acquisition of target properties to prevent incompatible development, review of the zoning ordinance, and periodic reviews of the JLUS.
Completed implementation actions of JLUS recommendations include adding the Federally owned lands - military installations section to the comprehensive plan, and including figures to illustrate the Military Awareness Area and other areas of potential concern for BPRF. Charles County staff forward any land use development applications within the Military Awareness Area to BPRF staff for review and comment. However, given that BPRF is bounded on the west, east, and south by water and to the north by the Cedar Point Wildlife Management Area, Charles County receives few development applications. A fence has been installed along the north property boundary to address potential hunter trespass on BPRF property.
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https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/access
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en
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Directions
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Location in Japan Kyoto University is located in the historic city of Kyoto, which flourished as the nation’s capital for over a thousand years until that status was transferred to Tokyo.
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en
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KYOTO UNIVERSITY
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https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/access
|
Location in Japan
Kyoto University is located in the historic city of Kyoto, which flourished as the nation’s capital for over a thousand years until that status was transferred to Tokyo.
Directions for Kyoto Station from airports
There are some ways to get from the airports to JR Kyoto Station, including trains, buses and taxis. Please refer to each airport's website for travel times and fares.
From Kansai International Airport (KIX)
For more information, please visit the "Access" of the Kansai International Airport official website.
From Osaka International Airport (Itami)
For more information, please visit the "Access" of the Osaka International Airport official website.
From Narita International Airport (NRT)
For more information, please visit the "Access" of the Narita International Airport official website.
Location of three campuses in Kyoto
Downloadable maps
Campus maps (for download)
Research institutes and centers
In Kyoto prefecture
Nationwide
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https://www.doc.sc.gov/institutions
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en
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South Carolina Department of Corrections
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The Department of Corrections has 21 institutions and they are categorized into four distinct
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/profiles/contrib/acquia_cms/acquia_cms.png
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https://www.doc.sc.gov/institutions
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SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
Stephen Duncan, Warden
4460 Broad River Road
Columbia, SC 29210
(803) 896-2234
Opened: 1988
Custody level: Close and Medium (Male)
Education: GED Preparation, Adult Education, Literacy, Work Keys, Barber Certification through Barber Tech Academy, Bachelor’s Degree Program through Benedict College, Employee Ability Skills.
Health Care: Routine medical and dental care on site with 24-hour medical coverage.
Industries: Industries operates two separate plants. Prison Industries I (P1-1) plant entails three work programs. The Tag Plant manufactures all vehicle license plates for the State of South Carolina. The Sign Shop manufactures signs, decals, name plates, etc., for state agencies, counties, municipalities, and non-profit organizations.
Programs: Narcotics Anonymous, Alcoholics Anonymous, I am Responsible, Inmate Peer Support, Thinking for a Change and Anger Management, Residential Sex Offender Treatment Program, Choices Treatment Program, High Level Behavior Management Unit, Crisis Stabilization Unit and Secure Mental Health Housing Unit. Kairos Prison Ministry, Columbia International University Prison Initiative, Jumpstart, Men’s Fraternity, B.A.S.S. Program
Services: This institution provides housing for the general population, maintains Death Row inmates for the entire state, medically dependent and inmates within the special management unit (SMU). The medically dependent inmates are housed in the Moultrie Unit and require 24 hour medical care. Broad River is the dialysis site for SCDC inmates. Also, the institution houses inmates who are deaf and blind as well as those that require dialysis and sex offender treatment.
Vocational Training: Sign Shop and License Plate Shop
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
Devin Gadson, Warden
4450 Broad River Road
Columbia, SC 29210-4096
(803) 896-8590
Opened: 1973
Custody level: Medium & Special Needs (Female)
Services: This institution houses special needs women 17 years of age and older. The institution also functions as a major special management unit with the ability to house female death row inmates and county safekeepers.
Education: Literacy, GED Preparation, High School courses and Claflin University.
Vocational Training: Welding and office skills courses.
Industries: Apparel plant produces different articles of apparel used by SCDC county-designated facilities, and other state agencies.
Health Care: Routine medical and dental care provided on-site with 24-hour medical coverage. Medical assessments completed for all new inmates received at the Reception and Evaluation Unit. Serves as regional medical facility for female offenders who are pregnant, physically and mentally challenged, and those with debilitating conditions and disabilities which require 24-hour medical supervision.
Programs: Religious services, volunteer services , Pre-Release Classes, Alcoholics Anonymous, Rehabilitation Services (outpatient counseling). SisterCare for Abused and Battered Women, Impact of Crime classes, Jumpstart program, Mental Health Services, CDL Training/Certification, MAT, Peer Support, Prison Fellowship, Apparel Plant, Persevere, Recreational Services, Pathfinder Program, Pathways to Healing and YOPRS Program.
Satellite Activity: Women's Reception and Evaluation Center opened January 1993. It processes all female offenders entering the Department of Corrections.
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF) / ASU Disp (PDF)
Donnie Stonebreaker, Jr., Warden
610 Highway 9 West
Bennettsville, SC 29512
(843) 479-4181 or (803) 896-4900
Opened: 1989
Custody level: Medium (Male)
Education: Palmetto Unified School District/Evans CI Adult Basic Education offers students with a variety of programs, including WIN testing which includes SC Work Ready Credentials, soft skills, and digital literacy certificates. Additionally, a GED program that Reviews Reading, Math, Science, and Social Studies Courses to Prepare the student for GED Ready/GED testing. TABE testing is also offered.
Health Care: Routine medical and dental care on site with 12-hour medical coverage; hospice program.
Vocational Training: Barbering and OJT certificate programs in Prison Industries, Religious Services, Education, Food Services, Janitorial Services, Maintenance and Landscaping.
Industries: A private sector industry where electronic components are assembled.
Programs: Multi-faith religious services, Jumpstart Reentry Program, Volunteer services, Kairos, Men’s Fraternity, Conflict Resolution and Anger Management classes, and Recreational services. Medicated Assisted Treatment Program (MAT), Certified Peer Support Specialist (CPSS). Offenders can take advantage of post-secondary opportunities from Northeastern Technical College (NETC) and the 2nd Chance Pell Grant by matriculating in a two-year associate degree in Applied Business Administration or Welding, an 18-hour course study leading to certifications in ARC Welding, Flux Core Welding, Machine Tool, and/or Workforce Science. In addition, projected returning citizens (60-120 days from release) can obtain Certifications in Forklift Training, Blueprint Reading, and OSHA 10- hour BASIC. Prison Industries Programs offenders are trained and paid hourly by MidCon Cables as electronic assemblers to produce cable and wire harnesses for industrial, commercial, and military usage.
Community Services: Provides an inmate labor crew to the Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism. Provides an "Operation Behind Bars" program for at-risk youth and adults to tour the prison and hear inmates describe what led to their criminal behavior and life inside prison.
Services: Serves as one of the video conferencing sites for parole hearings in conjunction with the SC Department of Probation, Parole and Pardon Services.
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
Terrie Wallace, Warden
4344 Broad River Road
Columbia, SC 29210
(803) 896-1521
Opened: 1975
Custody level: Close (Male)
Services: Kirkland receives, assesses, classifies and assigns all male offenders age 17 and above sentenced to 91 days or more. Combined, the R&E process receives approximately 8000 offenders each year. Kirkland is the site for the Maximum Security Unit that serves the state. This specialized housing unit is where the most dangerous and violent offenders are housed.
Education: Educational evaluations, monthly GED testing, Corrections Learning Network, GED Preparation, and Adult Basic Education..
Health Care: Routine medical and dental care provided on site. A DHEC-licensed 24-bed infirmary for use by all SCDC male inmates. Mental health services provided by staff of the Gilliam Psychiatric Hospital. Intermediate Care Services Unit for males.
Programs: Religious Services, Volunteer Services, CIU, Shock, ICS, Reentry Services and Recreational Services.
Services: Serves as one of the video conferencing sites for parole hearings in conjunction with the South Carolina Department of Probation, Parole and Pardon Services
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
Thomas D. Robertson, Warden
2809 Airport Road
Greenwood, SC 29649
(864) 229-5709 or (803) 896-1000
Opened: 1991
Custody level: Medium (Female)
Education: Literacy, GED and GED Preparation.
Industries: Private sector plant manufacturing t-shirts. Manufacturing apparel for institutional use.
Health Care: Routine medical, mental health, and dental care provided on site with 24-hour medical coverage.
Programs: Religious services for all faiths, Self-Paced In Class Education (SPICE), Prison Fellowship Academy, Peer Support, Sober Living Unit, Parenting Inside Out, Strengthening Families, Alcoholics Anonymous, Impact of Crime, Creative Writing Workshop, Battering Intervention, Jumpstart, Narcotics Anonymous, Recreational Services, Job Readiness, Violence Prevention, MAT (Medication Assisted Treatment), Hobbycraft Program, Mother’s Reading Program, Leath Boutique, Operation Behind Bars (will be reinstated), Yoga Classes, Prison Fellowship, KAIROS, Women’s Outpatient Group, Beyond Abuse Therapy Group and Plant Industries.
Community Services: Provides a correctional officer supervised litter crew who provides services to Palmetto Pride. Provides an Operation Behind Bars program for at risk youth and adults to tour the prison and hear inmates describe what led to their criminal behavior and life inside prison. Service based Character Arts Program teaches inmates to give back to the community by working with The Burton Center for disabilities and special needs, The Guardian Ad-Litem Program, The Greenwood Genetic Center and local homeless shelters, nursing homes, and community outreach groups. The Braille program provides quality Braille textbooks and tactile graphics for students in grades Kindergarten through 12th Grade.
Additional Information: Leath's Website (PDF)
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
Brian Kendall, Warden
136 Wilborn Avenue
Ridgeville, SC 29472
843-875-3332 or 803-896-3700
Mailing Address:
P.O. Box 205
Ridgeville, SC 29472
Opened:1986
Custody level: Close (Male)
Education: Literacy and GED Preparation.
Vocational Training: Carpentry
Industries: Various recycling projects for a private sector company and a tire retreading operation for state government.
Health Care: Routine medical and dental care on site with 24-hour medical coverage and a licensed infirmary.
Programs: Religious services, Volunteer Services, Alcohol and Drug Education Program, Recovery Group, Impact of Crime classes, Recreational Services, Going Home for Good Pre-release program, Violence Prevention and Voorhees College.
Community Services: Provides an Operation Behind Bars program for at risk youth and adults to tour the prison and hear inmates describe what led to their criminal behavior and life inside prison.
Services: Serves as one of the video conferencing sites for parole hearings in conjunction with the South Carolina Department of Probation, Parole and Pardon Services.
Formerly Livesay PRC
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
George Dodkin, Warden
104 Broadcast Drive
Spartanburg, SC 29303-4711
"A" Camp: (864) 594-4915
"B" Camp: (864) 495-4920
Mailing Address:
P.O. Box 580
Una, SC 29378
Prior to July 2007, Livesay "A" Camp was known as Livesay Pre-Release Center.
Opened:1982
Custody level: Minimum-Out (Male)
Education: Adult Education, GED Prep and Testing, Work Keys Program, In House On-The-Job Training Certification, Prison Industry Work/ Training Program, Numerous Private Industry Employment Opportunities Outside the Facility.
Vocational Training: Full Brick Masonry Certification Program.
Health Care: Routine medical care provided at "B" Camp, with 24-hour emergency care available.
Programs: Multi Denominational Religious Services, Full Volunteer Program, Recreational Services, Volunteer Services, Jumpstart Reentry Program, Varied Pre-Release Preparation Programs and Toastmasters Program.
Satellite Activities: A Restitution Center was opened in 1990 that is located on the premises and operated by the South Carolina Department of Probation, Parole, and Pardon Services. .
Community Services: Provides inmate labor crews to the Spartanburg Housing Authority, the City of Travelers Rest, Spartanburg County Solid Waste, Spartanburg City Public Works, Spartanburg County Environmental Services, Greenville Parks & Recreation and an employee-supervised inmate litter crew who picks up trash along the interstate highways.
Work Program: Job development, placement, and financial responsibility.
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
Wilfredo Martell, Warden
1516 Old Gilliard Road
Ridgeville, SC 29472
(803) 737-3036 or (843) 688-5251 or
(843) 875-0880
Opened:1966
Custody level: Medium and Minimum (Male)
Education: Palmetto Unified School District/MacDougall High School serves a diversified group of students with a variety of programs, including GED Preparation and testing, ABE (Adult Basic Education), and Worldwide Interactive Network (WIN) career readiness certificates.
Vocational Training: Our Career and Technology Education (CTE) programs include Carpentry, Masonry and Auto Body Repair, including on-the-job (OJT) certificates in conjunction with SCDC in more than 80 areas. Students also can obtain nationally recognized industry standard credentials such as National Center for Construction Education and Training (NCCER), Automotive Service Excellence (ASE) and a Department of Labor Apprenticeship.
Health Care: Routine medical care provided on site with 24-hour emergency care available
Programs: Religious services, Volunteer Services, Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, Recreational Services, Impact of Crime classes, Re-entry Program, Medicated Assisted Treatment program, Certified Peer Support Specialists, Battering Intervention, Jumpstart re-entry program, Shield’s Ministry-MIT Re-Entry Program, Fairhaven Reentry Program, Prison Fellowship Academy and Voorhees College.
Community Services: Provides an inmate labor crew to the Department of Transportation; provides a correctional officer-supervised inmate litter crew who picks up trash along interstate highways.
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
Evonne Willingham, Warden
502 Beckman Road
Columbia, SC 29203-3173
(803) 935-6000
Opened: 1963
Custody level: Minimum (Male)
Overview: The Institution serves as the Agency’s Centralized Pre-Release Center for male offenders who are within 180-days of release back into their respective communities. A work release program and labor crews provide work opportunities for offenders who do not participate in the Pre-Release Program.
Education: Literacy, GED and Work Keys.
Vocation: Brick Masonry, Carpentry, NCCER Safety Orientation (certified by OSHA), Forklift Training, Heavy Equipment Operator, Small Engine Repair, OJT Certificate programs in horticulture, grounds maintenance, janitorial services, and food services.
Health Care: Routine medical care provided on site with 24-hour emergency care available.
Programs: 24-Months Reentry Program: The offender can participate in an educational, vocational, or certificate program while attending evidence-based classes. A Labor Crew/Work Release program that enables offenders to work in certain local businesses. These offenders are paid hourly by the employers and pay victim restitution, child support or room and board, mandatory savings, etc. Family Reunification, DEW, Aqua Seal/GAF, TURN90, MAT, Peer Support and Self-Paced In-Class Education (SPICE). Additionally, there are various religious services, volunteer services, Alcoholic Anonymous and other miscellaneous
Community Services: Offender labor crews work with the South Carolina Fire Academy, Richland County Public Works, the Department of Juvenile Justice, Forestry Commission, State House, Lexington DOT #2, National Guard, Newberry DOT, Richland County DOT #’s 1, 2, 3, 4, SLED, and the Department of Public Safety-Highway Patrol. A correctional officer-supervised litter crew picks up trash along interstate highways five days per week.
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
John Palmer, Warden
386 Redemption Way
McCormick, SC 29899
(864) 443-2114 or (803) 734-0330
Opened:1987
Custody level: Close (Male)
Education: Literacy and GED Preparation, and other classes offered in conjunction with the McCormick School District Adult Continuing Education Program and Corrections Learning Network.
Vocational Training: Carpentry, Automotive and Prison Industries.
Industries: A modern production facility producing upholstered furniture, modular office systems, and powder painting for metal products. The Modular Furniture Plant is unique in that, not only does it deliver its goods, but also must install its modular systems. The primary focus on installations is customer service and satisfaction.
Health Care: Routine medical and dental care provided on site with 24-hour medical coverage.
Programs: Prison Fellowship, PUP (Dog Grooming and Training), Religious Services, Volunteer Services, Recreational Services, Alcoholics Anonymous, Faith based Character based Housing Unit, a Second Chance Program, Participated in the Unit Management Pilot Program, Alcohol and Drug Abuse Education, and "Impact of Crime" classes.
Community Services: Provides an "Operation Behind Bars" program for at risk youth and adults to tour the prison and hear inmates describe what led to their criminal behavior and life inside prison.
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
Curtis Earley, Warden
430 Oaklawn Road
Pelzer, SC 29669
(864) 243-4700 or
(803) 737-1752
Opened:1981
Custody level: Close and Medium (Male)
Education: Literacy and GED Preparation.
Vocational Training: Carpentry, and brick masonry.
Industries: Manufacturing case goods for governmental agencies and schools.
Health Care: Routine medical and dental care provided on site with 16-hour emergency care available.
Programs: Step-Down program, Lifer program, Peer Support, Substance Abuse, Jumpstart, MAT, Violence Prevention, Impact of Crime, Anger Management, Thinking 4 at Change, Art Therapy, Silver Sneakers, 7 Habits, Yoga, Domestic Violence, Battering Intervention program, Religious services, Volunteer Services, Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, a Pre-Release program, Recreational Services, Assisted Living, Impact of Crime classes, Character-Based Rehabilitation Program and Self-Paced In-Class Education (SPICE).
Services: Serves as one of the video conferencing sites for parole hearings in conjunction with the South Carolina Department of Probation, Parole and Pardon Services.
Community Services: Provides an Operation Behind Bars program for at risk youth and adults to tour the prison and hear inmates describe what led to their criminal behavior and life inside prison. Provides up to 120 inmate workers for various state, county and municipalities.
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
LeVern Cohen, Warden
5 Correctional Road
Ridgeland, SC 29936
803-896-3200 or 843-726-6888
Mailing Address:
P.O. Box 2039
Ridgeland, SC 29936
Opened: 1995
Custody level: Medium (Male)
Education: Literacy, GED Preparation, and High School courses.
Vocational Training: Small appliance repair and carpentry trades.
Industries: A private sector recycling industry that salvages fabric remnants.
Health Care: Routine medical and dental care on site with 24-hour medical coverage.
Programs: Religious Services, Volunteer Services, Recreational Services, Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, Impact of Crime, Character-Based Unit, Creative Writing and Life Skills Program and faith-based wings.
Community Services: Provides an inmate labor crew to the Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism; provides a correctional officer-supervised inmate litter crew who pick up trash along the interstate highway. Provides an Operation Behind Bars program for at-risk youth and adults to tour the prison and hear inmates describe what led to their criminal behavior and life inside prison.
Services: Serves as one of the video conferencing sites for parole hearings in conjunction with the South Carolina Department of Probation, Parole and Pardon Services.
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
Lashawn Peeples, Warden
84 Greenhouse Road
Trenton, SC 29847
(803) 896-3000 or 803-278-0010
(803) 275-3301
Opened: 1995
Custody level: Medium and Minimum (Male)
Education: Literacy, GED Preparation, High School Courses, Title I And Special Education Programs and Work Keys and Claflin University
Vocational Training: Welding, Brick Masonry, Carpentry, Landscaping, Crop Production and Greenhouse Management Skills.
Industries: Packaging various products for the Inmate Package Program whereby inmate's family/friends may order various package combinations for shipment to the inmate's institution. Watch a news story about it.
Health Care: Routine medical and dental care provided on-site.
Programs: Multi-Faith Religious Services, Recreational Services, Authentic Manhood, Yoga, Toastmasters, Corrective Thinking, Grief Counseling, AA/NA, Jumpstart, Real Man/Real Talk, Prison Fellowship Academy, Spanish Bible Study, Proverbs 22:6, Kairos, Rock of Ages, Pre-Release Programming, Impact of Crime and Violence Prevention.
Community Services: Trenton offers an Operation Behind Bars program upon request for local groups. Trenton also provides two correctional officer-supervised work crews: one crew assists Palmetto Pride with litter control along the state's interstate highway system and one crew maintains the Hickory Knob State Park Golf Course for the SC Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism.
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
Kenneth Sharp, Warden
1578 Clarence Coker Hwy
Turbeville, SC 29162
(843) 659-4800 or (803) 896-3100
Opened: 1994
Custody level: Medium (Male)
Overview: The institution houses adult male offenders mostly sentenced under the Youthful Offender Act. The Youthful Offender Institutional Services (YOIS), which focuses on the needs of offenders ages 17-25 sentenced by the courts as Youthful Offenders, is a behavior and performance-driven program Youthful Offender Institutional Services (YOIS) provides programming to include: education, work details, mental health services, behavioral health counseling, and substance abuse services. Offenders are placed in the general population based on their identified needs such as substance abuse services for those with alcohol and drug problems; sex offender treatment for those referred for treatment; Thinking for Change for first-time offenders; and Criminal Thinking to assist with behavior modification due to parole revocation. There are 928 Youthful Offender beds in the institution. Additionally, Turbeville CI has 544 beds assigned to the adult straight-time population. The mission is directed by three major areas - administration, operations, and program services. These functions are developed and administered by personnel trained to interact professionally with both offenders and staff.
Turbeville High School: Educational opportunities are provided based on the individual's need. A language arts program (reading, spelling, grammar), mathematics, and literacy training is offered. High School credentials can be earned by a student successfully passing the General Education Development (GED) test. College credit courses are offered to those who qualify.
Education: Educational opportunities are provided based on the individual's need. A language arts program (reading, spelling, grammar), mathematics, and literacy training is offered. High School credentials can be earned by a student successfully passing the General Education Development (GED) test. College credit courses are offered to those who qualify, Dual Education (academically and vocationally) track for those under 21 years of age.
Vocational Training: Carpentry and On-the-Job (OJT), Work Key Certificates, Brick Masonry, Electrical and Plumbing.
Health Care: Routine medical and dental service is accessible on site with 24-hour emergency care available.
Programs: Physical and Mental Health care, Religious Services, Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, Substance Abuse Treatment Program, and Criminal Thinking.
Community Services: The institution provides a correctional officer to supervise an inmate litter crew to pick up trash along the interstate highways, state highways and secondary roads. SCDC is committed to keeping South Carolina highways in pristine condition. Turbeville CI provides supervised inmate work crews who insure that the cleanliness of the Prideways is always maintained.
SC DHEC Food Safety Inspection (PDF)
Donald Beckwith, Jr., Warden
Highway 261
Rembert, SC 29128
803-432-6191 or 803-896-3400
Mailing Address:
PO Box 189
Rembert, SC 29128-0189
Opened: 1890's
Custody level: Minimum (Male)
Agriculture: This institution provides inmate labor for the Agriculture and Food Service Division's 7,000 acre row crop operation, the new dairy which provides milk for SCDC and the Department of Juvenile Justice, and beef cattle operations located adjacent to the facility.
Education: Literacy, GED Preparation and High School courses.
Vocational Training: Thoroughbred Retirement Foundation (TRF), Welding, Carpentry.
Health Care: Routine medical and dental care provided on site, five days per week.
Programs: Religious services, Volunteer Services, Recreational Services, ATU, ATU Program for Young Offenders, Moving Forward Program, PAALS Program, Welding, and Alcoholics Anonymous.
Community Services: Provides inmate labor crews to the Office of the Adjutant General, the City of Camden, Kershaw County, Lee County, the City of Sumter, Sumter County Public Works, and the Department of Transportation; provides three correctional officer-supervised inmate litter crews who pick up trash along the I-20 and adjacent secondary roads; and an institution work crew which fills sandbags for use in coastal areas during hurricanes/floods due to storms.
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This website or its third-party tools use cookies, which are necessary to its functioning and required to achieve the purposes illustrated in this cookie policy. By closing the cookie warning banner, scrolling the page, clicking a link or continuing to browse otherwise, you agree to the use of cookies.
Hamamatsu uses cookies in order to enhance your experience on our website and ensure that our website functions.
You can visit this page at any time to learn more about cookies, get the most up to date information on how we use cookies and manage your cookie settings. We will not use cookies for any purpose other than the ones stated, but please note that we reserve the right to update our cookies.
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For modern websites to work according to visitor’s expectations, they need to collect certain basic information about visitors. To do this, a site will create small text files which are placed on visitor’s devices (computer or mobile) - these files are known as cookies when you access a website. Cookies are used in order to make websites function and work efficiently. Cookies are uniquely assigned to each visitor and can only be read by a web server in the domain that issued the cookie to the visitor. Cookies cannot be used to run programs or deliver viruses to a visitor’s device.
Cookies do various jobs which make the visitor’s experience of the internet much smoother and more interactive. For instance, cookies are used to remember the visitor’s preferences on sites they visit often, to remember language preference and to help navigate between pages more efficiently. Much, though not all, of the data collected is anonymous, though some of it is designed to detect browsing patterns and approximate geographical location to improve the visitor experience.
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This website uses cookies for following purposes:
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These cookies record your visit to our website, the pages you have visited and the links you have followed. We will use this information to make our website and the advertising displayed on it more relevant to your interests. We may also share this information with third parties for this purpose.
Cookies help us help you. Through the use of cookies, we learn what is important to our visitors and we develop and enhance website content and functionality to support your experience. Much of our website can be accessed if cookies are disabled, however certain website functions may not work. And, we believe your current and future visits will be enhanced if cookies are enabled.
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If you would like more information about web tags and cookies associated with on-line advertising or to opt-out of third-party collection of this information, please visit the Network Advertising Initiative website http://www.networkadvertising.org.
6. Analytics and Advertisement Cookies
We use third-party cookies (such as Google Analytics) to track visitors on our website, to get reports about how visitors use the website and to inform, optimize and serve ads based on someone's past visits to our website.
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We inform you that in such case you will not be able to wholly use all functions of our website.
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https://www.epa.gov/hwcorrectiveactioncleanups/hazardous-waste-cleanup-united-states-army-garrison-adelphi-laboratory
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en
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Hazardous Waste Cleanup: United States Army Garrison Adelphi Laboratory Center in Adelphi, Maryland
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2016-02-01T11:52:43-05:00
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MD8213822762 RCRA Corrective Action Site for US Army Adelphi Laboratory Center, Adelphi MD
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US EPA
|
https://www.epa.gov/hwcorrectiveactioncleanups/hazardous-waste-cleanup-united-states-army-garrison-adelphi-laboratory
|
On this page:
Cleanup Status
Site Description
Contaminants at this Facility
Institutional/Engineer Controls
Land Reuse
Site Responsibility
Cleanup Status
The EPA determined the Environmental Indicator for Current Human Exposures Under Control was completed on June 27,2018. Also, EPA the determined the Environmental Indicator for Current Migration of Groundwater Under Control was completed on July 17, 2018.
EPA made its Corrective Action Remedy Decision on August 23, 2018, of "Corrective Action Complete with Controls" at the Adelphi Laboratory Center (ALC), consisting of ‘no further action’ for soil, and for groundwater, implementation of an institutional control prohibiting use of site groundwater for drinking water purposes.
Site Description
Interactive Map of U.S. Army Garrison Adelphi Laboratory Center, Adelphi, Maryland
View larger map
The Adelphi Laboratory Center (ALC) is an active 207-acre U.S. Army research and development Facility located at 2800 Powder Mill Road in Adelphi, Maryland, a suburb of Washington, D.C.
ALC activities have included development of electronic fuses for projectiles (i.e., mortar, artillery, rockets, missiles) and associated electronic technology, research on fluidics and nuclear weapons effects technologies. Operations are conducted on a small or prototype scale rather than full scale production.
Contaminants at this Facility
Residual or remaining contamination is in groundwater only, in a defined plume located in the eastern area of ALC. The primary contaminant is trichloroethylene (TCE), a dissolved solvent, that was released on the adjacent property, the former Naval Surface Warfare Center, White Oak Detachment, and flowed downgradient in groundwater (GW), impacting ALC GW. GW was actively treated and is monitored for attenuation annually by the U.S. Navy.
Institutional and Engineering Controls at this Facility
Land Use Controls were developed and are implemented by the Navy on the former Navy Site, which includes ALC and the General Services Administration (GSA) properties. On-site GW use is prohibited for drinking water purposes.
Land Reuse Information at this Facility
Site is under continued use.
Site Responsibility at this Facility
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Corrective Action activities at this facility are being conducted under the direction of the EPA Region 3.
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https://www.contractresearchmap.com/places/japan
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en
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Contract Research Map
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Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.
