Various laser machines,they are one of the most important types of modern operating machines:
–They are the most important modern machines equipped with accurate and high technology, to focus laser beams with high energy on different types of materials and cutting, drilling, printing, welding or forming parts from scratch, such as three-dimensional printers, all according to the application used and are controlled using computers on the design programs, There are differences between the types of laser machines and for this you must define the goals of their use so that you can choose the appropriate capabilities for you according to the types of materials that you work with and according to the need and application to be used.
-Various laser machines use laser beam technology and are used in industrial applications, but when it began to spread it was in small industries.
-Laser machines provide you with an unlimited number of uses that can be worked in various industries, as well as in types of industries, whether small or medium and very important in large industries, and these machines are always the first in many fields.
– The types of laser machines allow you to create many uses through control programs between the computer and machines that are easy to operate with. For example, you can create automatic designs from design programs on the computer, which are sent directly from the computer as soon as they are sent to the machine to execute the order on the materials.
-In the year 1965 the first laser diamond drilling machine was produced. This machine was manufactured by the Western Electric Engineering and Research Center and in 1970 the technology developed and expanded the use of the laser to include metals such as titanium for aircraft manufacturing.
-The production of a laser beam is accomplished by stimulating a specific material using electrical discharge. During laser stimulation, the laser beam is reflected internally by means of a partial mirror until it reaches a certain degree of energy to come out as a coherent monochromatic light beam.
usage of laser in machines:
First , laser cutting machines: the laser works by directing the laser beam through lenses and focusing the beam on the working surface, which in turn melts, evaporates, or burns, leaving the working surface clean and the final surface is very good.
Advantages of using the laser cutting machine:
The laser cutting machine has fast cutting properties and good cutting quality. They can be summarized as follows:
1) Fast cutting speed.
2) The quality and surface finish of the parts are high.
3) High cutting efficiency.
4) Environmental protection without pollution
5) Compared with the traditional method of feeding, the laser cutting machine can achieve material saving by using nesting at reasonable temperature. It can also increase production efficiency and reduce costs.
Second laser welding machines:
Laser welding or laser beam welding (LBW) is a technique of welding several metal parts using a laser. Laser welding (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) is perhaps the latest addition to the growing family of welding processes. As the laser beam: directional, strong, monochromatic (of one wavelength) and coherent, all waves are in phase. Such a beam can be focused on a very small spot, which gives a very high energy density and provides the laser beam a focused heat source with a precise area and accurate depth, and this leads to the metal melting its elements in the desired area, which has a focus from the laser beam and thus this molten area begins to fuse With the other part of the metal to be welded
Some of the different types of machines that mainly use lasers:
- Laser machine for engraving on glass, wood or metal.
- Laser machines to cover metal surfaces in order to protect from damage|cladding|.
- Laser machines,3D printers to produce various metal and non-metallic solids.
- Laser devices to perform tests and analysis for patients with leukemia and treatment of many cases of them|cytophone|.
- Medical laser devices to perform some different operations of the eye, retinal problems, and myopia.
- Laser engraving and cutting machines.
- Laser machines to make seals on various metal materials.
Nozzles are used in all machines that use laser and these nozzles are made of:
1- Copper, which is one of the most common materials.
3- Stainless steel.
-In conclusion, the use of laser machines in industry is a way to ensure product quality, reduce | labor intensity and labor cost | and improve the working environment necessary for modern production. Laser machines play an important role in this.
-The results showed that most errors in laser machines are closely related to the operating order and operational environment of the high-power laser cutting machine. As high temperature can lead to moisture in the laser. In order to prevent this situation from occurring and reduce the time of equipment failure, 1-The temperature of the place in which the machine is located must be maintained and that is by maintaining the safety and temperature of the Freon chalking and this is the laser tube, 2-The stability and stability of the machine must be maintained in its place and not Move it permanently, 3- Do not overload to work on it until this does not lead to overheating of the laser tube and thus damage it, 4-Clean the machine from dust, impurities and plankton.
In order to find out more about the distinctive cubii automatic machine for filling and sealing packages, please watch this video.


(HealthNewsDigest.com) – While there is no cure for blindness and macular degeneration, scientists have accelerated the process to find a cure by visualizing the inner workings of the eye and its diseases at the cellular level.
In an effort led by UW Medicine, researchers successfully modified the standard process of optical coherence tomography (OCT) to detect minute changes in response to light in individual photoreceptors in the living eye.
The results were published Sept. 9 in Science Advances.
“We have now accelerated the life cycle of vision restoration,” said lead author Vimal Prabhu Pandiyan, a ophthalmology researcher at the University of Washington School of Medicine.
The study was funded in part by the National Eye Institute’s Audacious Goals Initiative, which embraces bold ideas in helping people to see better.
The OCT modifications outlined in the study will help researchers who want to test therapies such as stem cells or gene therapy to treat retinal disease. They now have the tools to zoom in on the retina to evaluate whether the therapy is working.
Corresponding author Ramkumar Sabesan, a UW assistant research professor of ophthalmology, said the only way to objectively measure the eye currently is to look at a wide retinal area. Sabesan said researchers currently can attach electrodes on the cornea but it captures a large area with around 1 million cells. Now they are talking about nanometers, or one billionth of a meter – a small fraction of the size of a cell, providing orders of magnitude improvement.
“Since photoreceptors are the primary cells affected in retinal generation and the target cells of many treatments, noninvasive visualization of their physiology at high resolution is invaluable,” the researchers wrote.
Cone photoreceptors are the building blocks of sight, capturing light and funneling information to the other retinal neurons. They are a key ingredient in how we process images and patterns of light falling on the retina.
Optical coherence tomography has been around since the 1990s. In this study, researchers used OCT with adaptive optics, line-scanning and phase-resolved acquisition to deliver the concept of Thomas Young’s interference to the human eye. With the ability to zoom in on the retina at high speeds, they found that cone photoreceptors deform at the scale of nanometers when they first capture light and begin the process of seeing.
As Sabesan explained: “You can imagine a picture that looks visually and structurally normal. But when we interrogate the inner working of the retina at a cellular scale, we may detect a dysfunction sooner than what other modalities can do. A doctor then can prescribe medication to intervene early or follow the time-course of its repair via gene therapy or stem cell therapy in the future.”
“We will now have a way to see if these therapies are acting in the way they should,” Sabesan said.
The study also involved researchers at Stanford University, University of California, Berkeley, and University of California, Riverside.
The study was funded by NIH grants U01EY025501, EY027941, EY029710, EY025501, and P30EY001730; Research to Prevent Blindness Career Development Award; Foundation Fighting Blindness; Murdock Charitable Trust; Burroughs Welcome Fund Careers at the Scientific Interfaces; and Unrestricted grant from the Research to Prevent Blindness.


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Camera Speed Reference
CAMERA SPEED REFERENCE is a sophisticated, yet rugged instrument, that has been designed as bench tool in Camera Service Shops, Rental Houses or as a tool during shooting, every time a precise speed reference is required to check the camera frame rate, either crystal controlled or not.
It delivers exact crystal controlled speed of 24 or 25 fps, switch selectable.
48, 96, 50 and 100 fps can checked too, by selecting multiple higher speeds.
Camera speed can be checked through the viewfinder, if the camera is reflex, or directly through the gate looking at CAMERA SPEED REFERENCE.
Due to stroboscopic effect, the LEDs will be stationary if camera speed is correct, according to frame rate selected on the instrument.
CW or CCW apparent movement of the LEDs will denote a camera that is not correctly adjusted.
Camera Speed Reference info
Camera Speed Reference_instructions


Sony Xperia 1 II Can Shoot Bursts at a Frame Rate of 20 fps
Sony Xperia 1 II 5G smartphone has entered the market with a triple lens camera system featuring ZEISS optics with T* (T-Star) anti-reflective coating. Unlike any other competitor, this smartphone boasts a camera that can shoot stills at a massive frame rate of up to 20 fps with AF / AE tracking. In terms of display, Xperia 1 II features a 6.5″ 4k HDR OLED screen with a 21:9 aspect ratio and covers 100% DCI-P3 color gamut supporting 10 bit color depth (not true 10 bit).
