The largest astronomical telescope designed to operate beyond the interfering effects of the earth's atmosphere is scheduled to be transported into orbit by the U.S. space shuttle in 1985
The earth's atmosphere is an imperfect window on the universe. Electromagnetic waves in the optical part of the spectrum (that is, waves longer than X rays and shorter than radio waves) penetrate to the surface of the earth only in a few narrow spectral bands. The widest of the transmitted bands corresponds roughly to the colors of visible light; waves in the flanking ultraviolet and infrared regions of the optical spectrum are almost totally absorbed by the atmosphere. In addition, atmospheric turbulence blurs the images of celestial objects, even when they are viewed through the most powerful ground-based telescopes.
Accordingly the advantages of making astronomical observations from outside the atmosphere have long been recognized. In the past few decades considerable experience has been gained in the remote operation of telescopes that have been carried above most or all of the atmosphere by suborbital rockets, high-altitude balloons and artificial earth satellites. Significant findings have come from these efforts, altering theories of the structure and evolution of the universe.
The next stage in this program of exploration is the Space Telescope, which is scheduled to be put into orbit around the earth by the U.S. space shuttle in 1985. The Space Telescope will be a conventional reflecting telescope with unconventional capabilities. It will be the largest astronomical telescope ever orbited. It will also be the first long-term international scientific facility in space.
The Space Telescope, which is now under construction, is designed as a multi-purpose astronomical observatory. It will have a 2.4-meter (94-inch) primary mirror capable of concentrating electromagnetic radiation in the entire optical part of the spectrum. It will be equipped initially with an assortment of scientific instruments for recording extraordinarily high-resolution astronomical images, for detecting extremely faint objects, for collecting various kinds of spectrographic data and for making very precise measurements of the position of radiant sources in the sky. The observations will be made from an altitude of some 500 kilometers (300 miles), well above the obscuring layers of the atmosphere.
The plans for the Space Telescope have been developed by a large number of scientists and engineers, working for almost a decade under the supervision of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The prime contractors charged with the actual construction are the Perkin-Elmer Corporation (responsible for the telescope itself) and the Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Inc. (responsible for the supporting spacecraft system and for the integration of the components into a working whole). The total cost of the project is currently estimated at S750 million.
The projected lifetime of the Space Telescope is 15 years, although in principle there is no reason it could not be operated for many decades. An essential element in ensuring such a long lifetime (and in keeping costs within reasonable limits) is the availability of the space shuttle, which not only will deploy the telescope but also will service it on a regular basis. Astronauts from the shuttle will visit the Space Telescope whenever the instruments on board the observatory need maintenance, repair or replacement. At longer intervals (perhaps every five years) the entire Space Telescope will be returned to the earth by the shuttle for refurbishment of the mirror and other major components. The telescope will then be returned to orbit.
With suitable instrumentation the Space Telescope should be able to respond to electromagnetic waves ranging in length from about 115 nanometers (billionths of a meter) in the far-ultraviolet region of the spectrum to about a million nanometers (or one millimeter) in the far-infrared. Thus the spectral band accessible to the telescope could extend over a range of wavelengths that differ by a factor of 10,000. In contrast, ground-based telescopes have a clear view of colors that range in wavelength from about 300 to 1,000 nanometers, a span of less than a factor of 10.
Because the Space Telescope will be immune to the blurring effects of atmospheric turbulence it will be able to obtain much sharper images of celestial objects than ground-based telescopes can, even at the same wavelengths that are observable from the ground. The maximum spatial resolution attainable with the Space Telescope will be on the order of a tenth of an arc-second, most astronomical images made with ground-based instruments have a resolution not much better than an arc-second. The tenfold improvement in resolution will make possible more detailed observations of extended objects. It is also expected to enable astronomers to see stars some seven times farther from the solar system than is now possible.
The observing program for the Space Telescope will be administered for NASA by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), a consortium of 17 universities organized originally to operate several facilities for the National Science Foundation, including the national astronomical observatories at Kitt Peak in Arizona and at Cerro Tololo in Chile. The center for the initial processing and analysis of data from the telescope will be the Space Telescope Science Institute, a new facility that is being established by AURA on the campus of Johns Hopkins University. The first director of the institute is Riccardo Giacconi, who led the scientific teams for the highly successful Uhuru and Einstein X-ray satellites. The operation of the Space Telescope will be the joint responsibility of the institute and of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. The Goddard center will have direct control of the satellite and will serve as the collection point for the data transmitted back to the earth.
The European Space Agency (ESA) is covering approximately 15 percent of the cost of the Space Telescope and will have an independent data-analysis center at the headquarters of the European Southern Observatory in Munich. The ESA is supplying the solar panels for powering the observatory, a high-resolution faint-object camera for the instrument section and a number of scientists and technicians for the staff of the Space Telescope Science Institute. In return European astronomers will be entitled to 15 percent of the observing time. Astronomers from other parts of the world will also work with the telescope, making it a truly international observatory.
The first astronomical observations from space were made in the late 1940's with captured German V-2 rockets. Some of these early liquid-fuel rockets were brought to the U.S. after World War II and were used to send various scientific instruments far above the atmosphere for several minutes of observation. Smaller solid-fuel rockets were later developed specifically for scientific research; they typically lifted a payload of about 100 pounds to a maximum altitude of 100 miles, giving an observation time of a few minutes above the obscuring layers of the atmosphere. The subsequent development of lightweight, solid-state electronic devices has made it possible to build increasingly complex and capable scientific instruments for such missions without prohibitive increases in the power needed to lift them.
The first application of the high-altitude technology was to the study of the sun. In 1946 a rocket-launched spectrometer developed by workers at the U.S. Naval Observatory obtained the first ultraviolet solar spectrogram, revealing absorption features not previously detected in the radiation from any celestial object. It was not until 1957 that ultraviolet radiation from a star was recorded. The spectrographic resolution of this early measurement was quite coarse, with a measuring bandwidth of several tens of nanometers. The early rockets could not be aimed accurately; they rotated freely in space and so could not give the long exposure needed for a precise measurement of the faint radiation from a distant star. In the 1960's techniques were developed for pointing rocket-borne instruments at a star, utilizing small gyroscopes to provide an inertial reference system. As a result stellar spectrograms were recorded with a measuring bandwidth of about a tenth of a nanometer. This achievement marked the beginning of active research on many aspects of stellar atmospheres and interstellar matter.
Meanwhile another group of astronomers employed balloons to lift optical telescopes to altitudes of about 20 miles, above the densest part of the atmosphere. In the late 1950's a 12-inch telescope of this type, named Stratoscope I, obtained extraordinarily sharp pictures of the sun. In the following decade its successor, the 36-inch Stratoscope II, made several photographs of planets and star systems with a resolution close to a tenth of an arc-second.
An artificial earth satellite, which can operate in orbit for years, offers a much better platform for mounting an optical telescope than either a suborbital rocket or a balloon. As aerospace technology has progressed satellites have become the primary vehicles for extraterrestrial astronomy.
With satellites as with the earlier rockets and balloons the first observations made were of the sun. The process of finding an object in the sky and pointing a telescope at it is much easier with the sun than with a more distant star. Beginning in the 1960's NASA built and operated a series of Orbiting Solar Observatories, equipped with various instruments for studying the solar atmosphere.
The first NASA satellites designed for stellar observations were named the Orbiting Astronomical Observatories. Two satellites of this type were operated successfully, one from 1968 to 1973 and the other from 1972 to 1981. Both of them were used mainly for analyzing ultraviolet radiation from stars. The first one had a fairly low spectrographic resolution: its measuring bandwidth was 1.2 nanometers. The second, named Copernicus, was far superior in this respect: its measuring bandwidth was .005 nanometer. The development of precise guidance systems for such satellites was a major technological achievement. The Copernicus telescope, which had a mirror 32 inches in diameter, could stay pointed toward a star for several minutes with a maximum deviation of about .02 arc-second.
The two Orbiting Astronomical Observatories yielded a wealth of data. For example, observations made with the Copernicus satellite showed that much of the hydrogen in interstellar clouds is in the form of molecules rather than individual atoms.
COLOR-CODED TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS of the surface of the primary mirror were made on the screen of a computer-graphics terminal as an aid in determining the corrective action needed for each of the 24 cycles in the final, eight-month polishing process. The maps were based on precise interferometric measurements of the shape of the surface. The two maps shown were made at the start and the finish of the computer-controlled polishing process. The white areas represent the average surface of the mirror; the dark blue and dark red areas correspond respectively to highs and lows. At the start deviations from the prescribed shape were as great as 100 millionths of an inch; at the finish the maximum deviation was less than a millionth of an inch over most of the surface. The finished primary is the finest large astronomical mirror ever made. According to Perkin-Elmer, ``so nearly perfect is the surface that if the mirror were scaled up to the width of the continental United States, no hill or valley would depart from the mean surface by more than about 2 1/2 inches.''
Moreover, many oxygen atoms in the regions between the clouds were found to be highly ionized, indicating that the gas between the clouds is very hot: on the order of a million degrees Kelvin. The satellite data also showed that the cosmic ratio of atoms of deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, to atoms of ordinary hydrogen is about one to 100,000. According to certain cosmological theories, this measurement supports the view that the universe will continue to expand forever.