1-1 Nihonbashi-Muromachi 2-Chome Chuo-ku Tokyo, 103-8324 JapanThe Chugai Group upholds its mission statement—which consists of its mission, its core values and its envisioned future—in order to be a business that meets a diverse array of stakeholder expectations as it realizes its corporate responsibility to society. It is on the basis of this mission statement that the Chugai Group conducts its business operations. Mission Statement Mission Chugai's mission is to dedicate itself to adding exceptional value through the creation of innovative medical products and services for the benefit of the medical community and human health around the world. Core values The primary focus of all our activities is patients and consumers. In all our activities we are committed to the highest ethical and moral standards. We value employees who develop profound expertise and broad perspectives and pursue innovation and challenges without fear of failure. Wherever we operate around the world we seek to understand and respect people and cultures and to behave as good corporate citizens. We promote an open and active corporate culture that respects individuality, ability and teamwork. We care about the global environment. We aim to achieve a fair return for our shareholders and to disclose information appropriately and in a timely manner. Envisioned Future As a most important member of the Roche group, we aim to become a top Japanese pharmaceutical company by providing a continuous flow of innovative new medicines domestically and internationally.
Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.
1-1 Nihonbashi-Muromachi 2-Chome Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-8324 JAPANThe Chugai Group upholds its mission statement—which consists of its mission, its core values and its envisioned future—in order to be a business that meets a diverse array of stakeholder expectations as it realizes its corporate responsibility to society. It is on the basis of this mission statement that the Chugai Group conducts its business operations. Mission Statement Mission Chugai's mission is to dedicate itself to adding exceptional value through the creation of innovative medical products and services for the benefit of the medical community and human health around the world. Core values The primary focus of all our activities is patients and consumers. In all our activities we are committed to the highest ethical and moral standards. We value employees who develop profound expertise and broad perspectives and pursue innovation and challenges without fear of failure. Wherever we operate around the world we seek to understand and respect people and cultures and to behave as good corporate citizens. We promote an open and active corporate culture that respects individuality, ability and teamwork. We care about the global environment. We aim to achieve a fair return for our shareholders and to disclose information appropriately and in a timely manner. Envisioned Future As a most important member of the Roche group, we aim to become a top Japanese pharmaceutical company by providing a continuous flow of innovative new medicines domestically and internationally.
Gifu University
1-1 Yanagido Gifu Gifu Prefecture , 501-1193 JapanWelcome to the homepage of Gifu University. Please enjoy the contents in our homepage. Gifu University is located in Central Japan, between Tokyo and Kyoto, and has excellent international accessibility. The history of Gifu University dates back to its foundation on May 31, 1949, and the university now consists of five faculties: Education, Regional Studies, Medicine, Engineering, Applied Biological Sciences (agriculture and veterinary). Currently, more than 7,000 students and post-graduate students are studying at Gifu University. One of our major missions is to produce graduates ready to contribute to the region and to engage in active roles throughout the world. Under the motto of "Learning, Exploring, and Contributing", we provide excellent educational courses to produce globally-minded graduates and to train future talent that conduct productive research. We also have several hundred foreign students at our campus and will soon open English-only courses to accept more students from abroad. Gifu University international alumni have been established in Shanghai, China and Dhaka, Bangladesh. Internet lectures are available at http://www.gifu-u.ac.jp/en/about/about_gu/glg.html. Gifu University strives to become a leading, global university. We are open to foreign students willing to interact with Japanese young people as well as to other communities in the world for more profound understanding of both local and world-wide science and culture. We look forward to seeing and talking with you in Gifu. Hisataka Moriwaki
Hokkaido University FoVM Experimental Animal Facility
Kita 18, Nishi 9, Kita-ku Sapporo, 060-0818 JapanIn 2005, a Japanese law, Act on Welfare and Management of Animals was revised and the 3Rs concept (Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement) in animal experiments was stipulated in the Act. According to the concept, our Animal Facility has been making a great endeavor to execute animal experiments which satisfy animal welfare and the international standard. The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of the School including a ordinal citizen member has been improving the animal care and use program and facility, such as support for planning of appropriate animal experiments, critical review of the experimental protocols, improvement of environments of Animal Facility, application of environmental enrichment, evaluation of appropriate quality and number of animals, reduction or elimination of unpleasantness, suffering, and pain in animals, appropriate choice of sedative, analgesic, and anesthetic drugs, establishment of endpoints, and inspection by attending veterinarians all the year round. To verify that our Animal Facility satisfies high level of animal ethics and the international standard for using animals, we decided that our Facility should be reviewed by The Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International (AAALAC International) which is the most well-known NPO for evaluation of animal facilities. In 2007, our Animal Facility obtained the full accreditation from AAALAC International as the first accredited institute among Japanese Universities and has kept the status since then. Our Animal Facility wishes to execute animal experiments by satisfying animal welfare as well as to rear qualified persons who could be a leader for executing the appropriate animal experiment with wide knowledge.
Hybrigenics Services
Tokyo, JapanHybrigenics Services is a complete service provider of cutting-edge technologies dedicated to the study of proteins and their interactions in 35+ organisms and any research thematic. We offer three main lines of services: • Interactions Discovery: ULTImate Y2H™ to discover novel protein-protein interactions in various tissues/cell types o Several adapted versions allow to identify interactions with transmembrane proteins, DNA and RNA o Associated services: Interaction Domain Mapping, Low binders, super binders • Drug Discovery Services (Adapted from ULTImate Y2H) o Target deconvolution: ULTImate YChemH™ to identify on- and off-targets of small bioactive molecules - mechanism of action, polypharmacology, drug repositioning, prediction of toxicity o Protein-protein interactions induced by molecular glues (protein stabilization, targeted protein degradation) • Nanobody® (or Synthetic Antibodies, VHH) to select and validate high-affinity single-domain antibodies (Hybribody™) - for IF, ELISA, high-resolution microscopy, video-microscopy, target inhibition applications but also for diagnosis and therapeutic purposes Our optimized screening platform in yeast enables the identification of the protein partners of proteins, DNA sequences, RNA and small molecules of therapeutic interest. Highly complex protein domain libraries, prepared from any cell type or tissue, are screened to saturation to identify partners and their interacting domains using a transcriptional read-out. Sophisticated bioinformatics analysis allows to attribute confidence scores to each interaction. With more than 3,200 academic and industrial customers from over 40 countries, Hybrigenics Services is internationally recognized. Among our services, our yeast two-hybrid screening technology, ULTImate Y2H, is extensively used in many research projects. The results obtained at Hybrigenics have been quoted in more than 480 scientific publications to date. Hybribody offers single-domain antibody selection and validation services. We handle the in vitro selection of antibodies against your protein from a fully synthetic humanized VHH library by an optimized Phage Display technology. VHHs have the advantages of being very small (15 kDa), affine and stable molecules. We validate the selected VHHs for in vitro and in vivo applications (ELISA, IF, Intrabody…). We can also fuse the VHH with Fc fragments from the species of your choice to deliver fully functional recombinant antibodies. In addition, Hybrigenics Services provides optimization of nanobodies coming from the Llama using yeast display technology. Nanobody® is a trademark of Ablynx.
Kissei Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.
19-48, Yoshino, Matsumoto City, Nagano Prefecture 399-8710, JapanHealth and happiness are common desires of people around the world. We at Kissei have met the challenge of developing innovative new drugs that can contribute to the health of people around the world under the management philosophy of "making a social contribution through high-quality, innovative pharmaceutical products" and "serving society through the members who constitute the company." "Pharmaceutical companies are worthless without R&D." These words have been passed on at Kissei ever since it was founded. In addition to demonstrating that R&D is the vital core of the company, they convey the ardor and passion of each and every employee towards the creation of new drugs in the hope that new drugs will allow as many people as possible to recover from illness as soon as possible, to lead lives filled with laughter and joy. The brilliant progress of the life sciences has contributed immeasurably to the health and happiness of mankind. Yet there remain many illnesses for which treatments have yet to be established and illnesses for which no satisfactory treatments exist, and highly useful, new drugs are sought. We at Kissei will continue to constantly incorporate the progress made in the field of the life sciences, strengthening our R&D activities to meet the challenges of developing new drugs, and providing superior drugs to people throughout the world as the fruits of our innovations.
Kissei Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.
19-48, Yoshino, Nagano Prefecture Matsumoto City, , 399-8710Health and happiness are common desires of people around the world. We at Kissei have met the challenge of developing innovative new drugs that can contribute to the health of people around the world under the management philosophy of "making a social contribution through high-quality, innovative pharmaceutical products" and "serving society through the members who constitute the company." "Pharmaceutical companies are worthless without R&D." These words have been passed on at Kissei ever since it was founded. In addition to demonstrating that R&D is the vital core of the company, they convey the ardor and passion of each and every employee towards the creation of new drugs in the hope that new drugs will allow as many people as possible to recover from illness as soon as possible, to lead lives filled with laughter and joy. The brilliant progress of the life sciences has contributed immeasurably to the health and happiness of mankind. Yet there remain many illnesses for which treatments have yet to be established and illnesses for which no satisfactory treatments exist, and highly useful, new drugs are sought. We at Kissei will continue to constantly incorporate the progress made in the field of the life sciences, strengthening our R&D activities to meet the challenges of developing new drugs, and providing superior drugs to people throughout the world as the fruits of our innovations.
MP Biomedicals
Seven Bldg. 4F ３丁目-７-14 日本橋人形町 中央区 東京都 103-0013 Japan 中央区, 東京都, 103-0013 JapanMP Biomedicals is dedicated to giving scientists and researchers innovative, quality tools and superior service to aid them in their quest for ground-breaking discovery and turning the hope for life-changing solutions into a reality. The company manufactures and sells more than 55,000 products and is one of the only companies in the industry to offer a comprehensive line of life science, fine chemical and diagnostic products. MP Biomedicals is a world-wide corporation, with ISO-certified and FDA-approved manufacturing and distribution facilities throughout the globe and headquartered in Southern California. A vast network of global distributors and satellite facilities and offices throughout Europe, Asia, Australia and the Americas assures customers top quality products delivered when and where needed. No matter how dynamic the evolution of the life science and biotechnology markets, we remain committed to supporting our customers in their efforts to make new discoveries. From basic research, through scale-up, to full-scale production and diagnostic testing, MP Biomedicals serves every industry need – from specialized areas of research to supplying large scale quantities of fine chemicals. Our customers partner with us because they want a long-time player and reliable colleague in the fields of life science research and diagnostics. MP Biomedicals will never rest in our odyssey to remain at the forefront of discovery in the ever-changing biomedical industry.
Shionogi & Co., Ltd.
1-8, Doshomachi 3-chome Chuo-ku, Osaka, 541-0045 JapanUnder our Company Policy to "supply the best possible medicine to protect the health and wellbeing of the patients we serve," it is our mission as the Shionogi Group to deliver medical products creating a higher level of satisfaction to patients and their families for improved quality of life (QOL). To achieve this goal, we are constantly engaged in the research, development, manufacturing, and marketing activities of medical products, with a focus on prescription drugs. In fulfill our goal, we have set out the following Shionogi efforts: Venture into the field of cutting-edge medical technologies and be active as a research-driven pharmaceutical company. Establish production systems that ensure a stable supply of high-quality products that can be used with confidence. Provide in a timely and accurate manner, through healthcare providers, the information necessary to use our products appropriately. To further serve patients worldwide, we carry out these activities domestically and globally and are committed to making our business efforts to expand our business more actively. Meanwhile, Shionogi is also aware of how essential compliance in business activities is in the light of ensuring the sustainability and advancement of the company itself. We are thoroughly devoted to the ethical conduct required for an enterprise and a member of society, not to mention complying with laws and regulations. In addition, to ensure fair and efficient management, Shionogi has structured a highly operational framework and systems that allow for a swift response to changes in the management environment. As members of the Shionogi Group spread across the globe, we are committed to maintaining high ethical standards and transparency as we face all challenges head on. Through these efforts, we aim to be a company that is trusted by all stakeholders, including shareholders, business partners, and society, as well as patients, their families, and healthcare providers. We also pursue to stay a company where all employees can take on challenges with pride and a strong sense of purpose. We would like to thank you for your interest in our company and our products and your continued support will be greatly appreciated.
Shionogi & Co., Ltd.
, Chūō-ku, Ōsaka-fu 541-0045, JPUnder our Company Policy to "supply the best possible medicine to protect the health and wellbeing of the patients we serve," it is our mission as the Shionogi Group to deliver medical products creating a higher level of satisfaction to patients and their families for improved quality of life (QOL). To achieve this goal, we are constantly engaged in the research, development, manufacturing, and marketing activities of medical products, with a focus on prescription drugs. In fulfill our goal, we have set out the following Shionogi efforts: Venture into the field of cutting-edge medical technologies and be active as a research-driven pharmaceutical company. Establish production systems that ensure a stable supply of high-quality products that can be used with confidence. Provide in a timely and accurate manner, through healthcare providers, the information necessary to use our products appropriately. To further serve patients worldwide, we carry out these activities domestically and globally and are committed to making our business efforts to expand our business more actively. Meanwhile, Shionogi is also aware of how essential compliance in business activities is in the light of ensuring the sustainability and advancement of the company itself. We are thoroughly devoted to the ethical conduct required for an enterprise and a member of society, not to mention complying with laws and regulations. In addition, to ensure fair and efficient management, Shionogi has structured a highly operational framework and systems that allow for a swift response to changes in the management environment. As members of the Shionogi Group spread across the globe, we are committed to maintaining high ethical standards and transparency as we face all challenges head on. Through these efforts, we aim to be a company that is trusted by all stakeholders, including shareholders, business partners, and society, as well as patients, their families, and healthcare providers. We also pursue to stay a company where all employees can take on challenges with pride and a strong sense of purpose. We would like to thank you for your interest in our company and our products and your continued support will be greatly appreciated.
SRD
RBM Kyobashi Bldg. 3-4-8 Hatchobori Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 104-0032 JapanSRD Co., Ltd. was established in 1989 as a company that specializes in supporting clinical research and development including data management, site selection, study monitoring, statistical analysis, regulatory consulting, and medical writing. Since then, we have provided support services for many clinical trials and have broadly consulted on development and regulatory applications for pharmaceuticals as well as medical devices, quasi-drugs and specified health foods. In response to changes in pharmaceutical development trend, we have built our track record as support specialist for research and development of unmet medical needs and new, highly challenging drugs. Although we are an independent and middle sized CRO, by making full use of our mobility and a wide network of information which can be compared to other competitors in the industry, we are confident that we have a system for providing services with reliable quality in any area and for responding to the diverse needs and requirements of our clients. The basic principles in providing our services are as follows: ・We execute our duties faithfully as a partner who shares the client’s perspective. ・We seek mutual growth and development with our clients by assisting with the achievement of their aspirations and fulfillment of their potential through support of their development initiatives. SRD Group is providing not only full CRO service, but also providng full SMO ervice in Japan and Vietnam so that we have capabilities to manage, operate, and complete your product development in Japan 2015, SRD established Asia Clinical Trial Support Alliance consisted with CROs and SMOs called CSIA (Clinical Service in Asia) in Asian region including Japan, China, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam for worldwide pharmaceutical companies and other regional CROs. CSIA is consisted with top ranked 8 companies form above countries and region, and looking for local independent CROs and SMOs to have a partnership in Asian region for our customers to support entire clinical trial in Asia. CSIA web site is now updating especially for Korea part, but please refer to the details of CSIA through web site (http://www.cro-srd.co.jp/csia/en/). We look forward to your continued support and partnership.
Truven Health
Aoyama Place Canada 1F Place Canada,7-3-37 Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo 107-0052, JapanAt Truven Health Analytics™, our purpose is to make healthcare better — lower costs, improved quality, better results. Simple words. Yet remarkably complex concepts. But that's not stopping us. Or our customers. Every day, we get to work with smart, passionate professionals, from every facet of the industry, as they manage change and implement strategies that will achieve exactly those outcomes. Our customers are healthcare payers and providers. In both the private and public sectors. They're researchers and suppliers. Regulators. Movers and shakers in each piece and part of the healthcare world. With this broad view of healthcare, we're able to see when new challenges are just beginning to emerge. And that's when we begin working on new solutions. Data. We're driven by it. Known for our exacting collection and secure management of data, we've worked with clinical evidence, claims, clinical, and other healthcare data for more than 40 years. We know the challenges to watch for, what to do about them — and how to recognize new ones. Like finding new ways to measure risk for providers who take on more of it, and payers who contract for it. Or integrating data to deliver the solutions today's converging healthcare interests demand. Analytics. Because data alone is just numbers and letters. The need for reliable insights from data demands proven analytics. Our methodologies and algorithms are uniformly trusted across the industry to deliver critical information that leads to confident decisions. Coupled with flexible reporting, integration, and consulting services, our sophisticated analytics enable our customers to make their part of healthcare better, faster. Domain expertise. We have it. We really have walked in our customers' shoes. We've worked in their environments. That level of understanding, plus our leading data management capabilities and advanced analytics, are why our customers turn to us as their partner to deliver quality, reduce costs, and yield greater value in healthcare.
Trans Chromosomics, Inc.
2-1 Nihonbashi-Odenmacho Chuo-ku, Tokyo, 1030011 Japan■About Trans Chromosomics Our company was founded in 2014 to put the research outcomes of basic chromosome researches over 40 years into practical use. The beginning of the application of the chromosomal engineering research to medicine was the development of human mono chromosome library and the chromosome transfer technology. In the 1990's, we succeeded in developing the first fully human antibody-producing mouse in the world through collaboration research with Kirin Brewery Co., Ltd. (present Kyowa Hakko Kirin Co., Ltd.). This result has opened up a new era of antibody drugs. In the next 20 years, the foundation of artificial chromosome engineering technology has been completed, and many state-of-the-art platforms are being constructed for drug discovery to combat intractable diseases. Through extensive use of these technologies, we will strive to reach out, even a day earlier, to patients who suffer from intractable diseases. ■Our Mission We contribute to people's living and health by applying innovative chromosome engineering technology developed by Tottori University (Japan) to medical treatment and drug discovering widely. ■Our Business: Research and development and commissioned research of pharmaceuticals by utilizing chromosome engineering technology - Development of humanized model mice & rats - Fully human antibody producing mice (TC-mAb mouse) - Humanized ADME model mice & rats (Tc-huADME Model) - Humanized genetic rare disease model mice & rats - Down Syndrome mouse/rat model (A model animal with human chromosome 21 introduced) - Contract studies - Discovery of fully human antibodies - Pharmacokinetic study using humanized ADME model mice & rats - Animal production of above trans-chromosomic mice & rats ____________________________________________________________________________ ■Our Key Technology: Artificial Chromosome Vector The artificial chromosome is a vector having a minimal function and structure as a chromosome by removing the gene region from a natural human or mouse chromosome. It is possible to introduce Mb size giant genes and multiple genes. The artificial chromosome is maintained stably in the cell and is transmitted from the parent to children in mouse and rat. The artificial chromosome vector is not inserted into the chromosome of the host but exists independently within the cell nucleus. Since it can carry various genes, it functions as a high-performance remote controller that issues commands to cells. Examples of practical applications include fully human antibody-producing animals, rare disease animal models, and cells / animals for functional evaluation. ■Fully Human Antibodies Producing Mouse: TC-mAb mouse We established a new generation of human Ab producing Tc mice (TC-mAb mice), which stably maintain a mouse-derived engineered chromosome containing the entire human Ig heavy and kappa chain loci in a mouse Ig knockout background. Comprehensive, high-throughput DNA sequencing revealed that the human Ig repertoire, including variable gene use, was well recapitulated in TC-mAb mice. Despite slightly altered B cell development and a delayed immune response, immunized TC-mAb mice exhibited more subsets of antigen-specific plasmablast and plasma cells compared with wild-type mice, leading to high efficiency hybridoma production. Thus, TC-mAb mice offer a valuable platform to obtain fully human therapeutic Abs and to elucidate the regulation of human Ig repertoire formation. [Contract studies] - Animal production of above trans-chromosomic mice & rats - Custom fully human antibody development using TC-mAb mouse. - We can refer you to our company’s partner. ■Humanized ADME Model Mouse & Rats: Tc-huADME Model In order to solve the problem of animal species differences found in research and development, human pharmacokinetic-related gene was introduced into experimental animals with artificial chromosome vector. Since it is introduced with gene regulatory region induced, it reproduces timing specific and tissue specific expressions in mouse / rat. These animals are useful for predicting human-specific pharmacokinetics, enzyme induction / inhibition tests, and analysis of drug-drug interactions. In addition to supplying animals as collaborative research, we also conduct contract tests from drug administration to sampling. - A model animal in which a pharmacokinetic-related gene cluster is humanized. - Physiological gene expression confirmed in all tissues. - Breeding by mating is possible. [TC-huADME model lines] - hCYP3A-Tc, mCyp3a KO(CYP3A5*3) mouse - hCYP3A-Tc, mCyp3a KO(CYP3A5*1) mouse - hCYP3A-Tc, rCyp3a KO rat - hCYP3A-Tc, mCyp3a KO, hPXR KI mouse - hUGT2-Tc, mUgt2 KO mouse / rat - hMDR1-Tc, mMdr1a/1b KO mouse [Contract pharmacokinetic (PK/TK) studies] In pharmacokinetic (PK/TK) study at our company's partner, temporal blood collection will be conducted after test substance is administered to the animal.Generally, plasma or serum will be separated and delivered in a frozen state. We can also collect urine and feces and dissect for tissue sampling. - Non-GLP study : Conducted by our company. - GLP study : We request our partner company (SHIN NIPPON BIOMEDICAL LABORATORIES, LTD. (SNBL)). ■HepG2 Cell for stable expression of 4CYPs+POR HepG2 cell: TC-HepG2 HepG2 cells, a cell line derived from human liver cancer, have been used as an alternative model of the liver for many years. However, since expression of drug metabolism-related genes (mainly CYP) is remarkably low, and it is considered difficult to use them as a substitute for human primary hepatocytes. We have overcome this problem with artificial chromosome vector connected to four CYPs (CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP3A4) and POR and provide cells showing high CYP activity. [Applications of TC-HepG2 cell] - Inhibition test / drug interaction test - Research of hepatotoxicity - High content screening ■Down Syndrome mouse/rat model: Evaluation of anxiety-like behavior A model animal with human chromosome 21 introduced. The animal is useful for; - Phenotypic analysis of higher brain dysfunction etc. - Evaluation of drugs for ameliorating symptoms. - Drug discovery by identifying causative genes. - Drug repositioning search Please refer to the attached PDF for details.
Trans Chromosomics, Inc.
86 Nishi-cho Yonago, Tottori, 6838503 Japan■About Trans Chromosomics Our company was founded in 2014 to put the research outcomes of basic chromosome researches over 40 years into practical use. The beginning of the application of the chromosomal engineering research to medicine was the development of human mono chromosome library and the chromosome transfer technology. In the 1990's, we succeeded in developing the first fully human antibody-producing mouse in the world through collaboration research with Kirin Brewery Co., Ltd. (present Kyowa Hakko Kirin Co., Ltd.). This result has opened up a new era of antibody drugs. In the next 20 years, the foundation of artificial chromosome engineering technology has been completed, and many state-of-the-art platforms are being constructed for drug discovery to combat intractable diseases. Through extensive use of these technologies, we will strive to reach out, even a day earlier, to patients who suffer from intractable diseases. ■Our Mission We contribute to people's living and health by applying innovative chromosome engineering technology developed by Tottori University (Japan) to medical treatment and drug discovering widely. ■Our Business: Research and development and commissioned research of pharmaceuticals by utilizing chromosome engineering technology - Development of humanized model mice & rats - Fully human antibody producing mice (TC-mAb mouse) - Humanized ADME model mice & rats (Tc-huADME Model) - Humanized genetic rare disease model mice & rats - Down Syndrome mouse/rat model (A model animal with human chromosome 21 introduced) - Contract studies - Discovery of fully human antibodies - Pharmacokinetic study using humanized ADME model mice & rats - Animal production of above trans-chromosomic mice & rats ____________________________________________________________________________ ■Our Key Technology: Artificial Chromosome Vector The artificial chromosome is a vector having a minimal function and structure as a chromosome by removing the gene region from a natural human or mouse chromosome. It is possible to introduce Mb size giant genes and multiple genes. The artificial chromosome is maintained stably in the cell and is transmitted from the parent to children in mouse and rat. The artificial chromosome vector is not inserted into the chromosome of the host but exists independently within the cell nucleus. Since it can carry various genes, it functions as a high-performance remote controller that issues commands to cells. Examples of practical applications include fully human antibody-producing animals, rare disease animal models, and cells / animals for functional evaluation. ■Fully Human Antibodies Producing Mouse: TC-mAb mouse We established a new generation of human Ab producing Tc mice (TC-mAb mice), which stably maintain a mouse-derived engineered chromosome containing the entire human Ig heavy and kappa chain loci in a mouse Ig knockout background. Comprehensive, high-throughput DNA sequencing revealed that the human Ig repertoire, including variable gene use, was well recapitulated in TC-mAb mice. Despite slightly altered B cell development and a delayed immune response, immunized TC-mAb mice exhibited more subsets of antigen-specific plasmablast and plasma cells compared with wild-type mice, leading to high efficiency hybridoma production. Thus, TC-mAb mice offer a valuable platform to obtain fully human therapeutic Abs and to elucidate the regulation of human Ig repertoire formation. [Contract studies] - Animal production of above trans-chromosomic mice & rats - Custom fully human antibody development using TC-mAb mouse. - We can refer you to our company’s partner. ■Humanized ADME Model Mouse & Rats: Tc-huADME Model In order to solve the problem of animal species differences found in research and development, human pharmacokinetic-related gene was introduced into experimental animals with artificial chromosome vector. Since it is introduced with gene regulatory region induced, it reproduces timing specific and tissue specific expressions in mouse / rat. These animals are useful for predicting human-specific pharmacokinetics, enzyme induction / inhibition tests, and analysis of drug-drug interactions. In addition to supplying animals as collaborative research, we also conduct contract tests from drug administration to sampling. - A model animal in which a pharmacokinetic-related gene cluster is humanized. - Physiological gene expression confirmed in all tissues. - Breeding by mating is possible. [TC-huADME model lines] - hCYP3A-Tc, mCyp3a KO(CYP3A5*3) mouse - hCYP3A-Tc, mCyp3a KO(CYP3A5*1) mouse - hCYP3A-Tc, rCyp3a KO rat - hCYP3A-Tc, mCyp3a KO, hPXR KI mouse - hUGT2-Tc, mUgt2 KO mouse / rat - hMDR1-Tc, mMdr1a/1b KO mouse [Contract pharmacokinetic (PK/TK) studies] In pharmacokinetic (PK/TK) study at our company's partner, temporal blood collection will be conducted after test substance is administered to the animal.Generally, plasma or serum will be separated and delivered in a frozen state. We can also collect urine and feces and dissect for tissue sampling. - Non-GLP study : Conducted by our company. - GLP study : We request our partner company (SHIN NIPPON BIOMEDICAL LABORATORIES, LTD. (SNBL)). ■HepG2 Cell for stable expression of 4CYPs+POR HepG2 cell: TC-HepG2 HepG2 cells, a cell line derived from human liver cancer, have been used as an alternative model of the liver for many years. However, since expression of drug metabolism-related genes (mainly CYP) is remarkably low, and it is considered difficult to use them as a substitute for human primary hepatocytes. We have overcome this problem with artificial chromosome vector connected to four CYPs (CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP3A4) and POR and provide cells showing high CYP activity. [Applications of TC-HepG2 cell] - Inhibition test / drug interaction test - Research of hepatotoxicity - High content screening ■Down Syndrome mouse/rat model: Evaluation of anxiety-like behavior A model animal with human chromosome 21 introduced. The animal is useful for; - Phenotypic analysis of higher brain dysfunction etc. - Evaluation of drugs for ameliorating symptoms. - Drug discovery by identifying causative genes. - Drug repositioning search Please refer to the attached PDF for details.