Sony Xperia 1 II Image Sensor & Processor, Frame Rate, AF, & Other Camera Specs
Image Sensor and Processor
Compared to the predecessor, the image sensor in the new Sony flagship is twice as large. Xperia 1 II utilizes a large 1/1.7” Exmor RS image sensor instead of 1/2.6″. Due to the bigger sensor size, the camera is able to capture more light that results in better low light performance and blur. Complementing that, the BIONZ X image processor significantly increases the light sensitivity of the camera without introducing perceptible noise.
This is where this smartphone throws other competitors out of the competition. Sony Xperia 1 II can shoot continuous stills at a frame rate of up to 20 fps. Only a few of the high-end DSLR or mirrorless cameras such as Sony a9, a9 II, and Canon EOS 1D X MKIII, can reach such burst rates. Wildlife and sports photographers will definitely admire the camera performance of this 5G smartphone.
One thing to keep in mind is that shooting stills at 20 frames per second is only achievable through the 24mm camera. Whereas, the other 2 cameras support burst rates of 10 fps.
Xperia 1 II now offers eye autofocus support for both humans and animals. As of now, animal AF capabilities are very limited and it only works well on few animals such as dogs, cats, and similar pets.
In general, the AF performance of this Sony flagship is very reliable. By continuously calculating AF/AE up to 60 fps, Xperia 1 II keeps the subject in focus even at high frame rates. Again, only the 24mm camera calculates AF/AE at 60 fps whereas the other 16mm and 70mm cameras will do the same at 30 fps.
Except for 70mm, both 16mm and 24mm cameras incorporate a dual photo diode sensor that ensures fast and accurate autofocus. Xperia 1 II also comes with a 3D iTOF (indirect Time-of-Flight) sensor, that instantly calculates the distance between the subject and the camera. As a benefit, the autofocus performance gets a substantial boost in terms of speed and reliability.
Sony Xperia 1 II Camera Specs
Sony worked with ZEISS to introduce T* (T-Star) anti-reflective coating to the Xperia 1 II triple-lens camera system. ZEISS T* coating eliminates flare and ghosting effects in order to produce a sharp and vivid image.
All of the three cameras in Xperia 1 II feature the same 12 MP resolution. However, their aperture, FOV (field of view), and sensor size vary due to obvious reasons.
|Resolution||12 MP||12 MP||12MP||12MP|
Sony Xperia 1 II is also capable of recording amazing cinematic videos with an aspect ratio of 21:9 at 4k (3840×1644) HDR resolution. Users of the previous model will find new manual controls in this new version.
To capture the maximum possible dynamic range, RAW support is also available so you can tweak colors as per your choice in post production. Other important features such as OIS, Optical zoom, etc. are also available.
Xperia 1 II Display Features
Not just the camera, even the display specifications are amazing for the new Xperia 1 II. The 6.5 inch 4k HDR screen features an OLED panel that provides rich viewing experience by displaying an outstanding level of brightness and contrast. Just like high-end professional displays, Xperia 1 II covers 100% DCI-P3 color gamut and supports a 10 bit color depth. Note that the bit depth is not true 10 bit, rather it is true 8 bit with 2 bit smoothing.
With the help of the Image Edge mobile app, you can also use this smartphone as a remote display with any of the Sony Alpha cameras.
Mobile Processor, RAM, Storage, & Battery
Sony Xperia 1 II features the latest Qualcomm Snapdragon 865 processor which makes the smartphone almost 25% faster than the predecessor. Along with that, it includes a Snapdragon X55 5G Modem-RF system. In terms of memory, this smartphone carries 8GB of RAM and comes with a built-in 256GB UFS storage. If you want, you can further expand the storage via microSDXC up to 1TB. Lastly, the 4000 mAh battery will ensure long continuous runtime.
Sometimes, you may fall into situations where the weather conditions are harsh or windy. With the help of Intelligent wind filter technology, Xperia 1 II can provide clean audio by eliminating the unwanted frequencies usually caused by the wind.
Other exciting audio features include:
- 360 Reality Audio hardware decoding
- True front stereo speakers
- Improved audio separation on the 3.5mm audio jack
Sony Xperia 1 II holds IP65/68 rating which makes it both water and dust resistant. And the Corning Gorilla Glass 6 protects the smartphone from both sides in case of drops.
Xperia 1 II will soon be available in 3 colors:
You may like this post on Galaxy S20 smartphones from Samsung.


Guangzhou Newton optical Research Institute Co., Ltd., located in the venture technology park of Jinan University, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, is an innovative enterprise focusing on the application of intelligent imaging technology in the field of life science. The company integrates product R & D, production and sales. As a pioneer of intelligent imaging technology, we adhere to the design concept of "one-step completion", We are committed to providing users with high-quality products, intelligent and automatic experimental schemes, and fast and accurate experimental results.
The company has a high-quality R & D team, jointly developed with Jinan University, applied a number of cutting-edge patented technologies, and strive to bring more intelligent and advanced products to users. Focus and achieve excellence. Adhering to the business philosophy of "integrity, responsibility and excellence", we make the experimental analysis and research easier, easier and more accurate!


Cal Poly tops own patent record
May 6, 2011
California polytechnic State University in San Luis Obispo reports that three patents have been issued by the United States Patent and Trademark Office to university faculty this academic year—a record number of patents earned for a single year.
In an announcement this week, Cal Poly’s Research and Graduate Programs Office boasted the inventions which represent ingenuity in medicine, manufacturing, and computing.
John Sharpe, a professor in the Physics Department, received patent protection for a “System Method and Apparatus for Optical Directional Determination.” The technology is an optical technique which can measure the flow of fluid. The invention could potentially reduce costs of devices in manufacturing and in personal computer components such as optical mice.
Co-inventors Lanny Griffin from Cal Poly’s Department of Biomedical Engineering, and Dane Jones from the school’s Department of Chemistry were issued a patent for a “Polymeric Splint and Rapid-Setting Polyurethane.” The invention is a type of splint which offers immediate treatment for broken bones when breaks occur far from medical care, such as military field operations or wilderness backpacking.
The third patent is for a “System Method and Apparatus for a Multi-Phase DC-to-DC Converter.” The new power-converter design is intended to help the power-supply industry improve microprocessor and computer performance. The intellectual property right was given to Dr. Taufik, professor of Electrical Engineering and Director of the Electric Power Institute.
These latest innovations brings Cal Poly’s portfolio total to 11 patents. Eight other inventions are still in the process of seeking patents.


Speaker:Kara L Maki, School of Mathematical Sciences, RIT
Title: Settling Dynamics of the Contact Lens
The U.S. contact lens industry is a multi-billion dollar industry; 34 million people wear contact lenses nationwide.
We study the settling dynamics of a contact lens to help accelerate the empirical design process used in the industry.
When a contact lens is placed in the eye, it is subjected to forces from both the tear film and the blink, and in response,
the lens bends and stretches. These forces allow for proper lens centration, and they create the suction pressure responsible
for keeping the lens on the corneal surface. We couple fluid and solid mechanics to formulate a mathematical model that can
predict the changes in pressure distribution and lens shape over time. We explore the role of the different forces in
influencing the contact lens fit. This work is in collaboration with Bausch + Lomb, David S. Ross, and Emily K. Holz.
Time: Friday, October 26, 2012, 1:30-2:30 p.m.
Place: Planetary Hall (formerly S & T I), Room 242
Department of Mathematical Sciences
George Mason University
4400 University Drive, MS 3F2
Fairfax, VA 22030-4444
Tel. 703-993-1460, Fax. 703-993-1491


Despite recent scientific advances to create a hybrid optic called a metalens, glass-based lenses are still the only game in town for full-function telescopes, binoculars, and spotting scopes. Most people know and understand what binoculars and telescopes are and what they’re used for, but what are spotting scopes? It’s actually pretty simple.
A Spotting Scope vs A Telescope vs Binoculars
1. Telescope vs Spotting Scope
A spotting scope is a small or portable telescope. It is used during the day instead of the night. Unlike a traditional telescope, a spotting scope has to weatherproof features to deal with fog, rain, and mist. It includes connectors so it can be mounted on a camera tripod, and the image in a spotting scope is always right side up the way we see things ourselves, instead of upside-down like a normal telescope. It also has a lower magnification as compared to a telescope. Finally, spotting scopes are smaller and do not weigh as much as normal telescopes.
