text:
How would Progenitus affect the game as a commander?
I recently purchased Progenitus with the intent to use it as a commander. However, it has been long enough since I’ve played the commander format that I do not remember how commanders and their abilities affect gameplay.

His protection from anything works the same as it always does. His second ability can be avoided, because anytime that he would be going to your graveyard, you have the option to send him to your command zone instead. You could choose not to do so and then his second ability would take effect, shuffling him into your deck. That would generally be less helpful than having him available in your command zone, but there might be exceptions. One advantage would be that if you were able to draw him from your deck, you could play him again without having to pay the extra cost associated with playing him from your command zone for the second (or more) time.

As another recent question asks: You can choose not to apply the Command zone replacement effect as he goes to the graveyard so his own replacement effect applies, then apply the Command zone replacement effect as he goes to the library (since that one replacement affect can apply multiple times to the same event), which allows you to shuffle the library.

You should consider correcting your answer based on the info in this related question


text:
Can I copy Ulamog, the Ceaseless Hunger's ability twice with Strionic Resonator and Rings of Brighthearth?
Just made a colorless EDH deck and I am wondering if this would work
Ulamog, the Ceaseless Hunger attacks, triggers the exile 20, then activate the copy triggered ability with Strionic Resonator, then activate the copy activated ability with Rings of Brighthearth
Now they exile 60?

Yes, this will work as described. You can use those abilities together to exile a total of 60 cards in one combat.
The exact sequence of steps plays out like this:

You declare Ulamog as an attacker, and its ability triggers.
While that ability is still on the stack, you activate Strionic Resonator's ability targeting Ulamog's ability.
Activating Strionic Resonator's ability triggers Rings of Brighthearth's ability.
Rings of Brighthearth's ability resolves. You choose to pay the cost to copy Strionic Resonator's ability, and you don't change the target.
The copy of Strionic Resonator's ability resolves, creating a copy of Ulamog's ability.
The first copy of Ulamog's ability resolves, and the defending player exiles 20 cards from the top of their library.
The original Strionic Resonator ability resolves, creating another copy of Ulamog's ability.
The second copy of Ulamog's ability resolves, and the defending player exiles another 20 cards from the top of their library.
The original Ulamog's ability resolves, and the defending player exiles  another 20 cards from the top of their library.

Thanks for the Edit, just made an account today so I knew nothing about being able to put links to cards. And thanks for the answer! I was wondering if it actually worked. Now I know! :D

Incidentally, if you use some unrelated activated ability, you can copy it three times: Once with Rings, and then copy the Rings with Resonator, and then copy the Resonator with Rings.  You'll have to pay 8 mana though (2 for the Resonator and 2 for each Rings trigger).  The first copy is 2 mana, the second is 2 more, and the third requires 4.

It works if you do it right.
The specifics are actually moderately intricate, but if you're clear about your intentions and don't hesitate to tell the table what you are going to do, then you shouldn't come into conflict with the rules.
First up, Ulamog, the Ceaseless Hunger does indeed have a triggered ability as defined in rule 603.1:

603.1. Triggered abilities have a trigger condition and an effect. They are written as
“[When/Whenever/At] [trigger condition or event], [effect]. [Instructions (if any).]”

After the attack is declared, the triggered ability will go on the stack the next time any player receives priority:

603.3. Once an ability has triggered, its controller puts it on the stack as an object that’s not a card the
next time a player would receive priority. See rule 116, “Timing and Priority.” The ability becomes
the topmost object on the stack. It has the text of the ability that created it, and no other
characteristics. It remains on the stack until it’s countered, it resolves, a rule causes it to be removed
from the stack, or an effect moves it elsewhere.

The triggered ability will go on the stack once the active player has finished declaring attacking creatures:

Declare Attackers Step

508.1. First, the active player declares attackers.
...
508.2. Second, the active player gets priority.

Outside of a single card that isn't legal in most games (Party Crasher), you will always be the active player on turns that you attack, so you get priority once Ulamog's trigger is on the stack. This is the time to use Strionic Resonator. Strionic Resonator has an Activated Ability:

602.1. Activated abilities have a cost and an effect. They are written as “[Cost]: [Effect.] [Activation
instructions (if any).]”

The cost of the ability is "Pay 2 mana of any type and tap Strionic Resonator". Activated Abilities can be put on the stack when you have priority:

116.1b A player may activate an activated ability any time they have priority

Now, there's a concept called "Holding Priority" which basically says "if you want to respond to your own things, you need to be quick about it", but it's not strictly part of the rules. You should be able to handle this by saying the entire sequence without pausing, "Attack with Ulamog, Ulamog's ability triggers, activate Strionic Resonator." Since no other players get priority during this sequence, there isn't anything they can do about it.
After activating Strionic Resonator, you receive priority again:

116.3c If a player has priority when they cast a spell, activate an ability, or take a special action,
that player receives priority afterward.

Which means that triggered abilities go on the stack, specifically Rings of Brighthearth's ability. Strionic Resonator's activated ability isn't a Mana Ability, so it triggers Rings of Brighthearth:

605.1a An activated ability is a mana ability if it meets all of the following criteria: it doesn’t have a
target, it could add mana to a player’s mana pool when it resolves, and it’s not a loyalty ability.

You should mention to the other players that this happened, but you don't need to perform an action to put it on the stack. At this point, if you have nothing else going on, you should pass priority and hope that everybody else does as well. Once everybody passes priority in a row, the Rings of Brighthearth trigger resolves:

116.4. If all players pass in succession (that is, if all players pass without taking any actions in between
passing), the spell or ability on top of the stack resolves or, if the stack is empty, the phase or step
ends.

When the trigger resolves, you choose whether you want to pay 2 mana for the effect (in this case, you do), and if you paid then you get to copy the activated ability. Copying abilities is defined in rule 706.10:

706.10. To copy a spell, activated ability, or triggered ability means to put a copy of it onto the stack; a
copy of a spell isn’t cast and a copy of an activated ability isn’t activated. A copy of a spell or
ability copies both the characteristics of the spell or ability and all decisions made for it, including
modes, targets, the value of X, and additional or alternative costs.

Rings of Brighthearth lets you choose a different target for the copied Strionic Resonator ability, but you can leave it at its current target. That Strionic Resonator ability copy itself copies Ulamog's triggered ability the same way. Ulamog's triggered ability doesn't have any targets to change even if you wanted to, but it's important to note that you can't choose a new player to mill because the ability refers to the "defending player". In this context, the defending player is defined in rule 508.5:

508.5. If an ability of an attacking creature refers to a defending player, or a spell or ability refers to
both an attacking creature and a defending player, then unless otherwise specified, the defending
player it’s referring to is the player that creature is attacking, or the controller of the planeswalker
that creature is attacking.

And the copied abilities have the same source as the original, so they "see" the same defending player:

706.10b A copy of an ability has the same source as the original ability.

Thus, after the stack is built up to the Rings of Brighthearth trigger, these are the steps that happen, assuming no other abilities or spells are added to the stack:

Rings of Brighthearth's triggered ability resolves, copying Strionic Resonator's activated ability if you pay 2 mana.
The copy of Strionic Resonator's activated ability resolves, copying Ulamog, the Ceaseless Hunger's triggered ability.
The copy of Ulamog's triggered ability resolves, exiling 20 cards from the deck of whichever player it attacked.
The Strionic Resonator's original activated ability resolves, copying Ulamog's ability again.
The second copy of Ulamog's ability resolves, exiling 20 more cards.
Ulamog's original ability resolves, exiling a third set of 20 cards.

TL;DR: Yep

A couple of notes: I would advise not referencing silver-bordered cards; it's more likely to make things more confusing than anything. And "holding priority" isn't relevant here, because the active player gets priority by default at the beginning of the declare attackers step, and it doesn't matter whether you get priority after activating Strionic Resonator's ability.

"Since no other players get priority during this sequence, there isn't anything they can do about it." I feel like an opponent holding a 'Destroy target artifact' Instant and enough untapped mana to cast it might disagree with that, and argue that they're entitled to intervene immediately after you declare 'Attack with Ulamog', which makes it clear that "now would probably be a good time to get rid of that resonator".

They don't get priority soon enough. They literally don't have an opportunity to cast a spell before the active player activates Strionic Resonator and Rings of Brighthearth triggers.

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Can Thrun, the Last Troll be exiled?
So I've been playing commander for quite a while now I've been playing a green stompy deck. I have Thrun, the Last Troll. It says it cannot be countered and it cannot be a target of opponents spells or abilities so isn't spells like instant and sorceries? My friend say it can be exiled still; is he correct?

What card/ability is your friend talking about using to exile it? Many things that would normally exile a creature can't be used; but other things still can.

Yes, Thrun can be exiled
Let's go through Thrun's abilities:

This spell can't be countered.

This ability affects Thrun while he's on the stack. It has no impact on him once he reaches the battlefield. Note that while Thrun is on the stack, he can still be exiled by effects such as Mindbreak Trap. This is because "exiling" a spell doesn't actually counter it; it simply moves the spell from the stack straight to the exile zone. It's also worth mentioning that Thrun's second ability, hexproof, only applies while he's on the battlefield, meaning that it doesn't prevent him from being targeted by spells such as Mindbreak Trap while he's on the stack.

Hexproof (This creature can't be the target of spells or abilities your opponents control.)

