question: How did we deal with the VanAllen radiation belt for the manned mission to the moon, and the other mechanical probes we launched?
comment: [By getting through them as fast as possible]( URL_0 ) - the less time spent in them, the less damage is done.
passages: A later example of a radiation vault is the Juno Radiation Vault for the Juno Jupiter orbiter, launched in 2011, which was designed to protect much of the uncrewed spacecraft's electronics, using 1 cm thick walls of titanium.
   Section::::Proposed removal.
   Spacecraft, both manned and unmanned, must cope with the high radiation environment of outerspace. Radiation emitted by the Sun and other galactic sources, and trapped in radiation "belts" is more dangerous and hundreds of times more intense than radiation sources such as medical X-rays or normal cosmic radiation usually experienced on Earth. When the intensely ionizing particles found in space strike human tissue, it can result in cell damage and may eventually lead to cancer.
   Regardless of the differences of the flux levels in the Inner and Outer Van Allen belts, the beta radiation levels would be dangerous to humans if they were exposed for an extended period of time. The Apollo missions minimised hazards for astronauts by sending spacecraft at high speeds through the thinner areas of the upper belts, bypassing inner belts completely.
  
  Section::::Antimatter confinement.
   The belts are located in the inner region of Earth's magnetosphere. The belts trap energetic electrons and protons. Other nuclei, such as alpha particles, are less prevalent. The belts endanger satellites, which must have their sensitive components protected with adequate shielding if they spend significant time near that zone. In 2013, NASA reported that the Van Allen Probes had discovered a transient, third radiation belt, which was observed for four weeks until it was destroyed by a powerful, interplanetary shock wave from the Sun.
  
  Section::::Discovery.
   The Earth's magnetic field is responsible for the formation of the trapped radiation belts that surround Earth. The ISS orbits at between and , known as a Low Earth Orbit (LEO). Trapped radiation doses in LEO decrease during solar maximum and increase during solar minimum. Highest exposures occur in the South Atlantic Anomaly region.
  
  Section::::Radiation hazards.:Galactic cosmic radiation.
   Astronauts' overall exposure was actually dominated by solar particles once outside Earth's magnetic field. The total radiation received by the astronauts varied from mission to mission but was measured to be between 0.16 and 1.14 rads (1.6 and 11.4 mGy), much less than the standard of 5 rem (50 mSv) per year set by the United States Atomic Energy Commission for people who work with radioactivity.
  
  Section::::Causes.
   Section::::Design requirements for manned interplanetary travel.:Radiation.
  
  Once a vehicle leaves low Earth orbit and the protection of Earth's magnetosphere, it enters the Van Allen radiation belt, a region of high radiation. Once through there the radiation drops to lower levels, with a constant background of high energy cosmic rays which pose a health threat. These are dangerous over periods of years to decades.
   Concerns had been raised that the radiation belt produced in orbit by the recent Operation Dominic nuclear tests would be dangerous to crewed space missions, but an extensive study announced in early September declared that it was safe to fly. While the outside of the capsule was expected to receive a dosage of around 500 röntgens, the study concluded that shielding and the effect of the spacecraft structure would reduce this to around 8 röntgens experienced by the astronaut, well within established tolerance limits.
   Section::::See also.
  
  BULLET::::- Dipole model of the Earth's magnetic field
  
  BULLET::::- L-shell
  
  BULLET::::- List of artificial radiation belts
  
  BULLET::::- List of plasma (physics) articles
  
  BULLET::::- Space weather
  
  Section::::Additional sources.
  
  BULLET::::- Part I: Radial transport, pp. 1679–1693, ; Part II: Local acceleration and loss, pp. 1694–1713, .
  
  Section::::External links.
  
  BULLET::::- An explanation of the belts by David P. Stern and Mauricio Peredo
  
  BULLET::::- Background: Trapped particle radiation models – Introduction to the trapped radiation belts by SPENVIS
  
  BULLET::::- SPENVIS – Space Environment, Effects, and Education System – Gateway to the SPENVIS orbital dose calculation software
   BULLET::::- December 6, 1958: Pioneer 3, the third intended U.S. International Geophysical Year lunar probe under the direction of NASA with the Army acting as executive agent, was launched from the Atlantic Missile Range by a Juno II rocket. The primary objective of the flight, to place the 12.95 pound (5.87 kg) scientific payload in the vicinity of the moon, failed. Pioneer III did reach an altitude of 63,000 miles (101 000 km), providing Van Allen additional data that led to discovery of a second radiation belt. Trapped radiation starts at an altitude of several hundred miles from Earth and extends for several thousand miles into space. The Van Allen radiation belts are named after Van Allen, their discoverer.
   In addition to the charged particles of the Van Allen Belts, the spacecraft were also designed to measure cosmic rays, galactic radio emissions, magnetic fields, radio propagation, and micrometeoroid flux. They were also meant to study artificial radiation belts created by high altitude nuclear tests, but the ratification of the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in August 1963 ended such tests before the launch of the Elektrons.
  