The most recent optical telescope in space is the International Ultraviolet Explorer, a satellite developed jointly by NASA, the ESA and the British Science Research Council; it has been measuring the ultraviolet spectrum of comparatively faint objects since 1978. Although the performance of this instrument is limited by the size of its mirror (which is 18 inches in diameter), it has been particularly effective in obtaining ultraviolet spectrograms of galactic nuclei and in analyzing the interstellar gas in remote parts of our galaxy.
The concept of a much larger space telescope has evolved slowly over the past two decades. The first official notice of such a project appeared in 1962 in the report of a group of scientists organized for NASA by the National Academy of Sciences to study the future of space science. The group recommended the development of a large space telescope as a logical long-range goal of the U.S. space-science program. The recommendation was repeated by a similar study group in 1965. Soon afterward the National Academy established a committee chaired by one of us (Spitzer) to define the scientific objectives of a proposed space telescope with an aperture of approximately three meters. The report of this group was issued in 1969. In spite of the many advantages cited for such a large space telescope, most astronomers were simply too busy at the time to take an active part in promoting its development. Ground-based astronomy had entered an exciting ``olden era'' with the discovery of phenomena such as quasars, the cosmic microwave background radiation and pulsating neutron stars, and few people were prepared to devote the many years of effort needed to develop a facility as complex and costly as a large space telescope.
In 1972 another committee of the National Academy of Sciences, chaired by Jesse L. Greenstein of the California Institute of Technology, reviewed the needs and priorities of astronomy in the 1970's and again drew attention to the capabilities of a large space telescope. Although the nature and cost of such a device were then only partially defined, it was viewed as a realistic and desirable long-range goal.
Meanwhile NASA had assembled a small group of astronomers under the direction of Nancy G. Roman to provide scientific guidance for the space-telescope feasibility studies then being done at Goddard and at the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala. Representatives of academic institutions, NASA research centers and industrial contractors assisted in the initial effort.
In 1973 NASA selected a group of scientists from several academic institutions to help establish the basic design of the telescope and its instruments. The group worked with NASA scientists and engineers to determine what objectives for the telescope were feasible and which of them should be given priority. The main scientific guidance was provided by a 12-member working group (on which both of us served) chaired by C. R. O'Dell of the University of Chicago. In order to head the scientific effort for the still unfunded Space Telescope project O'Dell left his positions as professor and chairman of the astronomy department at Chicago and as director of the Yerkes Observatory.
In 1977 NASA selected a new group of 60 scientists from 38 institutions to participate in the design and development of the proposed observatory. The scientific direction of this effort is again guided by a science working group headed by O'Dell; the current membership of the working group includes key NASA employees, the principal investigators responsible for the initial scientific instruments, several interdisciplinary scientists (including Bahcall) and specialists in data handling, spacecraft operations and telescope optics.
ATMOSPHERIC ABSORPTION of electromagnetic radiation limits ground-based optical astronomy primarily to the narrow spectral band corresponding to visible light. Radiation in the flanking ultraviolet and infrared regions is almost totally blocked. The upper edge of the gray areas indicates the boundary where the intensity of the radiation at each wavelength is reduced to half its original value. A nanometer is a billionth of a meter, or 10 angstrom units.
The Space Telescope program almost didn't happen. Between 1974 and 1978 the project was repeatedly in danger of being canceled or postponed indefinitely as a result of congressional and executive budgetary reviews. After an intensive lobbying effort, joined not only by hundreds of astronomers but also by many interested scientists in other fields, construction was finally authorized in 1977. The program survived its first appropriations test in Congress in 1978, and since then it has consistently met with a sympathetic and informed response on Capitol Hill.
|SPACE SHUTTLE will carry the Space Telescope to an altitude of approximately 500 kilometers (300 miles) and then release it into orbit with the aid of a mechanical arm The solar-power panels, communications antennas and aperture door, which will be stowed while the satellite is being carried in the shuttle's cargo bay, will be deployed by the satellite after its release. The telescope will be visited by the shuttle for maintenance, repair and replacement of parts. Every five years or so the entire satellite will be returned to the earth for refurbishment.|
By the time the Space Telescope was formally approved detailed NASA studies had led to a comprehensive design, which is being followed for the most part in the actual construction of the observatory. The telescope itself consists of two hyperboloidal reflecting surfaces: the 94-inch concave primary mirror and a much smaller convex secondary mirror mounted about 16 feet in front of the primary. Light striking the primary mirror is reflected to the secondary, where it is directed through a hole in the center of the primary; the image comes to a focus several feet be hind the primary. The telescope is described as a Ritchey-Chretien type of Cassegrain optical system.
The scientific instruments that detect and measure the radiation concentrated in the focal plane are installed in an array of boxes mounted behind the primary mirror. Four of the boxes are aligned parallel to the optical axis of the telescope and four are arranged radially around the axis. Of the four radial boxes three house the telescope's fine-guidance system. The tube of the telescope extends more than 10 feet in front of the secondary in order to shield the optical system from stray light, most of which is direct light from the sun and scattered sunlight from the earth and the moon. A system of internal baffles provides additional shielding. Electronic equipment and other devices are housed in a toroidal section surrounding the telescope tube at its base. Two panels of solar cells for powering the equipment and two dish-shaped radio antennas for communicating with the earth extend from the midsection. The cylindrical body of the satellite is about 42 feet long and 14 feet in diameter.
The most remarkable feature of the Space Telescope will be the unprecedented quality of the images formed at its focal plane. The optical surfaces will be as nearly perfect as modern technology can make them: the average deviation of the two reflecting surfaces from their ideal contour will not exceed 10 nanometers. To avoid thermal distortions the mirrors are made of fused silica glass with an extremely low coefficient of thermal expansion. In addition they will be maintained thermostatically at a nearly constant temperature while they are in space. The position of the two mirrors with respect to each other and to the focal surface will be adjustable by remote control to yield the sharpest images possible. The fine-guidance system, which will take a fix on stellar images in the outer part of the telescope's field of view, is expected to be able to hold the optical axis steady to within .01 arc-second for as long as 10 hours. (Internal reaction wheels will serve to aim the telescope and hold it steady; commanding such a wheel to rotate faster in one direction will cause the entire telescope to turn in the opposite direction.)
Six major scientific instruments are scheduled to be included in the Space Telescope's instrument section from the time it is launched through its first few years of operation. The first five are called the wide-field/planetary camera, the faint-object camera, the faint-object spectrograph, the high-resolution spectrograph and the high-speed photometer. In addition the fine-guidance system will give the telescope an astrometric capability, that is, an ability to measure the exact position of stars. Although the two mirrors will have a high reflection efficiency for radiation at all wavelengths in the optical region of the spectrum, no infrared-sensitive instrument will be included in the initial stage. Nevertheless, all aspects of the observatory are planned to be consistent with the possible future inclusion of an instrument sensitive to radiation with wavelengths as long as a millimeter.
The entrance apertures of the four axially mounted instruments are at the focal plane of the telescope. There the total field of view, which measures 28 arc-minutes in angular units, is almost half a meter in linear diameter; the resulting scale of the image at the focal plane is 3.58 arc-seconds per millimeter. With suitable pointing commands the image of any object in the field of view can be directed toward any one of the four axial instruments or toward the fifth, radially mounted one. Each instrument is designed so that it can be removed in orbit and a new instrument installed in its place by a space-suited astronaut operating from the space shuttle.
An on-board computer, external to the scientific instruments, will control the operation of the observatory and handle the flow of data. The computer will be reprogrammable, making it possible to modify the procedures as experience is gained with the instruments. Astronomers and spacecraft controllers will communicate with the Space Telescope by means of the NASA Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System. All data will be relayed back to the earth through this system also, for delivery ultimately to the Space Telescope Science Institute.
The principal investigators responsible for developing the initial set of instruments were chosen after intense competition. By the time the satellite is launched each of these investigators and his colleagues will have spent more than eight years building a general-purpose instrument for the potential use of all astronomers. In recognition of this effort each principal investigator and his team will be awarded more than a month of observing time.
INTERNAL COMPONENTS are drawn in black and external components in color in this overall perspective view of the Space Telescope in its deployed configuration. The cylindrical body of the satellite is approximately 42 feet long and 14 feet in diameter. The scientific instruments are designed so that they can be replaced in orbit by a space-suited astronaut operating from the space shuttle.
The principal investigator for the wide-field/planetary camera is James A. Westphal of Cal Tech. This instrument, as its name suggests, can be operated in either of two modes: as a wide-field camera or as a higher-resolution camera suitable for, among other things, planetary observations. In each mode the detection system consists of four charge-coupled devices (CCD's): microelectronic silicon ``chips'' that convert a pattern of incident light into a sequence of electrical signals. Each chip is a square measuring almost half an inch on a side and is subdivided into an array of pixels, or individual picture elements, with 800 pixels on a side. A single chip therefore has a total of 640,000 pixels, and the four part mosaic image formed by a set of four CCD's has more than 2.5 million pixels. Each pixel yields an electrical signal proportional to the number of photons, or quanta of electromagnetic radiation, reaching it during an exposure.