This specifically protects Thrun from all targeted spells and abilities. Magic cards are written in such a way that all such abilities specifically include the word "target", such as "destroy target creature", or "exile target permanent". As a result, Thrun is protected from a spell like Murder, but will still die to a spell such as Wrath of God.

{1}{G}: Regenerate Thrun, the Last Troll.

Regeneration is an ability that creates a replacement effect when a creature would die due to damage, or be destroyed:

701.14a If the effect of a resolving spell or ability regenerates a permanent, it creates a replacement
  effect that protects the permanent the next time it would be destroyed this turn. In this case,
  “Regenerate [permanent]” means “The next time [permanent] would be destroyed this turn,
  instead remove all damage marked on it and tap it. If it’s an attacking or blocking creature,
  remove it from combat.”
  701.14b If the effect of a static ability regenerates a permanent, it replaces destruction with an
  alternate effect each time that permanent would be destroyed. In this case, “Regenerate
  [permanent]” means “Instead remove all damage marked on [permanent] and tap it. If it’s an
  attacking or blocking creature, remove it from combat.”

It has no impact on a creature that's being exiled.
Outside of these cases, Thrun can be interacted with just like any other creature, including exiling it with a non-targeted spell, such as Final Judgement.

Maybe worth mentioning that something like Mindbreak Trap can still be used to get around "cannot be countered".

@GendoIkari that's an excellent point. Adding something now

What I find most relevant about Mindbreak Trap is that hexproof doesn't do anything against it, since hexproof only works on the battlefield.

While not necessarily within scope of the question, I think it is worth mentioning Venser and Timestop as other "not counter but similar effect" cards. Not sure if there is a specific rule regarding effects like that. (Maybe not timestop as the official ruling is exile all spells on the stack?)

It's worth mentioning that there are also ways to remove hexproof, like Arcane Lighthouse, Archetype of Endurance or Glaring Spotlight

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text:
Does Nyxathid trigger Sarkhan's Unsealing if my opponent has cards in hand?
Say you have Sarkhan's Unsealing, and you play Nyxathid. Let's say your opponent has 4 cards in hand. Does any of Sarkhan's Unsealing's abilities resolve?

Nyxathid enters the battlefield as a 3/3, but is a 7/7 everywhere else.
Nyxathid's two abilities are a replacement effect and a static ability that generates a continuous effect.

614.1c Effects that read “[This permanent] enters the battlefield with . . . ,” “As [this permanent] enters the battlefield . . . ,” or “[This permanent] enters the battlefield as . . . “ are replacement effects.

Replacement effects that affect how a permanent enters the battlefield apply before the permanent enters the battlefield.

614.12a If a replacement effect that modifies how a permanent enters the battlefield requires a choice, that choice is made before the permanent enters the battlefield.

This means that Nyxathid's continuous effect can affect it as soon as it enters play.

611.3c Continuous effects that modify characteristics of permanents do so simultaneously with the permanent entering the battlefield. They don’t wait until the permanent is on the battlefield and then change it. Because such effects apply as the permanent enters the battlefield, they are applied before determining whether the permanent will cause an ability to trigger when it enters the battlefield.
Example: A permanent with the static ability “All white creatures get +1/+1” is on the battlefield. A creature spell that would normally create a 1/1 white creature instead creates a 2/2 white creature. The creature doesn’t enter the battlefield as 1/1 and then change to 2/2.

So Nyxathid enters the battlefield as a 3/3.
However, it is a 7/7 when you cast it.

604.1. Static abilities do something all the time rather than being activated or triggered. They are written as statements, and they’re simply true.
604.2. Static abilities create continuous effects, some of which are prevention effects or replacement effects. These effects are active as long as the permanent with the ability remains on the battlefield and has the ability, or as long as the object with the ability remains in the appropriate zone, as described in rule 112.6.
604.3. Some static abilities are characteristic-defining abilities. A characteristic-defining ability conveys information about an object’s characteristics that would normally be found elsewhere on that object (such as in its mana cost, type line, or power/toughness box) or overrides information found elsewhere on that object. Characteristic-defining abilities function in all zones. They also function outside the game.
604.3a A static ability is a characteristic-defining ability if it meets the following criteria: (1) It defines an object’s colors, subtypes, power, or toughness; (2) it is printed on the card it affects, it was granted to the token it affects by the effect that created the token, or it was acquired by the object it affects as the result of a copy effect or text-changing effect; (3) it does not directly affect the characteristics of any other objects; (4) it is not an ability that an object grants to itself; and (5) it does not set the values of such characteristics only if certain conditions are met.

While Nyxathid's static ability does affect its power and toughness, it does not define them, and thus it is not a characteristic-defining ability.  Those are the only static abilities that apply off the battlefield unless explicitly stated in the ability itself.
So when you cast Nyxathid it is cast as a 7/7, which will cause Sarkan's Unsealing to trigger.  But if you had Where Ancients Tread in play, it would not be triggered by Nyxathid.
Magic defines the P/T (power and toughness) of creatures with variable P/T in several ways
Maro has a characteristic-defining ability (mentioned above in rule 604.3).  Maro always has a power and toughness equal to the number of cards in your hand no matter where it is.  If you have 7 cards in hand when you play Maro, it will trigger Sarkhan's Unsealing.  (Note that Maro can't be one of those 7, because by the time Maro's power is checked Maro has left your hand and entered the stack).  Generally speaking, if the P/T box reads */* (or */1+* then the creature has a characteristic-defining ability.
Shanna, Sisay's Legacy has a P/T of 0/0 and an ability which gives her +1/+1 for each creature in play.  She works the same way Nyxathid does, albeit in the opposite direction.  Unless she is on the battlefield, she is a 0/0. (I suspect that this template will be replacing characteristic-defining abilities on most (or all) newer variable P/T cards, but I don't know for sure.)  Shanna will not trigger Sarkhan's Unsealing
Hungering Hydra has a replacement effect that puts +1/+1 counters on it as it enters the battlefield, based on the value of X chosen when the Hydra was cast.  Even though X was defined when the spell was cast the counters don't appear until the spell resolves - while the Hydra is on the stack it is a 0/0 just like it is everywhere else that isn't the battlefield.  Hungering Hydra will not trigger Sarkhan's Unsealing
Slime Molding creates an X/X Ooze creature token where X was chosen as the spell was cast.  Slime Molding isn't a creature spell.  It will not trigger Sarkhan's Unsealing.
Finally, it's worth noting that variable tokens can be created in any of thses ways.  Voice of Resurgence creates Elemental creature tokens with characteristic-defining abilities based off of the number of creatures you control.  If the number of creatures you control changes later, so will the Elemental's power.  Oviya Pashiri, Sage Lifecrafter creates X/X Construct (artifact) creature tokens where X is the number of creatures you control when the ability is used.  In this case X is fixed at creation - later changes to the number of creatures you control will not change the Construct's P/T.
Neither creature will trigger Sarkhan's Unsealing.

I take it if a creature spell had power/toughness listed as X/X, and X was chosen to be 7, then Sarkan's Unsealing would trigger?

@Acccumulation: It's a bit complicated, but generally speaking, no.  See my added section above for more.

Yes, Sarkhan's Unsealing's second ability will trigger. The abilities trigger when you cast the spell, and neither of Nyxathid's abilities function to modify its stats while it is a spell on the stack. So, it counts as casting a creature spell with power 7.


text:
Can you sacrifice a creature after it has dealt damage to a creature?
Let's say, I have a 1/1 saproling token, a Thallid Omnivore, and my opponent has a 1/1 token of some sort. I attacked with a 1/1 saproling token and a Thallid Omnivore, and my opponent blocks it with his 1/1. Can I then sacrifice the token after it has dealt damage to the other token so that my Thallid Omnivore gains a +2/+2 while still killing his token?

Section 510 of the comprehensive rules details the combat damage step. First, 510.1 is about assigning damage, where all attacking and blocking creatures decide where they deal combat damage and how much they deal. Then we get the following (emphasis mine):

510.2. Second, all combat damage that’s been assigned is dealt simultaneously. This turn-based action
  doesn’t use the stack. No player has the chance to cast spells or activate abilities between the time
  combat damage is assigned and the time it’s dealt.

So no, once the game has passed to the point where you decide which creatures are eligible to deal combat damage at all, you cannot play anything until after damage has been dealt and creatures have died from it.

Historically (before the M10 core set), you would've been able to both let your token deal its damage and sacrifice it to the Omnivore, as "combat damage" was put as a single entity on the stack, and was something one could respond to just like spells and abilities.
However, even then, if you had let your token deal damage, the Omnivore would deal 3 damage. Neither in modern rules nor old would you have been able to both deal damage with the token and deal five damage with the Omnivore. In the other hand, with the old rules, you would've been able to deal damage with the token and at the same time allow the Omnivore to survive combat against a 3/3 or a 4/4. That is no longer possible.

This is answer is simple, direct, and correct. But to complicate things a bit, it is possible for your token to deal damage to its blocker and then be sacrificed to buff Omnivore. To do that you will need to somehow give the token creature first strike, then you can sac it after the token has dealt damage but before it's blocker deals damage.

@Malco Sure. But that's about first strike, not about the timing of combat damage and ability activation.

