question: On 1960s-1980s era TV shows why is 'outside' footage always more grainy?
comment: The outdoor footage was taken with a small, hand-held film camera that used smaller, lower-resolution analog film (16mm film typically).
passages: The first seven seasons had 22 episodes each, which was reduced to 20 episodes for the last three seasons. Episodes of the first seasons were filmed over a period of 7.5 working days, which decreased to a targeted average of six working days in the last seasons. All episodes were filmed in wide-screen, although "Stargate SG-1" was broadcast in aspect ratio in its first years. The transition to the broadcast of episodes in the wider 16:9 ratio gave directors more freedom in frame composition. The first three seasons of "Stargate SG-1" were filmed on 16 mm film, notwithstanding scenes involving visual effects that had always been shot on 35 mm film for various technical reasons. After a test run with the Season 3 finale, "Nemesis", "Stargate SG-1" switched to 35 mm film for all purposes at the beginning of Season 4. Digital HD cameras were used for filming beginning with Season 8.
   Section::::Production.:Filming.
  
  "Small Victories" was filmed over the course of seven days like most "SG-1" episodes. After the first three seasons of "Stargate SG-1" had been filmed on 16 mm film (except for shots incorporating visual effects, where experience had shown 35 mm to work better), "Nemesis" was filmed entirely on 35 mm film as a test run, and season 4 switched to the new gauge for all filming purposes.
   Section::::Headroom in television.
  
  In television broadcast camera work, the amount of headroom seen by the production crew is slightly greater than the amount seen by home viewers, whose frames are reduced in area by about 5%. To adjust for this, broadcast camera headroom is slightly expanded so that home viewers will see the correct amount of headroom. Professional video camera viewfinders and professional video monitors often include an overscan setting to compare between full screen resolution and "domestic cut-off" as an aid to achieving good headroom and lead room.
  
  Section::::See also.
  
  BULLET::::- Highlight headroom
  
  Section::::Further reading.
   While the CGI shots were mastered in a 16:9 aspect ratio for future applications, they were initially broadcast in the U.S. and Canada – along with the live-action footage – in a 4:3 aspect ratio to respect the show's original composition. If the producers were to choose to reformat the entire show for the 16:9 ratio, live-action footage would be cropped, significantly reducing the height of the original image.
   Film recorded for the purposes of United Kingdom television production is usually recorded at 25 frames per second; there is an unrecorded temporal gap between each frame and the next. In contrast, video pictures are recorded as a stream of video fields. Each field can be loosely seen as half a frame, but each field is also a discrete image separated from the previous field by 1/50 second. This difference in the rate of change of the image is one of the factors contributing to the "video look", familiar to viewers as the more immediate, "live" feel seen in many soap operas and sports programmes.
   "Night Heat" was filmed on 16mm film using hand-held cameras, instead of the Hollywood-standard 35mm film, giving the series a grainy, documentary-style look. Much of the show was shot at the site of the former Lakeshore Psychiatric Hospital, which served as the series' police station; described as a "grim and forbidding setting," the hospital fit in with the gritty look that the show's producer, Robert Lantos wanted.
   When an episode completed filming, Cobb edited on the Final Cut Pro application, which normally took four days to complete. Bertini—who spent the same amount of time editing—then converted unnecessary script and added sound effects. Cobb says, "The SD workflow was the plan for the 2008 season, but that has changed. We're working in SD with the ProRes 422 codec, so we're cutting in a broadcast-quality format that we'll later output without having to recapture all the footage."
  
  According to Cobb, it is very difficult to coordinate the television's screen-framing:
  
  Section::::Production.:Post-production.:Music.
   This frequent use of stock footage saved production money, but often resulted in sacrifice of continuity. This was countered by cutting from one stock shot to another after only a second or two, long enough to set the scene but before the eye could notice all of the unexplained errors. This became part of the Filmation style during a period when most television and motion picture productions tended to run minimum shots of 4–5 seconds.
   After filming for the episode was finished, the footage entered into a long period of editing. Series creator Chris Carter noted that prior to re-editing, the episode "wasn't cutting together well and that there were things that just didn't work." Once the footage was worked into an acceptable episode, it was four minutes under time. In order to compensate for this, additional inserts of the Rube Goldberg Machine were filmed as well as a scene featuring Mulder and Scully discussing the episode's back-story. The latter of these scenes, which was filmed months after the majority of the episode, required Anderson to wear a wig because her hair style had substantially changed.
   The series was shot using 35 mm film. Warren said this was chosen over high-definition cameras due to the low light levels that would be experienced when filming in a world without electricity and during an autumn filming period, and over Super 16 due to high-definition transmission requirements.
   BULLET::::- Studio 9: . 64' by 40' = 19.5 m x 12.2 m
  
