question: Why must water be boiled to be considered safe while food only needs to be cooked to 165 degrees to be safe? If I washed my ground beef off in the mountain stream, would I then need to cook it to 212 degrees? Mmm...charcoal burgers!
comment: It has to do with the type of bacteria that live in different parts of the material you are heating. Water is a fluid so it has bacteria all mixed in. The entirety of the water needs to be boiled so that the entirety of the bacteria dies. For meat, the majority of the bacteria is on the surface of the meat which gets WAY hotter than 212F. More like 300-400F. When you sear a piece of meat you are instantly killing most bacteria on the surface. The INTERNAL temperature has to be at least 165 degrees for at least X amount of time to kill off all of the microorganisms that live INSIDE the meat; and even that is just a suggestion. You could eat super rare (but seared) meat 5 days a week for a year and never get sick, then that one piece of meat has something alive inside that didnt get cooked out and you get parasites. When beef (for instance) is very safely sourced (like a super fancy restaurant), they can offer it extremely rare, because they sear the surfaces to kill the surface bacteria, and they are certain there are no parasites/other diseases inside.
passages: In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) establishes minimum internal temperatures for cooked foods. These values can be superseded by state or local health code requirements, but they cannot be below the FDA limits. Temperatures should be measured with a probe thermometer in the thickest part of meats, or the center of other dishes, avoiding bones and container sides. Minimum internal temperatures are set as follows:
  
  165°F (74°C) for 15 seconds
  
  BULLET::::- Poultry (such as whole or ground chicken, turkey, or duck)
  
  BULLET::::- Stuffed meats, fish, poultry, and pasta
   Section::::Methods.:Direct heat.:Boiling.
  
  In backpacking particularly, boiling water is the most common kitchen operation undertaken on the trail, used for cooking or reconstituting food, making hot beverages, cleaning up, and even sanitizing drinking water. Portable stoves are therefore generally rated in terms of how quickly they can boil a liter (or other appropriate size) of water; indeed, some commercial stove models are specifically optimized for fast boiling, with other operations such as frying or baking being an afterthought.
   Food safety depends on the safe preparation, handling, and storage of food. Food spoilage bacteria proliferate in the "Danger zone" temperature range from , food therefore should not be stored in this temperature range. Washing of hands and surfaces, especially when handling different meats, and keeping raw food separate from cooked food to avoid cross-contamination, are good practices in food preparation. Foods prepared on plastic cutting boards may be less likely to harbor bacteria than wooden ones. Washing and disinfecting cutting boards, especially after use with raw meat, poultry, or seafood, reduces the risk of contamination.
   Food safety of ground meat issues occur because of the possibility of bacterial contamination. Undercooked hamburgers contaminated with were responsible for four deaths and the illness of hundreds of people in the U.S. in 1993. Ground beef must be cooked to 72 °C (160 °F) to ensure all bacterial contamination—whether it be endogenous to the product or contaminated after purchasing by the consumer—is killed. The color of cooked meat does not always indicate the beef has reached the required temperature; beef can brown before reaching 68 °C (155 °F).
   The boiling point of water is typically considered to be . Pressure and a change in the composition of the liquid may alter the boiling point of the liquid. For this reason, high elevation cooking generally takes longer since boiling point is a function of atmospheric pressure. In Denver, Colorado, USA, which is at an elevation of about , water boils at approximately 95 °C or 203 °F. Depending on the type of food and the elevation, the boiling water may not be hot enough to cook the food properly. Similarly, increasing the pressure as in a pressure cooker raises the temperature of the contents above the open air boiling point.
   A review of 14 studies of HCA content in ground beef cooked under home conditions found in northern Europe and the U.S. found a range of values (Table 2). Because a standard U.S. serving of meat is 3 ounces, Table 2 includes a projection of the maximum amount of HCAs that could be found in a ground beef patty.
  