Yup, that is why I don't think it should be added to your answer. It is just a comment on how OP's desired result might be reached (Token killing blocker and is sacrificed to Omnivore)

No.  All damage is dealt simultaneously (barring first strike), and it doesn't use the stack, which means that creatures that have been dealt lethal damage die before you get priority and have the opportunity to activate abilities and play cards.
Historically this was not the case, but the rules were changed during the release of Core Set 2010.  Before that you could do as you described.


text:
How does Words of Waste interact with Varina, Lich Queen?
How does Words of Waste interact with Varina, Lich Queen?
Because you have to draw and discard that many cards.
so if you draw 3 and discard 3, can you only use 1 mana for Words of Waste, since the Varina's ability has to complete?
or can you draw cards. pay 1 for each card. then discard.

You will be able to replace each draw with Words of Waste, however you will still discard the full amount. Additionally, you will have to activate Words before Varina's ability resolves as it creates a replacement effect
From the Gatherer Rulings for Varina:

The number of cards you discard and the amount of life you gain are both equal to the number of Zombies you attack with, even if you draw a different number of cards somehow

emphasis mine

Words of Waste lets you replace any number of cards that Varina would have you draw with with making your opponents discard cards. If you end up needing to discard more cards than you have in your hand, you simply discard your whole hand.
Words of Waste's ability creates a replacement effect that replaces the next time you would draw a card. If you activate it more than once, it replaces that many card draws. So, to use it with Varina, you have to activate it before Varina's ability resolves. If you attack with 3 zombies, you can activate the ability 3 times, then when Varina's ability resolves, each opponent has to discard 3 cards, then you have to discard 3 cards and you gain 3 life.

You may stack any number of Words of Waste replacement effects ahead of time.
From the Gatherer Rulings on Words of Waste

If multiple Words have been used prior to drawing a card, then you can choose which one to apply (and use up) each time you draw a card.

The ruling is meant to clarify how the replacement effects of multiple different Words enchantments interact with each other, but it also makes it clear that you can have multiple Words of Wastes effects stacked up, and each draw will "use up" one of the effects until they are all gone.

You have to pay the mana and activate and resolve the Words' ability before any card drawing happens, which is to say before Varina's triggered ability resolves. You can activate the Words three times, though, which would replace all the draws.
Note that this doesn't affect the number of cards you discard or the amount of life you gain. Specifically, the Gatherer rulings on Varina says

The number of cards you discard and the amount of life you gain are both equal to the number of Zombies you attack with, even if you draw a different number of cards somehow.


text:
With Necropotence, would I keep playing even with no library?
In MTG, I know if I'm not able to draw on my draw step I lose, but what if I had Necropotence out; that lets me skip my draw step. Would I be able to continue playing the game?
I'm just curious because I'm not sure how that would work in play. I'm not too familiar with priorities, like who has it, who gets and when it changes. But I was thinking if I could skip my draw step I wouldn't have to draw therefore wouldn't lose because I can't draw.

You also don't lose if, for some reason, you choose to use the activated ability (unless you have only one life point).

You are correct that if you control a Necropotence, you will not lose the game during your draw step, because you will skip your draw step entirely, and you can keep playing until the game ends some other way.
You say "I know if I'm not able to draw on my draw step I lose", but it would be more accurate to say that you lose if you are instructed to draw from an empty library at any time, during your draw step or otherwise.
From the Comprehensive Rules:

120.4. A player who attempts to draw a card from a library with no cards in it loses the game the next time a player would receive priority. (This is a state-based action. See rule 704.)
120.5. If an effect moves cards from a player’s library to that player’s hand without using the word “draw,” the player has not drawn those cards. This makes a difference for abilities that trigger on drawing cards and effects that replace card draws, as well as if the player’s library is empty.

do you lose if you must discard from an empty library?

@tuskiomi No, it only applies to when you try to draw a card.

As Murgatroid mentioned, you don't lose until you have to draw from an empty library.
Since Necropotence causes you to skip your draw step, you won't lose from that.  However, you can still lose from effects that cause you to draw a card, such as either of the first two abilities of Jace Beleren or Sign in Blood or if you control Baleful Force.


text:
Does Chimeric Mass stay a creature in the grave for the rest of the turn it dies?
I control a Chimeric Mass with no charge counters on it. If I were to turn it into a creature and it dies, would it stay a creature in the graveyard until end of turn, or would it turn back into an artifact once it entered the graveyeard?

Your Chimeric Mass would immediately return to being a non-creature artifact in the graveyard.
The effect that turns Chimeric Mass into a creature ends as soon as the permanent leaves the battlefield. That's because the effect turns "Chimeric Mass" into a creature, and that means exactly the object the ability is on. However, when an object leaves a zone, it becomes a new object, and the effect no longer works, even though the new object in the graveyard has the same name:

400.7. An object that moves from one zone to another becomes a new object with no memory of, or relation to, its previous existence. [..]
201.4. Text that refers to the object it's on by name means just that particular object and not any other objects with that name, regardless of any name changes caused by game effects.


text:
Can Rhys be played in a mono-green EDH deck?
I was wondering if a card with a cost that is either green or white, for example Rhys the Redeemed, could be played in a mono-green deck led by a commander such as Ezuri, Renegade Leader?

The question has now been clarified so I have cleared out the comments.

No, you cannot play Rhys the Redeemed in a mono-green EDH deck. You can only play cards with hybrid mana costs if all of their colors are part of the commander's color identity.
The commander rules describe the color identity rules in rule 903.4:

The Commander variant uses color identity to determine what cards can be in a deck with a certain commander. The color identity of a card is the color or colors of any mana symbols in that card's mana cost or rules text, plus any colors defined by its characteristic-defining abilities (see rule 604.3) or color indicator (see rule 204).

and the hybrid mana symbols are defined in rule 107.4e:

Hybrid mana symbols are also colored mana symbols. Each one represents a cost that can be paid in one of two ways, as represented by the two halves of the symbol. A hybrid symbol such as {W/U} can be paid with either white or blue mana, and a monocolored hybrid symbol such as {2/B} can be paid with either one black mana or two mana of any type. A hybrid mana symbol is all of its component colors.

So, Rhys's color identity is green/white, which means that it can only be played in a deck with a commander that has both green and white in its color identity.


text:
What is the source of redirected damage?
When a card "redirects" damage, does the source of the damage change to the spell or effect causing it to be redirected, or is the original source still the source of the damage?
Cards like: Reflect Damage or many of the 'En-Kor' creatures.
Example 1: So someone Lightning Bolts (Red) my Shaman En-Kor (White) and I redirect it to my Kor Firewalker (which has protection from red).
Example 2: What if one of my En-Kor creatures is redirecting combat damage to another creature while I have Tajic, Legion's Edge out?

Related: https://boardgames.stackexchange.com/questions/44356/the-effect-of-wither/44357

The comprehensive rules say

Redirect (Obsolete)
Some older cards were printed with the term “redirect” to indicate a redirection effect. Such cards have received errata in the Oracle card reference so they explicitly state that damage that would be dealt to one object or player is dealt “instead” to another.

In other words, "redirect" doesn't actually exist in Magic any more. So let's take a look at your Shaman en-Kor. The oracle text says

0: The next 1 damage that would be dealt to Shaman en-Kor this turn is dealt to target creature you control instead.

So the three damage that the lightning bolt would deal to the shaman is instead dealt to the Firewalker. It is still dealt by the lightning bolt, and the shaman is still the target of the spell. But the damage hits the firewalker (and is promptly prevented due to protection).
As for example 2, we can still follow the same argument that it's the same damage just dealt to a different creature than originally intended. Which means there is no reason the damage should stop being combat damage; it's still damage that an attacker or blocker deals in the damage step of combat as a direct result of being involved in said combat. However, in this case it's also explicitly addressed by the rulings on the shaman:

When you redirect combat damage it is still combat damage.

In short, the replacement effect only does what it says (cause the damage to be dealt to something different), and nothing else.


text:
How does first strike work with multiple blockers?
I have an Edgar Markov that is currently attacking as a 10/10. My opponent assigns four creatures with a total of 20 power to block it. Does Edgar kill all of those blockers or does he only kill two of them?

I was trying to improve your question but had to give up halfway into that run-on sentence because I couldn't figure out what youwere trying to say. Please make a better effort to ask your question in a comprehensible way.

@Hackworth I edited the title based on what I think was being asked if that helps

But yes that is the question

I was going to write up a summary of the attack phase in the hopes that the answer would be in there somewhere for you, but with an attitude like that I suddenly feel less inclined to help. ¯\(ツ)/¯ (And I still don't actually know what the question is.)

Well for one he was rude first so he deserved it so don’t worry

The question is that will edgar be felt damage by no first strike creatures

After dealing damage to other creatures

You should consider editing your question so that it is more clear to what you are asking.

Well I can’t really because realistically I’m trying to ask a weird question

So what I’m asking is that say some blocks Edgar for 20 damage obviously he will kil the two that equal ten but will he Kill the other two creatures that will kill him

I am also having trouble following what you are asking. You mention the number 20 in your comment but not the question and it's not exactly clear how that fits in, and I think you're missing a word or two in "block with four of the that equals more than Edgar’s attack"

So Edgar is a 10/10 and the number of blockers someone is dealing Edgar is 20 damage and four blockers so I’m asking does Edgar kill all of those blockers or does he only kill two of them

It sounds like you are asking how first strike interacts with multiple blockers so it doesn't really matter what the attacking creature is but rather what the power and toughness of the attacking and all the defending creatures is.

