Gastrointestinal tumours are usually associated with a poor prognosis, as most are only diagnosed at an advanced stage. Every effort to improve intraluminal diagnosis in gastroenterology must therefore be aimed at diagnosing gastrointestinal tract tumours at the earliest stage possible.
- fluorescence techniques
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Improved training for physicians conducting endoscopy is a fundamental element in the early detection of gatrointestinal tumours. Familiarity with the adenoma-carcinoma sequence in colorectal carcinoma, for example, or the metaplasia-dysplasia-carcinoma sequence in adenocarcinoma of the distal oesophagus, leads to a more consistent examination technique.1–4 Practical training in endoscopy has now reached a high standard throughout the world, although it should by no means be regarded as already representing the ultimate that can be achieved.
On the other hand, the quality of the endoscopes used is vital for early recognition of gastrointestinal tumours. Although the introduction of video endoscopy some 25 years ago was regarded as the peak of endoscope development, a further quantum leap has been achieved in image resolution in the past 5 to 10 years, with the introduction of high resolution (megapixel) and magnification endoscopy.
Supplementary procedures such as chromoendoscopy and fluorescence techniques (FT) can further contribute to optimal diagnosis, helping to diagnose not only early carcinomas but also preliminary stages such as high grade intraepithelial neoplasia (formerly known as “severe dysplasia”).
The first promising reports on FT were already published more than 10 years ago.5,6 Interest primarily focused on fluorescence spectroscopic techniques. From the point of view of clinical gastroenterologists, however, the vital requirement was to obtain a real time endoscopic image—not receiving point by point fluorescence measurement, but rather recognising differences in fluorescence directly on the monitor when viewing extensive areas of tissue. Among fluorescence imaging methods, there is currently competition among techniques that use endogenous fluorophores (autofluorescence) and those that use exogenous fluorophores (known as photodynamic diagnosis, PDD) to stimulate fluorescence. The aim in all these efforts is to achieve fluorescence optically guided biopsy sampling of suspicious areas. This is of clinical significance above all in long segment Barrett’s oesophagus, and for screening in patients with long term chronic inflammatory bowel diseases. Random biopsy sampling is currently still the standard procedure here.
PRINCIPLES OF FLUORESCENCE DIAGNOSIS
The principle of fluorescence diagnosis is based on the interaction between light at a specific wavelength and fluorophores in tissue. Light sources that can be used include incoherent light sources (for example, xenon) or monochromatic laser light. When light penetrates tissue, it causes not only reflection and absorption, but also fluorescence. Depending on the fluorophore used, only light at a specific wavelength is maximally absorbed, and in turn variably emitted. As a result of the stimulation process, blue stimulation light, for example, loses some of its energy and is therefore given off as longer wavelength red fluorescence. “Colour differences” between normal and neoplastic tissue arise here as a result of endogenous and exogenous fluorophores.7
Autofluorescence is based on the stimulation of endogenous fluorophores, particularly the coenzymes of the respiratory chain (NADH, collagen, flavin, etc). As their excitation and emission bands are quite broad and often show spectral overlapping, it is still difficult to distinguish between these fluorophores. It is only when a suitable stimulation wavelength is selected that the individual fluorophores causing autofluorescence can be distinguished. A number of different pathological processes—mainly neoplasias, but also inflammation and ischaemia—affect the metabolic, oxidative condition of the cells and thus their autofluorescence. In addition, the thickness of the mucosa or epithelial layer can change the autofluorescence. After stimulation with ultraviolet or short wavelength light, these fluorophores emit longer wavelength light. Thickening of the mucosa produces a weakened green autofluorescence in the collagen and elastin contained in the submucosa. The predominantly green fluorescence (450–550 nm) in the submucosa (collagen) is masked by dysplastic/malignantly transformed mucosa, the red fluorescence of which (600–700 nm) then predominates. The main advantage of the autofluorescence technique is the fact that it is not necessary to administer a chemical substance to the patient before fluorescence can be detected. Administering a drug has considerable medical and also legal implications, quite apart from the tremendous costs involved in the process of obtaining registration and approval for an exogenous fluorophore as a medication. However, the faintness of endogenous fluorophores, the complexity of the interactions between the numerous endogenous pigments that are present, and the varied effects of different tissue qualities on autofluorescence behaviour, all make sensitive and sophisticated detection systems necessary to obtain meaningful information.6–12
In contrast with autofluorescence, various exogenous photosensitisers—classically porphyrins—are used when fluorescence is induced by a drug in the technique known as PDD. These can be applied either for imaging or for spectroscopy alone. The decisive difference between these and endogenous fluorophores is that there are evidently substances that accumulate more, with relative selectivity, in neoplastic cell systems. For diagnostic purposes, 5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) is currently the substance attracting the greatest interest. It is not really a photosensitiser, but rather a precursor in heme biosynthesis. The reduced ferrochelatase activity in neoplastic cells has a decisive role here for selective accumulation in malignant tumours in comparison with normal tissue. Exogenously administered 5-ALA bypasses an inhibitory feedback mechanism in heme biosynthesis and leads to accumulation of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) in neoplastic tissues. Selective accumulation of 5-ALA or PpIX in neoplastic tissues was initially demonstrated in skin tumours, and later also in numerous other types of organ tumour. However, the use of exogenous substances that produce a stronger and clearer fluorescence signal because of comparatively specific accumulation also has some disadvantages. In addition to the legal and medicolegal aspects already mentioned, administration of 5-ALA is associated with brief but non-negligible photosensitisation of the skin, so that the patient needs to be protected from sunlight for about one day.13–17
Endoscopic fluorescence spectroscopy procedures usually use lasers as light stimulation sources, with wavelengths between 300 and 480 nm. The light is introduced into the gastrointestinal hollow organs via glass fibres under endoscopic vision. The fluorescence light can return via the same fibres, or via separate light conductors. A fluorescence spectrometer detects the wavelength dependent signals. Background subtraction techniques and ratio calculations for two or more wavelengths are usually used. Particularly when only autofluorescence is being used, sophisticated algorithms are needed to calculate the spectral contributions of different fluorophores to derive a value that indicates the presence or absence of neoplasia in the tissue area being investigated. One evident drawback of spectroscopy is the fact that only small areas of tissue can be examined. The optical probes used to measure reflectance spectra through an endoscope sample about 0.05–1 mm2 of tissue at each site. The total amount of tissue examined spectroscopically, even with multiple measurements, is thus very small compared with fluorescence imaging, and it is possible that regions of neoplastic tissue may be missed because of sampling errors. In addition, the endoscopist needs to detect suspicious areas first before the probe can be used for fluorescence spectroscopy.5,6,10–12,17,18
From the clinical viewpoint, a real time endoscopic fluorescence imaging system is of course highly attractive, as this is the only way of achieving complete fluorescence diagnosis of large, continuous areas of tissue. However, the method has low sensitivity and specificity rates, and these deficiencies have to be compensated for by using special cameras with image intensifiers, or time integration facilities. Two commercial systems are currently available:
The Xillix Laser-Induced Fluorescence Endoscopy Gastrointestinal (LIFE-GI) system (Xillix Technologies, Vancouver, Canada) is based on capturing autofluorescence signals stimulated with blue light at a wavelength of 437 nm. Using fibrescopes, two image intensifier cameras attached to the endoscope outside the body are used to capture autofluorescence signals in the green and red spectral ranges, which are fused to create a real time “red-green” image. Generally, there is less green fluorescence in neoplastic tissue than in normal tissue, while red fluorescence is stronger in neoplastic tissue than in normal tissue. The unwieldy clinical operating characteristics of this system have in the meantime been substantially improved in a second version (LIFE II). However, the new system still only uses fibre endoscopes, and not video endoscopes.8,9,19,20
The second real time fluorescence system is based on the use of exogenous fluorophores, and detects 5-ALA-induced PpIX fluorescence. The process was initially developed by the Storz company in Tuttlingen, Germany, and was known as D-Light; in the meantime a basically similar system is also available from the R Wolf company in Knittlingen, Germany (Combilight PDD). For 5-ALA fluorescence endoscopy, the set up is illustrated in figure 1. The excitation light is a short arc xenon lamp with a specially designed yellow short pass filter (440 nm). Blue and conventional white light are delivered to the organ segments via the illumination bundle of a standard fibrescope at 200 mW. The fluorescence light is collected by the endoscope’s imaging bundle. An observation filter (long pass, 450 nm, Schott, Germany) is mounted on the eyepiece of the endoscope. The light is designed to transmit not only tissue autofluorescence and PpIX fluorescence, but also part of the excitation light, for better orientation during the examination. For documentation, a video camera with target integration is attached to the flexible fibreoptic endoscope. 5-ALA is usually supplied as hydrochloride 98% pure powder. The patients receive a solution of ALA in mineral water (dose 10 mg/kg body weight) orally four to eight hours before fluorescence endoscopy. After ingesting the ALA, the patients are kept in slightly darkened rooms for 36 hours. Sensitisation with ALA, which is transformed to PpIX in neoplastic tissue in higher concentrations than in non-malignant tissue, leads to a characteristic red fluorescence on exposure to blue light, as PpIX has a strong absorption band in the violet spectral range (380–420 nm). The red fluorescence emitted presents two bands at 635 and 700 nm.13–16
Clinical experience in gastrointestinal endoscopy
Most experimental ex vivo studies and clinical experimental studies have been carried out using fluorescence spectroscopy.5,6,11,17 Various spectral and fluorescence imaging systems have been used to analyse the fluorescence data. The results have shown sometimes substantial differences between in vitro and in vivo conditions. In individual human malignant tumours, autofluorescence emission spectra show peaks in the 630–690 nm wavelength range.18 In ex vivo studies of oesophageal carcinomas (adenocarcinoma), high levels of fluorescence activity were observed in laser induced autofluorescence (stimulation wavelength 405 nm) in normal tissue at 500 nm, with smaller peaks for normal tissue, dysplastic tissue and malignant tissue at 630 nm and 700 nm.17 When a ratio is calculated between the fluorescence activity at 500 nm and 630 nm, highly significant differences are found between malignant and benign Barrett’s mucosa.17 Recent in vivo studies in oesophageal and gastric tumours show specific changes in the autofluorescence spectra of malignant tumours in comparison with the corresponding normal tissue.12 Using complex mathematical algorithms, a sensitivity of 97% and a specificity of 95% can be calculated for the autofluorescence technique. Autofluorescence measurements in the colon have shown that there are reduced fluorescence intensities in adenomatous neoplasia, in comparison with normal colonic mucosa, in the spectral range 500–550 nm. To improve tissue identification using autofluorescence in the colon, excitation-emission matrices (EEMs) have been recorded with excitation wavelengths from 250 nm to 500 nm in steps of 10 nm, with corresponding fluorescence emission up to 700 nm. Using 5-ALA as an exogenous fluorophore, it was possible to distinguish clearly between tumours in Barrett’s oesophagus and Barrett’s metaplasia, with the typical PpIX peaks at 635 nm and 705 nm.13 (Figure 2).
A review of the available literature reports shows that in the early 1990s, the published studies almost exclusively used fluorescence spectroscopy based on laser induced autofluorescence. Initially, these were mainly experimental and ex vivo studies, but in recent years in vivo studies have also appeared, some of which have also used exogenous fluorophores. More than half of the published studies have focused on the large bowel, followed by studies in the oesophagus.
