question: Do snakes (and other animals) get arthritis?
comment: Dogs and cats do. I remember a lion at a zoo also had arthritis. I don't think many wild animals live long enough to get arthritis.
passages: Arthritis is a disorder of the joints. It involves inflammation of one or more joints. When affected by arthritis, the joint or joints affected may be painful to move, may move in unusual directions or may be immobile completely. The symptoms of arthritis will vary differently between types of arthritis. The most common form of arthritis: Osteoarthritis can affect both the larger and smaller joints of the human skeleton. The cartilage in the affected joints will degrade, soften and wear away. This decreases the mobility of the joints and decreases the space between bones where cartilage should be.
  
  Section::::Clinical significance.:Osteoporosis.
   Petplan Australia reported that signs of arthritis in dogs and cats include stiffness, difficulty moving, lethargy, irritability, and cat or dog may lick, chew or bite at sore joints.
   According to the Columbia Animal Hospital the frequency of affected animals is dogs, humans, pigs, horses, cattle, chickens, and turkeys, and in dogs the most commonly affected breeds include the German Shepherd, Golden and Labrador Retriever, Rottweiler, Great Dane, Bernese Mountain Dog, and Saint Bernard. Although any joint may be affected, those commonly affected by OCD in the dog are: shoulder (often bilaterally), elbow, knee and tarsus.
   Enthesitis can assist in differentiating arthritis mutilans' parent condition psoriatic arthritis from rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis, with evidence in plain radiographs (x-rays) and MRI as periostitis, new bone formation, and bone erosions. Dactylitis, spondylitis and sacroiliitis are common with the parent condition psoriatic arthritis, but are not in rheumatoid arthritis. MRI bone edema scores are high in arthritis mutilans and correlate with radiographic measures of joint damage, although they may not correlate with disease activity. A source of significant pain, bone marrow edema (or lesions, using newer terminology), can be detected on MRI or with ultrasonography by signals of excessive water in bone marrow. Specifically, bone marrow edema can be detected within bone on T1-weighted images as poorly defined areas of low signal, with a high signal on T2-weighted fat-suppressed images. Comparatively, with arthritis mutilans in "rheumatoid arthritis", bone marrow edema often involves the bone layer, while the condition as a subtype of "psoriatic arthritis" includes a greater extent of marrow edema, expanding to diaphysis.
   There are several NSAIDs available for topical use, including diclofenac. A Cochrane review from 2016 concluded that reasonably reliable evidence is available only for use of topical diclofenac and ketoprofen in people aged over 40 years with painful knee arthritis. Transdermal opioid pain medications are not typically recommended in the treatment of osteoarthritis. The use of topical capsaicin to treat osteoarthritis is controversial, as some reviews found benefit while others did not.
  
  Section::::Management.:Medication.:Joint injections.
   Diet can have a major impact for German Shepherds that are exposed to canine hip dysplasia. Incorporating omega-3 fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) into the diet can result in improved symptoms of the disease. Omega 3 fatty acids can help decrease inflammation that occurs from osteoarthritis, as well as improvement in locomotion of dogs who have the disease. EPA and DHA can be supplemented into the diet through fish oils and in return is beneficial for reducing joint inflammation.
   BULLET::::- Budak’s snake-eyed skink "Ablepharus budaki" (Göçmen, Kumlutas & Tosunoglu, 1996)
  
  BULLET::::- Eyed skink "Chalcides ocellatus" (Forsskål, 1775)
  
  BULLET::::- Schneider's skink "Eumeces schneiderii" (Daudin, 1802)
  
  Section::::Snakes.
  