In your case it would depend on the toughness of the defending creatures and if the attacker is able to kill them. For example if one defender was 20/20 they would kill your creature but if it was 20/5 it would not.

No I’m asking if more that one creature blocks Edgar and the power equals 20 combined

Or even better way to explain it is after dealing ten damage to two creatures can Edgar still attack other creatures that are blocking him

I have edited your question to be a bit clearer. Does that still match what you were trying to ask?

Yes I also have a question about overwhelming splendor

The outcome of a battle like this depends on the exact power and toughness of each creature involved.
If Edgar is blocked by four 5/5 creatures, then Edgar will 5 first strike damage to each of two of those creatures, which will die. Then the other two creatures will deal 5 damage each to Edgar, and Edgar will die.
If instead Edgar is blocked by two 4/6 creatures and two 6/4 creatures, then Edgar's controller can choose to deal 4 damage to each of the 6/4 creatures and the other 2 damage to one of the other creatures. In that case, both 6/4 creatures will die and the surviving creatures will only deal a total of 8 damage to Edgar, so Edgar will survive.
In general, the important thing to look at is not just the total power and toughness of the creatures involved, but also how it is distributed among the creatures. The basic question is whether the creature with first strike can kill enough of the other creatures that the remaining blockers don't have enough power.

I also have a question about overwhelming splendor

First strike happens first.  Edgar kills as many blockers as he can.  Those blockers are gone.
Next, the blockers that are left damage Edgar.  Edgar doesn't get to damage them again, he already got his chance.  Maybe Edgar survives, maybe he doesn't, but he doesn't kill any more blockers.
(If Edgar had "double strike", then he would be able to attack again in the second part, and kill more blockers.)


text:
Can I still use Profane Memento if I have out Silent Gravestone?
Can I use abilities of Profane Memento if I have out Silent Gravestone ?

Silent Gravestone has no interaction with Profane Memento. Silent Gravestone's static ability says

Cards in graveyards can't be the targets of spells or abilities.

Profane Memento's ability does not try to target anything in graveyards or otherwise. It simply reacts to cards moving into the graveyard. So, the ability keeps working even if you have Silent Gravestone on the battlefield.

I'm glad you found their reply helpful! This place is great for questions about Magic, and other board games. Please note though that comments are generally not the place to say thank you. That's done by upvoting their answer on the left, and clicking the check mark beneath the upvote to mark it as accepted. This gives murgatroid99 some points for their answer, and notifies everyone that you found this answer satisfactory! (And also gives you a few bonus points.)


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Does Tail Swipe trigger Legolas, Master Archer?
Tail Swipe says "choose target creature". Usually when there is a choice it goes around hexproof and does not target. Does Tail Swipe target creatures and trigger Legolas, Master Archer? Why is it phrased like that?

Related question: Why do some cards say "choose target"?

I would like to point out that if a card says "target", it targets, and thus does not get around hexproof. It it does not say the word "target", then it does get around hexproof. (With some exceptions, such as aura spells.) The presence of absence of other words such as "choose" are irrelevant for determining whether the spell targets or not. (The question of why the it was written "choose target" has been answered by other people.)

Tail Swipe targets two creatures, one controlled by you, the other controlled by an opponent.

Choose target creature you control and target creature you don't control. If you cast this spell during your main phase, the creature you control gets +1/+1 until end of turn. Then those creatures fight each other.

Why does it say "choose"? More of an English phrasing reason than a rules reason, in my opinion. Here's my (bad) attempt at wording this card without it:

?? Target creature you control gets +1/+1 if you cast this spell during your main phase then fights target creature you don't control ??

That intervening "if" clause makes the whole thing very confusing.
"Choosing" each target first and then describing what happens with each makes much more sense. Key here is that the +1/+1 (if applicable) needs to happen before the creatures fight, so you can't invert the order without changing how the card works.
"Choosing" the targets doesn't mean they aren't targeted; if your opponent's creature has hexproof or shroud, you won't be able to target it. If your own creature has shroud, you won't be able to target it. The second reference to "the creature you control" is talking about the already-targeted creature; that won't get around shroud.
If you control Legolas, Master Archer and target him with Tail Swipe, both of Legolas' abilities will trigger:

Reach
Whenever you cast a spell that targets Legolas, Master Archer, put a +1/+1 counter on Legolas.
Whenever you cast a spell that targets a creature you don't control, Legolas deals damage equal to its power to up to one target creature.

You can choose to let the +1/+1 counter resolve before the "bite" ability.
Both of Legolas' abilities will resolve before Tail Swipe. You can also choose a different creature to get the "bite" effect than the one you fight with the Tail Swipe.

This does not answer why it does say ‘choose’. What would be lost if choose word was omitted?

The choice of targets is written in a separate sentence from the effect for clarity. "Choose target..." is the standard wording for that kind of template. It has no meaning beyond that. It is the absence of the word "target", not the presence of the word "choose", that determines that a choice happens at resolution time instead of when casting the spell.

@Euphorbium Consider how it could potentially be worded without "choose"... I tried to come up with it and it's basically impossible. "Target creature you control and target creature you don't control fight each other" is simple enough. But with the addition of the special "if you cast this spell during your main phase" effect, it just can't fit in there anywhere.

I don't think there's any reasonable way to word this card with two (distinct) targets any other way. If the card applied the same effect to both, it could just say "tap two target creatures" or something, but in this case you have to choose them first, then different effects are applied to each.

@Euphorbium The reasoning for why they use the words "choose target" is to pull the choice of targets out of the middle of the text and put them at the beginning of the ability, this was covered on this question. It helps clear up any possible confusion of when you have to choose targets.

Traditionally the one sided fight effect you called a "punch" ability here is referred to by the community as a "bite" effect, both from the similarity to the keyword fight in effect and sound, and because many of the cards that do it use the word, like in "Infectious Bite", "Rabid Bite" and "Bite Down"

Good point, @Andrew. Edited.

I suppose it could say "If this was cast during your main phase, target creature you control gets +1/+1 and fights target creature you don't control. Otherwise,  target creature you control fights target creature you don't control." But that's much more repetitive.

@Acccumulation it would never be written like that, it has the word target in it four times when it only needs two targets - templating like that gets confusing.


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If Drach’Nyen exiles a commander and it is put into command zone, does it still get bonus power?
If Drach'Nyen exiles a commander and it is put into command zone, does it still get bonus power? I think it is the same as with Mimic vat and it only gives menace then?

If Drach'Nyen exiles a commander and it is put in the command zone, Drach'Nyen does not give any bonus power, but it does still grant menace.
Drach'Nyen's second ability says

Equipped creature has menace and gets +X/+0, where X is the exiled card's power.

The phrase "the exiled card" can only refer to a card in the exile zone. If the card is not in the exile zone, that part of the ability does not work. This is specified in rule 607.2a:

If an object has an activated or triggered ability printed on it that instructs a player to exile one or more cards and an ability printed on it that refers either to “the exiled cards” or to cards “exiled with [this object],” these abilities are linked. The second ability refers only to cards in the exile zone that were put there as a result of an instruction to exile them in the first ability.

Then rule 107.2 says

If anything needs to use a number that can’t be determined, either as a result or in a calculation, it uses 0 instead.

Since the ability can't find the exiled card, it can't determine the power, so it uses 0 instead. The ability still works and still grants menace.


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Can you get infinite turns with this 2 card combo?
Lets say I have imprinted Medomai the Ageless on the Mimic Vat, have at least 3 mana and an opponent wide open for attacks. Do I get unlimited turns?

No, this doesn't work. Medomai the Ageless has an ability that says

Medomai the Ageless can't attack during extra turns.

It doesn't matter what caused you to take the extra turn in the first place. If you're in an extra turn, it can't attack.

Medomai simply cannot attack during extra turns, these don't have to be the turns given by him, but can be any extra turns. Medomai can give more than one extra turn, from having doublestrike or from multiple attack steps in the same turn, I do this very thing in my Rafiq of the Many EDH deck using Rafiq himself to get double strike and Finest Hour to get the extra attack step. Once the first of those extra turns you stack up with Medomai starts, the ability that prevents him from attacking kicks in until your next normal turn.


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Death and revival of land-creatures
I have a question regarding MTG rules and how can be applied. In this case, it's about lands that can become creatures. I was checking this one-mana EDH deck, and I saw that the Commander has this ability:

Horde of Notions {W}{U}{B}{R}{G}
Legendary Creature — Elemental (5/5)
Vigilance, trample, haste
{W}{U}{B}{R}{G}: You may play target Elemental card from your
  graveyard without paying its mana cost.
Even the oldest treefolk was but an acorn when Lorwyn’s first
mysteries were born.

I was wondering: if the land was killed and sent to the graveyard while being a creature by any X reason (say "Lightning bolt"), is it possible to retrieve it back using this ability? For example, Celestial Colonnade can turn into an Elemental until end of turn.

Please do not include deck lists in questions like this. They're simply not relevant. You can instead refer to a specific cards that are relevant to your question. The edit I've made to your question shows what I mean

No, Horde of Notions cannot do anything with a land card that died as a creature. The key rule is rule 400.7:

An object that moves from one zone to another becomes a new object with no memory of, or relation to, its previous existence.

If a land card like Celestial Colonnade dies as a creature, the effect that made it a creature doesn't continue to apply to the card in the graveyard. While it's in the graveyard, it's just a land card.