With the development of the fluorescence imaging system, scientific interest concentrated more on the oesophagus—not least because of the increasing clinical significance of Barrett’s carcinoma, as well as a recognition that fluorescence procedures for detecting or differentiating between colonic polyps were too elaborate or were not genuinely clinical relevant. Early colonic neoplasias can be recognised much better using high resolution endoscopy, with or without chromoendoscopy, than was possible 10 or 20 years ago. By contrast, intraepithelial neoplasias (high grade, low grade) in Barrett’s oesophagus cannot usually be recognised, even using the above methods, so that there is a genuine and significant need for diagnostic improvement here. This is underlined by the fact that new local endoscopic treatment options as photodynamic therapy and mucosal resection are available now.21,22 The same applies to the detection of dysplasias in patients with chronic inflammatory bowel diseases, in whom conventional diagnostic procedures have limitations. A third diagnostic problem situation is early recognition of gastric carcinomas. In contrast with sporadic colorectal carcinoma, conventional endoscopy is not capable of achieving early recognition of the preliminary stages of cancer here.
The new fluorescence imaging systems allow both conventional “white light” endoscopy and fluorescence endoscopy in one session. In addition, they permit full inspection of the area at risk—for example, the large bowel. This is an advance over point by point measurements in which the measurement process is random, equivalent to a random biopsy procedure, unless the endoscopist has already recognised a lesion, so that targeted fluorescence measurement can be carried out, equivalent to a “virtual biopsy,” with a subsequent “optically guided biopsy.”
There have few reports on the use of the LIFE-GI autofluorescence system, with publications mainly being concerned with ex vivo studies or case reports on clinical experience.8,9,19,20,23 In an ex vivo study, a group of Japanese authors have pointed out that the LIFE-GI system is probably unsuitable for detecting the undifferentiated type of gastric carcinoma, as the detection rate for these lesions was significantly poorer than for the differentiated type.9 In an initial small series, Haringsma et al8 found that the LIFE-GI system was slightly superior to random biopsy in Barrett’s oesophagus. This was confirmed in a comparable series.20 However, on the basis of personal communications from researchers using the LIFE-GI method experimentally in everyday clinical work, the system seems to be extremely elaborate and rather unpractical. The fluorescence unit as a whole is extremely expensive because of the use of a laser system, and this is a further limitation on its clinical use. The later prototype, LIFE-II, has been substantially improved,19 and a research group in the Netherlands will be reporting on the diagnostic yield in the near future.24
In contrast with the LIFE-GI system, fluorescence imaging systems based on 5-ALA use xenon lamps as the stimulation light source, instead of lasers. The system as a whole is easy to handle and reasonably priced. On the other hand, as mentioned earlier, the costs and effort associated with 5-ALA are not negligible. In addition to case reports, a series of 47 patients with Barrett’s oesophagus in whom the technique was used was published last year.15 Only 10 of the 47 showed dysplasia, and previously unidentified dysplasias were found using the D-Light system in three of the patients. Our own research group is reporting this year on 43 patients with high grade neoplasia and early Barrett’s cancer who were examined using random biopsy under white light vision and also with 5-ALA-induced fluorescence endoscopy.13 The patients were studied twice—with conventional endoscopy and four quadrant biopsies in the first series (group I), and with fluorescence detection (photodynamic diagnosis) in the second series (group II). Firstly, four quadrant random biopsy specimens every 2 cm were taken during routine video endoscopy (Fujinon 450 HR, Fujinon, Willich, Germany). In the second series, two to eight days later, PDD was performed three hours after oral sensitisation with ALA. Biopsies were taken of areas with positive red fluorescent tissue (one to four specimens per lesion) and of non-fluorescent areas (two specimens per patient). In group I, a total of 448 quadrant specimens were sampled, while in group II, 175 samples were taken. Overall, the PDD technique led to a significantly lower total number of biopsy specimens being obtained per patient compared with random biopsies (n=448 v 175, p<0.0001). In addition, the average number of specimens taken with PDD was much lower than with random biopsies (4 v 9, p<0.0001). In relation to the length of the Barrett’s segment, the difference was significant only in patients with long segment Barrett’s oesophagus (p<0.0001. PDD led to a significantly higher proportion of biopsy specimens containing dysplasia or early cancer despite the smaller number of samples obtained per patient. Significant differences between the two techniques in the detection of HGD or early cancer were present in both short segment and long segment Barrett’s oesophagus. The sensitivity was 81.7% for PDD, while a sensitivity rate of 25.9% (p<0.001) was found using random biopsy in the study. No dysplasia, early cancer, or inflammation was detected in fluorescence negative areas of Barrett’s mucosa, and consequently no false negative fluorescence findings were obtained. False positive fluorescence was associated either with microscopic inflammation of the mucosa or with low grade dysplasia. Although these results are still preliminary in nature and need to be confirmed by other research groups, they suggest that ALA induced fluorescence diagnosis can be reliably used for recognition of discrete mucosal abnormalities such as high grade dysplasia and early cancer in Barrett’s oesophagus. Open questions that remain undoubtedly include the optimal dose of 5-ALA and whether topical application is capable of being as effective as oral administration.13,15
The results of one pilot study conducted in Germany on 5-ALA fluorescence detection in the colon has now also been published.16 5-ALA fluorescence detection was found to be equivalent to whitelight endoscopy for detecting neoplasias. As mentioned earlier, the use of fluorescence for screening in patients with chronic inflammatory bowel diseases is of much greater interest than for detecting neoplasia in the inflammation free colon. The preliminary data reported by the group in Regensburg, Germany, are very promising here (H Messmann, personal communication). However, the limitations of in vivo fluorescence diagnosis in the large bowel include the problems of fecal contamination and the high level of autofluorescence of fecal residues. On the other hand, any sort of inflammatory activity in the mucosa also produces difficult to interpret fluorescence effects. In my view, the use of fluorescence endoscopy in the large bowel will in the future continue to be useful and feasible mainly for scientific purposes, because of the limited range of indications and the substantial obstructive factors present. Widespread clinical use is unlikely in my opinion. By contrast, increased use of the technique to detect neoplastic lesions in the stomach could lead to it becoming an established method, as the obstructive factors mentioned above are not present there.9,23
To sum up, the clinical indications for fluorescence endoscopy will in the future be limited mainly to patients with Barrett’s oesophagus. Furthermore, possible indications could be the screening of patients with long term ulcerative colitis and chronic inflammatory bowel diseases, and perhaps also patients who are at increased risk for gastric carcinoma. Spectroscopic procedures still have higher sensitivity and specificity rates for identifying neoplastic lesions than imaging fluorescence systems. On the other hand, they are more elaborate and only permit point by point fluorescence measurements. From the clinical point of view, only real time endoscopic fluorescence imaging systems represent a practicable solution. The systems that are currently available still have weaknesses, and will need to undergo thorough clinical evaluation once they have been technically optimised. In comparison with incoherent light sources, laser based methods seem to be too elaborate and expensive, and the former are likely to replace them. In addition, fluorescence detection will have to be possible in the future using high resolution video endoscopes. Continued use of fluorescence endoscopy only on the basis of the fibrescopes so far available will soon become anachronistic. Ultimately, whether and to what extent fluorescence endoscopy will find its place in clinical gastroenterology will only be decided in comparison with the other imaging options available (high resolution endoscopy, magnification endoscopy, chromoendoscopy, etc).
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medisun PDT 9000 - The new painless PDT
medisun PDT 9000 is an innovative light treatment system for the painless exposure of photodynamic therapy (PDT) with polychromatic spectra from a high power LED light source.
The main indications are actinic keratoses, which are reported for a steady increase worldwide. Actinic keratoses are a preliminary stage to skin cancer, usually associated with excessive exposure to the sun during life, e.g. in outdoor occupations.
Therefore, the workmen`s compensation boards in Germany have recognized actinic keratosis as an occupational disease for many professions. Patients in these cases have a lifelong right to get paid the treatment costs.
Conventional red light PDT has been established for many years as it has proven to be very effective. However, the therapy protocols used are usually associated with great pain for the patients.
With the outdoor daylight PDT with natural sunlight, an alternative therapy protocol has been developed that contains all wavelengths of light and is less painful. However, the actual irradiance and the spectral composition of the light will depend on some uncontrollable factors such as the season, time of day, temperature, elevation above sea level, geographical location and weather conditions.
In certain weather conditions, e.g. below + 10 ° C, the outdoor daylight PDT can not be performed at all or the effect can not be calculated and is not reproducible. In addition, sunscreen must also be applied. However, the outdoor daylight PDT is considered to be less painful than the conventional red light PDT.
The new medisun PDT 9000 represents the logical further development of the outdoor daylight PDT and the red light PDT.
medisun PDT 9000 uses programmable multicolor high power LEDs. These can produce many monochromatic and polychromatic light mixtures.
With the newly developed medisun PDT therapy protocol, a painless exposure with an optimized daylight spectrum with only one hour of exposure time is possible, which is just as effective as the conventional red light PDT.
This has now been confirmed by a published clinical study by Prof. Dr. Thomas Dirschka and Prof. Dr. Rolf-Markus Szeimies.
The efficacy and freedom from pain during the exposure was also confirmed by a clinical study by Prof. Dr. med. Hans Michael Ockenfels (Hanau).
The integrated PC control allows different therapy protocols to be used.
The integrated red light PDT meets the requirements of known photosensitizers (e.g., AMELUZ, 5-ALA, etc.) for the treatment of actinic keratoses.
This therapeutic protocol, proven by a clinical trial, allows painless exposure and shows excellent efficacy with only one hour of exposure.
medisun PDT 9000 is the only PDT system to have an integrated wood light function for fluorescence diagnosis, which enables optimal diagnosis and success control, which can also be billed separately. Only in the wood light all actinic keratoses become visible to the human eye.
With the integrated blue light spectrum, you can treat inflammatory acne forms supportive. .
Medisun PDT 9000 uses a selective blue light (410 - 450nm). The blue light acts by stimulating the bacterial porphyrins and formation of free oxygen radicals directly destroying acne bacteria (Propionibacterium acnes), healthy skin is thereby spared. The irradiation time is 20 min. A series of 6 to 12 sessions about 2 to 3 times a week is recommended.
With the integrated affective disorder therapy (SAD), winter depression can be treated as an adjunct. The effect is achieved via a special flicker-free light with 10,000 lux over the eyes. The exposure time is 20 to 30 minutes.
By using medisun PDT 9000 it is now possible to perform the painless PDT exposure planned in your practice throughout the year.
medisun PDT 9000is equipped with a three-dimensional radiation field around the head. Single or multiple lesions (field carcinogenesis) up to the entire head can be treated individually and homogeneously in an exposure procedure. Excellent tolerability and consistently excellent therapy results are achieved.
Thanks to the programmed PC control, the medisun PDT 9000 remains future-proof, regardless of which light spectrum will be of importance in the future.which light spectrum will be of importance in the future.
All medisun products are developed and produced in Brühl near Cologne.
The medisun systems are certified as medical devices according to directive 93/42/EEC by TÜV-Rheinland LGA Products GmbH.
We rely on tested quality - Made in Germany.
Medisun PDT systems are already used in many university hospitals and dermatological practices.
We are happy to inform you competently and without obligation.


