question: How can magnets control the flow of hydrogen in a fusion reactor if hydrogen isn't normally attracted by a magnet?
comment: Magnets don't control the flow of hydrogen they control the flow of plasma. Plasma is affected by magnetic fields.
passages: BULLET::::3. That magnetic fields generated by a pair of coils above and below the hohlraum can serve to trap the preheated fusion fuel and importantly inhibit thermal conduction without causing the target to buckle prematurely. — to be confirmed by experiments starting in December 2012.
  
  Following these experiments, an integrated test started in November 2013. The test yielded about 10 high-energy neutrons.
  
  As of November 2013, the facility at Sandia labs had the following capabilities: 
  
  BULLET::::1. 10 tesla magnetic field
  
  BULLET::::2. 2 kJ laser
  
  BULLET::::3. 16 MA
  
  BULLET::::4. D-D fuel
   FRX-L was later upgraded to add an "injector" system. This is situated around the quartz tube and consists of a conical arrangement of magnetic coils. When powered, the coils generate a field that is strong at one end of the tube and weaker at the other, pushing the plasma out the larger end. To complete the system, the injector was planned to be placed above the focus of the existing Shiva Star "can crusher" at the Air Force Research Laboratory's Directed Energy Lab at the Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque, NM.
  
  Section::::Devices.:FRCHX.
   In a typical fusion device the neutral atom density is small. Therefore, the amount of radiated emission that results from charge exchange between impurity ions and neutrals is also small. On MST, the neutral density is enhanced by injection of fast hydrogen atoms via a diagnostic neutral beam (DNB). As a result, the radiated emission is greatly increased, though primarily along the beam injection path (the DNB is located below the deck, and cannot be seen from here; the injection path is from right to left across the plasma).
   Inertial fusion attempts to produce much higher densities, , about 100 times the density of lead. This causes the reactions to occur extremely quickly (~1 nanosecond). Confinement is not needed; although the heat and particles created by the reactions will cause the plasma to explode outward, the speed this occurs is slower than the fusion reactions.
  
  , both of these methods of nuclear fusion are nearing net energy (Q1) levels after many decades of research, but remain far from practical energy-producing devices.
  