  Family: Colubridae
  
  BULLET::::- Cat snake "Telescopus fallax cyprianus" (Barbour & Amaral, 1927)
  
  BULLET::::- Coin snake "Hemorrhois nummifer" (Reuss, 1834)
  
  BULLET::::- Cyprus grass snake "Natrix natrix cypriaca" (Hecht, 1930)
  
  BULLET::::- Cyprus whip snake "Hierophis cypriensis" (Schätti, 1985)
  
  BULLET::::- Dahl's whip snake "Platyceps najadum dahli" (Linnaeus, 1758)
  
  BULLET::::- Dwarf snake "Eirenis modestus" (Martin, 1838)
  
  BULLET::::- Large whip snake "Dolichophis jugularis" (Linnaeus, 1758)
  
  BULLET::::- Montpelier snake "Malpolon monspessulanus insignitus" (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1827)
  
  Family: Typhlopidae
   Examination will often show tenderness at the radioscaphoid joint (when palpated or while moving the radioscaphoid joint), dorsal radial swelling and instability of the wrist joint. Notice that people may say they have trouble with rising from a chair when pressure is exerted on the hands by pushing against the handrail. Younger people may complain about not being able to do push-ups anymore because of a painful hand.
  
  There are a number of tests and actions that can be performed when a patient is suspected of having osteoarthritis caused by SLAC or SNAC.
  
  SLAC: 
   Blood tests and X-rays of the affected joints often are performed to make the diagnosis. Screening blood tests are indicated if certain arthritides are suspected. These might include: rheumatoid factor, antinuclear factor (ANF), extractable nuclear antigen, and specific antibodies.
  
  Section::::Diagnosis.:Osteoarthritis.
   Carprofen, and other anti-inflammatories in general, whilst very safe for most animals, can sometimes cause problems for some animals, and (in a few rare cases) sudden death through liver toxicity. This is most commonly discussed with carprofen but may be equally relevant with other anti-inflammatories. As a result, it is often recommended to perform monthly (or at least, twice-annually) blood tests to confirm that the animal is not reacting adversely to the medications. Such side effects are rare but worth being aware of, especially if long-term use is anticipated.
   Diagnosis of JIA is difficult because joint pain in children can be from many other causes. No single test can confirm the diagnosis, and most physicians use a combination of blood tests, X-rays, and clinical presentation to make an initial diagnosis of JIA. The blood tests measure antibodies and the rheumatoid factor. Unfortunately, the rheumatoid factor is not present in all children with JIA. Moreover, in some cases, the blood work is somewhat normal. X-rays are obtained to ensure that the joint pain is not from a fracture, cancer, infection, or congenital abnormality.
   The knee is one of the joints most commonly affected by osteoarthritis. Cartilage in the knee may begin to break down after sustained stress, leaving the bones of the knee rubbing against each other and resulting in osteoarthritis. Nearly a third of US citizens are affected by osteoarthritis of the knee by age 70.
   There are also fewer options if the replacement fails, the main option being arthrodesis (surgical fusion of the joint) which results in a pain-free but lame gait. However arthrodesis is itself a complex surgery with a long recovery time, and if arthrodesis is required, additional strain will be borne by other nearby joints, so other leg and shoulder conditions such as osteoarthritis may become more significant.
  
  Section::::Grading for breeding purposes.
  
  The Orthopedic Foundation for Animals in the United States will grade elbow X-rays of dogs intended for breeding.
   A large-scale study of fossil and living squamates published in 2012 by Gauthier "et al." did not find evidence for a particularly close relationship between amphisbaenians and "Sineoamphisbaena"; in their primary analysis "Sineoamphisbaena" was found to be the sister taxon of the clade containing snakes, amphisbaenians, the family Dibamidae and the American legless lizard. The primary analysis of Gauthier "et al." did not support a close relationship between "Sineoamphisbaena" and polyglyphanodontians either; however, the authors noted that when all snake-like squamates and mosasaurs were removed from the analysis, and burrowing squamates were then added individually to it, "Sineoamphisbaena" grouped with polyglyphanodontians. Gauthier "et al." (2012) considered it possible that "Sineoamphisbaena" was a burrowing polyglyphanodontian.
   Section::::Conservation.
   In spring training 1969, McRae came to the Reds' camp with his leg still in a cast from the fracture. The same offseason, St. Louis Cardinals announcer Harry Caray had suffered multiple fractures being struck by a car while on foot. During a Reds-Cardinals preseason game where Caray was interviewing ballplayers on the field while still on crutches, Reds Manager Dave Bristol pointed in Caray's direction and said to McRae, "Look at that. There's an old man. Broke two legs. Broke his shoulder. Broke his everything. And here he is walking around doing his job, doing anything he wants. Here you are, all you did was break your leg sliding into second base, and you can't get your leg out of your goddam cast! You ought to be ashamed of yourself."
   The most common joint affected is the knee. Hip, shoulder, wrist and elbow joints are less commonly affected. Spine, sternoclavicular and sacroiliac joints can also be involved. The most common cause of arthritis in these joints is intravenous drug use. Usually, only one joint is affected. More than one joint can be involved if bacteria are spread through the bloodstream.
  
  Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Prosthetic joint.
   Section::::Habitat.
   Some doctors include two other, less common forms: enthesitis-related arthritis and psoriatic JIA. Enthesitis is an inflammation of the insertion points of the tendons. This form occurs most often in boys older than 8, large joints of lower extremities are commonly affected; characteristically, it causes back pain, and is linked to ankylosing spondylitis and inflammatory bowel disease. Psoriatic JIA occurs most often in girls, in conjunction with psoriasis or any two of these features - i.e. dactylitit and nail pitting, although joint problems may precede the skin manifestations by several years.
  
  Section::::Treatment.
   Both primary generalized nodal osteoarthritis and erosive osteoarthritis (EOA, also called inflammatory osteoarthritis) are sub-sets of primary osteoarthritis. EOA is a much less common, and more aggressive inflammatory form of osteoarthritis which often affects the distal interphalangeal joints of the hand and has characteristic articular erosive changes on x-ray.
  
  Osteoarthritis can be classified by the joint affected:
  
  BULLET::::- Hand:
  
  BULLET::::- Trapeziometacarpal osteoarthritis
  
  BULLET::::- Wrist (wrist osteoarthritis)
  
  BULLET::::- Vertebral column (spondylosis)
  
  BULLET::::- Facet joint arthrosis
  
  BULLET::::- Hip osteoarthritis
  
  BULLET::::- Knee osteoarthritis
  
  Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.
   Section::::Other animals.:Snakes.
  
  Snakes that consume a diet largely composed of goldfish and feeder minnows are susceptible to developing thiamine deficiency. This is often a problem observed in captivity when keeping garter and ribbon snakes that are fed a goldfish-exclusive diet, as these fish contain thiaminase, an enzyme that breaks down thiamine.
  
  Section::::Other animals.:Wild birds and fish.
   In domestic birds the disease may be treated by application of an oily substance such as petroleum jelly, vegetable oil, or a commercial chest rub, thus preventing the mites breathing. Alternatively an insecticide may be used to kill the mites – or the two methods may be combined. The loose crusty scales may also be removed by soaking the afflicted bird's legs in soapy water mixed with diluted ammonia, and the encrusted areas scrubbed gently with a soft brush. Complete removal may take multiple treatments. Dropped scales may remain infectious for up to a month, and so pen, perches, and nesting areas may also be treated, or birds may be moved to different housing for several weeks.
   Osteotomies are either used in conjunction with arthroplasty or by themselves to correct misalignment.
  
  Section::::Epidemiology.
  
  Determining the incidence can be difficult. In addition there is a wide margin in diagnostic results. A German study comparing two methods resulted in twice the usual rate for one method. The condition is eight times more frequent in females than in males.
   A joint disorder is termed arthropathy, and when involving inflammation of one or more joints the disorder is called arthritis. Most joint disorders involve arthritis, but joint damage by external physical trauma is typically not termed arthritis.
  
  Arthropathies are called "polyarticular" (multiarticular) when involving many joints and "monoarticular" when involving only a single joint.
   Risk of permanent impairment of the joint varies greatly. This usually depends on how quickly treatment is started after symptoms occur as longer lasting infections cause more destruction to the joint. The involved organism, age, preexisting arthritis, and other comorbidities can also increase this risk. Gonococcal arthritis generally does not cause long term impairment. For those with "Staphylococcus aureus" septic arthritis, 46 to 50% of the joint function returns after completing antibiotic treatment. In pneumococcal septic arthritis, 95% of the joint function will return if the person survives. One-third of people are at risk of functional impairment (due to amputation, arthrodesis, prosthetic surgery, and deteriorating joint function) if they have an underlying joint disease or a synthetic joint implant. Mortality rates generally range from 10-20%. These rates increase depending on the offending organism, advanced age, and comorbidities such as rheumatoid arthritis.
  