question: How are companies able to manufacture each pixel on a screen, given how tiny they are and make them work the way they want??
comment: They don't manufacture each pixel individually and then combine them to make a screen. They essentially "print" the pixels directly onto the screen in a process called [photolithography]( URL_0 ), which is the same process that is used to make CPUs. In a nutshell, it involves applying a layer of a UV-sensitive coating onto the base material that makes up screen (or the CPU in the case of making a processor). An image of the electronics that make up the pixels is projected onto the coating with UV light, which causes the coating to harden in the places where the light hits is. The non-hardened coating is washed off, and then other chemicals are used to etch the base material where it's *not* protected by the hardened, UV-sensitve coating. Then the UV-sensitive coating is dissolved with a different chemical, and you're left with millions of microscopic, etched electronic components. That process is then repeated on the material to create all the needed layers of electronics.
passages: LCDs are made in a glass substrate. For OLED, the substrate can also be plastic. The size of the substrates are specified in generations, with each generation using a larger substrate. For example, a 4th generation substrate is larger in size than a 3rd generation substrate. A larger substrate allows for more panels to be cut from a single substrate, or for larger panels to be made, akin to increasing wafer sizes in the semiconductor industry.
  
  Panel Inputs per month is how many substrates can a plant process per month.
  
  Section::::List of OLED fabrication plants.
   The system was invented in 2005 by Christie Digital's Bob Rushby, chief technology officer, and Mike Perkins, senior product developer, while in a Tokyo hotel bar during a business trip.
  
  Section::::System design.:Color Reproduction and Resolution.
   Section::::Synthesis and manufacturers.
  
  The two main ways of synthesizing tiling arrays are photolithographic manufacturing and mechanical spotting or printing.
  
  The first method involves "in situ" synthesis where probes, approximately 25bp, are built on the surface of the chip. These arrays can hold up to 6 million discrete features, each of which contains millions of copies of one probe.
   Software programs render images to the virtual screen and then the operating system renders the virtual screen onto the physical screen. With a logical PPI of 96 PPI, older programs can still run properly regardless of the actual physical PPI of the display screen, although they may exhibit some visual distortion thanks to the effective 133.3% pixel zoom level (requiring either that every third pixel be doubled in width/height, or heavy-handed smoothing be employed).
  
  Section::::Computer monitor DPI standards.:How Microsoft Windows handles DPI scaling.
   Computers can use pixels to display an image, often an abstract image that represents a GUI. The resolution of this image is called the display resolution and is determined by the video card of the computer. LCD monitors also use pixels to display an image, and have a native resolution. Each pixel is made up of triads, with the number of these triads determining the native resolution. On some CRT monitors, the beam sweep rate may be fixed, resulting in a fixed native resolution. Most CRT monitors do not have a fixed beam sweep rate, meaning they do not have a native resolution at all - instead they have a set of resolutions that are equally well supported.
   Traditionally, after an IC design has been converted into a physical layout, the timing verified, and the polygons certified to be DRC-clean, the IC was ready for fabrication. The data files representing the various layers were shipped to a mask shop, which used mask-writing equipment to convert each data layer into a corresponding mask, and the masks were shipped to the fab where they were used to repeatedly manufacture the designs in silicon. In the past, the creation of the IC layout was the end of the involvement of electronic design automation.
   The bare display panel will only accept a digital video signal at the resolution determined by the panel pixel matrix designed at manufacture. Some screen panels will ignore the LSB bits of the color information to present a consistent interface (8 bit - 6 bit/color x3).
  
  With analogue signals like VGA, the display controller also needs to perform a high speed analog to digital conversion. With digital input signals like DVI or HDMI some simple reordering of the bits is needed before feeding it to the rescaler if the input resolution doesn't match the display panel resolution.
  