  Section::::Approach.
   In the pioneering experiment, Los Alamos National Laboratory's FRX-L, a plasma is first created at low density by transformer-coupling an electric current through a gas inside a quartz tube (generally a non-fuel gas for testing purposes). This heats the plasma to about (~2.3 million degrees). External magnets confine fuel within the tube. Plasmas are electrically conducting, allowing a current to pass through them. This current, generates a magnetic field that interacts with the current. The plasma is arranged so that the fields and current stabilize within the plasma once it is set up, self-confining the plasma. FRX-L uses the field-reversed configuration for this purpose. Since the temperature and confinement time is 100x lower than in MCF, the confinement is relatively easy to arrange and does not need the complex and expensive superconducting magnets used in most modern MCF experiments.
   MHD stability at high beta is crucial for a compact, cost-effective magnetic fusion reactor. Fusion power density varies roughly as formula_2 at constant magnetic field, or as formula_3 at constant bootstrap fraction in configurations with externally driven plasma current. (Here formula_4 is the normalized beta.) In many cases MHD stability represents the primary limitation on beta and thus on fusion power density. MHD stability is also closely tied to issues of creation and sustainment of certain magnetic configurations, energy confinement, and steady-state operation. Critical issues include understanding and extending the stability limits through the use of a
   In practice, magnets usually have safety devices to stop or limit the current when the beginning of a quench is detected. If a large magnet undergoes a quench, the inert vapor formed by the evaporating cryogenic fluid can present a significant asphyxiation hazard to operators by displacing breathable air.
   "Neutral Beam Injection" An external source of hydrogen is ionized and accelerated by an electric field to form a charged beam which is shone through a source of neutral hydrogen gas towards the plasma which itself is ionized and contained in the reactor by a magnetic field. Some of the intermediate hydrogen gas is accelerated towards the plasma by collisions with the charged beam while remaining neutral: this neutral beam is thus unaffected by the magnetic field and so shines through it into the plasma. Once inside the plasma the neutral beam transmits energy to the plasma by collisions as a result of which it becomes ionized and thus contained by the magnetic field thereby both heating and refuelling the reactor in one operation. The remainder of the charged beam is diverted by magnetic fields onto cooled beam dumps.
   FRX-L is used solely for plasma creation, testing and diagnostics. It uses four high-voltage (up to ) capacitor banks storing up to 1 MJ of energy to drive a current in one-turn magnetic-field coils that surround a diameter quartz tube. In its current form as a plasma generator, FRX-L has demonstrated densities between , temperatures of , magnetic fields of and lifetimes of . All of these are within an order of magnitude of what would be needed for an energy-positive machine.
   A plasma is electrically conductive, and is subject to electric and magnetic fields. In a magnetic field, the electrons and nuclei orbit the magnetic field lines. A simple confinement system is a plasma-filled tube placed inside the open core of a solenoid. The plasma naturally wants to expand outwards to the walls of the tube, as well as move along it, towards the ends. The solenoid creates a magnetic field running down the centre of the tube, which the particles will orbit, preventing their motion towards the sides. Unfortunately, this arrangement does not confine the plasma along the length of the tube, and the plasma is free to flow out the ends.
   General Fusion’s Magnetized Target Fusion system uses a ~3 meter sphere filled with a mixture of molten lead and lithium. The liquid metal is spun to open up a vertical cylindrical cavity in the centre of the sphere (vortex). This vortex flow is established and maintained by an external pumping system; the liquid flows into the sphere through tangentially directed ports at the equator and is pumped out radially through ports near the poles of the sphere.
   The densities, temperatures and confinement times needed by MTF are well within the current state of the art and have been repeatedly demonstrated. Los Alamos National Laboratory has referred to the concept as a "low cost path to fusion".
  
  Section::::Devices.
  
  Section::::Devices.:FRX-L.
   Section::::Description.
  
  MagLIF is a method of generating energy by using a 100 nanosecond pulse of electricity to create an intense Z-pinch magnetic field that inwardly crushes a fuel filled cylindrical metal liner (a hohlraum) through which the electric pulse runs. Just before the cylinder implodes, a laser is used to preheat fusion fuel (such as deuterium-tritium) that is held within the cylinder and contained by a magnetic field. Sandia National Labs is currently exploring the potential for this method to generate energy by utilizing the Z machine.
   Section::::Magnetic mirrors.
  
  A major area of research in the early years of fusion energy research was the magnetic mirror. Most early mirror devices attempted to confine plasma near the focus of a non-planar magnetic field generated in a solenoid with the field strength increased at either end of the tube. In order to escape the confinement area, nuclei had to enter a small annular area near each magnet. It was known that nuclei would escape through this area, but by adding and heating fuel continually it was felt this could be overcome.
   John Bryan Taylor took up the issue and began a detailed theoretical study of the concept, publishing a groundbreaking 1974 article on the topic. He demonstrated that as the magnetic field that generated the pinch was relaxing, it interacted with the pre-existing stabilising fields, creating a self-stable magnetic field. The phenomenon was driven by the system's desire to preserve magnetic helicity, which suggested a number of ways to improve the confinement time.
   Section::::Background.:Magnetic confinement fusion approach.
  
