Canning fresh meat in an oil bath? I was recently given some home canned fresh pork, that was preserved by boiling at 100C for three hours. It is only a few weeks old and tastes delicious, but after reading up on canning processes, I believe the above process is not safe.

The canned pork, along with the new confrontation the US seems to be provoking with Russia and imminent apocalypse,  inspired me to look into canning my own meat.

As far as I can tell, the aim is to get the cold spot internal temperature up to around 120C for a while to kill clostridium spores, and it is not effective to use dry heat, because heat exchange is too slow and the cans don't like it.

The typical method I found online involves a water bath in a large pressurized container, to get the boiling point up.

I don't have a large pressure canner and I would like to do a large quantity of cans. Can i simply use a bath of vegetable oil maintained at around 130C?

UPDATE

As the answer and comments below describe, a pressurized can in a hot oil bath could explode and cause an eruption of hot oil. However, that leads to another avenue of thinking. PET bottles are designed to withstand high internal pressure, and would probably not melt at 120c (I need to check) but PET has high oxygen permeability. There are plastic canning jars such as these https://www.mycosupply.com/cgi-bin/shopper.cgi?preadd=action&key=PLID02 . But there is no data on internal pressure abilities. Is there a common container designed to handle high internal pressure that can be heated to 120C with low gas permeability? (beer bottles come to mind)

It seems beverage cans, especially those designed for in can pasteurization, would work https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2000/SeemaMeraj.shtml but those cans require expensive equipment.

UPDATE 2
So after more research, there is a process called Flame Sterilization, done at atmospheric pressure, and requires a smaller, robust can. However, the process is problematic and little used in industry. The trick would be to source cans intended for flame sterilization and then the oil bath would work. Any clues where from?

You are correct that simply boiling meat for three hours is not sufficient to make it shelf stable. Commercially produced, low-acid, canned foods must be processed to 240F just like home canned food. The process involves processing the cans in a steam pressure cooker similar to what is done at home at a smaller scale. 1

I have boiled sealed cans with but it is discouraged and I would not trust heating cans to 240F without matching the pressure outside the cans. Any can failure would be spectacular as the water instantly vaporizes and blows an easily-ignitable geyser of steam and oil into the air!

Pressure canners can be a bit expensive but can often be found used. You may need to replace rubber gaskets or safety valves but these are not expensive.

You may have more success canning using bottles as the bottles, lids, rings, and other equipment is easy to find for home buyers.

Another consideration is that canning recipes are written for specific pressures and cooking times to preserve food quality and give a very strong confidence of food safety. Even if you are confident your cans will hold, you would have to carefully control the temperature of your oil. Home sous vide controllers aren't designed for such high temperatures which means you would have to purchase a more expensive temperature controller or build your own.


Can the Black and Decker toaster oven, model TRO55, be used for baking? On the cover it shows it can do baking, but when I read the manual it shows no option for baking. I am confused with the knob options. Can someone help please?

Did you just buy this model and do you still have the receipt? If so, I'd return it, explaining that while it says you can bake in it, that it's not possible since it's not possible to turn off the top broiler element. Attempting to bake in it will only burn the top of your food. Explain you'd like to get another Black & Decker model - TRO2000 which does allow the selection of just the bottom element for baking.

On the other hand, if you've had this model for a while but never tried baking in it before, I highly doubt you'd be able to return it despite what I consider false advertising (since every site where I checked the model said it could bake - yeah, right)!

What I suggest is to experiment a little to see if it's possible to bake certain foods in it. No matter what you do, I'm sure that baking anything that rises high (such as breads, popovers or 'angel food' type cakes) won't be possible without the top being burnt by the time the rest is baked.

Next time you make a pan cake, choose a pan that will fit in the oven but with higher sides than normal. Since your model has a convection option, turn that on too. With the convection feature plus heating from both the top and bottom, keep an eye on your cake as it's quite likely to bake in less time than a conventional oven. I've never used one so I'm speaking from common sense rather than experience. When the cake has risen enough and the top looks properly browned, test the cake's doneness using a wooden toothpick or skewer inserting into the centre. If it still needs further cooking, loosely cover the top with aluminum foil to prevent over-browning.

I'd suggest keeping a pad handy and noting how long it took to brown, when you covered it with foil (if you had too) and when it was finished baking. That way, you'll know what to do next time. If it works for a pan cake, it may also work for cupcakes. If you need to cover them with foil if browning too fast, the tops should be sufficiently cooked so the foil won't stick. That's why I suggest a pan with higher sides.

It may be possible to bake foods like cookies and biscuits with no problem since they cook quickly. Always use the convection setting when baking so heat distributes faster and more evenly. For all baking, experimental or otherwise, use the lowest shelf possible.

If I'm right, you can select a temperature for your oven - the broil feature doesn't stay on the whole time but cycles on and off to maintain the temperature chosen. With your first baking experiment, set the oven 5-10 degrees (Celsius) lower as a test. If you're concerned about over-browning, it would mean the broiler element would be on a little less.

These are only suggestions and you'll need to test them yourself. If I had the model you have and really wanted to bake in it, it's what I'd do. Despite everything you try, it's possible you can't really cook any baked flour goods in it other than cookies. But give it a try if you can't return it.


Can I bake bread with long-life milk? My normal breadmaker recipe uses milk as the main liquid ingredient.  Normally I use fresh semi-skimmed milk for this and get great results.  However, at the moment I only have "long-life" (UHT treated) milk.  Is this an acceptable substitute on its own, and if not, is there a way I can tweak the recipe to work better with this milk?

Yes, you can definitely use UHT milk in bread.

UHT is not usable for some applications, because its proteins have been changed by the heat. But in bread, you don't need the proteins from the milk. Bread recipes include milk to make the dough richer, so it is mostly the fat content that matters. Using UHT won't change anything in the dough structure. I even think that the usual unpleasant taste won't be noticeable, but I am not so sure about that. Still, it gets diluted a lot in dough, so if you can drink UHT as-is, you shouldn't have a problem with the bread taste.


Is there enough pectin in Apples to make jam I have some surplus cooking apples which I will be trying to make jam with. I can't find pectin in my local supermarket, but they do have "jam sugar", which contains pectin, but is twice the price of regular sugar.

From what I've read, apples are a natural source of pectin. So do I need to add extra pectin to my jam in order for it to set?

FYI: I don't have any crab apples, which people have suggested adding to jam to hep it set.

Yes.  See the accepted answer for Can most sour fruits be jelled by cooking with sugar?.  After getting that answer, I have successfully made apple jelly with fresh cooked and strained apple juice and sugar, and nothing else.  You can search for apple jelly recipes and find directions.


Why does freezing vegetable shortening alter its appearance? I got large container of vegetable shortening that I wasn't going to open right away, so I stuck it in bottom of the freezer (-14 F) to keep it from going rancid.  I never really needed it, so I ignored it for the next four years.  I pulled it out yesterday and let it thaw.

The first thing I noticed is that it's more translucent than fresh shortening.  It looks just like paraffin wax, but it's still soft like shortening.  The smell and flavor are identical to fresh shortening.  The can still had the factory seal until I opened it yesterday, so it's unlikely that it got contaminated with anything.  What caused the change in appearance?

Fats can have a complex molecular structure:

Not only do elements have different properties, resulting in different behavior when exposed to heat or cold, but there are bonds between atoms that may be affected by these different neighboring reactions. Think of this somewhat like the way a frying pan heats up very easily, but the plastic handle of the pan behaves a bit differently; or, the way an ice pop is very cold coming out of the freezer, but the wooden stick isn't nearly as cold and warms up quickly.

These differences in the way temperature effects substances could've acted on the molecular structure of the fats, damaging or altering them as a result. This can result in changes to consistency, color, etc. This is very likely similar to the way damage can happen to certain foods due to the fact that water expands when frozen, while other substances tend to contract (which can result in strange, spongey, and otherwise undesirable changes in texture and taste).

It's fortunate that it seems not to have effected the taste or smell!

Just keep in mind that there are certain more desirable temperatures for foods, and they may not maintain their structure internally, their taste, color, or other qualities, if kept outside of that desirable temperature range for too long. While freezing does help to prevent bacterial growth and decay, it doesn't protect food from the changes which result from temperature change itself.


What is meant by "skim" a caramel? I am trying to make caramel ice cream from the Silver Spoon. I'm not entirely sure what they mean by the word "skim" at the start of the recipe:

Put the sugar (100g) in a pan with 1 tbsp cold water and set over a low heat until it has melted. Increase the heart to medium, skim and, when it goes golden red in colour, pour in 5 tbsp hot water and remove from the heat.

There was a bit of a crust of bubbly sugar on the top surface of the pan, but how are you supposed to skim that? Perhaps it's something lost in translation from the original Italian recipe?

I am also rather puzzled by it, but I must also say that the recipe is somewhat unusual. There is the dry method for caramel (sugar only) and the wet method (sugar dissolved in sufficient water), I have never seen it done with such slight wetting of water though. So I am not that surprised by the further irregularity.
I can see two possibilities for interpretation here. The first one would be that it is a translation/editing/autocorrect mistake, and that you are meant to stir the caramel. While one expects recipes to be better proofread than that, it can happen, and in this way of doing it, this is indeed the correct time for stirring (and it is a good thing to say so explicitly, so you don't try stirring earlier, which can ruin the caramel).
The second one is that it is indeed meant for skimming foam. Sugar solutions can form foam, which is usually noticeable in jam making. I have never had any significant foam form during caramel making, but it is possible that either the author made it under conditions which somehow produce more foam, or that they believe that the minimal foam formation that likely happens when the water boils off needs skimming. I wouldn't personally see this as an important step, but as I said, the recipe is already unconventional.
In the end, if you feel uncomfortable following these exact unusual instructions, you can either disregard the skimming step, or make a caramel in a way you are comfortable with. By "caramel" I mean pure caramel, not the combination of caramel and cream and/or butter that is also commonly called "caramel" in English speaking countries nowadays. Then proceed with the rest of the recipe as per the book. Or, just find another recipe for caramel ice cream - recipes which are confusingly written are always at a higher risk at failure, either because the author didn't know what they are doing, or because they didn't manage to transfer the knowledge well.