  Section::::Spacecraft design.
   The Apollo missions marked the first event where humans traveled through the Van Allen belts, which was one of several radiation hazards known by mission planners. The astronauts had low exposure in the Van Allen belts due to the short period of time spent flying through them. Apollo flight trajectories bypassed the inner belts completely, passing through the thinner areas of the outer belts.
   The usual method for radiation protection is material shielding by spacecraft and equipment structures (usually aluminium), possibly augmented by polyethylene in human spaceflight where the main concern is high energy protons and cosmic ray ions. On unmanned spacecraft in high electron dose environments such as Jupiter missions, or medium Earth orbit (MEO), additional shielding with materials of a high atomic number can be effective. On long duration manned missions, advantage can be taken of the good shielding characteristics of liquid hydrogen fuel and water.
   BARREL helped study the Van Allen radiation belts and why they wax and wane over time. Each BARREL balloon carries instruments to measure particles ejected from the belts which make it down to Earth's atmosphere. By comparing such data to that of the Van Allen Probes, which orbit with the belts themselves, the two missions may be able to correlate observations in the radiation belts with the number of particles ejected. This will help distinguish between various theories as to what causes electron loss in the belts.
  
  Section::::Organization.
   In addition to the electronic device hardening mentioned above, some degree of protection may be obtained by shielding, usually with the interposition of high density materials (particularly lead, where space is critical, or concrete where space is available) between the radiation source and areas to be protected. For biological effects of substances such as radioactive iodine the ingestion of non-radioactive isotopes may substantially reduce the biological uptake of the radioactive form, and chelation therapy may be applied to accelerate the removal of radioactive materials formed from heavy metals from the body by natural processes.
  
  Section::::Countermeasures.:For solid radiation damage.
   Kristian Birkeland, Carl Størmer, and Nicholas Christofilos had investigated the possibility of trapped charged particles before the Space Age. Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 confirmed the existence of the belt in early 1958 under James Van Allen at the University of Iowa. The trapped radiation was first mapped by Explorer 4, Pioneer 3 and Luna 1.
   The Ganymede orbiter proposal also included a design for a Juno-like radiation vault. However, because the radiation is less at Jupiter's moon Ganymede and the orbiter's path, the vault would not have to be as thick, all else being similar. One reason the radiation is strong at Jupiter, but confined to certain belts, is because it is generated by ions and electrons trapped in areas as a result of Jupiter's magnetic field. Jupiter's magnetosphere is about 20,000 times as strong as Earth's and is one of the items of study by "Juno". (see also "Juno"s Magnetometer (MAG) instrument)
   Radiation originating from earth is also a major contributor to background radiation.
  
  Another limitation of gamma radiation detectors is that gamma photons can be easily suppressed by high-density shields made from lead or steel, preventing detection of nuclear sources. Those types of shields do not stop fission neutrons produced by plutonium sources, however. As a result, radiation detectors usually combine gamma and neutron detectors, making shielding only effective for certain uranium sources.
  
  Section::::Passive radiation detectors.:Neutron radiation detectors.
   The NASA Space Radiation Laboratory makes use of a particle accelerator that produces beams of protons or heavy ions. These ions are typical of those accelerated in cosmic sources and by the Sun. The beams of ions move through a 100-meter (328-foot) transport tunnel to the 37-square-meter (400-square-foot) shielded target hall. There, they hit the target, which may be a biological sample or shielding material. In a 2002 NASA study, it was determined that materials that have high hydrogen contents, such as polyethylene, can reduce primary and secondary radiation to a greater extent than metals, such as aluminum. The problem with this "passive shielding" method is that radiation interactions in the material generate secondary radiation.
   Transportable instruments are generally instruments that would have been permanently installed, but are temporarily placed in an area to provide continuous monitoring where it is likely there will be a hazard. Such instruments are often installed on trolleys to allow easy deployment, and are associated with temporary operational situations.
  
  In the United Kingdom the HSE has issued a user guidance note on selecting the correct radiation measurement instrument for the application concerned. This covers all radiation instrument technologies, and is a useful comparative guide.
  
  Section::::Radiation protection instruments.:Instrument types.
   Radiation hazards may also come from man-made sources for example, medical investigations, radio-isotopic power generators or from small experiments as on Earth. Lunar and Martian missions may include either nuclear reactors for power or related nuclear propulsion systems. Astronautical hygienists will need to assess the risks from these other sources of radiation and take appropriate action to mitigate exposure.
   The Starfish Prime radiation belt damaged the United Kingdom Satellite Ariel 1 and the United States satellites, Traac, Transit 4B, Injun I and Telstar I.  It also damaged the Soviet satellite Cosmos V.  All of these satellites failed completely within several months of the Starfish detonation. 
  
  Telstar I lasted the longest of the satellites damaged by the Starfish Prime radiation, with its complete failure occurring on February 21, 1963.
  
  In Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory report LA-6405, Herman Hoerlin gave the following explanation of the history of the original Argus experiment and of how the nuclear detonations lead to the development of artificial radiation belts.
   High Voltage Orbiting Long Tether, or HiVOLT, is a concept proposed by Russian physicist V. V. Danilov and further refined by Robert P. Hoyt and Robert L. Forward for draining and removing the radiation fields of the Van Allen radiation belts that surround the Earth. A proposed configuration consists of a system of five 100 km long conducting tethers deployed from satellites, and charged to a large voltage. This would cause charged particles that encounter the tethers to have their pitch angle changed; thus, over time, dissolving the inner belts. Hoyt and Forward's company, Tethers Unlimited, performed a preliminary analysis simulation in 2011, and produced a chart depicting a theoretical radiation flux reduction, to less than 1% of current levels within two months for the inner belts that threaten LEO objects.
   There are many solutions to shielding against low energy radiation exposure like low energy X-rays. Lead aprons, for example, can protect patients and clinicians from the potentially harmful radiation effects of day to day medical examinations. It is quite feasible to protect large surface areas of the body from radiation in the lower energy spectrum because very little shielding material is required to provide the necessary protection.
  