The wide field/planetary camera is mounted on the side of the telescope that will generally be kept away from the sun. Incoming light passing along the optical axis of the telescope is directed outward at a right angle by means of a flat ``pick-off'' mirror held by a rigid arm at a 45-degree angle to the optical axis. The diagonal mirror diverts only the central part of the incoming beam; the rest of the light passes around the mirror to the other instruments.
In the wide field mode the camera has a square field of view 2.67 arc-minutes on a side, the largest field of any of the instruments. Each pixel in this mode subtends an angle of .1 arc-second. In a sense the wide field camera compromises the angular resolution of the telescope in order to provide a field of view large enough for the study of extended sources such as planetary nebulas, galaxies and clusters of galaxies. Even so, the field of view is much smaller than the field that can be recorded on a photographic plate by a ground-based telescope. In the Space Telescope the field is limited by the size of the microelectronic detectors available for remotely acquiring, storing and digitizing pictures. The CCD's for the wide field/planetary camera, which are being supplied by Texas Instruments, Inc., have more pixels than any other CCD's used for astronomical purposes.
In the planetary mode the square field of view of the camera covers an area of the sky about a fifth as large as it does in the wide field mode; the field in the planetary mode measures 68.7 arc-seconds on a side, and an individual pixel subtends an angle of .043 arc-second. The planetary camera takes advantage of almost the full resolution of the optical system while providing a field of view that is more than adequate for full disk images of the planets. The high sensitivity of the CCD detection system makes possible the short exposure time required for certain planetary observations. The planetary mode will also be employed by many observers for high resolution studies of extended galactic and extragalactic objects.
The wide field/planetary camera is unique among the Space Telescope's instruments in several respects. It will gather by far the greatest number of bits of information: more than 30 million bits per picture. The spectral response of the detector will also be the widest available with any of the telescope's instruments: the camera will be sensitive to wavelengths ranging from 115 nanometers in the far-ultraviolet region to 1,100 nanometers in the near infrared. The wide spectral coverage is made possible by coating the CCD's with an organic phosphor, called Coronene, that converts photons of ultraviolet radiation into photons of visible light, which the silicon sensors can detect. The excellent response at the red end of the visible band is attributable to the natural sensitivity of the CCD's.
The CCD's used in both the wide field mode and the planetary mode have a low level of background electrical ``noise'' and hence are well suited for making pictures of faint sources. Part of the noise in such a device is thermal, and it will be reduced by cooling the detector elements thermoelectrically to about -95 degrees Celsius. The heat generated by the cooling system will be dissipated by a radiator that will form part of the outside surface of the satellite.
The incoming light to the instrument can be directed onto either the four CCD's of the wide field camera or the four CCD's of the planetary camera by means of a pyramidal mirror that can be rotated by 45 degrees about its axis, thereby allowing two essentially independent optical systems to be housed in one instrument compartment. Any of 48 filters can be inserted into the optical path. Thus the wide field/planetary camera is an extremely versatile instrument that will serve a broad range of astronomical purposes. We shall mention here just two of the many investigations that will be undertaken with this instrument.
The camera will be employed in both modes to make a series of images of certain nearby stars to see if they have planetary companions. The 10 or so stars selected for the study have been chosen because they all have a large proper motion (that is, motion across the sky). If any of the stars does have a planetary system, it may be possible, given the extraordinary resolution and accurate guidance of the Space Telescope, to detect periodic ``wobbles'' in the path of the star caused by the gravitational attraction of an unseen companion. The measurements are difficult ones, but the Space Telescope may finally resolve the long standing question of whether there are planetary systems similar to the solar system among the nearby stars.
OPTICAL PATH in the Space Telescope is said to be folded: light from the concave primary mirror is reflected from the convex secondary mirror and passes through a hole in the center of the primary before coming to a focus at the image plane in the instrument section several feet behind the primary. Technically the telescope is described as a Ritchey-Chrétien type of Cassegrain optical system.
Quasars are the most distant and the most energetic objects known in the universe. Each of these compact sources emits on the order of 100 times as much energy as a bright galaxy made up of 10 billion stars. Several competing theories have been put forward to explain how a quasar produces such an enormous amount of energy in such a small space, but some crucial observational tests required to settle the matter are not feasible with ground-based instruments. Some of the theories are based on the idea that quasars are ``sick'' galaxies; in other words, the quasars are supposed to represent a transient, disease-like stage in the evolution of an otherwise normal galaxy. To test these theories high-resolution images of quasars will be obtained with the wide-field/planetary camera to determine whether the bright objects that appear as point sources from the earth are surrounded by the fainter, more diffuse light of a galaxy. It should even be possible to tell whether the quasar stage is a disease of young galaxies or of old ones. This fundamental question is currently unanswerable because of the fuzziness of the images obtained with ground-based instruments.
The faint-object camera that will be supplied by the ESA is one of the four axially mounted instruments. The primary purpose of this second camera is to exploit the full optical power of the Space Telescope. It will detect the faintest objects visible with the telescope and will record images having the highest angular resolution attainable with the optical system. The project scientist for the faint-object camera is F. Macchetto of the ESA.
The faint-object camera is complementary in several ways to the wide- field/planetary camera. The faint-object camera will have a higher spatial resolution, whereas the wide-field/planetary camera will have a larger field of view. In the spectral region between 120 and 400 nanometers the faint-object camera will acquire an image more rapidly than the wide-field/planetary camera will. In the longer-wavelength, redward regions of the spectrum, however, the wide-field/planetary camera will be faster. In addition to forming images the faint-object camera will be able to determine the polarization of the detected radiation and to make spectroscopic measurements of both point objects and extended objects. The two cameras are not redundant, but they are designed to be sufficiently similar in function to ensure that an operable camera of some kind will be among the initial instruments even if a camera were to fail in orbit.
In the faint-object camera two similar but independent optical systems are provided to form an image of a point source. One system has a very small, square field of view, measuring 11 arc-seconds on a side; it has a pixel size of only .022 arc-second. The other system has a square field of view 22 arc-seconds on a side and a pixel size of .044 arc-second. In each system the detector consists of an image-intensifying device similar to the light-sensitive cathode-ray tube in a television camera. Unlike the CCD's in the wide-field/planetary camera, a detector of this kind counts individual photons.
INCOMING LIGHT is routed in different directions by an array of small ``pick-off'' mirrors positioned near the center of the Space Telescope's scientific-instrument section behind the primary mirror. The diamond-shaped flat mirror mounted diagonally on the optical axis directs light outward to the radially mounted wide-field/planetary camera. The three arc-shaped flat mirrors arranged around the outside of the incoming beam send light to the three fine-guidance sensors, which are also radially mounted. The light that bypasses these four mirrors comes to a focus at an image plane at the entrance apertures near at the front of the four axially mounted instrument boxes. The projections of the pick-off mirrors on this focal plane are shown in dark gray in the plan view at the bottom. Because the incoming beam is interrupted by the pick-off mirrors well in advance of the focal plane the areas blocked by the mirrors are slightly enlarged; the additional vignetted zones are represented by the light gray bands outlining the projected mirror zones. At the focal plane the field of view is 28 arc-minutes in angular diameter. The wide-field/planetary camera views a square region about three arc-minutes on a side in the center of the field. The remainder of the field out to a radius of about nine arc-minutes is divided into quadrants, each of which is viewed by one of the four axially mounted instruments. The outermost part of the field, roughly between nine and 14 arcminutes from the optical axis, is sampled by the fine-guidance system, which is designed not only to point the telescope but also to make precise measurements of the position of stars.
The faint-object camera is designed so that each point-source image produced by the telescope is sampled by several pixels. Hence it will be the instrument of choice when the highest possible resolution and the maximum contrast against the background sky are required. The camera will also be able to carry out spectroscopic and polarimetric studies of comparatively faint objects. In addition the camera will be able to view extremely narrow fields with an even smaller pixel size (approximately .007 arc-second).
The scientific tasks of the wide-field/ planetary camera and the faint-object camera are expected to overlap. Depending on the specific resolution, field of view and spectral region required, an observer may choose to work with one camera or the other. We shall mention here only one type of observation for which the faint-object camera should be particularly suited.
Globular clusters are spherical collections of millions of stars that can be seen from the ground on a clear night with a small telescope or even with binoculars. Because all the stars in a cluster are at approximately the same distance from the solar system one can test theoretical models of stellar evolution simply by counting the stars of various types in a cluster. The standard theory predicts that each globular cluster should include between about 10,000 and 100,000 of the stars called white dwarfs. These compact objects represent the last stage in the evolution of stars that have exhausted their nuclear fuels, cooled and collapsed. Because white dwarfs are very faint they cannot be seen at the great distances of the globular clusters with ground-based instruments. The Space Telescope's faint-object camera, however, should be able to detect many white dwarfs in globular clusters. By studying their properties it will be possible to learn much more about the evolution of stars.
