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What does formal training in a field mean?
I was curious what people mean when they say you need formal training in a field?

Welcome to Academia SE. I removed your second question, since it is quite separate from the first one. You may also get better answers if you [edit] your question to elaborate what people are saying that you need this for.

It means that this person has received explicit, recognized training, following the norms of the field. For instance, for a physicist this may mean having a university degree in Physics. For a medical practitioner this may mean having gone through med school. For a Linux sysadmin, it may mean having some recognized certifications.
The term is usually meant in contrast to learning through self-study or experience. For instance, we would say that a software developer has formal training if he has a degree in Computer Science, but not if he learned his trade solely by working through many online tutorials or through practical experience working in open source projects.

Formal training would be learning something by completing a degree, certification program, coursework or other formal program.
Informal training would be learning something outside of an official program. You might learn something on the job, teach yourself, or have a friend teach you.
Depending upon the specific context, there is a grey area as well. For example, a graduate program my only consider formal training to be university coursework. Or, learning on the job may give you a company-level certification. Depending upon the company, their reputation, and the program's rigor this may be informal or formal training.
For example, McDonald's has Hamburger University that provides training to company employees. Insides McDonald's Cooperation, this is would be formal training. Outside perspectives would vary depending upon who you talk. An academic program likely would not consider this to be formal training.

I was thoroughly disappointed when I clicked the link that it did not lead me to a website of Hamburger University.

@xLeitix sorry about that. I fixed the link to now be https://corporate.mcdonalds.com/mcd/corporate_careers2/training_and_development/hamburger_university.html

Within any one specific circle, it usually boils down to accountability for whoever might be employing that person or using their services. If your pharmacist says "this is X, take 2 a day for a week", you'd expect there to be a big government body to have signed off to say "She seemed to know her stuff, you can trust her" and its really this that you trust, not the stranger at the counter. How 'formal' a program is, is usually synonymous with how good "She must be good she did ". It's worth noting that its very rare that the training itself is the formal bit. It's usually the test at the end, whatever that maybe. Nobody's allowed to become a doctor because they went to medical school. They have to pass the course.
What about in general? There it means surprisingly little! There are very few fields that universally acknowledge an accrediting body. Let alone between fields. Both within and between fields the standards vary wildly. @RichardErickson's example of Hamburger university is a great example.
This is inescapable and perhaps desirable, as it should depend on the gravity and nature of the particular circumstances. There's not much need to prove you know what your doing to do crypt-analysis if you get somewhere you already have the proof, and that was the aim. On the other hand, if you were implementing or auditing an existing system, it's important for whoever hired you to be confident you met certain standards.
Equally "formality" of training for bar tending is less important than for pharmacy. Getting the wrong beer is less problematic thatn getting the wrong drug, so the chain of trust is less important.

This is more about formal qualifications than about formal training. They aren't quite the same thing. Although they often go together, you can have either one without the other.

@ANone I am not a bartender nor have never been formally trained as such, but my hope would be that bartenders are trained in much more serious issues than simply getting the right beer: including liability, the law, drunk driving, sexual assault, etc.

@emory Are you American by any chance?

@emory I think you mean that they have knowledge about those things. I don't think there are many places that offer training in 'drunk driving'. ;)


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Planning to start a Bachelor's degree during my PhD: what to say to my advisor?
I am a PhD student on my second year. My advisor is one of the most understanding professors I have ever had the pleasure to work with: he is also one of the, if not the, most important researchers in his subfield, which is a really "academic" subfield, meaning everyone who studies this subject ends up in Academia, or with a really unrelated, low-paying job.
Now, I am really unhappy with my PhD: my research is, in my eyes, very weak (I know, I know, impostors' syndrome and so on, I am in fact looking for psychiatric counseling but, one must be realistic: from all PhD students, statistically, some are bound to underperform) and, overall, I am just not happy with what I do... Somewhere along the road I lost the little interest I might have had for research.
The thing is, I used to enjoy research, at least a little, and Academia offers very comfortable careers in my country, and other countries as well: I don't want to leave, study a new subject and find that, not only I am not suitable anymore for Academia, but also I hate whatever I started studying; and I hope that, maybe, with the right counseling, I might again enjoy what I do. Furthermore, I have a scholarship, and if I left with my PhD unfinished I would be heavily financially penalized...
So, the idea I had was to start a Bachelor's degree in a field that has better prospects outside of Academia, all while continuing my PhD: I will underperform even more in my research, but that is a price I think I am willing to pay. The problem is, how do I break the news to my advisor?
As I said, he is a very understanding person, but it will be clear to him that my intention is to, very possibly, leave Academia, since our field is so "academic" and the one I will start this new degree on is not. He will also be very unsatisfied with the obvious new drop in performance and, in my opinion, there are no good reasons to maintain under his supervision a PhD student, in a very academic field, that is not willing to stay on the field.
So, how can I tell my advisor of my intentions? Should I not (which, from a legal standpoint, seems possible, but I would feel extremely guilty)? What kind of arguments should I present to him, in order for him to keep me under his supervision? Would it be more fitting to just drop the PhD instead? I know this question could, perhaps, fit better in the Interpersonal Skills Stack, but the intrinsic topic is so very dependent on academic matters that I think it is a better fit here.

What country? Second bachelor's degrees are very rare in my country and this would be really weird.

@AzorAhai I would prefer not to disclose the exact country, but it is in South America: and yes, second bachelor's degrees are weird here, but not uncommon.

"start a Bachelor's degree in a field that has better prospects outside of Academia, all while continuing my PhD" --- My initial reaction is that if you can pull this off, then your abilities are truly phenomenal and they do not match your description of your abilities, so perhaps I'm missing something.

I know a couple of people who have done 2nd Bachelors or 2nd Masters but sequentially never in parallel...

@DaveLRenfro They are most certainly not phenomenal, but my impression is that teaching is not my university's forte, meaning the courses are not exactly very hard: I took all of my master's and PhD's credits while doing my Bachelor's, maintaining an average over 90%. But then again, my Bachelor's had a relatively light curriculum...

Why a second Bachelor's instead of a coursework Masters? Get it done in half the time so that you can get a job in industry twice as fast.

This is probably more of an opinion answer, but I would say you should say to your advisor either:

I'm leaving my PhD because _________ and I am going to instead get a bachelor's degree in _______.

or

I am not feeling good about my research progress and not enjoying research to the point that I am considering leaving the program - can you help?

To be blunt, your plan to do both at once sounds like a horrible blunder. If you are struggling in your PhD now, adding an additional set of responsibilities is not going to make that problem go away. I can't imagine your advisor giving you any different advice than I have.
Further, if you choose to not tell your advisor, I think this would be akin to what is described negatively as "ghosting" in the context of a personal relationship, which is considered to be incredibly rude towards anyone you have an established contact with. Slowly letting your performance decline while you stop paying attention to your PhD and start working on other things is just going to make everyone miserable, and probably destroy any chance you have of getting a good recommendation from your advisor in your future endeavors.
You suggested you've been looking for counseling, and indeed, if your mental health is suffering, that would be a good idea, much better than your plan to take on additional responsibilities.

A few comments and a question. I really liked your answer: many times I considered that my declining appreciation for research is due to my also declining mental health, and even if I still don't like research anymore after counselling, at least I will have gone through counselling.

But, as you implied, I fell your tone might had been a little too harsh: I don't intend to ghost my advisor, I merely asked if I should not tell him to cover all possible cases. I am, and I see no shame in admitting that, desperate, and in no way happy in very possibly abandoning someone that was always very supportive of me.

My question is: if I do decide to tell him I am having doubts and considering leaving the program, which seems like the best option for me, how do I break those news? They are still very negative... Can you elaborate on that, or point in your answer to where I could read more about that option?

@GVT I meant it to be a bit harsh, only because it sounded like you were considering only telling your advisor after you made a move, or not at all (sometimes the idiom is used "asking for forgiveness rather than permission"). If you do want to have the conversation, I would leave the bachelor's degree out of the discussion for now, but further describing how to have that discussion really depends too much on your individual relationship. If it was my PhD advisor, I'd plop down in his office and say "I'm having a shit time of it...here's why" and we'd talk about it.

But we might not have had the same type of relationship that you have with your advisor, so I can't give you the words to say. If your advisor is a perfect advisor, they will help you through this as best they can regardless of what the final outcome is. But I would advise you that the option "can I stick around and do a crap job while you continue to support me and I stretch myself in too many directions" is not likely to be well-received. I think your only actual options are to realign yourself in your PhD (including counselling and all the rest) or to quit.

This is a great answer. The second quote in particular is spot on -- given the mental health and other issues, discussing all the options openly with the advisor is a very good idea. If a final decision has already been made, then "how do I tell the advisor?" is sort of a moot point -- tell him whatever and move on with your life. But this advisor seems like a great resource, and I would advise against making any definitive, unilateral decisions that one might later regret.