Safe and efficient way to keep hands clean while preparing food In various cooking videos (either online or tv etc) I have seen the cook typically touch either raw chicken or raw meat or raw eggs and then without washing their hands touch other thing like salt and pepper, utensils etc. If they do something before touching anything else it is as trivial as wiping with a paper cloth.
I usually wash my hands before touching anything else but this turns out to be tedious and time consuming. So I was wondering if I am doing it wrong and it doesn't really matter or the cooks in the presentations are doing it only for time and is not safe to do or is there something safe in-between the 2 approaches i.e. constantly washing hands vs not washing hands at all

Your are following proper procedure by washing your hands after handling raw meat. In the videos you see, the ingredients are usually pre-portioned or are only going to be used once in the preparation of that specific dish. In that case, it doesn't really matter as any that is left over will be thrown away.

At home it wouldn't be as practical to follow this procedure unless you pre-portioned your ingredients. Or you could put small amounts of salt, pepper, rub, etc. in containers, use what's needed, and discard the rest. This eliminates a lot of the hand washing, but I find that it wastes a lot over time.


Very bitter avocados For a while now, I have been dealing with nasty tasting avocados. Some tasting so bitter, I start to gag and cannot continue eating them. I do not remember them tasting this way before September. Is this a seasonal problem? Are there any methods of masking the taste?

PS: My mother suggested stevia herbs, my avacados come from Mexico

So first, you should be aware that there is an avocado shortage this year, and as a result the avocados you are getting at the store are probably lower quality than you are used to.

There are two reasons for avocados to taste bitter: underripeness, or because they have been cooked.  If the avocado is fairly firm, then it's probably just underripe and you can wait.  If it's soft, though, then either it was picked very underripe and never lost its bitterness, or at some stage it was allowed to get really hot during shipping (possible since the shortage was triggered by high temperatures in California).  In either of those two cases, it is ruined and you should compost it.

There's nothing you can really do to get rid of that bitterness.  Contrasting flavors, such as tartness from lemon juice, will help cover it up, but it will still have a bitter aftertaste.

References:

https://www.quora.com/Does-avocado-turn-bitter-when-heated
http://blog.homemade-baby-food-recipes.com/why-would-an-avocado-taste-bitter/


How can I prevent pastry becoming soggy when it has a filling and is stored overnight? I want to make sausage rolls the night before and store them in the fridge before cooking. I am worried that the sausage meat will make the pastry go soggy. How can I prevent this?

At work the butcher makes 100's of sausage rolls in batches. We then cook 1/4, fridge 1/4 and freeze 1/2. We never have any issue with them being soggy, regardless of storage method. To be honest in a taste test you'd have no idea which was which.

Also once cooked (as long as cooked properly) they don't go soggy for at least 2 days in the fridge.

I'm assuming you will be using puff pastry as per tradition. If so don't forget to allow the rolls to stand at room temp for 15-30min before cooking as it will help with the "puffing".


re-freezing green tea? I just bought green tea leaves in China. They were in a deep freezer when I bought them. They were then in my luggage for a few days on my way back home.

I bought a fair amount of them. Can I now re-freeze at home? Or, like food, is it dangerous to re-freeze green tea leaves?

The concern with food is that if the food spends too much time above the danger temperature (40°F) then bacteria may grow, and if you then freeze it the bacteria will be there waiting to harm the final consumer. However, the USDA says that food thawed in a refrigerator for less than a few days can be safely refrozen.

Assuming these leaves are dry, this doesn't apply here: things won't grow on the tea while it's warm, and freezing won't lock in anything dangerous. So, freeze away.


Soda from fridge to room temperature Does taking an unopened can of soda out of the refrigerator and leaving at room temperature compromise the taste, flavor, or carbonation of the unopened soda can?

In order to create sparkling beverages, a gas called carbon dioxide (CO2) is dissolved in them, a process that goes under the name of carbonation.

When dissolved in water, CO2 becomes carbonic acid (H2CO3), following the reaction:

 CO2 (g) + H2O <-> H2CO3    (1)

The double arrow means that the reaction is reversible, that is, you can go from left to right as well as from right to left. So, essentially you have two reactions going on at the same time:

 CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3          (2)

and

 H2CO3 -> CO2 + H2O          (3)

However (and here's the trick) the g next to CO2 means that it is a gas and, as such, is volatile and will leave the water when it is formed (that is why you see bubbles coming out of your soda).

There is a very important law of chemistry called Le Chatelier's principle which states that:

  If a chemical system at equilibrium experiences a change in concentration, temperature, volume, or partial pressure, then the equilibrium shifts to counteract the imposed change and a new equilibrium is established.

If CO2 was not volatile, what would happen is that, at some point, you would reach a chemical equilibrium, that is, the amount of H2CO3 formed by CO2 dissolving in water would be exactly the same as that of H2CO3 decomposing into CO2. But, as we said, CO2 escapes the water in the form of gas... So what happens is that you are always removing CO2 from your reaction and, as Le Chatelier's principle tells us, the system will react to counteract this loss, by decomposing more carbonic acid to forming more CO2.

This is why, if you pour soda in a glass it will slowly become less and less sparkly, as CO2 will leave the water, be substituted by the decomposition of some more H2CO3 and so on, until no H2CO3 is left.

So, why does a closed bottle of soda stay sparkling until you open it? Simply because CO2 has only a small room to escape (the small empty space on top of the liquid). All I said before works also for a closed can/bottle of soda, but at some point the air on top of the liquid becomes saturated with CO2, that is, it cannot make room for any more CO2. This means that the CO2 will restart to go back into the water.

All of these reaction will be influenced by temperature.
Carbonic acid decomposition is much faster at room temperature compared to 4°C, so what happens is that, at room temperature, reaction (3) will be more favoured compared to (2) and when the can will be opened more CO2 will exit the can, giving you a slightly less fizzy drink.

This effect is similar to that of shaking the bottle: in that case you are mechanically promoting the dissociation of carbonic acid and helping CO2 to escape from water.

Finally, carbonic acid is, as you may guess, an acid, albeit a very weak one!

It will therefore contribute to lower the pH of your drink in a more or less strong way, depending on the soda: the pH contribute of H2CO3 will be higher in sparkling water (bringing the pH down from 7 to between 3 and 4) than in Coca Cola, which already contains a strong acid (H3PO4, phosphoric acid) and has a low pH in any case.


Are berries acidic enough they must be on top, not within, panna cotta? Item 1 Panna cotta (cream, gelatin, perhaps sugar)

Item 2 berries (blueberries, blackberries, raspberries, strawberries)

Stores usually sell panna cotta with the berries on top. Is this just because it is more presentable, or is there a technical reason?

In particular, would the cream go sour if the panna cotta is poured over the berries so that the berries are fully buried inside? Are berries acidic enough for this to happen?

Reasons for putting the berries inside? There are at least two:

Nudge kids to eat the fruits. "You want the nice cream; you've got to have the berries along with it."
The two flavors mix better, and (imagining) the berries will last a day or two in the fridge without the skin "wilting".

Reporting experimental results.

I hypothesized that frozen berries will fare better than fresh. The reasoning? It will take them a while to thaw if the cream is poured at room temperature and put in the fridge right after. By the time they thaw, the cream would have set.

In practice, it's more complicated. Alchimista's hunch is accurate. The skin of the berries is not as impermeable as one would think (I skipped strawberries, since they're inherently porous).

Perhaps the berries will keep just as well inside as outside; that is not entirely clear. But the cream will not set as well near the surface of the berries as it sets farther away, and soggy panna cotta seems like a candidate for going bad sooner.

All in all, I'd say keeping the berries on top is a better option. Besides, an enhanced presentation is a good attribute for homemade desserts as well.


How can I reduce the sugar in this oatmeal bar recipe? I made this recipe for oatmeal bars, following the instructions with just a couple changes. Although they turned out well, I would like to reduce the sugar content while still preserving the texture of the bars. They are currently somewhat dense and a bit crumbly but still hold together, and I'd like them to either stay that way or be lighter and less crumbly. What changes could I make to achieve this?

Here is specifically what I did:

2 cups rolled oats
2 cups flour
1 cup creamy peanut butter (Jif)
2 beaten eggs
3/4 cups white sugar
3 tsp vanilla
1 tsp each of baking soda, salt, cinnamon
1 cup raisins cooked in 5 tbsp water, including water
4 tbsp whole milk plus enough more to make the dough hold together

Mixed everything together and baked in a greased 9x13 glass pan in a 375 degree oven for 15 minutes.

You could try putting some medjool dates in a food processor then grinding them down into a powder! Lots of vegan and paleo recipes use dates instead of sugar as a healthier and less sweet option.


Is mustard oil safe for consumption? Some Indian cuisines require mustard oil as an ingredient. However, I cannot find any FDA approved mustard oil, and most of the bottles quote "for external use only."

Is it possible to find FDA approved mustard oil? Or, is it unsafe to consume mustard oil?

I found the following information in a thread on Mamta's Kitchen forum:

  Because it is EU-designated external use only, [mustard oil] is therefore exempt from shipping regulations that would apply to foods. Thus, it can be shipped in a container truck that had previously contained, say, motor oil, or even something worse. This probably was the cause of the poisonings, because people have been consuming mustard oil for millennia without ill effect despite the current EU designation – which seems to be causing greater problems than it is trying to save us from.

I haven't personally verified this statement, but if true, it's best to avoid the "for external use" oil.


Can uncooked rice be stored in the freezer or refrigerator? I just bought some Carolina Plantation Gold rice in a sack.  It says to store it in the freezer or the refrigerator.  Can this be right?

First, in general freezing is possibly the best method for storing grains long-term if you're not going to use them up within a few months.  So it's never a bad idea to freeze dried wheat, rice, buckwheat, etc. if you have the space.  Certain grains, like wheat germ, contain oils that oxidize quickly and have to be stored cold or they go rancid in a few weeks.
This is also the issue with Carolina Gold Rice, according to Anson Mills:

With regard to your fresh cold milled to order hand pound emulation Carolina Gold Rice... because we choose to emulate how rice was prepared from scratch paddy rice a la minute for cookery before the industrial revolution, we hull/mill so that we just nick the outer bran of each kernel leaving the inner bran layer and germ intact... this form can oxidize and/or spoil stored at room temperature even though we vac pack on CO2 envelope at -10 F. to protect this rice for shipment at ambient temperatures for about 2 weeks only. We mill this way for flavor..