  In magnetic confinement fusion (MCF) reactor designs, the plasma is confined within a vacuum chamber using a series of magnetic fields. These fields are normally created using a combination of electromagnets and electrical currents running through the plasma itself. Systems using only magnets are generally built using the stellarator approach, while those using current only are the pinch machines. The most studied approach since the 1970s is the tokamak, where the fields generated by the external magnets and internal current are roughly equal in magnitude.
   In a conventional tokamak design the confinement magnets are arranged outside a "blanket" of liquid lithium. The lithium serves two purposes, one is to absorb the neutrons from the fusion reactions and produce tritium which is then used to fuel the reactor, and as a secondary role, as shielding to prevent those neutrons from reaching the magnets. Without the lithium blanket the neutrons degrade the magnets quite quickly.
   Applying a pinch current in a plasma can be used to counteract expansion and confine the plasma. A simple way to do this is to put the plasma in a linear tube and pass a current through it using electrodes at either end, like a fluorescent lamp. This arrangement still produces no confinement along the length of the tube, so the plasma flows onto the electrodes, rapidly eroding them. This is not a problem for a purely experimental machine, and there are ways to reduce the rate. Another solution is to place a magnet next to the tube; when the magnetic field changes, the fluctuations cause an electric current to be induced in the plasma. The major advantage of this arrangement is that there are no physical objects within the tube, so it can be formed into a torus and allow the plasma to circulate freely.
   This difference is today part of a general concept known as the "safety factor", denoted q. It has to be greater than one to maintain stability during a discharge; in ZETA it was about . A ZETA-type machine could reach this q, but would require enormously powerful external magnets to match the fields from the currents. The tokamak approach resolved this by using less pinch current; this made the system stable but meant the current could no longer be used to heat the plasma. Tokamak designs require some form of external heating.
  
  Section::::Reversed field pinch.
   Another advantage of the magnetically-shielded grid is it allows for a magnet configuration that sets up a "high-beta" fusion core. This is a condition where the plasma pushes back against the field, causing a plugging effect and creates a central null field region where the plasma is momentarily contained. In the fusion power field, plasma is confined using large magnets. Since the temperature of the fuel scales with pressure, reactors attempt to reach the highest pressures possible. 
  
  Section::::Additional work.
  
  With demonstration of an initial prototype and technology, a second generation device is currently under construction.
  
  Section::::See also.
  
  BULLET::::- Fusor
   The first instance it was considered to initialise the electrolysis of water was from the perspective of magnetolysis in 1985, where high strength magnets, or in this case electromagnets, are used in conjunction with homopolar propellers. Ghoroghichian and Bockris conducted this experimental research to determine how a pulsed current can impact the rate of hydrogen production and provide economic advantages. A current density ratio of 2.07 was observed, demonstrating, for the first time, that a pulsed current can double the production of hydrogen, in comparison to a steady state current.
   The fusion power trends as the plasma confinement raised to the fourth power. Hence, getting a strong plasma trap is of real value to a fusion power plant. Plasma has a very good electrical conductivity. This opens the possibility of confining the plasma with magnetic field, generally known as magnetic confinement. The field puts a magnetic pressure on the plasma, which holds it in. A widely used measure of magnetic trapping in fusion is the beta ratio:
  
  formula_10 
   The downside to this approach, one that was widely criticized in the field, is that it places the magnets directly in the high-energy neutron flux of the fusion reactions. In operation the magnets would be rapidly eroded, requiring the vacuum vessel to be opened and the entire magnet assembly replaced after a month or so of operation.
   The concept for this type of nuclear reactor was developed by the scientists Otis Peterson and Robert Kimpland of the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) in New Mexico. Dr. Otis G. Peterson received a Federal Laboratory Consortium Award in the notable technology development category for this reactor concept in 2002. This technology has since been licensed exclusively to Hyperion Power Generation, under a technology-transfer program and a co-operative research and development agreement (CRADA) with the Los Alamos National Laboratory.
   In the type known as a "shuttle magneto", the engine rotates a coil of wire between the poles of a magnet. In the "inductor magneto", the magnet is rotated and the coil remains stationary.
  
presuppositions: Magents control the flow of hydrogen. Magnets control the flow of hydrogen.
corrections: Magnets do not control the hydrogren they control the plasma.  Magnets don't control the flow of plasma.
raw_presuppositions: Magents control the flow of hydrogen. Magnets control the flow of hydrogen.
raw_corrections: Magnets do not control the hydrogren they control the plasma.  Magnets don't control the flow of plasma.