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At what point should I no longer include my former professor as a coauthor?
I graduated from university somewhat recently with a four year undergraduate degree and during my junior/senior year I worked on a research project with a professor.
At the beginning of the project (nearly three years ago) he helped me a lot with understanding the background/context of the research, but after so long I was the only one contributing to it (he's an applied mathematician and I'm a computer scientist, and the project is a computer based A.I. so I have been the only one programming it).
Now that I've graduated and have continued working on the project, and maybe will try to publish within the next year or so, I'm wondering if/how he should be included as an author/contributor?

Edit: At no point has he ever actually contributed to the project in the form of code. All he's done is mentor me through the concepts, bridging the mathematics and biology/chemistry so that I could understand it and translate into computer code. Additionally, all the code design and approach has been developed by me.

um, when your former professor is no longer contributing?

You've spent 3 years working on this project together. Sounds like both of you should be co-authors, regardless of when this project is published and regardless of your affiliation at the submission moment.

Possible duplicate of When should a supervisor be an author?

This sounds like you think this is all about code, and any other aspect of the project is irrelevant. Answer this question: would you be able to produce the same outcome without all the ideas from your professor, without his expertise in the underlying field? You write "so that I could understand it and translate into computer code": could you have written that code without the understanding he provided? In other words, if you couldn't have arrived at the current stage of the project without him, his contributions seem substantial and warrant coauthorship.

I'll copy and paste my answer from another question earlier today:

Everyone who makes a sufficient contribution to your paper for authorship should be an author on your paper (and no one else).
It doesn't matter what institution they are at nor does anything else: everyone that contributes at a level appropriate for authorship is an author.

Probably the best person to judge this is your former professor. Have a conversation with them about where the project is at and how you see their contributions and ask whether they think it is appropriate if they are an author or if you should be a sole author.

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whether my phd interview might have gone well or not
I had applied to a top-10 university for a PhD in mathematics, and the funded vacancies there are limited. I knew that in case of being shortlisted I was going to be interviewed. Hence, I recently checked all the university’s guidelines of how I should prepare myself for an interview. For example, according to those guidelines, I was going to be asked such questions as why I chose that university, what are my strength points, and so on.
Around one month later after my application I was invited for an interview by two leading mathematicians there. However, they directly started asking me ONLY technical questions ranging from foundational mathematical questions to advanced topics, and questions about my CV and the like. Anyway I answered the foundational and CV-related questions normally but I could not answer only two advanced phd-level questions, one of which was not related to my master’s major at all. I also talked about a rare but relevant mathematical topic which I have been reading explaining to them in general what this topic is about and how it is related to my major.
In the end, one of the interviewers asked me if I have an external fund, my response was no and as far as I remember he said in one week I will be informed of the interview’s result, and finally he said “nice to meet you”.
1) Does mentioning the means of funding in a PhD interview imply that the applicant did well enough in the interview? 2) Moreover, it may look funny to ask this but what can “nice to meet you” in the end of a PhD interview imply? Is it a commonly used expression by interviewers or does it mean that the interviewer is pleased to admit the applicant?

"Nce to meet you" is just a common everyday pleasantry in the US that has no meaning beyond the words themselves. Don't read anything into it. It sounds like you did pretty well, though.

@Buffy why didn’t the interview guidelines turn out to be true in my case? Can it convey a specific meaning? I was asked no motivational or personality questions while most students are asked such questions

You'd have to ask the interviewers. They are just guidelines after all. I'd guess that the fact that you were asked "out of field" questions means they were impressed and thought they would just explore the boundaries. Let us know how you did when you learn.

Those "guidelines" you mention - were they generic for interviews generally or guidelines specifically for interviewing PhD candidates?

As far as I remember only for interviewing PhD candidates. How come? @SolarMike

You'll find that's very common -- "university guidelines" tend to have common-sense advice that rarely applies to STEM (in fact, they are often written by undergraduates in non-STEM departments and carelessly reviewed by administrators who also lack a STEM background). You will find that your department has more in common with math departments at other universities than with humanities departments in the same university.

I also did not believe that the interview questions were going to be about motivation and so on. It was my first interview ever and now I know that such guidelines may not apply to STEM students . @cag51

1) Does mentioning the means of funding in a PhD interview imply that the applicant did well enough in the interview?

No, it could mean many things. E.g., they might be trying to establish whether you could be hired without using their own funds.

2) ...what can “nice to meet
  you”...imply? Is it a commonly used
  expression by interviewers or does it mean that the interviewer is
  pleased to admit the applicant?

It is a generic expression, it carries no hidden
meaning.


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Do people who work at research institutes consider themselves "academics"?
My long-term goal is to work at a research institute.  While discussing my career plans with different mentors, I find that there is some confusion about whether a position at a government-funded research institute is still considered "academic." Although my question is mostly semantic in nature, I imagine there are some implications with how to market myself (i.e., what to include in a CV or how to describe myself on LinkedIn).  Since many people with posts at research institutes either come from universities or go on to become professors, I think this question is relevant for this forum.

The key difference for me are teaching duties. I'm not even expected to teach (but it is encouraged and supported). Therefore, I'm not an "academic". I'm a researcher.

If they do, it seems like the intent would be to distinguish their organization from industry.

As background, I work for a US Federal government agency. I am physically located at an agency center, but hold courtesy adjunct appointments at two universities where I serve on graduate committees, mentor undergraduates, collaborate with faculty, and attend seminars. Additionally, my agency has cooperative research units (or coops for short) located at universities.
We have a fair number of cross-overs where we hire faculty to join us as researchers or have our researchers leave to join university faculty. This is true both at the post-doc level and more advanced levels. Personally, when I started as a post doc with my agency, I did not know if I would become permanent staff (I was lucky and did, in my case).
Answer to your title question: I consider myself part of of a broader academic community, but more tangentially involved rather than an academic. So, no I am not an academic. However, my colleagues who are part of the coop units, generally consider themselves to be academics because they are fully embedded in universities and must hold academic professor positions as part of their jobs (and they get both *.gov and *.edu email addresses).
Answer to your underlying question about how to market yourself: I am a research scientist. Many parts of my job are similar to a research-focused academic (e.g., I plan and conduct studies, I apply for funding, I publish, etc). I would sell yourself as a researcher. That's the role you want fill. For example, at a research institute, you would be conducting research. Or, at a university, you want them to hire you to conduct research. Last and pragmatically, if you're not able to get in with a research institute or university, industry hires researchers, but industry almost never hires academics.

I appreciate that you addressed the underlying question.  It feels a bit like identity politics, but I get the sense that how people call themselves, even in research/academia/science bears a lot of weight.

@artificial_moonlet You're welcome. Also, for some un-solicited career advice, I recommend reading the Ask the Headhunter blog. He has a lot of good advice about getting jobs. Many of his tips even apply to government jobs.

I don't have statistics, but I'd guess that if you asked the question of individuals working in such institutes it would depend on exactly how you asked the question. I would think that the quick answer would be no, but a more reflective answer, when provided with some "definition" of academic might be yes, but would depend on that definition.
I'm also going to guess that only a small proportion of members here are from such institutes but not associated with a university.
Of course, if a person moves from an institute to a university they would then likely self-describe as an academic.
But if you just ask "what are you", you'd be more likely to hear "researcher" than "academic".
But, as you say, it is mostly semantic, given that many academics do just about the same sort of thing as institute based researchers.
The situation is complicated a bit, of course, since many such institutes are associated with universities - some very closely. It might be further complicated in situations in which industry researchers have some "training" duties, even serving as committee members for graduate students.

My suspicion is that my US national lab coworkers would not consider themselves to be 'academics', but instead scientists or researchers or engineers.

@Jon In particle physics at least there is a rough mapping of lab positions to approximate academic rank (based on roles in the ubiquitous lab/university collaborations). But these are people whose output is papers and trained juniors much like professors at R1s. I've known some who describe themselves academics and some who make a distinction.

@dmckee - interesting data point. I could see that occurring in the DOE/Office of Science labs, such as Lawrence Berkeley, which is closely integrated with UC Berkeley. Less obvious that it might occur at DOE/NNSA labs.

As usual, both this and the other answer combined would be a great overall answer.  I'm wondering now, what is an academic-- a researcher who also teaches?  But perhaps that's best saved for a different question.

I am not sure that debating the meaning of words is very useful in itself (the exact connotations will even differ between languages!), but perhaps there is some value in mentioning this:
Research and teaching are not really separable.
Wherever there is research being done, you will find students (usually called "graduate students"). Many of these institutes award PhD degrees (or collaborate with a university so that students from the institute can get a degree).
Many believe that it is a core responsibility of researchers to pass on knowledge (not merely to generate it).  Look up any person on Wikipedia who famously contributed to knowledge, and the summary box will typically have a "Notable Students" section.  Most researchers in the institutes where I worked do teach in a classroom setting occasionally, even if this is not a job requirement.
The concept of classroom teaching is a modern thing. Historically, words like academia were not exclusively associated with this particular method of passing on knowledge.