  Section::::Meat.:Cooked ground beef.:United States.
   HCA formation during cooking depends on the type of meat, cooking temperature, the degree of browning and the cooking time. Meats that are lower in fat and water content show higher concentrations of HCAs after cooking. More HCAs are formed when pan surface temperatures are higher than 220C (428F) such as with most frying or grilling. However, HCAs also form at lower temperatures when the cooking time is long, as in roasting. HCA concentrations are higher in browned or burned crusts that result from high temperature. The pan drippings and meat bits that remain after meat is fried have high concentrations of HCAs. Beef, chicken and fish have higher concentrations than pork. Sausages are high in fat and water and show lower concentrations.
   Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking meat at high temperature creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. While avoiding meat or eating meat raw may be the only ways to avoid HCAs in meat fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90% by reducing the time needed for the meat to be cooked at high heat. Nitrosamines are found in some food, and may be produced by some cooking processes from proteins or from nitrites used as food preservatives; cured meat such as bacon has been found to be carcinogenic, with links to colon cancer. Ascorbate, which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation.
   The CDC recommends a rolling boil for 1 minute. At high elevations, though, the boiling point of water drops. At altitudes greater than 6,562 feet (2000 meters) boiling should continue for 3 minutes.
  
  All bacterial pathogens are quickly killed above 60 °C (140 °F), therefore, although boiling is not necessary to make the water safe to drink, the time taken to heat the water to boiling is usually sufficient to reduce bacterial concentrations to safe levels. Encysted protozoan pathogens may require higher temperatures to remove any risk.
   Section::::Interaction of cooking techniques.:Water-based cooking techniques.
   A pressure cooker can be used to compensate for lower atmospheric pressure at high elevations. The boiling point of water drops by approximately 1 °C per every 294 metres of altitude (1 °F per every of altitude), causing the boiling point of water to be significantly below the at standard pressure. Without the use of a pressure cooker, boiled foods may be undercooked, as described in Charles Darwin's "The Voyage of the Beagle" (chapter XV, March 20, 1835):
   Food safety standards and requirements are set out at the national level in the Food Standards Code, and brought Into force in each state by state-based Acts and Regulations. Legislation means that people responsible for selling or serving unsafe food may be liable for heavy fines.
  
  Section::::Regulations by jurisdiction and agency.:China.
   The ABWR and ESBWR, the most recent models of the BWR, are not vulnerable to anything like this incident in the first place, as they have no liquid penetrations (pipes) lower than several feet above the waterline of the core, and thus, the reactor pressure vessel holds in water much like a deep swimming pool in the event of a feedwater line break or a steam line break. The BWR 5s and 6s have additional tolerance, deeper water levels, and much faster emergency system reaction times. Fuel rod uncovery will briefly take place, but maximum temperature will only reach , far below the NRC safety limit.
   Some foods are not recommended for pressure cooking. Foods such as noodles, pasta, cranberries, cereals and oatmeal could expand too much, froth, and sputter, which can block the steam vent.
  
  Section::::Design.
  
  Section::::Design.:Capacity.
  
  Pressure cookers are available in different capacities for cooking larger or smaller amounts, with 6 litres' capacity being common. The maximum capacity of food is less than the advertised capacity because pressure cookers can only be filled up to 2/3 full, depending on ingredients and liquid (see Safety features section).
  
  Section::::Design.:Pan.
  
  BULLET::::- Metal pan body
   The 2013 FDA Food Code, FDA HACCP Manual, USDA HACCP Manual, FSIF Meat and Poultry Product Hazards and Control Guides, and the Food Safety Modernization Act FDA Food Safety Modernization Act, provide detailed information on Time and Temperature controls for food safety.
  
  Section::::Australia PHF Information.
  