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Will a copy of Volo's triggered ability create another copy of the creature spell?
If I copy Volo, Guide to Monsters triggered ability with Strionic Resonator after casting a unique creature, does the original triggered ability check "doesn’t share a creature type with a creature you control or a creature card in your graveyard" again on resolution? Will I have 3 creatures or 2?

You will have 3 creatures.
The trigger condition is not checked again upon resolution; the "Whenever you cast a creature spell that doesn’t share a creature type with a creature you control or a creature card in your graveyard" is only the condition that causes it to trigger in the first place.
Certain trigger conditions are checked again upon resolution, but they have a specific wording:

603.4. A triggered ability may read “When/Whenever/At [trigger event], if [condition], [effect].” When the trigger event occurs, the ability checks whether the stated condition is true. The ability triggers only if it is; otherwise it does nothing. If the ability triggers, it checks the stated condition again as it resolves. If the condition isn’t true at that time, the ability is removed from the stack and does nothing. Note that this mirrors the check for legal targets. This rule is referred to as the “intervening ‘if’ clause” rule.

So if Volo, Guide to Monsters instead were worded such as "Whenever you cast a creature spell, if that spell doesn’t share a creature type with a creature you control or a creature card in your graveyard..." then in that case, the copy of the trigger would be checked again upon resolution and do nothing.

The clause "that doesn’t share a creature type with a creature you control or a creature card in your graveyard" is part of the trigger condition. It is only checked as the ability triggers, not as it resolves. So, the copy of the ability resolves just fine and you will get 2 copies of the creature, for a total of 3 creatures.
So called "intervening 'if' clauses" are the ones that are checked both as the ability triggers and as it resolves. Those clauses are described in rule 603.4. A similar ability with an "intervening 'if' clause" would be worded like this:

Whenever you cast a creature spell, if it doesn’t share a creature type with a creature you control or a creature card in your graveyard, copy that spell.

Did we answer at the same basic time; or did you feel my answer could have been worded better?

I posted my answer 48 seconds after you posted yours. I was most of the way through writing it when you finished.

Ok, just checking!

In case you didn't know, you can hover over the "answered 1 hour ago" text to see the exact timestamp.

Thanks; I probably knew that before but forgot; and could only see the "1 hour ago" part

You will get 3 creatures.
Technically, with Volo out, you could respond to the cast triggers with a flash creature of the same type and still get the copies of both creatures, since no creature is actually on the battlefield yet. All of the casting and copies are on the stack.


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Can I give a creature trample after blockers have been assigned?
I declare my attack with a 3/3 creature & then my opponent assigns a 1/1 creature to block.
Am I allowed to use the ability of an Elvish Herder (1 Green Mana - Target creature gains trample until end of turn) on my original 3/3 creature to make sure that, in addition to his creature dying, he receives 2 damage to himself as well?
Or would that give my opponent the chance to go back and assign a secondary blocker?

I get that you are probably a new player, but what makes you think using an ability allows your opponent to reassign blockers?

@Hackworth If declaring blockers was something like an activated ability you had access to for as long as the game is in the declare blockers step, for instance? "I declare this blocker" "Then I pay this spell" "Then I declare this blocker as well" Doesn't seem like an implausible misconception, and if there are no combat tricks played between blocker assignment and damage dealing, you won't notice the difference.

@Hackworth They aren't saying that they think that blockers can be reassigned. Once someone finishes assigning blockers, they pass priority. If the other player uses an ability, then priority passes back to the defending player. It is a reasonable question to ask whether, having priority again, the defending player can assign an additional (not reassign)  blocker.


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Lethal damage while controlling Sower of Discord?
I recently played a game of commander with a single opponent. When I played Sower of Discord, I selected my opponent and myself. I then swung with Serra Avatar. If damage is taken and the amount is enough to kill the opponent, who wins? Does anyone win?

You win.
Sower of Discord's third ability is a triggered ability, so the life loss taken by you would happen "long after" the game has already ended.

State-based actions are what causes a player to lose for having a non-positive life total.

704.5. The state-based actions are as follows:
704.5a If a player has 0 or less life, that player loses the game.

SBA are checked whenever a player is about to gain priority.

704.3. Whenever a player would get priority (see rule 117, “Timing and Priority”), the game checks for any of the listed conditions for state-based actions, then performs all applicable state-based actions simultaneously as a single event. If any state-based actions are performed as a result of a check, the check is repeated; otherwise all triggered abilities that are waiting to be put on the stack are put on the stack, then the check is repeated. Once no more state-based actions have been performed as the result of a check and no triggered abilities are waiting to be put on the stack, the appropriate player gets priority. This process also occurs during the cleanup step (see rule 514), except that if no state-based actions are performed as the result of the step’s first check and no triggered abilities are waiting to be put on the stack, then no player gets priority and the step ends.

So your opponent loses the game before the triggered ability is even placed on the stack. The game ends immediately when that happens.

104.2a A player still in the game wins the game if that player’s opponents have all left the game. This happens immediately and overrides all effects that would preclude that player from winning the game.
104.1. A game ends immediately when a player wins, when the game is a draw, or when the game is restarted.

It doesn't matter that you would also have lost if the game had continued.


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Heliod, Sun-crowned combo with Walking Ballista
I've recently picked up the Heliod Collected Company deck and I'm not sure how the opponent can interact with the combo. Obviously counter spells will prevent me from playing the cards and hand disruption can take the cards before I play them. But if the situation is that I've got Conclave Mentor and Heliod, Sun-Crowned on the battlefield and turn 4 I have four mana and a Walking Ballista in hand, can a kill spell stop me comboing off? (I play Walking Ballista for 1 with 2 mana, add a counter with Conclave Mentor, give Walking Ballista life link from Heliod for 2 mana, ping opponent for 1, add two more counters on Walking Ballista and continue until the opponents life is zero).

Sure, they can:

kill either Conclave Mentor or Heliod, Sun-Crowned as soon as you play Walking Ballista (i.e. put it on the stack, before it resolves and enters the battlefield)
kill Heliod or the Ballista in response to you activating Heliod's last ability (if they kill Heliod, the Ballista will gain lifelink, but it won't get more counters)
kill the Ballista after you activate its last ability for the first time; you can activate its ability again in response to that, but after paying the cost of the ability it won't have any +1/+1 counters on it and will die from state based effects, unless you have an anthem-like effect in play. In that case, you would be able to activate the Ballista's ability an arbitrary number of times before the kill spell resolves.

Your last point about anthem effects is wrong. Removing the counter is a cost, and can't be done if no counters are present

@ArcanistLupus I'm talking about what happens after paying the cost. It enters with two +1/+1 counters, so we can always activate the ability twice.

Your answer says that Ballista's ability an arbitrary number of times, but in your comment in response to Arcanist Lupus, you say "we can always activate the ability twice".

The real question you're asking here, is how many kill spells will it take to stop this combo. There are spells where the answer will be one, the spells that have split second:

Krosan Grip - Walking Ballista (WB) is an artifact, Krosan Grip is a Naturalize with split second, preventing you from continuing the combo until it has resolved.
Sudden Shock - If WB has up to 2 counters doing 2 damage to it with split second will kill it before you can combo.
Sudden Death - If WB has up to 4 counters giving it -4/-4 with split second will kill it before it can combo.
Molten Disaster - X cost split second damage spell, just pay X equal to WB's toughness to kill it - though a warning, this can kill you too if your life is low enough since it hits all players too.
Word of Seizing - Take control of one of the creatures in the combo. If you take control of WB you can remove the counters yourself and without an effect on your battlefield to replace them, it will die.

There are other split second spells that will temporarily stop the combo, Sudden Spoiling will remove the abilities that the combo relies on, but it can be used next turn.
You can also use a spell like Erase, Deicide, or Swords to Ploughshares (If Heliod(H) is a creature) to exile H before WB resolves, stopping the combo before it starts. WB can also just be countered, stopping the combo from even starting.
But there is some pretty simple math for how many kill spells you need to stop the combo if you let it get started in the first place. For every 2 mana* you have before casting WB, you either can get 1 more WB counter or activate H once. If you spend more mana on casting WB, it takes less kill spells to kill it before it gets lifelink, if you save more mana to use on H, it takes less kill spells to kill WB while you're taking off counters. This means they need the most kill spells if you spend the same amount of mana on WB as you save for H, so for every 4 mana you have, (1 use of H and 1 WB counter) they need 1 kill spell to stop your combo.

*Given an effect like Conclave Mentor or Hardened Scales to put an additional counter on WB or 2 more starting mana into WB. Also given no counter doubling effects like Doubling Season or Primal Vigor which cut the mana to counters rate in half making WB mana twice as efficient.


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Can an opponent kill Undercity Informer before you can sacrifice it?
If I have four open mana, one of which is {B} to cast Undercity Informer with one mana remaining, if I go to sacrifice it, can the opponent respond with a kill spell to stop me sacrificing it? In this case is it better to wait till I have two mana open after casting it?

duplicate of https://boardgames.stackexchange.com/questions/39633/can-a-flung-creature-that-is-destroyed-still-deal-damage - both dealing with if an opponent can destroy a creature being sacrificed as a cost.

Does this answer your question? Can a “flung” creature that is destroyed still deal damage?

This situation is (slightly) more complicated than Fling; it requires the fact that you keep priority after resolving Undercity Informer. Voting to leave open.