Just as you noted that a classroom is a modern thing, so are the notions of "teaching" associated to modern classrooms.  You can teach people without being a professor-- any senior person at a company usually has to train junior members.  You are also teaching (i.e., passing on knowledge) any time you present your work, write a high-level blog, or explain what you to do a friend.  I think it's perfectly reasonable to be a researcher without formal teaching responsibilities.  At times, it can be beneficial, given how bloated and backwards so many university programs are these days.


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How to respond to an e-mail asking me to suggest a doctoral research topic?
With networks like ResearchGate and Academia.edu, it's easy to connect with and follow researchers from a variety of different nations and backgrounds.  I personally think this is great, and I hope such networks can help reduce redundancy in research.
Every now and then, though, I get a request from someone whose English is poor enough that it obscures meaning, and they are usually from a non-Western country with limited access to research materials.  Recently, I received an e-mail from a PhD student wanting me to suggest a thesis topic.
I'm all for helping people, especially if they are bright and eager and trying to work their way out of a crappy situation.  But I honestly have no idea how to respond to such an e-mail.  I intend to ask for more information about who the student's advisor is, what people in their group work on, etc.  But are there are other things I should keep in mind?  Is there anything I should be wary of?
P.S. I'm trying to choose my words carefully-- I don't want to play "Western savior," but I also acknowledge I have a real advantage as a Westerner and don't want to lightly dismiss a request for help when it could have a real impact on the student.

I would suggest, unfortunately, that you refrain from giving students research topics. That is, unless you are able to continue to guide them through their degrees remotely. I doubt that you are able to do that, hence my recommendation.
It would be different, of course, if the request were coming from the advisor of such a student. In that case, you can examine what it might be that the advisor is most capable of doing for the student.
As a positive response to the student, and a general one that requires minimal tailoring in each case, is to ask the student to connect with a local advisor and, if the advisor is unable to come up with something, to have that advisor contact you.
But I think that local advice will be needed for nearly every student. In the very rare exceptions, the initial letter will probably make that clear.

If you want to interact with them, just suggest some literature to read.  But honestly, I wouldn't even do that.  You don't need to be "in the West" to fire up a Google search.  There are a lot of resources available for someone with a curious mind to develop ideas from.  I suspect the issue with your lack of topic people is much more a lack of initiative (expecting canned answers) versus lack of resources.
P.s.  This site (not telling questioners to "do the Google search") is really the wrong model for how you help young people in real life. That's fine for this site.  It can be whatever it wants to be.  But don't assume that this is right mode for real life.
P.s.s.  No paywall whining either.  I have zero academic access now, myself.  But you can still find a bevy of things on the Web for free.  If you are just trying to develop ideas, there is no need for a specific journal article. And libraries hold the major journals, even overseas.  If kids are too lazy to get to the library...let them sink.

I would answer that I am active on Academia StackExchange where there is, for very good reason, a rule:

“Shopping” questions, which seek recommendations or lists of individual universities, academic programs, publishers, journals, research topics, or similar as an answer or seek an assessment or comparison of such, are off-topic here.

Developing a research topic is a key part of the academic process. Asking an academic to pick a research topic for you is like asking a teacher to do your homework. Even though they may not have intended it, it is really quite rude to expect someone to provide you a research topic.
Then I would wish them luck and move on.

Isn't it possible the student just doesn't know any better, due to the censorship or paywall he's behind?  Perhaps he didn't intend to ask that point-blank, but without access to the greater community simply has no idea?

@artificial_moonlet That's partly why I'd let them know it's a bit rude. It's another thing if they want to discuss research topics and have come somewhat prepared.


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Average rejection response time after a PhD interview
More than one week ago I had a PhD interview with a British university which probably has so many applicants on a rolling basis but I have not yet received the final result of my application. I wonder if there are professors here experienced in interviewing applicants who can tell me usually at most how long should I wait for receiving a rejection? I mean, does a rejection response usually happen just a couple of days after the interview?

It depends so much on the school, professor, existence/non-existence of a waitlist, and on pure chance, that the only possible answer is "it depends". Good luck.

You are likely to get a rejection sooner than you get an acceptance. If you are clearly not suitable they want to let you know. If you might be ok they will wait until they have a good pool from which to select. As Yogi Berra said, "It ain't over til its over". Nor does the "average" help you in any case. The deviation is large.


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I think I may have violated academic integrity last year - what should I do?
I think I may be overthinking things, as I’m known to having a huge guilt complex.
As an undergraduate last year, we were given a coding assignment to complete that was worth 15% of our overall mark for the course. We often worked on it at computing practicals where students worked together in computer labs along with postgraduates who could assist you if needed.
Towards the end of it, I had managed to complete the first two parts of it, but struggled with the final portion, and there were no more opportunities to ask for help at the practicals.
Eventually, a friend of mine’s close friend (who I was still becoming closer with) figured out how to do it, and showed us a screenshot of his code. I initially copied it down so I can see what he did, and then spent some time reading it to understand how I was meant to go about answering it properly, and then tried to write up my answer knowing the right way to go about it, but it couldn’t be done in a way that didn’t look very similar to what my friend did. So I fear I copied.
I didn’t think anything of it at the time, and submitted it, and it was marked and that was it. I think there may had been a plagiarism checker but I can’t remember.
Recently, I’ve since been worried that I’ve breached good academic practice. I don’t know why I’ve never thought about it much until now.
As well, in a module I took last semester, I had worked together with friends on homework sheets that we handed in but people often completed in groups, which I think was perfectly permitted. I only worked in groups if I couldn’t solve anything, so there was a time last semester where I went to a friend who went over with me how to do the homework assignment (helping me through almost all of it) which allowed me to get a decent mark on it as I now knew how to do it with his help and instruction (they also were intentionally meant to help our understanding more than assess us apparently). I’ve also had trouble saying no to people who want to look at my homework for help, as I’m not very assertive.
I’ve figured out that this could be poor academic practice as I’ve aided and gotten aid for assigned work recently.
I just don’t want to think I’m an unworthy academic. What should I do? Should I contact someone? Should I just let it go? I’ve told myself for now on when asking for help from colleagues that I will never ask for answers but merely understanding, and to my knowledge I’ve not done anything else that’s improper other than this.
Should I be ashamed of myself?
Is this situation a common thing, even among academics? I’m going to be at an internship over the summer with very esteemed academics. Am I likely different from them in my academic scruples given this described past behavior? Should I look down upon others who’ve done minor things like this who don’t feel guilty about it?

You’ve already gotten some great responses. I’d like to add: Everyone has a different “line” in terms of what’s ok for them in life. Finding it is often uncomfortable. It sounds like you’ve bumped up against your line and learned a bit about your sense of right and wrong. From your post and comments, it sounds like you have a really good sense of integrity, and you should be proud of that. But like the other posters have said, this is nothing to lose sleep over about. Chalk it up to a learning experience and move on.

If you are moving into industry, then collaboration and mutual learning is a useful skill. Even if you stay in academia, you will still be learning from others. It is when you actively claim ownership of the work of others that a line has definitely been crossed. Even then you may be acting as an integrator of ideas. Beware of misguided beliefs regarding 'guilt'.

I'd like to comment on one point which I think is important to learn from. You said " ...  and then tried to write up my answer knowing the right way to go about it, but it couldn’t be done in a way that didn’t look very similar to what my friend did. So I fear I copied. ... " . You could have done better. What's done is done, BUT even if there were some key points where you had to use the same instruction or algorithm or .... - there is ALWAYS another way perform a task which puts your stamp on it. ...

... It may be less pretty, use more code etc, while still having the same core, but if you apply your brain and if you understand what is being done then you can make it more your own and less their than by just copying.

"I’ve figured out that this could be poor academic practice as I’ve aided and gotten aid for assigned work recently." It's an undergraduate course, the point is to learn the material and understand how to apply it. Many people learn best by example, and as long as that's going on there's no problem with aiding or seeking aid, in my opinion. The problem comes when someone copies without bothering to understand, causing their marks to not properly reflect their knowledge.

The past is the past and cannot be undone. Whether you are ashamed or not, you need to move on. But you don't need to invite external punishment for past misdeeds that haven't harmed others.
It is best if you do your own work, of course, since that maximizes your learning. It is worst if you copy since you haven't really learned anything. In between is getting hints about things, with various graduations of that. The best hints come from your instructor, since s/he can give you a minimal hint to get you past a block so that you can advance. Getting hints from others is worse since those others may not be taking your educational development in to account.
So, for the past, let it go. For the future think about the goals of the exercise, not just the end point. Seek appropriate assistance that won't hinder  your learning rather than inappropriate assistance that might.
Probably you transgressed norms since you describe it yourself as copying. But treat it as a learning experience and move on.

I see. I just wonder if external punishment is what I deserve from this, as it may have been against the good academic practice guidelines of the school.

I think that is an unproductive question. Resolve to do your best and let it go.

Ah. I attached an addendum to the bottom of my question. Do you have any thoughts on it?

Many people have skeletons in the closet that are best left there to moulder. If they have overcome the urge to misbehave they are probably better for it. On the other hand, ...