  In Australia, Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) defines potentially hazardous food to mean food that has to be kept at certain temperatures to minimize the growth of any pathogenic microorganisms that may be present in the food or to prevent the formation of toxins in the food.
   Low-temperature cooking has been used for a long time; evidence of its use can be found in indigenous cultures. Samoans and Tongans slow-cook meat in large pits for celebrations and ceremonies. However, the technique was not scientifically examined until the 18th century, when Benjamin Thompson "described how he had left a joint of meat in a drying oven overnight and was amazed when, the next morning, he found that the meat was tender and fully cooked." Professor Nicholas Kurti from the University of Oxford repeated these experiments in 1969, and showed that the temperature of Thompson's trial never exceeded 70 degrees Celsius.
   Boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes that may be present. The sensitivity of different micro-organisms to heat varies, but if water is held at 70 °C (158 °F) for ten minutes, many organisms are killed, but some are more resistant to heat and require one minute at the boiling point of water.
   Section::::Technical and background information.:Thermal margins.:Average planar linear heat generation rate (APLHGR).
   Section::::Components.:Reactor core.
  
  A modern BWR fuel assembly comprises 74 to 100 fuel rods, and there are up to approximately 800 assemblies in a reactor core, holding up to approximately 140 short tons of low-enriched uranium. The number of fuel assemblies in a specific reactor is based on considerations of desired reactor power output, reactor core size and reactor power density.
  
  Section::::Components.:Safety systems.
  
  A modern reactor has many safety systems that are designed with a defence in depth philosophy, which is a design philosophy that is integrated throughout construction and commissioning.
   Parallel to the development of the ABWR, General Electric also developed a different concept, known as the simplified boiling water reactor (SBWR). This smaller 600 megawatt electrical reactor was notable for its incorporation—for the first time ever in a light water reactor—of "passive safety" design principles. The concept of passive safety means that the reactor, rather than requiring the intervention of active systems, such as emergency injection pumps, to keep the reactor within safety margins, was instead designed to return to a safe state solely through operation of natural forces if a safety-related contingency developed.
   According to Bryan (2004), a more complex, but more comprehensive picture of food safety hazards can be given by full consideration of the many factors involved. He advocates seeing the danger zone as "a series of ranges that represent different degrees of hazards and risks." He presents the danger zone in a chart of time versus temperature as having a zone of high danger in which foods are at temperatures between 30C and 45C for several hours, surrounded by two zones of lesser danger involving exposure at lower temperatures for longer periods of time.
  
  Section::::See also.
  
  BULLET::::- Food safety
   Pork can be safely cooked to a slightly lower temperature, provided that the internal meat temperature is at least as hot for at least as long as listed in the USDA table below. Nonetheless, allowing a margin of error for variation in internal temperature within a particular cut of pork, which may have bones that affect temperature uniformity, is prudent. In addition, kitchen thermometers have measurement error that must be considered. Pork may be cooked for significantly longer and at a higher uniform internal temperature than listed below to be safe.
   In tropical countries, like Singapore and India, a storage water heater may vary from 10 L to 35 L. Smaller water heaters are sufficient, as ambient weather temperatures and incoming water temperature are moderate.
  
  Section::::Types of water heating appliances.:Point-of-use (POU) vs centralized hot water.
   Cooking techniques can be broken down into two major categories: Oil based and water based cooking techniques. Both oil and water based techniques rely on the vaporization of water to cook the food. Oil based cooking techniques have significant surface interactions that greatly affect the quality of the food they produce. These interactions stem from the polar oil molecules interacting with the surface of the food. Water based techniques have far less surface interactions that affect the quality of the food.
  
  Section::::Interaction of cooking techniques.:Pan fry.
   Bacteria are typically killed at temperatures of around . Most harmful bacteria live on the surface of pieces of meat which have not been ground or shredded before cooking. As a result, for unprocessed steaks or chops of red meat it is usually safe merely to bring the surface temperature of the meat to this temperature and hold it there for a few minutes. See food safety. Meat which has been ground needs to be cooked at a temperature and time sufficient to kill bacteria. Poultry such as chicken has a porous texture not visible to the eye, and can harbour pathogens in its interior even if the exterior is heated sufficiently.
  