2. Binoculars vs Spotting Scope
Binoculars have two lenses on each end of the instrument, where a spotting scope has one lens at each end. Spotting scopes have greater magnification than binoculars, with greater clarity. Binoculars are lightweight and intended to be handheld. Spotting scopes start at one pound for the smaller ones and quickly increase in weight as the quality and power goes up. Three to four pounds is not unusual for a spotting scope.
The magnification for spotting scopes usually begins where binoculars stop. This lets you see more distant objects, and in great detail than binoculars ever could. But greater magnification means that atmospheric conditions will start to have an increased impact on how well you can see what you’re looking at. Dust, glare, humidity, heat waves, and air current will all exert a tremendous impact on the quality of the image. You should high magnification to view landscapes or objects on high attitudes and at dry climates. When at wet and low attitude climates, consider adjusting to a lower magnification.
What this means in everyday practical terms is that anything over 30x will not always be useful. However, on clear calm days with low humidity, a 60x spotting scope could bring you crystal clear images. Trying to achieve that kind of clarity at magnifications in excess of 60x will be prohibitively expensive, so most spotting scopes end their magnification at that point. There is no need of buying an absurdly expensive telescope that can magnify hundreds of time, yet you are most likely going to limited to a magnification of just 60x
Another aspect to consider with regard to image quality is the optical system. Spotting scopes are designed in such a way that image quality goes down as the magnification goes up. This limitation is common in all models, but varies with the quality of your device. The standard low-cost spotting scopes tend to be more limited in this aspect than the high-end expensive scopes. The premium scopes tend to maintain image quality better than their counterparts even when you increase their magnification. You will have to part with a few more bucks though to get such a high-grade scope.
1. Magnification Numbers
Spotting scopes have three numbers on them that tell you what kind of magnification they have. For instance, if a spotting scope says it is 30-60×80, it means the magnification runs from 30x to 60x and the front lens, called the objective, is 80mm in diameter. The greater the diameter of the objective, the greater the clarity of the image.
2. Objective Glass
If you want to see more detail and a better image quality, then go for a larger objective lens. The size of the objective lens also determines the image quality at higher magnification, where larger is better. In spite of this, make sure that lens is not only large, but also a quality one. If a lens is large but of poor quality, you will still get poor image quality. Under normal circumstances, the clarity of the image will decrease sharply at magnifications over 40x. If your needs require you to get sharp images at magnifications over that, because you are a photographer or something, you will have to spend more to get an objective lens made from special materials such as Fluorite glass, ED glass, HD glass, or APO glass.
Inside a spotting scope, there will be one of two different prisms, used to make sure the image is right side up; a Porro prism or a Roof prism.
1. Porro Prism
Most prisms are Porro prisms. It is an extremely efficient design. It is easy to use, affordable and can accept multiple interchangeable eyepieces. It is heavier than the other prism but it usually has camera adapters, so it can be mounted on a camera tripod.
2. Roof Prism
Roof prisms are slim and compact. They don’t weigh as much as Porro prisms but they’re not as efficient as them either. The efficiency of the prism can be increased if you get one that is phase-coated. Scientists are working on creating even better coatings and lens protection all the time so this part will definitely change. For people who travel or who do not need to use a tripod, roof prisms will probably be the better choice.
Spotting scopes with an attached eyepiece are the lower priced ones. Spotting scopes that use separate eyepieces, swapping out multiple eyepieces for different uses, are the more expensive ones. If a spotting scope is advertised as a “body only” scope, it means it does not include an eyepiece at all. You’ll have to buy the eyepiece(s) separately.
Eyepieces can be single magnification or zooming. Eyepieces that are single magnification have better sharpness and clarity. Zooming eyepieces are easier to use and more convenient. To determine which among the available alternatives is best for you is a decision you’ll have to make based on what you intend to use it for.
Uses of Spotting Scopes
Like binoculars, spotting scopes are used for surveillance, hunting, bird watching, viewing ships, landscapes and other distant objects. They can also be useful for scoring targets, archery and in some cases astronomy. You can take nice images of long distant images using specialized cameras with these devices.


A quantum sensor is a device that exploits quantum correlations, such as quantum entanglement, to achieve a sensitivity or resolution that is better than can be achieved using only classical systems.
A quantum sensor can measure the effect of the quantum state of another system on itself. The mere act of measurement influences the quantum state and alters the probability and uncertainty associated with its state during measurement.
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency has recently launched a research program in optical quantum sensors that seeks to exploit ideas from quantum metrology and quantum imaging, such as quantum lithography and the NOON state, in order to achieve these goals with optical sensor systems such as lidar.
A good example of an early quantum sensor is an APD avalanche photodiode such as the AD500-8 TO52S1 as these have been used to detect entangled photons and in fact with additional cooling and sensor improvements can be used where PMTs once ruled the market such as medical imaging. These are also now being used by First Sensor in the form of 2-D and even 3-D stacked arrays as a direct replacement for conventional sensors based on silicon diodes.
- K.T.Kapale, et al., Concepts of Physics 2 (2005) 225.
- Israel, Yonatan (2014). "Supersensitive Polarization Microscopy Using NOON States of Light". Physical Review Letters. 112. Bibcode:2014PhRvL.112j3604I. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.103604.
- DARPA Quantum Sensor Program.
- BROAD AGENCY ANNOUNCEMENT (BAA) 07-22 Quantum Sensors
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An LP3 radiation thermometer was absolutely calibrated at a newly developed monochromator-based set-up and the TUneable Lasers in Photometry (TULIP) facility of PTB in the wavelength range from 400 nm to 1100 nm. At both facilities, the spectral radiation of the respective sources irradiates an integrating sphere, thus generating uniform radiance across its precision aperture. The spectral irradiance of the integrating sphere is determined via an effective area of a precision aperture and a Si trap detector, traceable to the primary cryogenic radiometer of PTB. Due to the limited output power from the monochromator, the absolute calibration was performed with the measurement uncertainty of 0.17 % (k = 1), while the respective uncertainty at the TULIP facility is 0.14 %. Calibration results obtained by the two facilities were compared in terms of spectral radiance responsivity, effective wavelength and integral responsivity. It was found that the measurement results in integral responsivity at the both facilities are in agreement within the expanded uncertainty (k = 2). To verify the calibration accuracy, the absolutely calibrated radiation thermometer was used to measure the thermodynamic freezing temperatures of the PTB gold fixed-point blackbody.
A calibration-free electrical method is proposed for measuring the absolute frequency response of directly modulated semiconductor lasers based on additional modulation. The method achieves the electrical domain measurement of the modulation index of directly modulated lasers without the need for correcting the responsivity fluctuation in the photodetection. Moreover, it doubles measuring frequency range by setting a specific frequency relationship between the direct and additional modulation. Both the absolute and relative frequency response of semiconductor lasers are experimentally measured from the electrical spectrum of the twice-modulated optical signal, and the measured results are compared to those obtained with conventional methods to check the consistency. The proposed method provides calibration-free and accurate measurement for high-speed semiconductor lasers with high-resolution electrical spectrum analysis.
Photoacoustic tomography (PAT) is a hybrid imaging technique that has broad preclinical and clinical applications. Based on the photoacoustic effect, PAT directly measures specific optical absorption, which is the product of the tissue-intrinsic optical absorption coefficient and the local optical fluence. Therefore, quantitative PAT, such as absolute oxygen saturation (sO2) quantification, requires knowledge of the local optical fluence, which can be estimated only through invasive measurements or sophisticated modeling of light transportation. In this work, we circumvent this requirement by taking advantage of the dynamics in sO2. The new method works when the sO2 transition can be simultaneously monitored with multiple wavelengths. For each wavelength, the ratio of photoacoustic amplitudes measured at different sO2 states is utilized. Using the ratio cancels the contribution from optical fluence and allows calibration-free quantification of absolute sO2. The new method was validated through both phantom and in vivo experiments. PMID:23903146
A method of the absolute mass scale calibration is suggested for solving the inverse problem of the physical theory of fireballs. The method is based on the data on the masses of the fallen meteorites whose fireballs have been photographed in their flight. The method may be applied to those fireballs whose bodies have not experienced considerable fragmentation during their destruction in the atmosphere and have kept their form well enough. Statistical analysis of the inverse problem solution for a sufficiently representative sample makes it possible to separate a subsample of such fireballs. The data on the Lost City and Innisfree meteorites are used to obtain calibration coefficients.