Associate Professor @ University of Malta & Director @ the Institute of Space Sciences and Astronomy
Professor Kristian Zarb Adami did his Ph.D. in data analysis at the University of Cambridge specialising in image processing techniques applied to the radio and optical telescopes. Subsequently, he worked at STMicroelectronics for three years where he was responsible for developing the autofocus and zoom algorithms for mobile phone cameras. During his time at STMicroelectronics, cameras developed as part of his team became some of the most sold cameras in the world, making STMicroelectronics the largest camera manufacturer at the time. In 2007, Kristian Zarb Adami joined the University of Oxford and the Square Kilometer Array project where he is responsible for building the largest data processing system of any science instrument ever built. After a brief stint in MIT, working with Max Tegmark on designing a sensitive radio instrument to detect the first stars in the universe, he opened the Institute of Space Sciences and Astronomy (ISSA) at the University of Malta which specialises in large data processing systems and machine learning data driven discovery. Today Professor Zarb Adami spends most of him time designing telescopes and scientific facilities to be placed on the far-side of the moon.


Dear PhD candidates,
Taki lab is cordially invite you as a PhD candidate in our laboratory. Taki lab is one of the most active lab of photopolymerization kinetics and network analysis of UV curable resins, which are used in semiconductor, electronics, optics and cosmetic industries. Moreover, we are studying bubble nucleation, growth and coalescence kinetics in molten polymers and coals for steel industry.
We are studying the filed of polymer processing, photopolymerization and functional materials of various themes:
- Twin screw extrusion and flow modeling
- Sheet molding compound by in situ polymerization and glass fiber, carbon fiber composites
- Photopolymerization and its application of optical films
- Photopolymerization kinetics and gel networks
- Sequential coating and curing of UV curable resins
- Optical films
We are offering worthwhile industrial collaboration research with Japanese company, which is a good opportunity to know working in Japan.
Please contact Associate Professor Kentaro Taki in the following address: email@example.com
Sincerely yours, Kentaro Taki


WHAT IS OLED
[Organic Light-Emitting Diode]
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) are displays that use self-luminous phenomena. Organic materials are arranged between the two electrodes, and electrons and holes injected recombine in the organic material, and electricity flows to the fluorescent organic compound. OLED has been developed as a dream display that can replace LCD with all necessary elements such as high speed response, wide viewing angle, high image quality and wide operating temperature range.
In the OLED market, Korea's display industry is playing a leading role in the world. Samsung Display is leading the display industry for small and medium-sized OLED products and LG Display is leading for large OLED products.
PRODUCT_OLED LAYER STRUCTURE
A tandem structure in which two or more independent OLED devices are connected in series is mainly used in large-area OLED industries such as OLED TV, OLED lighting, and automobile OLED display.


Sigma kompatibelt med Canon EOS R och Nikon Z
Sigma Optics annonserar kompatibilitet med Canon EOS R och Nikon Z
Canon EOS R:
We would like to announce that, as of this moment SIGMA’s interchangeable lenses for Canon mount in the current lineup do not have any issues with general operation when they are used on the “EOS R”, released by Canon Inc., via their “Mount Adapter EF-EOS R”.
Mer informations finns på Sigmas nyhetssida
When SIGMA’s interchangeable lenses in the current product lineup, listed below, are used in combination with the Nikon “Z7” and their “Mount Adapter FTZ”, both AF and AE operate without any issues.
Mer information finns på Sigmas nyhetssida


The basis of how visible light spectroscopy works and why it is so useful.
Spectroscopy is the measurement of radiation intensity as a function of wavelength. There are many different kinds of spectroscopy! This tool is going to focus on visible light spectroscopy.
Coloured light is very often a mixture of different colours. A spectrometer splits the constituent colours of light apart (just like a triangular prism) and can then measure the intensity and strength of each colour.
What comes out of a visible light spectrometer is called a spectrum. The horizontal axis is the wavelength of light. The vertical axis is the intensity at that wavelength.
To understand what spectroscopy is, we need to answer a couple of questions:
Light can be viewed as electromagnetic radiation, waves on the electromagnetic spectrum, including radio waves, microwaves and infrared. Looking at a wave, the wavelength and frequency determine the nature of the light. Long-wavelength means short frequency and vice versa.
Electromagnetic radiation in visible light contains quanta (tiny packets of energy called photons). Higher frequency light carries more energy than lower frequency light.
A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together in some way (topic for another video). Quantum theory says that the energies of things are quantized. This means that molecules and atoms have discrete step-like energy states, and the molecule can only be in one of these states and not ‘in-between’ states.
When molecules are exposed to the light of the right wavelength, they can be excited, leading to a change in bonding chemistry in the molecule and attaining an excited state. This excitation results in some light being absorbed.
Light is not the only means of getting molecules excited. They can also be excited by other factors such as heat. When molecules relax from an excited state, they emit the energy associated with the relaxation, which can be given off as light or heat.
This is why the spectra of heated up molecules often consist of a series of sharp spectral lines, each due to light produced by a specific relaxation in the molecule between quantum states.
By examining the spectrum of light before and after it passes through a sample, the difference in the spectrum can be identified through examining spectra.
Like this, we can get an idea of what absorptions are happening in the sample.
Many molecules have particular absorption patterns associated with them, allowing us to see if they are in the sample.
The amount of light absorbed at a specific wavelength where absorption occurs also can tell us how much of a compound is in the sample, i.e. its concentration.
If there is more of a compound in a sample and it absorbs the light shone at it, the intensity will be lower the higher the concentration.
Another technique in spectroscopy is to excite a sample and then measure the emitted light due to the excited molecules relaxing. This works for fluorescent molecules and often is used for analysis of oils.
Visible light absorption spectroscopy is used in a wide variety of ways, including:
And many more!
This tool does not look at the practical use of a spectrometer but rather how you work with one. Check out our tool on building a spectrometer linked below.
A typical workflow for spectroscopy is the following:
If the molecule you wish to test for is absorbing visible light, the following steps would be to identify at what wavelength it does this and the intensity at different concentrations.
This law relates the concentration of a substance in solution to the intensity of absorbance of light at a wavelength where absorbance occurs. Note that everything such as light source, container, distances, temperature, and surround light should be kept constant to compare measurements. Additionally, the law assumes all measurements have been done at the same wavelength.
The law states that the absorbance (the log (base 10) of the intensity of a blank sample light to that containing analyte) is proportional to the concentration of the absorbing analyte in the sample.
To use the law, a calibration curve must be set up. The absorbance at a specific wavelength is calculated for different analyte concentrations and a blank and a plot constructed.
When a sample of unknown concentration is measured, the absorption at that wavelength can then be related to the concentration of analyte in the sample.
See the attached example document for an application.
Have we got you excited about spectroscopy? Check out our tool on building one to start analysing your one samples!
Bunker, P. R., & Jensen, P. (1979). Molecular Symmetry and Spectroscopy — Volumes Publishing. NRC Research Press.
SpectralWorkbench. (n.d.). Retrieved June 27, 2021, from https://spectralworkbench.org/