Wakayama Medical University Laboratory Animal Center
, Wakayama-shi, Wakayama-ken 641-0011, JPThe Laboratory Animal Center was established as the “Joint Use Facility and Animal Room as a part of the Applied Medicial Research Laboratory in 1974. It was re-established as the “Laboratory Animal Center” during the move to the Kimiidera Campus in 1999. The Center supports animal experiments carried out in the University. In addition to rearing laboratory animals, it has in place the environment required for more advanced animal experiments and supplies data and information relevant to animal experiments. The Center has a total area of about 1980 m2. The rearing room is set at a temperature of 23±1°C, 50-60% humidity, with illumination from 8:00 to 20:00 (12L12D). Animals reared include mice (maximum storage capacity of 21,935 animals), rats (maximum storage capacity of 730 animals), hamsters, gerbils, guinea pigs, rabbits (maximum storage capacity of 114 animals), dogs, monkeys (maximum storage capacity of eight animals), and chickens. The Center is equipped with a rearing room with an air conditioning system that uses a one-way airstream method to prevent generation of smells and allergens from the animals and create a pleasant environment for researchers, a microbarrier system for rearing many genetically recombinant animals in a clean environment, an environmentally controlled rearing room with optionally programed temperature, humid, and lighting, and an experimental rearing room for experiments such as stress tests that require irritation of the animals to be prevented as far as possible. In addition, the Center is also involved in the creation of new genetically recombinant animals using gene editing technology and stock preservation of mutant strains. At present, the Center is involved in a wide variety of basic research and applied research, including analysis of stress response in various organs, research into wound healing, research into pain mechanisms, analysis of obesity-related hormone induced genes, basic research into cancer immunotherapy, analysis of genes involved in organogenesis, and analysis of the roles of chemokines and cytokines in various diseases.
Alltech
Tenjin Daisan Building 4F, 3-5, Tenjin 3-chome, Chuo-ku, Fukuoka 810-0001 JapanFounded in 1980 by Irish biochemist and entrepreneur Dr. Pearse Lyons, Alltech is a leading global biotechnology company whose mission is to improve the health and performance of people, animals and plants through natural nutrition and scientific innovation. We pursue this mission guided by what we call the ACE principle, our promise that in doing business we have a positive impact on the Animal, the Consumer and the Environment. Animal Health Our core business improves animal health and performance by adding nutritional value to feed, naturally, through Alltech’s innovative use of yeast fermentation, enzyme technology, algae and nutrigenomics, which studies the impact of nutrition at the genetic level. Our technologies and support programs enable farmers to realize greater efficiency, profitability and sustainability on their farms. Alltech Crop Science Our Alltech Crop Science division complements our animal nutrition business by focusing on improving the health of crops. Our technologies enable us to improve the productivity of the field, in terms of yield quality and quantity, and to enhance nutrition beginning with the soil and the seed. Human Health We believe scientific innovation in animal and crop sciences is part of a much more important story, that of human health. Healthier animals and crops, nurtured naturally through Alltech’s nutritional solutions, affect human well-being. For example, fruits, vegetables and animal proteins have become less nutrient-rich in the past half-century. From fish to oranges, you need to eat more today to get the same nutritional value. Our work within animal and crop sciences is restoring value and also exploring ways to naturally enrich foods through improving the animal diet or crop produced. For example, laying hens fed a diet rich in Alltech’s algae produce eggs enriched with DHA omega-3, an essential nutrient for human cognitive development and health at all ages.
Wakayama Medical University Laboratory Animal Center
, Wakayama-shi, Wakayama-ken 641-0012, JPThe Laboratory Animal Center was established as the “Joint Use Facility and Animal Room as a part of the Applied Medicial Research Laboratory in 1974. It was re-established as the “Laboratory Animal Center” during the move to the Kimiidera Campus in 1999. The Center supports animal experiments carried out in the University. In addition to rearing laboratory animals, it has in place the environment required for more advanced animal experiments and supplies data and information relevant to animal experiments. The Center has a total area of about 1980 m2. The rearing room is set at a temperature of 23±1°C, 50-60% humidity, with illumination from 8:00 to 20:00 (12L12D). Animals reared include mice (maximum storage capacity of 21,935 animals), rats (maximum storage capacity of 730 animals), hamsters, gerbils, guinea pigs, rabbits (maximum storage capacity of 114 animals), dogs, monkeys (maximum storage capacity of eight animals), and chickens. The Center is equipped with a rearing room with an air conditioning system that uses a one-way airstream method to prevent generation of smells and allergens from the animals and create a pleasant environment for researchers, a microbarrier system for rearing many genetically recombinant animals in a clean environment, an environmentally controlled rearing room with optionally programed temperature, humid, and lighting, and an experimental rearing room for experiments such as stress tests that require irritation of the animals to be prevented as far as possible. In addition, the Center is also involved in the creation of new genetically recombinant animals using gene editing technology and stock preservation of mutant strains. At present, the Center is involved in a wide variety of basic research and applied research, including analysis of stress response in various organs, research into wound healing, research into pain mechanisms, analysis of obesity-related hormone induced genes, basic research into cancer immunotherapy, analysis of genes involved in organogenesis, and analysis of the roles of chemokines and cytokines in various diseases.
Wakayama Medical University Laboratory Animal Center
811-1 Kimiidera Wakayama, Wakayama Prefecture, 641-8509 JapanThe Laboratory Animal Center was established as the “Joint Use Facility and Animal Room as a part of the Applied Medicial Research Laboratory in 1974. It was re-established as the “Laboratory Animal Center” during the move to the Kimiidera Campus in 1999. The Center supports animal experiments carried out in the University. In addition to rearing laboratory animals, it has in place the environment required for more advanced animal experiments and supplies data and information relevant to animal experiments. The Center has a total area of about 1980 m2. The rearing room is set at a temperature of 23±1°C, 50-60% humidity, with illumination from 8:00 to 20:00 (12L12D). Animals reared include mice (maximum storage capacity of 21,935 animals), rats (maximum storage capacity of 730 animals), hamsters, gerbils, guinea pigs, rabbits (maximum storage capacity of 114 animals), dogs, monkeys (maximum storage capacity of eight animals), and chickens. The Center is equipped with a rearing room with an air conditioning system that uses a one-way airstream method to prevent generation of smells and allergens from the animals and create a pleasant environment for researchers, a microbarrier system for rearing many genetically recombinant animals in a clean environment, an environmentally controlled rearing room with optionally programed temperature, humid, and lighting, and an experimental rearing room for experiments such as stress tests that require irritation of the animals to be prevented as far as possible. In addition, the Center is also involved in the creation of new genetically recombinant animals using gene editing technology and stock preservation of mutant strains. At present, the Center is involved in a wide variety of basic research and applied research, including analysis of stress response in various organs, research into wound healing, research into pain mechanisms, analysis of obesity-related hormone induced genes, basic research into cancer immunotherapy, analysis of genes involved in organogenesis, and analysis of the roles of chemokines and cytokines in various diseases.
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UNC Project Laboratory was recently awarded 4-star status by the African Society for Laboratory Medicine following an audit under the guidance of the WHO AFRO Stepwise Laboratory Quality Improvement Process Towards Accreditation Checklist. The laboratory plans to seek ISO 15189 accreditation in 2015.
UNC Project Laboratory has contributed greatly to the success of UNC Project and collaborating research institutions through support of local, regional and international clinical trials and field studies. The laboratory also plays an active role in capacity building in Malawi public sector laboratories and in piloting innovative diagnostic technologies to improve access to care in resource-limited settings.
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Find Your Section 508 Program Manager
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Information about the Section508.gov website, GSA’s Government-wide IT Accessibility Team, and guidance to Federal agencies on accessible information and communication technology (ICT).
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The Office of Management and Budget’s guidance on Strengthening Digital Accessibility and the Management of Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act (M-24-08), requires Federal agencies to report any changes to the designated agency-wide Section 508 program manager to OMB within 30 days. To update an agency-wide Section 508 program manager, the agency CIO (or designee) should email [email protected] and [email protected] with the program manager’s name, government email address, and phone number.
At the discretion of the agency CIO (or designee), subcomponents may maintain a Section 508 program; however, all Section 508 programs must coordinate with the agency-wide Section 508 program, including whether those relevant program managers should be listed publicly on this webpage.
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Navigate to Agencies starting with: A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | L | M | N | O | P | R | S | T | U
Agency for International Development (USAID)
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ARMY Section 508 Helpdesk - [email protected]
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Japan's new supercomputer ranked fastest in world
|
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[
"Japan supercomputer",
"supercomputer Fugaku",
"Japan Fugaku",
"fastest computer",
"Japanese supercomputer",
"supercomputer Riken"
] | null |
[
"KYODO NEWS"
] |
2020-06-23T00:17:00
|
The latest supercomputer developed by Japan's state-backed Riken research institute is the world's fastest for computing speed, according to a ranking by the U.S.-European TOP500 project.
|
/favicon.ico
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Kyodo News+
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https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/06/ebec3baa008c-japans-new-supercomputer-ranked-fastest-in-world.html
|
The latest supercomputer developed by Japan's state-backed Riken research institute is the world's fastest for computing speed, according to a twice-yearly ranking announced Monday by the U.S.-European TOP500 project, marking the first time in nine years that a Japanese supercomputer has captured the top position.
The supercomputer, named Fugaku after Mt. Fuji, also took the top spot in three other categories that measured performance in computational methods for industrial use, artificial intelligence applications and big data analytics.
It is the first time that a supercomputer has topped the rankings in the four categories, according to Riken.
The Japanese supercomputer, which was jointly developed with Fujitsu Ltd. at the institute's facility in Kobe, forms a key foundation for powerful simulations used in scientific research and the development of industrial and military technologies.
"We were able to stand out in all the key specifications for supercomputers, and demonstrate it is the world's highest performing. We expect it will aid in solving difficult societal problems such as the fight against the novel coronavirus," said Satoshi Matsuoka, the institute's computational science center director.
Shinichi Kato, president of Fujitsu IT Products Ltd., also expressed his delight, saying, "I feel extremely happy and honored to have been involved in creating Fugaku, which has ranked as the world's No.1 (supercomputer)." Fujitsu IT Products, a wholly owned unit of Fujitsu, was in charge of the production of the supercomputer.
Fugaku was picked as the world's No. 1 in June after performing over 415 quadrillion computations per second, around 2.8 times faster than the Summit system developed by the U.S. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, which secured the top spot in the last ranking in November 2019.
Another supercomputer developed by the United States ranked No. 3, while China held both the fourth and fifth spots. Fugaku was the only Japanese supercomputer to rank in the top 10, with the AI Bridging Cloud Infrastructure developed by the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology in Chiba Prefecture ranking 12th.
The new Riken-Fujitsu supercomputer was transported to the institute's Center for Computational Science in Kobe in May, the same location that housed its predecessor, the K supercomputer that was decommissioned last summer.
Currently being operated on a trial basis for research on potential medicines to fight the novel coronavirus, Fugaku is expected to be fully operational in the business year starting April 2021.
The K supercomputer, which was the world's first supercomputer to make over 10 quadrillion computations per second, ranked No. 1 in June 2011 and retained the top spot for a year.
Since then, the United States has dominated the ranking together with China. The enormous costs required to develop supercomputers means Japan can only budget to develop one every few years, unlike the United States and China.
The K supercomputer became the subject of controversy in 2009 as then-ruling Democratic Party of Japan lawmaker Renho, who was a member of a government panel seeking to cut spending on less urgent items in the national budget, questioned whether Japan needed to pursue the No. 1 position amid an economic crisis.
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SAM.gov
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http://english.aircas.ac.cn/
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Aerospace Information research Institute Chinese Academy of Sciences
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Innovative 3D Gold Microelectrode Arrays Enhance Understanding of Neuronal Network Communication
In a recent study published in ACS Nano, a group of scientists led by Prof. CAI Xinxia from the Aerospace Information Research Insti...
Jul 14, 2024 Read More
Novel Cloud Monitoring Algorithm Promises Enhanced Accuracy
Researchers led by Professor HUSI Letu at the Aerospace Information Research Institute (AIR), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), hav...
Jul 12, 2024 Read More
High-Sensitivity TMR-Based Magnetrodes Usher in New Possibilities for Brain Magnetic Field Detection
Researchers at the Aerospace Information Research Institute (AIR) with the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) have introduced a novel...
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The "Promoting Crop Biodiversity through Innovative Space Applications (CropBio)" project was officially launched in Bintulu, Malaysia on June 5-6, 2024. This project ...
Jun 28, 2024 Read More
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4101
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https://news.panasonic.com/global/press/en240729-2
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Panasonic Begins Demonstration Using Heat from Pure Hydrogen Fuel Cell Generators as a Heat Source for an Absorption Chiller (Air Conditioning Equipment) | Environment | Sustainability | Press Release
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Panasonic Begins Demonstration Using Heat from Pure Hydrogen Fuel Cell Generators as a Heat Source for an Absorption Chiller (Air Conditioning Equipment)
|
en
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Panasonic Newsroom Global
|
https://news.panasonic.com/global/press/en240729-2
|
Osaka, Japan – Panasonic Corporation (https://www.panasonic.com/global/home.html) (hereinafter referred to as Panasonic) today announced that it has started a demonstration experiment to utilize heat produced during power generation using pure hydrogen fuel cell generators as a heat source for an absorption chiller (air conditioning equipment). The experiment will be performed in the H2 KIBOU FIELD facility (Kusatsu City, Shiga Prefecture), which uses renewable energy to supply the electric power required for production in the fuel cell factory.
Up to this point, there has been a gap of 20°C between the heat that can be recovered from pure hydrogen fuel cell generators (maximum of 60°C) and the heat source temperature required for the operation of absorption chillers (minimum of 80°C). This made it difficult to utilize heat produced by pure hydrogen fuel cell generators during power generation as a heat source for absorption chillers. This time, improvements have been made to both of the previous pure hydrogen fuel cell generator and absorption chiller. The new fuel cell generator produces heat at a temperature of 70°C, which can be used as a heat source for the new absorption chiller for operation, improving the temperature gap by 10°C each. This has enabled a new solution for the linked use of heat at 70°C by connecting the new fuel cell generator and air conditioning equipment. In the H2 KIBOU FIELD facility, ten pure hydrogen fuel cell generators with improved hot water output temperature will be installed, along with one newly developed absorption chiller that can utilize low-temperature waste heat. Such equipment will be used for cooling and heating the facility's administration building as the demonstration experiment of a new scheme to utilize heat. Throughout the demonstration experiment, Panasonic aims to improve energy efficiency through fuel cell cogeneration (combined heat and electric power supply) and reduce power consumption in cooling and heating equipment, thereby verifying the marketability and effectiveness of this integrated heat utilization solution.
The H2 KIBOU FIELD facility at Panasonic's Kusatsu Site uses 99 units of 5 kW-type pure hydrogen fuel cell generators, photovoltaic generators with an output of approximately 570 kW, and storage batteries with a storage capacity of approximately 1.1 MWh. These three types of systems are highly integrated and controlled to generate electric power for the fuel cell factory through in-house power generation using renewable energy. Since the Fiscal Year ending in March 2023, the Company has been conducting another type of demonstration experiment to efficiently and stably supply renewable energy to the factory by reducing surplus power generation and wasteful power use, through energy management that tracks and addresses demand changes in the fuel cell production process and sudden fluctuations in photovoltaic generator output due to weather. In this new demonstration experiment for verifying heat utilization, a new catalyst currently under development has been incorporated into the power generation section of the new pure hydrogen fuel cell generator. Further, improvements have been made to increase the durability of the main body, thereby raising the temperature of the recoverable heat by 10°C, from 60°C to 70°C. Through this demonstration experiment, Panasonic will achieve an energy efficiency of 95% by simultaneously utilizing heat in addition to electric power. In addition, while heat utilization has previously focused on hot water supply and heating, it will now be possible to use heat for air cooling through absorption chillers. This will enhance the practicality of cogeneration systems in industrial applications and explore new possibilities for heat utilization.
Meanwhile, Panasonic's absorption chillers, which boast a top market share*1 in Japan, are highly efficient air conditioning systems. By using water, a natural refrigerant, the chillers do not use any specified CFCs or alternative CFCs, making them environmentally friendly systems that reduce the impact on the depletion of the ozone layer and global warming. Their lineup also includes a waste heat recovery type that utilizes heat emitted from factories and other facilities to operate equipment. This experiment is equipped with a new absorption chiller in which the process of absorbing water vapor and concentrating the absorbing solution has been improved. While the chiller is the same size as existing products, it has lowered the minimum heat source temperature requirement by 10°C, from 80°C to 70°C, making it possible to utilize the heat produced by pure hydrogen fuel cell generators during power generation. Further, chilled water generated by the absorption chiller will be used for the commercial air conditioners that cool and heat the administration building in the demonstration facility. This experiment is the industry's first*2 attempt to use chilled water from the absorption chiller to achieve the energy saving of commercial air conditioners, aiming to reduce the air conditioning power consumption by 50%. In addition, lowering the minimum heat source temperature required by absorption chillers has the potential to address the current issue where heat below 80°C, which accounts for approximately 70% of all industrial waste heat emitted from factories and other facilities, cannot be effectively utilized*3.
In this demonstration experiment, by combining the advantages of Panasonic's industry-leading products across business and organizational boundaries, Panasonic aims to create unique customer value that cannot be achieved by a single business or product. Panasonic will contribute to the realization of a carbon-free society through the development of optimal solutions that leverage its strengths in the future.
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4101
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dbpedia
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https://arboretum.harvard.edu/expeditions/expedition-to-south-korea-and-japan/
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en
|
Expedition to South Korea and Japan
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The 1977 expedition to South Korea and Japan by Arnold Arboretum horticultural Stephen A. Spongberg and Richard E. Weaver represented the institution’s renewed efforts to improve and expand its living collections through the acquisition of wild-collected seed in Asia. Introduction The 43-day trip, described by Spongberg as an opportunity to “re-establish its [the Arnold Arboretum’s] […]
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Arnold Arboretum
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https://arboretum.harvard.edu/expeditions/expedition-to-south-korea-and-japan/
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The 1977 expedition to South Korea and Japan by Arnold Arboretum horticultural taxonomists Taxonomy: A branch of science concerned with systems of classifying living and non-living things. Stephen A. Spongberg and Richard E. Weaver represented the institution’s renewed efforts to improve and expand its living collections through the acquisition of wild-collected seed in Asia.
Introduction
The 43-day trip, described by Spongberg as an opportunity to “re-establish its [the Arnold Arboretum’s] contact and interests” in Japan and South Korea, and allowed it to “improve the [institution’s] capacity to study and preserve temperate east Asian flora”
Arboretum plant collectors had not visited Japan and the Korean Peninsula since Ernest Henry Wilson returned from east Asia in 1919. In his Arnoldia article detailing the trip Spongberg said,
“Korea has been largely neglected by American plant explorers, yet in its flora are many plants otherwise known only from China (at present still inaccessible to us) and its climate is in some places more rigorous than that of much of New England.”
Seeds collected during their trip introduced a wealth of new hardy plant germplasm into the Arboretum’s living collections. Their yield represented 327 taxa Taxon: In biology, a taxon (plural taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. and 69 families, from across 63 collection sites, resulting in 505 collections of seeds and live cuttings. An impressive two hundred of these collected trees still thrive on our grounds.
September 2-10
Spongberg, his wife Harmony, and Richard Weaver arrived in Toyko at the beginning of September, where they met Katsuhiko Kondo of Hiroshima University, who served as their guide around the country. After some sightseeing in Nikko, an area renowned for its scenic beauty, they flew to Hokkaido Prefecture on September 5. In the prefectural capital Sapporo, Tadao Ui of Hokkaido University hosted and showed his guests the institution’s botanic garden.
They visited the Hokkaido branch of the Government Forest Experiment Station. Vanderbilt University graduate Jun-ichiro Samejima was their host. In the adjacent forests they collected Japanese maple (Acer palmatum) and Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica).
Spongberg and Weaver visited the 4940 acre (2,000 ha) Nopporo Shinrin Kōen Prefectural Natural Park. Along with woody plant species, they also found several genera of orchids and a number of ferns.
Then they traveled to the summit of Mount Moiwa, via the ropeway cable car. On this volcanically active mountain, Arboretum founding director Charles Sprague Sargent collected plants nearly a century before. This time, Spongberg and Weaver collected 25 taxa.
After traveling from Sapporo to Urakawa they climbed Mount Apoi, which Weaver described as “a remarkable mountain, slightly more than 800 meters high, but with an alpine zone and several endemic endemic: plants at its summit.” The mountain and surrounding area became a UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) Global Geopark in 2015.
Akio Kurahashi hosted Spongberg and Weaver at Tokyo University Forest in Hokkaido. They collected in the alpine zones of Daisetzu-san National Park. After descending, they continued to Asahikawa, second-largest city of Hokkaido.
September 11-17
Spongberg and Weaver’s second week was filled with botanizing in mountainous areas. It began with travel from Asahikawa to Hakodate, Hokkaido. There Katsuhiko Kondo accompanied Weaver to the peak of Mount Hakodate.
The group then traveled to Honshu, the largest island of Japan, where they were hosted by Kankichi Sohma and Masamichi Takahashi of Tohoku University. The group climbed Mount Hakkoda in Aomori Prefecture, where there was alpine flora much like Mount Daisetzu. They encountered many specimens of dwarf plants there as well, including a dwarf form of witch hazel (Hamamelis japonica).
September 18-24
At the start of their third week in Japan, Weaver and Spongberg collected at Tsuta Hot Springs on the lower slopes of Mount Hakkoda. They proceeded to Lake Towada where they collected 35 taxa, including jolcham oak (Quercus serrata), linden arrowwood (Viburnum dilatatum), and Japanese wisteria (Wisteria floribunda).
The expedition then spent next the several days in Sendai, hosted by Kankichi Sohma. They visited the Tohoku University Botanic Garden to see their living collections. Having had a brief glimpse of the rich flora of Nikko National Park at the beginning of their expedition, the team returned this week to botanize. Collections included Japanese stewartia (Stewartia pseudocamellia) and willow-leafed magnolia (Magnolia salicifolia).
September 25 to October 1
In their last week in Japan, Spongberg and Weaver took some time to catch their breath and enjoy some of the rich cultural heritage of the country. Traveling from Sendai to Tokyo, they reunited with Katsuhiko Kondo.
The party then proceeded to Nagoya Botanical Garden and visited a chrysanthemum show at Nagoya Castle. A visit to Kyoto followed to see some of the palaces, temples and gardens of this historic city. After a day of sightseeing on Miyajima Island, Spongberg and Weaver traveled by train from Hiroshima to Fukuoka.
On October 1, the team flew from Fukuoka to Seoul, South Korea for the second leg of their journey.
October 2 to 8
“With hot summers and very cold winters, plants growing in Korea are adapted to a continental climate, and we were anxious to collect seeds of species hardy in Korea for trial at the Arnold Arboretum.”
Stephen Spongberg, Arnoldia
Upon their arrival in Korea, Spongberg and Weaver were hosted by Carl Ferris Miller at the Chollipo Arboretum in Taean-gun, South Chungcheong Province on the central western coast of the country. Recently Spongberg recalled Miller, “He was truly a remarkable man. He was a genius of sorts without a doubt, obviously a man who had made a lot of money [in banking], and was very generous with his wherewithal and his time, and anyone with an interest in plants found a kindred soul in Ferris, as he preferred to be called.”
Collections made at Chollipo included Korean hornbeam (Carpinus coreana) and thorn-elm (Hemiptelea davidii).
The team returned to Seoul and visited the Forest Research Institute (now the National Institute of Forest Science). They made a number of collections, including seed of the Chinese parasol tree (Firmiana simplex).
The expedition departed from Seoul and traveled to Seoraksan National Park, Gangwon Province, an area noted for its biological diversity. They stopped en route and made collections of the three-flowered maple (Acer triflorum), Sargent’s viburnum (Viburnum sargentii), and other taxa.
Spongberg and Weaver also collected on Gyebangsan at Unduryeong-ro Pass between Soksa-ri and Changchon-ri, also in Gangwon Province.
October 9 to 14
Spongberg and Weaver traveled to the temple at Yongmunsan, Gyeonggi Province to view the giant maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba). They hiked the area and collected seed from the tallow tree (Neoshirakia japonica) along trail.
From Seoul they traveled to the Seonam Temple near Suncheon in South Jeolla Province, stopping along the way at the Forest Research Station at Jeonju in North Jeolla Province. They stayed two nights at an inn on the grounds of Seonam Temple, where they collected Aka-shide hornbeam (Carpinus laxiflora), two species of hackberry (Celtis), Asian spicebush (Lindera glauca), Korean rhododendron (Rhododendron mucronulatum) and two varieties of Viburnum.
During this last portion of their trip, Spongberg and Weaver botanized at Mudeungsan (now the Mudeungsan National Park), a mountainous area near the city of Gwangju, South Jeolla Province.
After bidding farewell to their hosts, the expedition participants parted ways and returned to Boston via Seoul.
Back in Boston
Dig Deeper
Spongberg, S. and Weaver, R. Collecting Expedition to Japan and Korea. Arnoldia, 38(1): 28-31.
Weaver, R. Japanese Journal. Arnoldia, 38(3): 83-101.
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https://www.susqu.edu/academics/centers-and-programs/freshwater-research-institute/
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Freshwater Research Institute
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With the Freshwater Research Institute, Susquehanna faculty and students are invested in making the Susquehanna River a cleaner waterway.
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/favicon.png
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https://www.susqu.edu/academics/centers-and-programs/freshwater-research-institute/
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Freshwater Research Possibilities
“The next generation of scientists need hands-on learning opportunities like those I enjoy today at Susquehanna.” – Danielle Tryon ’24
The Freshwater Research Institute provides opportunities for students to engage in cutting-edge research and field experience on freshwater ecosystems with faculty mentors.
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dbpedia
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https://ouci.dntb.gov.ua/en/works/lR0AbaG7/
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Okinawan Studies – about Historiography Issues
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Number of works in the list of references 77
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https://www.cas.go.jp/jp/ryodo_eg/shiryo/takeshima/detail/t1934082000103.html
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Tottori Prefecture Fisheries Research Institute Operations for FY1932 & FY1933
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[] | null |
A report on mackerel longline fishing trials carried out in sea areas between Utsuryo Island (Ulleungdo) and Takeshima in June-July 1932 and May-June 1933.
| null |
The uninhabited island, Takeshima (Liancourt Rocks) located approximately 80 nautical miles northwest of Oki Province. Its circumstance is approximately 4km, and when east or west wind blows, at least several boats of less than 30 tons can drop their anchors. In addition, it is the most appropriate place for the Prefecture to use as a base to go fishing to the area near Utsuryo Island (Ulleungdo). The survey such like above was conducted.
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dbpedia
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https://profiles.stanford.edu/c-fathman
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en
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C. Garrison Fathman's Profile
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C. Garrison Fathman is part of Stanford Profiles, official site for faculty, postdocs, students and staff information (Expertise, Bio, Research, Publications, and more). The site facilitates research and collaboration in academic endeavors.
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Abstract
Multiple pathways contribute to the pathophysiological development of type 1 diabetes (T1D); however, the exact mechanisms involved are unclear. We performed differential gene expression analysis in pancreatic islets of NOD mice versus age-matched congenic NOD.B10 controls to identify genes that may contribute to disease pathogenesis. Novel genes related to extracellular matrix development and glucagon and insulin signaling/secretion were changed in NOD mice during early inflammation. During "respective" insulitis, the expression of genes encoding multiple chemosensory olfactory receptors were upregulated, and during "destructive" insulitis, the expression of genes involved in antimicrobial defense and iron homeostasis were downregulated. Islet inflammation reduced the expression of Hamp that encodes hepcidin. Hepcidin is expressed in β-cells and serves as the key regulator of iron homeostasis. We showed that Hamp and hepcidin levels were lower, while iron levels were higher in the pancreas of 12-week-old NOD versus NOD.B10 mice, suggesting that a loss of iron homeostasis may occur in the islets during the onset of "destructive" insulitis. Interestingly, we showed that the severity of NOD disease correlates with dietary iron intake. NOD mice maintained on low-iron diets had a lower incidence of hyperglycemia, while those maintained on high-iron diets had an earlier onset and higher incidence of disease, suggesting that high iron exposure combined with a loss of pancreatic iron homeostasis may exacerbate NOD disease. This mechanism may explain the link seen between high iron exposure and the increased risk for T1D in humans.
