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activities supports adaptation of tourism under future climate change
(medium conﬁdence ). {2.3.5, 2.3.6}
Enablers and response options to promote adaptation
and sustainable development in high mountain areas
The already committed and unavoidable climate change
affecting all cryosphere elements, irrespective of the emission
scenario, points to integrated adaptation planning to support
and enhance water availability, access, and management
(medium conﬁdence ). Integrated management approaches
for water across all scales, in particular for energy, agriculture,
ecosystems and drinking water supply, can be effective at dealing
with impacts from changes in the cryosphere. These approaches also
offer opportunities to support social-ecological systems, through the
development and optimisation of storage and the release of water from
reservoirs ( medium conﬁdence ), while being cognisant of potential
5 Marginal seas are not assessed individually as ocean regions in this report.negative implications for some ecosystems. Success in implementing
such management options depends on the participation of relevant stakeholders, including affected communities, diverse knowledge and adequate tools for monitoring and projecting future conditions, and ﬁnancial and institutional resources to support planning and implementation ( medium conﬁdence ). {2.3.1, 2.3.3, 2.4}
Effective governance is a key enabler for reducing disaster
risk, considering relevant exposure factors such as planning,
zoning, and urbanisation pressures, as well as vulnerability
factors such as poverty, which can challenge efforts towards
resilience and sustainable development for communities (medium conﬁdence ). Reducing losses to disasters depend on
integrated and coordinated approaches to account for the hazards
concerned, the degree of exposure, and existing vulnerabilities.
Diverse knowledge that includes community and multi-stakeholder
experience with past impacts complements scientiﬁc knowledge to
anticipate future risks. {Cross-Chapter Box 2 in Chapter 1, 2.3.2, 2.4}
International cooperation, treaties and conventions exist for
some mountain regions and transboundary river basins with
potential to support adaptation action. However, there is
limited evidence on the extent to which impacts and losses
arising from changes in the cryosphere are speciﬁcally
monitored and addressed in these frameworks . A wide range
of institutional arrangements and practices have emerged over the past three decades that respond to a shared global mountain agenda and speciﬁc regional priorities. There is potential to strengthen
them to also respond to climate-related cryosphere risks and open
opportunities for development through adaptation ( limited evidence,
high agreement ). The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Sendai
Framework and Paris Agreement have directed some attention in
mountain-speciﬁc research and practice towards the monitoring and
reporting on targets and indicators speciﬁed therein. {2.3.1, 2.4}
Figure TS.5 (next pages) \| Synthesis of observed regional hazards and impacts in ocean5 (top) and high mountain and polar land regions (bottom) assessed in SROCC. The same data
are shown in different formats in (a) and (b). For each region, physical changes, impacts on key ecosystems, and impacts on human systems and ecosystem function and services are shown.
For physical changes, yellow/green refers to an increase/decrease, respectively, in amount or frequency of the measured variabl e. For impacts on ecosystems, human systems and ecosystems
services blue or red depicts whether an observed impact is positive (beneﬁcial) or negative (adverse), respectively, to the giv en system or service. Cells assigned ‘increase and decrease’
indicate that within that region, both increase and decrease of physical changes are found, but are not necessarily equal; the same holds for cells showing ‘positive and negative’ attributable
impacts. For ocean regions, the conﬁdence level refers to the conﬁdence in attributing observed changes to changes in greenhous e gas forcing for physical changes and to climate change for
ecosystem, human systems, and ecosystem services. For high mountain and polar land regions, the level of conﬁdence in attributi ng physical changes and impacts at least partly to a change
in the cryosphere is shown. No assessment means: not applicable, not assessed at regional scale, or the evidence is insufﬁcient for assessment. The physical changes in the ocean are deﬁned
as: Temperature change in 0–700 m layer of the ocean except for Southern Ocean (0–2000 m) and Arctic Ocean (upper mixed layer a nd major inﬂowing branches); Oxygen in the 0–1200 m
layer or oxygen minimum layer; Ocean pH as surface pH (decreasing pH corresponds to increasing ocean acidiﬁcation). Ecosystems in the ocean: Coral refers to warm-water coral reefs and
cold-water corals. The ‘upper water column’ category refers to epipelagic zone for all ocean regions except Polar Regions, wher e the impacts on some pelagic organisms in open water deeper
than the upper 200 m were included. Coastal wetland includes salt marshes, mangroves and seagrasses. Kelp forests are habitats of a speciﬁc group of macroalgae. Rocky shores are coastal
habitats dominated by immobile calciﬁed organisms such as mussels and barnacles. Deep sea is seaﬂoor ecosystems that are 3000–6 000 m deep. Sea-ice associated includes ecosystems
in, on and below sea ice. Habitat services refer to supporting structures and services (e.g., habitat, biodiversity, primary pr oduction). Coastal Carbon Sequestration refers to the uptake and
storage of carbon by coastal blue carbon ecosystems. Ecosystems on Land: Tundra refers to tundra and alpine meadows, and includ es terrestrial Antarctic ecosystems. Migration refers to an
increase or decrease in net migration, not to beneﬁcial/adverse value. Impacts on tourism refer to the operating conditions for the tourism sector. Cultural services include cultural identity,
sense of home, and spiritual, intrinsic and aesthetic values, as well as contributions from glacier archaeology. The underlying information is given for land regions in tables SM2.6, SM2.7,
SM2.8, SM3.8, SM3.9, and SM3.10, and for ocean regions in tables SM5.10, SM5.11, SM3.8, SM3.9, and SM3.10. {2.3.1, 2.3.2, 2.3.3 , 2.3.4, 2.3.5, 2.3.6, 2.3.7, Figure 2.1, 3.2.1, 3.2.3,
3.2.4, 3.3.3, 3.4.1, 3.4.3, 3.5.2, Box 3.4, 4.2.2, 5.2.2, 5.2.3, 5.3.3, 5.4, 5.6, Figure 5.24, Box 5.3}