  BULLET::::- Studio 10: . 26' by 12' = 8 m x 3.7 m
  
  BULLET::::- Master Control: .
  
  BULLET::::- Maintenance Workshop: .
  
  BULLET::::- VTR (with 2x Ampex video recorders): .
  
  BULLET::::- Telecine (with 2x Cintel, 1x RCA Vidicon and 2x EMI Flying Spot telecine machines): .
  
  BULLET::::- Rehearsal rooms x6: .
  
  BULLET::::- Projector theatres x 6
  
  BULLET::::- Cutting rooms x15
  
  BULLET::::- Dubbing theatre
  
  Section::::References.
  
  BULLET::::- Croston, Eric "ITV 1963" London: Independent Television Authority 1963
   BULLET::::- Starting with this episode, "Buffy" was filmed in widescreen; this would be the case for the next three seasons. However, Joss Whedon never intended for it to be shown this way, so while the widescreen version is shown on Sky One in the United Kingdom, all American showings are in . DVD releases of the final four seasons have followed the same pattern, with European (Region 2) discs displaying the episodes in 16:9 widescreen format and North American (Region 1) discs not.
   While the series was in pre-production, studios were looking at ways for their existing shows to make the transition from the then-standard to the widescreen formats that would accompany the next generation of televisions. After visiting Warner Bros., who were stretching the horizontal interval for an episode of "", producer John Copeland convinced them to allow "Babylon 5" to be shot on Super 35mm film stock. "The idea being that we would telecine to 4:3 for the original broadcast of the series. But what it also gave us was a negative that had been shot for the new 16×9 widescreen-format televisions that we knew were on the horizon."
   Motion pictures are typically shot on film at 24 frames per second. When telecined and played back at PAL's standard of 25 frames per second, films run about 4% faster. This also applies to most TV series that are shot on film or digital 24p. Unlike NTSC's telecine system, which uses to convert the 24 frames per second to the 30 fps frame rate, PAL speed-up results in the telecined video running 4% shorter than the original film as well as the equivalent NTSC telecined video.
   The production for "Milagro" was decidedly low-budget due to its "intimate and personality-driven" nature. Director Kim Manners sought to film most of the episode "very simply", because he wanted "the characters to carry it". Manners wanted to frame the opening scene in a way that told "the story […] in a series of images", and so, he utilized quick cuts between shots. Many of the scenes, such as the opening pan, were created by means of a crane shot.
   The first season was directed by Henry Sarwer-Foner (also of "22 Minutes"), who had his hand in the programme's editing, scripting, and overall design. He shot with a long lens to achieve a film-like quality, and sought to give it a distinctive look. Sarwer-Foner directed 22 of the series' 65 episodes. Other directors included Michael Kennedy and Stephen Reynolds.
   Chapman's innovation found quick favour in late 1960s and 1970s television, notably in title sequences. "Mannix", "Barnaby Jones", "Kojak", "Medical Center", "Dallas", "Phyllis", "Lancelot Link", "Me and the Chimp", "The Brady Bunch" and "The Bob Newhart Show" (beginning with the fifth season in 1976-77) are all examples of the technique being used in opening credits to some extent, whether approximately as in "A Place to Stand" or combined with regular film sequences (as with the latter). Indeed, the multi-dynamic image technique has been referred to in the press as the "Brady Bunch effect". The contemporary TV series "24" also uses the technique.
   An early example of extended length cinematography was artist Andy Warhol's 1963 film "Sleep", which showed poet John Giorno sleeping for five hours and twenty minutes. Warhol's production process involved splicing and looping of film that he had originally shot in 3-4 minute lengths. The concept was adapted to slow television on local TV broadcast in 1966 by WPIX, to VHS video tape in 1984 by the British company Video125, to satellite TV in 2003 by Bahn TV, and to live TV in 2011 by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK). 