A method of the absolute calibration of the mass scale is proposed for solving the inverse problem of the physical theory of fireballs. The method is based on data on the masses of fallen meteorites whose fireballs have been photographed in flight. The method can be applied to fireballs whose bodies have not experienced significant fragmentation during their flight in the atmosphere and have kept their shape relatively well. Data on the Lost City and Innisfree meteorites are used to calculate the calibration coefficients.
This paper reports measurement of the absolute intensity of free-electron laser (FEL) and calibration of online intensity monitors for a brand-new FEL beamline BL1 at SPring-8 Angstrom Compact free-electron LAser (SACLA) in Japan. To measure the absolute intensity of FEL, we used a room-temperature calorimeter originally developed for FELs in the hard X-ray range. By using the calorimeter, we calibrated online intensity monitors of BL1, gas monitors (GMs), based on the photoionization of argon gas, in the photon energy range from 25 eV to 150 eV. A good correlation between signals obtained from the calorimeter and GMs was observed in the pulse energy range from 1 μJ to 100 μJ, where the upper limit is nearly equal to the maximum pulse energy at BL1. Moreover, the calibration result of the GMs, measured in terms of the spectral responsivity, demonstrates a characteristic photon-energy dependence owing to the occurrence of the Cooper minimum in the total ionization cross-section of argon gas. These results validate the feasibility of employing the room-temperature calorimeter in the measurement of absolute intensity of FELs over the specified photon energy range.
In-situ intelligent manufacturing for large-volume equipment requires industrial robots with absolute high-accuracy positioning and orientation steering control. Conventional robots mainly employ an offline calibration technology to identify and compensate key robotic parameters. However, the dynamic and static parameters of a robot change nonlinearly. It is not possible to acquire a robot's actual parameters and control the absolute pose of the robot with a high accuracy within a large workspace by offline calibration in real-time. This study proposes a real-time online absolute pose steering control method for an industrial robot based on six degrees of freedom laser tracking measurement, which adopts comprehensive compensation and correction of differential movement variables. First, the pose steering control system and robot kinematics error model are constructed, and then the pose error compensation mechanism and algorithm are introduced in detail. By accurately achieving the position and orientation of the robot end-tool, mapping the computed Jacobian matrix of the joint variable and correcting the joint variable, the real-time online absolute pose compensation for an industrial robot is accurately implemented in simulations and experimental tests. The average positioning error is 0.048 mm and orientation accuracy is better than 0.01 deg. The results demonstrate that the proposed method is feasible, and the online absolute accuracy of a robot is sufficiently enhanced.
A cross-calibration methodology has been developed using coincident image pairs from the Terra Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), the Landsat 7 (L7) Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) and the Earth Observing EO-1 Advanced Land Imager (ALI) to verify the absolute radiometric calibration accuracy of these sensors with respect to each other. To quantify the effects due to different spectral responses, the Relative Spectral Responses (RSR) of these sensors were studied and compared by developing a set of "figures-of-merit." Seven cloud-free scenes collected over the Railroad Valley Playa, Nevada (RVPN), test site were used to conduct the cross-calibration study. This cross-calibration approach was based on image statistics from near-simultaneous observations made by different satellite sensors. Homogeneous regions of interest (ROI) were selected in the image pairs, and the mean target statistics were converted to absolute units of at-sensor reflectance. Using these reflectances, a set of cross-calibration equations were developed giving a relative gain and bias between the sensor pair.
Relative gravimetric techniques have been used for nearly 30 years for measuring non-tidal gravity variations with time, and thus have contributed to geodynamics research by monitoring vertical crustal movements and internal mass shifts. With today's accuracy of about ± 0.05µms-2 (or 5µGal), significant results have been obtained in numerous control nets of local extension, especially in connection with seismic and volcanic events. Nevertheless, the main drawbacks of relative gravimetry, which are deficiencies in absolute datum and calibration, set a limit for its application, especially with respect to large-scale networks and long-term investigations. These problems can now be successfully attacked by absolute gravimetry, with transportable gravimeters available since about 20 years. While the absolute technique during the first two centuries of gravimetry's history was based on the pendulum method, the free-fall method can now be employed taking advantage of laser-interferometry, electronic timing, vacuum and shock absorbing techniques, and on-line computer-control. The accuracy inherent in advanced instruments is about ± 0.05 µms-2. In field work, generally an accuracy of ±0.1 µms-2 may be expected, strongly depending on local environmental conditions.
Developing the manufacture of aspheric and freeform optical elements requires an advanced metrology method which is capable of inspecting these elements with arbitrary freeform surfaces. In this dissertation, a new surface measurement scheme is investigated for such a purpose, which is to measure the absolute surface shape of an object under test through its surface slope information obtained by photogrammetric measurement. A laser beam propagating toward the object reflects on its surface while the vectors of the incident and reflected beams are evaluated from the four spots they leave on the two parallel transparent windows in front of the object. The spots' spatial coordinates are determined by photogrammetry. With the knowledge of the incident and reflected beam vectors, the local slope information of the object surface is obtained through vector calculus and finally yields the absolute object surface profile by a reconstruction algorithm. An experimental setup is designed and the proposed measuring principle is experimentally demonstrated by measuring the absolute surface shape of a spherical mirror. The measurement uncertainty is analyzed, and efforts for improvement are made accordingly. In particular, structured windows are designed and fabricated to generate uniform scattering spots left by the transmitted laser beams. Calibration of the fringe reflection instrument, another typical surface slope measurement method, is also reported in the dissertation. Finally, a method for uncertainty analysis of a photogrammetry measurement system by optical simulation is investigated. 2b1af7f3a8


In addition, our device could be switched from polarization-insensitive to polarization-sensitive by applying a magnetic field. To the best of our knowledge, this study, combining the electrical, magnetic, and optical effects of hot electrons and Si-based devices, is the first to modulate the efficiency of Si-based photodetectors working at optical telecommunication wavelengths. This strategy would, presumably, also be potentially very useful when applied to other hot electron-based systems and devices.
- Pieter Zeeman!
- Magneto-optic Kerr effect | Revolvy.
- Progress in magnetic domain observation by advanced magneto-optical microscopy.
- Membrane microdomains in disease - Lipid rafts (German Edition)?
- Magneto-optic and electro-optic effects.
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This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. THz spectroscopy The transmittance experiments at THz frequencies 0. Figure 2. Charge carriers in strained HgTe. Band structure analysis To understand the origin of the experimentally observed resonances, we analyse the band structure of tensile strained Cd 0.
Quantized THz Hall effect Experimentally, simultaneous fit of the real and imaginary parts of t p and t c allows the extraction of all transport characteristics, that is, conductivity, charge carrier density, scattering time and CR frequency Figure 3. THz QHE of the surface states. Figure 4. Quantized THz Faraday rotation of Dirac fermions. Theoretical analysis of magnetooptical spectra To analyse the experimental transmission spectra, we follow the formalism described by Berreman 24 , Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.
Additional information How to cite this article: Dziom, V. Peer Review File: Click here to view. Footnotes The authors declare no competing financial interests. References Kane C. Quantum spin Hall effect in graphene. Quantum spin Hall effect and topological phase transition in hgte quantum wells.
Science , — Topological insulators with inversion symmetry. B 76 , Quantum spin Hall insulator state in HgTe quantum wells. A topological dirac insulator in a quantum spin Hall phase. Nature , — Topological field theory of time-reversal invariant insulators.
B 78 , Giant magneto-optical Kerr effect and universal Faraday effect in thin-film topological insulators. Inducing a magnetic monopole with topological surface states. Surface state charge dynamics of a high-mobility three-dimensional topological insulator. Terahertz response and colossal Kerr rotation from the surface states of the topological insulator bi 2 se 3. Terahertz quantum hall effect of Dirac fermions in a topological insulator. B 87 , Magneto-optical and magnetoelectric effects of topological insulators in quantizing magnetic fields. B 82 , Topological quantization in units of the fine structure constant.