So, the rice bran is still attached to the rice, and contains easily oxidized oils, which means it will lose flavor or even develop off flavors within a few weeks at room temperature.  Tip: freeze it in the quantities you'd usually cook it in, makes it easier to take some out for use.


What is a kitchen rag? In his answer to a question about nail biting, nicorellius referred to not wiping your hands with the "kitchen rag". I've never worked in a professional kitchen, and the only rags I have around my kitchen are dish towels, which I often use to dry my hands.

What exactly is a kitchen rag, and what should it be used for? What should one avoid doing with a kitchen rag that you might use a towel for in a home kitchen?

A kitchen rag is typically a white, rectangular towel that has various duties in a professional kitchen.  Some of the uses include: wiping-down counter tops, sopping-up spills, securing cutting boards (use DAMP rags), and grabbing hot pans (use DRY rags).

Generally, it is a good idea to wash your hands with soap and a sink.  Often kitchen rags are used to clean debris from the hands between preparing food items.

Usually the rags are dropped-off, picked-up, and washed by an outsourced service provider (e.g. Cintas).  The kitchen rags from these providers often have a thin, colored line that runs lengthwise down the towel.

If you would like to find some for your home, try searching 'bar mops'.  They are essentially the same as kitchen rags, and are usually very cheap.


Wok patina comes off I got a flat-bottomed iron wok a few weeks ago at a local Asian supermarket. I seasoned it on my electric stove, based on information I googled up: heated it up, put a thin layer of peanut oil on it, turned the heat down and let it sit for 15 minutes. This worked pretty well and formed a nice dark layer, but even after cooking in the wok a couple of times, I thought the seasoning could be better, so I decided to start over.

I used soap and a sponge scourer to get most of the patina off. To get more off, vinegar seemed like a good idea, so I boiled vinegar and water in the wok for about five minutes, let it cool, and scraped most of the remaining patina off. The wok looked (almost) good as new, so I dried it and proceeded to re-season it.

I applied my original seasoning procedure, which went well, but then the trouble started. I rinsed out the wok with hot water and rubbed it with a kitchen towel. In the center (where the metal gets the hottest, presumably), some of the patina stuck to the towel, and left iron-colored spots. I tried again twice, but the problem remained.

I thought maybe cooking in the wok would build up some patina, so I stir-fried some vegetables. Then, I rinsed and wiped it, and unfortunately, black flakes came off again. I can't seem to keep the entire bottom covered in patina.

So, any thoughts? Did I ruin my wok? Did the vinegar maybe form an oil-resistant layer or something? Anything I can try, or should I just get a new wok? Thanks.

You have overcooked the seasoning. I have done this once or twice too. Especially smooth surfaces (e.g. carbon steel) are very prone to this problem, unlike rough cast iron.

What you want is not a dark layer. The layer will darken with time and start looking like usual. But on a freshly seasoned metal utensil, the layer should be yellow-brownish. The stove may be too hot for this, especially a gas stove, I do my pans in the oven, for maybe an hour at 200 Celsius or somewhat lower. A burner under thin metal can cause hot spots of much higher local temperature, where the oil chars instead of polymerising.

There is also the type of oil you use. Generally, unsaturated oils polymerise easiest, but the final layer stays somewhat sticky. Saturated fat can give you some more trouble, but will have a smoother finish. I do multiple layers, starting with 1-2 layers of flaxseed oil - this gives a good basis, it is so unsaturated it can practically dry out by itself in the air - and finishing with cocos fat or lard, again 1 or 2 layers. For the first few time in a new pan, I try to fry with saturated fat too, for your wok you will probably find that the taste of cocos fat has a good harmony with Asian dishes.

And a word to the cleaning before: Vinegar was not such a good idea. Woks are made from reactive metals (that's why they need seasoning) and metals react with acid. Using acid to clean naked reactive metal will result in invisibly small pockets of reaction products on the surface of the wok, mostly rust. You can do this as an early step in cleaning, but afterwards you have to use something to make sure you have removed this too. To peel off the seasoning before reseasoning, you are much better off using a base, as it does not react with the metal. This will ensure that the new seasoning sticks to the metal itself and not to impurities which can be dislodged over time.


Would pressure cooking stock create a different result? I have always made bone stocks by simmering them for a long, long time, either on the stove or in a slow cooker. My new housemate insists this can be done in a pressure cooker. I'm sure this is true, but not sure whether the result would be different, other than that I wouldn't be able to skim it in a pressure cooker.

How does pressure cooking affect stock? Would a stock have different properties when slow-simmered vs. pressure cooked?

There are several advantages to using a pressure cooker other than speed, the first of which address your concerns about skimming. If operated correctly the water in a pressure cooker will never come to the boil resulting in a clearer stock than one made by convention means. From Modernist Cuisine (2-291):

The liquid inside the pressure cooker will not boil, despite the elevated temperature, unless you let the heat get out of hand. A liquid boils when its vapor pressure exceeds the ambient pressure around it. Inside a sealed pressure cooker, as liquid water vaporizes, it raises the ambient pressure, which in turn increases the boiling point. So long as water vapor is not escaping the pressure cooker, the pressure inside will stay high enough to keep liquid water from boiling. Never reaching a boil is important because it keeps the stock clear. Turbulence from boiling emulsifies oils and small food particles from the ingredients into a stock, thereby making it murky.
A telltale sign that the stock is at a rolling boil inside a pressure cooker is a jet of steam or fog from the overextended pressure valve. This jet means that the pressure cooker is overpressurized, and for safety's sake the valve is relieving the pressure.

You can further increase the clarity by adding some raw meat to your ingredients to act as a filtering agent. From Modernist Cuisine (2-295):

Dispersing a small amount of raw ground meat along with the other ingredients when making a pressure-cooked stock yields a stock with the clarity of a traditional consommé. This works because protein extracted from the uncooked ground meat acts just like protein in egg white: it sponges up tiny light scattering fat globules and other small particles.

Another benefit comes from the sealed nature of the cooking environment, which prevent volatile aromas from evaporating into the air. Heston Blumenthal cites this as one of the reasons why The Fat Duck began using pressure cookers for their stock in this article:

Now, this may seem obvious, but when you smell those wonderful odours while you're cooking, it's a sign that you're losing flavours through those volatile elements that disappear in the air. A pressure cooker, however, keeps the aromas and flavour molecules sealed in the pot...In a normal stockpot, by contrast, water evaporates at boiling point, taking flavour with it.

Modernist Cuisine (2-292) concurs:

When the the pressure-cooking step is done, you must let the cooker cool before removing the lid...Cooling first means that volatile aromas in the vapor above the liquid will condense back into the liquid rather than escape into the kitchen.

However, not all pressure cookers are created equal and some will release vapor to maintain pressure resulting in a poorer quality stock. Dave Arnold and Nils Norén from Cooking Issues have done extensive experiments into this phenomenon here: in blind tastings vented pressure cookers produced inferior results to both conventionally cooked stocks and those made with more advanced spring valved cookers; however, the non-vented vessels produced the best results out of all three methods.
Finally, the elevated temperature increases the rate of Maillard reactions resulting in a more flavourful stock. In the Cooking Issues article above the resulting browning was significant enough that it was easy to tell which stock was pressure cooked and which wasn't just by visual inspection:

The aroma of the pressure cooked stock was clearly superior. The color was deeper as well (because of this all future tests were done actually blind –with our eyes closed). Unfortunately the conventional stock tasted better. It had a stronger chicken flavor and was better balanced overall.
...
I took 4 liters of conventional chicken stock from the restaurant and pressure-cooked half while the other half simmered on the stove. This time, I didn’t use the school’s pressure cooker, I used my own. When I compared the two stocks side by side the pressure cooked one was far browner.  I hadn’t thought the pressure cooker would change the color of a pre-made stock. When we tasted them the pressure-cooker won.


Why would I buy a rice cooker? A friend of mine I'm getting an apartment with next year said that we should invest in a rice cooker. I'm fairly adept in the kitchen and don't come from a family that uses a rice cooker so I would default to cooking rice in a pot. He seemed to think that he would buy a rice cooker only for the convenience of cooking rice without worrying about it. Is convenience the only reason? Is it worth it to buy one for the other things (not rice) you can cook in it?

I come from a culture where rice is our staple and I have a rice cooker. Here are some of the advantages from my perspective:

Rice is perfect everytime – not stuck to the bottom, not watery, not mushy and stuck together, etc.
If you make rice in a pot, and the heat is too high, it will boil and spill over creating a mess.
You can switch the rice cooker on and go do other things, whereas it is dangerous to walk away from a stove.
The rice cooker can be used for other things such as cooking lentils and steaming vegetables.
Rice cookers are cheap.


How to consistently get golden beads on meringue topping? Sometimes, golden beads form on my cheesecake with meringue topping. I very much like this effect, but I can't get it to appear consistently. Can anyone give advice as to what to pay attention to?

That's your meringue weeping. You could either make a very unstable meringue, which will weep uncontrollably, or you can replicate the effect with caramelised sugar - the latter is probably better for consistency and not-having-a-sloppy-mess-on-top-of-your-cheesecakeness.


Why is the meat closer to the bones tastes better? I like to bake (roast?) whole chicken and whole ducks. I noticed that the best meat is always the meat the is closest to the bone (whether or not this meat is close or far away from the skin). The meat closer to the bone is more juicy and more tasty. Why is that?

Is it because those muscles have a different physiology? Is it because the bones release delicious fats (or something else) that accumulate in the nearby meat?

Is it a general observation that also apply to red meat?

This contains a nice explanation of why meat is juicy and tasty, and it is due to the presence of fat and conjunctive tissue in the muscles, as well as brining and marinating.

If you take a look at bird anatomy, the chest and other major muscle masses have less fat and conjunctive tissue as they evolved to be, well, muscle masses for propelling the bird around.