   Cinematographer Ben Davis shot primarily on large-format Arri Alexa 65 cameras. First Assistant Camera Bill Coe said, "[Davis] liked the Alexa 65 for how it rendered the fabric... With all the different costumes featured, that was pretty important. Davis, who served as director of photography for his fourth time in the MCU after "Guardians of the Galaxy", "Avengers: Age of Ultron", and "Doctor Strange" (2016) said, "On "Captain Marvel", we had the benefit of a story that is set in the 1990s. There was an existing visual language and a point of departure for decisions about color, camera movement and so on. On "Guardians", we were building a world from scratch." To achieve the 1990s aesthetic, Davis first attempted to utilize post-production techniques to convey a period look, but found that it just softened the image. He then tried using vintage Cooke Panchro and Canon K-35 lenses but they were not compatible with the large-format of the Arri Alexa camera system. To solve the problem, Davis enlisted Dan Sasaki of Panavision to "tailor-make" lenses for the period scenes and said, "Dan's tailor-made lenses were so beautiful, I couldn't help myself; I wound up sneaking them on closer views during the alien stuff too." "The choice of lens was key because the camera is either following her or leading her into these new environments. When [Danvers] arrives on Earth, it can't be that you're already there and watch her arrive; you have to go along with her in order to feel the emotional arc she travels", Davis continued.
   "Spider-Man" was being filmed around the same time frame that the show was in production. The show was not shot in front of a live audience, so as to keep control over the show and by necessity, thanks to various shots they would be unable to do in a normal show. They had built several rooms from the White House in their studio (bedroom, dining room) and were allowed "one new, rotating set" per week.
   Another problem involved lighting. The cameras were perfectly comfortable with either natural or artificial lighting conditions, but a mixture of the two always produced unnatural-looking colour. The video cameras of the day did not cope well with contrasting light levels between inside and outside, so interior scenes often had to be shot with the windows or portholes curtained—so that as far as the audience was concerned they might as well have been shot in a studio anyway.
   The episode features both archival footage—as well as new footage—of Pam and Jim's wedding from the sixth-season episode "Niagara". In order to get a shot of Pam and Jim looking into the camera, Greg Daniels restaged the scene four years after "Niagara" had been filmed. Daniels noted, "To get Jim and Pam's eye line right for the camera, I stepped in as the minister [when the camera was facing them] so they were both looking at me with the full actor-power of all the emotions they were supposed to be feeling at their own wedding, just blasting in my face. I got chills and a fever."
   Before the 2009 digital television transition, early high definition broadcasts often used bugs placed outside the 4:3 safe zone (sometimes with special "HD" branding) to distinguish them from the standard definition broadcast. By the late-2000s, due to networks switching to a singular HD feed downconverted for SD (assuming that the SD feed will be center-cut from the HD feed, or using Active Format Description (AFD) metadata to specify the framing format) as their network feed rather than distinct feeds for both formats, most broadcast networks dropped HD-specific logo bugs and used bugs in the 4:3 safe zone for all viewers, regardless of feed. However, by 2018, the majority of logo bugs and on-air presentation has been oriented towards 16:9 framing.
   In an episode of "Coronation Street" in 2010 an editing error meant viewers could see "outside" via No. 5's (Fiz and John Stapes' house) kitchen window showing what would be a "supporting" wall (quite possibly the painted brick wall backdrop) leaning against the studio walls. In another episode where Graham Proctor announced his relationship to Tina McIntyre's ex, David Platt, a brief shot of the Platts' kitchen showed no ceiling above it. It is not the first time such errors have occurred: in one episode where Alan Bradley attacked Rita Fairclough, viewers could see a studio light in what should be No. 7's back yard.
   To create a heightened illusion of grainy documentary realism, footage was shot under fluorescent lights in an actual office building set, and taped on hand-held Hi-8 video cameras usually operated by Gleisner and Cilauro. The footage was then transferred onto film and finally transferred back to videotape (see: Kinescope). Footage that was portrayed as being part of the Frontline broadcast (i.e. Studio or field reports) was shot at broadcast quality, to increase the "realism" of the satire and complement the behind the scenes footage.
  
  Section::::Other airings.
  