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X 4 , Cyclotron-resonance-assisted photocurrents in surface states of a three-dimensional topological insulator based on a strained high-mobility HgTe film. B 92 , Giant magneto-optical Faraday effect in HgTe thin films in the terahertz spectral range. Room temperature electrically tunable terahertz Faraday effect.
Dielectric measurements in the submillimeter wavelength region. Infrared Phys. Terahertz magneto-optical spectroscopy in HgTe thin films. Optics in stratified and anisotropic media: 4x4-matrix formulation. Infrared and microwave magnetoplasma effects in semiconductors. B 72 , B 89 , Heavy-light hole mixing at zinc-blende interfaces under normal incidence.
B 54 , — Tunable spin helical Dirac quasiparticles on the surface of three-dimensional hgte. Ab initio study of topological surface states of strained HgTe. EPL , Single valley Dirac fermions in zero-gap HgTe quantum wells. Spin-helical transport in normal and superconducting topological insulators. Status Solidi b , — Spatially resolved photocarrier energy relaxation in low-doped bulk GaAs. B 86 , Discovery of a Weyl fermion semimetal and topological Fermi arcs. For the camera resolution the effective cell size of the camera is the figure of merit.
The eventual resolution of the imaging sensor is determined by the dimensions of the individual photo-sensitive elements relative to the image projected onto the imaging array in the microscope system. In order to match or exceed the optical resolution of the objective lens and to preserve the spatial resolution of the objective lens in the resulting MO image, the sampling interval of the camera sensor array has to be at least twice the maximum spatial frequency of the sample.
This relation is given by the Nyquist criterion [ , ]. The camera sensor must be able to sample at intervals equal or less than half the resolution of the microscope. A comparison of the change of resolution for a captured image depending on the camera's cell size is given in figure Corresponding data on the achievable spatial resolution from typical objective lenses is given. Curves for different level of binning are included.
For values of NA of the different objectives see table 2. A sensor cell size of 6. For low magnification images and for the chosen properties of camera and objective lens, the best achievable resolution is limited by the camera, and not the NA of the objective lens. Without binning and below a threshold of about 50 times in magnification, the actual image resolution is determined by the camera property and not by the objective lens.
Adapting the microscope setups for temperature dependent imaging is straightforward. Cryostats, for low temperature imaging, and heating stages, for the imaging at higher temperatures, can be integrated into the setups. Low temperature applications include the imaging of flux penetration into type-II superconductors with ferrimagnetic MO indicator films [ — ] see also section 8 , the imaging of domains in magnetic semiconductors [ — ], and exchange coupling phenomena in magnetic multilayers [ — ].
Also magnetic phase transitions at low temperature [ — ] and around room temperature [ ] are of relevance. High temperature observations deal with crystallization processes in soft magnetic nanocrystalline materials [ , ], again with exchange bias phenomena [ ], and the change of magnetic properties with temperature in hard-magnets [ ]. Other applications include for instance rock magnetism [ ] for elevated temperatures, and the investigations of structural phase transitions [ , ] for low temperatures. One obstacle for the use of heating stages and cryostats is related to the use of viewports to optically access the samples.
Two in principle different approaches are used. In one case, the imaging is performed through an optical window between the magnetic object and the objective lens. With that approach figure 13 a , the use of long-distance objective lenses with an optical correction for the viewing window thickness is required at least for high NA objectives. By this, highest spatial resolution is not possible to achieve. In another approach figure 13 b , the objective lens is integrated into the cryostat or heater and the viewing window is between the objective lens and the microscope.
Regular high NA objective lenses can be used. Yet, the application of oil immersion lenses is excluded. For both principle variants the viewing window must be stress-free in order to not alter the polarization state of light. A complete integration of electromagnet and focusable objective lens inside a vacuum chamber for temperature dependent measurements has been used in [ ].
Central aspects of imaging systems for temperature dependent imaging. The sample is mounted on a cold or heating finger. The lens is integrated into the cryostat, respectively heating chamber [ , ]. Vibrational influences need to be reduced by mechanically decoupling or damping of the connected vacuum systems. Internal vibration isolation and a low thermal-expansion support structure help to reduce vibrations and drifts of the sample position. For the applications of external magnetic fields heaters and cryostats are equipped with an extended sample mount, permitting for the high magnetic field applications by allowing a close integration of magnetic pole-tips at the magnetic sample.
One of the utmost advantages of MO imaging over the majority of other imaging methods is the ability to visualize fast dynamic magnetization processes. However, different definitions of magnetization dynamics exist, ranging from femtosecond processes for ultrafast spin-dynamics, Landau—Lifschitz dynamics on the nanosecond time-scale to eddy-current dominated magnetization dynamics in the micro- to millisecond range for thick samples. Yet, creeping phenomena on the time-scales of seconds or more can be part of it. The whole range of time-scales can be covered by MO microscopy.
Depending on the requirements of the experiment, different methods are applied to obtain the needed temporal resolution. A discrimination has to be made between single shot imaging and stroboscopic imaging techniques, the latter used for imaging of fast dynamic magnetization processes. Dynamics on time-scales of several seconds or even longer can be imaged directly and in real-time by MO microscopy. Of particular interest for long-term dynamic studies are magnetization relaxation processes as they occur in ultrathin magnetic films. An overview on certain aspects of magnetization reversal studies by MO methods, including MO imaging of thermally activated processes, is given in [ ] and [ ].
Examples of snapshot domain images from the reversal of magnetic single and multi-layers with perpendicular and in-plane magnetic anisotropy that display thermally activated effects [ — ] are depicted in figure Reprinted with permission from [ ]. Copyright by the American Physical Society. Magnetization dynamics at the kHz range can be imaged by means of stroboscopic imaging using gated image intensifiers as demonstrated firstly for the observation of garnet domains using the Faraday effect [ ]. This method has been revived for the imaging of eddy-current limited magnetization dynamics in magnetic core materials [ — ].
From stroboscopic MO Kerr effect microscopy observations, the dynamic magnetization process on nanocrystalline tape wound cores is clarified. Of particular interest in these studies were magnetic excess losses, the related eddy-current driven magnetic domain wall refinement, and the repeatability of the magnetization processes. An exemplary image of such a measurement, displaying patch-like domain behavior, is displayed in figure 15 a. High and variable repetition rates and continuously adjustable time resolutions are possible with such imaging systems.
The coarse hexagonal capillary structure of the microchannel plate MCP image intensifier results in an effective reduction of spatial resolution. The use of a two-stage or three-stage MCP image intensifier can partly reduce that circumstance. Images with microsecond time resolution obtained by means of different techniques. At least partial repeatability of the magnetization processes is required for stroboscopic imaging. Single shot imaging of magnetization relaxation in exchange-biased perpendicular anisotropy thin films was realized by imaging with an arc flash lamp [ ].
Yet, the typical dependence of light intensity with time for the imaging with such schemes is strongly influenced by the long exponential decay of intensity of the illuminating light pulse.
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An exemplary single shot image from an asymmetric magnetization reversal in an exchange-biased thin film with out-of-plane anisotropy is displayed in figure 15 b. A similar illumination scheme was used for the imaging of magnetic field induced transformations in magnetic shape memory alloys [ , ]. Single shot imaging of the magnetization reversal in a grain oriented electrical steel sheet, however, is also possible with a large field MO microscope see section 3.
Some microsecond resolution is achievable by direct imaging at low exposure times with regular CCD-based cameras without the need of image intensifiers figure 15 c. Wide-field imaging on the nanosecond time-scale [ ] has been realized by similar ways as discussed in the previous section. Also here, time resolution is achieved by imaging with a gated image intensifier. The principal use of such a camera system for the imaging of magnetization dynamics in recording head writers in the nanosecond time range was demonstrated [ ].
In an alternative pioneering approach [ — ], using pulsed Q-switched ruby and gas lasers and in combination with gated illumination, a temporal resolution down to some nanoseconds is achieved. Stroboscopic wide-field imaging with mode-locked picosecond lasers has been used for investigations of magnetization dynamics of thin film elements on the micrometer length scale. Different techniques were applied, all relying on pulsed magnetic field applications with sub-nanosecond rise-times [ — ].