MetaShield400 is a durable thin film that employs unique nanoparticles designed to block UV wavelengths up to 400nm, while maintaining 91% optical transmission in visible wavelengths. The formula can be applied to glass along with most types of plastics, and is specifically designed for simple integration into high throughput manufacturing processes. The solution is easily spray coated and quickly dries using commercially available application methods.
Plastics tend to discolor and degrade over time in sunlight, and clear plastics turn yellow and blurry. The patent-pending MetaShield400 formula helps protect plastics and extend their usable lifetime. By allowing product colors and features to be openly displayed without the risk of UV degradation, the MetaShield400 coating is an ideal solution for industries such as consumer packaging, cosmetics, outdoor furniture, spirits, museum glass, automotive, defense and many more.


Digital camera basics
The digital camera truly relects the age in which we live. That is not a compliment to either. Development funds have been poured into making sure
any half-wit can take a half-decent digital photo, and secondly
no-one else can take anything better.
The problem is not any evil giant corporation, but a common substance commonly found in bulk beneath my bed - dust. An imaging chip is small, to save silicon, so any dust specks on it appear large in the finished picture. If you can remove a camera lens, in flies the dust. The camera lens is thus non-removable, so has to be power-zoomed to fill the frame with the subject. No-one can see fine detail on the little screen on the back, so auto-focus completes the package. Bingo - the half-decent digital photo. The professional digital cameras have a removable lens and manual focus, at the cost of staggering complexity. Every so often, at 100 US dollars a time, the owners return them to the makers to have the dust cleaned out of the inside. Slowly a really sensible and fully professional answer to the problem is emerging. The imaging chips are being made with a frame size of 24 x 36 mm, or the normal 35 film standard. On this giant chip, dust specks are tiny, and the problem goes away. Even if a professional camera were affordable, since the maximum chip area a microscope objective will illuminate is only about 6mm x 5mm, most of the big chip area is wasted.
Higher maths - pixels and resolution
Resolution, both of lenses and imaging media (including film and silicon chips) is traditionally measured in lines per millimetre or lpmm for short. A target made of black lines on a white ground is photographed. The white spaces between the parallel black lines are the same width as the black lines, so the target could equally well be described as white lines on a black ground. The target is progressively distanced from the test camera, so the created image gets smaller. The smallest image on which the black/white line pattern can still be discerned is checked on a measuring microscope to see how many parallel black lines fit in 1mm of image. If the film can resolve more than the lens, you are testing the lens. If the lens outperforms the film, you are testing the film. For a long time now a 'good' lens has resolved at least 70 lpmm, and a high resolution film about 90 lpmm. Thick colour films like Kodak Gold are around 60 lpmm.
A good photographic rule of thumb has been that photography to 70 lpmm is quite easily done. Anything better than the magic 100 lpmm is virtually impossible. Let us do some maths with a very common silicon imaging chip.
An imaging chip contains pixels, lying in parallel rows to create a rectangular array. An array roughly 3mm by 4mm can be found on the VGA sensor, used in all quality webcams. The pixel dimensions on the chip are 480 pixels high, and 640 pixels wide. The total number of pixels is thus
480 x 640 = 307200
This chip is thus described as the 300,000 pixel VGA chip, and if you look at webcam specs, you will see this quoted.
480 pixels in 3mm equals 160 pixels in 1mm, so you have 160 lines of pixels in the imaging chip per millimetre. You need a pixel line to hold the black line of the resolution test, and the pixel line beside it to hold the white separator. The maximum resolution of this chip is thus 160 divided by 2, or 80 lpmm. Plainly the chip designers read up on photography before starting. Most imaging chips are designed around this resolution. The Sony chip used in their base-model video cameras is specified as a 1/6 inch diameter sensor for 800,000 pixels. Most of their competitors use 1/5 inch or 1/4.5 inch for 800,000 pixels. If you calculate it out the Sony chip must have a resolution of well over 100 lpmm. They either have some marvellous lenses to match this resolution, or are simply scrimping on silicon. No comment.
If you check the 'background' section you will find photomicrographs taken on a good quality 300,000 pixel VGA webcam chip from Kodak, and they are pretty good, although the basic pixels of the images are not far below the surface. Any microscope objective covers 3mm by 4mm with room to spare. The next step up is the '1.3 Megapixel' chip, which was the ultimate in digital cameras a couple of years ago. If you work out the figures for a 6mm by 8mm chip, with 960 lines each holding 1280 pixels, you get 1,228,800 pixels. The same design rules have been followed as for the VGA chip, and the resolution is again 80 lpmm. A good Plan objective will image 6mm x 8mm right to the corners, so the classic '1.3 Megapixel' chip is perfect for photomicrography. A larger chip size than this is too big for the objective field, and the objective itself is pushing to resolve 80 lpmm, so adding more pixels to this size chip will not get you any more sharpness. For now, and for ever, a 1.3 Megapixel 6mm by 8mm chip is all that you need. As the years pass, until production of this elementary size stops, there will be slow improvements in colour quality and contrast handling.
The clean mathematics above is sullied by two games played by the digital camera makers. The first obstructs good photomicrography, but the second makes precise focusing possible. Both techniques concern manipulation of the pixels by the camera microprocessor after the image has been sucked off the sensor chip into the circuit board.
It is possible for the camera microprocessor to examine each side-by-side pair of pixels in an image, and make a good guess at what value a third pixel would hold, if it were located in between the pair. This value is of course the averaged value of the two real pixels round it. A whole image may then be built up containing generally four times the number of pixels as the original. At first view such an image is much less 'blocky', and more pleasing to the eye, but the interpolation process cannot add any more detail, and the result adds fuzziness to a photomicrograph, which helps nobody. If you really want to 'resample' the picture to more (or less) pixels, you can do it in the computer, as any photo-manipulation package has this facility.
For a long time, the VGA 300,000 chip was all cheap digital cameras could afford. Some makers incorporated interpolation into their product, generating a picture with four times the pixels of the sensor. The English language was subtly manipulated to suggest to as many customers as possible that the camera contained a 1.3 Megapixel chip, without actually saying so. The best example I found was Pixera, who made, and may still be making, a 5000 US dollar microscope camera containg a VGA 300,000 chip. The top line of their sales sheet says "1.3 million real pixels" in heavy type. At the end of the third page of the data sheet is a tiny line saying the pixels are interpolated from a VGA chip. D-Link sold quite a few VGA cameras as 1.3 Megapixel, but were a little more honest with the wording.
The first really cheap camera to contain a genuine 1.3 Megapixel imaging chip was used, of course, as the basis for our current microscope camera.
A 2X digital zoom on a 1.3 Megapixel chip simply discards all but the centre 300,000 pixels, and blows these up to fill the viewing screen on the back of the camera giving a pseudo-telephoto effect. When such a picture is 'snapped' an interpolation (see above) is performed on these centre pixels to create a 'normal' 1.3 megapixel image of an enlarged subject. Nothing has been gained of course, and you might as well have left the digital zoom alone, and enlarged and resampled the centre of the picture in your computer if you wanted the same effect.
If you are focusing, as in photomicrography, using the LCD screen on the back of the camera, such a screen has a low resolution, normally 240 by 320 pixels, and makes 'guessing' of correct focus difficult. If you digital zoom on the point to focus on, the subjectively greatly enlarged image makes focusing relatively easy. The zoom is switched off again before the picture is taken. The digital zoom adds nothing to the normal digital camera but a selling feature, but does make focusing in photomicrography possible.
Photographic film has undergone research (and development of course) for nearly 150 years. Solid-state image sensors are comparatively recent. The new device is much more subject to 'highlight burnout' where areas receiving too much light just reset to blank white. This does not wreck the sensor, but it does wreck your picture. The Kodak webcam sensor has a very basic auto-exposure that just progressively turns down the sensitivity as the light level rises. The 1.3 Megapixel circuit we use is plainly much more of a hair-trigger device, and reacts intelligently to the inclusion in the picture of small bright areas. Basic beliefs have us wishing we could just turn off auto-exposure, but on balance it probably does more good than harm. On expensive digital cameras, the lens has a power-driven iris aperture control, which can actually reduce the light level reaching the sensor. If you can control the illumination manually, with a lens iris, or by turning the microscope illumination down, you can keep the auto-exposure in a light range where it does no harm.
The Infra-Red menace
The effect of Infra-Red (IR) just outside the visible spectrum has to be looked at in depth. All silicon-based sensors are much more sensitive to IR than they are to visible light. Unless the IR is removed from the incoming light, the picture loses most of its colour, turning into a purplish monochrome. Since the imaging lens is not corrected for IR, and in addition focuses it at a different point, unless the lens is stopped right down, the picture is unsharp as well. Unless you are after black skies, black eyes and white trees the IR must be filtered out.
To totally exclude the IR and leave the visible, normal filters are not adequate. An interference filter is required, in which a thin layer of coating, of a precise refractive index and thickness, is applied to the glass filter blank. Unwanted IR destructively interferes with itself at the coating interface, and visible light passes through. According to the Internet, scientific interference filters start at about 600 US dollars each. Most are made in the US, but Schneider, the formidable European optical maker, has a good range. Reduced-specification IR filters for general photography are unheard-of in Australia but common in the US. These are known as 'hot mirror filters'. The largest Photo dealer in Melbourne was unaware of this product, but it was in the Canon product listing. I ordered in this US-made filter. Surface quality was atrocious, and it cost 90 Australian dollars, but it cut the IR out as required.
An early digital camera made by Kodak actually came with a hot mirror filter, but since that time, because the lens is a fixture, the filter coating was applied to the back element of the camera lens for the cost, at manufacture, of a few cents extra. As soon as the fixed lens is removed, as in our camera, IR sensitivity once more is an issue. Normal microscope illumination systems are awash with IR. You can either put a hot-mirror filter over the light where it passes into the condenser (we have done this successfully) or alternatively fit a ledlyt to the microscope. This provides ideal photographic (and visual) illumination, and there is no IR at all generated by the ledlyt. Saying it again, unless you plan to fit a lens, or lenses, to our microscope camera to use it for technical photography as well, if you have a ledlyt installed, there is no need for a hot mirror filter.
The camera/computer connection
Webcam/computer links are much harder to set up than camera/computer links, since the webcam is passing live video, which has to be displayed on a fairly modern system if you want a picture of reasonable size. USB is now the common connection to both, but all the camera needs to do is send the taken pictures down the wire to the computer. Various interfaces exist. The one we use is pretty common, in which the camera memory emulates an external hard disk. With the manufacturers software installed under Windows 98SE, normal drag-mouse type file extraction operated without trouble, but I had to get crafty when using DOS command-line techniques to download 130 pictures in one hit. The big surprise was running the camera and USB connection under Red Hat Linux 8. No extra software was needed to set it up. The internal Linux USB driver sufficed. Command-line bulk transfer of files was totally bug-free under Linux.