I think my asking the question in the first comment stems from a keen sense of justice I have.

Do you think the average academic I meet in my life has ‘sinned’ in ways similar to me? Perhaps I don’t want to see myself as a cheat while others are genuine, although you did you believe things aren’t as black and white as that..

I don't know about the "average" but you are not alone. Learning from our mistakes is called growth.

I see. Do you think it it’s fair to think there ought to be an asterisk I’ll have to live with when I graduate that I didn’t earn my degree with full integrity?

No. And don't let guilt paralyze you. Deep breath. Smile. Do your best work.

Thanks for your advice. Lastly, I have friends and loved ones who surely have done things like this and don’t think much of it - should I think badly of them for it?

You are responsible only for your own actions and for guidance given to your kids. You might encourage others to be their best, of course. We should end this as the mods are getting itchy about the length of the conversation. Good luck.

@Buffy You could just move to chat.

“It is best if you do your own work, of course, since that maximizes your learning” — Citation needed. Virtually all the evidence points to this being wrong. Working in groups is vastly more effective.

@KonradRudolph, actually, I agree with you, but that wasn't the intent. Copying or being shown a solution isn't "working in groups". "Do your own work" can be interpreted as a directive to the group as well as to the individual. I didn't say "work alone".

Eventually, a friend of mine’s close friend (who I was still becoming closer with) figured out how to do it, and showed us a screenshot of his code.

Here was your mistake: you looked at another student's answer. From this point it was impossible for you to be 100% sure that any answer you come up with is really yours.

it couldn’t be done in a way that didn’t look very similar to what my friend did. So I fear I copied.

Here you go: maybe there was only one way to do it and your brain actually found it, but there's no way to know how much of your brain process was influenced by the answer you saw before. It might be 1%, it might 99%, nobody can tell. The border which separates plagiarism and genuine work lies somewhere between the two.

Should I be ashamed of myself?

Shame doesn't really help with anything, ask any psychologist :)
A more constructive approach is to reflect on our choices afterwards, identify potential mistakes and try to do better next time.

We often worked on it at computing practicals where students worked together in computer labs along with postgraduates who could assist you if needed.

Here was the better choice: when you were stuck with this question, you could have asked the postgrads who were here to assist for a clue. This way you could have been sure that whatever guidance you received was within the boundaries of what is permitted (whether you could have found the answer from it or not).

I’ve figured out that this could be poor academic practice as I’ve aided and gotten aid for assigned work recently.

Yes, this is unethical. Not the worst kind of unethical though, since your intention was not cheat but to solve the problem.

I just don’t want to think I’m an unworthy academic. What should I do? Should I contact someone? Should I just let it go?

Obviously you're not unworthy because of this, it's ok to make mistakes. Ethics is not a binary question of right and wrong, it's much more subtle than that. In this case you stepped in the light gray area once, and apparently you are your own very harsh judge so please show yourself a bit of forgiveness and move on.

I think I may be overthinking things, as I’m known to having a huge guilt complex.

As you rightly suspect, the answer is yes you are overthinking it :)

Is this situation a common thing, even among academics?

Plagiarism by students is unethical but it usually has a very limited impact (especially in a case like yours). Plagiarism by professional academics is a more serious issue, because it undermines the whole research process and introduces biases at every level: an academic publication record is used for evaluating candidates for hiring or promotions, allocating grants from funding bodies, etc.
While most academics have strong professional ethics, unfortunately there are plenty of cases of unethical behaviour (including plagiarism) in academia (you can find a good few examples here on AcademiaSE).

I’m going to be at an internship over the summer with very esteemed academics. Am I likely different from them in my academic scruples given this described past behavior?

Your scruples are actually an indication that you take ethical considerations very seriously. If you stay in academia for a while you will probably see that some academics are not that strict. Even if you witness unethical behaviour, don't assume that it's a standard and keep doing the right thing yourself.

Unfortunately by the time I was working on the final part there were no more computer practical days. I didn’t know of postgraduates to contact because I never learned their names. Is it wrong to not be punished for this? It’s against the rules to conduct poor academic practice in my university.

No it's not wrong not to be punished. You have already punished yourself enough with your own guilt, that's enough. Now move on.

"From this point it was impossible for you to be 100% sure that any answer you come up with is really yours." This doesn't seem to me to be a good justification for it being unethical. A good student might look at programs online about X, knowing that X will be taught next week. If they are later given an assignment that is answered by a program they saw, then did they act unethically? I think no. Can they be certain that their answer is 100% theirs? I think no to this too. So then what's the difference between this and OP's situation?

@Laurel Sure, but in this case OP was looking at another student's answer so I meant it's not 100% theirs in the sense it's partly the other student's

@Erwan perhaps punished enough with guilt, but is what is actually enough would be being penalized?

Should I look down upon those who’ve done minor things like this before and don’t feel guilty like me?

@sangstar real cheaters and dishonest persons don't show regret like you do, so I'm fairly sure you are a perfectly decent person. you seem quite obsessed with moral judgement, it strikes me as a bit excessive. Independently from this particular problem, do you feel ok with yourself? If not maybe you could try to seek psychological advice. Of course this is up to you, but you seem to be so harsh with yourself that this could become a handicap in your future education or career. Obviously I don't know you so I might read this the wrong way, but I'd suggest that you consider it.

@Erwan No offense taken. I think it’s something worth looking into about myself.

I don't recommend you use that "Shame doesn't really help with anything" catchphrase often because we do have arguments on the practicalities of shame, particularly in a societal context. Joseph Burgo is one author of example. In this case OP's shame is driving him to seek answers to being a better academic among his peers.

No one cares about this
Your assignment was through, no one will ever look at it again. You're an undergrad student, learn to not do that. And I see you realized that now. It's important to improve in the future and learn now to be aware of it, an undergrad exercise is "plagiarism" and okayish, plagiarism later on is a career breaker. Like stealing money from you company. Don't ever do that!
That's what studying is about: learning the way things work together. And the basics of the field.
Next time better ask an assistant, that's what they are there for.
Definitely don't feel ashamed. Most people would lie if they say that they never looked at an other students exercise in their study time. Sometimes life and deadlines hit, sometimes two deadlines, sometimes frustration. Keep it at an absolute minimum, but again:
Don't be ashamed.
Be glad that it happened now and you learn from it.

What you did was only very borderline unethical. You were allowed to work in groups to solve the problem. People working in groups will generally all solve the problem the same way. And when people work in groups, often one person will have the key insight to solve the problem. So the main difference here is that you weren't working with the group and failing to solve the problem when your friend solved it. (You were working on your own and failing to solve it.)
Further, one reason copying is discouraged is that if you copy somebody's solution, you very often will not understand the material. This isn't the case for you — you first went through the solution and understood it, and then you tried to code it in a way that was different. Unfortunately, there was essentially only one way you saw to code your friend's solution, and you used that.
While this may have been a violation of academic integrity, it was an extremely minor one. Think of it as a learning experience for you, and not as a major crime that you got away with.

I may be missing something here since nobody else mentioned it but I fundamentally fail to see the supposed integrity breach. Two points:

You are talking about a programming assignment, not a sit-down exam. Collaboration between students is expected. Usually it’s encouraged (and should be!). Of course you shouldn’t just copy others’ solutions verbatim, the purpose is to work through the problem yourself. But you seem to have done this, even if your starting point was somebody else’s solution. So, from a didactic perspective, you probably learned a lot, and that’s the primary purpose of the assignment.
Professional programmers as well as academics look at each others’ code/solutions all the time, and collaboration is a fundamental tool for getting anything done — it’s the whole reason why we have Universities in the first place. Of course professionals are not being (directly) graded on their work but I mention this to establish how normal and expected it is in professional settings to learn from other people’s code and ideas. It’s the rule, not the exception.

Don’t get me wrong: Plagiarism is a serious breach of academic integrity. But collaboration isn’t plagiarism. Nor is getting help with your homework (otherwise private tutoring couldn’t exist). What would be a problem is if you just copied the work of other people and handed that in, without working on it. But from what you’ve said this isn’t even remotely what happened.
I think you misunderstand what you’re being graded on: You’re not graded on your knowledge before taking the course, and University isn’t an Olympics-style competition of who’s the fittest. Instead, you are graded on what you’ve learned during the course. If you learned by working in groups then that’s not a violation of academic integrity; it’s an academic success!

Should I be ashamed of myself?

If you are feeling ashamed for what you’ve described then the University system has let you down.