View details for DOI 10.2337/db21-0948
View details for Web of Science ID 000905183700009
View details for PubMedID 35499603
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC9233262
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) normally maintain self-tolerance. Tregs recognize "self" such that when they are not working properly, such as in autoimmunity, the immune system can attack and destroy one's own tissues. Current therapies for autoimmunity rely on relatively ineffective and too often toxic therapies to "treat" the destructive inflammation. Restoring defective endogenous immune regulation (self-tolerance) would represent a paradigm shift in the therapy of these diseases. One recent approach to restore self-tolerance is to use "low dose IL-2" as a therapy to increase the number of circulating Tregs. However, studies to-date have not demonstrated that low-dose IL-2 therapy can restore concomitant Treg function, and phase 2 studies in low dose IL-2 treated patients with autoimmune diseases have failed to demonstrate significant clinical benefit. We hypothesize that the defect in self-tolerance seen in autoimmunity is not due to an insufficient number of available Tregs, but rather, due to defects in second messengers downstream of the IL-2R that normally control Treg function and stability. Previous studies from our lab and others have demonstrated that GRAIL (a ubiquitin E3 ligase) is important in Treg function. GRAIL expression is markedly diminished in Tregs from patients with autoimmune diseases and allergic asthma and is also diminished in Tregs of mice that are considered autoimmune prone. In the relevant pathway in Tregs, GRAIL normally blocks cullin ring ligase activity, which inhibits IL-2R desensitization in Tregs and consequently promotes Treg function. As a result of this defect in GRAIL expression, the Tregs of patients with autoimmune diseases and allergic asthma degrade IL-2R-associated pJAK1 following activation with low dose IL-2, and thus cannot maintain pSTAT5 expression. pSTAT5 controls the transcription of genes required for Treg function. Additionally, the GRAIL-mediated defect may also allow the degradation of the mTOR inhibitor, DEP domain-containing mTOR interacting protein (Deptor). This can lead to IL-2R activation of mTOR and loss of Treg stability in autoimmune patients. Using a monoclonal antibody to the remnant di-glycine tag on ubiquitinated proteins after trypsin digestion, we identified a protein that was ubiquitinated by GRAIL that is important in Treg function, cullin5. Our data demonstrate that GRAIL acts a negative regulator of IL-2R desensitization by ubiquitinating a lysine on cullin5 that must be neddylated to allow cullin5 cullin ring ligase activity. We hypothesize that a neddylation inhibitor in combination with low dose IL-2 activation could be used to substitute for GRAIL and restore Treg function and stability in the Tregs of autoimmune and allergic asthma patients. However, the neddylation activating enzyme inhibitors (NAEi) are toxic when given systemically. By generating a protein drug conjugate (PDC) consisting of a NAEi bound, via cleavable linkers, to a fusion protein of murine IL-2 (to target the drug to Tregs), we were able to use 1000-fold less of the neddylation inhibitor drug than the amount required for therapeutically effective systemic delivery. The PDC was effective in blocking the onset or the progression of disease in several mouse models of autoimmunity (type 1 diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus, and multiple sclerosis) and a mouse model of allergic asthma in the absence of detectable toxicity. This PDC strategy represents targeted drug delivery at its best where the defect causing the disease was identified, a drug was designed and developed to correct the defect, and the drug was targeted and delivered only to cells that needed it, maximizing safety and efficacy.
View details for DOI 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1046631
View details for PubMedID 36569931
Abstract
Type 1 Diabetes (T1D) occurs as a result of the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta-cells by self-reactive T cells. The etiology of this disease is complex and difficult to study due to a lack of disease-relevant tissues from pre-diabetic individuals. In this study, we performed gene expression analysis on human pancreas tissues obtained from the Network of Pancreatic Organ Donors with Diabetes (nPOD), and showed that 155 genes were differentially expressed by ≥2-fold in the pancreata of autoantibody-positive (AA+) at-risk individuals compared to healthy controls. Only 48 of these genes remained changed by ≥2-fold in the pancreata of established T1D patients. Pathway analysis of these genes showed a significant association with various immune pathways. We were able to validate the differential expression of eight disease-relevant genes by QPCR analysis: A significant upregulation of CADM2, and downregulation of TRPM5, CRH, PDK4, ANGPL4, CLEC4D, RSG16, and FCGR2B was confirmed in the pancreata of AA+ individuals versus controls. Studies have already implicated FCGR2B in the pathogenesis of disease in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice. Here we showed that CADM2, TRPM5, PDK4, and ANGPL4 were similarly changed in the pancreata of pre-diabetic 12-week-old NOD mice compared to NOD.B10 controls, suggesting a possible role for these genes in the pathogenesis of both T1D and NOD disease. The loss of the leukocyte-specific gene, FCGR2B, in the pancreata of AA+ individuals, is particularly interesting, as it may serve as a potential whole blood biomarker of disease progression. To test this, we quantified FCGR2B expression in peripheral blood samples of T1D patients, and AA+ and AA- first-degree relatives of T1D patients enrolled in the TrialNet Pathway to Prevention study. We showed that FCGR2B was significantly reduced in the peripheral blood of AA+ individuals compared to AA- controls. Together, these findings demonstrate that gene expression analysis of pancreatic tissue and peripheral blood samples can be used to identify disease-relevant genes and pathways and potential biomarkers of disease progression in T1D.
View details for DOI 10.3389/fendo.2020.609271
View details for PubMedID 33424774
Abstract
There are variable reports of risk of concordance for progression to islet autoantibodies and type 1 diabetes in identical twins after one twin is diagnosed. We examined development of positive autoantibodies and type 1 diabetes and the effects of genetic factors and common environment on autoantibody positivity in identical twins, nonidentical twins, and full siblings.Subjects from the TrialNet Pathway to Prevention Study (N = 48,026) were screened from 2004 to 2015 for islet autoantibodies (GAD antibody [GADA], insulinoma-associated antigen 2 [IA-2A], and autoantibodies against insulin [IAA]). Of these subjects, 17,226 (157 identical twins, 283 nonidentical twins, and 16,786 full siblings) were followed for autoantibody positivity or type 1 diabetes for a median of 2.1 years.At screening, identical twins were more likely to have positive GADA, IA-2A, and IAA than nonidentical twins or full siblings (all P < 0.0001). Younger age, male sex, and genetic factors were significant factors for expression of IA-2A, IAA, one or more positive autoantibodies, and two or more positive autoantibodies (all P ≤ 0.03). Initially autoantibody-positive identical twins had a 69% risk of diabetes by 3 years compared with 1.5% for initially autoantibody-negative identical twins. In nonidentical twins, type 1 diabetes risk by 3 years was 72% for initially multiple autoantibody-positive, 13% for single autoantibody-positive, and 0% for initially autoantibody-negative nonidentical twins. Full siblings had a 3-year type 1 diabetes risk of 47% for multiple autoantibody-positive, 12% for single autoantibody-positive, and 0.5% for initially autoantibody-negative subjects.Risk of type 1 diabetes at 3 years is high for initially multiple and single autoantibody-positive identical twins and multiple autoantibody-positive nonidentical twins. Genetic predisposition, age, and male sex are significant risk factors for development of positive autoantibodies in twins.
View details for DOI 10.2337/dc18-0288
View details for Web of Science ID 000457193000013
View details for PubMedID 30061316
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC6341285
Abstract
A pilot study suggested that combination therapy with low-dose anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG) and pegylated granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (GCSF) preserves C-peptide in established type 1 diabetes (T1D) (duration 4 months to 2 years). We hypothesized that 1) low-dose ATG/GCSF or 2) low-dose ATG alone would slow the decline of β-cell function in patients with new-onset T1D (duration <100 days).A three-arm, randomized, double-masked, placebo-controlled trial was performed by the Type 1 Diabetes TrialNet Study Group in 89 subjects: 29 subjects randomized to ATG (2.5 mg/kg intravenously) followed by pegylated GCSF (6 mg subcutaneously every 2 weeks for 6 doses), 29 to ATG alone (2.5 mg/kg), and 31 to placebo. The primary end point was mean area under the curve (AUC) C-peptide during a 2-h mixed-meal tolerance test 1 year after initiation of therapy. Significance was defined as one-sided P value < 0.025.The 1-year mean AUC C-peptide was significantly higher in subjects treated with ATG (0.646 nmol/L) versus placebo (0.406 nmol/L) (P = 0.0003) but not in those treated with ATG/GCSF (0.528 nmol/L) versus placebo (P = 0.031). HbA1c was significantly reduced at 1 year in subjects treated with ATG and ATG/GCSF, P = 0.002 and 0.011, respectively.Low-dose ATG slowed decline of C-peptide and reduced HbA1c in new-onset T1D. Addition of GCSF did not enhance C-peptide preservation afforded by low-dose ATG. Future studies should be considered to determine whether low-dose ATG alone or in combination with other agents may prevent or delay the onset of the disease.
View details for DOI 10.2337/dc18-0494
View details for Web of Science ID 000442337700017
View details for PubMedID 30012675
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC6105329
Abstract
Although certain dogma portrays amyloid fibrils as drivers of neurodegenerative disease and neuroinflammation, we have found, paradoxically, that amyloid fibrils and small heat shock proteins (sHsps) are therapeutic in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). They reduce clinical paralysis and induce immunosuppressive pathways, diminishing inflammation. A key question was the identification of the target for these molecules. When sHsps and amyloid fibrils were chemically cross-linked to immune cells, a limited number of proteins were precipitated, including the alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (alpha7 NAChR). The alpha7 NAChR is noteworthy among the over 20 known receptors for amyloid fibrils, because it plays a central role in a well-defined immune-suppressive pathway. Competitive binding between amyloid fibrils and alpha-bungarotoxin to peritoneal macrophages (MPhis) confirmed the involvement of alpha7 NAChR. The mechanism of immune suppression was explored, and, similar to nicotine, amyloid fibrils inhibited LPS induction of a common set of inflammatory cytokines while inducing Stat3 signaling and autophagy. Consistent with this, previous studies have established that nicotine, sHsps, and amyloid fibrils all were effective therapeutics in EAE. Interestingly, B lymphocytes were needed for the therapeutic effect. These results suggest that agonists of alpha7 NAChR might have therapeutic benefit for a variety of inflammatory diseases.
View details for PubMedID 29915045
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes requires major lifestyle changes and carries increased morbidity and mortality. Prevention or delay of diabetes would have major clinical effect.To determine whether oral insulin delays onset of type 1 diabetes in autoantibody-positive relatives of patients with type 1 diabetes.Between March 2, 2007, and December 21, 2015, relatives with at least 2 autoantibodies, including insulin autoantibodies and normal glucose tolerance, were enrolled in Canada, the United States, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Italy, Sweden, Finland, and Germany. The main study group (n = 389) had first-phase insulin release on an intravenous glucose tolerance test that was higher than the threshold. The 55 patients in the secondary stratum 1 had an identical antibody profile as the main study group except they had first-phase insulin release that was lower than the threshold. Secondary strata 2 (n = 114) and strata 3 (n = 3) had different autoantibody profiles and first-phase insulin release threshold combinations. Follow-up continued through December 31, 2016.Randomization to receive 7.5 mg/d of oral insulin (n = 283) or placebo (n = 277), including participants in the main study group who received oral insulin (n = 203) or placebo (n = 186).The primary outcome was time to diabetes in the main study group. Significance was based on a 1-sided threshold of .05, and 1-sided 95% CIs are reported.Of a total of 560 randomized participants (median enrollment age, 8.2 years; interquartile range [IQR], 5.7-12.1 years; 170 boys [60%]; 90.7% white non-Hispanic; 57.6% with a sibling with type 1 diabetes), 550 completed the trial including 389 participants (median age, 8.4 years; 245 boys [63%]), 382 (96%) in the main study group. During a median follow-up of 2.7 years (IQR, 1.5-4.6 years) in the main study group, diabetes was diagnosed in 58 participants (28.5%) in the oral insulin group and 62 (33%) in the placebo group. Time to diabetes was not significantly different between the 2 groups (hazard ratio [HR], 0.87; 95% CI, 0-1.2; P = .21). In secondary stratum 1 (n = 55), diabetes was diagnosed in 13 participants (48.1%) in the oral insulin group and in 19 participants (70.3%) in the placebo group. The time to diabetes was significantly longer with oral insulin (HR, 0.45; 95% CI, 0-0.82; P = .006). The HR for time to diabetes for the between-group comparisons for the 116 participants in the other secondary stratum was 1.03 (95% CI, 0-2.11; P = .53) and for the entire cohort of 560 participants was 0.83 (95% CI, 0-1.07; P = .11), which were not significantly different. The most common adverse event was infection (n = 254), with 134 events in the oral insulin group and 120 events in the placebo group, but no significant study-related adverse events occurred.Among autoantibody-positive relatives of patients with type 1 diabetes, oral insulin at a dose of 7.5 mg/d, compared with placebo, did not delay or prevent the development of type 1 diabetes over 2.7 years. These findings do not support oral insulin as used in this study for diabetes prevention.clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00419562.
View details for DOI 10.1001/jama.2017.17070
View details for Web of Science ID 000415870300019
View details for PubMedID 29164254
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC5798455
Abstract
The natural history of type 1 diabetes (T1D) is challenging to investigate, especially as pre-diabetic individuals are difficult to identify. Numerous T1D consortia have been established to collect whole blood for gene expression analysis from individuals with or at risk to develop T1D. However, with no universally accepted protocol for their collection, differences in sample processing may lead to variances in the results. Here, we examined whether the choice of blood collection tube and RNA extraction kit leads to differences in the expression of genes that are changed during the progression of T1D, and if these differences could be minimized by measuring gene expression directly from the lysate of whole blood.Microarray analysis showed that the expression of 901 genes is highly influenced by sample processing using the PAXgene versus the Tempus system. These included a significant number of lymphocyte-specific genes and genes whose expression has been reported to differ in the peripheral blood of at-risk and T1D patients compared to controls. We showed that artificial changes in gene expression occur when control and T1D samples were processed differently. The sample processing-dependent differences in gene expression were largely due to loss of transcripts during the RNA extraction step using the PAXgene system. The majority of differences were not observed when gene expression was measured in whole blood lysates prepared from blood collected in PAXgene and Tempus tubes.We showed that the gene expression profile of samples processed using the Tempus system is more accurate than that of samples processed using the PAXgene system. Variation in sample processing can result in misleading changes in gene expression. However, these differences can be minimized by measuring gene expression directly in whole blood lysates.
View details for PubMedID 28821222
Abstract
Severe forms of chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS), a common upper airway inflammatory disorder, are associated with nasal polyps (NPs). NP disease is ameliorated by glucocorticoid (GC) treatment, whose cellular effects are poorly understood. We therefore assessed the influence of GC therapy on NPs in CRS patients, focusing on regulatory T (Treg) cells. Treg cell populations were analyzed by flow cytometry in NPs and control tissues from GC-treated CRS patients and controls. After GC exposure, selective expansion of Treg cells was seen within NPs, and not blood or adjacent ethmoid tissues. To confirm direct GC effects, NPs from the same patients were biopsied prior to, and following, 1week of oral GC exposure. Direct expansion of Tregs into the same NP bed was detected in 4/4 CRS patients following GC exposure. Treg cell spikes into NPs were secondary to cellular recruitment given limited Ki67 expression within these regulatory cells. Chemokine gene expression profiling identified several chemokines, notably CCL4, induced within NPs upon GC treatment. Neutralization of chemokine receptor/ligand interactions using CCR4 small molecule antagonists reduced Treg migration towards GC-treated NPs in an ex vivo migration assay. Our findings suggest that the common use of GCs in the treatment of NP disease leads to recruitment of Treg cells from peripheral sites into NP tissues, which may be critical to the anti-inflammatory effect of GCs. Mechanistically Treg expansion appears to be conferred, in part, by chemokine receptor/ligand interactions induced following corticosteroid therapy.
View details for DOI 10.1016/j.clim.2017.02.002
View details for PubMedID 28279811
Abstract
Antinuclear antibodies (ANAs) are detected in ∼18% of females, yet autoimmune disease develops in only 5-8%. Immunologic differences between ANA-positive healthy individuals and patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) may elucidate the regulatory mechanisms by which ANA-positive individuals avoid transition to clinical autoimmune disease.Healthy individuals (n = 790) were screened for autoantibodies specific for 11 antigens associated with lupus, systemic sclerosis, and Sjögren's syndrome. From this screening, 31 European American ANA-positive healthy individuals were selected and demographically matched to ANA-negative controls and SLE patients. Serum cytokine profiles, leukocyte subset frequency, and reactivity were analyzed by multiplex assays, immunophenotyping, and phosphospecific flow cytometry.Of 790 individuals screened, 57 (7%) were ANA-positive. The majority of proinflammatory cytokines, including interferon-γ (IFNγ), tumor necrosis factor, interleukin-17 (IL-17), and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, exhibited a stepwise increase in serum levels from ANA-negative controls to ANA-positive healthy individuals to SLE patients (P < 0.0001). IFNα, IFNβ, IL-12p40, and stem cell factor/c-Kit ligand were increased in SLE patients only (P < 0.05). B lymphocyte stimulator (BlyS) was elevated in SLE patients but decreased in ANA-positive individuals (P < 0.001). Further, IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) was down-regulated in SLE patients only (P < 0.0001). ANA-positive individuals had increased frequencies of monocytes, memory B cells, and plasmablasts and increased levels of pSTAT-1 and pSTAT-3 following IFNα stimulation compared with ANA-negative controls (P < 0.05).ANA-positive healthy individuals exhibit dysregulation in multiple immune pathways yet differ from SLE patients by the absence of elevated IFNs, BLyS, IL-12p40, and stem cell factor/c-Kit ligand. Further, severely decreased levels of IL-1Ra in SLE patients compared with ANA-positive individuals may contribute to disease development. These results highlight the importance of IFN-related pathways and regulatory elements in SLE pathogenesis.
View details for DOI 10.1002/art.39706
View details for PubMedID 27059145
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC5042816
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is caused by autoreactive T cells that recognize pancreatic islet antigens and destroy insulin-producing β-cells. This attack results from a breakdown in tolerance for self-antigens, which is controlled by ectopic antigen expression in the thymus and pancreatic lymph nodes (PLNs). The autoantigens known to be involved include a set of islet proteins, such as insulin, GAD65, IA-2, and ZnT8. In an attempt to identify additional antigenic proteins, we performed an expression-based genome-wide association study using microarray data from 118 arrays of the thymus and PLNs of T1D mice. We ranked all 16,089 protein-coding genes by the likelihood of finding repeated differential expression and the degree of tissue specificity for pancreatic islets. The top autoantigen candidate was vitamin D-binding protein (VDBP). T-cell proliferation assays showed stronger T-cell reactivity to VDBP compared with control stimulations. Higher levels and frequencies of serum anti-VDBP autoantibodies (VDBP-Abs) were identified in patients with T1D (n = 331) than in healthy control subjects (n = 77). Serum vitamin D levels were negatively correlated with VDBP-Ab levels in patients in whom T1D developed during the winter. Immunohistochemical localization revealed that VDBP was specifically expressed in α-cells of pancreatic islets. We propose that VDBP could be an autoantigen in T1D.
View details for DOI 10.2337/db15-1308
View details for Web of Science ID 000375028000023
View details for PubMedID 26983959
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4839207
Abstract
The evolution of Type 1 diabetes (T1D) therapy has been marked by consecutive shifts, from insulin replacement to immunosuppressive drugs and targeted biologics (following the understanding that T1D is an autoimmune disease), and to more disease-specific or patient-oriented approaches such as antigen-specific and cell-based therapies, with a goal to provide efficacy, safety, and long-term protection. At the same time, another important paradigm shift from treatment of new onset T1D patients to prevention in high-risk individuals has taken place, based on the hypothesis that therapeutic approaches deemed sufficiently safe may show better efficacy if applied early enough to maintain endogenous β cell function, a concept supported by many preclinical studies. This new strategy has been made possible by capitalizing on a variety of biomarkers that can more reliably estimate the risk and rate of progression of the disease. More advanced ("omic"-based) biomarkers that also shed light on the underlying contributors of disease for each individual will be helpful to guide the choice of the most appropriate therapies, or combinations thereof. In this review, we present current efforts to stratify patients according to biomarkers and current alternatives to conventional drug-based therapies for T1D, with a special emphasis on cell-based therapies, their status in the clinic and potential for treatment and/or prevention.
View details for DOI 10.1002/stem.2290
View details for Web of Science ID 000374697700002
View details for PubMedID 26840009
Abstract
Peripheral tolerance is partially controlled by the expression of peripheral tissue antigens (PTAs) in lymph node stromal cells (LNSCs). We previously identified a transcriptional regulator, deformed epidermal autoregulatory factor 1 (Deaf1), that can regulate PTA expression in LNSCs of the pancreatic lymph nodes (PLNs). During the pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes (T1D), Deaf1 is spliced to form the dominant-negative isoform Deaf1-Var1. Here we show that Deaf1-Var1 expression correlates with the severity of disease in NOD mice and is reduced in the PLNs of mice that do not develop hyperglycemia. Inflammation and hyperglycemia independently drive Deaf1 splicing through activation of the splicing factors Srsf10 and Ptbp2, respectively. Inflammation induced by injection of activated splenocytes increased Deaf1-Var1 and Srsf10, but not Ptbp2, in the PLNs of NOD.SCID mice. Hyperglycemia induced by treatment with the insulin receptor agonist S961 increased Deaf1-Var1 and Ptbp2, but not Srsf10, in the PLNs of NOD.B10 and NOD mice. Overexpression of PTBP2 and/or SRSF10 also increased human DEAF1-VAR1 and reduced PTA expression in HEK293T cells. These data suggest that during the progression of T1D, inflammation and hyperglycemia mediate the splicing of DEAF1 and loss of PTA expression in LNSCs by regulating the expression of SRSF10 and PTBP2.
View details for DOI 10.2337/db14-0803
View details for PubMedID 25187368
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC4303971
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a complex polygenic disease that is triggered by various environmental factors in genetically susceptible individuals. The emphasis placed on genome-wide association studies to explain the genetics of T1D has failed to advance our understanding of T1D pathogenesis or identify biomarkers of disease progression or therapeutic targets. Using the nonobese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of T1D and the non-disease prone congenic NOD.B10 mice, our laboratory demonstrated striking tissue-specific and age-dependent changes in gene expression during disease progression. We established a "roadmap" of differential gene expression and used this to identify candidate genes in mice (and human orthologs) that play a role in disease pathology. Here, we describe two genes, Deformed epidermal autoregulatory factor 1 (Deaf1) and Adenosine A1 receptor (Adora1), that are differentially expressed and alternatively spliced in the pancreatic lymph nodes or islets of NOD mice and T1D patients to form dominant-negative non-functional isoforms. Loss of Deaf1 function leads to reduced peripheral tissue antigen expression in lymph node stromal cells and may contribute to a breakdown in peripheral tolerance, while reduced Adora1 function results in an early intrinsic alpha cell defect that may explain the hyperglucagonemia and resulting beta cell stress observed prior to the onset of diabetes. Remarkably, both genes were also alternatively spliced in the same tissues of auto-antibody positive prediabetic patients, and these splicing events resulted in similar downstream effects as those seen in NOD mice. These findings demonstrate the value of gene expression profiling in studying disease pathogenesis in T1D.
View details for DOI 10.1007/s12026-014-8501-8
View details for PubMedID 24682832
Abstract
In recent years, vitamin D has been shown to possess a wide range of immunomodulatory effects. Although there is extensive amount of research on vitamin D, we lack a comprehensive understanding of the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency or the mechanism by which vitamin D regulates the human immune system. This study examined the prevalence and correlates of vitamin D deficiency and the relationship between vitamin D and the immune system in healthy individuals.Healthy individuals (n = 774) comprised of European-Americans (EA, n = 470), African-Americans (AA, n = 125), and Native Americans (NA, n = 179) were screened for 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels by ELISA. To identify the most noticeable effects of vitamin D on the immune system, 20 EA individuals with severely deficient (<11.3 ng/mL) and sufficient (>24.8 ng/mL) vitamin D levels were matched and selected for further analysis. Serum cytokine level measurement, immune cell phenotyping, and phosphoflow cytometry were performed.Vitamin D sufficiency was observed in 37.5% of the study cohort. By multivariate analysis, AA, NA, and females with a high body mass index (BMI, >30) demonstrate higher rates of vitamin D deficiency (p<0.05). Individuals with vitamin D deficiency had significantly higher levels of serum GM-CSF (p = 0.04), decreased circulating activated CD4+ (p = 0.04) and CD8+ T (p = 0.04) cell frequencies than individuals with sufficient vitamin D levels.A large portion of healthy individuals have vitamin D deficiency. These individuals have altered T and B cell responses, indicating that the absence of sufficient vitamin D levels could result in undesirable cellular and molecular alterations ultimately contributing to immune dysregulation.
View details for DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0094500
View details for Web of Science ID 000336736200083
View details for PubMedID 24727903
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3984168
Abstract
In recent years, vitamin D has been shown to possess a wide range of immunomodulatory effects. Although there is extensive amount of research on vitamin D, we lack a comprehensive understanding of the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency or the mechanism by which vitamin D regulates the human immune system. This study examined the prevalence and correlates of vitamin D deficiency and the relationship between vitamin D and the immune system in healthy individuals.Healthy individuals (n = 774) comprised of European-Americans (EA, n = 470), African-Americans (AA, n = 125), and Native Americans (NA, n = 179) were screened for 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels by ELISA. To identify the most noticeable effects of vitamin D on the immune system, 20 EA individuals with severely deficient (<11.3 ng/mL) and sufficient (>24.8 ng/mL) vitamin D levels were matched and selected for further analysis. Serum cytokine level measurement, immune cell phenotyping, and phosphoflow cytometry were performed.Vitamin D sufficiency was observed in 37.5% of the study cohort. By multivariate analysis, AA, NA, and females with a high body mass index (BMI, >30) demonstrate higher rates of vitamin D deficiency (p<0.05). Individuals with vitamin D deficiency had significantly higher levels of serum GM-CSF (p = 0.04), decreased circulating activated CD4+ (p = 0.04) and CD8+ T (p = 0.04) cell frequencies than individuals with sufficient vitamin D levels.A large portion of healthy individuals have vitamin D deficiency. These individuals have altered T and B cell responses, indicating that the absence of sufficient vitamin D levels could result in undesirable cellular and molecular alterations ultimately contributing to immune dysregulation.
View details for DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0094500
View details for PubMedID 24727903
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3984168
Abstract
Prediabetic NOD mice exhibit hyperglucagonemia, possibly due to an intrinsic α-cell defect. Here, we show that the expression of a potential glucagon inhibitor, the adenosine A1 receptor (Adora1), is gradually diminished in α-cells of NOD mice, autoantibody-positive (AA(+)) and overtly type 1 diabetic (T1D) patients during the progression of disease. We demonstrated that islet inflammation was associated with loss of Adora1 expression through the alternative splicing of Adora1. Expression of the spliced variant (Adora1-Var) was upregulated in the pancreas of 12-week-old NOD versus age-matched NOD.B10 (non-diabetes-susceptible) control mice and was detected in the pancreas of AA(+) patients but not in control subjects or overtly diabetic patients, suggesting that inflammation drives the splicing of Adora1. We subsequently demonstrated that Adora1-Var expression was upregulated in the islets of NOD.B10 mice after exposure to inflammatory cytokines and in the pancreas of NOD.SCID mice after adoptive transfer of activated autologous splenocytes. Adora1-Var encodes a dominant-negative N-terminal truncated isoform of Adora1. The splicing of Adora1 and loss of Adora1 expression on α-cells may explain the hyperglucagonemia observed in prediabetic NOD mice and may contribute to the pathogenesis of human T1D and NOD disease.