Holosun HE509T-RD X2 Red Dot, 2 MOA Dot, 32 MOA Circle, Black
The Holosun HE509T-RD X2 Red Dot, 2 MOA Dot, 32 MOA Circle, Black is a hard-use, nitrogen-purged enclosed LED sight designed for handgun applications. The HE509T-RD X2features a grade 5 titanium housing, Holosun’s Super LED with up to 50k hour battery life, Multi-Reticle System, Solar Failsafe, and Shake Awake technology.
The X2 version adds improved glass clarity, Lock Mode, and a full Multi-Reticle System providing 2MOA dot only, 32MOA Circle only, or a Circle-Dot combination. HE509T-RD X2 includes an adapter plate for compatibility with rmr-style footprints. HE509T-RD X2 feature 12 intensity settings, two of which are compatible with night vision devices.
- Optical Data
- Reticle: 2 MOA Dot & 32 MOA Circle
- Light Wavelength: 650nm
- Reticle Color: Red
- Parallax Free: Yes
- Unlimited Eye Relief: Yes
- Magnification: 1X
- Multi-Coatings: Yes
- Electronic Data
- Power Source: Solar & Battery
- Battery Type: CR1632
- Battery Life (Hours): 50000
- Brightness Setting: 10 DL & 2 NV
- Physical Data
- Window Size (in): 0.66 x 0.90
- Dimension (in): 1.13 x 1.6 x 1.16
- Weight (oz): 1.72
*Note: 509T models include an adapter plate for RMR footprints. Please be aware that the adapter plate is not compatible with alternative RMR footprints which use threaded bosses such as those from Zev or Brownells.


In infrared thermography measurements, the thermal camera converts the invisible (to the eye) infrared radiation emitted by the object under test into a visible image. The thermal camera is in fact a spectral radiometer that measures the radiant energy emitted and, with appropriate calibration and considerations, can infer the temperature distribution of the surface under investigation. The advantages of thermographic temperature measurement:
b. non-contact and safe (no dangerous radiation, but requires high power external excitation shields for the duration of the flash)
c. results are relatively easy to interpret
d. wide applicability
e. often the only non-contact test device
Thermographic measurements can be divided into two broad categories based on the measurement setup:
a. Passive thermography: the temperature of the materials or structures to be tested differs naturally, "by itself", from the temperature of the environment
b. Active thermography: an external excitation is required to induce the relevant temperature contrast, which can be in a reflection or transmission configuration
Potential areas of application:
1. Industrial and electrical equipment diagnostics
2. Detection of hidden material defects
3. Building thermography
4. Leak detection
5. Machine vision
Main research areas:
1. Pre-processing of thermal images, image sequences: smoothing, filtering and further processing.
2. Quantitative evaluation of thermal images: set-up and numerical solution of inverse thermal models to determine certain material properties (e.g. thermal conductivity, heat capacity, etc.).
3. Thermal imaging of semitransparent materials: e.g. study of the flow pattern of gases emitted in the detection range of the detector
Pécsi Tudományegyetem | Kancellária | Informatikai és Innovációs Igazgatóság 2021.


What Is PERC Technology?
PERC technology to put pressure on traditional solar cells in supply chain
Strong global demand for higher-efficiency modules is driving the growth of PERC technology, like HJT and IBC that are expected to gain market share from 2017 onwards. PERC will become a mainstream technology by 2020, as it occupies the leading position among the competing new technologies. It is being increasingly adopted by top cell manufacturers upgrading part of their existing in-cell lines into PERC or booking orders for new PERC lines.
What are PERC solar cells?
PERC can stand for either Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell or Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact. At its core, a PERC solar cell is simply a more efficient solar cell, meaning that solar panels built with PERC cells can convert sunlight into usable electricity more easily. Solar Panels Brisbane made from PERC solar cells typically perform better than traditional panels in both low-light conditions and high temperatures. PERC technology boosts efficiency through the addition of a layer to the back of a traditional solar cell, which provides several benefits to the cell’s production.
How are PERC solar cells different from standard solar cells?
A PERC solar cell is not much different in construction from a typical photovoltaic solar cell. Both types of solar technology use silicon wafers to generate a flow of electrons using incoming solar radiation, and the overall construction of the cell types is very similar. The main difference between PERC cells and typical monocrystalline photovoltaic cells is the integration of a back surface passivation layer, which is a layer of material on the back of the cells that provides three main benefits that boost cell efficiency.
How does a back surface passivation layer lead to gains in solar cell efficiency? Here are the three ways the passivation layer in a PERC solar cell increases overall efficiency:
1. Reflection of light back through the cell
A back surface passivation layer reflects light that passes through the silicon cell without being absorbed back into the silicon, giving the solar cell a second absorption attempt. This reflection of light means that more incoming solar radiation will end up being absorbed by the silicon cell, thus the cell becomes more efficient.
2. Reduced electron recombination
The addition of a back surface passivation layer reduces “electron recombination” in the solar cell. Simply put, electron recombination is the tendency of electrons to recombine, which causes a blockage in the free movement of electrons through the solar cell. This inhibition of free electron movement leads to less-than-optimal cell efficiencies. In a PERC solar cell, electron recombination is reduced in order to bump up efficiency.
3. Reduced heat absorption
The third benefit from a PERC solar cell is the reflection of certain wavelengths of light. A silicon wafer in a solar cell can only absorb light in wavelengths up to 1180 nanometers (nm), and higher-wavelength light waves pass through the silicon and are absorbed by the solar panel’s metal back sheet, creating heat. When solar cells are heated, they operate at lower efficiencies. The back surface passivation layer in PERC solar cells is specially designed to reflect light with a wavelength above 1180 nm, reducing the heat energy in the solar cell and consequently increasing efficiency.
PERC solar cell manufacturing
One of the biggest reasons why PERC technology can be so powerful is the minimal investment it takes to begin manufacturing PERC solar cells instead of standard monocrystalline solar cells. In order to produce a PERC cell,
There are two additional manufacturing steps needed:
– Application of the back surface passivation layer
– Laser/chemical etching to open small pockets in the passivation layer
These two steps don’t add significant costs to the solar cell manufacturing process and result in a higher quality, more energy-dense solar cell. A classic barrier to new solar cell technology is the cost of new equipment production, and PERC solar cells require very little monetary investment to upgrade to a better product.
Benefits of PERC technology for solar shoppers
Solar panels built with PERC technology allow for more energy-dense solar installations. This means that you can generate the same amount of energy using fewer PERC solar panels than they would with more standard solar panels. Consequently, by needing fewer solar panels for your installation, your costs can be reduced. Additionally, the fewer panels you need, the more flexibility you have on your roof to position your panels. If suitable roof space is limited, using PERC solar panels or any high-efficiency panel product can make a solar installation capable of the power you need a reality.
Reducing the number of solar panels you need has the added benefit of bringing down the balance-of-system (BOS) costs for your solar panel installation. BOS costs are generally any costs involved in solar installation components that are not the solar modules themselves. Inverters, racking and wiring all factor into your BOS costs, and the fewer panels you need, the fewer complementary components you’ll need as well.