Was it explicitly told you, that you should solve the problem individually?
If not, I would say it is not unethical at all. After all, all we have to get later in business, is to get a best solution for a customer. You should learn that, too, and what you do is - you engaged a consultant. In the real world, when, say, programming, you research online and in documentation, you ask colleagues or in forums, and you hire consultants. In my times at the university (was 20 years ago however), any out of class task to do was common for us to discuss, and search for optimal solution. Learning teamwork. The only guy whom you could have harmed, was you - you might have learned a bit more doing it yourself. Shame and other feelings should have nothing to search here - learn from any incident, do cold-blooded analysis, and then move on. Get that guy who helped you a beer/ice cream or so as a payment - then it will make it easier for you to look on his role as a consultant in that incident.
If it was explicitly forbidden to communicate the task - you just took some risks. The risk to get caught, and be fired from the university. Risk did not happen - problem solved. Same result as above, only harmed person is you here, and you took unnecessary (or necessary, if the incomplete task would have caused you some negative consequences, comparable to the consequences when caught, like not enough bachelor ECTS points collected in must time - fired from university) risks.
I would also stand to the answer of Konrad Rudolph - he met the point exactly while I was typing mine ;)

Personally I think the default assumption should be that you're expected to solve problems individually unless told otherwise.

@MichaelMior Frankly that’s a bad assumption because it ignores the wealth of evidence showing that learning is more effective in groups.

I'm not talking about pedagogy here. If you're not sure whether something is permissible, you should assume it isn't unless told otherwise.

I rather would tend (and interpreted in my studies and now in my work) that everything is permissible until forbidden.

A good litmus test for whether something is unethical or not is: If someone asked you about what you did, would you have any reservations about telling them everything?
The correct course of action would have been to tell the professor before turning in the assignment exactly what you've told us here. Having acknowledged the work you built on, there would have been no ethical issues. (I suspect there would have been no practical issues, either. If you understood how the solution worked well enough that you could reproduce it, the goal of the assignment was accomplished.)
Failing to do so was mildly unethical. The fact that you're feeling shame and guilt over it (perhaps even a disproportionate amount) is good. It's a sign that your sense of ethics is functioning properly. It is far better to feel more guilty than is necessary under the circumstances than it is to try to justify unethical actions.
The way to eliminate the feelings of guilt isn't to focus on how minor the ethical violation was; it's to correct the violation.
While it would have been preferable to inform the professor at the time, there's nothing stopping you from doing so now. Tell them what you've told us, and ask what you should have done. In all likelihood, they'll just repeat what I already said: you should have acknowledged the assistance at the time it happened, and make sure you do so next time. In the unlikely chance that there are some consequences, accept them. Once you have told the truth without holding anything back, the error in judgement will have been corrected, and you will no longer have anything to feel guilty about.  Rather, you'll have something to be proud of: you will have done what was right even when you know for a fact that you would have gotten away with not doing so.
p.s. I really doubt there will be any significant consequences. I say this not to suggest that you should only tell the professor because nothing bad will happen as a result (you should tell them no matter the consequences), but so you don't feel apprehensive in the meantime.

Short answer: You didn't; but if you don't like working in this way, then don't work in this way in the future.
Long answer: Watch at least one whole season of "The Good Place", there are chances you can learn from Chidi's character and the way he views himself vs. the way he is really revealed to be : )

Since your friend showed you a "screenshot of his code", then his intention was probably to help you.
Your problem should not have a moral/ethic dimension; you would have had so if you took your colleague's work without merits, and from what you say this is not the case. So from this perspective, you are clear.
I think your concern comes from the inside - that you are not academically worthy and that there are other students who have nicer solutions to problems than you. The only one who can provide the answer to this question is you. How should you reflect upon this question?
Well, first of all don't be a pessimist, be a realist. Think of all the problems (not only in coding) that you resolved by yourself. Did they have the same difficulty? If not, what should be my strategy to increase the level of difficulty of the problems I solve? Should I try the divide et impera method, thus combining easier problems in order to solve a more difficult one? Also, about the final part of the code you were not able to solve entirely by yourself, you should be thinking something like - did I think enough about it? Did I try all the possible methods I know to solve the problem?
As for individual or collective solution. It is absolutely necessary sometimes to take solutions from others. That is the only way you can learn anything. Nobody was born knowing the solution to each and every problem that is. Think also about your friend. Are you so sure that he didn't read a solution for a similar problem from a book? Do you think your friend was born already knowing the solution to the assigned coding problem?
Whether you like it or not, you can't have solutions to every problem by yourself. Sometimes, and it should be no shame, you have to learn from others. And I honestly have doubts that you have never read a solution to a problem from a book. Why do you think it should be any difference between reading a solution from a book (written by a human) and looking at a solution directly given by another human?


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Not Included in Publication Author List
Approximately a year ago, I finished a graduate degree under an abusive and bullying advisor.  I successfully defended my thesis, and agreed to stay around for a while longer to finish a publication based on that same work, which would have consisted of rewriting a section of the thesis into a form more suited for a journal.
Due to my degrading mental health, and the continuing abusive behavior of my advisor, I strongly informed him that I was no longer willing to work with him, and provided him with my writing so far and all the data needed to finish the paper.  My advisor continued to harass me after leaving, and I eventually reported him to the relevant people for his behavior, but I was met with blatant disbelieve and nothing seems to have been done about my complaint.
The paper I started was never published.  Now, I discover that my advisor and another graduate student have published a paper which depends heavily on my work, but I am not included in the author list, nor is my thesis cited.  Rather, I'm given mention in the acknowledgments section for "helpful discussions and collection of preliminary data."
This was the primary subject of my thesis!  It was not "collection of preliminary data."  They did gather additional data and do additional modeling, but my thesis laid the basis for this new paper, and they use my experimental designs.
As for my question, is it ethical that I was not included in the list of authors, nor was my thesis cited?  If unethical, is there anything I can do about this?  I didn't expect to be listed as first author on the paper, but I would like more acknowledgment for my work than a brief mention at the end of the publication.
EDIT:
To clarify some matters in response to answers/comments given below, my thesis was published and has been available online for a bit over a year, whereas this new paper was published about two weeks ago.
I understand that I don't have a monopoly on my academic work; anyone can build on the results of anyone else.  I'm also aware that both my advisor and the university have rights to my thesis and any other work performed with university resources.  I've been involved in the process of academic publications, ranging from being listed as first author, to being included further down the list as a collaborator, so I have some understanding of how this works.
My complaint is that I'm not given what I think is appropriate credit, e.g., my thesis is not listed in the references despite the fact that they used large amounts of content from it.

If your advisor is a well-known researcher in the academic community, it is very unlikely that anyone will believe you. Even if they do, they would prefer their own advantage and prefer not to ruin their relationship with this advisor.
You have two choices: you can move on and forget about it. Or, you can do what you think is the right thing. If you are confident about the story, send an email to the department head, look at the research ethics and IP department in your university and also include them. Ideally, there are written procedures in such department on how to make a complain about such issues. He/she will know about your complain from this department.

The issue as described by the OP has little bearing on the advisor’s standing in the research community. It’s also unreasonable to have a student read through the university’s code of conduct and try to ‘go it alone’. There are appropriate channels whose specifically deal with these cases in most decent universities.

You may not like to hear this, but there’s a decent chance that your former advisor did nothing wrong. If you published your thesis and accompanying data, then anyone can use it, as long as they cite your thesis as a source.
To be absolutely clear, I can come across your thesis which is likely archived by your university and cite it. What I can’t do (and your advisor can’t either), is not giving you appropriate credit.
In the case of your advisor things get even more complicated. They offered you guidance (bad guidance as you describe it, but guidance nonetheless), resources to collect data (access to software licenses, computing resources, an office etc); in other words, they have some rights to the thesis as well. Your question uses very proprietary language to describe your thesis, but what you need to understand is that academic work is a) not really yours if you work as part of an institution and b) even less in your control once it’s published. This is just how academic research progresses.
If you decide to drop out in the middle of an ongoing project (one that your advisor seems interested in continuing from how you describe it), your advisor has the right to continue working on it. They should still credit you (either authorship or an acknowledgement depending on the degree of your involvement as deemed by... them at the end of the day), which they seem to have done.
Having said all of this, abusive behavior in academia is never ok. You can and should report this to someone, if only for the sake of future students they may advise. Does your university have an ombudsman? A student welfare office? A vice dean for undergraduate affairs? All are good avenues to pursue your grievances with. This is, again, a completely different issue that is probably the more serious and substantial issue here in my opinion.
Good luck, and I’m sorry this happened to you.

as long as they cite your thesis as a source. Well, the OP clearly states that they didn't.

They also clearly state that they were credited with an acknowledgement. Citation norms vary by field. Could be that the thesis isn’t officially published yet. Could also be misconduct.

Could be that the thesis isn’t officially published yet — It doesn't matter whether the thesis is "officially published" yet.

Well, if it isn’t you can’t technically cite it, which is why the advisor chose to acknowledge the student instead. Again, could be that there’s misconduct, but based on the description it’s not clear cut.

Some of your points were addressed in my original statement (the abusive behavior was already reported), and further points (such as whether my thesis was published) are clarified in my edit.  As for using proprietary language to describe my thesis, such is entirely warranted: I own the copyright according to university standards and general practice.  Other people have rights to it and can use and reference it, but it is still mine.  You seem determined to insinuate that I don't understand research or publication, yet you don't seem to have thoroughly read my question before answering.