View details for DOI 10.2337/db13-0614
View details for PubMedID 24264405
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3837064
Abstract
To assess effectiveness of inpatient hybrid closed-loop control (HCLC) followed by outpatient sensor-augmented pump (SAP) therapy initiated within 7 days of diagnosis of type 1 diabetes on the preservation of β-cell function at 1 year.Sixty-eight individuals (mean age 13.3 ± 5.7 years; 35% female, 92% Caucasian) were randomized to HCLC followed by SAP therapy (intensive group; N = 48) or to the usual-care group treated with multiple daily injections or insulin pump therapy (N = 20). Primary outcome was C-peptide concentrations during mixed-meal tolerance tests at 12 months.Intensive-group participants initiated HCLC a median of 6 days after diagnosis for a median duration of 71.3 h, during which median participant mean glucose concentration was 140 mg/dL (interquartile range 134-153 mg/dL). During outpatient SAP, continuous glucose monitor (CGM) use decreased over time, and at 12 months, only 33% of intensive participants averaged sensor use ≥6 days/week. In the usual-care group, insulin pump and CGM use were initiated prior to 12 months by 15 and 5 participants, respectively. Mean HbA1c levels were similar in both groups throughout the study. At 12 months, the geometric mean (95% CI) of C-peptide area under the curve was 0.43 (0.34-0.52) pmol/mL in the intensive group and 0.52 (0.32-0.75) pmol/mL in the usual-care group (P = 0.49). Thirty-seven (79%) intensive and 16 (80%) usual-care participants had a peak C-peptide concentration ≥0.2 pmol/mL (P = 0.30).In new-onset type 1 diabetes, HCLC followed by SAP therapy did not provide benefit in preserving β-cell function compared with current standards of care.
View details for DOI 10.2337/dc13-1074
View details for Web of Science ID 000327211500053
View details for PubMedID 24130350
Abstract
Innate immunity contributes to the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes, but until now no randomised, controlled trials of blockade of the key innate immune mediator interleukin-1 have been done. We aimed to assess whether canakinumab, a human monoclonal anti-interleukin-1 antibody, or anakinra, a human interleukin-1 receptor antagonist, improved β-cell function in recent-onset type 1 diabetes.We did two randomised, placebo-controlled trials in two groups of patients with recent-onset type 1 diabetes and mixed-meal-tolerance-test-stimulated C peptide of at least 0·2 nM. Patients in the canakinumab trial were aged 6-45 years and those in the anakinra trial were aged 18-35 years. Patients in the canakinumab trial were enrolled at 12 sites in the USA and Canada and those in the anakinra trial were enrolled at 14 sites across Europe. Participants were randomly assigned by computer-generated blocked randomisation to subcutaneous injection of either 2 mg/kg (maximum 300 mg) canakinumab or placebo monthly for 12 months or 100 mg anakinra or placebo daily for 9 months. Participants and carers were masked to treatment assignment. The primary endpoint was baseline-adjusted 2-h area under curve C-peptide response to the mixed meal tolerance test at 12 months (canakinumab trial) and 9 months (anakinra trial). Analyses were by intention to treat. These studies are registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, numbers NCT00947427 and NCT00711503, and EudraCT number 2007-007146-34.Patients were enrolled in the canakinumab trial between Nov 12, 2010, and April 11, 2011, and in the anakinra trial between Jan 26, 2009, and May 25, 2011. 69 patients were randomly assigned to canakinumab (n=47) or placebo (n=22) monthly for 12 months and 69 were randomly assigned to anakinra (n=35) or placebo (n=34) daily for 9 months. No interim analyses were done. 45 canakinumab-treated and 21 placebo-treated patients in the canakinumab trial and 25 anakinra-treated and 26 placebo-treated patients in the anakinra trial were included in the primary analyses. The difference in C peptide area under curve between the canakinumab and placebo groups at 12 months was 0·01 nmol/L (95% CI -0·11 to 0·14; p=0·86), and between the anakinra and the placebo groups at 9 months was 0·02 nmol/L (-0·09 to 0·15; p=0·71). The number and severity of adverse events did not differ between groups in the canakinumab trial. In the anakinra trial, patients in the anakinra group had significantly higher grades of adverse events than the placebo group (p=0·018), which was mainly because of a higher number of injection site reactions in the anakinra group.Canakinumab and anakinra were safe but were not effective as single immunomodulatory drugs in recent-onset type 1 diabetes. Interleukin-1 blockade might be more effective in combination with treatments that target adaptive immunity in organ-specific autoimmune disorders.National Institutes of Health and Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation.
View details for DOI 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60023-9
View details for Web of Science ID 000320319500031
Abstract
Rheumatologists see patients with a range of autoimmune diseases. Phenotyping these diseases for diagnosis, prognosis and selection of therapies is an ever increasing problem. Advances in multiplexed assay technology at the gene, protein, and cellular level have enabled the identification of 'actionable biomarkers'; that is, biological metrics that can inform clinical practice. Not only will such biomarkers yield insight into the development, remission, and exacerbation of a disease, they will undoubtedly improve diagnostic sensitivity and accuracy of classification, and ultimately guide treatment. This Review provides an introduction to these powerful technologies that could promote the identification of actionable biomarkers, including mass cytometry, protein arrays, and immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor high-throughput sequencing. In our opinion, these technologies should become part of routine clinical practice for the management of autoimmune diseases. The use of analytical tools to deconvolve the data obtained from use of these technologies is also presented here. These analyses are revealing a more comprehensive and interconnected view of the immune system than ever before and should have an important role in directing future treatment approaches for autoimmune diseases.
View details for DOI 10.1038/nrrheum.2012.66
View details for PubMedID 22647780
Abstract
The immunostimulatory cytokine interleukin-2 (IL-2) is a growth factor for a wide range of leukocytes, including T cells and natural killer (NK) cells. Considerable effort has been invested in using IL-2 as a therapeutic agent for a variety of immune disorders ranging from AIDS to cancer. However, adverse effects have limited its use in the clinic. On activated T cells, IL-2 signals through a quaternary 'high affinity' receptor complex consisting of IL-2, IL-2Rα (termed CD25), IL-2Rβ and IL-2Rγ. Naive T cells express only a low density of IL-2Rβ and IL-2Rγ, and are therefore relatively insensitive to IL-2, but acquire sensitivity after CD25 expression, which captures the cytokine and presents it to IL-2Rβ and IL-2Rγ. Here, using in vitro evolution, we eliminated the functional requirement of IL-2 for CD25 expression by engineering an IL-2 'superkine' (also called super-2) with increased binding affinity for IL-2Rβ. Crystal structures of the IL-2 superkine in free and receptor-bound forms showed that the evolved mutations are principally in the core of the cytokine, and molecular dynamics simulations indicated that the evolved mutations stabilized IL-2, reducing the flexibility of a helix in the IL-2Rβ binding site, into an optimized receptor-binding conformation resembling that when bound to CD25. The evolved mutations in the IL-2 superkine recapitulated the functional role of CD25 by eliciting potent phosphorylation of STAT5 and vigorous proliferation of T cells irrespective of CD25 expression. Compared to IL-2, the IL-2 superkine induced superior expansion of cytotoxic T cells, leading to improved antitumour responses in vivo, and elicited proportionally less expansion of T regulatory cells and reduced pulmonary oedema. Collectively, we show that in vitro evolution has mimicked the functional role of CD25 in enhancing IL-2 potency and regulating target cell specificity, which has implications for immunotherapy.
View details for DOI 10.1038/nature10975
View details for Web of Science ID 000303200400054
View details for PubMedID 22446627
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3338870
Abstract
The therapeutic benefit of the small heat shock protein αB-crystallin (HspB5) in animal models of multiple sclerosis and ischemia is proposed to arise from its increased capacity to bind proinflammatory proteins at the elevated temperatures within inflammatory foci. By mass spectral analysis, a common set of ∼70 ligands was precipitated by HspB5 from plasma from patients with multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and amyloidosis and mice with experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. These proteins were distinguished from other precipitated molecules because they were enriched in the precipitate as compared with their plasma concentrations, and they exhibited temperature-dependent binding. More than half of these ligands were acute phase proteins or members of the complement or coagulation cascades. Consistent with this proposal, plasma levels of HspB5 were increased in patients with multiple sclerosis as compared with normal individuals. The combination of the thermal sensitivity of the HspB5 combined with the high local concentration of these ligands at the site of inflammation is proposed to explain the paradox of how a protein believed to exhibit nonspecific binding can bind with some relative apparent selectivity to proinflammatory proteins and thereby modulate inflammation.
View details for DOI 10.1074/jbc.M111.337691
View details for PubMedID 22308023
Abstract
Glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) is a major target of the autoimmune response that occurs in type 1 diabetes mellitus. In animal models of autoimmunity, treatment with a target antigen can modulate aggressive autoimmunity. We aimed to assess whether immunisation with GAD formulated with aluminum hydroxide (GAD-alum) would preserve insulin production in recent-onset type 1 diabetes.Patients aged 3-45 years who had been diagnosed with type 1 diabetes for less than 100 days were enrolled from 15 sites in the USA and Canada, and randomly assigned to receive one of three treatments: three injections of 20 μg GAD-alum, two injections of 20 μg GAD-alum and one of alum, or 3 injections of alum. Injections were given subcutaneously at baseline, 4 weeks later, and 8 weeks after the second injection. The randomisation sequence was computer generated at the TrialNet coordinating centre. Patients and study personnel were masked to treatment assignment. The primary outcome was the baseline-adjusted geometric mean area under the curve (AUC) of serum C-peptide during the first 2 h of a 4-h mixed meal tolerance test at 1 year. Secondary outcomes included changes in glycated haemoglobin A(1c) (HbA(1c)) and insulin dose, and safety. Analysis included all randomised patients with known measurements. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00529399.145 patients were enrolled and treated with GAD-alum (n=48), GAD-alum plus alum (n=49), or alum (n=48). At 1 year, the 2-h AUC of C-peptide, adjusted for age, sex, and baseline C-peptide value, was 0·412 nmol/L (95% CI 0·349-0·478) in the GAD-alum group, 0·382 nmol/L (0·322-0·446) in the GAD-alum plus alum group, and 0·413 nmol/L (0·351-0·477) in the alum group. The ratio of the population mean of the adjusted geometric mean 2-h AUC of C-peptide was 0·998 (95% CI 0·779-1·22; p=0·98) for GAD-alum versus alum, and 0·926 (0·720-1·13; p=0·50) for GAD-alum plus alum versus alum. HbA(1c), insulin use, and the occurrence and severity of adverse events did not differ between groups.Antigen-based immunotherapy therapy with two or three doses of subcutaneous GAD-alum across 4-12 weeks does not alter the course of loss of insulin secretion during 1 year in patients with recently diagnosed type 1 diabetes. Although antigen-based therapy is a highly desirable treatment and is effective in animal models, translation to human autoimmune disease remains a challenge.US National Institutes of Health.
View details for DOI 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60895-7
View details for Web of Science ID 000293615800029
View details for PubMedID 21714999
Abstract
The immunopathogenesis of type 1 diabetes mellitus is associated with T-cell autoimmunity. To be fully active, immune T cells need a co-stimulatory signal in addition to the main antigen-driven signal. Abatacept modulates co-stimulation and prevents full T-cell activation. We evaluated the effect of abatacept in recent-onset type 1 diabetes.In this multicentre, double-blind, randomised controlled trial, patients aged 6-45 years recently diagnosed with type 1 diabetes were randomly assigned (2:1) to receive abatacept (10 mg/kg, maximum 1000 mg per dose) or placebo infusions intravenously on days 1, 14, 28, and monthly for a total of 27 infusions over 2 years. Computer-generated permuted block randomisation was used, with a block size of 3 and stratified by participating site. Neither patients nor research personnel were aware of treatment assignments. The primary outcome was baseline-adjusted geometric mean 2-h area-under-the-curve (AUC) serum C-peptide concentration after a mixed-meal tolerance test at 2 years' follow-up. Analysis was by intention to treat for all patients for whom data were available. This trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT00505375.112 patients were assigned to treatment groups (77 abatacept, 35 placebo). Adjusted C-peptide AUC was 59% (95% CI 6·1-112) higher at 2 years with abatacept (n=73, 0·378 nmol/L) than with placebo (n=30, 0·238 nmol/L; p=0·0029). The difference between groups was present throughout the trial, with an estimated 9·6 months' delay (95% CI 3·47-15·6) in C-peptide reduction with abatacept. There were few infusion-related adverse events (36 reactions occurred in 17 [22%] patients on abatacept and 11 reactions in six [17%] on placebo). There was no increase in infections (32 [42%] patients on abatacept vs 15 [43%] on placebo) or neutropenia (seven [9%] vs five [14%]).Co-stimulation modulation with abatacept slowed reduction in β-cell function over 2 years. The beneficial effect suggests that T-cell activation still occurs around the time of clinical diagnosis of type 1 diabetes. Yet, despite continued administration of abatacept over 24 months, the decrease in β-cell function with abatacept was parallel to that with placebo after 6 months of treatment, causing us to speculate that T-cell activation lessens with time. Further observation will establish whether the beneficial effect continues after cessation of abatacept infusions.US National Institutes of Health.
View details for DOI 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60886-6
View details for Web of Science ID 000293615900032
View details for PubMedID 21719096
Abstract
Dengue virus infection is a public health threat to hundreds of millions of individuals in the tropical regions of the globe. Although Dengue infection usually manifests itself in its mildest, though often debilitating clinical form, dengue fever, life-threatening complications commonly arise in the form of hemorrhagic shock and encephalitis. The etiological basis for the virus-induced pathology in general, and the different clinical manifestations in particular, are not well understood. We reasoned that a detailed knowledge of the global biological processes affected by virus entry into a cell might help shed new light on this long-standing problem.A bacterial two-hybrid screen using DENV2 structural proteins as bait was performed, and the results were used to feed a manually curated, global dengue-human protein interaction network. Gene ontology and pathway enrichment, along with network topology and microarray meta-analysis, were used to generate hypothesis regarding dengue disease biology.Combining bioinformatic tools with two-hybrid technology, we screened human cDNA libraries to catalogue proteins physically interacting with the DENV2 virus structural proteins, Env, cap and PrM. We identified 31 interacting human proteins representing distinct biological processes that are closely related to the major clinical diagnostic feature of dengue infection: haemostatic imbalance. In addition, we found dengue-binding human proteins involved with additional key aspects, previously described as fundamental for virus entry into cells and the innate immune response to infection. Construction of a DENV2-human global protein interaction network revealed interesting biological properties suggested by simple network topology analysis.Our experimental strategy revealed that dengue structural proteins interact with human protein targets involved in the maintenance of blood coagulation and innate anti-viral response processes, and predicts that the interaction of dengue proteins with a proposed human protein interaction network produces a modified biological outcome that may be behind the hallmark pathologies of dengue infection.
View details for DOI 10.1186/1471-2334-11-34
View details for Web of Science ID 000287239500001
View details for PubMedID 21281507
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC3037883
Abstract
Bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (DCs) are cells of the immune system that have been used as a tool to boost, modulate, or dampen immune responses. In the context of autoimmunity, DCs can be modified to express immunoregulatory products encoded by transgenes, and used therapeutically in adoptive cellular therapy. DCs that were lentivirally transduced (lt) to express interleukin 4 (IL-4) can significantly delay or prevent the onset of autoimmune diabetes in nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice. However, modifying cells using viral vectors carries the dual risk of oncogenicity or immunogenicity. This study demonstrates that NOD DCs, electroporated with "translationally enhanced" IL-4 mRNA (eDC/IL-4), can be equally efficient therapeutically, despite the reduced amount and shorter duration of IL-4 secretion. Moreover, a single injection of eDC/IL-4 in NOD mice shortly after the onset of hyperglycemia was able to maintain stable glycemia for up to several months in a significant fraction of treated mice. Treatment with eDC/IL-4 boosted regulatory T (Tregs) cell functions and modulated T helper responses to reduce pathogenicity. Thus, treatment with DCs, electroporated with modified IL-4 mRNA to express IL-4 for up to 24 hours, constitutes a viable cellular therapy approach for the regulation of autoimmune diabetes, as a preferred alternative to the use of viral vectors.
View details for DOI 10.1038/mt.2010.146
View details for Web of Science ID 000284828000012
View details for PubMedID 20628358
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC2997578
Abstract
This article will review new technologies used to characterize the immune phenotype of cells and serum for potential use in studies of autoimmunity.One area of recent development in studies of immune phenotyping is the contrast between cells of the immune system at rest and following activation. This simply involves comparing these cells at rest and following ligand-induced activation and measuring signaling system activation (phosphoepitope identification) or intracellular cytokine production or activation-induced gene expression. Preliminary data using these techniques have begun to identify signatures of disease (biomarkers) that are only seen when using these activation-induced assays. One of the most exciting new technologies, cytometry by time-of-flight mass spectrometry, couples a flow cytometer to a mass spectrometer, allowing many more parameters to be analyzed per cell, and without spillover between assay reagents, compared to conventional optical flow cytometry (heavy ions, mass, replaces fluorophore readout). Another new technology to analyze soluble proteins, bead-based immunoassays, can simultaneously measure up to 75 soluble analytes in a multiplexed array. Other technologies provide similar innovations in terms of analytical content, throughput, and miniaturization.We believe that new cellular genomic and protein-based technologies can provide key insights into autoimmune disease pathogenesis, progression, and therapy, and that these assays need to be applied in a systematic way to samples from patients with autoimmune diseases.
View details for DOI 10.1097/MED.0b013e32833ada91
View details for Web of Science ID 000285063800003
View details for PubMedID 20531181
Abstract
Ubiquitination of eukaryotic proteins regulates a broad range of cellular processes, including T cell activation and tolerance. We have previously demonstrated that GRAIL (gene related to anergy in lymphocytes), a transmembrane RING finger ubiquitin E3 ligase, initially described as induced during the induction of CD4 T cell anergy, is also expressed in resting CD4 T cells. In this study, we show that GRAIL can down-modulate the expression of CD83 (previously described as a cell surface marker for mature dendritic cells) on CD4 T cells. GRAIL-mediated down-modulation of CD83 is dependent on an intact GRAIL extracellular protease-associated domain and an enzymatically active cytosolic RING domain, and proceeds via the ubiquitin-dependent 26S proteosome pathway. Ubiquitin modification of lysine residues K168 and K183, but not K192, in the cytoplasmic domain of CD83 was shown to be necessary for GRAIL-mediated degradation of CD83. Reduced CD83 surface expression levels were seen both on anergized CD4 T cells and following GRAIL expression by retroviral transduction, whereas GRAIL knock-down by RNA interference in CD4 T cells resulted in elevated CD83 levels. Furthermore, CD83 expression on CD4 T cells contributes to T cell activation as a costimulatory molecule. This study supports the novel mechanism of ubiquitination by GRAIL, identifies CD83 as a substrate of GRAIL, and ascribes a role for CD83 in CD4 T cell activation.
View details for DOI 10.4049/jimmunol.0900204
View details for Web of Science ID 000275119400048
View details for PubMedID 19542455
Abstract
Because of their potent immunoregulatory capacity, dendritic cells (DCs) have been exploited as therapeutic tools to boost immune responses against tumors or pathogens, or dampen autoimmune or allergic responses. Murine bone marrow-derived DCs (BM-DCs) are the closest known equivalent of the blood monocyte-derived DCs that have been used for human therapy. Current imaging methods have proven unable to properly address the migration of injected DCs to small and deep tissues in mice and humans. This study presents the first extensive analysis of BM-DC homing to lymph nodes (and other selected tissues) after intravenous and intraperitoneal inoculation. After intravenous delivery, DCs accumulated in the spleen, and preferentially in the pancreatic and lung-draining lymph nodes. In contrast, DCs injected intraperitoneally were found predominantly in peritoneal lymph nodes (pancreatic in particular), and in omentum-associated lymphoid tissue. This uneven distribution of BM-DCs, independent of the mouse strain and also observed within pancreatic lymph nodes, resulted in the uneven induction of immune response in different lymphoid tissues. These data have important implications for the design of systemic cellular therapy with DCs, and in particular underlie a previously unsuspected potential for specific treatment of diseases such as autoimmune diabetes and pancreatic cancer.
View details for DOI 10.1182/blood-2009-02-204321
View details for Web of Science ID 000267789600024
View details for PubMedID 19363220
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC2710920
Abstract
In this study, we demonstrate that the E3 ubiquitin ligase gene related to anergy in lymphocytes (GRAIL) is expressed in quiescent naive mouse and human CD4 T cells and has a functional role in inhibiting naive T cell proliferation. Following TCR engagement, CD28 costimulation results in the expression of IL-2 whose signaling through its receptor activates the Akt-mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. Activation of mTOR allows selective mRNA translation, including the epistatic regulator of GRAIL, Otubain-1 (Otub1), whose expression results in the degradation of GRAIL and allows T cell proliferation. The activation of mTOR appears to be the critical component of IL-2R signaling regulating GRAIL expression. CTLA4-Ig treatment blocks CD28 costimulation and resultant IL-2 expression, whereas rapamycin and anti-IL-2 treatment block mTOR activation downstream of IL-2R signaling. Thus, all three of these biotherapeutics inhibit mTOR-dependent translation of mRNA transcripts, resulting in blockade of Otub1 expression, maintenance of GRAIL, and inhibition of CD4 T cell proliferation. These observations provide a mechanistic pathway sequentially linking CD28 costimulation, IL-2R signaling, and mTOR activation as important requirements for naive CD4 T cell proliferation through the regulation of Otub1 and GRAIL expression. Our findings also extend the role of GRAIL beyond anergy induction and maintenance, suggesting that endogenous GRAIL regulates general cell cycle and proliferation of primary naive CD4 T cells.
View details for DOI 10.4049/jimmunol.0803986
View details for Web of Science ID 000265899800008
View details for PubMedID 19414743
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC2853371
Abstract
The ubiquitin E3 ligase gene related to anergy in lymphocytes (GRAIL) (Rnf128) is a type 1 transmembrane protein that induces T cell anergy through the ubiquitination activity of its cytosolic RING finger. GRAIL also contains an equally large luminal region consisting primarily of an uncharacterized protease-associated (PA) domain. Using two-hybrid technology to screen for proteins that bound the PA domain we identified CD151, a member of the tetraspanin family of membrane proteins. GRAIL bound to the luminal/extracellular portion of both CD151 and the related tetraspanin CD81 using its PA domain, which promoted ubiquitination of cytosolic lysine residues. GRAIL exhibited specificity for lysines only within the tetraspanin amino terminus even in the presence of other cytosolic lysine residues in the substrate. GRAIL-mediated ubiquitination promoted proteasomal degradation and cell surface down-regulation of tetraspanins via Lys-48 linkages. As a result, the juxtaposition of PA and RING finger domains across a lipid bilayer facilitates the capture of transmembrane substrates for subsequent ubiquitination. These findings identify for the first time a single subunit E3 ligase containing a substrate-binding domain spatially restricted by a membrane from its E2 recruitment domain as well as an E3 ligase for members of the tetraspanin family.
View details for DOI 10.1074/jbc.M805092200
View details for Web of Science ID 000259969300052
View details for PubMedID 18713730
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC2568916
Abstract
A deficit in IL-4 production has been previously reported in both diabetic human patients and non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice. In addition, re-introducing IL-4 into NOD mice systemically, or as a transgene, led to a beneficial outcome in most studies. Here, we show that prediabetic, 12-week old female NOD mice have a deficit in IL-4 expression in the pancreatic lymph nodes (PLN) compared to age-matched diabetes-resistant NOD.B10 mice. By bioluminescence imaging, we demonstrated that the PLN was preferentially targeted by bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (DCs) following intravenous (IV) administration. Following IV injection of DCs transduced to express IL-4 (DC/IL-4) into 12-week old NOD mice, it was possible to significantly delay or prevent the onset of hyperglycemia. We then focused on the PLN to monitor, by microarray analysis, changes in gene expression induced by DC/IL-4 and observed a rapid normalization of the expression of many genes, that were otherwise under-expressed compared to NOD.B10 PLN. The protective effect of DC/IL-4 required both MHC and IL-4 expression by the DCs. Thus, adoptive cellular therapy, using DCs modified to express IL-4, offers an effective, tissue-targeted cellular therapy to prevent diabetes in NOD mice at an advanced stage of pre-diabetes, and may offer a safe approach to consider for treatment of high risk human pre-diabetic patients.
View details for DOI 10.1016/j.clim.2007.12.009
View details for Web of Science ID 000255231100010
View details for PubMedID 18337172
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC2453076
Abstract
The goal of this study was to compare the ability of donor naive and alloantigen-primed effector memory T cells to induce graft-vs-host disease after bone marrow transplantation in MHC-mismatched irradiated host mice. Purified CD4(+) naive (CD62L(high)CD44(low)) T cells and CD4(+) effector memory (CD62L(low)CD44(high)) T cells obtained from unprimed donors and donors primed to host alloantigens, respectively, were injected into host mice, and the rapidity, severity, and pattern of tissue injury of graft-vs-host disease was assessed. Unexpectedly, the naive T cells induced a more acute and severe colitis than the primed memory cells. Whereas the naive T cells expressing CD62L and CCR7 lymph node homing receptors vigorously expanded in mesenteric lymph nodes and colon by day 6 after transplantation, the primed memory T cells without these receptors had 20- to 100-fold lower accumulation at this early time point. These differences were reflected in the significantly more rapid decline in survival and weight loss induced by naive T cells. The primed memory T cells had a greater capacity to induce chronic colitis and liver injury and secrete IL-2 and IFN-gamma in response to alloantigenic stimulation compared with memory T cells from unprimed donors. Nevertheless, the expected increase in potency as compared with naive T cells was not observed due to differences in the pattern and kinetics of tissue injury.
View details for PubMedID 17982043
Abstract
Appropriate targeting of therapeutic cells is essential in adoptive cellular gene therapy (ACGT). Imaging cell trafficking in animal models and patients will guide development of ACGT protocols. Collagen type II (C-II)-specific T cell hybridomas are transduced with a lentivirus carrying a triple fusion reporter gene (TFR) construct consisting of a fluorescent reporter gene (RG), a bioluminescent RG (hRluc), and a positron emission tomography (PET) RG. Collagen-induced arthritic (CIA) mice are scanned with a bioluminescence imaging camera before and after implantation of various known cell quantities in their paws. Linear regression analysis yields equations relating two parameters of image signal intensity in mice paws to the quantity of hRluc expressing cells in the paws. Afterward, trafficking of intravenously injected cells is studied by quantitative analysis of bioluminescence images. Comparison of the average cell numbers does not demonstrate consistently higher accumulation of T-cell hybridomas in the paws with higher inflammation scores, and injecting more cells does not cause increased accumulation. MicroPET images illustrate above background signal in the inflamed paws and chest areas of CIA mice. The procedures described in this study can be used to derive equations for cells expressing other bioluminescent RGs and in other animal models.
View details for DOI 10.1117/1.2821415
View details for Web of Science ID 000252851100046
View details for PubMedID 18163841
Abstract
Progressive destruction of articular cartilage and bone is the pivotal problem of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Joint destruction is the cause of severe disability and determines the long-term outcome of disease. Conventional therapy does not control this destructive process sufficiently and the anti-rheumatic drugs available today can cause severe systemic adverse effects. Local application of chondroprotective and osteoprotective agents by means of gene therapy would be an attractive alternative to conventional therapy of RA and could provide long-term expression of the therapeutic agents and minimize systemic adverse effects. For this purpose, we have developed the concept of adoptive cellular gene therapy. This treatment strategy is based on using genetically engineered cells that home specifically to sites of autoimmune inflammation and thus allow local delivery of therapeutic gene products. Ex vivo transduction of these cells avoids systemic exposure of the host to the transgene-encoding vector and thus adds to the safety of this approach. In this article of the CIS Spring School in Autoimmune Diseases 2005 proceedings, we review our work on developing the strategy of adoptive cellular gene therapy and summarize recent advances in the evaluation of therapeutic effects and the identification of novel therapeutic targets.