50Technical Summary
TS
Tropical
Indian OceanNorth Atlantic
South Atlantic South PacificTropical Pacific North Pacific
Temperate
Indian OceanArctic
Tropical
AtlanticEBUS 1
Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau
and other High Mountain Asia 3
CaucasusScandinavia 2Alaska 4
Western
Canada and USARussian
ArcticIceland
European
Alps and
PyreneesSouthern
AndesLow
Latitudes 5New
ZealandArctic Canada
and Greenland
Southern
Ocean
AntarcticaUpper water column
Coral
Kelp forest
Rocky shoresFisheries
TourismHabitat services
Coastal carbon sequestration Deep sea
Polar benthosCoastal wetlandsTemperature
OxygenOcean pHSea ice extentSea level
Sea ice-associatedTransportation/shipping
Cultural servicesPhysical changes Human systems and ecosystem services Ecosystems
Attribution to
greenhouse gases Attribution to climate change
Tundra
Forest AgricultureTourism
Infrastructure
Migration 6

activities supports adaptation of tourism under future climate change

(medium conﬁdence ). {2.3.5, 2.3.6}

Enablers and response options to promote adaptation

and sustainable development in high mountain areas

The already committed and unavoidable climate change

affecting all cryosphere elements, irrespective of the emission

scenario, points to integrated adaptation planning to support

and enhance water availability, access, and management

(medium conﬁdence ). Integrated management approaches

for water across all scales, in particular for energy, agriculture,

ecosystems and drinking water supply, can be effective at dealing

with impacts from changes in the cryosphere. These approaches also

offer opportunities to support social-ecological systems, through the

development and optimisation of storage and the release of water from

reservoirs ( medium conﬁdence ), while being cognisant of potential

5 Marginal seas are not assessed individually as ocean regions in this report.negative implications for some ecosystems. Success in implementing

such management options depends on the participation of relevant stakeholders, including affected communities, diverse knowledge and adequate tools for monitoring and projecting future conditions, and ﬁnancial and institutional resources to support planning and implementation ( medium conﬁdence ). {2.3.1, 2.3.3, 2.4}

Effective governance is a key enabler for reducing disaster

risk, considering relevant exposure factors such as planning,

zoning, and urbanisation pressures, as well as vulnerability

factors such as poverty, which can challenge efforts towards

resilience and sustainable development for communities (medium conﬁdence ). Reducing losses to disasters depend on

integrated and coordinated approaches to account for the hazards

concerned, the degree of exposure, and existing vulnerabilities.

Diverse knowledge that includes community and multi-stakeholder

experience with past impacts complements scientiﬁc knowledge to

anticipate future risks. {Cross-Chapter Box 2 in Chapter 1, 2.3.2, 2.4}

International cooperation, treaties and conventions exist for

some mountain regions and transboundary river basins with

potential to support adaptation action. However, there is

limited evidence on the extent to which impacts and losses

arising from changes in the cryosphere are speciﬁcally

monitored and addressed in these frameworks . A wide range

of institutional arrangements and practices have emerged over the past three decades that respond to a shared global mountain agenda and speciﬁc regional priorities. There is potential to strengthen

them to also respond to climate-related cryosphere risks and open

opportunities for development through adaptation ( limited evidence,

high agreement ). The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), Sendai

Framework and Paris Agreement have directed some attention in

mountain-speciﬁc research and practice towards the monitoring and

reporting on targets and indicators speciﬁed therein. {2.3.1, 2.4}

Figure TS.5 (next pages) | Synthesis of observed regional hazards and impacts in ocean5 (top) and high mountain and polar land regions (bottom) assessed in SROCC. The same data

are shown in different formats in (a) and (b). For each region, physical changes, impacts on key ecosystems, and impacts on human systems and ecosystem function and services are shown.