In the laser-based stroboscopic imaging schemes, time resolution is defined from the laser pulses. A continuous dc recording of the camera signal is applied. Nearly jitter-free time-resolved wide-field MO Kerr effect microscopy with picosecond time resolution and with phase-locked harmonic excitation is demonstrated in [ ]. Such a system allows for the direct imaging under a continuous microwave field excitation. By this the direct imaging of fundamental dynamic modes of magnetic domain and domain wall states in soft magnetic thick film elements becomes possible.
Domain wall oscillations can be imaged directly and domain wall velocities can be extracted. The basic imaging setup is displayed in figure Stroboscopic time-resolved imaging setup consisting of a mode-locked laser as an illumination source, a standard MO microscope, and a GHz magnetic field excitation source. The mode-locked Nd:YVO 4 laser runs from the same clock as the rf signal generator, providing low jitter imaging conditions [ ]. The shown amplifier and the oscilloscope are optional.
A magnetic rf-field is applied through a coplanar wave-guide. A phase-locked loop is used to synchronize the repetition rate of the passively mode-locked laser system to the reference clock signal, by constantly adjusting the laser cavity length, controlling its frequency and phase. With the clock synchronizer feedback system, a timing jitter of less than 0. The direct observation of magnetization processes up to several GHz excitation frequencies is possible with such a microscope system.
In general, picosecond time-resolved MO imaging is performed in a stroboscopic differential imaging mode with varying the phase between the rf field excitation and the imaging laser pulse. Two individual differential images are formed from the difference of two magnetization states at different time delays. By imaging in this manner, only alterations of magnetization become visible in the domain response images.
Exemplary data demonstrating the imaging of precessional magnetization response, the direct observations of nanosecond domain wall displacements and spin-wave generation from magnetic thin films samples are displayed in figure Despite the application of in-plane microwave field excitations, out-of-plane contributions of magnetization precession including dynamic magneto-static coupling between individual magnetic domains are imaged figures 17 a and b.
Precessional domain wall motion with out-of-plane magnetization components is seen in figure 17 c [ ]. The domain wall precession acts as a source for spin-waves within the central magnetic domains as seen in figure 17 d. The spin-waves propagate with 0. Moreover, the direct imaging of standing spin-waves at field excitations up to several GHz is possible by the technique, an example of which is displayed in figure 17 e. Stroboscopic Faraday imaging of sub-picosecond processes using femtosecond lasers is demonstrated in [ ]. No saturated background image see also section 4.
A pump-and-probe all-optical switching experiment is applied to a ferrimagnetic GdFeCo thin film sample. Exemplary data of the evolution of magnetization during the all-optical switching event is displayed in figure The images represent a map of individually determined MO Kerr angles of polarization.
A general challenge of MO Kerr or Faraday imaging is the obtained low magnetic domain contrast as a result of the weak nature of the MO effects. In practice, the realizable magnetic domain image quality is determined by the achievable signal-to-noise ratio. For a given plane of incidence and a given magnetic material, the SNR is mainly influenced by two additional experimental parameters. Firstly, for the set MO sensitivity the overall MO contrast needs to be optimized by proper setting of the polarization optics.
This is in first approximation done by correct setting of the analyzer angle in order to obtain the optimum SNR. Secondly, the MO or domain contrast is amplified and image noise is reduced by digital image processing, by which clear and low-noise domain images are produced. For a given setting of illumination, the MO contrast is mostly determined by the analyzer settings, meaning the angle of analyzer rotation from maximum extinction in the optical microscope path. For digital imaging applications, the figure of merit is the SNR of the captured domain image with a variation of magnetization along the sensitivity direction.
It represents the ratio of the measured light signal to the combined noise of different origin. Unwanted image signal components originate from the used electronics and from variations of the incident photon flux. Common sources of noise in a digital imaging system are therefore photon noise, dark noise, and read noise [ ].
Dark noise and read noise are directly determined by the digital camera system. The overall SNR for a digital imaging system can be approximated by. D is the dark current value and N r denotes the read noise [ , ]. B is the number of binned camera pixels. Subsequently, we will focus on the regime, where photon noise is dominating and other noise sources are not relevant, thereby neglecting very short exposure and integration times. In most cases will be valid. The first term in the equation is defined by the used illumination and camera settings.
The SNR can be increased by integrating or averaging over time, using a high quantum efficiency digital camera and binning. The variation of the overall photon energy has a small contribution. The second term is determined by the analyzer setting and the strength of the MO effect. By optimization of the analyzer's uncrossing angle, maximum SNR is obtained. The points of best SNR are indicated. Two main conclusions become obvious from the shown modelling results. However, the reduction of SNR is relatively low. The relevance of such calculations for applied MO microscopy should be treated with care.
Yet, the shown general dependencies are in agreement with results from experiments. Fast image processing provides the basis of state-of-the-art MO imaging. By digital image processing techniques such as digital Fourier filtering [ , ], real-time background subtraction, and averaging of MO signals improved quality magnetic domain images became practical.
Digital image processing in real-time was firstly applied for low-contrast imaging in medical [ ] and biological [ — ] imaging applications and was later adapted for the use in magnetic domain imaging. Many different schemes for the improvement of MO signals are conceivable. The main objective is obtaining a high contrast magnetic signal, in which non-magnetic contrast contributions are eliminated. Most of the applied routines for contrast enhancement are based on differential imaging of magnetic states. With alterations of optical polarization or of the magnetic settings purely magnetic high contrast response images are acquired.
SNR is improved by averaging multiple image frames. Naturally, gain and offset to the digital camera sensor can be applied in order to achieve a maximum camera contrast [ ]. Imaging by alteration of the optical polarization conditions relies on a modulation of polarization [ — ] or on differential imaging of the same magnetic state imaged with two different analyzer or polarizer settings in the microscope. Practically, better imaging quality is obtained by changing the state of polarization of the illumination settings, as compared to the analyzer settings.
For this kind of differential imaging, no alteration of the magnetization state is needed. This makes it most applicable, where an alteration of magnetization is not feasible. For instance, it is applied for domain observations of permanent magnet materials [ — ] or where a modification of the magnetic state of interest is unwanted [ 22 ]. An alternative method relies on the fitting of the local sensitivity function from multiple MO images [ ] see figure An exemplary set of two raw magnetic images taken from an extended soft magnetic metal film using two different polarization conditions is displayed in figures 20 a and b.
Obtaining both images under different conditions of polarization, an inversion of the MO contrast is achieved. After subtracting the images, the weak magnetic domain contrast can be amplified and a clear high contrast magnetization domain map is achieved figure 20 c. All images are obtained by averaging over 32 image frames.
The principle polarizer settings are indicated. In the standard approach, a background image that displays no or an averaged out magnetic signal or a homogeneous magnetic information figure 20 d is acquired, which is then subtracted from the magnetic domain pattern of interest [ — ] figure 20 e. The resulting MO domain image is displayed in figure 20 f. Most of the images shown in this article are acquired by this technique. Real-time and high contrast domain imaging is achievable by this method. In an alternative approach neither of the MO images is acquired in a homogenous state of magnetization.
Differential images are obtained from variations of magnetization with a small magnetic stimulus [ 27 , , , ]. The method of differentiating of slightly altered domain states has gained renewed attention for the imaging of small nanostructures, especially for the investigation of magnetic field- and current-induced domain wall motion in magnetic nanowires [ — ].
Likewise, the same approach is used for time-resolved stroboscopic imaging schemes that rely on repeatable magnetic events [ — , ]. Variations of the imaging scheme, including more complicated imaging sequences are discussed in [ ]. In imaging techniques relying on magneto-optical indicator films, a differential image in the indicator film is acquired by removal of the magnetic sample of investigation, keeping the indicator film in place [ ]. For samples with locally varying reflectivity, however, the total MO intensity difference between images for positive and negative magnetization saturation can be uneven.
The Effects of A Magnetic Field on Radiation: Momoirs by Faraday, Kerr and Zeeman
Examples are samples with surface topography, different or locally changing roughness, and optically anisotropic polycrystalline large grain materials. The local effective MO sensitivity variation is then superimposed on the magnetic domain image, by which an interpretation of the magnetization distribution is hampered. Related to quantitative domain imaging, the procedure applies only to MO images obtained for a single sensitivity direction.