The muscles "closer to the bone" have the conjunctive tissue that connects them to the correlated bone, and in certain parts, the muscles are smaller due to the need for fine movements (like the wings).

I explained in another answer the mechanics of maximizing marinade power, and one of the factors involved is the surface-to-volume ratio of the part you're trying to marinade, which is also better closer to the bone (including cavities)


recipe say's to sponge on 2 cups warm milk and 1 cup warm water, what does this mean? Recipe from Great Grandma say's to sponge on 2 cups warm milk and 1 cup warm water. What does this mean?

"A technique of mixing dough in a two stage process to produce more
  flavorful loaves. The first stage involves mixing a small amount of
  water, flour and yeast together first and giving it some time to
  ferment. The sponge is then mixed in with the rest of the ingredient.

  Loaves produced this way requires shorter fermentation time, allow for
  more flexibility in timing (the sponge can be held in the fridge for
  longer time), develops a better flavor and requires less yeast."

(http://www.foodista.com/technique/CRDDPSTF/sponge-method#)

Also:

  A sponge ferment is usually a sticky process that uses part of the
  flour, part or all of the water, and part or all of the yeast of a
  total- or straight-dough formula. Highly liquid sponges of batter
  consistencies are mixed with a whip, spoon, or fork. Lower hydration,
  stiffer sponges are lightly mixed or kneaded just until the dough
  begins to develop. The sponge is allowed to rest and ferment for a
  period of time in an environment of a desired temperature and
  humidity. When the sponge's fermentation time has elapsed or it has
  reached a desired volumetric growth characteristic, the final dough's
  ingredients are added.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sponge_and_dough)


Are products labeled Kosher or Halal generally of a better quality than those that aren't? I'm talking grocery store products here (including packaged meat), not Butcher Counter where I can grill the butcher about origin.

This probably depends a great deal on regional and political circumstances, but where I live (Toronto), there are dozens of Kosher and Halal grocery stores (or stores with Kosher or Halal sections), and in my experience, the meat is actually generally of worse quality.

Halal, as it applies to meat, refers to which animals are allowed and the required method of slaughter (an incision across the neck, cutting the jugular vein and carotid artery in a single motion - Kashrut requires the esophagus and trachea to be cut as well).  Kosher meat also has be koshered, which means soaking and salting the meat in order to draw out the blood.

As you might expect, the method of slaughter has no tangible effect on the quality of the meat, but the koshering process does, and the effect is not positive - it dries it out and makes it salty, and most kosher meat sold in supermarkets (and even the majority of butchers) is quite tough compared to its non-kosher counterparts.

That said, some people do prefer Kosher (not Halal) meat for health reasons, because the blood may carry uric acid and other compounds that some people do not wish to eat.  I've never seen any specific scientific evidence that these compounds are harmful as far as meat consumption goes, and any reports of this leading to better flavour are anecdotal at best, but I am not an expert on the biological factors, so don't take my word for it.

Various Halal/Kosher laws also govern the facilities in which the meats (or other foods) have to be prepared, but it is important to note that these laws do not actually govern general sanitization!  In fact, a number of butchers have been closed down by municipal health inspectors at various times for unsanitary conditions and other improper food handling practices (such as adding food colouring to meat to make it look fresher).

Note that I am not trying to impugn the Kosher or Halal industries.  These practices are every bit as common in the mainstream food industry.  I am simply saying that being kosher or halal does not have any real preventative value when it comes to shady/sloppy practices.

Another factor to consider is that supermarkets and butchers are a competitive industry, but being subject to Kosher/Halal laws greatly reduces the competition and raises the processing cost by sometimes astonishing amounts.  These simple economic factors would lower the quality of any food being produced because parties collude and cut corners.  Again, I cannot speak for every single region of the world, but here, you cannot find a kosher ribeye or prime rib steak.  They simply do not exist.  Whether it's because the butchers all prefer to make cheaper cuts or because they figure that a choice cut would simply end up being too expensive for anyone to consider buying, I'm not sure.

I know that several TV chefs in recent years have recommended buying kosher meat (and possibly halal, although I haven't personally heard that), but assuming that halal/kosher is optional for you (i.e. you are not Muslim or Jewish) then always do your own research before spending a lot of money on what may often turn out to be an inferior product.


Dairy-free substitute for milk when marinating chicken A number of recipes involve soaking meat in milk, buttermilk or yogurt, for example several Middle Eastern lamb recipes and traditional American southern fried chicken. Someone I'm cooking for is allergic to dairy. What dairy-free substitute would give the most similar effect and why?

(Slightly related answer about effects of milk)

Milk has been used in marinades for a long time, and it does work. It is thought that it is the calcium in the milk that activates enzymes in the chicken rather than enzymes in the milk tenderizing the chicken, see this article for the science. This means you can use soy, rice, or any milk substitute, but you'll get the best result from the one with the most calcium. This article lists the mg of calcium per 1 US cup (235ml) of cow's milk and substitutes:

Cow's milk: 300mg
Rice milk: 283mg
Coconut milk: 41mg
Soy milk: 19mg

So it looks like Rice milk is the best substitute from a tenderizing perspective.

There are other ways of tenderizing chicken, pineapple for example does a great job, however if you want authentic middle eastern milk substitutes are the way to go.


sourdough starter splits So on my second day, my sourdough starter split pretty big and I'm wondering if this is expected behaviour. This is 30/30gr water/fullwheat flour from the first and second day. Here is a picture of the result: https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B_9zXCYnMBMlNXhTOU1vQk9yMjQ/view?usp=docslist_api

It smells really sour, beyond vinegary. Any opinions or tips?

tl:dr; Do another batch.

It is not expected but not a full indication of a failure, but -  There is a lot of colours in the picture which is suspicious.  Also beyond vinegary after two days is suspicious. That kind of separation is indicative of the flour no longer having feed for their bacteria, which might explain the sour smell (not good).

What kind of environment did you leave it in? covered and cold?

I'd try another batch. It should smell nutty and just a tad sour. You might just have been unlucky with the dominating bugs in your starter.

Anecdotal:  I have had long-lived primers separate a little bit and brought them back to life with some careful feeding.


How to prevent large rice noodle from curling? Today I cooked big rice noodles with chicken in oyster sauce, Thai style. It was very delicious.

I had not fresh, but dried noodles (photo not mine).

In order to make it right, I needed to first cook the noodles in boiliing water for 2-3 minutes before actually stir-frying it, otherwise it would stay tough. But the instant I poured boiling water over it, all the nice rectangular sheets of noodles curled into noodle straws. How would I prevent that?

I ate those kind of noodles as you showed once many, many years ago and IIRC those noodles taste like dried Pho noodles and have the same texture. To stir-fry your noodles I suggest to soak them in cold or at maximum luke warm water first1 and then stir-fry the softened noodles. Due to pre-soaking, hopefully there should be no uneven hydration and thus, no curling.2 I've seen many people preparing Pho, Hu Tieu or sti-fried Pho that way without any curly noodles.
Depending on how thick your noodles are you might have to blanch the noodles before stir-frying.

1 For 30 minutes? I never paid attention to the time. They don't get mushy if soaked longer.

2 YMMV: Another advantage: You might be able to prepare the noodles beforehand, so no blanching directly before stir-frying or having sticky noodles if not fried immediately.


microplastics from plastic pepper grinders? I have a regular (steel) pepper grinder but I have defaulted to buying and using the 'all-in-one" bottles of peppercorn with the grinder top' from Trader Joe's.

I am hearing more and more about exposure to 'microplastics' from all sorts of sources. Last night while I was cooking and grinding some pepper into a roue for a cauliflower-cheddar casserole (it was delicious!), it occurred to me: am I adding microplastics along with the pepper?

I'm no engineer or physicist, but it seems likely that a plastic grinder working against hard peppercorns is going to cause wear on the grinder surface with the result getting added to food.

Is this a known "thing" (e.g. concern, myth, stoner speculation )? I've googled around but couldn't find anything.

If you go small enough, you're always inhaling/ingesting something foreign.

Your concern, although logically valid, is nearly impossible to regulate or even measure. We're talking about amount that is, literally, microscopic.

You're definitely eating it, but discussion of the consequences (if any) is off topic on the site.

The environmental concerns are valid, because even though they're small, they do not decompose and collects.


Can calcium sulphate substitute for calcium chloride in mozarrella cheese making? Calcium sulphate is what I have plenty.

Calcium sulphate (CaSO4.nH2O) is also known as gypsum or plaster of Paris. It's slightly soluble in cold water (~ 3 g/l) and almost insoluble in hot water. Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is much more soluble (~ 800 g/l).

So if you need more than about 2 g/l of calcium chloride, the replacement won't work as you just can't dissolve enough of the sulphate. Also, any lumps of calcium sulphate risk solidifying in a fairly short time, depending on which form you planned on using: plaster (hemihydrate, solidifies when wetted) or ground gypsum (dihydrate).

(That's of course assuming you can get food grade calcium sulphate, technical grades are not necessarily safe for food use)


Why do we need gelatin in our stocks? I make chicken stock fairly regularly.  I know it's supposed to look like jello when chilled.  My question is: why?  Mouthfeel? Body?  Why do we want a gelatinous blob of delicious bone juice?

Gelatin is naturally occurring in meat and poultry, it's broken down collagen, which is the material that distributes force throughout the muscle. You couldn't actually get rid of it easily even if you wanted to, so it isn't necessarily that you want it, but that it is there. Reducing the stock until it is gelatinous simply means that you've gotten rid of most of the water, concentrating the stock so it takes less space, which is generally desirable.

Gelatine and other thickeners increase a liquid's viscosity, making it coat things better, which is good for mouth feel. Most of the time that's what you want for a good dish.


What would you call this cut of pork? I got a cut from an asian grocery store yesterday that was labeled as Pork Belly, but what I got is this:

That's the top-down view; the cut is under an inch thick. There's a portion in the upper right that looks similar to the fat on pork belly.

What would this cut be called, and when I'm cooking it should I look for inspiration in pork chop recipes, or pork belly recipes?