  Section::::Safety.
   BULLET::::- AU Optronics
  
  BULLET::::- BOE
  
  BULLET::::- LG Display
  
  BULLET::::- Planar Systems
  
  BULLET::::- Royole
  
  BULLET::::- Samsung Electronics
  
  BULLET::::- Truly Semiconductors
  
  BULLET::::- Wisechip
  
  Below are some manufacturers that make OLED light panels:
  
  BULLET::::- LG Display
  
  BULLET::::- Lumiotec
  
  BULLET::::- OLEDworks
  
  BULLET::::- Osram
  
  BULLET::::- Philips
  
  Section::::List of LCD panel fabrication plants.
  
  This list lists current LCD fabrication facilities, former facilities are below this first table.
   While some CRT-based displays may use digital video processing that involves image scaling using memory arrays, ultimately "display resolution" in CRT-type displays is affected by different parameters such as spot size and focus, astigmatic effects in the display corners, the color phosphor pitch shadow mask (such as Trinitron) in color displays, and the video bandwidth.
  
  Section::::Overscan and underscan.
   A standard television receiver screen, an LCD panel today in 2017, has over six million pixels, and they are all individually powered by a wire network embedded in the screen. The fine wires, or pathways, form a grid with vertical wires across the whole screen on one side of the screen and horizontal wires across the whole screen on the other side of the screen. To this grid each pixel has a positive connection on one side and a negative connection on the other side. So the total amount of wires needed is 3 x 1920 going vertically and 1080 going horizontally for a total of 6840 wires horizontally and vertically. That's three for red, green and blue and 1920 columns of pixels for each color for a total of 5760 wires going vertically and 1080 rows of wires going horizontally. For a panel that is 28.8 inches (73 centimeters) wide, that means a wire density of 200 wires per inch along the horizontal edge. The LCD panel is powered by LCD drivers that are carefully matched up with the edge of the LCD panel at the factory level. These same principles apply also for smart phone screens that are so much smaller than TV screens. LCD panels typically use thinly-coated metallic conductive pathways on a glass substrate to form the cell circuitry to operate the panel. It is usually not possible to use soldering techniques to directly connect the panel to a separate copper-etched circuit board. Instead, interfacing is accomplished using either adhesive plastic ribbon with conductive traces glued to the edges of the LCD panel, or with an elastomeric connector, which is a strip of rubber or silicone with alternating layers of conductive and insulating pathways, pressed between contact pads on the LCD and mating contact pads on a circuit board.
   Due to the very high cost of building TFT factories, there are few major OEM panel vendors for large display panels. The glass panel suppliers are as follows:
  
  Section::::Electrical interface.
   Since a typical application of this technology is improving the appearance of fourth-generation and earlier video games on arcade and console emulators, many are designed to run in real time for sufficiently small input images at 60 frames per second. This places constraints on the type of programming techniques that can be used for this sort of real-time processing. Many work only on specific scale factors: 2× is the most common, with 3×, 4×, 5× and 6× also present.
  
  Section::::Algorithms.
  
  Section::::Algorithms.:SAA5050 'diagonal smoothing'.
   All of these companies' chips are in devices ranging from DVD upconverting players (for Standard Definition) to HD DVD/Blu-ray Disc players and set-top boxes, to displays like plasmas, DLP (both front and rear projection), LCD (both flat-panels and projectors), and LCOS/"SXRD". Their chips are also becoming more available in stand alone devices (see "External links" below for links to a few of these).
  
  Section::::References.
  
  BULLET::::- Bovik, Al (ed.). "Handbook of Image and Video Processing". San Diego: Academic Press, 2000. .
   BULLET::::- Lower cost in the future: OLEDs can be printed onto any suitable substrate by an inkjet printer or even by screen printing, theoretically making them cheaper to produce than LCD or plasma displays. However, fabrication of the OLED substrate is more costly than that of a TFT LCD, until mass production methods lower cost through scalability. Roll-to-roll vapour-deposition methods for organic devices do allow mass production of thousands of devices per minute for minimal cost, although this technique also induces problems in that devices with multiple layers can be challenging to make because of registration, lining up the different printed layers to the required degree of accuracy.
   BULLET::::- Single-chip DLPs use a kind of "chromatic multiplexing" in which each color is presented serially. The intensity is varied by modulating the "on" time of each pixel within the time-span of one color. Multi-chip DLPs are not represented in this sketch, but would have a curve identical to the plasma display.
  