View details for DOI 10.1016/j.autrev.2005.09.009
View details for Web of Science ID 000235349400018
View details for PubMedID 16431349
Abstract
The homing receptors L-selectin and alpha4beta7 integrin facilitate entry of T cells into the gut-associated organized lymphoid tissues such as the mesenteric lymph nodes and Peyer patches. We studied the impact of inactivation of genes encoding these receptors on the ability of purified donor CD4+ T cells to induce acute lethal graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) associated with severe colitis in irradiated major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-mismatched mice. Whereas lack of expression of a single receptor had no significant impact on the severity of colitis and GVHD, the lack of expression of both receptors markedly ameliorated colitis and early deaths observed with wild-type (WT) T cells. The changes in colitis and GVHD were reflected in a marked reduction in the early accumulation of donor T cells in the mesenteric lymph nodes and subsequently in the colon. The purified WT donor CD4+ T cells did not accumulate early in the Peyer patches and failed to induce acute injury to the small intestine. In conclusion, the combination of CD62L and beta7 integrin is required to induce acute colitis and facilitate entry of CD4+ donor T cells in the mesenteric nodes associated with lethal GVHD in allogeneic hosts.
View details for DOI 10.1182/blood-2005-06-2339
View details for PubMedID 16105972
Abstract
Although systemic administration of neutralizing anti-TNF antibodies has been used successfully in treating rheumatoid arthritis, there is a potential for side effects. We transduced a collagen reactive T-cell hybridoma with tissue-specific homing properties to assess therapeutic effects of local delivery to inflamed joints of anti-TNF single-chain antibodies (scFv) by adoptive cellular gene therapy. Cell culture medium conditioned with 1 x 10(6) scFv producer cells/ml had TNF neutralizing capacity in vitro equivalent to 50 ng/ml anti-TNF monoclonal antibody. Adding a kappa chain constant domain to the basic scFv (construct TN3-Ckappa) gave increased in vitro stability and in vivo therapeutic effect. TN3-Ckappa blocked development of collagen-induced arthritis in DBA/1LacJ mice for >60 days. Transgene expression was detected in the paws but not the spleen of treated animals for up to 55 days postinjection. No significant variations in cell proliferation or cytokine secretion were found in splenocytes or peripheral lymphocytes. IL-6 expression was blocked in the diseased paws of mice in the scFv treatment groups compared to controls. In conclusion, we have shown that local expression of an anti-inflammatory agent blocks disease development without causing demonstrable systemic immune function changes. This is encouraging for the potential development of safe adoptive cellular therapies to treat autoimmunity.
View details for DOI 10.1038/sj.gt.3301980
View details for Web of Science ID 000184207000007
View details for PubMedID 12858190
Abstract
For many decades, anergy has been used as a descriptive term to describe a state of antigen-specific unresponsiveness. A better understanding of this phenotype was revealed in the 1980s using in vitro model systems. These model systems demonstrated that protein synthesis and mobilization of Ca2+ was required leading to the pursuit of a novel gene(s) that would be unique to the anergy phenotype. Several putative "anergy factors" have been suggested. In this review, we provide an overview of the anergy phenotype and proposed anergy-related genes. To date, no single gene has been described that would completely fulfill the criteria of an "anergy factor." We review work from our laboratory describing a novel gene that we have termed Gene Related to Anergy In Lymphocytes (GRAIL) that is upregulated in T cells anergized in vitro and in vivo and, following transduction into T cells, reiterates the anergy phenotype.
View details for Web of Science ID 000187357900007
View details for PubMedID 14713718
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune arthritis, for which treatment options remain limited. This study investigated the potential role of adoptive cellular gene therapy as a novel means for treating the RA animal model collagen-induced arthritis (CIA). Adoptive transfer of antigen-specific T-cell hybridomas retrovirally transduced to express IL-4 1 day before booster immunization significantly reduced the number of inflamed joints. Cell transfer after clinical onset of disease had no therapeutic effect. Bioluminescence imaging showed that the hybridomas migrated to the inflamed joints, thus delivering the regulatory protein locally at the site of inflammation. The homing was, at least in part, due to chemotaxis in response to proinflammatory chemokines that are expressed in inflamed joints. There were no significant changes in the cytokine milieu of the draining lymph nodes, nor in the systemic levels of anti-collagen antibodies in treated mice. We conclude that the beneficial clinical effects observed in our model were most likely based on the local action(s) of IL-4 in the inflamed joints and that the local delivery (and effects) of regulatory cytokines, like IL-4, constitutes a novel and effective method of preventing organ-specific autoimmune disease and of minimizing systemic adverse effects.
View details for DOI 10.1006/clim.2002.5299
View details for Web of Science ID 000180187600008
View details for PubMedID 12498812
Abstract
We previously described a mechanism for the maintenance of peripheral self-tolerance. This involves the cross-presentation of tissue-associated antigens by a bone marrow-derived cell type that stimulates the proliferation and ultimate deletion of self-reactive CD8 T cells. This process has been referred to as cross-tolerance. Here, we characterize the elusive cell type responsible for inducing cross-tolerance as a CD8alpha(+) dendritic cell (DC). To achieve this aim, transgenic mice were generated expressing yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) linked to CTL epitopes for ovalbumin and glycoprotein B (gB) of herpes simplex virus under the rat insulin promoter (RIP). Although tracking of YFP was inconclusive, the use of a highly sensitive gB-specific hybridoma that produced beta-galactosidase on encounter with antigen, enabled detection of antigen presentation by cells isolated from the pancreatic lymph node. This showed that a CD11c(+)CD8alpha(+) cell was responsible for cross-tolerance, the same DC subset as previously implicated in cross-priming. These data indicate that CD8alpha(+) DCs play a critical role in both tolerance and immunity to cell-associated antigens, providing a potential mechanism by which cytotoxic T lymphocyte can be immunized to viral antigens while maintaining tolerance to self.
View details for DOI 10.1084/jem.20020861
View details for Web of Science ID 000178893100011
View details for PubMedID 12391021
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC2194045
Abstract
T(H)2 cells play a critical role in the pathogenesis of asthma, but the precise immunologic mechanisms that inhibit T(H)2 cell function in vivo are not well understood.The purpose of our studies was to determine whether T cells producing IL-10 regulate the development of asthma.We used gene therapy to generate ovalbumin-specific CD4 T-helper cells to express IL-10, and we examined their capacity to regulate allergen-induced airway hyperreactivity.We demonstrated that the CD4 T-helper cells engineered to express IL-10 abolished airway hyperreactivity and airway eosinophilia in BALB/c mice sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin and in SCID mice reconstituted with ovalbumin-specific T(H)2 effector cells. The inhibitory effect of the IL-10-secreting T-helper cells was accompanied by the presence of increased quantities of IL-10 in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, was antigen-specific, and was reversed by neutralization of IL-10. Moreover, neutralization of IL-10 by administration of anti-IL-10 mAb in mice sensitized and challenged with ovalbumin seriously exacerbated airway hyperreactivity and airway inflammation.Our results demonstrate that T cells secreting IL-10 in the respiratory mucosa can indeed regulate T(H)2-induced airway hyperreactivity and inflammation, and they strongly suggest that IL-10 plays an important inhibitory role in allergic asthma.
View details for DOI 10.1067/mai.2002.127512
View details for Web of Science ID 000177936900018
View details for PubMedID 12209095
Abstract
Acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) is still a major obstacle in clinical allogeneic bone marrow (BM) transplantation. CD4(+)CD25(+) regulatory T (T(reg)) cells have recently been shown to suppress proliferative responses of CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells to alloantigenic stimulation in vitro and are required for ex vivo tolerization of donor T cells, which results in their reduced potential to induce aGVHD. Here we show that CD4(+)CD25(+) T cells isolated from the spleen or BM of donor C57BL/6 (H-2(b)) mice that have not been tolerized are still potent inhibitors of the alloresponse in vitro and of lethal aGVHD induced by C57BL/6 CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells in irradiated BALB/c (H-2(d)) hosts in vivo. The addition of the CD4(+)CD25(+) T(reg) cells at a 1:1 ratio with responder/inducer CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells resulted in a >90% inhibition of the mixed leukocyte reaction and marked protection from lethal GVHD. This protective effect depended in part on the ability of the transferred CD4(+)CD25(+) T cells to secrete interleukin 10 and occurred if the T(reg) cells were of donor, but not host, origin. Our results demonstrate that the balance of donor-type CD4(+)CD25(+) T(reg) and conventional CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells can determine the outcome of aGVHD.
View details for DOI 10.1084/jem.20020399
View details for Web of Science ID 000177658200011
View details for PubMedID 12163567
View details for PubMedCentralID PMC2193938
Abstract
Lymphocytes are highly mobile cells that travel throughout the body in response to a tremendous variety of stimuli. Revealing lymphocyte trafficking patterns in vivo is necessary for a complete understanding of immune function, as well as cell-cell and cell-tissue interactions in immune development and in response to insult. Although the location of cell populations in various tissues at any given point in time may be revealed by techniques such as flow cytometry and immunofluorescence, these methods are not readily amenable to the assessment of dynamic cell migration patterns in vivo. In the past 5 years, technologies for imaging molecular and cellular changes in living animals have advanced to a point where it is possible to reveal the migratory paths of these vitally important cells. Here, we review one advancement in cellular imaging, in vivo bioluminescence imaging, which addresses the problem of lymphocyte tracking. This imaging strategy has the potential to elucidate the temporal patterns of immune responses and the spatial distribution of lymphocytes within the body.
View details for PubMedID 11750093
Abstract
T cell anergy is characterized by the inability of the T cell to produce IL-2 and proliferate. It is reversible by the addition of exogenous IL-2. A similar state of unresponsiveness is observed when the proliferative response of murine CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells is suppressed in vitro by coactivated CD4(+)CD25(+) T cells. We have developed a suppression system that uses beads coated with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 Abs as surrogate APCs to study the interaction of CD4(+)CD25(+) and CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells in vitro. CD4(+)CD25(+) T cell-induced suppression, in this model, was not abrogated by blocking the B7-CTLA-4 pathway. When the CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells were separated from the CD4(+)CD25(+) suppressor cells after 24 h of coactivation by the Ab-coated beads, the CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells were unable to proliferate or to produce IL-2 upon restimulation. The induction of this anergic phenotype in the CD4(+)CD25(-) T cells correlated with the up-regulated expression of the gene related to anergy in lymphocytes (GRAIL), a novel anergy-related gene that acts as a negative regulator of IL-2 transcription. This system constitutes a novel mechanism of anergy induction in the presence of costimulation.
View details for Web of Science ID 000171858300018
View details for PubMedID 11591749
Abstract
CD4+ T cells are believed to play a central role in the initiation and perpetuation of autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis. In the murine model for multiple sclerosis, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, pathogenic T cells exhibit a Th1-like phenotype characterized by heightened expression of proinflammatory cytokines. Systemic administration of "regulatory" cytokines, which serve to counter Th1 effects, has been shown to ameliorate autoimmune responses. However, the inherent problems of nonspecific toxicity limit the usefulness of systemic cytokine delivery as a potential therapy. Therefore, we used the site-specific trafficking properties of autoantigen-reactive CD4+ T cells to develop an adoptive immunotherapy protocol that provided local delivery of a Th1 cytokine antagonist, the p40 subunit of IL-12. In vitro analysis demonstrated that IL-12 p40 suppressed IFN-gamma production in developing and effector Th1 populations, indicating its potential to modulate Th1-promoted inflammation. We have previously demonstrated that transduction of myelin basic protein-specific CD4+ T cells with pGC retroviral vectors can result in efficient and stable transgene expression. Therefore, we adoptively transferred myelin basic protein-specific CD4+ T cells transduced to express IL-12 p40 into mice immunized to develop experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and demonstrated a significant reduction in clinical disease. In vivo tracking of bioluminescent lymphocytes, transduced to express luciferase, using low-light imaging cameras demonstrated that transduced CD4+ T cells trafficked to the central nervous system, where histological analysis confirmed long-term transgene expression. These studies have demonstrated that retrovirally transduced autoantigen-specific CD4+ T cells inhibited inflammation and promoted immunotherapy of autoimmune disorders.
View details for Web of Science ID 000170949600070
View details for PubMedID 11490028
Abstract
Autoantigen-specific T cells have tissue-specific homing properties, suggesting that these cells may be ideal vehicles for the local delivery of immunoregulatory molecules. We tested this hypothesis by using type II collagen-specific (CII-specific) CD4(+) T hybridomas or primary CD4(+) T cells after gene transfer, as vehicles to deliver an immunoregulatory protein for the treatment of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA), a mouse model of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). CII-specific T cells or hybridomas were transduced using retroviral vectors to constitutively express the IL-12 antagonist, IL-12 p40. Transfer of engineered CD4(+) T cells after immunization significantly inhibited the development of CIA, while cells transduced with vector control had no effect. The beneficial effect on CIA of IL-12 p40-transduced T cells required TCR specificity against CII, since transfer of T cells specific for another antigen producing equivalent amounts of IL-12 p40 had no effect. In vivo cell detection using bioluminescent labels and RT-PCR showed that transferred CII-reactive T-cell hybridomas accumulated in inflamed joints in mice with CIA. These results indicate that the local delivery of IL-12 p40 by T cells inhibited CIA by suppressing autoimmune responses at the site of inflammation. Modifying antigen-specific T cells by retroviral transduction for local expression of immunoregulatory proteins thus offers a promising strategy for treating RA.
View details for Web of Science ID 000168867400014
View details for PubMedID 11375419
Abstract
We recently discovered that short polymers of arginine efficiently translocate across the cytoplasmic membrane independent of the basic amino acid transporter. We evaluated the kinetics and biological effects of heptamers of L-arginine and D-arginine (L-R7 and D-R7, respectively) in vascular cells. We assessed the effects of these peptides on the NO synthesis pathway and vascular cell proliferation.Human umbilical vein endothelial cell and rabbit vascular segments were incubated in medium containing biotin-labeled L-R7 or D-R7. Both polymers rapidly translocated through the vessel wall and into the vascular cells in a dose- and time-dependent fashion. At a dose of 10 micromol/L for 30 minutes, 100% of the endothelial cells showed evidence of cytoplasmic and nuclear localization of the peptides. To evaluate the biological effects of the polymer translocation on myointimal formation, rabbit jugular vein segments were incubated with polymers (10 micromol/L, 30 minutes) or vehicle before arterial interposition grafting. Planimetric measurement 28 days after surgery revealed that L-R7 and D-R7 substantially reduced myointimal formation compared with the control condition (intima/media ratio: control 1. 50.5, L-R7 0.40.2, and D-R7 0.80.2; P:<0.05). Furthermore, basal nitrate and nitrite production from L-R7-treated grafts was significantly higher than that from both control and D-R7-treated veins. Studies in vitro of cultured vascular smooth muscle cells revealed that both polymers also exhibit an NO-independent inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation.Short polymers of arginine have the unique ability of vascular cell translocation, and they also have direct biological effects. These attributes are potentially useful in treating myointimal hyperplasia.
View details for Web of Science ID 000165405800013
View details for PubMedID 11085967
Abstract
Homopolymers or peptides containing a high percentage of cationic amino acids have been shown to have a unique ability to cross the plasma membrane of cells, and consequently have been used to facilitate the uptake of a variety of biopolymers and small molecules. To investigate whether the polycationic character of these molecules, or some other structural feature, was the molecular basis for the effect, the ability of a variety of homopolymers to enter cells was assayed by confocal microscopy and flow cytometry. Polymers of L- or D-arginine containing six or more amino acids entered cells far more effectively than polymers of equal length composed of lysine, ornithine and histidine. Peptides of fewer than six amino acids were ineffective. The length of the arginine side-chain could be varied without significant loss of activity. These data combined with the inability of polymers of citrulline to enter cells demonstrated that the guanidine headgroup of arginine was the critical structural component responsible for the biological activity. Cellular uptake could be inhibited by preincubation of the cells with sodium azide, but not by low temperature (3 degrees C), indicating that the process was energy dependent, but did not involve endocytosis.
View details for Web of Science ID 000165173900006
View details for PubMedID 11095185
Abstract
CD4+ T cells are important mediators in the pathogenesis of autoimmunity and would therefore provide ideal candidates for lymphocyte-based gene therapy. However, the number of Ag-specific T cells in any single lesion of autoimmunity may be quite low. Successful gene transfer into autoantigen-specific CD4+ T cells would serve as an ideal vehicle for site-targeted gene therapy if it were possible to transduce preferentially the small number of autoantigen-specific T cells. In this study we have demonstrated that retroviral infection of CD4+ lymphocytes from either autoantigen-stimulated TCR transgenic mice, or Ag-activated immunized nontransgenic mice, with a retroviral vector (pGCIRES), resulted in the transduction of only the limited number of Ag-reactive CD4+ T cells. In contrast, polyclonal activation of the same cultures resulted in transduction of non-antigen-specific lymphocytes. Transduction of Ag-reactive CD4+ T cells with pGCIRES retrovirus encoding the regulatory genes IL-4 (IL4) and soluble TNF receptor (STNFR) resulted in stable integration and long-term expression of recombinant gene products. Moreover, expression of the pGCIRES marker protein, GFP, directly correlated with the expression of the upstream regulatory gene. Retroviral transduction of CD4+ T cells targeted specifically Ag-reactive cells and was cell cycle-dependent and evident only during the mitosis phase. These studies suggest that retroviral transduction of autoantigen-specific murine CD4+ T cells, using the pGCIRES retroviral vector, may provide a potential method to target and isolate the low frequency of autoantigen-specific murine CD4+ T cells, and provides a rational approach to gene therapy in animal models of autoimmunity.
View details for Web of Science ID 000086020700019
View details for PubMedID 10725713
Abstract
Activated T lymphocytes modulate the level of many molecules on their cell surface, including cytokine receptors. This regulation of cytokine receptor expression affects the ability of T cells to respond to cytokines and thus influences the outcome of an immune response. The receptor for IFN-gamma, a proinflammatory cytokine, consists of two copies of a ligand binding chain (IFN-gammaR1) as well as two copies of a second chain (IFN-gammaR2) required for signal transduction. The expression of IFN-gammaR2 is down-regulated at the mRNA level on CD4+ T cells when they differentiate into the Th1, but not the Th2, phenotype. This down-regulation has been demonstrated to depend on the ligand, IFN-gamma, which is produced by Th1 but not Th2 T cells. The regulation of the cell-surface expression of IFN-gamma receptors during primary T cell activation has not been reported. Naive and differentiated T lymphocytes express IFN-gammaR1 at the mRNA level and as a cell-surface protein. In this study, we present evidence that cell-surface expression of IFN-gammaR1 is transiently down-regulated on the surface of naive CD4+ T cells shortly after TCR engagement. Furthermore, this down-regulation is not mediated by the ligand, IFN-gamma, but results from TCR engagement and can be inhibited by cyclosporin A.
View details for Web of Science ID 000086020700010
View details for PubMedID 10725704
Abstract
The low precursor frequency of Ag-reactive CD4+ T cells has been a barrier to the study of CD4+ T cell responses to conventional Ags as well as CD4+ T cell responses to autoantigens recognized during the course of an autoimmune disease. We have recently reported that all "conventional Ag" reactive CD4+ T cells are contained within the subpopulation expressing high levels of the CD4 molecule, termed CD4high. We have identified a CD4high population in the islets of Langerhans of prediabetic nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice that is extremely potent in transferring disease. As few as 500 CD4high islet-infiltrating CD4+ T cells transferred insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus to CD8 reconstituted NOD-SCID mice within 30 days of transfer. In contrast, CD4high T cells isolated from either NOD spleen or salivary glands did not transfer insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus into similar CD8-reconstituted NOD-SCID recipients. These data indicate that the precursor frequency of NOD islet-reactive, pathogenic CD4+ T cells is much higher in the prediabetic NOD pancreas than in these other organs. The islet-infiltrating CD4high T cells displayed selected memory markers, by cell surface analysis, and displayed a Th 1 phenotype by RNase protection assay, but had a marked decrease in IL-4 mRNA determined by quantitative real time PCR when compared with the less pathogenic CD4normal islet-infiltrating T cells. Use of the CD4high marker to select Ag activated T cells represents a tool to isolate and study pathogenic CD4+ T cells from autoimmune lesions in which the Ag has not been previously defined.
View details for Web of Science ID 000083638400067
View details for PubMedID 10553102
Abstract
Usually we rely on vaccination to promote an immune response to a pathogenic microbe. In this study, we demonstrate a suppressive from of vaccination, with DNA encoding a minigene for residues 139-151 of myelin proteolipid protein (PLP139-151), a pathogenic self-Ag. This suppressive vaccination attenuates a prototypic autoimmune disease, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, which presents clinically with paralysis. Proliferative responses and production of the Th1 cytokines, IL-2 and IFN-gamma, were reduced in T cells responsive to PLP139-151. In the brains of mice that were successfully vaccinated, mRNA for IL-2, IL-15, and IFN-gamma were reduced. A mechanism underlying the reduction in severity and incidence of paralytic autoimmune disease and the reduction in Th1 cytokines involves altered costimulation of T cells; loading of APCs with DNA encoding PLP139-151 reduced the capacity of a T cell line reactive to PLP139-151 to proliferate even in the presence of exogenous CD28 costimulation. DNA immunization with the myelin minigene for PLP-altered expression of B7.1 (CD80), and B7.2 (CD86) on APCs in the spleen. Suppressive immunization against self-Ags encoded by DNA may be exploited to treat autoimmune diseases.
View details for Web of Science ID 000079105000029
View details for PubMedID 10092787
Abstract
The current paradigm of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and disease association suggests that efficient binding of autoantigens by disease-associated MHC molecules leads to a T cell-mediated immune response and resultant autoimmune sequelae. The data presented below offer a different model for this association of MHC with autoimmune diabetes. We used several mouse lines expressing different levels of I-Ag7 and I-Ak on the nonobese diabetic (NOD) background to evaluate the role of MHC class II in the previously described NOD T cell autoproliferation. The ratio of I-Ag7 to I-Ak expression correlated with the peripheral T cell autoproliferative phenotype in the mice studied. T cells from the NOD, [NOD x NOD. I-Anull]F1, and NOD I-Ak transgenic mice demonstrated autoproliferative responses (after priming with self-peptides), whereas the NOD.H2(h4) (containing I-Ak) congenic and [NOD x NOD. H2(h4) congenic]F1 mice did not. Analysis of CD4(+) NOD I-Ak transgenic primed lymph node cells showed that autoreactive CD4(+) T cells in the NOD I-Ak transgenic mice were restricted exclusively by I-Ag7. Considered in the context of the avidity theory of T cell activation and selection, the reported poor peptide binding capacity of NOD I-Ag7 suggested a new hypothesis to explain the effects of MHC class II expression on the peripheral autoimmune repertoire in NOD mice. This new explanation suggests that the association of MHC with diabetes results from "altered" thymic selection in which high affinity self-reactive (potentially autoreactive) T cells escape negative selection. This model offers an explanation for the requirement of homozygous MHC class II expression in NOD mice (and in humans) in susceptibility to insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.
View details for Web of Science ID 000077713600008
View details for PubMedID 9858513
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases in humans represent an immune attack on self tissue. Current therapies for almost all autoimmune diseases utilize potent and nonspecific immunosuppressive regimens. These therapies are complicated by their side effects and also place the patient at increased risk for opportunistic infections and malignancies. Our current understanding of immune mechanisms underlying autoimmune diseases remains limited. Ongoing studies include identifying genes that predispose an individual to developing autoimmunity, identification of autoantigens that trigger or perpetuate autoimmunity, and studies of immune cell interactions that lead to immune response. Although it may be many years before a full understanding of autoimmunity is obtained, treatment in animal models of autoimmune disease and some human clinical trials have begun to study alternative treatment approaches to therapy of autoimmune disease. Future therapies for autoimmune diseases should target the inappropriate autoimmune response. This article will describe the use of gene therapy in the treatment of autoimmune disease. We believe that autoimmunity can be ameliorated by delivering trans-acting immunoregulatory molecules by retrovirally transduced autoantigen specific T cells that home to lesions of autoimmunity. Until recently, there has not been a practical alternative to systemic delivery of immunoregulatory molecules, however systemic delivery suffers from toxic side effects and dangerous global immunosuppression. In order to study immune regulation using retroviral transduction for local delivery of immunoregulatory products, we used myelin basic protein (MBP) reactive T cell hybridomas in the murine model of multiple sclerosis (MS), experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE). In this report, we show that MBP reactive T cell hybridomas transduced to express IL-4 or TNF, ameliorated or exacerbated disease, respectively. Additionally, the effects of these cells were dependent on T cell receptor (TCR) expression, indicating that the effects were due to homing of the T cells and the local delivery of cytokines. We believe that gene therapy, allowing local delivery of immunoregulatory proteins by autoantigen specific T cells, represents an interesting potential therapy for autoimmune disease.
View details for Web of Science ID 000076885900015
View details for PubMedID 9831193
Abstract
Inducible gene expression is primarily regulated at the level of transcription. Additional steps of "processing" pre-mRNA, involved in the regulation of induced gene expression, have not been previously reported. Here we report a novel mechanism of "activation-induced splicing" of preexisting tumor necrosis factor (TNF) message (pre-mRNA) in naive T lymphocytes after engagement of the T cell receptor (TCR), which still occurs after inhibition of transcription. Expression of TNF has been previously demonstrated to be regulated at both the transcriptional and translational levels. However, neither the large pool of TNF mRNA observed in activated T cells nor TNF protein production, which peaks very shortly after activation, can be solely attributed to increased transcription. Evidence is presented that activation-induced splicing of TNF pre-mRNA plays a significant role in the rapid production of TNF seen in activated T cells. Activation triggers processing of TNF pre-mRNA that has accumulated in naive T cells (before activation-induced transcription), and the mature TNF mRNA is translocated to the cytoplasm for rapid translation and protein production. This novel form of activation-induced splicing of TNF may allow T cells to mount an immediate response to activation stimuli under physiological conditions.
View details for Web of Science ID 000075236900003
View details for PubMedID 9670037
Abstract
In these experiments, we studied the role of anti-CD4 (Ox38) monoclonal antibody in the induction of allograft unresponsiveness in high-responder Lewis rats in the single liver, kidney, small bowel, and heart versus the combined heart-kidney, heart-liver, and heart-small bowel transplantation models.ACI heart, kidney, liver, and small bowel allografts were transplanted into untreated and anti-CD4 treated Lewis rats. In selected animals bearing long-surviving ACI liver or kidney allografts for over 3 months, donor-matched second heart or third-party (Brown Norway) heart allografts were transplanted. Simultaneously, heart-liver, heart-kidney, and heart-small bowel transplants were performed on the day of operation. Rejected allografts were verified by autopsy and pathology.ACI liver allografts were permanently accepted by Lewis recipients treated with either regular-dose (5 mg/kg for 4 days) or low-dose (5 mg/kg for 2 days) of anti-CD4 monoclonal antibody. Pretransplant anti-CD4 therapy (5 mg/kg for 4 days but not 5 mg/kg for 2 days) resulted in a long-term survival of kidney allografts (mean survival time [MST] > 100.0 days, n=5). Pretransplant anti-CD4 treatment (5 mg/kg for 4 days) could not induce tolerance when single ACI hearts were transplanted; however, long-term survival of ACI heart allografts could be induced when heart transplants were combined with liver (n=7) or kidney (n=8) transplants. The survival of both ACI heart allografts (MST=25.0 day
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Securing the Surrender: Marines in the Occupation of Japan (Introduction)
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At noon on 15 August 1945, people gathered near radios and hastily setup loud speakers in homes, offices, factories, and on city streets throughout Japan. Even though many felt that defeat was not far off, the vast majority expected to hear new exhortations to fight to the death or the official announcement of a declaration of war on the Soviet Union.