That looks like Pork neck or shoulder without a bone. The best way to prepare it is to grill it or bake.


Culinary uses for bolted lettuce? Does anyone have a culinary use for a lettuce which has bolted? Or do I throw it away?

Bolting being what gardeners call that moment when your lovely full bodied lettuce suddenly shoots skywards, in order to produce seed. Once salad crops have bolted the leaves still have a good colour, but they are usually thought of as unusably bitter.

While it might be too tough and bitter to eat as a raw salad, you might try it as a warm wilted lettuce salad with a sweet and sour dressing (bacon, bacon grease, onions, cider vinegar, sugar) to help mask bitterness.

Alternatively you might also try a Lettuce and Pea Soup:
Sweat onions in butter, season with salt and pepper.  Add lettuce and wilt down.  Add fresh or frozen green peas along with chicken stock and bring to a simmer until peas are soft and tender.  Puree (maybe add a little chopped fresh mint) and adjust seasoning with additional salt, pepper, and sugar if the peas don't produce enough sweetness.


Is there another name for unrendered lard? I've always thought of lard as referring to just the rendered fat, but the Wikipedia article on lard says that it can refer to either unrendered or rendered pork fat. Is there a name besides "unrendered lard" or "unrendered pig/pork fat" for the unrendered fat you make lard from?

As the Wiki says, unrendered lard is "adipose tissue", also called "fatty tissue". It's often referred to by the specific piece of fatty tissue that it comes from: fatback, belly fat, leaf (from around the kidneys, the equivalent of beef suet).

It can also simply be called "fat". I see, for example, many articles to render fat into lard. That's more ambiguous than "fatty tissue", but it's much more colloquial and it's usually clear from context.


Are the bubbles in the sourdough starter caused by yeast cultures? I'm new to sourdough starter, so I'm a little confused regarding a statement I read recently which said that the yeast is formed AFTER you see bubbles forming in the starter.  Yet, it makes sense to me that the yeast is the cause of the bubbles in the first place.  Would someone please explain?

Thanks.

The answer is actually both! Yes, the bubbles are caused by the yeast, they are converting sugar to carbon dioxide, among other things. Its also an indicator that the yeast colony is multiplying. So, technically, there is (more) yeast forming.


Do spice containers need to be hermetic? Spice containers purchase

I'm planning on upgrading my spice storage. Reading some advice online (e.g. article 1, and article 2) I came to the conclusion that spice containers should:

Not be exposed to direct sunlight and high temperatures
Be airtight

Which means that either you store it inside of some closed cupboard/wardrobe/room or you have containers which do block light and are in a relatively shady place. And the containers need to be airtight.

Available solutions

I've been browsing for some containers available online in my country and the 2 most sensible options I've seen are these:

The problem

The first one is hermetic (it has some rubber around the lid) but it's clear glass. The other one does not have the rubber, just a regular twist-off lid, but it's amber glass.

It'll be hard for me to find any space inside of cupboards to store all of my spices (I need at least 30), so I'd rather buy amber glass container, which I believe will effectively block the sunlight, even when kept on the counter. But I can't find any hermetic amber-glass containers, only ones with regular lid.

The question

Is that regular twist-off lid enough to keep spices airtight and fresh? Or should I focus on buying a hermetic container (like the one in clear glass). I could then for example paint them black to block the sunlight.

Based on my understanding of physics I would say: Opaque over airtight.

Things you don't want in a spice container are:

convection. An open container is essentially an invitation for the spices to diffuse into the whole room. Even a simple cap will already greatly reduce this effect. The amount of air that's going to be exchanged through a not so airtight cap over a hermetic seal probably pales in comparison to the amount of air that is exchanged whenever you use the spice.
sunlight. Amber glass is going to be clearly better at this than clear glass. It's unclear whether the problem is the light itself or simply the light's ability to transfer heat to the spices. I'd say the latter will probably weigh more heavily. Regardless though the amber glass will be better at both blocking light from getting to the spices and at radiating heat away from the container.
heat. Both containers being glass they'll be about equal when it comes to dealing with heat directly transferred onto the container.

Technically, if your container had very little spice in it then there might be some constellation where a the clear container could beat the amber one based in its ability to let light energy pass through it without affecting either the container or the spice.


How to look after non-stick cookware so it lasts? Over the course of the last 4 years I think I seem to have been working my way through non-stick pans at a ridiculous rate, I think I'm on my 3rd frying pan and 4th wok - or something of that nature.

Admittedly the first couple I had were very cheap, and I've been steadly buying what appear to be better quality. However, for the coating to become damaged so quickly I must be doing something wrong.

I'm not using sharp or metallic objects when cooking with them, nor to I stick them in the sink with said sharp objects when clearning.
I've recently learnt that "over-heating" them can damage the coating, but is this true?

But, what other advice can you offer to help extend the life of my non-stick cookware?

I'm still happily using a non-stick frying pan that I've had for almost 4 years.

I only use Teflon utensils.

I never use harsh abrasives.

After cooking, I fill it with boiling water, let it soak for a while and then wipe out with paper towels. Most of the time I just give it a quick rinse and it's ready for the next time.

And buy quality - "Quality is remembered long after the price is forgotten".


Why does adding extra flour help with high altitude baking? When baking at high altitude it seems that most recipes advise to include a little more flour to the mix. Is it related to boiling point?

The air pressure is lower at higher altitudes; when you add extra flour to your baked goods, it prevents them from rising too quickly or too much.

ETA (about the water): Water boils at a lower temperature at higher altitudes, so the extra water called for in high-altitude baking is to compensate for all the water turning to steam faster than it would at sea level.


How long can frozen salmon be unrefrigerated and still be safe for sushi? I've bought a small frozen salmon filet (in a non-vacuum sealed plastic bag) for sushi from a local Japanese market. It took about an hour to get it home via public transit, and the edges had thawed out a bit and became soft by the time I was able to refreeze it. Assuming it was safe to eat when I purchased it, should it still be safe to eat raw now? In general, how long would I have to commute with the salmon unrefrigerated before I should begin to worry about the salmon no longer being safe to eat?

While it is considered safe to refreeze food that has been properly defrosted in a chilled environment, any food that has defrosted in a warm environment (The food temperature danger zone of 40F-140F), should be considered adulterated if it has been left out for too long. The maximum time of 2 hours is applied to food stored between 40F-89F [5C-32C], and 1 hour for food stored above 90F [32C] (USDA danger zone https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/safe-food-handling/danger-zone-40-f-140-f/CT_Index). This is why food should never be defrosted on a countertop.

However, food may be safely refrozen (with a loss of quality) if it still contains ice crystals or is below 40F [5C] (https://www.foodsafety.gov/food-safety-charts/food-safety-during-power-outage).

It is important to note that for any food that is stored in the danger zone, this figure is cumulative. So if your salmon has already spent one hour at between 40F and 89F [5C-32C] during processing and storage etc. prior to freezing, you only effectively have one hour left at that temperature (if defrosted in a refrigerator) before it should be considered unfit to eat.

That is the theory, but in real life it is difficult to ascertain exactly how well food has been stored and treated along the food chain, prior to purchase, unless it is obviously off. Your salmon could be fine, on the other hand, if you had a long journey in hot conditions that lasted over an hour, it might not. Personally, I'd err on the side of caution here and chuck it, as parts of the fillet have probably gone past 40F [5C], especially as you don't intend to cook it. Even then, there is still a level of risk and this is especially pertinent for individuals that are pregnant, have a compromised immune system or are elderly as there are frequently serious complications if people in these categories suffer food poisoning.

Apart from the food safety issues, there is also a matter of quality. Refreezing a partially defrosted salmon fillet will not do it any favours. Depending on how it was initially frozen, a cycle in a domestic freezer will potentially cause damage to the defrosted part.

I would take an insulated cool bag with some ice blocks with you in future if there is any chance of your frozen food defrosting, or that your journey will be an extended time in a hot environment.


Reheating boiled eggs for scotch eggs I recently boiled a duck egg for 7 mins and then immediately placed into iced water, where I let it sit for 10 mins.

I then proceeded to place the cold egg into a water bath set at a temperature of 145°F (63°C) for 2 hours.

I then removed the egg from the bath and made a scotch egg

The egg was still runny after frying (which was fantastic). Will reheating the egg in the water bath be safe as it is above 140°F (60°C)?

Look at the combination of time and temperature, when you decide whether it is safe or not. Baldwin recommends a 135°F / 57°C water bath for at least 1 hour and 15 minutes to pasteurize a chicken egg. Therefore 63 degrees in two hours should be safe even though the egg is a little larger.


Why is my salted butter weeping? And is it safe to eat? I have some butter with sea salt crystals in, which I keep in the bread bin, unrefrigerated.

I have noticed that it seems to be getting wet, with small amounts of what looks like water appearing on the inside of the packet, and on the butter?

Why is this?  What is this?  and is my butter still safe?

My initial guess was that there may be too much salt for the butter when it is at room temperature. However, 6-10% salt content is considered ideal with respect to curbing bacterial growth, as well as the retention and preserving the integrity of flavor. I highly doubt that your butter is salted to such a high degree that it would actually
Lacking further information, here are a few explanations

Precipitant from within, due to high buttermilk content: One purpose of salting is to remove buttermilk. Perhaps you are using a high buttermilk butter, and as salt facilitates the removal of buttermilk, if the butter was not properly worked relative to salt content you may be seeing either buttermilk or casein precipitant on the surface. Also, the buttermilk may not have been well washed out.
Precipitant from within, due to improper salt/water mixology: Salt should be worked into butter around 58'F, "theoretically butter containing 15% of water should be able to dissolve 5.4% of salt" (source). It is possible that (1) the temperature was not sufficiently high (i.e. to address addition of sea salt as opposed to table salt) to turn the salt into solution, or (2) the carrying capacity of the water was exceeded and salt crystals remained, or (3) the churning cycles were not sufficiently long to incorporate the crystals. These three things would contribute to higher reactivity in the butter than if it were properly dissolved. See explanation of Mottled Butter below for more info.
Precipitant from without, due to non-ideal elements in sea salt: Another explanation is that your sea salt had a high concentration of Calcium Chloride, which can attract water from the atmosphere to the surface of your butter.