Normally, your opponent will not be able to stop you with a kill spell.
When a spell resolves; the active player gets priority:

116.3b The active player receives priority after a spell or ability (other than a mana ability) resolves.

Normally if you are casting a creature spell, that means you are the active player; as you can normally only cast creature spells on your turn. Because you have priority, you can activate Undercity Informer’s ability; before your opponent had any chance to act. You pay the costs when you activate the ability, which includes sacrificing a creature. Whether you sacrifice Undercity Informer or a different creature; the ability is activated and on the stack. Only then does your opponent get priority.
Also, even if you do not choose to activate the ability the first chance you get; if your opponent casts a kill spell, then you can respond to that by activating the ability at that point.

As a general rule, players cannot stop a cost from being paid in Magic the Gathering. This is for a few reasons, but the most important is players can only act when they have priority. Activated abilities in Magic are written "Cost: Effect" so everything that is before the colon has to be done while putting the ability on the stack, none of that can be interrupted as it is a cost.
For this the most common way in your situation would play out like this, with you as active player:

Cast Undercity Informer paying . Informer is put on the stack.
All players pass priority, Informer resolves and priority returns to Active Player (you)
Activate informer's ability, by paying  and sacrificing the Informer. Ability goes on stack.
You pass priority - this is the first time your opponent has priority after Informer resolved and the Informer is already in the graveyard.

While things can be done in between these steps, this is what you described. By the time your opponent has the opportunity to do anything, your Informer is already in the graveyard - because sacrificing was a cost of the ability, not part of the effect.
Now lets see what would have happened if you hadn't used Informer immediately, or had cast it with flash on an opponent's turn - if someone had a chance to act before you activated the ability.

Opponent uses a spell or ability that will destroy or exile Informer. They pass priority to you.
You activate informer's ability, by paying  and sacrificing the Informer. Ability goes on stack.
Everyone passes priority, Informer's ability resolves.
Opponent's spell or ability is removed from the stack doing nothing as it no longer has any legal targets.

There are ways in this second scenario that they can prevent you from using your informer before it is destroyed, if you can't cast spells or abilities because they use a spell with split second like Sudden Shock or Sudden Death to kill your Informer, you can't do step 4 above until their spell is off the stack, at which point your informer is dead. There are also cards that prevent people from sacrificing to pay costs, like Angel of Jubilation, which will prevent you from using Informer's ability at all.

It is difficult stop you from casting and sacrificing the Informer by destroying it.
No matter what spell or ability they play, or how they time it: before their destruction resolves, you have an opportunity to cast instants and flash spells, as well as activating abilities. Even more importantly, if it is your turn, after the Informant spell resolves and is put onto the battlefield, you are the first player who gets to pay anything.
Summa summarum, it is quite difficult to stop you.
Countering the Informant spell is possibly the most available method.
One way to stop it even if it enters the battlefield is Sudden Death, which will stop you from activating the Informant if it is your opponent's turn, and the first thing they do after the Informant enter the battlefield is to kill it. Which means you must have managed to play the Informant on your opponent's turn in the first place. There are also cards that limit players' abilities to activate the ability in the first place, like Angel of Jubilation.


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When casting Bend or Break, who and when chooses the opponents?
When casting Bend or Break, who and when chooses the opponents? Should they be chosen on cast or resolution? Must each opponent be different? Can the caster be the opponent of each of the opponents? Does the caster choose the opponents for each opponent?

If you look at the official Oracle wording, instead of the outdated printed wording, it becomes clearer:

Each player separates all nontoken lands they control into two piles. For each player, one of their piles is chosen by one of their opponents of their choice. Destroy all lands in the chosen piles. Tap all lands in the other piles.

So each player who is having their nontoken lands separated chooses an opponent of their choice.
The choice is made on resolution. The only choices made when casting a spell are the targets and modes. Everything else is chosen on resolution.

Is there an other for players to pick their opponents in? I'm imagining "Hey, Player A, I'll go easy on you if you go easy on me." "OK." both players lose only one land

@nick012000 608.2e says each player will divide their cards in APNAP order, then each player in APNAP order will have a pile chosen (which involves them choosing an opponent).

I don’t know if there are general rules about table talk or deal-making in multiplayer games.

The comprehensive rules don't say anything about player communication. The tournament rules do, but they only apply to tournaments, which don't involve multiplayer games, and they also do not disallow or discourage those kinds of interactions. Anecdotally, "politics" is commonly considered an integral part of multiplayer MTG.


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Do Dragon Spirits like Kokusho trigger Lathliss's ability?
I have found some really cool Dragon variations to use with Lathliss, Dragon Queen, but I'm not sure if Dragon Spirits like Kokusho, the Evening Star trigger her ability.
When searching for Dragon cards, different Dragon Spirits came up as part of the selection, but that may just have been part of the keyword search. So I'd just like to clarify things with "yes Dragon Spirits will trigger her ability" or "no, it won't"

Yes, Lathliss's ability will trigger from any creature with "Dragon" in the type line, including Dragon Spirits like Kokusho.
Each word of the type line is a separate type that is treated independently. So when you look at a card with "Dragon Spirit" in the subtype, you do not threat that as a single unit, it means that it is both a Dragon and a Spirit. This is stated in rule 205.3b:

Subtypes of each card type except plane are always single words and are listed after a long dash. Each word after the dash is a separate subtype; such objects may have multiple types. [...]


text:
A question about Mana Abilities and Activated abilities, then a question about a combo
So I just want to make sure I understand the following two things about Activated Abilities and Mana Abilities correctly.

An Activated Ability is any ability a card has that is written as "[Cost]: [Effect]".
Mana Abilities are special types of Activated Abilities that don't use the stack and can't be reacted to and spells like "Quash" and "Stifle" can't be used to counter these effects either.

So if I am correct on my understanding of the two points above, then am I correct in thinking that if you combo Karn, the Great Creator (KTGC) and Mycosynth Lattice (ML) then you would effectively prevent your opponents from being able to tap for mana as the passive of KTGC states that "Activated abilities of artifacts your opponents control can't be activated." and the first ability of ML states "All Permanents are artifacts in addition to their other types." or am misunderstanding something here?

Congratulations, you have found out how to efficiently make everyone on your game table hate you.

Yes, this is all essentially correct.
First, the format of activated abilities is defined in rule 602.1:

Activated abilities have a cost and an effect. They are written as “[Cost]: [Effect.] [Activation instructions (if any).]”

Then rule 501 and its subrules describe what counts as mana abilites:

605.1. Some activated abilities and some triggered abilities are mana abilities, which are subject to special rules. Only abilities that meet either of the following two sets of criteria are mana abilities, regardless of what other effects they may generate or what timing restrictions (such as “Activate this ability only any time you could cast an instant”) they may have.

605.1a An activated ability is a mana ability if it meets all of the following criteria: it doesn’t require a target (see rule 115.6), it could add mana to a player’s mana pool when it resolves, and it’s not a loyalty ability. (See rule 606, “Loyalty Abilities.”)
605.1b A triggered ability is a mana ability if it meets all of the following criteria: it doesn’t require a target (see rule 115.6), it triggers from the resolution of an activated mana ability (see rule 605.1a) or from mana being added to a player’s mana pool, and it could add mana to a player’s mana pool when it resolves.

Mana abilities can be either activated abilities or triggered abilities that trigger from the activation of activated mana abilities. The activated mana abilities are like other activated abilities in most ways, and there is no reason that Karn's ability would not affect them. So you are correct,  Karn, the Great Creator and Mycosynth Lattice together prevent your opponents from activating any mana abilities.


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Can you stop all attacks with Pramikon and Helm of the host?
If I have Pramikon, Sky Rampart out and attach a Helm of the Host to it, would it allow a new copy to enter, allowing me to choose the opposite direction from my original Pramikon? If so would that mean that no one can conduct any attacks in any direction?

If you look at the rulings on the gather page for Pramikon, Sky Rampart that is the case.

If two Pramikons on the battlefield disagree on which direction three or more players must attack, players can’t attack at all.

Each one says that players may not attack any player other than the one in the given direction, so if one copy says that players may not attack anyone other than the player to their right, and another says that no one may attack anyone other the player to their left, then no one may attack any player that is not both to their left and to their right. Each copy provides an entirely restrictive condition, and does not permit anything that would otherwise be disallowed. That is, "players may only do X" in MtG never means "players may do X", it only ever means "players may not do other than X". In a game with more than two players, no player will be both to the right and to the left, and so no one can be attacked. In a two player game, or in a multiplayer game in which all but two players have been eliminated, each player is both to the right and the left of the other, and so both players can attack each other. The wording of the ruling on Gatherer seems to claim otherwise, but I think that the author was assuming a multiplayer game. I don't see any way to read the text of Pramikon, Sky Rampart as having any effect in a two player game.
See also Cranial Insertion

With two Pramikons on the battlefield naming different directions (or a Pramikon and a Mystic Barrier, etc.) then players can't attack players or planeswalkers unless they're (controlled by) the opponent who is both immediately to the left and immediately to the right of that player. In a multiplayer game, this player can't be the same unless there is only one opponent remaining in the game. Once there is one opponent remaining, then left equals right and the Sky Rampart's domination of the battlefield is broken allowing creatures to attack once again.

and the Gatherer ruling for Mystic Barrier

If two Mystic Barriers are on the battlefield with two different chosen directions, you may not attack a player or planeswalker unless that player or the controller of that planeswalker is the opponent seated nearest you in both directions. (This happens most often in two-player games.)