The Space Telescope will have two spectrographs: optical devices that divide the incoming light from an astronomical source into separate beams according to wavelength. In spectroscopy resolution is usually defined as the ratio of the wavelength of the incoming light to the smallest separation that can be measured between two wavelengths. One of the two spectrographs on board the observatory, the faint-object spectrograph, will be able to observe faint stellar objects with a spectrographic resolution of 1,000 (equivalent to a measuring bandwidth of 1/1,000th of the wavelength). The principal investigator for this instrument is Richard J. Harms of the University of California at San Diego.
The faint-object spectrograph will be equipped with two systems of detectors. Both detectors are devices called Digicons; one is sensitive to red light and the other to blue light and ultraviolet radiation. A Digicon sensor operates on the basis of the photoelectric effect. The incoming light is spread out according to wavelength by a diffraction grating and strikes the surface of a thin photocathode layer deposited on a transparent plate. Light of a particular wavelength reaches a particular position along the photocathode, producing a spray of free electrons known as photoelectrons. A magnetic field focuses the photoelectrons at a point whose position depends on where they emerge from the photocathode and hence on the wavelength of the incident light. The photoelectrons are collected by a linear array of 512 diodes, each of which records the intensity of the incident light at a particular wavelength.
The faint-object spectrograph will be sensitive to radiation ranging in wavelength from about 115 to 800 nanometers. In addition the instrument will have two special features: it will be able to measure the polarization of the incoming light and to detect extremely fast variations (perhaps as brief as a few milliseconds) in the spectrum of radiation emitted by bright sources. Because the investigation of many astronomical problems depends on the spectral analysis of the radiation from extremely faint objects, this instrument is expected to be one of the busiest on the Space Telescope. By measuring the spectra of very distant quasars, for example, it should be possible to study the properties of the universe more than 10 billion years ago, perhaps 85 percent of the way back to the beginning of time (if, as the standard big-bang model of cosmology assumes, time actually had a beginning). Spectrograms of the most distant quasars are expected to indicate the chemical constitution of matter at that early stage in the evolution of the universe.
WlDE-FlELD/PLANETARY CAMERA is one of the instruments scheduled to be included in the Space Telescope during its first few years of operation The camera is designed to operate in either of two modes. In each mode the detection system consists of a rectangular array of four light-sensitive silicon ``chips'' called charge-coupled devices (CCD's). The incoming light reflected into the radially mounted instrument compartment by the diagonal pick-off mirror can be directed onto either the four CCD's of the wide-field camera or the four CCD's of the higher-resolution planetary camera by means of a pyramidal mirror that can be rotated by 45 degrees about its axis. Any of 48 filters can be inserted into the optical path. The external radiator serves to dissipate the heat generated by the cooling system associated with the detectors.
The investigation of some astronomical questions requires a higher spectrographic resolution than can be attained with the faint-object spectrograph, because the width of many emission and absorption features is narrower than the measuring bandwidth of the instrument. The high-resolution spectrograph will meet this need. Under normal operating conditions it will have a spectrographic resolution of 20,000. Narrow spectral features that might not even be detected with the lower-resolution faint-object spectrograph will be accurately measured, yielding information about the physical conditions under which the radiation was emitted. The high-resolution spectrograph will also have an ultrahigh-resolution mode of operation in which the spectrographic resolution will be improved by an additional factor of five to about 100,000. The principal investigator for the high-resolution spectrograph is John C. Brandt of Goddard.
Of course, there is a price to be paid for the higher resolution of this second spectrograph. Dividing the spectrum into a much larger number of bands in order to measure the flux of photons separately in each band has the effect of decreasing the number of photons detected per band. Thus higher resolution results in lower sensitivity, and the larger quantity of information provided by the high-resolution spectrograph can be obtained only for stars that are some 60 times brighter than those that can be studied with the faint-object spectrograph. This difference amounts to about 4.5 stellar magnitudes. For the ultrahigh-resolution mode the difference in brightness is a factor of more than 300, or the equivalent of about six stellar magnitudes.
The high-resolution spectrograph has six interchangeable diffraction gratings, each of which disperses light of different wavelengths in different directions. A camera mirror or grating then forms an image of the spectrum on the photoelectron-emitting surface of a Digicon sensor. By rotating the carousel on which the gratings are mounted, any one of them can be brought into the optical path of the instrument, making it possible to obtain a spectrographic reading at any wavelength between 110 and 320 nanometers.
This spectrograph with its normal resolution should be able to observe stars as faint as the 13th magnitude, or about six stellar magnitudes fainter than those observed by the Copernicus telescope. The gain in sensitivity over the spectrograph on the International Ultraviolet Explorer is not as great-about four magnitudes-but the spectrographic resolution and the photometric accuracy will be significantly better for the instrument on the Space Telescope.
The power of this instrument should open up a number of interesting new lines of inquiry. For example, the high-resolution spectrograph will make possible the study of interstellar gas at places in our galaxy and other galaxies where it cannot now be observed. Preliminary measurements by the International Ultraviolet Explorer have shown that the gas in the galactic ``halo'' between the earth and the nearest neighboring galaxy (one of the two Magellanic clouds) includes carbon atoms that have been stripped of three electrons indicating that the temperature in this region is about 100,000 degrees Kelvin. With the high-resolution spectrograph much more accurate data will be obtainable, perhaps revealing the relation between this gas and the even hotter material detected by Copernicus. Measurements of the way in which the properties of our galaxy vary from place to place will provide much-needed clues to the evolution of the system as a whole.
The high-resolution spectrograph will also be applied to the study of interstellar clouds. Ground-based observations of such clouds are able to detect only a few dark lines in the spectrum, created when the gas of the cloud absorbs radiation from background stars. In many instances each absorption line is split into multiple subfeatures, which can be attributed to separate clouds along the same line of sight. The clouds are moving with somewhat different speeds toward the solar system or away from it, altering the characteristic wavelengths at which they absorb radiation. The splitting of the absorption lines makes it possible to study each cloud separately, provided the spectrographic resolution is high enough. With the high-resolution spectrograph it will be possible to analyze a wide range of ultraviolet absorption features from various atoms and molecules and to determine the physical conditions in each cloud. Our understanding of how such interstellar clouds come together and contract to form stars may depend critically on the results of such studies.
The high-speed photometer, which is being developed by Robert C. Bless and his colleagues at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, is designed to make highly accurate measurements, with an extraordinary temporal resolution, of the intensity of the light from astronomical sources over a wide range of wavelengths. The photometer will be capable of distinguishing events separated in time by only 10 microseconds. Observations of sources that vary over time scales this short are difficult or impossible with ground-based instruments because of fluctuations in the atmosphere.
RANGE OF WAVELENGTHS potentially accessible to the Space Telescope extends from the far-ultraviolet part of the spectrum (left) to the far-infrared (right). For comparison the spectral bands that can be observed with the unaided human eye and with a large ground-based telescope (in this case the 200-inch Hale telescope on Palomar Mountain) under normal observing conditions are also indicated. The vertical scale gives the relative brightness (in terms of stellar magnitude) of the faintest celestial object that can be imaged; an increase of one unit in stellar magnitude corresponds to a decrease in apparent brightness by a factor of about 2.5.
The high-speed photometer is the simplest of the instruments in the initial group on board the Space Telescope. It has no moving parts and relies entirely on the fine pointing of the spacecraft to direct the light from an astronomical target onto one of its 100 or so combinations of spectral filters and entrance apertures. The photometer has four independent, magnetically focused detectors, called image dissectors; they resemble photomultiplier tubes in operation, except that they can be made to respond only to photoelectrons coming from the small region of the photocathode on which the light is focused. Each image dissector is mounted behind a plate that holds an assortment of filters and entrance apertures.
The overall spectral response of the image dissectors extends from about 115 to 650 nanometers. The instrument is also equipped with a red-sensitive photomultiplier tube and a system for measuring the polarization of ultraviolet radiation with the aid of one of the image dissectors.
The high-speed photometer will be capable in principle of detecting the smallest objects observable with any of the instruments on the Space Telescope. The ability to distinguish events that are separated in time by only 10 micro-seconds implies (according to the special theory of relativity) that variations in the light output of a star as small as three kilometers across could be detected. This is an extraordinarily small linear dimension for a star; indeed, it is very close to the diameter the sun would have if it were compressed to such a high density that it formed a black hole. Accordingly, one program scheduled for the high-speed photometer is to search for extremely fast variations in astronomical systems that are suspected of harboring a black hole, in the hope of finding further evidence of these elusive entities. The high-speed photometer will also be used for less exotic observations, including an attempt to identify optically faint objects observed mainly at radio or X-ray wavelengths.