Did you perhaps buy Mottled Butter;

Mottled butter is butter which is Uneven in color This unevenness in color may be due to several different causes. It may be due to specks of curd (speckled butter) and it may be due to certain organisms (dappled butter). These causes of mottled butter are not very common in factories where the manufacture of butter is properly carried on. The most common fault of mottled butter is the improper incorporation of salt and the presence of an excessive amount of buttermilk. Mottled butter caused in this way is common...
Whenever there is undissolved granular salt present the moisture is attracted and the color deepened at that particular place source

My guess based on the maount of information you gave about the butter (has sea salt, sweats at room temperature) is not that anyone of these answers is distinctly responsible, but that it is a confluence of the various factors resulting in a mild mottling (perhaps imperceptible to the eye or the palate unless you eat the whole block in one go) that is both attracting moisture from the air, and pressing it out of itself.
I am guessing that if you find the liquid problematic (i.e. does it have a funny taste/smell?) you can put it in the fridge and it will stop sweating/weeping. Otherwise, you run the standard risks of fats and proteins stored with a mild curing at room temperature.


What's the difference between Yorkshire Tea (red band) and Yorkshire Gold? The descriptions on Yorkshire's websites (reproduced below) are quite vague. There is a link for  "More info" but that simply directs you to betty.co.uk where the same info is reprinted.

Gold is more expensive. Right now, at betty.co.uk, for a box of 160 bags (500g), Yorkshire Gold is £5.29 and Yorkshire tea is £4.29 (excluding shipping and all that). On Amazon.com (USA), the prices (with 5% S&S discount) are $19.09 and $13.00 respectively.

My questions are:

Do the tea leaves for Yorkshire Tea (red band) and Yorkshire Gold come from different sources?
Is there any objective sense in which Yorkshire Gold is better (hence justifying the higher price)?
In taste tests, could one tell the difference between the two? (Right now I happen to be having a cup of Yorkshire Tea and it seems to be a tad weaker than Gold, which I last had a couple of weeks ago, but I could just be imagining things. Briefly Googling, I see some discussions on various forums. Many claim that Gold is better. But some claim it is not as good.)

Descriptions from Yorkshire's website

Yorkshire Tea (red band):

  A proper brew. Pure and simple. To give our blend its refreshing flavour, strength and colour we use top quality Assam and African teas. In the tea trade we’re renowned for paying more to get the pick of the crop. Our experts travel the world to find the people who grow the best teas, which we then blend together using our secret recipe to create a traditional, satisfying brew.

Yorkshire Gold:

  Here at Yorkshire Tea we know that the best tea is about the best blend of leaves. And the finest blend we make is Yorkshire Gold. We choose teas from our three favourite origins and buy them from the top ten tea gardens in the world. Back home in Yorkshire, our master blenders bring these luxury leaves together to make a rich, smooth and incredibly satisfying brew.

Speaking very generally, there are three bands of quality when it comes to black tea in the UK Market.

Brown (Economy) is your lowest grade, it is the cheapest in the shops and usually very dusty and fibrous. The flavor is weak and the color with milk is a dull brown.Teas can come from central Africa, south India, Argentina and the middle east.
Red is the middle of the road tea, covering about 80% of the black tea market. This is your Tetley, PG, Yorkshire Red etc, that have good flavor and strength and is with milk the color comes out red (there's a pattern here).Teas for this type of blend usually originate from central and east Africa.
Gold is the premium quality blend, tasting full of flavor, strength and character. These blends are your Yorkshire Gold, Dorset Tea, Clipper Gold,M&S Gold using the highest quality gardens including Rwanda, Kenya, Assam (North India) and Sri Lanka. In case you haven't guessed already, the color with milk is gold.

There are no official perimeters in place for these categories which means some tea companies abuse this, but with Yorkshire, Gold is definitely better than Red.


Saved-for-later then reheated potato mixture sparks and catches fire in microwave I have a bird who gets medicine twice a day.  I hide it in a mashed potato fruit mixture.  I make enough that the potato mixture lasts several days and add the medicine as I need it.  I take a small amount and microwave it for about 8 seconds (just enough to soften it).  Then I normally add a couple blueberries to the mixture for a little more moisture and flavor.  At that point, if I feel like I've made too much for that "serving" I'll put some back in the container for next time.  When I reheat the saved-for-later mixture, it always sparks and catches fire (about the size of a lighter flame) in the microwave (it always goes out as soon as I stop the microwave).  Of course, I never use the caught fire serving and always start over.  This only happens with the saved-for-later bits and not the original mixture.  I read the "Why did my banana catch fire in the microwave?" (Why did my banana catch fire in the microwave?) thread and that might answer it if it were all of the mixtures that caught fire, but it's only the parts that I tried not to waste and save for the next medicine-hiding dose.  Any ideas what causes just the left-over bits to catch fire?

Try putting a mug of water next to the food in the microwave.

I've had this same problem with baker's chocolate and that did the trick.   I think it's because there isn't enough water to absorb the microwaves so the excess energy causes sparking.


What knife and cutting technique should I use for cubing bacon? I like to fry and cook cubed bacon for various dishes, but I sometimes have a hard time cutting through bacon, especially where the fat meets the meat. The bacon just tends to move around too much, and it gets trickier at the end of the slice (or chunk). I usually use a 6 inch serrated knife for this task. What knife would be best - serrated, chef's, or filet? Or something else? Is there some special technique I should be using?

Cutting bacon into cubes was a regular prep task for me when I was cooking professionally, so I got very fast at it.  Here are the tricks I found:

Fully cooked (baked) bacon cuts MUCH faster and cleaner, and you can make perfect cubes
Don't use a serrated knife.  It'll be easier to cut with, but it will shred and fray the bacon as you slice, eventually making a mess.
Use the sharpest knife you have, especially for uncooked bacon.  There's already a tendency for it to slip and slide around, and a sharp knife cuts with less back-and-forth motion.
You want a deep-bellied knife such as a santoku or Chinese cleaver, because you can slice through multiple stacks of bacon at once.
Stack slices of bacon so you can cut multiple pieces at once.
Try to work with 4" by 4" blocks of bacon, so the pieces aren't big enough to slip around as much.  With this size you're still able to do a lot at once, but it's fast
Organize your cutting board.  Pick one corner for whole chunks of bacon, then cut into strips and move to another spot, then finally into cubes which goes in another spot.

Now if I were a culinary school, you'd have paid a few hundred bucks to learn what I just told you.


Ideas to cook dry beans fast in halogen oven I am planning to cook beans in an halogen oven i recently acquired. Where i am in an  office, I have no gas cooking facilities and don't want to venture into electric cooking to weight on electricity bills.

I was reading on various methods of fast cooking dried beans. but couldn't get any

What is are your experiences?  I thought of soaking dried beans, bake in the halogen oven before cooking. Earlier, i tried cooking with 250Degrees after over-night soaking which took a bit longer to cook.

The only way I can think of to cook beans faster is in a pressure cooker.


Can I cook Foster Farms chicken sous-vide in its original plastic? Is it safe to cook individually wrapped frozen chicken breast in the original plastic packaging (e.g. from foster farms) using sous-vide?

Also, what is the highest temperature I can cook the plastic-wrapped chicken?

EDIT

I finally got a reply from Foster Farms:

  Thank you for taking the time to
  contact our Foster Farms Consumer
  Affairs Department.  The chicken is
  not meant to be cooked in the
  packaging, it is not safe.

  Sincerely,

  Vickie Medeiros Consumer Affairs
  Representative

The only way to be completely sure is to contact Foster Farms and ask them what their packaging is made of and whether or not it is a totally airtight seal.  Everything else is speculation.
There are, however, two data points on which to speculate, both from their preparation page, and this is more broadly applicable to any company that distributes food this way:

Can I freeze chicken in its original wrapper?
Yes, the original packaging is fine for freezing up to two months. For longer freezing, over-wrap packages with foil, plastic wrap, freezer paper or plastic bags.

Generally something that's been properly vacuum-sealed will last much longer than that.  The above would seem to indicate that it is not completely airtight and may even allow a small amount of moisture to get through.

What's the best method for thawing frozen chicken or turkey?
[...] You can also defrost in your microwave following the manufacturer's instructions. Remove chicken from the original package, and place on a microwave safe dish to defrost.

(emphasis mine)
This pretty clearly indicates that it is not microwave-safe, and proper vacuum bags that are safe for sous-vide are generally also microwave safe (even the cheapo FoodSaver products claim that you can boil, steam, or microwave in the bag).
So I am leaning quite heavily toward no - I don't think that the original packaging is safe for sous-vide, given the various other statements made by the company.  But again, the best way to know for sure is to contact them directly.


Why is it that caramel sauce should not be stirred after it has boiled? The internet says swirling is fine, but not stirring. Why is that so?

Actually, I think "the Internet" is wrong on this one, assuming that we are talking about proper caramel sauce.

In most of candy making, you are very careful of crystalization. You are working with a supersaturated sugar solution, and it is looking for the slightest excuse to precipitate. Stirring will clump the sugar out of the solution into crystals.

Some candy types need to be perfectly smooth, while others (like fudge) get their characteristic texture from careful management of crystal size. You shouldn't be stirring there at all.

But once you have reached caramelization, you can stir. What you have in the pan is no longer a supersaturated sugar solution, but caramelization products mixed in a less-concentrated sugar solution. In other words, you have caramel, which is a substance quite different from sugar syrup. And it does not clump into crystals. It is amorphous in its structure, not a crystal, and it's actually got some viscosity (if you leave a clump a solid caramel around for years, it will flow a few centimeters).

And you are not just dealing with pure caramel, but with caramel sauce, which also has lots of liquid added in the form of cream. So much liquid would have also prevented the sugar syrup from crystalizing if it had been added earlier.

So, to summarize, you shouldn't stir a sugar solution during candy making, but you can stir both caramel and caramel sauce.

It seems that somebody learned the rule about hot sugar solutions and decided that it applies in all kinds of candy making, without exceptions. But in fact, it doesn't apply to caramel sauce.