The experimental facility consists systems for studying flames and laser diagnostic setup. The lab is equipped with a high pressure compressor (45 bar), 1 m3 air receiver, air-dryer with flow lines for delivery to the setups in the lab. Fuel supply from a cylinder bay is also available. Flow control is achieved uing Alicat mass flow controllers (MFC) of various ranges. A high capacity exhaust system is also in place for handling of product gases from combustion experiments.
The laser diagnostic capabilities include a Q-smart NdYAG pump laser and a Sirah dye laser, with the accessories like energy monitor and collimator attached in line, to measure the output energy and to create a laser light sheet respectively. The PIV laser is a 200 mJ double cavity pulsed Nd:YAG laser of 532 nm output wavelength. The laser is synchronised using a LaVision PTU X. Fluorescence imaging is carried out using a CCD camera (Imager SX 6M) for intensifying the photon count. Image acquistion and processing is done through Davis 8.0. In addition an Andor 750 mm focal length spectrograph is also available for carrying out spectroscopic studies. A Hamamatsu PMT is employed to record image instensity. A He-Ne laser and Si Photodetectors are being procured for line-of-sight measurements. Optics like mirror, filters and optomechanical components like posts, lens holders etc are available.
The following techniques can be conducted with the existing equipment
- Particle Image Velocimetry
- Planar Laser Induced Fluorescence
- Laser Induced Incandescence
- Extinction measurements
A counterflow diffusion flame burner has been designed and fabricated with a contoured nozzle. The burner can generate a wide range of flames of different strain rates with varied fuels.


A linear CCD array is a simple device that takes a photograph of a moving object. Its design makes it ideal for outdoor use. The array's large-sized pixels are easy to store, and the CCDs have good dynamic range, meaning that it can capture many images in one second. As each photon passes through the system, it produces a charge that emitted by the object. The photon-induced charge is accumulated in the depletion region, which causes it to shift horizontally towards the camera's image sensor.
The smallest CCD in a linear CCD array has a 100-mA maximum output current. This allows it to be used in low-light conditions, but the smallest CCDs are only capable of detecting a few milliseconds of exposure, so they are inconvenient for nighttime observations. The best linear CCD detectors have a wide dynamic range and a linear pixel pitch of at least 20 mm.
A linear CCD array consists of a row of image sensor elements. Light is passed through the photosites and causes them to acquire a charge proportional to the illumination. The photosites then transfer these charge packets to an analog shift register (ASR) and charge detector. At the same time, another exposure is taking place. This process is repeated several times until the correct exposure has been achieved. However, there are some drawbacks to a CCD with this design.
A linear CCD array is an expensive investment, so it's important to find a detector that's right for your needs. The LARRY USB3648+ offers cost-effective performance and is compatible with most spectrographs. The LARRY series uses proven Ocean Optics electronics and software, so it's compatible with the spectrograph you're using. A standard PC connection is required, but if you need to integrate the LARRY USB3648+, you can opt to use GPIO communication.
The LARRY series is an example of an efficient linear CCD array. Its built-in electronic shutters can reduce integration time by as much as one microsecond. This makes the LARRY series particularly suitable for a wide range of applications. These cameras offer high-resolution images. A linear CCD array is often used in photography and other applications, but it is not an ideal choice for every application.
A linear CCD array consists of a row of image sensor elements. Each element has a charge detector. The light from the object illuminates a photosite. The charge from the photosite is transferred to an analog shift register. The digital signal from the charge detector is converted into a string of photo-dependent output voltage levels. The image is then stored in the memory of the sensor and stored. When the pixel receives an exposure, the entire system continues to acquire a charge.
The MLX90640 SparkFun IR Array Breakout is a low resolution thermal imaging camera with a 32x24 thermopile array. It is capable of detecting temperatures with accuracy +1.5 degC from up to a few feet away. The device communicates with the host platform through I2C. The pins are 0.1" apart, which makes for an easy connection.
The IR Array Breakout has a field of view of 55degx35deg. Its temperature measurement range is -40 degC to 300degC. The sensor's I2C bus is attached to pull up resistors, which make it easy to connect to a host platform. However, the IR Array requires complex calculations from the host platform, and a regular Arduino Uno doesn't have enough RAM to process these calculations. The Teensy 3.1 is recommended for this project.
The IR Array Breakout is compatible with the MLX90640 IR Detector. The MLX90640 has a 55degx35deg field of view, and a temperature measurement range of -40degC to 300degC. The MLX90640 IR Array Breakout's pull-up resistors are attached to the I2C bus. Due to the complexity of these calculations, the host platform must have sufficient RAM and flash to process these measurements.
The MLX90640 IR Array Breakout is compatible with a wide range of temperature measurement. The temperature measurement range is -40degC to 300degC. The pull-up resistors are connected to the I2C bus. Because of its high number of sensors, the host platform must carry out complex calculations. The SparkFun Uno doesn't have the necessary RAM or flash to perform the calculations.
The MLX90640 IR Array Breakout has a 55degx35deg field of view and a temperature measurement range of -40degC to 300degC. The MLX90640 IR Detector requires a microcontroller with 20,000 bytes of RAM. A Teensy 3.1 is recommended. For the most accurate results, the MLX90640 IR Detection Array is a programmable servo with a large memory.
IR Arrays are very useful for detecting temperature ranges. The MLX90640 IR Array has a field of view of 35degx35deg. It is also useful for detecting the presence of a person or an object. For this purpose, the MLX90640 IR Detection Array is an ideal choice for beginners. The MLX90640 IR Breakout is also suitable for people with limited computing power.


In China, the Xiaomi 12 series will be unveiled later today. However, the rumor mill has continued to churn out last-minute disclosures. The initial product mockups, which are based on phone shells, show the Xiaomi 12 Ultra from various angles.
Also Read: Xiaomi 11T Price in Pakistan
Before the CAD renders, the TPU case for the Xiaomi 12 Ultra had been making the rounds on Twitter, courtesy of the European publication LetsGoDigital. The premium phone is available in classic white and black.
We’re looking at a curved display, a ceramic casing, and a metal chassis. The camera housing, however, is the most noticeable component of its design. Every year, the cameras on Xiaomi flagships appear to become more complicated and advanced. And the Xiaomi 12 Ultra’s design is the most detailed yet.
The lens cluster’s massive ring housing sits atop a raised rectangle platform that protrudes a bit from the backplate, adding to the Xiaomi 5G new model’s overall thickness. The Xiaomi 12 Ultra cameras were co-engineered by Xiaomi and Leica, a renowned optics company. In these photographs, the ‘Leica’ branding is also stamped directly close to the camera ring.
Don’t Miss: Best Xiaomi Mobiles In Pakistan
Two periscope-style (count them, two!) zoom lenses, a wide-angle camera in the middle, and an ultra-wide-angle lens to finish out the configuration can all be seen. The camera array is flanked by a couple of unidentified sensors and an LED flash.
The front camera, which is not visible, is another standout. LetsGoDigital claims that the Xiaomi 12 Ultra has a 20MP front camera buried beneath the screen. This is far from confirmed.


Environmental Energies installed an 11kW solar PV system at Oundle School Sports Hall.
Environmental Energies installed a 50kW solar PV system at Leigh Academy in July 2020.
Environmental Energies installed an 64kW solar PV system at IPG Photonics’ (the US fibre laser manufacturer) new UK headquarters, manufacturing and research facility at Ansty Park, Coventry.
Environmental Energies installed a 60 panel solar PV system on a the Hugh Aston Building at DeMontfort University in Leicester.
nvironmental Energies installed an 19kW solar PV system at Hethersett Primary School in Norfolk.
Environmental Energies installed an 8kW solar PV system at 18-20 Hanover Square, London.