  BULLET::::- LCDs have a constant (backlit) image, where the intensity is varied by blocking the light shining through the panel.
   The circuit layout process of a TFT-LCD is very similar to that of semiconductor products. However, rather than fabricating the transistors from silicon, that is formed into a crystalline silicon wafer, they are made from a thin film of amorphous silicon that is deposited on a glass panel. The silicon layer for TFT-LCDs is typically deposited using the PECVD process. Transistors take up only a small fraction of the area of each pixel and the rest of the silicon film is etched away to allow light to easily pass through it.
   High pixel density display technologies would make supersampled antialiasing obsolete, enable true WYSIWYG graphics and, potentially enable a practical “paperless office” era. For perspective, such a device at 15 inch (38 cm) screen size would have to display more than four Full HD screens (or WQUXGA resolution).
  
  Development of a display with ≈900 ppi allows for three pixels with 16-bit color to act as sub-pixels to form a "pixel cluster". These pixel clusters act as regular pixels at ≈300 ppi to produce a 48-bit color display.
   There are also a number of mathematical models and algorithms to aid in planning a cellular manufacturing center, which take into account a variety of important variables such as, "multiple plant locations, multi-market allocations with production planning and various part mix." Once these variables are determined with a given level of uncertainty, optimizations can be performed to minimize factors such as, "total cost of holding, inter-cell material handling, external transportation, fixed cost for producing each part in each plant, machine and labor salaries."
  
  Section::::Difficulties in creating flow.
   A number of specialized algorithms have been developed to handle pixel-art graphics, as the traditional scaling algorithms do not take such perceptual cues into account.
   Luminus Devices PhlatLight LEDs have also been used by Christie Digital in their DLP-based MicroTiles display system. It is a modular system built from small (20 inch diagonal) rear projection cubes, which can be stacked and tiled together to form large display canvasses with very small seams. The scale and shape of the display can have any size, only constrained by practical limits.
  
  Section::::Color in DLP projection.:Light source.:Laser-based DLPs.
   NNEDI is a family of intra-field deinterlacers which can also be used to enlarge images by powers of two. When being used as a deinterlacer, it takes in a frame, throws away one field, and then interpolates the missing pixels using only information from the kept field. There are so far three major generations of NNEDI.
   The masks used to create the proprietary chips were drawn by hand. The company tested its chips using its own stepper and chip tester.
  
  Section::::Technology.:Hardware and system design.
   LCDs, along with OLED displays, are manufactured in large sheets of glass whose size has increased over time. Several displays are manufactured at the same time, and then cut from the sheet of glass, also known as the mother glass. The increase in size allows more displays or larger displays to be made, just like with increasing wafer sizes in semiconductor manufacturing. The glass sizes are as follows:
   The pixels, or color samples, that form a digitized image (such as a JPEG file used on a web page) may or may not be in one-to-one correspondence with screen pixels, depending on how a computer displays an image. In computing, an image composed of pixels is known as a "bitmapped image" or a "raster image". The word "raster" originates from television scanning patterns, and has been widely used to describe similar halftone printing and storage techniques.
  
  Section::::Technical.:Sampling patterns.
   Fixed pixel display
  
  Fixed pixel displays are display technologies such as LCD and plasma that use an unfluctuating matrix of pixels with a set number of pixels in each row and column. With such displays, adjusting (scaling) to different aspect ratios because of different input signals requires complex processing.
  
  In contrast, the CRTs electronics architecture "paints" the screen with the required number of pixels horizontally and vertically. CRTs can be designed to more easily accommodate a wide range of inputs (VGA, XVGA, NTSC, HDTV, etc.).
  