Also note that it say "nearest opponent". The Gatherer page for Mystic Barrier says

In some formats, you may need to disregard teammates sitting between you and the opponent seated nearest you in the chosen direction. In formats like Emperor, other rules may prohibit you from attacking that player.

So two of these cards be a powerful combination in Archenemy, as it would prohibit the Archenemy from attacking anyone, while the other players would be free to attack the Archenemy.
If WotC decided to make Phasing apply to players, then having all but two players Phased should also allow them to attack each other.

"The wording of the ruling on Gatherer seems to claim otherwise" No it doesn't, the wording on gatherer very clearly says "three or more players" it simply does not apply when there were only ever 2, or only 2 left in the game


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MTG protection from color in multiple card multicolored scenario
I just played a game of MTG Arena where Questing Beast attacked while I declared my Linden, the Steadfast Queen as a blocker. I sacrificed my Alseid of Life's Bounty and gave Linden, the Steadfast Queen protection from green. My opponent played Embercleave and assigned it to Questing Beast. If I correctly saw the situation, only the Embercleave damage was applied on the Linden, the Steadfast Queen which is exactly what I though would happen but after both "First strike damage" and "Damage" were applied, Linden, the Steadfast Queen perished and I can't make a sense of it why.

What "Embercleave damage" are you referring to?

I would guess because Questing Beast has an ability that removes protection from damage abilites? "Questing Beast only stops combat damage from being prevented by effects that specifically use the word “prevent.”" And having death touch might play a role as well.

@murgatroid99 I meant the one damage in each damage phase added by +1/+1 to the creature.

@eXPRESS that's not really how it works, it's 5 first strike damage and 5 normal damage from questing beast. Because he has deathtouch and stops damage prevention (protection is damage prevention), the 1 damage on first strike is enough to kill Linden and the other 9 hits you.

@Andrew Thanks for clarification. :) I wish there was some play log in Arena to investigate the game after playing so one can better understand these more complicated or unusual plays.

The primary issue here is that Questing Beast has an ability that overrides protection, so it deals damage even though your creature has protection from green. That ability is

Combat damage that would be dealt by creatures you control can't be prevented.

The relevant part of the protection rule is 702.16e:

Any damage that would be dealt by sources that have the stated quality to a permanent or player with protection is prevented.

You can see that they use the same wording: protection causes damage to be prevented, and Questing Beast's ability says that the damage can't be prevented. When there is a conflict like that, it is resolved by rule 101.2:

When a rule or effect allows or directs something to happen, and another effect states that it can’t happen, the “can’t” effect takes precedence.

When you saw that "only the Embercleave damage was applied", that is not actually what happened. Embercleave itself does not deal any damage, it just increases Questing Beast's power and toughness, so Questing Beast itself deals more damage. The reason Questing Beast only deals one damage to your creature is because of the interaction between deathtouch, which Questing Beast has inherently, and trample, which Embercleave grants to it.
A creature dies if it is dealt damage by a source with deathtouch, even if it is less damage than the creature's toughness. And trample allows you to assign any damage in excess of what is needed to kill the blocking creature, to the defending player. In combination, since any one damage dealt by the creature is lethal, the rest of the damage can be assigned to the defending player.
In this specific scenario, the attacking player assigned 1 of Questing Beast's first strike damage to Linden, and the other 4 to you. After that damage was dealt, Linden died because of deathtouch. Then in the regular damage step, there was no longer a blocking creature, so the attacking player could assign all 5 of the damage to you.

Thanks, I understand now, but still I wonder why only 1 damage from "first strike damage" phase was applied to Linden then? It was little fast so mb I overlooked myself but I think only one damage was applied there.

@eXPRESS questing beast has deathtouch, you need to assign letal damage before the rest goes to the next blocker, or the player in trample, deathtouch says one point of damage is enough to be lethal, so that's all they had to apply to her, the other 4 from first strike and 5 from the regular hit can go to you.

@Andrew Does that mean that if I had any creature with trample and deathtouch and it attacked, always only 1 damage will be assigned to all its blockers? So if opponent used multiple creatures, min(power of my creature, number of assigned blockers) of creatures would die if not otherwise protected/indestructible?

@eXPRESS technically you can choose to apply more but most don't since it's usually a waste (a few Kaldheim cards, like Aegar, give benefits to doing 'overkill' damage) But Deathtouch means 1 damage is lethal, and trample means you can assign any left over damage to the defending player or planeswalker, so yes. It's why deathtouch and first strike or trample work so well together.

@eXPRESS in this situation anywhere from 1 to 5 of the first strike damage could have been assigned to Linden, and the other 4 to 0 assigned to you, the defending player.. Doing any more than 1 would be wasting the damage that could be done to you. The 5 damage from the normal hit of double strike has to be done to you, Linden is already dead after first strike and can't take that hit.

"Embercleave itself does not deal any damage" To emphasize this point, if Linden had had protection from red, the protection from red would not have affected how much damage would be done to Linden, even without the damage prevention prevention.


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How does having multiple permanents with the same name affect those permanents' abilities?
Many abilities in MTG use a permanent's name in the ability. Does this mean that if I have 2 copies of that permanent, the ability will affect both permanents?
Activated ability example:
Vector Asp - If I activate the ability of one of my Vector Asps, can I choose which of them gain infect until end of turn? Or will they both gain infect?
Triggered ability example:
Sin Collector - If I cast a second Sin Collector, when it enters the battlefield, will each Sin Collector trigger and allow me to exile a total of 2 cards instead of 1?

No to all.
When an ability uses the name of the card it is printed on, it actually just means "this object", not "an object that has this name".

201.5. Text that refers to the object it’s on by name means just that particular object and not any other objects with that name, regardless of any name changes caused by game effects.

So Vector Asp's text really means "{B}: This object gains infect until end of turn."
In order to get the sort of effect you are thinking of, the ability would use the language "a card named [card name]". For example, Daru Cavalier. It says "you may search your library for a card named Daru Cavalier", which allows you to find any card with that name.

Another related one is Plague Rats: "Plague Rats's power and toughness are each equal to the number of creatures named Plague Rats on the battlefield."

Rules reference here is out of date, this is now 201.5 (a new 201.3 was added to handle for the Universes Beyond/Universes Within cards and shifted the rest of the rules down)

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Will state triggers cause a draw if their condition is always true?
If I have Hidden Predators and Enchanted Evening on the battlefield, will the game end in a draw as soon as my opponent has a creature with power 4 or greater enter the battlefield?
If I understand the layers correctly, then Hidden Predators will be an Enchantment and a Creature, because even though its own ability normally removes the Enchantment type, the ability of Enchanted Evening will make it stay an Enchantment. This means that every time the state trigger of Hidden Predators resolves, it will immediately trigger again.
Assuming no player has an instant to get rid of any of the 3 cards in question (or to kill their opponent), does this cause an automatic draw?
Edit It turns out I was wrong about the layers. I thought that a continuous effect like "all x are y" would take precedence over a type-setting effect like "y becomes x".

Your example doesn't cause infinite state triggers as murgatroid explains. You controlling Darksteel Reactor with 20 counters while your opponent controls a Platinum Angel would do it however.
In this case yes the game will be a draw as long as there is no way to stop the state trigger. Note that 'no way' in this case only means choosing different options or targets if that is possible, neither player is required to play spells or activate abilities to stop the trigger even if they have the ability.

603.8. Some triggered abilities trigger when a game state (such as a player controlling no permanents of a particular card type) is true, rather than triggering when an event occurs. These abilities trigger as soon as the game state matches the condition. They’ll go onto the stack at the next available opportunity. These are called state triggers. (Note that state triggers aren’t the same as state-based actions.) A state-triggered ability doesn’t trigger again until the ability has resolved, has been countered, or has otherwise left the stack. Then, if the object with the ability is still in the same zone and the game state still matches its trigger condition, the ability will trigger again.
716.4. If a loop contains only mandatory actions, the game is a draw.
716.5. No player can be forced to perform an action that would end a loop other than actions called for by objects involved in the loop.
Example: A player controls Seal of Cleansing, an enchantment that reads, “Sacrifice Seal of Cleansing: Destroy target artifact or enchantment.” A mandatory loop that involves an artifact begins. The player is not forced to sacrifice Seal of Cleansing to destroy the artifact and end the loop.

The question asks mostly about one particular interaction, and most of your answer doesn't actually apply to that interaction.

@murgatroid99 It asks a question and has an example that doesn't work because of a misunderstanding of layers. I answered the question that was asked, you addressed why this example doesn't actually work

The example is the entire body of the question. It's just kind of confusing to have almost your whole answer apply only to the title of the question, and have just one sentence to answer the entire body of the question.

@murgatroid99 When someone asks a question that pretty clearly misunderstands some part of the rules I tend towards answering their question, and then explaining where they went wrong. In this case since you already explained how they went wrong I didn't feel that a super long explanation was necessary for that part

It turns out I gave a bad example, my question really was about if state triggers would cause an automatic draw if their condition were still met; it wasn't mean to be about how the layers for those 2 cards would work.