Under the best observing conditions ground-based measurements of the position of any star are limited by the size of the star's blurry ``seeing disk,'' which is generally at least one arc-second in diameter. In determining the angular distance between two stars an uncertainty of about .1 arc-second, or a tenth of the diameter of the stellar image, is typical for a single observation. By averaging many exposures the uncertainty can be reduced to about .01 arc-second. Random errors result in corresponding uncertainties in the determination of a star's parallax. (Parallax is the average angular change in the apparent position of a star resulting from the revolution of the earth about the sun.) The determination of distance beyond the solar system is based largely on measurements of the parallax of comparatively nearby stars. Since the measurement of a stellar image with the Space Telescope will be accurate to within about .002 arc-second, the determination of stellar position, and hence of stellar parallax, should be about five times better than it is with ground-based telescopes. The fivefold improvement in the accuracy of stellar- parallax measurements is of fundamental importance to all of stellar astronomy. For example, knowing the precise distance of certain comparatively young star clusters in our galaxy will enable astronomers to determine the absolute brightness of the stars in the clusters. This knowledge in turn will make it possible to extend the calibrated distance scale, which is based on the comparison of apparent brightness and absolute brightness, to stars that are much farther away.
The Space Telescope has not been equipped with a separate instrument for astrometry because the fine-guidance system will be accurate enough to make the necessary measurements of the angular distance between stars. The leader of the team for astrometry is William H. Jefferys of the University of Texas at Austin.
Observing time on the Space Telescope will be allocated to astronomers from all parts of the world by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which will be responsible for facilitating the most effective scientific use of the powerful new observatory. To provide visiting astronomers with the most efficient operating systems, to assist and advise observers on the optimum use of the various instruments and to help create a stimulating atmosphere for research with the Space Telescope outstanding astronomers from the U.S. and abroad are being recruited to serve on the institute's staff. It is expected that half of their time will be devoted to the diverse tasks of the institute, with the other half available for their own research programs. The new institute will also make recommendations to NASA on broad policy matters pertaining to the Space Telescope. The involvement of outside astronomers in determining the policies of the institute is being ensured through a number of external committees.
The institute will solicit outside proposals for specific observing programs for the Space Telescope. With the aid of peer-review groups the institute will evaluate the proposals and select the most promising programs for inclusion in the telescope's schedule. In many cases the programs selected will be combined with those submitted by the original scientific-instrument teams, by other members of the Space Telescope working group and by the European groups. The final scheduling and the preparation of a complete list of commands for the operating computer will be done by NASA, which will retain responsibility for the day-to-day operation of the observatory.
Astronomers on the staff of the institute will advise outside astronomers on the formulation of observing plans. Other staff astronomers will be responsible for maintaining the calibration of the instruments and for the initial processing of data. Computer specialists will help to develop suitable programs for use by the astronomers in analyzing the data. Finally, the Space Telescope Science Institute will assist astronomers in communicating the results of their studies to other scientists, to NASA, to Congress and to the public.
The Space Telescope will help to solve many outstanding astronomical puzzles. The greatest excitement, however, will come when the pictures returned from the satellite reveal things no one in this generation of astronomers has dreamed of, phenomena that only the next generation will be privileged to understand.
TENFOLD IMPROVEMENT in spatial resolution expected with the Space Telescope will enable astronomers to make more detailed observations of extended objects. In this simulation the picture at the top represents the image of a distant spiral galaxy obtained with the 200-inch Hale telescope and the picture at the bottom represents the corresponding image obtained with the Space Telescope. Actually the picture at the bottom is a digitized version of a photograph of a nearby galaxy made with the 200-inch telescope and the picture at the top is a blurred version of the same image made by defocusing the original by an amount proportional to the difference in the effective resolution obtainable with the two instruments. The simulation was prepared by John L. Tonry of the Institute for Advanced Study.


In 2005, five years before Joseph Kosinski directed his first feature, TRON: Legacy, he wrote a 12-page story titled Oblivion. In his sci-fi adventure set in 2077 — six decades after an alien invasion irradiates Earth — readers follow the missions of Jack, a repairman on a nearly destroyed planet who is uncertain of his place in the universe.
The Bubbleship is Jack’s (Tom Cruise) primary form of transportation as he travels to and from Earth’s surface. Kosinski was thrilled to see the vehicle he imagined several years ago — a hybrid of a jet fighter and a Bell 47 helicopter — finally come to life on the big screen. “The Bubbleship was the first thing we designed for the film,” he offers. “For everyone who grew up on Top Gun, like I did in the ’80s, it is pretty spectacular to see Tom back in the cockpit flying an aircraft like this.” Producer Peter Chernin adds, “Tom’s a flying junkie. He’s a pilot himself. I think he had a lot of fun with the Bubbleship, and you can see it on the screen.”
Once approved designs were in place, the Bubbleship took four months to build in a warehouse in Los Angeles. Then it was taken apart, shipped off for filming and subsequently reassembled in Louisiana, Iceland and Mammoth, Calif.
For the design, Daniel Simon and his team at Wildfactory in Camarillo, Calif., were inspired by emergent NASA technology. Still, Simon knew how critical it was for the audience to comprehend how the Bubbleship might be able to fly. From dials, foot pedals and joysticks to a seat with lumbar support, the cockpit resembles a helicopter, while still evoking a futuristic craft. Made of aluminum and fiberglass and weighing in at 4,500 pounds, the Bubbleship travels in seven containers, with four technicians accompanying the vehicle. It has to be disassembled for air cargo, and it may only be lifted by forklift. It takes five hours to assemble, with a four-person crew working nonstop on all of its parts.
Cruise discusses the experience of being on the Bubbleship: “Joe showed me the drawings and the concept art, and I just thought, ‘This is so cool.’ I’m a pilot, and I love the way he designed it. It’s as beautiful as it is onscreen. Every piece of it was so smooth and elegant, and they designed it to fit my body for all the action.” He laughs, “I want someone to build it so we can fly it for real.”
Oblivion is available starting Aug. 6 on Video On Demand. Check your cable system for availability.
© 2013 Universal Studios
Credit: Universal Pictures


Lockheed Martin Corporation
Job Description : Candidate will support development of applications for Training and Simulation Tools. Development will be conducted with senior programmers and other team members to support development with the Unity 3D game engine along with HTML5 & WebGL. Additionally, will be required to support maintenance for existing programs and databases. You will be required to perform research and development on 3D \/ 2D simulations for training and simulation applications. The content will pertain to augmented reality, web-based virtual worlds, and game based immersive environments. Simulations will play out in a 2D and 3D workspace environments. You will be part of the entire software development lifecycle including developing requirements, design, implementation, integration, installation, testing, and deployment. Tasks will include the development of lesson based simulation solutions and the development of 3D automation tools. The end users must follow linear defined steps and procedures in order to complete the simulation\/lesson. Content must be able to integrate with various operating systems. Projects are developed with a small team of developers. Basic Qualifications Ability to develop in C# Experience with 3D gaming engines such as Unity 3D Must be able to develop, test, and debug applications Experience with 3D \/ 2D Simulations for training applications. Experience in the development of lesson based simulation solutions and the development of 3D automation tools. Candidate must be highly motivated and able to work in a team environment. Desired skills C XML (Ability to Parse XML content) SQL VB.Net HTML5 As a leading technology innovation company, Lockheed Martin\u2019s vast team works with partners around the world to bring proven performance to our customers\u2019 toughest challenges. Lockheed Martin has employees based in many states throughout the U.S., and Internationally, with business locations in many nations and territories. Join us at Lockheed Martin, where we\u2019re engineering a better tomorrow.
Lockheed Martin Corporation
Website : http://www.lockheedmartin.com
Our employees are the core of our business here at Lockheed Martin. As the leading global security & aerospace company—and the #1 IT provider to the U.S. government—Lockheed Martin is a 115,000 person-strong team working to support the U.S. and its allies in the research, development and sustainment of advanced technology systems & services worldwide. Specialties Aeronautics, Information Technology, Space Systems, Defense, Technology, Cyber Security Over one hundred years ago, on August 16, 1912, Glenn L. Martin established the Glenn L. Martin Company in Los Angeles, California. He started the company after building his first plane in a rented church, where he took a leap of faith on his risky but innovative new aircraft design at the urging of none other than Orville Wright. Four months later and four hundred miles away, on December 19, 1912, Allan and Malcolm Lockheed founded the Alco Hydro-Aeroplane Company, later renamed the Lockheed Aircraft Company. Talented mechanics, they set up shop out of a garage, constructing seaplanes that would shatter speed and distance records for overwater flights.


July 17, 2017 - MAGNET APPLICATIONS, INC. AWARDED ITAR CERTIFICATION
DUBOIS, PA – Magnet Applications®, Inc., a leading provider of compression bonded magnets, injection molded magnets and magnetic assemblies to the automotive, medical, defense and aerospace industries, today announced it has once again received the official International Traffic in Arms (ITAR) certification from the U.S. Department of State. ITAR is required to do projects with military or defense customers.
“Magnet Applications has decades of experience in magnet and magnetic assembly design and manufacturing for military, aerospace and defense projects,” explained Don Lindstrom, General Manager, Magnet Applications, Inc. “Having us once again ITAR registered, together with our ISO and ROHS certifications, proves our commitment to quality and customer satisfaction while opening up new opportunities to work on military projects,” Lindstrom continued.


Flying private has long been associated with luxury and exclusivity, reserved only for the elite few. However, in recent years, private jet travel has become more accessible to a wider range of individuals. Whether you’re a business traveler seeking convenience, a family looking for a more comfortable way to travel, or simply someone who wants to experience the ultimate in luxury, flying private offers a multitude of advantages. In this ultimate guide, we will delve into all you need to know about flying private, from the types of private jets available to how to book your private jet.