How do you roast a tri tip overnight? Wood Ranch famously roasts their Tri-Tip overnight and then finishes it off on the grill before serving.
Whenever I slow cook my tri-tip (in a smoker @225) it only takes about 4 hours. I don't think this qualifies as "overnight". And their tri-tip certainly has a different texture that tri-tip's I've cooked in this manner. I've looked all over the internet for a recipe or process to start from (oven-temps and cook times), but everything seems to max out at about 4 hours of cook time.
All I can think of is cooking the trip tip at an over temp around 190, but that seems quite low and I'm apprehensive to try it. Is this a viable method?

You need to drop the temperature more for overnight. The 'danger zone' of food is between 5°C (40°F) and 60°C (140°F), you want to limit the time your tri-tip spends at that temperature range as that's where you get bacterial growth. Anything higher than that is safe from a bacteria perspective. So you could roast your tri-tip at 145°F or thereabouts (a little extra for safety) for as long as you want.
My big concern with tri-tip is drying it out, even with the temperature dropped you can't leave it in forever without it turning into a brick. I'd be tempted to wrap it in foil to seal the juices in, then try an 8 hour roast at 145°F. What the restaurant is probably doing is roasting overnight, then refrigerating the meat for the next day's service, this allows the meat to rest and keeps it safe. They then use charcoal to reheat it and give it some char. That's just one theory from previous food service experience.
Another thought is that they could be roasting the entire tri-tip primal cut as a whole piece overnight, then cutting steaks off of it and char-grilling them. Roasting the whole piece would take longer and it wouldn't dry out as quickly. You could do this at home too, provided you could get the whole piece of meat from a butcher.


How to salvage hardened peanut butter from jar bottom How can I salvage hardened peanut butter from the bottom of the jar? Is there anything I can put in it that will soften it but also add to the taste, or at least not affect it negatively?

As long as the peanut paste at the bottom of the jar hasn't gone rancid, I'm pretty sure the bottom of the jar gets hardened and dry because the peanut solids have sunk to the bottom while the peanut oil has floated to the top, and as you use the peanut butter, a deficit of peanut oil develops at the bottom of the jar. I usually try to keep re-mixing the jar as I use it, so I haven't really tried this, but I'll bet if you stir in a little peanut oil, that dry peanut-plaster would soften up and become like its old self again.


What is the difference between white and green asparagus? Is there any difference between white and green asparagus in terms of taste, texture, etc?

I've had green asparagus lots of times but never white asparagus.

Yes, there is a difference in taste. I think it's the chlorophyll, but I may be wrong. But the green asparagus has a "vegetable" or "grassy" taste which isn't present in the white asparagus. The white one has its own distinct aroma, which is less pronounced in the green one.

As for texture, Caleb already said it. White asparagus is more tender, if you buy it fresh enough. On the other hand, non-tender green asparagus is snappy and somewhat brittle, like a normal stalk. Non-tender white asparagus is tough and stringy. When I cook white asparagus, I remove the lowest part (the most stringy one) and peel it (the outer layer is especially string prone) and sometimes, if it turns out to be low quality/old, it still has an unpleasant texture. The green one seldom requires removal of the lower part, and never peeling.

Violet asparagus is like white one in both taste and texture, but not as common.

Oh, and what Caleb says about both being the same plant is correct, but I have never heard of little shades. All farmers in Germany grow white asparagus underground. They make mounds of earth above the place where the asparagus is planted, and it has to grow a lot before it reaches the surface. They also cover the mounds with black foil to get the earth warm in spring. The harvest starts sometime in April and ends by tradition on June 24. It is done by hand, because machines would break the rods. This makes it a quite costly vegetable. And it should be eaten fresh, because the longer it spends outside of the earth, the stringier it gets.

I don't share the common German enthusiasm for white asparagus ("royal vegetable" etc.) but think that it is a good vegetable in its own right. If you can get it fresh, it is worth eating now and then.


What is the benefit to using a paper filter in a moka pot? I saw a picture of this method being used in a magazine from Hong Kong.  A cafe gave a short description of brewing with a moka pot.  They placed a small, circular, paper filter on top of the ground coffee before screwing on the top of the pot.

Why they would they have added this unconventional step to moka pot brewing?  Does the finer filter aid in pseudo-crema production?  Does it produce a cleaner brew?

Moka pots are essentially percolators meant for making espresso. As such, they are normally fitted with metal filters inside the pot that are capable of filtering some sediment, but not oils or Diterpenes (such as Cafestol). Diterpenes have been implicated in cholesterol increases associated with unfiltered coffee, but may also have cancer- and parkinson's-fighting properties.

The paper filter will also have a large effect on the flavor of the coffee produced. Paper filters are designed to remove oils from coffee, but the oils removed by the paper filter can be a substantial source of flavor for the coffee produced, as many of the flavor compounds in coffee are fat-soluble.

Coffee produced with a paper filter will have less sediment, fewer oils and, in the opinion of many metal-filtered enthusiasts (myself included), a more even, less robust flavor. That shouldn't be regarded as an inherent downside, however, as many people prefer the flavor of paper-filtered coffee, finding the mellower profile and lack of sediment/oilyness preferable. Crema is more pronounced in metal-filtered than in paper-filtered coffee.


"Squeaky" homemade mozzarella Last week I made mozzarella cheese (not fermented) for the first time. After heating the milk and removing the curds, I microwaved the curds repeatedly until getting them to 135 degrees F, then formed the cheese. Last week's cheese was delicious.

I tried again today and the cheese turned out very "squeaky" in that its texture is kind of plasticky and it actually makes squeaking sounds when I chew it. This batch seems drier than the first batch as well.

My guess is that I either overworked or overheated the cheese. I ended up heating it to 135 degrees twice: it cooled down too much when I was working it, so I heated it again. I also heated it in longer bursts than I did the first time as I realized that it took quite a few 30 second bursts on my microwave to get the cheese to 135 degrees. Finally, I heated the cheese a bit too much on the last burst: it got to 138 degrees.

I can't tell which of the aspects I mentioned in the last paragraph are relevant to my issue. I'd rather not make poor cheese from another $5 gallon of milk...

Edit: I may have found the answer, posted below. Other insight into this is still appreciated. (as well as suggestions for how to fix the botched cheese)

I may have found the answer I was looking for from
http://www.cheesemaking.com/store/pg/242-FAQ-Mozzarella.html

  Many folks try to knead their cheese like bread during the stretching phase. That will result in too much moisture loss which can cause your cheese may become tough and chewy. Instead, you want to use a process more like pulling taffy.  Let it fall on itself a few times until it all seems smooth and shiny.

I was making dough at the same time and I think I might have gotten carried away with the shaping process and did it too much like dough.


How to cleanly slice hard-boiled eggs? After some furious brainstorming in The Frying Pan, I recently prepared some hors d'oeuvres for a group of friends. These snacks were meant to include a thinly sliced boiled egg element. Unfortunately I found that I did not have a technique that reliably produced egg slices at my desired thickness.

My Technique

I boiled the eggs and placed them in an ice bath. I shelled them and placed them, one at a time, on  my cutting board (leaving the remaining eggs in the ice bath.) I was hoping the time in the bath--about 15 minutes--would be enough to firm the eggs to aid in slicing.

I drew a sharp, honed blade (6" chef's knife that I use for pretty much all of my prep) across the egg and essentially tried to freehand it. The results were tasty and they were fine for my friends but I would have really liked them to be more uniform.

I did try wiping my blade between slices and this helped a little, but the biggest problem I was having was the change in consistency between the white and the yolk. The knife would hit the yolk and it would sort of drag or turn. I tried a few different grips and I ended up just kind of clawing it.

Alternate Ideas

For next time, I have considered trying to freeze the boiled eggs and letting them thaw slightly before slicing. Something in my gut tells me that frozen hard boiled eggs won't be good eats. It seems like the texture would be changed.

I have read about using dental floss to make a clean cut... but I don't see how that would help here. Is there some magical dental floss technique that I'm just not envisioning?

Some quick Googling also lead me to the idea of wetting my knife or adding oil before each cut. I really feel like the problem is the egg itself and it's awkward shape and consistency. But maybe there's something to this advice after all?

Results

As you can see below, I ended up with some small guys and some fat guys. They were tasty, but I WANT PERFECTION!

Egg slicers work very well for this - consistent, thin slices. It's also good for more than just eggs - mushrooms, avocados, mango and strawberries also slice nicely in a well-made model. Avoid the cheap ones - the wires aren't solidly mounted and will break with regular use.


Prepping to freeze, thaw and reheat I have a food truck and would like to cook as many things as possible to avoid buying canned food and work with as many fresh products as possible.
It is too difficult to do it on a daily basis so I wanted to be able to spend one full day
seasoning and cooking a few recipes, enough for a couple of weeks and freeze it in portions.
My concern is if frozen, will the taste of the food be altered after thawing and reheating to serve?
Here are few examples of what I would like to freeze, thaw and reheat:
- ratatouille (stewed and seasoned vegetables)
- seasoned and de-boned roasted chicken
- black bean paste (seasoned) or refried beans
- sauteed spinach and mushrooms
- roasted chicken with leek, mushrooms and creamy sauce

Please advise
Thank you
JP

This is a difficult question in part because you've listed so many things -- for instance, a cream sauce is going to be difficult, as cream sauces may break when frozen.  Cooked chicken, on the other hand, I go quite frequently.

But the thing with the chicken is that I'm cooking it to use as an ingredient in other things; I think you may have more success in that way -- compromising between the two by prepping and freezing some items to minimize the amount of work needed for each day's cooking.  Some foods benefit from preparing in advance (stew, chilli, soups, etc.) that may could from once a week cooking.  You'd likely want to bring things back up to temperature and then adjust seasoning on the day of.  (possibly adding fresh herbs for the ratatouille and/or a splash of extra acid to brighten it back up)

I don't know what sort of food truck you're operating; if it's one with a kitchen, or if it's the type that prepares food in a canteen and does no cooking on-site ... I'd assume if you're cooking on site, this could be a problem as it'll take more time to cook from a frozen state.

