Medicine in space
Medical studies in space are carried out by who?
NASA
British birth cohort studies Willowbrook State School Operation Whitecoat Sociology of space William Allan (geneticist)
British_birth_cohort_studies-Abstract Willowbrook_State_School-Hepatitis_studies Operation_Whitecoat-Abstract Sociology_of_space-Duality_of_space William_Allan_(geneticist)-Abstract
Birth cohort studies in Britain include four long-term medical and social studies, carried out over the lives of a group of participants, from birth. Two of these studies have continued for over 50 years. 
Throughout the first decade of its operation, outbreaks of hepatitis, primarily hepatitis A, were common at the school. This led to a controversial medical study carried out there between the mid-1950s up to the 1970s by medical researchers Saul Krugman and Robert W. McCollum, who monitored to gauge the effects of gamma globulin in combating it. A public outcry forced the study to be discontinued. 
Operation Whitecoat was a biodefense medical research program carried out by the United States Army at Fort Detrick, Maryland between 1954 and 1973. The program pursued medical research using volunteer enlisted personnel who were eventually nicknamed "Whitecoats". These volunteers, all conscientious objectors including many members of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, were informed of the purpose and goals of each project before providing consent to participate in any project. The stated purpose of the research was to defend troops and civilians against biological weapons and it was believed that the Soviet Union was engaged in similar activities. Although the program was discontinued in 1973, similar medical research for biodefense purposes is still conducted at the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID) at Fort Detrick and at other government and civilian research institutes. However, these modern studies are rarely, if ever, human use challenge studies, in which a person is inoculated with a known pathogen to determine how effective an investigational treatment will be. 
Martina Löw developed the idea of a "relational" model of space, which focuses on the “orderings” of living entities and social goods, and examines how space is constituted in processes of perception, recall, or ideation to manifest itself as societal structure. From a social theory point of view, it follows on from the theory of structuration proposed by Anthony Giddens, whose concept of the “duality of structure” Löw extends sociological terms into a “duality of space.” The basic idea is that individuals act as social agents (and constitute spaces in the process), but that their action depends on economic, legal, social, cultural, and, finally, spatial structures. Spaces are hence the outcome of action. At the same time, spaces structure action, that is to say spaces can both constrain and enable action. With respect to the constitution of space, Löw distinguishes analytically between two, generally mutually determining factors: “spacing” and “synthesis.” Spacing refers to the act of placing or the state of being placed of social goods and people in places. According to Löw, however, an ordering created through placings is only effectively constituted as space where the elements that compose it are actively interlinked by people – in processes of perception, ideation, or recall. Löw calls this synthesis. This concept has been empirically tested in studies such as those by Lars Meier (who examined the constitution of space in the everyday life of financial managers in London and Singapore), Cedric Janowicz (who carried out an ethnographical-space sociological study of food supply in the Ghanaian city of Accra), and Silke Steets (who looked at processes of space constitution in the creative industries in Leipzig). 
William Allan (1881–1943) was an American physician and geneticist who made pioneering studies in human genetics and hereditary diseases. He established the first course in human genetics, at the Bowman Gray School of Medicine, which is now a part of Wake Forest University Baptist Medical Center. At Bowman Gray School of Medicine, the first department of medical genetics in the United States was established, and William Allan was appointed as the department’s first chairman. Prior to this appointment, Allan had been in private practice in Charlotte, North Carolina, where he was nationally recognized for his early work in human and medical genetics. As chairman of this new department, William Allan also directed the nation’s first research program in medical genetics, funded by the Carnegie Foundation. The American Society of Human Genetics (ASHG) named its highest honor for Allan in 1961. The William Allan Award is presented annually by ASHG to recognize substantial and far-reaching scientific contributions to human genetics carried out over a sustained period of scientific inquiry and productivity. An award of $10,000 and an engraved medal are presented at the ASH annual meeting. 