The muted strains of the national anthem immediately followed the noon time-signal. Listeners then heard State Minister Hiroshi Shimomura announce that the next voice they would hear would be that of His Imperial Majesty the Emperor. In a solemn voice, Emperor Hirohito read the first fateful words of the Imperial Rescript:
After pondering deeply the general trend of the world situation and the actual state of Our Empire, We have decided to effect a settlement of the present crisis by resort to an extraordinary measure. To Our good and loyal subjects, we hereby convey Our will. We have commanded Our Government to communicate to the Governments of the United States, Great Britain, China and the Soviet Union that Our Empire accepts the terms of their Joint Declaration.
Japanese children, seeing a Marine for the first time, eagerly reach or chocolates offered them by SSgt Henry A. Weaver, III. National Archives Photo 127-N-139887
Although the word "surrender" was not mentioned and few knew of the Joint Declaration of the Allied Powers calling for unconditional surrender of Japan, they quickly understood that the Emperor was announcing the termination of hostilities on terms laid down by the enemy. After more than three and a half years of fighting and sacrifice, Japan was accepting defeat.
On Guam, 1,363 nautical miles to the south, the men of the 6th Marine Division had turned in early the night before after a long day of combat training. At 2200, lights on the island suddenly came on. Radio reports had confirmed rumors circulating for days throughout the division's camp on the high ground overlooking Pago Bay: the Japanese had surrendered and there would be an immediate ceasefire. As some Marines clad only in towels or skivvies danced in the streets and members of the 22d Marines band conducted an impromptu parade, most of the 4th Marine Regimental Combat Team was on board ship, ready to leave for "occupational and possible light combat duty in Japanese - held territory." No less happy than their fellow Marines ashore, they remained cynical. The Japanese had used subterfuge before. Who could say they were not being deceptive now?
In May 1945, months before the fighting ended, preliminary plans for the occupation of Japan were prepared at the headquarters of General of the Army Douglas MacArthur in Manila and Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz on Guam. Staff studies, based on the possibility of the sudden collapse or surrender of the Japanese Government and High Command, were prepared and distributed at army and fleet level for planning purposes. In early summer, as fighting still raged on Okinawa and in the Philippines, dual-planning went forward for both the subjugation of Japan by force in Operations Olympic and Coronet, and its peaceful occupation in Operations Blacklist and Campus.
Many essential elements of MacArthur's Olympic and Black list plans were similar. The Sixth Army, which was slated to make the attack on the southern island of Kyushu under Olympic, was given the contingent task of occupying southern Japan under Operation Blacklist. Likewise, the Eighth Army, using the wealth of information it had accumulated regarding the island of Honshu in planning for Coronet, was designated the occupying force for northern Japan. The Tenth Army, a component of the Honshu invasion force, was given the mission of occupying Korea. Admiral Nimitz's plan envisioned the initial occupation of Tokyo Bay and other strategic areas by the Third Fleet and Marine forces, pending the arrival of formal occupation forces under General MacArthur's command.
When the Japanese government made its momentous decision to surrender in the wake of atomic bombings and the Soviet Union's entry into the war, MacArthur's and Nimitz's staffs quickly shifted their focus from Operation Olympic to Blacklist and Campus, their respective plans for the occupation. In the process of coordinating the two plans, MacArthur's staff notified Nimitz's representatives that "any landing whatsoever by naval or marine elements prior to CINCAFPAC's [Mac Arthur's] personal landing is emphatically unacceptable to him." MacArthur's objections to an initial landing by naval and accompanying Marine forces was based upon his belief that they would be unable to cope with any Japanese military opposition and, more importantly, because "it would be psychologically offensive to ground and air forces of the Pacific Theater to be relegated from their proper missions at the hour of victory."
Despite apparent disagreements, MacArthur's plan for the occupation, Blacklist, was accepted. But with at least a two-week lag predicted between the surrender and a landing in force, both MacArthur and Nimitz agreed that the immediate occupation of Japan was paramount and should be given the highest priority. The only military unit available with sufficient power "to take Japan into custody at short notice and enforce the Allies' will until occupation troops arrived" was Admiral William F. Halsey's Third Fleet, then at sea 250 miles south east of Tokyo, conducting carrier air strikes against Hokkaido and northern Honshu. On 8 August, advance copies of Halsey's Operation Plan 10-45 for the occupation of Japan setting up Task Force 31 (TF 31), the Yokosuka Occupation Force, were distributed. The task force's mission, based on Nimitz's basic concept, was to clear the entrance to Tokyo Bay and anchorages, occupy and secure the Yokosuka Naval Base, seize and operate Yokosuka Airfield, support the release of Allied prisoners, demilitarize all enemy ships and defenses, and assist U.S. Army troops in preparing for the landing of additional forces.
Three days later, Rear Admiral Oscar C. Badger, Commander, Battleship Division 7, was designated by Halsey to be commander, TF 31. The carriers, battleships, and cruisers of Vice Admiral John S. McCain's Task Force 38 also were alerted to organize and equip naval and Marine landing forces. At the same time, Fleet Marine Force, Pacific, directed the 6th Marine Division to furnish a regimental combat team to the Third Fleet for possible occupation duty. Major General Keller E. Rockey, Commanding General, III Amphibious Corps, on the recommendation of Major General Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr., nominated Brigadier General William T. Clement, the division's assistant commander, to head the combined Fleet landing force.
Brigadier General William T. Clement
Leading the 4th Marines ashore at Yokosuka on 30 August was a memorable event in Brigadier General William T. Clement's life and career. Clement was 48 and had been a Marine Corps officer for 27 years at the time he was given command of the Fleet Landing Force that would make the first landing on the Japanese home islands following the nation's unconditional surrender. He was born in Lynchburg, Virginia, and graduated from Virginia Military Institute. Less than a month after reporting for active duty in 1917, Clement sailed for Haiti where he joined the 2d Marine Regiment and its operations against rebel bandits.
Upon his return to the United States in 1919, he reported for duty at Marine Barracks, Quantico, where he remained until 1923, when he became post adjutant of the Marine Detachment at the American Legation in Peking, China. In 1926, he was assigned to the 4th Marine Regiment at San Diego as adjutant and in October of the same year was given command of a company of Marines on mail guard duty in Denver, Colorado, where he remained for three months until rejoining the 4th Marines. Clement sailed with the regiment for duty in China in 1927 and was successively a company commander and regimental operations and training officer. Following his return to the United States in 1929, he became the executive officer of the Marine Recruit Depot, San Diego, and then commanding officer of the Marine Detachment on board the West Virginia. Clement spent most of the 1930s at Quantico, first as a student, then an as instructor, and finally as a battalion commander with the 5th Marines.
The outbreak of World War II found Clement serving on the staff of the Commander-in-Chief, Asiatic Fleet in the Philippines. Although quartered at Corregidor, he served as a liaison among the Commandant, 16th Naval District; the Commanding General, U.S. Armed Forces in the Far East; and particularly with the forces engaged on Bataan until ordered to leave on board the U.S. submarine Snapper for Australia in April 1942. For his handling of the diversified units engaged at Cavite Navy Yard and on Bataan, he was awarded the Navy Cross.
Following tours in Europe and at Quantico, Clement joined the 6th Marine Division in November 1944 as assistant division commander and took part in the Okinawa campaign. Less than two months after the Yokosuka landing, he rejoined the division in Northern China. When the division was redesignated the 3d Marine Brigade, Clement became commanding general and in June 1946 was named Commanding General, Marine Forces, Tsingtao Area.
Returning to the United States in September, he was appointed President, Naval Retiring Board, and then Director, Marine Corps Reserve. In September 1949, he assumed command of Marine Corps Recruit Depot, San Diego, holding that post until his retirement in 1952. Lieutenant General Clement died in 1955.
The decision of which of the division's three regiments would participate was an easy one for General Shepherd. "Without hesitation [he] selected the 4th Marines," Brigadier General Louis Metzger, Clement's former chief of staff, later wrote. "This was a symbolic gesture on his part, as the old 4th Marine Regiment had participated in the Philippine Campaign in 1942 and had been captured along with other U.S. forces in the Philippines. Now the new 4th Marines would be the main combat formation taking part in the initial landing and occupation of Japan."
BGen William T. Clement, Fleet Landing Force commander, meets with Adm Halsey's chief of staff, RAdm Robert B. Carney, on board the Missouri to discuss plans for the landings in Tokyo Bay and the securing of Yokosuka Naval Base. National Archives Photo 80-G-33828
Preliminary plans for the activation of Task Force Able were prepared by III Amphibious Corps. The task force was to consist of a skeletal headquarters of 19 officers and 44 enlisted men, which was later augmented, and the 4th Marines, Reinforced, with a strength of 5,156. An amphibian tractor company and a medical company were added bringing the total task force strength up to 5,400. Officers designated to form General Clement's staff were alerted and immediately began planning to load out the task force. III Amphibious Corps issued warning orders to the division's transport quartermaster section directing that the regimental combat team, with attached units, be ready to embark 48 hours prior to the expected time of the ships' arrival. This required the complete re-outfitting of all elements of the task force which were undergoing rehabilitation following the Okinawa campaign.
Requirements for clothing, ordnance, and equipment and supplies had to be determined and arranged for from the 5th Field Service Depot. Initially, this proved to be difficult due to the secret nature of the operation and that all requisitions for support from supply agencies and the Island Command on Guam had to be processed through III Amphibious Corps. At 0900 on 12 August, the veil of secrecy surrounding the proposed operation was lifted so that task force units could deal directly with all necessary service and supply agencies. All elements of the task force and the 5th Field Service Depot then went on a 24-hour work day to complete the resupply task. The regiment not only lacked supplies, but it also was understrength. Six hundred enlisted replacements were obtained from the FMFPac Transient Center, Marianas, to fill gaps in its ranks left by combat attrition and rotation to the United States.
Dump areas and dock space were allotted by the Island Command to accommodate the five transports, a cargo ship, and a dock landing ship of Transport Division 60 assigned to carry Task Force Able. The mounting-out process was considerably aided by the announcement that all ships would arrive in port on 14 August, 24 hours later than originally scheduled. On the evening of the 13th, however, "all loading plans for supplies were thrown into chaos" by information that the large transport, Harris (APA 2), had been deleted from the group of ships assigned and that the Grimes (APA 172), a smaller trans port with 50 percent less capacity, would be substituted. The resultant reduction of shipping space was partially made up by the assignment of a landing ship, tank (LST) to the transport group. III Amphibious Corps informed the task force that no additional ship would be allocated. Later, after the task force departed Guam, a second LST was allotted to lift a portion of the remaining supplies and equipment, including the amphibian tractors of Company A, 4th Amphibian Tractor Battalion.
On the afternoon of 14 August, loading began and continued throughout the night. The troops boarded between 1000 and 1200 the following day, and by 1600 all transports were loaded. By 1900 that evening, the transport division was ready to sail for its rendezvous at sea with the Third Fleet. Within approximately 96 hours, the regimental combat team, it was reported, "had been completely re-outfitted, all equipment deficiencies corrected, all elements provided with an initial allowance to bring them up to T/O and T/A levels, and a thirty day re-supply procured for shipment."
Two days prior to the departure of the main body of Task Force Able, General Clement and the nucleus of his headquarters staff left Guam on the landing ship, vehicle Ozark (LSV 2), accompanied by the Shadwell (LSV 15) and two destroyers, to join the Third Fleet. As no definite mission had been assigned to the force, little preliminary planning had taken place so time enroute was spent studying intelligence summaries of the Tokyo area. Few maps were available and those that were proved to be inadequate. The trip to the rendezvous point was uneventful except for a reported torpedo wake across the Ozark's bow. Several depth charges were dropped by the destroyer escorts with unknown results.
Halsey's ships were sighted on 18 August, and next morning, Clement and key members of his staff transferred to the battleship Missouri (BB 63) for the first of several rounds of conferences on the upcoming operation. At the conference, Task Force 31 was tentatively established and Clement learned, for the first time, that the Third Fleet Landing Force would play an active part in the occupation of Japan by landing on Miura Peninsula, 30 miles southwest of Tokyo. The primary task assigned by Admiral Halsey to Clement's forces was seizure and occupation of Yokosuka airfield and naval base in preparation for initial landings by air of the 11th Airborne Division. Located south of Yokohama, 22 miles from Tokyo, the sprawling base contained two airfields, a seaplane base, aeronautical research center, optical laboratory, gun factory and ordnance depot, torpedo factory, munitions and aircraft storage, tank farms, supply depot, ship yard, and training schools and hospitals. During the war approximately 70,000 civilians and 50,000 naval ratings worked or trained at the base.
Collateral missions included the demilitarization of the entire Miura Peninsula, which formed the western arm of the headlands enclosing Tokyo Bay, and the seizure of the Zushi area, including Hayama Imperial Palace, General MacArthur's tentative headquarters, on the southwest coast of the peninsula. Two alternative schemes of maneuver were proposed to accomplish these missions. The first contemplated a landing by assault troops on the beaches near Zushi, followed by a five-mile drive east across the peninsula in two columns over the two good roads to secure the naval base for the landing of supplies and reinforcements. The second plan involved simultaneous landings from within Tokyo Bay on the beaches and docks of Yokosuka naval base and air station, to be followed by the occupation of the Zushi area, thus sealing off and then demilitarizing the entire peninsula. The Zushi landing plan was preferred since it did not involve bringing ships into the restricted waters south of Tokyo Bay until assault troops had dealt with "the possibility of Japanese treachery." Following the conference, Admiral Halsey recommended to Lieutenant General Robert L. Fichelberger, commander of the Eighth Army, whom MacArthur had appointed to command forces ashore in the occupation of northern Japan, that the Zushi plan be adopted.
At 1400 on 19 August, Task Force 31 was officially organized and Admiral Badger formed the ships assigned to the force into a separate tactical group, the transports and large amphibious ships in column, with circular screens composed of destroyers and high speed transports. In addition, three subordinate task units were formed: Third Fleet Marine Landing Force; Third Fleet Naval Landing Force; and a landing force of sailors and Royal Marines from Vice Admiral Sir Bernard Rawling's British Carrier Task Force. To facilitate organization and establish control over the three provisional commands, the transfer of American and British sailors and Marines and their equipment to designated transports by means of breeches buoys and cargo slings began immediately. Carriers, battleships, and cruisers were brought along both sides of a transport to expedite the operation. In addition to the landing battalions of sailors and Marines, fleet units formed base maintenance companies, a naval air activities organization to operate Yokosuka airfield, and nucleus crews to seize and secure Japanese vessels. In less than three days, the task of transferring at sea some 3,500 men and hundreds of tons of weapons, equipment, and ammunition was accomplished without accident. As soon as they reported on board their transports, the newly organized units began an intensive program of training for ground combat operations and occupation duties.
Somewhere at sea off the coast of Japan, the carrier Yorktown maintains a course within 75 feet of the landing ship Ozark, as a breeches buoy is strung between the two ships and a sea-going Marine is hauled across to the Ozark. National Archives Photo 127-N-133346
On 20 August, the ships carrying the 4th Marine Regimental Combat Team joined the burgeoning task force and General Clement and his staff transferred from the Ozark to the Grimes. Clement's command now included the 5,400 men of the reinforced 4th Marines; a three-battalion regiment of approximately 2,000 Marines from the ships of Task Force 38; 1,000 sailors from Task Force 38 organized into two landing battalions; a battalion of nucleus crews for captured shipping; and a British battalion of 200 sea men and 250 Royal Marines. To act as a floating reserve, five additional battalions of partially equipped sailors were organized from within Admiral McCain's carrier battle group.
The next day, General Fichelberger, who had been informed of the alternative plans formulated by Admirals Halsey and Badger, directed that the landing be made at the naval base rather than in the Zushi area. Although there was mounting evidence that the enemy would cooperate fully with the occupying forces, the Zushi area, Fichelberger pointed out, had been selected by MacArthur as his headquarters area and was therefore restricted. His primary reason, however, for selecting Yokosuka rather than Zushi as the landing site involved the overland movement of the landing force. "This overland movement [from Zushi to Yokosuka]," Brigadier General Metzger later noted, "would have exposed the landing force to possible enemy attack while its movement was restricted over narrow roads and through a series of tunnels which were easily susceptible to sabotage. Further, it would have delayed the early seizure of the major Japanese naval base."
Fichelberger's dispatch also included information that the 11th Airborne Division would make its initial landing at Atsugi airfield, a few miles northwest of the northern end of the Miura Peninsula, instead of at Yokosuka. The original plans, which were prepared on the assumption that General Clement's men would seize Yokosuka airfield for the airborne operation, had to be changed to provide for a simultaneous Army-Navy landing. A tentative area of responsibility, including the cities of Uraga, Kubiri, Yokosuka, and Funakoshi, was assigned to Clement's force. The remainder of the peninsula was assigned to Major General Joseph M. Swing's 11th Airborne Division. While Fichelberger's directive affected the employment of the Fleet Landing Force it did not place the force under Eighth Army control.
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To insure the safety of allied warships entering Tokyo Bay, Clement's operation plan detailed the British Landing Force to occupy and demilitarize three small island forts in the Uraga Strait at the entrance to Tokyo Bay. To erase the threat of shore batteries and coastal forts, the 2d Battalion, 4th Marines, supported by an underwater demolition team and a team of 10 Navy gunner's mates to demilitarize the heavy coastal defense guns, was given the mission of landing on Futtsu Saki, a long, narrow peninsula which jutted from the eastern shore into Uraga Strait at the mouth of Tokyo Bay. After completing its mission, the battalion was to reembark in its landing craft to take part in the main landing as the regiment's reserve battalion. Nucleus crews from the Fleet Naval Landing Force were to enter Yokosuka's inner harbor prior to H-Hour and take possession of the damaged battleship Nagato, whose guns commanded the landing beaches.
The 4th Marines, with the 1st and 3d Battalions in assault, was scheduled to make the initial landing at Yokosuka on L-Day. The battalions of the Fleet Marine and Naval Landing Forces were to land in reserve and take control of specific areas of the naval base and airfield, while the 4th Marines pushed inland to link up with elements of the 11th Airborne Division landing at Atsugi airfield. The cruiser San Diego (CL 53), Admiral Badger's flagship; 4 destroyers; and 12 assault craft were to be prepared to furnish naval gunfire support on call. Four observation planes were assigned to observe the landing, and although there were to be no combat planes in direct support, more than 1,000 carrier-based planes would be armed and available if needed. Though it was hoped that the Yokosuka landing would be uneventful, Task Force 31 was prepared to deal with either organized resistance or individual fanaticism on the part of the Japanese.
L-Day was originally scheduled for 26 August, but on the 20th, storm warnings indicating that a typhoon was developing 300 miles to the southeast forced Admiral Halsey to postpone the landing date to the 28th. Ships were to enter Sagami Wan, the vast outer bay which led to Tokyo Bay, on L minus 2 day. To avoid the typhoon, all task forces were ordered to proceed southwest toward a "temporary point" off Sofu-gan, where they were replenished and refueled. On 25 August, word was received from General MacArthur that the typhoon danger would delay Army air operations for 48 hours, and L-Day was consequently set for 30 August, with the Third Fleet entry into Sagami Wan on the 28th.
Marines of the Fleet Landing Force on board the Ozark receive a final brief from LtCol Fred D. Beans, the 4th Marines' commanding officer, prior to landing at Yokosuka. National Archives Photo 127-N-133054
The Japanese had been instructed as early as 15 August to begin minesweeping in the waters off Tokyo to facilitate the operations of the Third Fleet. On the morning of the entrance into Sagami Wan, Japanese emissaries and pilots were to meet with Rear Admiral Robert B. Carney, Halsey's Chief of Staff, and Admiral Badger on board the Missouri to receive instructions relative to the surrender of the Yokosuka Naval Base and to guide the first allied ships into anchorages. Halsey was not anxious to keep his ships, many of them small vessels crowded with troops, at sea in typhoon weather, and he asked and received permission from MacArthur to put into Sagami Wan one day early.
Early on the 27th, the Japanese emissaries reported on board the Missouri. Several demands were presented, most of which centered upon obtaining information relative to minefields and shipping channels. Japanese pilots and interpreters were then put on board a destroyer and delivered to the lead ships of Task Force 31. Due to a lack of suitable minesweepers which had prevented the Japanese from clearing Sagami Wan and Tokyo Bay, the channel into Tokyo Bay was immediately check-swept with negative results. By late afternoon, the movement of Admiral Badger's task force to safe anchorages in Sagami Wan was accomplished without incident.
At 0900 on 28 August, the first American task force, consisting of the combat elements of Task Force 31, entered Tokyo Bay and dropped anchor off Yokosuka at 1300. During the movement, Naval Task Forces 35 and 37 stood by to provide fire support if needed. Carrier planes of Task Force 38 conducted an air demonstration in such force "as to discourage any treachery on the part of the enemy." In addition, combat air patrols, direct support aircraft, and planes patrolling outlying airfields flew low over populated areas to reinforce the allied presence.
Shortly after anchoring, Vice Admiral Michitore Totsuka, Commandant of the First Naval District and Yokosuka Naval Base, and his staff reported to Admiral Badger in the San Diego for further instructions regarding the surrender of his command. They were informed that the naval base area was to be cleared of all personnel except for skeletal maintenance and guard crews; guns of the forts, ships, and coastal batteries commanding the bay were to be rendered inoperative; the breech blocks were to be removed from all antiaircraft and dual-purpose guns and their positions marked with white flags visible four miles to seaward; and, Japanese guides and interpreters were to be on the beach to meet the landing force. Additionally, guards were to stationed at each warehouse and building with a complete inventory on its contents and appropriate keys.
Just after dawn on 30 August, Marines of the 2d Battalion, 4th Marines, hit the beaches of Futtsu Saki to neutralize the shore batteries prior to the main landing at Yokosuka. They found the Japanese had followed their surrender instructions to the letter. National Archives Photo 127-N-134867
As the naval commanders made arrangements for the Yokosuka landing, a reconnaissance party of Army Air Force technicians with emergency communications and airfield engineer equipment landed at Atsugi airfield to prepare the way for the airborne operation on L-Day. Radio contact was established with Okinawa where the 11th Division was waiting to execute its part in Blacklist. The attitude of the Japanese officials, both at Yokosuka and Atsugi, was uniformly one of outward subservience and docility. But years of bitter experiences caused many allied commanders and troops to view the emerging picture of the Japanese as meek and harmless with a jaundiced eye. As Admiral Carney noted at the time: "It must be remembered that these are the same Japanese whose treachery, cruelty, and subtlety brought about this war; we must be continually vigilant for overt treachery. . . They are always dangerous."
During the Third Fleet's first night at anchor, there was a fresh reminder of Japanese brutality. Two British prisoners of war hailed one of the fleet's picket boats in Sagami Wan and were taken on board the San Juan (CL 54), command ship of the specially constituted Allied Prisoner of War Rescue Group. Their description of life in the prison camps and of the extremely poor physical condition of many of the prisoners, later confirmed by an International Red Cross representative, prompted Halsey to order the rescue group into Tokyo Bay and to stand by for action on short notice. At 1420 on the 29th, Admiral Nimitz arrived by seaplane from Guam and authorized Halsey to begin rescue operations immediately, although MacArthur had directed the Navy not begin recovery operations until the Army was ready. Special teams, guided by carrier planes overhead, quickly began the task of bringing in allied prisoners from the Omori and Ofuna camps and the Shanagama hospital. By 1910 that evening, the first prisoners of war arrived on board the hospital ship Benevolence (AH 13), and at midnight 739 men had been brought out. After evacuating camps in the Tokyo area, the San Juan moved south to the Nagoya Hamamatsu area and then north to the Sendai-Kamaishi area. During the next 14 days, more than 19,000 allied prisoners were liberated.
Marines of the 4th Regiment come ashore at Yokosuka from landing craft as they had done many times before, but this time no one is firing. National Archives Photo 127-N-133859
Also that evening, for the first time since Pearl Harbor, the ships of the Third Fleet were illuminated. As General Metzger later remembered: "Word was passed to illuminate ship, but owing to the long wartime habit of always darkening ship at night, no ship would take the initiative in turning their lights on. Finally, after the order had been repeated a couple of times lights went on. It was a wonderful picture with all the ships flying large battle flags both at the foretruck and the stern. In the background was snowcapped Mount Fuji." Movies were shown on the weather decks. While the apprehension of some lessened, lookouts were still posted, radars continued to search, and the ships remained on alert.
Long before dawn on L-Day, three groups of Task Force 31 transports, with escorts, moved from Sagami Wan into Tokyo Bay. The first group of transports carried the 2d Battalion, 4th Marines; the second the bulk of the landing force, consisting of the rest of the 4th Marines and the Fleet Marine and Naval Landing Forces; and the third, the British Landing Force. All plans of the Yokosuka Occupation Force had been based on an H-Hour for the main landing of 1000, but last-minute word was received from General MacArthur on the 29th that the first transport planes carrying the 11th Airborne Division would be landing at Atsugi airfield at 0600. To preserve the value and impact of simultaneous Army-Navy operations, Task Force 31's plans were changed to allow for the earlier landing time.
As their landing craft approached the beaches of Futtsu Saki, the Marines of 2d Battalion, 4th Marines spotted a sign left on shore by their support team: "US NAVY UNDERWATER DEMOLITION TEAMS WELCOME MARINES TO JAPAN." At 0558, the ramps dropped and Company G, under First Lieutenant George B. Lamberson, moved ashore. While Lamberson's company and another seized the main fort and armory, a third landed on the tip of the peninsula and occupied the second fort. The Japanese, they found, had followed their instructions to the letter. The German made coastal and antiaircraft guns had been rendered useless and only a 22-man garrison remained to oversee the peaceful turnover. As the Japanese soldiers marched away, the Marines, as Staff Sergeant Edward Meagher later reported, "began smashing up the rifles, machine guns, bayonets and antiaircraft guns. They made a fearful noise doing it. Quite obviously, they hadn't enjoyed doing anything so much in a long, long time." By 0845, after raising the American flag over both forts, the battalion, its mission accomplished, reembarked for the Yokosuka landing, scheduled for 0930. With the taking of the Futtsu Saki forts and the landing of the first transports at Atsugi, the occupation of Japan was underway.
With first light came dramatic evidence that the Japanese would comply with the surrender terms. Lookouts on board Task Force 31 ships could see white flags flying over abandoned and inoperative gun positions. A 98-man nucleus crew from the battleship South Dakota (BB 57) boarded the battle ship Nagato at 0805 and received the surrender from a skeleton force of officers and technicians; the firing locks of the ship's main battery had been removed and all secondary and antiaircraft guns relocated to the Navy Yard. "At no time was any antagonism, resentment, arrogance or passive resistance encountered; both officers (including the captain) and men displaying a very meek and subservient attitude," noted Navy Captain Thomas J. Flynn in his official report. "It seemed almost incredible that these bowing, scraping, and scared men were the same brutal, sadistic enemies who had tortured our prisoners, reports of whose plight were being received the same day."
The morning was warm and bright. There was hardly a ripple on the water as the 4th Marines, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Fred D. Beans, scrambled into landing craft. Once on board, they adjusted their heavy packs and joked and laughed as the coxswains powered the craft toward the rendezvous point a few miles off shore. Officers and senior enlisted men reminded their marines of orders given days before: weapons would be locked and not used unless fired upon; insulting epithets in connection with the Japanese as a race or individuals would not be condoned; and all personnel were to present a smart military bearing and proper deportment. "When you hit the beach, Navy cameramen who will land earlier will be there," Lieutenant Colonel George B. Bell said to the men of the 1st Battalion. "They will be taking pictures. Pictures of you men landing. I don't want any of you mugging the lenses. Simply get ashore as quickly as possible and do your job."
As the Marines of 1st Battalion and 3d Battalion gave their gear a last minute check, the coxswain in the lead craft signaled with both hands aloft and the boats, now abreast, moved toward the shore exactly on schedule. Out of habit, the Marines crouched low in the boat. "No one knew what would happen on the beach. You couldn't be absolutely certain. You were dealing with the Nip." Accompanying the Marines were "enough correspondents, photographers and radio men," one Marine observed, "to make up a full infantry company."