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What is the IEEE style for a translated quotation?
I am writing my thesis in french but most of the references I have are in english.
Sometimes, I would like to  incorporate a direct quotation into a sentence but since my text is in another language, I usually do a literal translation (because I don't want to change the author's words). In this case, what IEEE's style should I use?

Which institution is the thesis being submitted to? what are their formatting / style / referencing standards?

@SolarMike I am not sure that 'thesis' is the right word in my case, maybe 'dissertation' is more appropriate (or maybe it is the same thing, I don't know). I just need to send it to my school and I can use the formatting style that I want. But since I decided to use the IEEE's one I would like to stick with it.

IEEE is based on the Chicago Style, so whenever you do not find any guidance directly from the IEEE, it is best to consult the Chicago Style Manual. In Chapter 11 of the Chicao Style Manual, titled "Quotations and Dialogue", you can find some relevant directives. For instance:

First, make sure your audience really needs a translation from
English sources; if you audience is an academic one consisting of
researchers who perhaps publish themselves in international journals,
then I am not sure whether translations are really necessary:
'Whether to provide translations of quoted passages depends on the
linguistic abilities of the likely readers' (11.86).

Second, you can simply quote the sentence in your translated version (in the usual form you use to quote another source), but consider putting the original text into a note
(11.88): 'In many works, quotations from a foreign-language source
need appear only in translation. Should the original be necessary, it
can be placed in a note.'

Third, credit the translation to a published source of the
translation with all bibliographical details. If such a source does
not exist, then the Chicago Manual (11.89) states: 'Authors providing
their own translations should so state, in parentheses following the
translation, in a note, or in the prefatory material—for example, “My
translation” or “Unless otherwise noted, all translations are my
own.”'


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What are the benefits (if any) of disclosing a mental health diagnosis/disability?
It's no secret that academics have a high rate of mental health diagnoses (https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-03803-3), and that academic career paths may disproportionately attract people with serious mental health issues in the first place (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5824688/).
At the same time, many countries are beginning to recognize certain mental health diagnoses as disabilities.  I have always hid my diagnoses as much as possible-- partly because of the inconsistency of the diagnoses themselves from year to year and doctor to doctor, and partly because I had been advised by older mentors to do so.
So I wonder: are there benefits to disclosing a serious mental illness and applying for disability status?  I am thinking specifically of postdocs or professors; for students I am already aware of all the accomodations provided (at least by American and Western European universities).

"applying for disability status" I've never heard of this before.  Is it unique to your university or country?

I don't think so.  In the U.S. and Europe, it's possible to gain disability status.  I don't actually know how this works, but considering how often I've seen check boxes on forms for this, I assume it's a thing you can apply for and get some kind of certification of.  A quick search for "apply for disability" and a country name gives more specific information.

Are you sure that's something run by a University?

I'm quite certain it's not run by a university.  But many jobs I applied for asked me if I had disability status, and listed a number of conditions "counting" as disabilities.

In that case I would suggest removing the part about registering, since it's not about academia, and making the question be just about disclosing.

I'll answer this part:

are there benefits to disclosing a serious mental illness

If you are teaching, there are benefits to your students.  Many students have disabilities.  Students do better when they see successful people who are like them.  These role models increase students' belief in their own abilities, which is called self efficacy.  Students with higher belief in their own abilities learn more.  If you disclose your disability, it will help students with disabilities succeed academically.
For hiring and promotion purposes, some institutions consider performance relative to opportunity.  This sort of assessment is common in Australia, for example.  If your disability has reduced the opportunities available to you, then disclosure may make your achievements seem more impressive.

You did not ask about the potential disadvantages.


text:
Professor says he won't report my cheating if I admit it in writing. Is it a trap?
I cheated on a homework assignment. The professor found out. I am afraid of what is going to happen. I know I should face the consequences. I am thinking about just withdrawing from my PhD program now, before his complaint gets to the dean.
He said that he would not report if I write an email admitting it and saying that I would never do it again. But this seems a way to get me admitting it with proof. I already admitted in front of him. I don’t know why he needs an email saying that.
Should I provide this e-mail? Is it a trap?

You might be interested: https://academia.stackexchange.com/questions/30539/i-was-caught-cheating-on-an-exam-how-can-i-minimize-the-damage

" i dont know why he needs an email saying that" Most likely just to have something to show to you later in case you do it again and deny any previous history of misconduct. He has no reason to trust you more than you trust him.

Welcome to Academia SE. Please [edit] your question to clarify: 1) I suppose you want to know about possible motivations for your professor asking for your e-mail or how to react to this (and not general information on why cheating is bad). Please clarify what it is. 2) Answers to this question can strongly depend on what academic system you are in and how it normally handles cheating. Can you specify this? (You don’t need to name your university, just outline the procedures.) 3) In what country/culture does this happen?

Another point: cheating is an administrative burden. If you cheat, your professor needs to deal with it. That’s an annoyance that they don’t want. By admitting via email they’re avoiding a lengthy process for the two of you. Your professor is trying to help you!

Surely there's no reason to withdraw now - the worst possible outcome of it reaching the dean is that you are thrown out, which has the same result as withdrawing, and the outcome might be less than that.
Re your professor, it could be a way to get you to realise that there are consequences without, on this occasion, causing you and he major problems. But do also consider, based on what you know of him and your relationship with him, that it could be future blackmail material. (do what I want or I'll reveal that you cheated in year 1)

I think the situation is pretty clear (but I have to put this as comment as the question is on hold). The professor wants 2 things with his action: (1) By writing it down he forces you to self-reflect over it again and not just say "Sorry" and forget about it. (2) He has proof of your misconduct and if he later sees that you misbehave again (and does not have proof in this new situation - e.g. seeing you copy from another student during an exam) then he can use the written proof of the first incident to still get you into troubles. Conclusion: Do not drop out but stop misbehaving in future!

You betrayed your professor with this cheating behavior and lost his trust. But trust from others is the most important value in academia and in science. It is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for any kind of research in any scientific domain. It is necessary for any homework (the goal of any homework is just transmission of skills and of knowledge, nothing else; correcting and grading home-works is the worst part of any teaching job). And when you read any research paper, you have to trust its author. If you cannot, the author committed academic dishonesty. Unethical behavior is the number-one enemy of science.
Your professor is responding by asking you some email (that is some formal confession). He is likely to not use it now but could use that later.
I would have behaved as he did. He is giving you a last chance. Be grateful to him!
We all make mistakes, but you should try hard to avoid repeating yours. Errare humanum est
Your past behavior (described in your question) was unethical, not an adult one and incompatible with any PhD studies.
Most of us cheated at least once in our studies. My best teachers in French high school (collège) told me: "don't try to cheat, at your age, I cheated more than you can now". And I'll be 60 years old in August 2019.

I am thinking about just withdraw my PhD right know before his complain gets to the dean.

Doing a PhD is hard work, and you'll make a lot of mistakes. They are part of the job (and that is why I like so much the "Philosophical degree" in US academia: in France I am just a "Doctor" of computer science, but the only thing I really know is that I know almost nothing; read more on the etymology of the Doctor word).
NB: I am not a native English speaker, since I am French. During my own PhD I did pay for professional help from a psychotherapist, and as a human being (probably as old as your own father), I believe you should do likewise, at least to increase your soft skills and probably to be able to achieve your PhD. It is a really hard journey.
I welcome any private email about this question (cited by its URL) and my answer above if it is written in French by a non-French native speaker.

Cheating is wrong and has serious consequences. If you weren't caught early, you could have continued cheating for longer. When you cheat, it indicates that you are deficiently studying. You require discipline to study and need avoid procrastination. In addition, you need banish all fear of failure from your mind, because that causes you to procrastinate. It seems you cheated out of despair.
When you prolong cheating, you will be caught eventually. In career life, you cannot cheat easily and fool your employers and colleagues. Your incompetence will be revealed in workplaces and result in your job loss.
If you are a cheater, you are wasting both your money and time on university education.
When your employer discovers your incompetence and mediocrity, he or she will distrust other graduates who attended same college as you. Cheaters like you are hurting honest graduates' chances of employment.
If you find studies too complex and daunting, try breaking them down and simplifying them. Alternatively, seek help. If professors are too busy, try external sources.
If studies are too stressful for you, you could perhaps take a year off from college and study up what you have fallen behind. My sister did that for medical reasons. She was allowed a year off after a surgery requiring months of recovery. While sick, she pursued her studies and was well-prepared for the following year. By then, she had less stress in studying as she had already prepared herself in advance.


text:
Will my "the finalist certificate of the best paper award" be underrated if I co-chair a session at the same conference?
A paper of mine did recently reach the final competition for the best paper award of a prestigious conference in my field. Although mine didn't end up with the best paper award, yet I'd like to note that in the "honors and awards'' section of my CV because the conference is arguably one of the bests in my field, and even getting through the roster of its finalists means a lot.
On the other hand, I was also the co-chair of one of the sessions of the conference. I had neither any impact on the selection of the finalist nominations nor any vote on the overall award process whatsoever. Since I'm a rookie Ph.D. student, I'd also like to quote this role in the "academic experiences'' section of my CV (next to my reviewing roles, TAships, etc).
Now I'm wondering if I take both ideas above into account, one may think that my co-chair responsibility would have influenced on my finalist achievement. How would academicians interpret this case? Do I have to pick one to avoid such a misinterpretation?