Advantages of Flying Private
There are numerous advantages to flying private that make it an appealing option for many travelers. Firstly, private jets offer unparalleled convenience and flexibility. Unlike commercial airlines, private jets operate on your schedule, allowing you to depart and arrive at your desired times. This means no more rushing to catch a flight or waiting in long security lines. Additionally, private jets can often access smaller airports that are not served by commercial airlines, bringing you closer to your final destination.
Another significant advantage of flying private is the level of comfort and luxury it provides. Private jets are designed with the utmost attention to detail, offering spacious cabins, plush seating, and exquisite amenities. You’ll have plenty of legroom to stretch out, and the ability to customize the interior to your liking. From gourmet catering to state-of-the-art entertainment systems, private jets provide an elevated travel experience that is simply unmatched.
Furthermore, flying private offers enhanced privacy and security. You’ll avoid crowded terminals and the hassle of dealing with fellow passengers. Private jets also provide a higher level of security screening, ensuring your safety throughout the journey. Whether you’re discussing confidential business matters or simply seeking a peaceful and uninterrupted flight, flying private allows you to maintain your privacy and enjoy a serene atmosphere.
Types of Private Jets
Private jets come in a variety of sizes and configurations to suit different travel needs. One of the most popular types is the light jet, which can accommodate up to seven passengers and is ideal for short to medium-haul flights. Light jets are known for their agility and efficiency, making them perfect for quick business trips or weekend getaways.
For larger groups or longer distances, midsize jets offer more spacious cabins and increased range. These jets typically seat up to nine passengers and provide a comfortable and luxurious travel experience. They have advanced technology and amenities to ensure a smooth and enjoyable flight.
If you require even more space and range, consider a super-midsize jet or a large cabin jet. These jets can accommodate up to sixteen passengers and offer an extensive range, allowing you to reach far-flung destinations with ease. With multiple compartments, luxurious seating, and ample storage space, these jets provide the ultimate in comfort and luxury.
How to Book a Private Jet
Booking a private jet is a straightforward process, thanks to the numerous private jet charter companies available today. The first step is to determine your travel needs, including the number of passengers, desired departure and arrival times, and any specific amenities or requirements. Once you have this information, you can start researching and comparing different charter companies to find the best fit for your needs.
When choosing a charter company, consider factors such as their safety records, reputation, and customer reviews. It’s essential to select a company that prioritizes safety and adheres to strict maintenance and operational standards. Requesting quotes from multiple companies will help you compare prices and ensure you’re getting the best value for your money.
Once you’ve selected a charter company, you’ll work closely with their team to finalize the details of your flight. They will assist you in choosing the most suitable aircraft, arranging ground transportation, and coordinating any additional services you may require. Throughout the process, communication is key to ensuring a seamless and enjoyable private jet experience.
Private Jet Charter vs. Fractional Ownership
When considering flying private, you may come across the option of fractional ownership. Fractional ownership allows you to purchase a share of a private jet, granting you access to the aircraft for a certain number of hours per year. While both private jet charter and fractional ownership offer the benefits of flying private, there are some key differences to consider.
Taking a private jet charter to Boston or wherever your destination is provides more flexibility and variety, as you can choose from a wide range of aircraft and charter companies. You have the freedom to select the most suitable jet for each trip and can adjust your travel arrangements as needed. On the other hand, fractional ownership offers the advantage of a consistent ownership experience. You have a dedicated aircraft available for your use, and the maintenance and operational costs are shared among the owners.
The choice between private jet charter and fractional ownership ultimately depends on your travel patterns and preferences. If you fly frequently and value flexibility, chartering may be the best option for you. However, if you require a certain level of consistency and are willing to commit to a long-term ownership arrangement, fractional ownership may be more suitable.
Cost of Flying Private
The cost of flying private can vary significantly depending on several factors. The type of aircraft, duration of the flight, distance traveled, and additional services required all contribute to the overall cost. While private jet travel is generally more expensive than commercial flights, there are ways to optimize costs and make it more affordable.
One cost-saving option is to consider empty-leg flights. These are flights that occur when a private jet is returning to its base or repositioning for another trip. Since these flights would otherwise be empty, charter companies offer them at a discounted rate. By booking an empty-leg flight, you can enjoy significant savings while still experiencing the luxury of private jet travel.
Another way to reduce costs is by sharing the flight with others through jet-sharing platforms. These platforms connect travelers flying to the same destination and allow them to split the cost of the private jet. This option is particularly beneficial for solo travelers or small groups who want to enjoy the benefits of flying privately at a fraction of the cost.
Safety Considerations When Flying Private
Safety is of utmost importance when it comes to flying private. While private jets have an excellent safety record, it’s essential to take certain precautions to ensure a safe journey. When selecting a charter company, inquire about their safety standards, training programs for pilots and crew, and maintenance procedures.
Additionally, it’s crucial to verify that the charter company holds all necessary certifications and licenses. Legitimate operators should hold an Air Operator Certificate (AOC) issued by the relevant aviation authority. You can also check the company’s safety ratings through independent auditors such as ARGUS or Wyvern.
During the flight, the crew’s professionalism and attentiveness to safety protocols are vital. They should conduct pre-flight safety briefings, perform regular maintenance checks, and be prepared to handle any emergencies. It’s also important to follow all safety instructions provided by the crew and comply with regulations such as wearing seatbelts during takeoff and landing.
Top Destinations for Private Jet Travel
Private jet travel opens up a world of possibilities when it comes to destinations. While you can fly to virtually any airport in the world, some destinations are particularly popular among private jet travelers.
One such destination is the French Riviera, known for its glamorous resorts and beautiful coastline. Flying into Nice or Cannes allows you to experience the luxury and sophistication of this Mediterranean paradise. From enjoying the vibrant nightlife to exploring the charming villages of Provence, the French Riviera offers a wealth of experiences for private jet travelers.
Another sought-after destination is the Caribbean, with its pristine beaches and turquoise waters. Flying into St. Barts or the Bahamas allows you to indulge in the ultimate tropical getaway. Whether you’re looking to relax on secluded beaches, dive in vibrant coral reefs, or enjoy water sports, the Caribbean offers something for everyone.
For those seeking a cultural and historical experience, flying into Rome or Athens provides access to some of the world’s most iconic landmarks. From exploring the ancient ruins of the Colosseum to marveling at the Parthenon, these cities offer a glimpse into the rich history and heritage of Europe.
Tips for a Luxurious Private Jet Experience
To make the most of your private jet experience, here are some tips to ensure a luxurious and enjoyable journey:
- Plan Ahead: Make sure to book your private jet well in advance to secure the aircraft of your choice and take advantage of any early booking discounts.
- Pack Light: Private jets have limited baggage space, so pack only the essentials and consider shipping any larger items separately.
- Communicate Your Preferences: Let the charter company know about any specific dietary requirements, allergies, or preferences you have so that they can accommodate your needs.
- Arrive Early: While private jets offer more flexibility, it’s still important to arrive at the airport promptly to avoid any delays.
- Enjoy the Journey: Take advantage of the luxurious amenities onboard, whether it’s savoring a gourmet meal, enjoying a movie on the state-of-the-art entertainment system, or simply relaxing in the comfort of your private cabin.
Flying Private offers a world of convenience, comfort, and luxury that is unmatched by commercial airlines. From the flexibility of scheduling to the opulence of the cabins, private jets provide an elevated travel experience for those seeking the ultimate in comfort and exclusivity. By understanding the different types of private jets, the booking process, and the cost considerations, you can embark on your private jet journey with confidence. Whether you’re traveling for business or pleasure, flying private allows you to arrive at your destination in style and enjoy a truly unforgettable experience.


Our Hot Air Balloon Safaris in Murchison Falls National Park will surely make your safari to Uganda nothing but memorable. Murchison Falls National Park has got so much to see in terms of wildlife, nature, the River Nile and so much more. Explore Uganda’s beauty with a magnificent aerial view while on a hot air balloon.
The Hot Air Balloon Safaris in Murchison Falls National Park are perfect for marriage proposals, honey-mooners and all those who are always looking to try out something adventurous.
The Hot Air Balloon Safaris in Murchison Falls National Park have got an airworthiness certificate and is serviced after every flight and regularly maintained by a certified hot air balloon Engineer and is inspected by Uganda’s Civil Aviation Authority on regular basis.
Hot Air Balloon Safaris in Murchison Falls National Park Features:
– View sunrise or sunset from above
– Panorama view of Murchison Falls National Park
– Tree top level flights
– Victoria Nile or Lake Albert view
– Watch full herds of animals
– Watch hidden off-road animals
– Approximately 1 hour hot air balloon ride
– Pick up from set destinations
– Ferry Crossing
– Photos during cold inflation inside the balloon
– Ground Safari before takeoff and after landing
– Receive Participation Certificate
– Bush Breakfast in the wild
The hot air balloon safari costs $380 per person inclusive of the bush breakfast.