The situation is different when it comes to a spring-powered airgun rifle. Leapers: UTG. The parallax-free, generous, sight picture and forgiving eye-box help hunters to target easily also in high-stress circumstances. Let me tell you how to use a Prism Scope with your arms. They are fixed and often range from 1 times to sometimes 6 times with some expensive ones. The design of the scope allows for a compact optical system without damaging the optical quality. FREE SF Scope Upgrade With Any Rifle Comination or Pro Combination While Stock Lasts! Also, I have selected six scopes that I believe deserve the title of the best air gun scope. Ideas for turning a bedroom into a dining room, Tips For Small Living Room with Dining Room. A prism scope (sometimes also referred to as a prismatic scope) is a scope that uses a glass prism to focus an image as opposed to traditional rifle scopes which use a series of lenses. Though the telescope was famously invented by Galileo way back in 1608, it was many years before optical technology was fitted to rifles. PAO® – Professional Airgun Optics design and manufacture a comprehensive range of hunting, target and tactical air rifle scopes for airguns from entry level fixed-focus 25mm (1”) tubed 4 x 40 budget models through to category-beating 30mm bodied SWAT air rifle scopes, with objective lenses up to 56mm and magnification up to 24 x, which include 100mm sidewheels, mounts, lens covers, … The illumination has different intensity levels too. I love creativity and write reviews about the best products to assist the people who love to purchase products with happiness. This adjustment allows people with astigmatism to use with 1-times magnification instead of using traditional Red Dot sights like Reflex sights or Holographic sights. The distinctive Ballistic reticle which is adjustable to match any lighting condition. Like its (slightly) larger 12×50 sibling, the all-new 10×30 SWAT Prismatic is a little scope featuring some big differences. If you searching to evaluate Aim Sports Prismatic Series 3x36 Rifle Scope Review And Air Rifles Scopes Uk price. Along with good magnification, a high quality Prism Scope gives you both etched reticle and illuminated reticle system. A prism scope has a shorter eye relief that a red dot sight. But they hardly realize that it’s not possible. get reduced4x32 Prismatic Rifle Scope And Air Rifle Ir Scope On Sale . It also can easily be mounted on an AR carry handle. However, a budget Prism Scope can prove as a worthy competitor to its similar Reflex or Holo counterpart that may come at twice or thrice in cost. I am Kathy Martin, Founder of TopCareLab.com. click on image to enlarge. The prism scope is fog proof, waterproof, and nitrogen purged. Shooting Grounds Shooting Range Airsoft Sites Air Rifle Ranges Training ... are both well served by the SWAT Prismatic configuration, and whilst there are many cheaper alternatives out there, few can offer the handling and radical feel of the mighty Atom! Rifle scope; 4x magnification; 32mm objective lens; 34mm tube; 1/4 MOA (1/4" click value @ 100 yds) Etched-glass mil-dot reticle; Prismatic refraction technology for increased light transmission and clarity in a compact and maneuverable size We aim to help you achieve just that by offering a wide variety of top-rated rifle scopes. MTC SWAT Prismatic 12x50 Rifle Scope. General features of Air rifle scopes. MTC Optics SWAT Prismatic 10x30 ATOM Rifle Scope. We have all the AR-15 scope parts accessories, iron sights you need on sale. It uses a glass prism optical system rather traditional scopes, which ensure top optical quality. But people hardly know about them as they are not that common among professionals. Seems pretty easy to install and use, right? Monstrum Tactical offers two body styles in Black and FDE with 1x, 2x, 3x, & 5x magnification. Sig Sauer understands how important each shot you take is, and Sig Sauer Riflescopes offer unwavering accuracy so every shot you take counts. Best telescopic tactical rifle scopes for air rifles, hunting, tactical Leapers UTG PAO Nikko Stirling Hawke Vortex Optisan SWFA SS Valiant Night vision ATN Nitesite Britannia rails picatinny adapters My Review: Vortex Optics never disappoints any … But first below is a comparison chart showing how different scopes compare. The Prism Sight will be equipped with diopter adjustment. If you own one of that rifle, try out this scope. Amazon.com : Sniper 4x32 Prismatic Glass Crosshair Reticle Scope w/ Fiber Optic Sight : Rifle Scopes : Sports & Outdoors I use glasses on a daily basis so when I’m using Red Dot sights, I face obtrusive reflection. Top 5 Best Prism Scopes in 2020 | Reviews & Guide, Fully multi-coated and prism-based design, Made of 6061 aluminum in a black matte finish, Awesome target achievement from 30 feet to 150 yards, Features 12 different brightness settings, Select from green or red with 5 separate flash settings, Waterproof performanceIntegrated lens cover, Gives 12 adjustable illumination settings, Compact, heavy duty, and lightweight prism scope, The reticle is visible with or without lighting, Features 3x magnification and a 30mm objective lens, Click to share on Twitter (Opens in new window), Click to share on Facebook (Opens in new window), Click to share on LinkedIn (Opens in new window), Click to share on Pinterest (Opens in new window), How to Clean Your Dishwasher – You Should Know, 4 Important Ideas to Decorate Dining Table, 10 Best Cheap Gaming Desk Under $100 of 2021, Top 7 Best Executive Office Chairs in 2020 | Review, Top 10 Best Desk Pad in 2020 | Reviews & Guide, The Benefits of Keeping Your Desk Clean and Tidy, Top 12 Best Handlebar Bags in 2020 – Reviews & Guide. This waterproof and fog proof hunting scope give fixed magnification between 1x and 5x. As for using it, it’s like using a binocular. The Nikon ProStaff 3-9x40mm Target EFR rifle scope is a highly accurate, fast-targeting scope that provides a user with the fast-focusing capabilities of a short range sight and the versatility of a variable zoom scope. So, Prism Scope is a kind of Red Dot Sight and that’s why the proper comparison will be Reflex sight vs Prism Scope or Holographic Sight vs Prism Scope, even though Holographic Sight and Prism Scope is no match to one another as holographic sight with magnifier is hardly a thing. Open or iron-sights have been known to be challenging, even for the most experienced of shooters but with Air Riflescopes & Accessories you can almost guarantee hitting your target. If you have carefully read the whole thing, I can assure you that you’re coming home with the Prism Scope from the market, even if you are overwhelmed with several eye-candy choices. It has a magnification of 3x, so you can see targets much closer. A prism scope with magnification has the same parallax issues as magnified rifle scopes. The compact size and lower magnification range makes them well suited for AR-15’s and similar tactical rifles. It is waterproof, fog proof, compact and comes with a unique Ballistic / Close Quarters reticle. Compact and outstanding design with a high-quality metal finish. Instead, Red Dot is a common term used to describe Firearm sights in general, which uses a Red Dot. Also gives super-fast functionality and awesome optical quality. Vortex Optics Strike EaglePrice Range: Under $400. While holographic sight and reflex sights are power hungry when they are being used, Prism sight work on a light diet so that you don’t have to replace the battery very often. Prism scopes are usually more compact and limited to the lower range magnifications between 1X and 5X. It works even if they’re hundreds of yards away. This allows for a more compact design while still allowing for many of the same benefits such as a magnified image, an etched reticle, reticle illumination, and a focusing eyepiece. Cheap Riflescopes, Buy Quality Sports & Entertainment Directly from China Suppliers:Vector Optics Calypos 3x32 Prismatic Rifle Scope IPX6 Water Proof BDC Reticle CQB Riflescope AR15 M4 Close Middle Range Shooting Enjoy Free Shipping Worldwide! The Length of the scope is 320mm. Besides, they are compact in size, unlike open Reflex and Holo sights. 99 tactical precision prismatic Precise, compact, high-performance CQB optic that's AR-ready but versatile enough to use on any type of rifle. MTC produce a range of top quality optics to ensure you have the correct Rifle Scope no matter what your shooting needs are. 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Hang on to your budgets and pixel-calculators, everyone. At the Photokina trade show in Cologne, Germany this September, Hasselblad introduced two new medium format digital cameras, the H3DII-39 (pricing estimates are around $22,000, street) and the H3DII50 (priced around $28,000, street). These cameras were mentioned in the a previous Photokina Report, but to summarize: the Hasselblad H3DII-50 will be the first camera in the market equipped with Kodak’s larger-than-35mm 50 megapixel CCD sensor. As if a 50MP sensor is not impressive enough on its own, Hasselblad also announced that it hopes to raise the bar again in 2009 with the H3DII-60, a 60 megapixel version with a price-tag of about $35,500 (I guess there’s a shortage of 60MP sensors due to the high demand from government spy satellites!!)
For more analysis on the Hasselblad H3DII50 features, listen to the October 18, 2008 McNamara Report segment on Inside Digital Photo (slide to the 22min 30sec mark for that segment);
So the megapixel wars continue, albeit for the few who can afford it, want a medium format system, or are locked into Hasselblad by a sizable investment in its glass. But if you’re looking to move up the megapixel chain from your advanced amateur or pro DSLR and wow! your clients with an uber-camera, is a Medium Format system the best choice? Hasselblad claims it is, but I disagree with some of the arguments I’ve heard. For example: During the Photokina press conference, Hasselblad CEO Christian Poulsen contended that 35mm-based digital SLR companies won’t be able to compete with medium format because their lenses can’t handle the resolution of super-high res sensors. According to a quote in Photo District News by Dan Havlick, Poulsen said “In my opinion, for those cameras, the pixel game should’ve been over a few years ago. I don’t think you can tell the difference between a 16-megapixel camera and a 21 or 24-megapixel camera and that has nothing to do with the sensor, it has to do with the resolution of the lenses.”
Is he kidding? I haven’t heard a CEO of a major company make such an erroneous claim since the launch of the Foveon X3 sensor. Facts don’t support Poulsen’s statement about the superiority of medium format lenses over 35mm lenses, and my fairly-recent test experience while at Popular Photography magazine refutes his claim about being able to tell the difference between a 16MP and 21 or 24MP camera. Fact: Lab tests using a fairly inexpensive Canon EF 50mm f/1.4 lens showed a 10+ percent increase in resolution delivered by the new Canon EOS 1Ds Mark III over the older 16.7MP Canon EOS 1DS Mark II (tested at approx. 2800 lines vs 2500 lines respectively).
Why would a company that makes a few thousand lenses a year for its Medium Format systems believe that it had better lens technology than companies typically selling millions of lenses per year? (and collectively spending 100 times more in lens R&D per year?) The fact is that until recently Hasselblad and the other remaining MF companies did little to optimize their lenses for use with digital sensors. Instead, these companies relied on the MF size/magnification advantage that propelled them through the film camera years, and not superior lens technology. Back in 1995 Popular Photography magazine reported that MF lenses (even the best available at the time) were not as sharp as the top lenses being manufactured by 35mm SLR companies such as Canon, Nikon, Olympus, Konica Minolta, and Pentax. Despite this finding, those MF lenses still helped MF cameras deliver better image quality and detail. Why? When enlarging the captured film image to print or even projection size, the larger-sized film used in MF cameras did not have to undergo as great a magnification as 35mm film, and therefore could get by with slightly lower resolution at the lens.
Assuming the same brand, ISO, and film type, the film being used in both 35mm and MF cameras came off the same production line, was cut to different sizes, and therefore had the same potential resolving power. If a MF manufacturer made sharper lenses the advantage would have been even greater–but the cost of doing so apparently outweighed the visible advantages, and MF lenses were already several times more expensive than 35mm equivalents due to their larger size and shorter production runs. Meanwhile, for several decades, 35mm manufacturers have been spending millions per year trying to create lighter, more affordable lenses with improved brightness, sharpness, flare reduction, light falloff, autofocus engines, and image stabilization systems. Their goal? Sell millions more lenses per year along with millions of SLRs and DSLRs, more than enough to offset lens R&D spending. (Little know factoid: roughly 12,000 medium format cameras were sold per year in US during their peak in the mid-to-late 90’s, which may be one reason why several MF manufacturers are no longer around.)
Are these expensive Hasselblad lenses really sharper than their 35mm counterparts?
CCD and eventually CMOS sensors started showing up with a whole new set of problems for the 35mm lens and camera manufacturers. Unlike film, which can capture a ray of light coming in at extreme off-axis angles, CCDs and CMOS sensors have less sensitivity to off axis light rays and more sensitivity to flare, soft focus, and light falloff. To compensate, sensor designers added micro-lenses on top of each pixel to help steer the light into the sensor (imagine trying to throw a basketball into a well from twenty feet away. It would sure help if there was a large funnel on top of the well to help guide the ball in.) Meanwhile, in order to keep up with the megapixel sensor growth, 35mm lens designers had to improve the edge-to-edge performance, reduce chromatic aberration and internal reflections, and fine tune the AF precision (among other things) of their lenses. As a result, digitally optimized lenses have been available from most 35mm manufacturers for the last 5 years. However, when the first Hasselblad H1D was released sporting a Kodak 16MP sensor in its digital back, there were no digitally-optimized Hasselblad lenses available. Instead, the smaller format of the sensor relied on the sweet spot of existing lenses to provide extremely high (and beyond satisfactory) image quality.
The question anyone who is considering either the new 50MP or promised 60MP Hasselblad should be asking is whether the Hasselblad lenses they already own, or may purchase in the future, are optimized for the size and design of these new Kodak sensors. As in the film days, the resolution of the sensor isn’t the advantage point, but it’s larger format is. The size of the pixels in the 50MP Kodak sensor used in the H3DII are nearly the same as the size of the pixels in the Full Frame 21.1MP Canon EOS 1Ds Mark III or in the 24Mp Sony A900–so the Kodak sensor does not offer dramatic improvements in resolution (at the sensor), low light sensitivity or noise advantage based on the pixel size (as it generally the case when comparing large and small pixels). What you gain by shooting with a 50MP or 60MP medium format camera is either a cropping advantage, or an increase in maximum reproduction size–the same advantages offered by MF cameras in the film era. (Now, if you were able to pack 50MP into a 35mm full frame sensor, you would increase the resolution significantly compared to a 21MP sensor, but you would also decrease low light sensitivity as a result of using smaller pixels.)
Granted, looking through the enormous optical viewfinder on the Hasselblad is a real treat, and carrying one around is a traffic stopper, but is the higher price for these medium format bodies and the larger, more expensive lenses it requires worth it when compared to existing 21 and 25MP full frame DSLRs from Canon, Sony, and eventually Nikon? Not for me, or most other pro photographers who would rather have lighter, brighter, faster focusing, and image-stabilized lenses along with pro camera bodies that offer far more image quality and performance controls, greater durability, and speed compared to the Hasselblads or any other MF camera (although the new 37.5MP Leica S2 may help change my mind). Forget about shooting sports with this Hasselblad (unless you do the team photo) as it has a non-existent burst mode, or taking it outside in a light rain. And if your goal is to WOW! new clients with extraordinary image detail, you’ll be in line with the other photographers shooting with the Canon EOS 1Ds Mark III. Given all the above, you have to wonder how long Hasselblad will be able to compete against the full frame 35mm DSLR crowd, and if it will sell enough of the new H3D models to justify further developments. видео пытки казни изнасилования
Burst mode? WHAT burst mode? It takes 1.2 sec to store each 50MP image.