It's probably worthwhile to do some taste tests -- make a recipe, then put some off to freeze, then thaw it back out a week later to compare to fresh and/or canned.


Any advantage to kneeding down pizza dough 3 times I found though experimentation that while my pizza dough recipe said to only knead the pizza dough once then let it rise,
that the dough came out better if I punched it down, kneaded it, then let it rise a second time, like for bread.

Normally I don't have time for this.
I have some spare time, as I got the dough on its first rise around breakfast breakfast.
Punched it down around lunch,
and now it has risen again, and would have time to rise again. (Assuming the yeast still functions.)
Or would this be bad,
should I just leave it in my car (where it has been rising) til I prep it for dinner?
Maybe I should put in into the fridge?

The series of folds you're doing serve to degas the dough so that it can ferment longer (thus developing more flavor), and to help strengthen the gluten. A third fold wouldn't hurt most doughs, but in the case of a pizza dough it could make it too tight to be easily workable. I would suggest spacing out the other two folds longer in the future. If your dough looks like it will collapse if it rises any more, punch it down and fold it but  be sure to give it a long time to relax before using it.

If you just punched it down, you could transfer it to your fridge at this point to slow it down. Just give it time to warm up again before using it.


Why do we boil whole spices when making masala tea? I've heard that people prepare chai masala by boiling whole spices instead of using a ground masala spice mix. After preparing it with whole spices, I doubt that 10 minutes of boiling will release much of the cinnamon flavor.  It seems wasteful to strain out and discard the whole spices when they should have plenty of flavor left.

Wouldn't it be better if we used freshly ground spices?

Whole spices are suggested because they retain their flavor much longer, and thus tend to have richer flavors, even if they are not fully extracted.  The reason for this is that they have less surface area, so volatile flavor oils do not evaporate away as easily, and other parts of the taste do not get oxidized. They are also easier to strain out of the mixture, so they don't give an overpowering flavor or leave a gritty residue.

So, yes, you are wasting some of the flavor, but in exchange you get more of the subtle flavor compounds that ground spices tend to lose.  Note also that steeping in milk will extract considerably more of the flavor from whole spices, because a lot of the smell and taste comes from chemicals that are more soluble in fat than water.

As another option, instant chai blends dissolve completely, but tend to lack the more subtle flavors of the spices.


How do I make cumin and herb cheese at home? I would like to make cumin and herb cheese at home without using any special cheese-making equipment.

At what stage should I add my cumin and herbs?
Which herbs should I use?
Should I use fresh or dried herbs?

A lot depends on what kind of cheese you are making.

I will assume that you are making a standard, medium-firm, rennet-set cheese.

I have had the most success adding seasonings and herbs with the salt. That is- after the curd has set, been cut, and drained but before it has been pressed at all. Work in the salt and any other flavors before placing the curd in the mold.

I imagine any herb or spice would work- it depends what flavor you want. I have used basil when I had a bumper crop. I have also used dried peppers.

As to dry or fresh- either would work. As with anything if you use dry then use a lot less. I prefer fresh because it is more tender.

Other cheeses might be a little different but as a rule of thumb adding with the salt should work. Mozzarella seems like it would be trickier because the kneading of the curd would change things.


What term should i use to describe the taste intensity of a crop? I am making a questionnaire about food and one of things people can rate is the taste intensity or taste strength of a vegetable/fruit/nut etc. Right now i just call it taste intensity and people can rate it from 1 to 10. Strawberry has a very rich taste so i would probably give that a high taste intensity score whereas a cucumber tastes very watery so i would give it a low score.

So is there a term that describes 'taste intensity'?

Edit: This is my full rating survey.


Condensed milk instead of evaporated I'm making pumpkin custard and it calls for 1 can evaporated milk AND 3/4 c.sugar. I have a can of condensed milk. Can I used the condensed milk instead? Add a little milk or water?

I did this just a few days ago.  The result was really quite good and I will never go back to evaporated milk.  I added no extra sugar and the result was less sweet than normal.  The texture was a bit fluffier too.


I can't seem to get my nougat to come out right and I don't know why I tried this pistachio nougat recipe once and it came out great. I've tried it two other times and the nougat hasn't set well at all. I'm thinking that this is because the recipe doesnt list a temperature and I probably didn't reach the correct temperature. Is that a good assessment? Additionally, why are most nougat recipes made by adding the syrup to the whipped eggs instead of the whipped eggs to the syrup (like this recipe)? It seems like it would be easier to reduce the mixture to the correct thickness if you added the eggs to the syrup. Thanks

As you suggest, most nougat recipes require the sugar syrup to be brought to specific temperatures (typically "hard ball" or "soft crack" stage, see for example this page for details of the stages of cooking sugar). By that time, any water that you started out with (in your case in the form of rose water) has boiled off. Simply bringing the mixture up to a boil will not be accurate.

For repeatable results, I suggest you use an instant-read thermometer (or a sugar thermometer) to ensure your sugar syrup is at a consistent temperature. If the nougat does not set, increase the temperature next time.

Regarding your second question: Even in your recipe, you add some of the syrup to the egg whites, to raise their temperature before adding them to the syrup. This is called 'tempering' and is common when using eggs in sweet applications with something hot. In the case of nougat, however, you can probably add the egg whites directly to the syrup, as was pointed out in a comment.


How should I store homemade salad dressing? I have a recipe for a homemade salad dressing, with the following ingredients:

1 teaspoon salt
1/2 teaspoon paprika
1 tablespoon dry mustard
2 teaspoons celery seed
1/2 cup sugar
1 cup oil
1/2 cup vinegar

Mix/blend and let sit for a couple of hours.  Be sure and shake before applying to your salad.

Should I refrigerate this after making it, or is it safe to leave in the cupboard?

Yes, you should refrigerate. Shelf life of foods which can be stored warm is determined by the fact that they are missing something which bacteria need to survive. For example, flour is missing water.

When you mix up several ingredients which can be kept in the pantry separately, you never know when you will be adding back into the mixture whatever was missing into the first place. Actually, you have a high chance of doing just that, because bacteria and humans find the same stuff tasty. When you make it more palatable for you, you are probably making it more palatable for them.

Bottom line: unless you know very well what you are doing, always refrigerate mixtures. They have a shelf life of 3-5 days in the fridge. It doesn't matter what the shelf life of the individual components was.


Effects of Milk vs Cream vs Condensed Milk in a no-bake cookie recipe I'm looking at a pretty standard no-bake cookie recipe (this one uses brown sugar over white but I've seen the same recipe on at least 10 websites),

3 C oats
5 tbsp peanut butter
2 teaspoon vanilla
2 C brown sugar
1/2 cup milk
1/4 cup butter

The instructions are boil milk, sugar, butter together for one minute then mix other ingredients in, drop onto wax paper, and cool.

My question is this: How would different dairies affect a recipe like this? Like if I used cream or condensed milk (or some combination of the 3) rather than the milk?

Using condensed milk would definitely make the cookies much, much sweeter and may not be moist enough in the same volume to make the cookies. Using the condensed milk could require more care on the stove since it would probably be easier to burn. If it browns a bit in the pan it could also impart a burnt sugar/brûlée like flavor, which might add a nice complexity to the recipe.

The cream would just make the cookies a lot more oily, which would probably result in a moister cookie that doesn't harden as well.


Broiler Drawer vs Oven Broiler? I'm considering purchasing a new freestanding gas range and would like to hear pros and cons of people's experiences with a broiler drawer under the main oven or having the broiler element inside the top of the oven compartment.

I'm interested in efficiency, ease of use, consistency, safety, versatility, price, etc.

I've only ever used ovens that have a broiler drawer and thought in-oven broilers were reserved for electric or in-wall ovens. One thing I'm really curious about: the broiler burners are the main burners for the oven with broiler drawers. When using an in oven broiler, is the top broiler burner also the main burner for the oven? That would put the flame directly in the oven when baking. Or are there two burners? One underneath for baking and one on top for broiling?

I cannot speak to price; I haven't comparison-shopped with this feature in mind.  However, I have used various home gas ranges with either type of broiler.  I'll go ahead and sum it up:

tl;dr: I greatly prefer an in-oven broiler.

Here's why.

First, positioning.  Broiler drawers are typically located at the very bottom of the range, underneath the actual oven.  This means that in order to place food in or take it out, you've got to bend all the way down to the floor.  I hope the ergonomic challenge here is obvious, but I have safety concerns as well.  If you have never tried to cook 10 pounds of flank steak in a broiler drawer, then learn from my experience: it's less than optimal.  You will wind up bent over at the waist when pulling your finished steaks, end up tilting your pan and spilling meat juice on the way to the top of the range, and just barely manage to kick the drawer closed before your dog licks the exposed cooking tray.  An in-oven broiler presents no additional challenges than you'd have with regular oven use.

Second: flexibility.  Broiler drawers often seem to come equipped with an awkwardly-sized pan that's smaller than the oven itself.  Sometimes this has brackets or rails to hold it in place in the center of the drawer.  This is a stupid design that's difficult to clean, sometimes even difficult to remove, and limits your cooking space.  The pan also rarely has any ability to move up or down, limiting your vertical space too.  With an in-oven broiler, you can adjust the existing racks to get thick items underneath, and control how close your food gets to the heat source (and therefore how quickly it browns).  I frequently kick on the broiler at the end of cooking with things like au gratin potatoes, to get a nice brown crust on top at the very end.  I couldn't fit the pan I use into a broiler drawer, but with the in-oven version I don't even have to open the door.  An in-oven broiler will also accommodate any size pan that will fit in your oven.  Remember those flank steaks?

Regarding design, most gas ranges that I've seen with an in-oven broiler have two separate burners, a main version at the bottom that provides indirect heat to the oven box, and the broiler running along the top with a sort of heat shield to reflect its energy down into the oven.  Drawers often seem designed to take advantage of only a single burner at the bottom of the oven, which provides both indirect heat to the oven box and direct heat to the drawer.  This is mostly my assumption; I'm not an engineer.

This design could make drawers marginally cheaper (again, I haven't checked) but I think the advantages outweigh any price premium for the extra burner.  I'll be so bold as to say that you will be very pleased with the difference if all you've ever used is a drawer.