A signature of such an imaging error would be a lateral inhomogeneity in MO intensity, the difference between images for positive and negative magnetic saturation along the sensitivity axis. The thus effective non-uniformity of the MO sensitivity will be superimposed on the magnetic domain image. Various examples together with improved MO images are given in [ ]. Surprisingly, the technique is not used routinely so far.
The method can also be applied for correction of uneven illumination in not properly set MO microscopes. Instabilities in the optical illumination source and mechanical instabilities reduce the quality of the results. Magnetic sample or microscope movements of only a few nanometers lead to a degradation of the MO image.
Hence, a very steady intensity illumination source and a mechanically stable microscope are a prerequisite for all differential imaging schemes. Mechanical instabilities can be partly compensated by digital image cross-correlation, by which an improved alignment of the background and the domain state image is achieved. With sub-pixel digital image alignment, image drifts with accuracy below one nanometer can be compensated, an example of which is shown in figure The technique can be applied after imaging, but also in situ and in real-time.
Klug, Kiel University. Despite its advantages for the understanding of magnetization patterns of complicated magnetic domain structures, quantitative magnetic MO microscopy is a technique that is hardly applied for magnetic materials investigations. It is based on the use of a complicated calibration scheme involving multiple calibration images, by which the angular MO sensitivity function in the MO microscope is determined [ — ] experimentally. Similar vectorial mapping of magnetization can be obtained by other domain imaging techniques like spin-polarized scanning electron microscopy [ — ] and by differential phase contrast imaging DPC with Lorentz microscopy [ , ].
Restrictions of the MO microscopy approach lie in the presumed sinusoidal MO sensitivity function. Existing errors can partly be eliminated by including a quadratic Voigt term in the fitting of the sensitivity functions [ ].
Examples of applied quantitative MO domain imaging include low magnetic anisotropy ribbons [ ] and mixed anisotropy hybrid magnetic property thin films [ ], where an easy domain interpretation is not feasible. Magnetization maps from thin films with orthogonally laterally distributed magnetic anisotropy axes are displayed in figure 22 see also [ ] and section 7. Real-time imaging with vector information of the magnetic domains is not possible with this imaging technique.
The corresponding magnetization vector distribution is displayed in b. Multiple wavelength imaging schemes are used routinely in life science microscopy investigations [ — ]. An MO imaging approach for the simultaneous imaging of multiple magnetization components based upon a dual-wavelength approach is demonstrated in [ ]. In this imaging scheme two imaging paths are merged in the microscope. For the demonstrated implementation of the technique two fiber-coupled high power LEDs with different optical wavelengths are applied concurrently for illumination.
An individual independent positioning of illumination settings for both light sources, like oblique and orthogonally aligned planes of incidence, is possible by this. Accordingly, illumination conditions for simultaneous s- and p-mode longitudinal MO sensitivity can be obtained. The imaging beams are coupled into the illumination light path through a wavelength sensitive dichroic mirror figure 23 a , compare to figure 9.
Other arrangements are possible. Most important, in the reported scheme, the reflected light is yet again divided into two separate light paths that are directed onto two synchronized high sensitivity microscope cameras, by which two domain images under different MO conditions are ultimately obtained. In an alternative arrangement an image splitter is used, which enables recording of MO images simultaneously with one camera system figure 23 b.
Alternatively, by sequentially imaging and synchronizing the individual LEDs with the exposure of a regular camera system, similar results can be obtained, but with only nearly simultaneous imaging. Using an image splitter the primary image gets divided into two separate images.
For the complete illumination and observation scheme, including the conjugate image planes IP and aperture planes AP , see figure 9. In general, the use of a divided optical illumination and observation path allows for the direct extraction of different complementary magnetic information. The multi-channel image approach permits complicated imaging schemes, like combination images involving multiple applied MO sensitivity conditions, including mixed Kerr and Voigt imaging and quantitative evaluation from one magnetic pattern.
So far imaging with only one pair of images was possible [ 2 ]. An illustrative example of an advanced measurement involving four complementary MO images of a single unaltered domain structure from an epitaxial iron film is displayed in figure Concurrently obtained d diagonally aligned Kerr and e Voigt image after change of the fiber output alignment. The corresponding illumination arrangements in the back focal plane of the objective are indicated.
Imaging: R. Malik, Kiel University; sample: D. From such an analysis, the magnetization distribution of samples with complicated magnetization behavior can be derived and magnetic domain features remaining hidden with standard single sensitivity domain imaging techniques are directly exposed. In particular, the biggest advantage of the multicomponent measuring scheme is the possibility of real-time imaging of multiple components, by which, among other potentialities, the quantitative imaging of magnetic domain in motion becomes realizable.
The application of real-time magnetic vector imaging to complicated domain processes in stressed magnetostrictive films for magnetoelectric sensor application is first demonstrated and used for the understanding of the noise mechanism in magnetoelectric composite sensors [ ] figure Magnetization reversal in an amorphous magnetostrictive FeCoSiB layer. The orientation of the applied magnetic field is horizontal. Yet, dual beam—dual sensitivity imaging is not limited to quantitative evaluation of magnetization.
Other embodiments of imaging include the separation of in-plane and out-of-plane magnetic contrast in oblique plane of incidence MO microscopy and layer selective magnetic domain imaging. By local ion irradiation regions with locally varying magnetic properties are obtained similar to [ ]. Shown is a generated square element with oblique plane of anisotropy, displaying a mixed longitudinal and polar MO contrast figures 26 a and b , surrounded by a matrix with pure in-plane anisotropy.
By addition and subtraction of MO images obtained with opposite oblique incidence, pure polar figure 26 c and pure longitudinal in-plane sensitivity figure 26 d images are obtained. The latter is not possible by other means in MO microscopy see also section 2. In d only in-plane components of magnetization are visible. The settings of illumination are indicated in a and b. Experiments together with P. Mazalski and A. Maziewski, University of Bialystok. Moreover, the dual imaging scheme can be applied to the simultaneous imaging of individual layer magnetization in multilayer stacks.
Displayed in figure 27 are two domain images from the same structure, which are recorded simultaneously in a dual image arrangement. Only one single digital camera image with two domain images is shown. Clearly, two dissimilar domain patterns corresponding mainly to the top and bottom layer magnetization, respectively, are distinguished. Magnetic domain images obtained simultaneously with different depth sensitivity by double wavelength microscopy using an image splitter.
The same plane of incidence is used. Malik [ ]. In conclusion, using two imaging paths, domain images with different sensitivities are recorded simultaneously. Quantitative domain imaging, layer selective magnetic domain imaging in multi-layered thin film structures, as well as the separation of in-plane and out-of-plane magnetization components in film structures with out-of-plane and in-plane magnetization components are now possible. An extension to time-resolved imaging techniques is straightforward. Even being a standard method in optical microscopy, dark field imaging is almost never used for MO microscopy applications [ , ].
Yet, dark-field MO imaging based on the Faraday effect is demonstrated for the investigations of Bloch lines and conically shaped bubble domains in transparent epitaxial ferrimagnetic garnet films [ — ]. With an inclined plane of incidence using a high aperture condenser lens together with a low aperture objective lens, diffractive MO contrast images of the magnetic domain boundaries and internal domain wall features are obtained from diffraction.
While the directly transmitted light is omitted, the MO image is produced purely from the diffracted light. Despite recent advances in diffractive MO magnetometry on periodic magnetic nanostructures [ — ], dark field MO imaging in reflection remains untested.
In general, imaging of a complete magnetization loop with varying magnetic field H ext by MO microscopy provides a large amount of microscopic information, which is usually viewed as a series of sequentially obtained magnetization maps M x , y , H ext. From this data a regular magnetization loop can be derived, by which the data is reduced to its most essential core. However, valuable information is lost thereby. Only a few attempts have been made to bridge that gap. In [ ] a method of representation of multiple images is introduced that allows for compact representation of magnetization reversal information.
Analyzing and plotting the information obtained from histograms of individual reversal maps, the information of fractions of different kinds of domains and magnetization components is gained. In another attempt [ ] the reversal of magnetization in single quasi 1D magnetic stripes with H ext is analyzed and the data is presented in a 3D map of the magnetic reversal process See also figure 17 d for a similar approach for time-resolved imaging data of spin-wave propagation from a single domain.