Night Scope Binoculars (See in Dark with Night Beam Vision)
Regular priceRs. 420.00
Get your spy mode on with these night scope binoculars that allow you to look far and wide, even in minimal light. With a range of 25 feet, the binoculars are equipped with green tinted lenses for surveillance, accompanied with night beam visions.
Age: 3 years and above
Contents: 1 binocular
The color of the final product may vary, the one available will be shipped to you.
Free Shipping is not applicable on this product. An additional shipping cost will be added to the product on the checkout page.


CariVu Detection Camera
CariVu Detection Camera is a detection device that uses patented trans-illumination technology to support the identification of cracks and tooth decay.
By hugging the tooth and bathing it in safe, near-infrared light the CariVu makes the enamel appear transparent while porous lesions trap and absorb the light. This unique caries detector allows the clinician to see through the tooth exposing its structure and the actual structure of any carious lesions with very high accuracy.
The CariVu uses non-ionizing radiation which is ideal for children, pregnant women and patients who are X-ray averse.


Brightness : 35 Lumens (maximum) Flood beam: LED x 4 Powerful headlamp, 3 lighting levels, Boost mode
A single light source that addresses multiple lighting needs
- 3 lighting levels : maximum, optimum, economic,
- flood beam for sharp, proximity lighting (Wide Angle lens),
- spot beam shines up to 35 meters,
- Boost mode : shines 50 meters for 20 seconds.
Compact and lightweight
- single compartment for LED and batteries
- less than 100 g including batteries.
Battery level indicator light
- warns when the batteries are 70% and 90 % discharged.
- Water resistant for all-weather use.
- Wide Angle Lens made of impact resistant polycarbonate.
- Strobe mode. Operates on 3 AAA/LR03 batteries (included).
- Weight : 95 g including batteries.
- 3-year guarantee.


PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
The photovoltaic glass produced by the company is based on the Chinese market and is sold globally. The company's main customers include well-known domestic companies such as Longi, JA, Trina Solar, GCL, Canadian Solar, etc. The products are exported to Japan, South Korea, India, Europe and other countries and regions.
The ultra-white rolled photovoltaic glass for solar photovoltaic modules is a kind of low-iron glass with ultra-white cloth pattern (textile) embossed on the glass surface. The light transmittance after tempering and coating can reach more than 93.7%. Mainly used in solar cell module packaging, it is an indispensable part of solar photovoltaic modules.
To be applied to solar cell module packaging, it is an indispensable and important part of solar photovoltaic modules.


Uploaded by Fred Grey for Lighting Fixtures at Thursday, November 16 2017 23:09:04
The more transparent the lighting fixture is, the higher efficacy. Shading the light will normally decrease efficiency but increase the directionality and the visual comfort probability.
The PH-lamps are a series of light fixtures designed by Danish designer and writer Poul Henningsen from 1926 onwards. The lamp is designed with multiple concentric shades to eliminate visual glare, only emitting reflected light, obscuring the light source.
Architectural lighting design focuses on three fundamental aspects of the illumination of buildings or spaces. The first is the aesthetic appeal of a building, an aspect particularly important in the illumination of retail environments. Secondly, the ergonomic aspect: the measure of how much of a function the lighting plays. Thirdly is the energy efficiency issue to ensure that light is not wasted by over-illumination, either by illuminating vacant spaces unnecessarily or by providing more light than needed for the aesthetics or the task.
Lighting fixtures come in a wide variety of styles for various functions. The most important functions are as a holder for the light source, to provide directed light and to avoid visual glare. Some are very plain and functional, while some are pieces of art in themselves. Nearly any material can be used, so long as it can tolerate the excess heat and is in keeping with safety codes.


Forceflex technology incorporates a patented, multi-injection molding of the lens with a flexible Thermo Plastic Urethane (TPU) frame. Due to this construction, it can achieve a military ballistic level impact resistance at over 1000 feet per second. The TPU material allows the frame to flex and
fit individual faces from large to small.
- Material: Thermo Plastic Urethane (TPU)
- Color: Black
- Normal Production Time: 10 business day(s)
- Price Includes:one-color, one-position imprint.
- Set Up Charges:$38