At 0930, Marines of Lieutenant Colonel Bell's 1st Battalion landed on Red Beach southeast of Yokosuka airfield and those of the 3d Battalion, led by Major Wilson B. Hunt, on Green Beach in the heart of the Navy Yard. There was no resistance. The few unarmed Japanese present wore white arm bands, as instructed, to signify that they were essential maintenance troops, officials, or interpreters. Hot-heads and others considered unable to abide by the Emperor's decree had been removed. Oriented by the few remaining personnel, the two Marine battalions rapidly moved forward, fanning out around hangers and buildings. Leaving guards at warehouses and other primary installations, the Marines moved across the airfield and through the Navy Yard, checking all buildings and each gun position to insure that the breechblock had been removed and "driving all non-essential Japanese before them." With the seizure of Yokosuka, the three island forts in Surago Channel, and the landing on Azuma Peninsula by British forces, the initial phase of the occupation was completed.
BGen William T. Clement with Vice Admiral Michitore Totsuka, center, commander of the First Naval District, proceed to the formal surrender ceremony at Yokosuka. National Archives Photo 127-N-133863
General Clement and his staff landed at 1000 on Green Beach where they were met by Japanese Navy Captain Kiyoshi Masuda and his staff who formally surrendered the naval base. "They were informed that non-cooperation or opposition of any kind would be severely dealt with." Clement then proceeded to the Japanese headquarters building where an American flag was raised with appropriate ceremony at 1015. The flag used was the same raised by the First Provisional Brigade on Guam's Orote Peninsula and by the 6th Marine Division on Okinawa.
Vice Admiral Michitore Totsuka had been ordered to be present on the docks of the naval base to surrender the First Naval District to Admiral Carney, acting for Admiral Halsey, and Admiral Badger. At 1030, the San Diego, with Carney and Badger on board, tied up at the dock at Yokosuka. With appropriate ceremony, the formal surrender took place at 1045, after which Badger, accompanied by Clement, departed for the former naval base headquarters building, the designated site for Task Force 31 and Fleet Landing Force headquarters.
At noon, with operations proceeding satisfactorily at Yokosuka and in the occupation zone of the 11th Airborne Division, General Eichelberger assumed operational control of the Fleet Landing Force from Halsey. Both of the top American commanders in the Allied drive across the Pacific set foot on Japanese soil on L-Day. General MacArthur landed at Atsugi airfield and subsequently set up temporary headquarters in Yokohama's Grand Hotel, one of the few buildings in the city to escape serious damage. Admiral Nimitz, accompanied by Halsey, came ashore at Yokosuka at 1330 to make an inspection of the naval base.
Reserves and reinforcements landed at Yokosuka during the morning and early afternoon according to schedule. The Fleet Naval Landing Force took over the Navy Yard area secured by 3d Battalion, and the Fleet Marine Landing Force occupied the airfield installations seized by 1st Battalion. The British Landing Force, after evacuating all Japanese personnel from the island forts, landed at the navigation school in the naval base and took over the area between the sectors occupied by the Fleet Naval and Marine Landing Forces. Azuma Peninsula, a large hill mass extensively tunneled as a small boat supply base, which was part of the British occupation area, was investigated by a force of Royal Marines and found abandoned.
Flanked by LtGen Robert L. Eichelberger, hands folded at right, General Douglas MacArthur talks with reporters shortly after landing at Atsugi airfield. National Archives Photo 306-NT-316B-27
Relieved by the other elements of the landing force, the 4th Marines moved out to the Initial Occupation Line and set up a perimeter defense for the naval base and airfield. There they met groups of uniformed police brought down from Tokyo ostensibly to separate the occupational forces from the local Japanese population. Later, patrol contact was made with the 11th Airborne Division, which had landed 4,200 men during the day.
The first night ashore was quiet. Guards were posted at major installations while small roving patrols covered the larger areas on which no guards were posted. A beer ration was issued to those not on duty. "We got a couple of trucks and went up to Yokohama," Lieutenant Colonel Beans noted later, "and brought two truckloads of beer back at night, which we paid for in cash. We had no trouble whatever . . . because the entire Navy Yard had been cleared." The 4th Marines had carried out General MacArthur's orders to disarm and demobilize with amazing speed. There was no evidence that the Japanese would do anything but cooperate. It was clear, for the moment, that the occupation would succeed.
Adm William Halsey, right, discusses the occupation of Yokosuka Naval Base with FAdm Chester Nimitz and BGen Clement on the afternoon of the landings. National Archives Photo 80-G-490466
Elements of the 4th Marines move into grounds of the Experimental Aircraft Factory at Yokosuka. Department of Defense Photo (USMC) 134639
On 31 August, Clement's forces continued to consolidate their hold on the naval base and the surrounding defense area. On orders from General Eichelberger, Company L, 3d Battalion, sailed in two destroyer transports to Tateyama Naval Air Station on the northeastern shore of Sagami Wan to accept its surrender and to reconnoiter the beach approaches and cover the 3 September landing of the Army's 112th Cavalry Regimental Combat Team. With the complete cooperation of the Japanese Army, Navy, and Foreign Office, the company quickly reconnoitered the beaches and then set up its headquarters at the air station. Likewise, elements of 1st Battalion, 15th Marines, under Lieutenant Colonel Walter S. Osipoff, moved south to accept the surrender and demilitarize Japanese garrisons in the Uraga Kurihama area. Less than 500 yards from where Commodore Matthew Perry and his Marine detachment landed 92 years earlier, Osipoff, in a simple ceremony, took control of the Kurihama Naval Base. Japanese officials turned over complete inventories of all equipment and detailed maps of defensive installations, including guns so carefully camouflaged that it would have taken Marine patrols weeks to find them. Here, as at Tateyama, the Japanese carried out the surrender instructions without resistance. As Lieutenant Colonel Osipoff noted:
Among the few Marines present at the surrender ceremony on board the Missouri, other than the ship's Marine detachment, were LtGen Roy S. Geiger, his aide Ma] John Q. Owsley, BGen Joseph H. Fellows, BGen William T. Clement, and 1stLt William F. Harris, the son of BGen Field Harris. Captured on Corregidor, 1stLt Harris was one of four Americans rescued from Japanese prison camps and brought on board the Missouri to witness the surrender. The other three, all naval personnel, were Cdr Arthur L. Mosher, of the Houston, Lt James W Condit, of the Yorktown, and MM2cl L. C. Shaw of the Grenadier. National Archives Photo 80-G-3488366
When the Japanese captain presented his sword to me, it was evident that he and his officers were taking the surrender inwardly quite hard. Here was a man passing over to a foreign power everything that he stood for. Yet he looked me straight in the eye. He wasn't haughty. He didn't turn away. But he was obviously deeply moved. I felt sure he must be thinking that his surrender was some thing that went along with the military profession. You fight and lose and you must face the consequences.
Col John C. Munn brought MAG-31 into Yokosuka to support the occupation of northern Japan. The group had participated in the Marshall Island and Okinawa Campaigns before moving into Japan. Marine Corps Photo (MAG-31)
Occupation operations continued to run smoothly as preparations were made to accept the formal surrender of the Japanese Empire on board the Missouri, where leading Allied commanders had gathered from every corner of the Pacific. At 0930 on 2 September, under the flag that Commodore Perry had flown in Tokyo Bay, the Japanese representative of the Emperor, Foreign Minister Mamoru Shigemitsu, and of the Imperial General Staff, General Yoshijiro Umezu, signed the surrender documents. General MacArthur then signed as Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (SCAP) and Admiral Nimitz for the United States. They were followed in turn by other senior allied representatives. The war that began at Pearl Harbor now officially was ended and the occupation begun. When later asked how many troops would be needed to occupy Japan, MacArthur said that 200,000 would be adequate. Lieutenant General Roy S. Geiger, Commanding General, FMFPac, agreed. "Sure," he said, "that'll be enough. There's no fight left in the Japs." Then he added: "Why, a squad of Marines could handle the whole affair."
As the surrender ceremony took place on the main deck of the Missouri, advance elements of the Eighth Army's occupation force entered Tokyo Bay. Ships carrying the Headquarters of the XI Corps and the 1st Cavalry Division docked at Yokohama. Transports with the 112th Cavalry on board moved to Tateyama, and on 3 September the troopers landed and relieved Company L, 3d Battalion, 4th Marines, which then returned to Yokosuka.
With the occupation proceeding smoothly, plans were made to dissolve the Fleet Landing Force and Task Force 31. The 4th Marines was selected to assumed responsibility for the entire naval base area and airfield. The first unit to return to the fleet was the British Landing Force, which was relieved by the 3d Battalion, 4th Marines, of the area between the Navy Yard and the airfield on 4 September. The Fleet Marine Landing Force was then relieved of its control in the Torpedo School, followed by the relief of the Fleet Naval Landing Force in the eastern end of the Navy Yard by the 3d Battalion. By 6 September, the 1st Battalion had relieved the remaining elements of the Fleet Marine Landing Force of the airfield and all ships' detachments of sailors and Marines had returned to their parent vessels and the provisional landing units deactivated.
Colorfully dressed Geisha girls watch as a Marine makes his nightly rounds. Department of Defense Photo (USMC) 136212
While a large part of the strength of the Fleet Landing Force was returning to normal duties, a considerable augmentation to Marine strength in northern Honshu was being made. On 23 August, AirFMFPac had designated Marine Aircraft Group 31 (MAG-31), then at Chimu airfield on Okinawa, to move to Japan as a supporting air group for the northern occupation. Colonel John C. Munn, the group's commanding officer, reconnoitered Yokosuka airfield and its facilities soon after the initial landing and directed necessary repairs to runways and taxiways in addition to assigning areas to each unit of the group. On 7 September, the group headquarters, operations, intelligence, and the 24 F4U Corsairs and men of Marine Fighter Squadron 441 flew in from Okinawa. The group was joined by Marine Fighter Squadron 224 on the 8th; Marine Fighter Squadron 311 on the 9th; Marine Night Fighter Squadron 542 on the 10th; and Marine Torpedo Bomber Squadron 131 on the 12th. "The entire base," the group reported, "was found [to be in] extremely poor police and all structures and living quarters in a bad state of repair. All living quarters were policed . . . under the supervision of the medical department, prior to occupation."
As additional squadrons arrived, the air base was transformed. Complete recreational facilities were established, consisting of a post exchange, theater, basketball courts, and enlisted recreation rooms in each of the squadron's barracks.
BGen Clement gives orders issued by the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers to Japanese naval and Army officers at Yokosuka. National Archives Photo 127-N-134490
When not engaged in renovating the air base or on air missions, liberty parties were organized and sent by boat to Tokyo. Preference was given to personnel who were expected to return to the United States for discharge. Fraternzation, although originally forbidden by the American high command, was allowed after the first week. "The Japanese Geisha girls have taken a large share of the attention of the many curious sight-seers of the squadron," reported Major Michael R. Yunck, commanding officer of Marine Fighter Squadron 311. "The Oriental way of life is something very hard for an American to comprehend. The opinions on how the occupation job 'should be done' range from the most generous to the most drastic all agreeing on one thing, though, that it is a very interesting experience."
Prostitution and the resultant widespread incidence of venereal diseases were ages old in Japan. "The world's oldest profession" was legal and controlled by the Japanese government; licensed prostitutes were confined to restricted sections. Placing these sections out of bounds to American forces did not solve the problem of venereal exposure, for, as in all ports such as Yokosuka, clandestine prostitution continued to flourish. In an attempt to prevent uncontrolled exposure, all waterfront and backstreet houses of prostitution were placed out of bounds. A prophylaxis station was established at the entrance to a Japanese police-controlled "Yashuura House" (a house of prostitution exclusively for the use of occupation forces), another in the center of the Yokosuka liberty zone, and a third at the fleet landing. These stations were manned by hospital corpsmen under the supervision of a full-time venereal disease-prevention medical officer. In addition, a continuous educational campaign was carried out urging continence and warning of the dangerous diseased condition of prostitutes. These procedures resulted in a drastic decline in reported cases of diseases originating in the Yokosuka area.
On 8 September, the group's Corsairs and Hellcats, stripped of about two and a half tons of combat weight, began surveillance flights over the Tokyo Bay area and the Kanto Plain north of the capital. The purpose of the missions was to observe and report any unusual activity by Japanese military forces and to survey all airfields in the area. Initially, Munn's planes served under Third Fleet command, but on the 16th, operational control of MAG-31 was transferred to the Fifth Air Force. A month later, the group was returned to Navy control and reconnaissance flights in the Tokyo area and Kanto Plain discontinued. Operations of the air group were confined largely to mail, courier, transport, and training flights to include navigation, tactics, dummy gunnery, and ground control approach practice. By mid-October, the physical condition of the base had been improved to such an extent that the facilities were adequate to accommodate the remainder of the group's personnel. On 7 December, the group's four tactical squadrons were placed under the operational control of the Far Eastern Air Force and surveillance and reconnaissance flights again resumed.
On 8 September, Admiral Badger's Task Force 31 was dissolved and the Commander, Fleet Activities, Yokosuka, assumed responsibility for the naval occupation area. General Clement's command, again designated Task Force Able, continued to function for a short time thereafter while most of the reinforcing units of the 4th Marines loaded out for return to Guam. On the 20th, Lieutenant Colonel Beans relieved General Clement of his responsibilities at Yokosuka, and the general and his staff flew back to Guam to rejoin the 6th Division. Before he left, Clement was able to take part in a ceremony honoring more than 120 officers and men of the "Old" 4th Marines, captured on Bataan and Corregidor.
Hundreds of neatly stacked torpedoes are inspected by Marines. They are a small part of the tons of war materiel Marines found at the naval base. National Archives Photo 127-N-134498
After the initial major contribution of naval land forces to the occupation of northern Japan, the operation became more and more an Army task. As additional troops arrived, the Eighth Army's area of effective control grew to encompass all of northern Japan. In October, the occupation zone of the 4th Marines was reduced to include only the naval base, airfield, and town of Yokosuka. In effect, the regiment became a naval base guard detachment, and on 1 November, control of the 4th Marines passed from Eighth Army to the Commander, U.S. Fleet Activities, Yokosuka.
While the Marine presence gradually diminished, activity in the surrounding area began to return to normal. Japanese civilians started returning to the city of Yokosuka in large numbers. "The almost universal attitude was at first one of timidity and fear, then curiosity," it was reported. "Banks opened and started to operate . . . . Post offices and telegraph offices started to function smoothly, and movie houses began to fill with civilian crowds."
Unlike Tokyo and Yokohama, the Yokosuka area had escaped much destruction and was remarkably intact. On base, evacuated Japanese barracks were quickly cleaned up and made reasonably liveable. The Japanese furnished cooks, mess boys, and housekeeping help, allowing Marines more time to explore the rice-paddy and beach resort-dotted countryside, and liberty in town. Allowed only five hours liberty three times a week, most enlisted Marines saw little of Japan, except for short sight-seeing tours to Tokyo or Kamakura. Yokosuka, a small city with long beer lines, quickly lost its novelty and Yokohama was off limits to enlisted personnel. So most Marines would "have a few brews and head back for the base at 4 p.m. when the beer sales cease." Their behavior was remarkable considering only a few months before they had fought a hard and bloody battle on Okinawa. Crimes against the local Japanese population were few and, for the most part, petty. It was the replacement, not the combat veteran, who, after a few beers, would "slug a Jap" or curse them to their faces.
Of the few problems, two stood out rape and the black market. Japanese women, so subdued, if propositioned would comply and later charge "rape." "Our courts gave severe sentences, which I approved," noted one senior commander. "This satisfied the Japanese honor. I expected the sentences to be greatly reduced, as they were, in the United States. The sooner these men were returned home, the better for all hands, including the Japanese." In addition, the utter lack and concomitant demand for consumer goods caused some Marines to smuggle items, such as cigarettes, out to the civilian market where they brought a high price. Although attempts were made to curb the practice, many unnecessary and expensive courts-martial where held "which branded our men with bad conduct discharges."
In addition to routine duties and security and military police patrols, the Marines also carried out Eighth Army demilitarization directives, collecting and disposing of Japanese military and naval materiel. In addition, they searched their area of responsibility for caches of gold, silver, and platinum. During the search, no official naval records, other than inventories and a few maps and charts, were found. It was later learned that the Japanese had been ordered to burn or destroy all documents of military value to the Allies.
The surrender of all garrisons having been taken, motorized patrols with truck convoys were sent out to collect as many small arms, weapons, and as much ammunition as possible. The large amount of such supplies in the Yokosuka area made the task an extensive one. In addition, weekly patrols from the regiment supervised the unloading at Uraga of Japanese troops and civilians returning from such by passed Pacific outposts as Wake, Yap, and Truk. Although there was concern that some Japanese soldiers might cause trouble, none did.
On 20 November, the 4th Marines was removed from the administrative control of the 6th Division and placed directly under FMFPac. Orders were received directing that preparations be made for 3d Battalion to relieve the regiment of its duties in Japan, effective 31 December. In common with the rest of the Armed Forces, the Marine Corps faced great public and Congressional pressure to send its men home for discharge as rapidly as possible. The Corps' world-wide commitments had to be examined with this in mind. The Japanese attitude of cooperation with occupation authorities fortunately permitted considerable reduction of troop strength. In Yokosuka, Marines who did not meet the age, service, or dependency point totals necessary for discharge in December or January were transferred to the 3d Battalion, while men with the requisite number of points were concentrated in the 1st and 2d Battalions.
"Yokosuka Airfield and Tokyo Bay During the American Occupation". Watercolor by Cdr Standish Backus, USNR, Navy Art Collection
On 1 December, the 1st Battalion completed embarkation on board the carrier Lexington (CV 16) and sailed for the West Coast to be disbanded. On the 24th, the 3d Battalion, reinforced by regimental units and a casual company formed to provide replacements for Fifth Fleet Marine detachments, relieved 2d Battalion of all guard responsibilities. The 2d Battalion, with Regimental Weapons and Headquarters and Service Companies, began loading out operations on the 27th and sailed for the United States on board the attack cargo ship Lumen (AKA 30) on New Year's Day. Like the 1st, the 2d Battalion and the accompanying two units would be disbanded. All received war trophies: Japanese rifles and bayonets were issued to enlisted men; officers received swords less than 100 years old; pistols were not issued and field glasses were restricted to general officers.
At midnight on 31 December, Lieutenant Colonel Bruno A. Hochmuth, the regiment's executive officer, took command of the 3d Battalion, as the battalion assumed responsibility for the security of the Naval Station, Marine Air Base, and the city of Yokosuka. A token regimental headquarters remained behind to carry on the name of the 4th Marines. Six days later, the headquarters detachment left Japan to rejoin the 6th Marine Division then in Tsingtao, China.
On 15 February, the 3d Battalion was redesignated the 2d Separate Guard Battalion (Provisional), Fleet Marine Force, Pacific. An internal reorganization was carried out and the battalion was broken down into guard companies. Its military police and security duties in the naval base area and city of Yokosuka remained the same. The major task of demilitarization in the naval base having been completed, the battalion settled into a routine of guard duty, ceremonies, and training, little different from that of any Navy yard barracks detachment in the United States.
(click on image for an enlargement in a new window)
In January, the Submarine Base was returned to Japanese control. With the return of the Torpedo School-Supply Base Area, the relief of all gate posts by naval guards, and the detachment of more than 300 officers and men in March, the 2d and 4th Guard Companies were disbanded and the security detail drawn from a consolidated 1st Guard Company. On 1 April, MAG-31 relieved the 3d Guard Company of security responsibility for the Air Base and the company was disbanded. With additional drafts of personnel for discharge or reassignment and an order to reduce the Marine strength to 100, the Commander, U.S. Fleet Activities, Yokosuka, responded. "I reacted," Captain Benton W. Decker later wrote, "reporting that the security of the base would be jeopardized and that 400 Marines were necessary, whereupon the order was canceled, and a colonel was ordered to relieve Lieutenant Colonel Bruno Hochmuth. Again, I insisted that Lieutenant Colonel Hochmuth was capable of commanding my Marine unit to my complete satisfaction, so again, Washington canceled an order." On 15 June, the battalion, reduced in strength to 24 officers and 400 men, was redesignated Marine Detachment, U.S. Fleet Activities, Yokosuka, Lieutenant Colonel Hochmuth commanding.
The Senior Marine Commanders
The three senior Marine commanders on Kyushu were seasoned combat veterans and well versed in combined operations qualities that enhanced Marine Corps contributions to the complex occupation duties and relations with the U.S. Sixth Army.
Major General Harry Schmidt commanded V Amphibious Corps. Schmidt was 59, a native of Holdrege, Nebraska, and a graduate of Nebraska State Normal College. He was commissioned in 1909 and in 1911 reported to Marine Barracks, Guam. Following a series of short tours in the Philippines and at state-side posts, he spent most of World War I on board ship. Interwar assignments included Quantico, Nicaragua, Headquarters Marine Corps, and China, where he served as Chief of Staff of the 2d Marine Brigade. Returning to Headquarters in 1938, Schmidt first served with the Paymaster's Department and then as assistant to the Commandant. In 1943, he assumed command of the 4th Marine Division which he led during the Roi Namur and Saipan Campaigns. Given the command of the V Amphibious Corps a year later, he led the unit during the assault and capture of Tinian and Iwo Jima. For his accomplishment during the campaigns, Schmidt received three Distinguished Service Medals. Ordered back to the United States following occupational duties in Japan, he assumed command of the Marine Training and Replacement Command, San Diego. General Schmidt died in 1968.
MajGen Harry Schmidt
Major General LeRoy P. Hunt commanded the 2d Marine Division. Hunt was 53, a native of Newark, New Jersey, and a graduate of the University of California. He was commissioned a second lieutenant in 1917 and served with great distinction with the 5th Marines during World War I, receiving the Navy Cross and Distinguished Service Cross for repeated acts of heroism. Postwar assignments were varied, ranging from sea duty to commanding officer of the Western Mail Guard Detachment and work with the Work Projects Administration's Matanuska Colonization venture in Alaska. Following a short tour in Iceland, he was given command of the 5th Marines which he led in the seizure and defense of Guadalcanal. As the 2d Marine Division's assistant division commander he participated in mopping-up operations on Saipan and Tinian and in the Okinawa Campaign. Appointed division commander, he led the division in the occupation of Japan and for a period was Commanding General, I Army Corps. Returning to the United States, Hunt assumed duties as Commanding General, Department of Pacific and then Commanding General, FMFLant. General Hunt died in 1968.
MajGen Leroy P. Hunt
Major General Thomas E. Bourke commanded the 5th Marine Division. Bourke was 49, a native of Robinson, Maryland, and a graduate of St. Johns College. He was commissioned in 1917 after service in the Maryland National Guard along the Mexican border. While enroute to Santo Domingo for his first tour, he and 50 recruits were diverted to St. Croix, becoming the first U. S. troops to land on what had just become the American Virgin Islands. Post-World War I tours included service at Quantico, Parris Island, San Diego, and Headquarters Marine Corps. He also served at Pearl Harbor; was commanding officer of the Legation Guard in Managua, Nicaragua; saw sea duty on board the battleship West Virginia (BB 48); and commanded the 10th Marines. Following the Guadalcanal and Tarawa campaigns, General Bourke was assigned as the V Amphibious Corps artillery officer for the invasion of Saipan. He next trained combined Army-Marine artillery units for the XXIV Army Corps, then preparing for the Leyte operation. With Leyte secured, he assumed command of the 5th Marine Division which was planning for the invasion of Japan. After the war's sudden end, the division landed at Sasebo, Kyushu, and assumed occupation duties. With disbandment of the 5th Marine Division, General Bourke became Deputy Commander and Inspector General of FMFPac. General Bourke died in 1978.
MajGen Thomas E. Bourke
The continued cooperation of the Japanese with occupation directives and the lack of any overt signs of resistance also lessened the need for the fighter squadrons of MAG-31. Personnel and unit reductions similar to those experienced by the 4th Marines also affected the Marine air group. By the spring of 1946, reduced in strength and relieved of all routine surveillance missions by the Fifth Bomber Command, MAG-31, in early May, received orders to return as a unit to the United States.
Prior to being released of all flight duties, the group performed one final task. Largely due to an extended period of inclement weather and poor sanitary conditions, the Yokosuka area had become infested with large black flies, mosquitoes, and fleas, causing the outbreak and spread of communicable diseases. Alarmed that service personnel might be affected, accessible areas were dusted with DDT by jeeps equipped with dusting attachments. The spraying effort was effective except in the city's alleys and surrounding narrow valleys, occupied by small houses and innumerable cesspools. "Fortunately we had a solution," wrote Captain Decker. MAG-31 was asked to tackle the job. "Daily, these young, daring flyers would zoom up the hills following the pathways, dusting with DDT. The children loved to run out in the open, throw wide their jackets, and become hidden momentarily in the clouds of DDT. It was fun for them and it helped us in delousing the city."
On 18 June, with the final destruction of all but two of the seven wind tunnels at the Japanese First Technical Air Depot and the preparation of equipment for shipment, loading began. Earlier, the group's serviceable air craft were either flown to Okinawa, distributed to various Navy and Marine Corps activities in Japan, or shipped to Guam on the carrier Point Cruz (CVE 119). Prior to being hoisted on board, the planes made the shore to ship movement by Japanese barge equipped with a crane and operated by a Japanese crew. It was reported with amazement that "not a single plane was scratched." A small number of obsolete planes were stricken and their parts salvaged. On 20 June, the 737 remaining officers and men of MAG-31, led by Lieutenant Colonel John P. Condon, boarded the attack transport San Saba (APA-232) and sailed for San Diego. The departure of MAG-31 marked the end of Marine occupation activities in northern Japan.
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https://www.atf.gov/laboratories
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Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives
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The mission of the ATF Laboratory Services Division is to provide accurate and authoritative scientific information needed by ATF in reducing violent crime and protecting the public. The ATF Laboratory Services Division is comprised of four laboratories placed strategically around the country, located in Atlanta; Walnut Creek, Calif.; and two in Ammendale, Md. The Fire
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https://www.atf.gov/sites/all/themes/custom/atf/favicon.ico
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https://www.atf.gov/laboratories
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ATF’s laboratories began with two scientists working in the attic of the U.S. Treasury building in 1886. More than a century later, ATF continues to provide accurate and authoritative scientific analysis of evidence in criminal investigations related to arson, explosives and firearms.
The main hub of ATF’s scientific research is the National Laboratory Center in Ammendale, Maryland, which includes the Fire Research Laboratory (FRL), National Firearms Examiner Academy (NFEA), and one of ATF’s two forensic science laboratories. The other forensic lab is located in Atlanta, Georgia.
These laboratories are staffed with highly trained forensic chemists, forensic biologists, engineers, fingerprint specialists, firearm and toolmark examiners, document analysts and administrative personnel who work together to identify leads and help bring criminals to justice.
ATF also offers competitive unpaid forensic science internships for students interested in law enforcement forensic careers.
Accreditation
In 1984, ATF’s Laboratories became the first federal forensic laboratory system to be accredited by the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board.
Currently, the three ATF laboratories are accredited by the ANSI National Accreditation Board (ANAB). To qualify, all laboratories expertly demonstrated competency of testing methods set by the International Organization of Standardization/International Electrotechnical Commission (ISO/IEC) 17025:2017 and ANAB’s AR 3125 (2023) standards. To maintain this accreditation, the laboratories must continuously monitor their operations and undergo periodic, comprehensive inspections by the accrediting body.
Training
In addition to performing specialized scientific analysis, laboratory staff members routinely provide instruction to ATF special agents, inspectors, auditors, and other local, state and federal law enforcement personnel. They teach courses at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center in Brunswick, Georgia and the National Center for Explosives Training and Research in Redstone Arsenal, Alabama. They also participate in ATF- and industry-sponsored seminars as well as technical and scientific symposiums throughout the country.
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