The question title is really misleading. You didn’t chair the conference, you chaired a session

I would propose to put both points into your CV.
The interpretation you're afraid of is a bit far-fetched, and while some persons may indeed come to such a conclusion, I think most will not. Even for those who would think there has been an influence, I would argue that putting both is better than putting only one of them.
This is because they are in different CV categories, and thus people who evaluate your CV will in their mental checklist tick off both "won a paper award" and "chaired a conference session".

And, certainly if it is a well known conference, people looking at the resume will have a pretty good idea of how it works, how big it is, and so forth - it is a positive to list both. If this were for some small, local conference, well, I'd probably have negative reaction.

Chairing sessions is not nearly as prestigious as winning an award in a conference. I wouldn’t list that on my CV at all, nor have I ever seen anyone else do it. Perhaps your advisor or experts in your field would correct me on this point.
To your question: you played a role in conference administration; it has nothing to do with your award and anyone who’s vaguely aware of how things work in your field will be well-aware of this.

I would list them both.  They are really different things that show different abilities.  One is you leading a session, perhaps showing some organizational ability, MCmanship if that is a word, and knowledge of a whole subfield, not just your stuff.  The other is an individual research contribution and probably decent writing.  In addition, academic CVs are "long text" and allow showing a lot of stuff.  Sure, in the future, for example for an industrial CV, you may have better stuff and have to use selectivity and eliminate some stuff.  But for now, it is fine.
In addition, I don't really think it will look odd (would be frank and tell you if it did.)

You chaired a session, you didn't organize the whole conference. People reading your CV will have had similar roles over the years.


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Latest time to reverse a declined PhD offer
Got two PhD offers from universities A and B (in US) and chose B. Because I'm working towards my master's at B, I soon got involved in some research work here. However, the experience turned to be disappointing. I'm now regretting my choice and thinking of contacting school A to see if there's still chance to get that offer back. But:
1) The normal deadline to make the decision (on student's end) is April 15. Now it's already summer, how much chance is still there? I assume that A has most likely finished everything about admission.
2) My current professors at B are well-known in the field and have been very nice to me. After I decided they've also gotten me involved in a number of future plans. Moreover, I've informed a bunch of relevant professors (even including those at A) who asked of my final decision. Would changing my mind this late heavily ruin my credit and academic career?
I feel like at this late stage, simply asking would mean I'm determined for a change, so I would not simply send an inquiry email without figuring out the potential risks...

Do any offers say "closing date is XXX", "changing mind date is YYY" ... You can ask A and see if you then need to speak to B...

@SolarMike added some details in the original question. thanks for pointing out.

It is likely that there is no longer a slot open for you. But under the circumstances you state, the latest time to contact them is probably now. Once you declined an offer they moved on and accepted others. If those others have been accepted there is no longer room until the next class.
But if you are willing to wait a year, then you can probably enter the pool again and be considered like anyone else.
However, it also just sounds like a case of "buyer's remorse". Your situation at B sounds like it would work out fine.


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What is the Latin term "pace" used for when referencing other scholars?
I frequently come across references to other scholars like:

In period P, syntactic construct C did not have function F (pace Smith 2000).

I understand that pace here signals that Smith (2000) suggests that C did have function F in P (see this related question for the basic meaning of pace). But I'm having trouble relating this to the literal meaning of pace ('in peace'). Does the above mean:

That the author holds Smith in high regard (suggested here, but this seems odd to me since the relationship between the author and Smith is irrelevant to the content).
That no offence to Smith is intended (suggested here, but this also seems odd in an academic work: Smith is aware of the scientific method and the fact that his claims may be challenged).
That the author acknowledges that there are currently different opinions on the matter and that the author accepts Smith's point of view because the matter cannot be settled with the evidence currently available?
Something else?

I am looking at a dissertation here where the author at times rebukes another scholar quite strongly, without pace, ("the analysis of Smith is a step backwards from the 100 year old description by Jones"), but at other times uses pace to describe a difference of opinion more neutrally ("pace Smith who does not differentiate further here"). This suggests to me that pace signals something about the content of the referenced proposition rather than the author's attitude to the referenced scholar.
It's just unclear to me what pace signifies exactly.

So I checked with the author and he explained it as similar to option 3: He used it to indicate that he respects the arguments cited by Smith, while he gives more weight to other evidence leading to different conclusions. Since it is in part subjective to what evidence is given more weight, both positions are respected.
However, I can imagine that some authors simply use pace for variation from contrary to without this particular nuance. (As may be clear from my question, this was in the field of linguistics and written by an author with an exceptional sensitivity to the finer nuances of language.)


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Why are MBA programs closing in the United States?
There are various reports about full-time, on-campus MBA programs closing its doors, e.g. from LinkedIn:

MBA programs are getting axed: The number of full-time MBA programs in
  the U.S. declined by 9% between 2014 and 2018, the Wall Street Journal
  reports. Wake Forest, Virginia Tech and the University of Iowa are
  among several universities that have decided to shutter their
  full-time programs, opting to offer online programs and specialty
  business masters instead. Applications to full-time MBA programs —
  even at elite programs like Harvard and Stanford — have declined in
  recent years,

and also reports about applications dropping steeply, e.g.
in summarizing from a 2018 report [PDF]:

Applications in the United States are down 6.6 percent -- while they are growing in Asia, Canada and Europe.

–"M.B.A. Applications Drop (Except Outside the U.S.)",  (2018-10-08)

Why is this happening?

Kaplan did a survey on it - is this what you are looking for? Original: https://www.kaptest.com/blog/press/2019/01/30/kaplan-test-prep-survey-business-school-admissions-officers-identify-political-environment-and-a-strong-economy-as-the-top-reasons-for-the-application-slump-at-u-s-mba-programs/ Reporting by Inside Higher Ed: https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/article/2019/02/04/new-data-help-explain-decline-mba-applications It may not be the actual reasons for numbers changing, but its what they report B-schools cited as the reason. Take with many large grains of salt.

The answers seem specific to USA. Is the question also country-specific?

Nobody wants an MBA anymore.  What's the point?   I don't believe an MBA makes you more likely to run a company or be a good manager.  Besides, everyone is piling into data analytics programs.

@duffymo that's begging the question.

@duffymo I agree entirely. In reality nobody ever did. I was encouraged to do an MBA back in 1976 when Harvard was the only way to get them, and there was at least some perceived value. Less than 20 years later I was employing MBAs. I've known a lot of them and they never seemed to have anything to offer except energy and BS.

@henning No, it's just answering the question.

@David Richerby why is demand for MBA going down? That's only explained in Nicole Hamilton's answer below.

@henning "Why are MBA programs closing in the United States?" "Nobody wants and MBA any more."

@David Richerby fair enough. It's not begging the question then, it's just very unsatisfactory as an answer.

Demand is counter-cyclical.  During recessions, demand rises as people seek additional training, hoping to prepare for new careers.  But US unemployment is currently at only 3.6%.  We haven't seen unemployment that low in decades, so people are not feeling the pressure to seek additional training for new careers.
Here are some references that describe this counter-cyclical behavior of applications to graduate school.
Ilana Kowarski, "Fewer People Are Applying to U.S. Business Schools", US News, Nov 5, 2018

From a U.S. domestic prospective, historically, U.S. business school
  application volume has run countercyclical to the economy," Basye
  wrote in an email. "In times of higher unemployment or job loss,
  people often go back to school. In times of full employment or high
  GDP growth – like right now – opportunity costs are higher to leave a
  job and return to school.

Jade Scipioni, "Harvard, Stanford, other top MBA schools see applications drop", Fox Business, October 1, 2018

Sangeet Chowfla, president and CEO at GMAC, notes that historically
  business school application volume have often run counter cyclical to
  current economic trends and indicators. And the current low
  unemployment rate means “young professionals have an increased
  opportunity cost of leaving their jobs in pursuit of an advanced
  degree,” Chowfla said.

Wendi Go, "Is Enrollment into Graduate School Affected by the Business Cycle?", Department of Economics, Stanford, May 11, 2009

The findings show that the effect of the business cycle on First-time
  First-professional enrollment follows a relatively consistent
  counter-cyclical pattern. More specifically, a 1% increase in
  employment growth is associated with a 4.09% decrease in enrollment,
  while a 1% increase in GDP growth corresponds to a 2.04% decrease in
  First-time First-professional enrollment. Finally, 1% increases in
  personal income growth and personal disposable income growth are
  associated with 1.68% and 1.30% decreases in First-time
  First-professional enrollment respectively.