In general, a state-triggered will trigger repeatedly and draw the game if its trigger condition continues to be true, but the situation you describe does not meet that prerequisite, so the game will not be a draw.
Once the three relevant permanents are on the battlefield, the next time Hidden Predators triggers, it will stop being an enchantment again, and the game will just go on as usual.
Lets say we have the state where Hidden Predators is already a creature, your opponent controls a creature with power 4, and you cast Enchanted Evening. The game plays out like this:

Immediately after Enchanted Evening resolves, two relevant continuous effects apply from Hidden Predators and Enchanted Evening respectively:

Hidden Predators is a 4/4 Beast Creature.
[Hidden Predators] is an enchantment in addition to its other types.

They are applied in timestamp order, so the result is that Hidden Predators is a 4/4 Beast Enchantment Creature.
Now, all of the conditions are met, so Hidden Predators' triggered ability triggers again.
Hidden Predators' triggered ability resolves, and we get an additional relevant continuous effect:

Hidden Predators is a 4/4 Beast Creature.
[Hidden Predators] is an enchantment in addition to its other types.
Hidden Predators is a 4/4 Beast Creature.

Again, these effects are applied in timestamp order, so Hidden Predators is once again just a 4/4 Beast Creature.

After that, Hidden Predators is once again not an Enchantment, so the ability does not trigger.
The rule that governs this interaction is 613.6:

613.6. Within a layer or sublayer, determining which order effects are applied in is usually done using a timestamp system. An effect with an earlier timestamp is applied before an effect with a later timestamp.

613.6a A continuous effect generated by a static ability has the same timestamp as the object the static ability is on, or the timestamp of the effect that created the ability, whichever is later.
613.6b A continuous effect generated by the resolution of a spell or ability receives a timestamp at the time it’s created.

In a different situation, with different state-triggered abilities, those abilities can cause a draw. For example, as diego mentions, if you control a Darksteel Reactor and your opponent controls a Platinum Angel, then the ability just triggers forever in a loop that can't be stopped unless a player can remove one of those permanents at instant speed.

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Does "[card name] or another [type]" require [card name] to be in the proper category?
Inspired by this other question, what happens if a card such as Ivy Lane Denizen has Nim Deathmantle equipped; so that it is not green?
When you play a green creature such as a Grizzly Bears, will Denizen's ability trigger? In other words, does "another green creature" stop working when Denizen is not itself a "green creature"?
Similarly, if you control a Conspiracy, with "Bear" named as the type, will Lantern Scout's ability trigger when it enters the battlefield? It says "Whenever Lantern Scout or another Ally enters the battlefield under your control..." Does this imply that Lantern Scout must be an Ally in order to trigger?
One more example, perhaps more simple than the others. You control Anafenza, the Foremost, and it has vigilance due to whatever. When you attack with it, are you still able to put a counter on "another target tapped creature you control"? Or does "another target tapped creature" imply that Anafenza must be tapped in order for there to be "another tapped" creature?
The only rule I can find dealing with this isn't helpful:

603.2. Whenever a game event or game state matches a triggered ability’s trigger event, that ability automatically triggers. The ability doesn’t do anything at this point.

It doesn't define anything about the word "another"; or how to handle triggering events with an "or" in them.

FWIW, I've just finished a search through the comprehensive rules for the word "another" and didn't find anything that relates to this question.

Related, (I don't think ti's a duplicate?): https://boardgames.stackexchange.com/questions/35280/if-rhonass-power-is-less-than-4-but-you-control-a-creature-with-power-4-or-grea

The rules do not explicitly cover this, but in Magic card templating, the phrase "another [characteristic]" is consistently used to mean "an object that is [characteristic] and is not this object". So, in all of these cases the ability will trigger whether or not the object itself has the mentioned characteristic.
In general, this doesn't come up in rulings, but Ephara, God of the Polis, for example, has an ability that refers to "another creature", and there is no indication that it only functions while Ephara is a creature.

Nice catch on the Ephara rulings. I knew there must be some object in MtG that would support an answer for this question.

Another example of self-references not being checks is the use of the card name to mean "this object"

"Another [quality]" im Magic means the same as "a different instance of [quality]", or "any [quality] except itself".
As the one who brought up the question originally, I couldn't decide which English interpretation was correct - both would be fine under the rules of English. However, with the implications of that interpretation becoming quite non-sensical for Anafenza, the Foremost, it must be clear that "A' or another A" does not mean that A and A' have a mutual link between their meanings that changes as the stated quality for A' changes. A' is not a special case of the general A, because card text cannot be written with all possible card interactions in mind. "A' or another A" meaning they are related is true if and only if considered in a vacuum, i.e. without other cards that change the relevant qualities of one or both of A and A'.
The only sensible interpretation is that A and A', separated by "another", have no causal link, and it simply means that they have to be different players/objects, in addition to the stated qualities.
Therefore, if Ivy Lane Denizen has Nim Deathmantle equipped, Grizzly Bears entering the battlefield will trigger Denizen. Lantern Scout with Conspiracy (Bear) in play will trigger on itself, and Anafenza will trigger whenever it attacks and if there is an object other than Anafenza that is also a tapped creature you control.


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Why doesn't Djinn of Wishes let me play a land on my opponent's turn?
Djinn of Wishes has an activated ability with the effect:

Reveal the top card of your library. You may play that card without paying its mana cost. If you don't, exile it.

The rulings state that if you reveal a land, it can only be played if it is your turn and you haven't yet played a land this turn.
I know that rule 305.3 states

305.3. A player can’t play a land, for any reason, if it isn’t their turn. Ignore any part of an effect that instructs a player to do so.

However, why doesn't the first Golden Rule override this?

101.1. Whenever a card’s text directly contradicts these rules, the card takes precedence. The card overrides only the rule that applies to that specific situation.

This sounds like an example of a card text directly contradicting the rules... the card text says "you may play the card", while the rules says "you cannot play the land".
One might argue that 101.2 would apply here, but I don't think it does:

101.2. When a rule or effect allows or directs something to happen, and another effect states that it can’t happen, the “can’t” effect takes precedence.

First off, it's specific that it's only discussing an "effect" that states it can't happen, not a "rule or effect". Because "rule or effect" is used in the first part, and only "effect" is used in the second part, it seems that rules are purposefully excluded. Which makes sense to me because 101.1 already says that "effects" (which are written on cards) will override rules.
And second, even if it did mean "rule or effect", then you just have a case of 101.1 clashing with 101.2 and it isn't clear which one would take priority.
So...
Why is 305.3 able to prevent Djinn of Wishes from playing a land out of turn? I would expect it to work if it said something like "this is an exception to 101.1", as sometimes the comprehensive rules do for other rules that contradict rules.
Interesting to note that Djinn of Wishes does allow you to play a land during Combat, or your Upkeep; other times when you cannot normally play a land. In fact any time you play a land with its ability it is "special" timing, because whether it is your main phase or not, you don't have priority, and the stack isn't empty. Presumably the difference is that while the rules for lands only allows them to be played during your main phase, there is not a rule similar to 305.3 that says lands can only be played during your main phase.

Hmm.  Interesting inconsistency with being able to play lands out of timing during an upkeep.

The only thing I can come up with is that timing restrictions on casting spells get ignored (because the effect still has to be resolving while you cast a spell) but any other restrictions are not ignored (one of the rulings on the gatherer uses the example of a card that could only be cast during combat).  So you are allowed to cast a sorcery with the effect or play a land when the stack isn't empty (ignoring the timing restrictions) but you don't get to ignore the other restrictions (1 land per turn only on your turn, etc). (cont)

(cont) If Djinn had a clause about "If the revealed card is a land, you may play it at any time and it doesn't count as playing a land for the turn" or something like that then I could see a case being made for the golden rule coming into play here.  However, since it doesn't instruct you to ignore those restrictions, I'm not sure it applies.  This is all just a theory.  I can't find any rules that explicitly state why timing restrictions are ignored but other restrictions are not.

There are two parts to 305.3.
The first part ("A player can’t play a land, for any reason, if it isn’t their turn.") is directly contradicted by Djinn of Wishes's activated ability's effect, so it's ignored.
The second part ("Ignore any part of an effect that instructs a player to do so.") isn't contradicted by the effect.
Since a player must ignore the effect's instruction to play a land when it's not their turn, they are never instructed to play a land when it's not their turn, so the rules aren't contradicted.

Of note, the rules were different before Jul 13th, 2013. See the "Playing Additional Lands" section of Magic 2014 Core Set Rules Preview. Djinn of Wishes is specifically mentioned in the examples. This only shows that the ruling is in line with the intent of the game designers.

So in effect, any rule saying "ignore an effect that does X" is an exception to rule 101.1, but it doesn't need to spell that out because it is not "ignore 101.1 in this case" but rather "it's impossible for 101.1 to apply in this case". Unless perhaps a card effect had weird wording like "never ignore this effect", in which case we could apply 101.1.

I'm not disagreeing; I was saying that it "acts" like an exception in that it avoids invoking the rule. It's a wording the rulebook can use to make it so that 101.1 doesn't come into play.

There no more of an exception here than when an ability deals 2 damage to a Protected creature. An exception is a situation where the rule would normally apply, but it doesn't because of the exception. This isn't an exception, and it doesn't help anyone to pretend it is. In fact, such metaphors always backfire.

The reason conceding is an exception is because the rules allows one to conceded even if the cards instruct the player to do something different. There is a direct conflict between what the rules allows, and what the cards instruct. Normally, the card would win out (the player must draw a card or something). But the exception allows the rules to win out (the player can concede instead). That's not situation here. There's no contradiction, so 101.1 is not involved, much less ignored.