Hot Air Balloon Flights:
Sunrise: 5:00am – 9:30am (includes bush breakfast)
Sunset: 4:00pm – 6:30pm
Nothing on earth is quite like the powerful Murchison Falls. Flying over the largest protected area in a hot air balloon allows you the pleasure of experiencing her beauty and power first-hand. There is an astonishing range of activities from sunrise/post sunrise, hot air balloon safari with/ without bush breakfast, Sunset hot air balloon safari, short rides for large groups and students and bird-eye view.
You do not need to worry about the size of the balloon because the size of the balloon is quantified with the amount of air the balloon can carry. The bigger the volume of air the more weight the balloon can hold and thus the higher number of passengers it can accommodate. Presently, the there is a medium sized balloon that carries 8 passengers with a range of opportunities such as low season flights, private use, wedding proposals and honeymooners,
For safety measure standards, the Balloon operating in Murchison Falls National Park is an Ultra magic type M-160 manufactured in Spain and registered with Civil Aviation Authority under registration mark 5X-JBH. The Balloon carries 8 passengers and can fly up to 10,000 ft above sea level. The Hot air balloon has an airworthiness certificate and is serviced after every flight and regularly maintained by a certified specialized hot air balloon Engineer as per manufacturers regulations and is inspected by CAA on regular basis.
The pilots operating the balloon are licensed by Egyptian and Ugandan civil aviation authorities and have experience of 1000+ hrs of flying. The ground crew was trained on ground operations by a specialized certified instructor.
Special offers are available for groups more than 8 persons and there is a 50% off for children from 6-12 years. However, children below the age of 6 are not recommended to fly as a safety precaution.
For an early morning flight dubbed the sunrise program which commences at 0500hrs, visitors staying at the northern end of the park are picked from Paraa entrance whereas guests staying at the southern side are transported by UWA speed boats to the northern bank where they are picked at the river crossing.
The guests are transported to the take off position, and enjoy taking photos as they watch the balloon inflation process. They are then briefed on safety regulations by the pilot and start flying around 0600hrs right before sunrise.
Hot Air Balloon Safaris in Murchison Falls National Park last for about an hour after which the balloon lands and guests receive their participation certificates. On the way back a mini safari tour is provided depending on the landing position. The trip ends at about 8:00 am.
For our visitors interested in a full package, they simply continue to the bush breakfast location prepared by the Paraa Safari Lodge chef in the bush, the location is secured by UWA armed rangers. This full package trip ends at about 9:30 am. Visitors are then transported back to their pick up location. Meanwhile, the Sunset program starts at 1600hrs and ends at 1800hrs without bush dinner is provided.
Contact us today to take part in this great way to explore Uganda while on your Uganda Safaris.


The “Europe Aviation Market” Report 2019-2024 has adopted a systematic way to evaluate the dynamics of the overall market. Europe Aviation Market reports offers detailed assessment of the Europe Aviation including enabling technologies, key trends, market drivers, challenges, market landscape, opportunities and competitor strategies.
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Europe Aviation Market Covers the Following Manufacturers:
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Key Market Trends:
The General Aviation Segment is Expected to Register the Highest CAGR during the Forecast period
General Aviation in Europe is anticipated to grow at a fast pace in the coming years, primarily due to the procurement of private aircraft and the growth of the charter services. Textron Inc., one of the prominent manufacturer of general aviation aircraft, over the past two years delivered ten Cessna Grand Caravan EX turboprop aircraft to Tuareg Aerobatics. The aircraft fleet is operated by Mack Air, as part of the charter, cargo, and logistics services provided to a network of independently owned bush safari lodges in the Okavango Delta and Kalahari regions in Botswana. In mid 2018, Textron Inc. delivered a Cessna Citation M2 and a Cessna Citation CJ3+ for Guernsey Air Operations in the Channel Islands. The deliveries indicate the growing demand for general aviation aircraft even in smaller islands. The ORTA°C operations team manages the aircraft on behalf of its clients and use the aircraft for international commercial charter. Bell, a part of Textron Inc., delivered the first two Bell 505 Jet Ranger X for a European customer. The 505 received its certification from the European Aviation Safety Agency earlier in November 2017. Recently, Wijet took delivery of its first HondaJet. The aircraft is operated across Europe for charter services. Wijet and Honda Aircraft signed a MoU in 2018 for the delivery of 16 HondaJets. With growing procurement and growth of air taxi services, the general aviation market is anticipated for steep growth in the coming years.
France Held a Major Share in the Europe Aviation Market in 2018
Airbus and Dassault Aviation, two of the major aircraft OEMs are based in France. This has attracted several tier-1 and tier-2 suppliers to establish their facilities in this country. France is among the leading countries in Europe that have a vertically developed Aerospace industry. Recently, Web Industries Inc., a US-based formatter of advanced materials, including high-performance composites used in the aerospace, defense, and industrial markets, acquired 100% of the shares of Omega Systèmes Atlantique and Omega Systèmes Aquitaine in France. The acquisition is a strategic move to expand its presence in France and to provide services and engineering to support aerospace customers’ demand for formatting and materials management services. In 2018, Airbus reached its production target of 10 aircraft per month for its A350 XWB program. KLM operates 12 Boeing 747-400 and plans to retire the fleet by 2021. Likewise, Air France operates six A340-300s and foresees a full retirement of the type by the end of 2020. Air France-KLM has 28 A350-900s on firm order. Growth is equally strong even in the French defense sector. For instance, in 2018, the French Defence Procurement Agency placed an order for three more Airbus A330 MRTT tankers for the French Air Force. It is a part of the multi-year contract signed by Airbus with the French Ministry of Defence for 12 A330 MRTTs in 2014. France and Germany also teamed up to build a new fighter jet that is expected to enter service by 2040. As per the agreement signed in 2018, France may lead the program and Germany may help to finance the project. Such developments are likely to help France to maintain its market dominance and compete with the United Kingdom and Germany during the forecast period.
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Important Points Covered in Europe Aviation Market Report:
- Europe Aviation market gives assessments for the regional level analysis with Production, Consumption, Imports, and Exports.
- Europe Aviation market forecasts for a minimum of five years of all the mentioned segments.
- Europe Aviation market shares drivers, constraints, opportunities, threats, challenges, investment opportunities.
- Share constraints for the new entrants in Europe Aviation market
- Include manufacturing process, suppliers, price, production and consumption analysis.
This report covers the following questions:
- What are the difficulties to showcase development?
- What will the market estimate be in 2024 and what will the improvement rate be?
- Who are the major key venders in this market space?
- What are the drivers and opportunities of Europe Aviation market?
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Europe Aviation Market Covers Following Points in TOC:
1.1 Study Deliverables
1.2 Study Assumptions
1.3 Scope of the Study
2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
4 MARKET DYNAMICS
4.1 Market Overview
4.2 Market Drivers
4.3 Market Restraints
4.4 Industry Attractiveness – Porter’s Five Forces Analysis
4.4.1 Threat of New Entrants
4.4.2 Bargaining Power of Buyers/Consumers
4.4.3 Bargaining Power of Suppliers
4.4.4 Threat of Substitute Products
4.4.5 Intensity of Competitive Rivalry
5 MARKET SEGMENTATION
5.1.1 Commercial Aviation
5.1.2 Military Aviation
18.104.22.168 Combat Aircraft
22.214.171.124 Non-combat Aircraft
5.1.3 General Aviation
126.96.36.199 Piston Fixed-wing Aircraft
188.8.131.52 Turboprop Aircraft
184.108.40.206 Business Jet
220.127.116.11 Air Passenger Traffic (2015-2018)
18.104.22.168 Airline Fleet Expansion and the Introduction of New Routes
22.214.171.124 Defense Expenditure Analysis and the Military Aircraft Procurement
126.96.36.199 Investments on Airport Infrastructure
188.8.131.52 Air Passenger Traffic (2015-2018)
184.108.40.206 Airline Fleet Expansion and the Introduction of New Routes
220.127.116.11 Defense Expenditure Analysis and the Military Aircraft Procurement
18.104.22.168 Investments on Airport Infrastructure
22.214.171.124 Air Passenger Traffic (2015-2018)
126.96.36.199 Airline Fleet Expansion and the Introduction of New Routes
188.8.131.52 Defense Expenditure Analysis and the Military Aircraft Procurement
184.108.40.206 Investments on Airport Infrastructure
220.127.116.11 Air Passenger Traffic (2015-2018)
18.104.22.168 Airline Fleet Expansion and the Introduction of New Routes
22.214.171.124 Defense Expenditure Analysis and the Military Aircraft Procurement
126.96.36.199 Investments on Airport Infrastructure
5.2.5 Rest of Europe
188.8.131.52 Air Passenger Traffic (2015-2018)
184.108.40.206 Airline Fleet Expansion and the Introduction of New Routes
220.127.116.11 Defense Expenditure Analysis and the Military Aircraft Procurement
18.104.22.168 Investments on Airport Infrastructure
6 COMPETITIVE LANDSCAPE
6.1 Mergers and Acquisitions, Joint Ventures, Collaborations, and Agreements
6.2 Vendor Market Share
6.3 Strategies Adopted by Leading Players
6.4 Company Profiles
6.4.1 Saab AB
6.4.2 Airbus SE
6.4.3 Pilatus Aircraft Ltd
6.4.4 Dassault Aviation SA
6.4.5 Leonardo SpA
6.4.6 Lockheed Martin Corporation
6.4.7 The Boeing Company
6.4.8 Bombardier Inc.
6.4.9 Textron Inc.
7 MARKET OPPORTUNITIES AND FUTURE TRENDS
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G-BBSS is a Chipmunk that was owned by the club from November 1973 until it was sold to The Gliding Centre at Husbands Bosworth in May 1988
G-BNZV is a 235hp Piper Pawnee D and replaced our Chipmunk. It was bought in September 1988 before being sold onto a gliding club in Slovenia in February 2003.