Srikant Datar, David A. Garvin, Patrick G. Cullen, "Rethinking the MBA: Business Education at a Crossroads", Harvard Business Press, April 22, 2010

Because MBA programs are often viewed by young people, especially
  those with few other career options, as a safe harbor for weathering
  economic storms, business school applications have historically been
  countercyclical.

... to the point where b-schools would shut down, though?  That suggests more than just the result of low unemployment, no?  I have in mind a permanent shift away from b-school education, but I'm not sure; it's not like the skill sets gotten from b-school are analogous to skills in ... coal mining?  investment bankers, private equity analysts, marketing / product managers are still very much needed, and MBA programs train for those careers, right?  I don't have an MBA so am not sure.

This is one of the things they teach in biz school. :)  If you have high fixed costs and you're only running barely above them, it only takes a small change in volume to turn a small profit into a big loss.  Some of the programs that are shutting down may have been vanity or halo projects, only minimally profitable, if at all.  With only a small drop in enrollment, they could have become unaffordable.

is there some reading material / reference for that?

Don't know about a specific reference, but (simplifying) profit = revenue - total costs where revenue = revenue per unit x number of units, total costs = fixed costs + variable costs and variable costs = cost per unit x number of units. Each unit results in what's called a contribution = revenue per unit - cost per unit.   Do you see how the math works?  If your volume drops, you may no longer cover your fixed costs.  If you were only barely profitable, a small change in volume can mean big losses.

Good answer.  Part of this is not just the recent drop in demand but also the artificial increase in demand (and supply) for these programs following the last recession.  Anecdotally I know of people who got an MBA simply because there was a lack of jobs when they graduated that likely would not have done so otherwise.  I also think the negative attitudes towards 'MBAs' (some of which are well-founded) has something to do with this as well.  More people are choosing silicon valley over wall street careers and having an MBA flags you as 'overhead' in a tech startup.

@user109593 An MBA is different from many graduate degrees in that it is oriented for breadth, not depth or in other words it's "a mile-wide and an inch-deep".  That is, it's not meant to teach expertise in a specific field, but rather teach general knowledge across many topics relevant to running a business.  The idea is that the CEO needs to understand enough about what her reports do to lead them and evaluate their performance.  There's debate as to whether you should need to have post-undergraduate work experience before entering such a program.  I tend to agree that you should.

@user109593 An investment banker and analyst, as you cited, would get a Masters of Finance and/or a CFA program over an MBA. As you imagine these programs require a lot more math, economics, and even programming/data analysis now, so they are a lot less popular and therefore are offered at fewer schools.

I would know nothing about this issue except for the link that BrianH provided in a comment to an Inside Higher Ed article. I found it quite interesting; here are the top perceived reasons for the fall in admissions from a survey of admissions officials at 150 MBA programs:

International students are "concerned about the current political    climate" in the U.S.: 31 percent.
The strong job market in the U.S.: 30 percent.
The cost of an M.B.A.: 17 percent.
Questions about the value of the M.B.A.: 13 percent.
The lack of one-year M.B.A. programs in the United States: 7 percent.
The perception that fewer jobs require an MBA than in years past: 3 percent.

Regarding the top reason in that list, the very last line of that article has what I think is an important qualifying detail:

A study by the Graduate Management Admission Council found declines in
  application volume for M.B.A. programs but gains for those in Asia,
  Canada and Europe.

Here's a link to the article on that specific topic, titled, "M.B.A. Applications Drop (Except Outside the U.S.)".

From watching the MBA market for over 15 years:

Applications to MBA programs tend to be countercyclical to the economy. The economy is still (remarkably) strong today, and many people choose to keep their jobs. When we get an economic shock like the 2007-2008 era, app volumes to business schools go up. Apps tend to go down when the economy is stable(r).

The current US political environment has had an impact on interest in US schools from international applicants. That's likely behind the large swings in app volumes in the US going down, and going up elsewhere, including Canada, the UK, and Asia. The factors include not just the political climate and, since Charlottesville especially, a concern about safety in the US and that it's unwelcoming to foreigners and non-whites (source: anecdotes shared by applicants privately), and also the reticence of major US employers in taking on the visa process for internationals (this has been tracked by organizations like GMAC and NACE, among others).
Average starting salaries have gone UP at most top American schools for the Class of 2018 and, probably will prove to be at an all-time high for the Class of 2019; data TBA. The MBA and other practical, business-focused master's degrees are still very valued by employers in this economy and by Millenials and Gen Z.
Top business schools tend to be profitcenters for the parent university based on ability to attract big fees through executive education (see: HBS financial reports). This caused many lower-ranked schools to pile into the bschool market. There are somewhat different factors at play but it's similar to the crash of the law school market, in that lower-tier schools won't survive when the market shrinks; they're the ones, obviously, who suffer the most when application volumes decrease. Haven't seen news of any actual MBA programs closing down recently though, so not sure where OP got that part of the headline.

tl;dr: App volumes are going down for U.S. schools due to politics, American corporate hiring practices, and due to predictable and expected economic factors. This doesn't mean that the MBA is not still in demand or valued by either employers or by students themselves, nor is there any evidence that the best American business schools are in trouble or at risk of failing.

In addition to people choosing to keep their jobs because of the economy, another major factor is that a lot of recent graduates are getting jobs rather than going into grad school right after finishing undergrad. As someone who finished undergrad in 2008, I knew a lot of people, especially in the class a year behind me, who chose to go to grad school largely due to difficulty in finding a job right out of college during the recession. The opposite is true today, hence the drop-off in grad school applicants.

That's a factor for grad school in general, @reirab, but less so for top MBA programs which generally prefer applicants to have at least 2 years of work experience before applying (there are always exceptions but they see value of students having real world experience before coming back to this specific program).

In this comment, you say

... to the point where b-schools would shut down, though? That suggests more than just the result of low unemployment, no? I have in mind a permanent shift away from b-school education, but I'm not sure; it's not like the skill sets gotten from b-school are analogous to skills in ... coal mining? investment bankers, private equity analysts, marketing / product managers are still very much needed, and MBA programs train for those careers, right? I don't have an MBA so am not sure.

Uneven distribution
I think that you misunderstand the problem.  Let's say there are three business schools total.  They are called

Wharton (University of Pennsylvania).
A. J. Palumbo (Duquesne University).
Rosemont College.

I got these from this list.  I picked Pennsylvania because I know that Wharton is often ranked first in the nation.  So I am using these as proxies for a very good, average, and weak business school (which may not be true about Rosemont).
Now, let's say that each school can support a thousand students.  So in a year with good demand of more than three thousand, they are all turning away students.
Now, let's consider a year of subpar demand.  Instead of more than three thousand applicants, there are only two thousand.  What happens?
Wharton continues to take a thousand applicants.  Because everyone wants to go there.  It's the best.
Palumbo takes a thousand applicants who either didn't get into Wharton or didn't even try.  Because it's preferred to Rosemont.
Rosemont gets zero applicants who don't go to either Wharton or Palumbo instead.  Rosemont goes out of business.
Now, in reality things aren't so clear.  Some people will want to go to Rosemont because it is common to pursue an MBA while working and Rosemont happens to be near their job.  And Wharton may not lower its standards to take the full enrollment.  And price may matter as well.  Wharton may charge more.  But all this just shifts the problem.  If Ivy League schools have to maintain a certain minimum standard, then the tenth best Ivy might take the place of Rosemont in this example.  But it doesn't really matter.
If a college has to lower its standards and still only gets half as many applicants, it can't keep the program running.  Because even if the industry is only off 10%, you will find that a large number of schools keep their enrollment steady while a few schools drop a lot.  Those few schools go out of business.
Business is not a career choice
Another issue is that investment bankers and private equity analysts aren't necessarily business school graduates.  Equity analysts are often physicists, because there is hefty math needed.  Investment bankers may be lawyers or accountants (or have a degree in banking, finance, or economics).  An MBA is not so much for a career choice.  An MBA is more of a tool for someone who has experience in a job and has started into management.  Now they get the MBA so as to be able to get promoted into a better managerial position.
That's why people with jobs get MBAs.  But if someone is laid off, they might also pursue an MBA.  Because if the job market is tight, they can't find a job right now and might just as well try to improve themselves.  It's that group that is counter-cyclical.  An MBA might be that thing they never had time to do.  But in a slow economy, they have that time.
Another issue is that if there is a shortage of business school graduates, many of the jobs that they do do not actually require an MBA.  If the MBA provides useful training, it might be possible to replace it with on the job training.  Because an MBA is necessarily a general degree, while a specific job might only need a small subset of that education.
Another issue is that to some extent, the schools have to compete with businesses for professors.  In a good economy, professors' salaries may increase because they get offers from businesses.  If the schools want to keep their professors, the schools may have to increase salaries.  Which can be problematic if they are also facing falling enrollment.  Increasing costs and falling revenues is a recipe for bankruptcy.
In a bad economy, the reverse happens.  People who have the qualifications to be professors get laid off from their jobs and return to academia because it happens to be hiring.  And now a college might launch a business school because they can.