Exemplary domain images of the magnetic reversal of the magnetostrictive phase of a magnetoelectric composite are displayed in figure 28 a. A map of the complete reversal extracted from line-plots for the individual field steps of the overall reversal process is shown in figure 28 b. Decreasing the magnetic field from saturation, first narrow domains develop which coarsen with decreasing field.
At a certain threshold field, a reorganization process takes place and wide domains instantaneously nucleate. In the reversed field, narrow domains penetrate from the edges and a continuous domain refinement [ ] takes place. All this can be followed from the presentation displayed in figure 28 b. Plotting the histogram in a similar way as in [ , ] figure 28 c , the development of multiple domains, magnetic domain coarsening, and the continuous domain refinement can be understood in a similar way.
As the MO sensitivity direction is chosen perpendicular to the applied magnetic field, a hysteresis loop cannot be extracted. However, the evolution of the transverse components of magnetization in the individual domains with field can be tracked. The magnetic field H ext axis is displayed on the right.
The shown example demonstrates only some of the possibilities of presenting large datasets of domain imaging data. Fourier components or the application to continuous quantitative imaging are other possible ways for data analysis. As set out, MO microscopy offers a great variety of ways for the investigation of magnetic materials. MO microscopy is one of the most versatile techniques to image magnetic domains and magnetization processes. The ability to observe the magnetic domain structure is especially important for the understanding of the origin of magnetic properties.
Also, the performance of magnetic devices correlates with the spatial distribution and time evolution of the magnetization. Significant results in fundamental science, applied physics, and engineering have been obtained by MO microscopy. An incomplete overview of data obtained from various material systems on different length scales is shown in figure Magnetic domain images from electrical steel with a nearly perfect and b misaligned orientation of grains samples: R.
Magnetic domain patterning by ion irradiation in g , h extended FeCoSiB layers and i exchange-biased samples [ ]. Shown are examples from grain-oriented electrical steel figures 29 a and b , see also section 7. Stress relaxation, occurring at the edges can lead to an avoidance of closure domain structure [ ], closure domains are repelled from the edges in positive magnetostrictive tensile stressed Ni 45 Fe 55 films figure 29 f.
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An alternative way of patterning by local ion irradiation leads to domain formation without the need of magneto-static energy contributions figures 29 g — i as will be discussed in section 7. Low magnetic anisotropy leads to complicated domain structures in soft magnetic CoFe-based films [ , ] as seen in figures 29 j and k.
Soft magnetic thin films with out-of-plane anisotropy display different types of magnetic stripe domains [ , ] figures 29 l and m , the characteristics of which can be studied by MO microscopy see also figure 11 a. Magnetic domain formation due to nucleation and incomplete annihilation strongly influences the magnetization processes in perpendicular anisotropy thin films [ ] figure 29 n.


The Model LE-05 Laser Extensometer is a precision, wide range instrument specifically designed for accurate, non-contact measurement of strain on various materials under tensile or creep conditions. The instrument is completely self-contained. It is housed in a single, compact enclosure and uses the latest state-of-the-art laser diode technology for high performance, low maintenance operation.
The Model LE-05 includes a digital display, 4-button keypad, analog output, and an RS-232 computer interface, all of which are located on the rear panel. Instrument operation can be local from rear panel or remote via the RS-232 interface.
Designed to handle a wide range of strain measurement applications, the Model LE-05 is extremely simple to operate. It uses a unique scanning laser beam technique to measure elongation entirely from one side of the specimen. This approach eliminates the need for a separate scan receiver unit mounted on the opposite side of the specimen. However, for special applications requiring transmission around or through a specimen, alternative methods can be implemented. In addition, a “high elongation” version of the Model LE-05 is also available for measuring the strain of elastomeric materials.
1 Over optimum displacement range at calibrated target distance.


SightLogix, the smart thermal camera leader for detecting intruders with high accuracy in the outdoors, has released a new, web-based configuration software called WebConfig that makes it even easier to integrate SureView’s Immix software with SightSensor detection cameras.
“Our collaboration with SureView provides a rapid, proactive response for managing security, and WebConfig enhances our integration by greatly reducing configuration time,” said John Romanowich, President and CEO.
Key Immix features in WebConfig include easy-to-use drop-down fields for defining Immix settings, creating pre- and post-trigger video clips that are automatically sent to an Immix-based monitoring center along with live video, and testing connectivity with one-click alarm simulations. WebConfig also provides a range of innovations to streamline the setup process, allowing users to calibrate cameras, configure key parameters and create accurate video analytic detection rules quickly and easily.
Additionally, every setting in WebConfig includes embedded mouse-over tooltips that explain each feature and their proper use.
The initial version of WebConfig supports SightSensor HD, the affordable thermal-visible detection camera announced last October. Future releases of WebConfig will support the entire SightLogix thermal camera line.
You can learn more about WebConfig at www.sightlogix.com/webconfig-software/
About SightLogix, Inc.
SightLogix makes smart thermal camera systems that protect outdoor sites, including assets in the energy, transportation, chemical, utility, communications, government and defense industries – as well as private, independent businesses around the world. Unlike video surveillance cameras that simply record video for review, SightLogix SightSensors automatically detect security violations in real-time to alert responders with full situational awareness. For more information, visit www.sightlogix.com.


Vision is important for many things such as for driving, for seeing, for reading and more. We cannot say that, all such people have good sight. There are people that may have short sightedness, long sightedness and other sight issues owing to playing games, watching the mobile screen for a long time and taking unhealthy foods. No matter, what could be the reason for your eye sight issues, but you have to correct it anyway. Why do not you go with the laser treatment? Laser treatment is an advanced technology that is now used to correct many eye diseases. If you take laser eye treatment, you do not have to wear the contact lenses or glasses at all for your vision issues. Ahead taking the laser eye treatment, you have to know about what is it actually. The laser eye treatment uses the highest quality and accurate laser called Excimer. This laser is used to sculpt the corneal tissue of the eyes to assist the light rays from the laser to refract precisely on the retina of the eye. This method of treatment helps to remove many eye diseases to the point. This is why you are asked to undergo the laser treatment. If you have a good sight, then you can drive your car to the point without worrying about anything.
Myths that you need to know about the modern sight treatment
- The laser surgery for eyes will surely let you be free from the issues and inconveniences that you were going through. Still, it is important to know some facts about the laser eye treatment.
- You have to determine whether or not you are a suitable candidate for the laser eye treatment. The right candidates for the laser eye treatment are the ones that suffer from refractive errors such as astigmatism, myopia and hyperopia. If you suffering from any of these issues, you can reckon taking the laser eye treatment.
- The conditions like short sightedness, long sightedness, blur vision and other vision impairment can only be treated by the laser eye treatment. This shows that, the laser eye treatment is clearly intended for treating the issues that demand people to wear either glasses or contact lenses.
- You will not be guaranteed a 20 out 20 vision with the laser eye treatment, but you can see the dramatic changes in your life. After the laser eye treatment, the person is able to run a normal life without the assistance of lenses or glasses.
You should know the laser eye surgery cost ahead, taking the treatment.


SCILOGEX SCI-V1000 Spectrophotometer 325~1000nm
SCILOGEX SCI-V1000 Spectrophotometer 325~1000nm, with Tungsten Lamp, 4 x 3.5ml glass square cuvettes, USA plug, 110/220 V, 50/60 Hz, 80 W
SCI-V1000 Spectrophotometer Features:
- User Friendly Operation and Information Rich LCD Display: The large 128 x 64 dots, backlit LCD screen with adjustable brightness control displays a large array of data also in graphical format.
- On-Board Data Storage: The System can save the test results, up to 200 groups of data and 200 standard curves in the RAM memory.
- Data can be restored after a sudden power failure.
- Auto setting wavelength: To set wavelength automatically to calibrate the system through arrow keys to avoid operation errors.
- Automatic Switching: Tungsten & Deuterium lamps switching is automatic. Selectable from a wavelength range of 190 to 1100nm.
- Large sample compartment: To accommodate 5–100mm path length cuvettes with optional holders. A variety of optional accessories are available.
The spectrophotometer is an indispensable instrument routinely used in colleges, universities and research institutes for quantitative analysis in fields including biotechnology and quality control of new material developed. V-Series provides high resolution, high performance and excellent stability