G-BXST is another 235hp Piper Pawnee. The club purchased this aircraft in March 2003 until it was sold to the Staffordshire gliding club in March 2015.
G-ETUG is a 100hp AeroPro Eurofox purchased by the club at just two years old in July 2014. This is our clubs current tug and was designed with economy in mind. The Eurofox has vastly decreased the clubs Aerotowing costs.


Real-time monitoring of flights arriving at Malaga airport.
Details of flights and arrivals at Malaga Airport.
Check flight delays and all the details of the flights arriving at the Costa del Sol Airport. Malaga. Spain. AGP AIRPORT.
If you have a contracted transfer. And your flight is late. you shouldn’t worry. The transfer monitors the arrivals and knows at all times the arrival of your flight.
This is why it is important to provide all the details of your flight to make a transfer reservation.


Helijet has been a proud and active participant in British Columbia's growth for the past two and a half decades.
In 1986, with a carefully conceived vision, a single helicopter, and a handful of enthusiastic employees, Helijet launched Canada's first scheduled helicopter service. From that single helicopter, flying eight times a day between downtown Vancouver and downtown Victoria, Helijet has grown into a diversified company with operations in Richmond, Vancouver, Victoria, Nanaimo, Prince Rupert and Haida Gwaii.
Providing scheduled and charter flights, Helijet's fleet of medium and large helicopters, Learjet and Citation X corporate jets, is maintained, flown and administered by a dedicated crew of over 150 employees.
Helijet looks forward to continued growth, including the introduction and integration of zero-emission vertical lift technologies into the communities that it serves.


Private Jet Charter
Exceptional private jet charter services from around the world
L’e Marquis has teamed up with a world-class aviation services team, delivering a wide range of solutions; we will now provide a seamless end to end experience for you and your party through highly competitive and well thought through private jet charter programmes.
Our private jet charter service gives you the freedom and flexibility to choose an aircraft based on your need. Enjoy access to a global range of several thousand aircraft; from six seaters to twenty seaters, we will source the finest available aircraft for the operation all whilst maintaining a highly competitive price. We will organise specific dietary requests, and also arrange the transfers from your home to the airport and from the airport to your villa.
To give you an idea of prices.
|Six Seater||Eight Seater||Ten Seater||Twenty Seater|
|London to Mykonos||£19,225||£24,995||£23,775||£56,000|
|Paris to Mykonos||£16.850||£21,000||£24,100||£61.500|
|Munich to Mykonos||£12,800||£17.000||£19,575||£60,500|
|Madrid to Mykonos||£20,550||£21,675||£25,850||£71.000|
|Geneva to Mykonos||£15,300||£17,450||£20,875||£61,000|
|Moscow to Mykonos||£21,100||£24,750||£30,100||£85,500|
|Dubai to Mykonos||£30,550||£32,150||£35,900||£78,000|
Please request for other routes.
All prices are subject to aircraft location and availability, and subject to confirmation at the time of booking.


[dropcap]T[/dropcap]he 2015 European Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition (EBACE2015) is Europe’s must-attend business aviation event, which provides an unprecedented opportunity to learn about business aviation in Europe, see the latest products and services and meet with customers and colleagues – all in one location. Sponsored by the National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) and the European Business Aviation Association (EBAA), EBACE2015 takes places in Geneva, Switzerland from 19 to 21 May.
“On top of the usual – and invaluable – networking and business opportunities at EBACE, this year’s show will feature highly insightful keynotes and education sessions on the relevant issues for our industry in 2015 and beyond. We expect this 15th show to be one of the best,” said Brian Humphries, president, EBAA.
EBACE 2015 Will Mark 15th Anniversary as Premier European Business Aviation Event
This year’s European Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition (EBACE2015) will celebrate its 15th year as the leading European business aviation trade show, education and networking event, with several special new features to help mark this milestone.
“We are excited to commemorate this great anniversary,” said Chris Strong, NBAA’s senior vice president of conventions and membership. “Obviously the business aviation community has faced significant challenges over the past decade and a half, but we’ve also experienced great innovation in equipment, safety and management methodology. Those innovations will be celebrated at EBACE2015.”
The EBACE2015 Opening General Session, on Tuesday, May 19, will highlight the show’s history, including a look at original exhibitors and events. An awards luncheon later that day will honor four individuals who were instrumental in the show’s initial success: Kathleen Blouin, NBAA’s former senior vice president of conventions and forums; Brian Humphries, president of show co-host European Business Aviation Association (EBAA); former NBAA President Jack Olcott and former EBAA CEO Fernand Francois, who will be recognized for their commitment to EBACE in its conception and initial years.
NBAA and EBAA plan to co-host a coffee social to celebrate the anniversary at their booths on the exhibit floor during the show, and throughout EBACE2015 attendees will have an opportunity to mark their participation at the anniversary event on a large signing wall on the exhibit floor. Signage hung throughout the exhibit hall will feature historic moments from the show’s inaugural year in 2000.
“While we look forward to celebrating the anniversary of EBACE and the exciting moments of the event’s past, we are also looking to the future by introducing new events and activities,” said Strong. “Our aim is to provide attendees with a fresh experience at EBACE2015.”
These new events will include the “Innovation Zone,” a dedicated area of the exhibit hall that will feature education sessions on hot topics like unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), a Women in Aviation Networking event and a look at business aviation skills and careers. A young professionals networking event on Wednesday, May 20, and an exhibit area for UAS on the exhibit floor are other new activities offered at EBACE2015.
“The young professionals networking event aims to support individuals with new careers in business aviation,” said Strong. “Development of young talent is critical to the sustained success of our industry and this event will provide an opportunity for young professionals to network with peers at this important juncture of their careers.”
EBACE2015 will be held May 19 to 21 at the Palexpo conference center and Geneva International Airport in Switzerland.
Large Number of Exhibitors to Take Part in EBACE2015
EBACE2015 will feature more than 450 exhibitors on a show floor covering three halls of the Geneva Palexpo conference center. EBACE exhibitors have represented more than 60 countries in recent years, with the highest percentage of exhibiting companies from Europe and beyond increasing.
“We at NBAA and EBAA are honored to host exhibiting companies from around the globe at EBACE2015,” said Chris Strong, NBAA’s senior vice president of conventions and membership. “Typically, European companies represent just over half of all exhibiting companies, but we also see exhibitors from China, India and other regions.”
Static Display More Convenient Than Ever
The static display of aircraft at the European Business Aviation Convention & Exhibition (EBACE2015) will be every bit as exciting, and more easily maneuverable for attendees, than ever before, organizers said. EBACE is a frequent platform for significant new aircraft model announcements, and EBACE2015 is no exception.
This year’s static display at Geneva international Airport will feature more than 60 aircraft, including a new-model introduction and a first-time European appearance for another aircraft model. It also includes dozens of previously owned aircraft.
“EBACE is a must-attend show for business aviation professionals and end-users alike, particularly those who like to be up-to-date on the latest in new aircraft and product announcements,” said Joe Hart, NBAA director of static displays. “This show is unrivaled in Europe for a potential aircraft buyer’s ability to see different aircraft manufacturers, models and equipment side-by-side.“
New to EBACE2015 is a single, contiguous static display footprint at the airport, which will ease the flow of traffic for visitors.
“EBACE is one of the most convenient locations for business aviation professionals and users, and this new layout for our static display will offer attendees an easier opportunity to compare aircraft models and features and see exciting new developments from many different aircraft manufacturers,” said Hart.
EBACE has traditionally been a popular platform for manufacturers to make significant new aircraft model announcements. In recent years, new aircraft announcements at EBACE have included the Pilatus PC-24, Textron Aviation’s Cessna Longitude and Bombardier’s Learjet 70 and 75. Variant and upgrade announcements are also popular at the show, including Bombardier’s Global Vision Cockpit for the Global 6000 and Dassault’s Falcon 2000S variant of the 2000LX.
EBACE2015 will include an exciting new feature – an exhibit area for UAS manufacturers. This display will be located in the Palexpo exhibition hall and will allow attendees to see the capabilities and features of a wide range of UAS.
“One highlight of EBACE is exploring new aircraft, equipment and technology,” said Hart. “EBACE2015 promises to deliver a great experience for business aviation pilots, operators and potential buyers.”
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