For physical changes, yellow/green refers to an increase/decrease, respectively, in amount or frequency of the measured variabl e. For impacts on ecosystems, human systems and ecosystems

services blue or red depicts whether an observed impact is positive (beneﬁcial) or negative (adverse), respectively, to the giv en system or service. Cells assigned ‘increase and decrease’

indicate that within that region, both increase and decrease of physical changes are found, but are not necessarily equal; the same holds for cells showing ‘positive and negative’ attributable

impacts. For ocean regions, the conﬁdence level refers to the conﬁdence in attributing observed changes to changes in greenhous e gas forcing for physical changes and to climate change for

ecosystem, human systems, and ecosystem services. For high mountain and polar land regions, the level of conﬁdence in attributi ng physical changes and impacts at least partly to a change

in the cryosphere is shown. No assessment means: not applicable, not assessed at regional scale, or the evidence is insufﬁcient for assessment. The physical changes in the ocean are deﬁned

as: Temperature change in 0–700 m layer of the ocean except for Southern Ocean (0–2000 m) and Arctic Ocean (upper mixed layer a nd major inﬂowing branches); Oxygen in the 0–1200 m

layer or oxygen minimum layer; Ocean pH as surface pH (decreasing pH corresponds to increasing ocean acidiﬁcation). Ecosystems in the ocean: Coral refers to warm-water coral reefs and

cold-water corals. The ‘upper water column’ category refers to epipelagic zone for all ocean regions except Polar Regions, wher e the impacts on some pelagic organisms in open water deeper

than the upper 200 m were included. Coastal wetland includes salt marshes, mangroves and seagrasses. Kelp forests are habitats of a speciﬁc group of macroalgae. Rocky shores are coastal

habitats dominated by immobile calciﬁed organisms such as mussels and barnacles. Deep sea is seaﬂoor ecosystems that are 3000–6 000 m deep. Sea-ice associated includes ecosystems

in, on and below sea ice. Habitat services refer to supporting structures and services (e.g., habitat, biodiversity, primary pr oduction). Coastal Carbon Sequestration refers to the uptake and

storage of carbon by coastal blue carbon ecosystems. Ecosystems on Land: Tundra refers to tundra and alpine meadows, and includ es terrestrial Antarctic ecosystems. Migration refers to an

increase or decrease in net migration, not to beneﬁcial/adverse value. Impacts on tourism refer to the operating conditions for the tourism sector. Cultural services include cultural identity,

sense of home, and spiritual, intrinsic and aesthetic values, as well as contributions from glacier archaeology. The underlying information is given for land regions in tables SM2.6, SM2.7,

SM2.8, SM3.8, SM3.9, and SM3.10, and for ocean regions in tables SM5.10, SM5.11, SM3.8, SM3.9, and SM3.10. {2.3.1, 2.3.2, 2.3.3 , 2.3.4, 2.3.5, 2.3.6, 2.3.7, Figure 2.1, 3.2.1, 3.2.3,

3.2.4, 3.3.3, 3.4.1, 3.4.3, 3.5.2, Box 3.4, 4.2.2, 5.2.2, 5.2.3, 5.3.3, 5.4, 5.6, Figure 5.24, Box 5.3}

50Technical Summary

TS

Tropical

Indian OceanNorth Atlantic

South Atlantic South PacificTropical Pacific North Pacific

Temperate

Indian OceanArctic

Tropical

AtlanticEBUS 1

Himalaya, Tibetan Plateau

and other High Mountain Asia 3

CaucasusScandinavia 2Alaska 4

Western

Canada and USARussian

ArcticIceland

European

Alps and

PyreneesSouthern

AndesLow

Latitudes 5New

ZealandArctic Canada

and Greenland

Southern

Ocean

AntarcticaUpper water column

Coral

Kelp forest

Rocky shoresFisheries

TourismHabitat services

Coastal carbon sequestration Deep sea

Polar benthosCoastal wetlandsTemperature

OxygenOcean pHSea ice extentSea level

Sea ice-associatedTransportation/shipping

Cultural servicesPhysical changes Human systems and ecosystem services Ecosystems

Attribution to

greenhouse gases Attribution to climate change

Tundra

Forest AgricultureTourism

Infrastructure

Migration 6