text:
Taking refuge in the three jewels with respect to DN 26

“Mendicants, be your own island, your own refuge, with no other
  refuge. Let the teaching be your island and your refuge, with no other
  refuge. And how does a mendicant do this? They meditate observing an
  aspect of the body—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of desire and
  aversion for the world. They meditate observing an aspect of feelings
  … mind … principles—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of desire and
  aversion for the world. That’s how a mendicant is their own island,
  their own refuge, with no other refuge. That’s how they let the
  teaching be their island and their refuge, with no other refuge.

DN 26
How is this squared with the Buddhist taking refuge in the three jewels - or at the very least, since the teachings are mentioned, with taking refuge in the Buddha and the Sangha?

The Buddha is the Dhamma; the Dhamma is the Buddha (SN 22.87).
The Sangha are (only) those realizers of the Dhamma.

Good householder. How could explain this Dhamma, that Nyom thinks to be taken as only refuge?
This was told to a group of Bhikkhus, where all had been already Noble ones (no householder, no worldling but Ariya Bhikkhus, at least Stream-Enter, having gained the Dhamma for themselves already), meaning having seen the Dhamma for themselves and gained independency from a teacher, guide. This would not work for wordlings, since which Dhamma could they take as refuge and the refuge to the tripple Gems is already firm for Noble Ones naturally, unshakeable.
Why does Nyom ask (trying to reach out to one who knows) if able to live with the Dhamma as refuge? Does she not seek refuge at that which see assumes to be part of the Sangha?
It's by the way a bad translation, Nyom, which she takes as refuge, Dhamma.
(Note: not given for trade, exchange, stacks or other bindings to the world but for liberation.)

So a householder and a monk should follow two different paths?

Why such a conclusion? Both take refuge in the three Gems. In regard of satipatthana, not easy a householder could practice it.


text:
Proper meditation at hard times ( to be kind, open mind and enjoy hard times )
I understand that i act harmfully by my words also when i struggle at hard situation. (male 37 years old)
 For example today forced my mother ( elderly) to do some work which i thought it could be good for her but dont consider her disability and health problem because of her Brain stroke like some partly depression and maybe her scares about her life.
I think if have some view point of the reasons of happening  this situation could be useful to suggest proper meditation for this situation.
So i think is because of becoming sensitive and like to be kind, so try to give her an advice which in during the conversation my reactions change to showing that i am leader or supportive but not in controled of others!.  so at this situation finally i sence her hurted by my words and reactions. ( my brother some times before said to me your speaking tone is some not interesting and maybe could be changed by some meditation?!!)
Also sence to have cached by my psychological system and some other limitations , and can not find other situation and have more freedom for choosing some others actions and sensing more kindly.
So what kind of meditation do you suggest for this situation to try?

Thanks for your attention.

In Buddhism, a type of meditation to be used is called EQUANIMITY MEDITATION.
Equanimity meditation is: "OTHERS ARE PERSONALLY RESPONSIBLE FOR THEIR ACTIONS".
Often we want to help another person but that other person cannot be helped.
If your mother has had a stroke, you must be very patient & gentle with her.
You probably should ask your mother a question, such as: "Would you like to try to do some work? I will be here with you to help you".
Instead of controlling your mother, try to assure your mother you will support her.
For example, Buddhism teaches to never teach another person Buddhism if that other person does not want to listen to Buddhism.
It is the same with your mother. You should try to encourage your mother to make her own decision about her doing some work & exercise.
Also, I recommend you ask your mother's doctor, physiotherapist &/or occupational therapist for some advice about methods of helping your mother.
Also, you could ask an occupational therapist to visit your home to help you help your mother. If a professional occupational therapist visits your mother to help you help your mother, your mother may reduce fear & trust you more because you have been taught to help her by a professional occupational therapist.

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text:
Will most people go the three lower dimensions (hell, animal womb, ghost realm)?
"In the same way, monks, few are the beings who, on passing away from the human realm, are reborn among devas. Far more are the beings who, on passing away from the human realm, are reborn in hell... in the animal womb... in the domain of the hungry ghosts." (Pansu Sutta, SN 56.102)
According to this quote most humans go to the lower realms. This doesn’t make sense to me because majority of humans though imperfect are ethical and moral. How true is this? How strict should we live our lives so that we can be reborn to a higher dimension?

The passage doesn't actually claim that most humans go to lower realms. It's comparative: it merely suggests that more humans go to the lower realms than go to the upper realms. Buddhism typically holds that most people are reborn in the human realm.

I actually wasn’t able to put the paragraph preceding this text which says that: "In the same way, monks, few are the beings who, on passing away from the human realm, are reborn among human beings. Far more are the beings who, on passing away from the human realm, are reborn in hell... in the animal womb... in the domain of the hungry ghosts.”

And do you have a source where it is said that most people are reborn as humans in Buddhism?

In Buddhism, the 'human' realm does not always refer to something biological. The word 'human' ('manussa') in the Pali language means 'high minded'. For example, AN 6.39 says:

Bhikkhus, a god, a human or any other good state would not be evident
  from actions born of greed, hate and delusion. Yet, bhikkhus, from
  actions born of greed, hate and delusion a hellish being, an animal
  birth a ghostly birth or some other bad state would be evident.

It appears the Pansu Suttas SN 56.102-131 are about what happens when the Four Noble Truths are realised and when the Four Noble Truths are not realised. The sutta quoted in the question is only an excerpt. The complete sutta is:

Few are the beings who, on passing away from the human realm, are
  reborn among devas. Far more are the beings who, on passing away from
  the human realm, are reborn in hell... in the animal womb... in the
  domain of the hungry ghosts
Why is that?
It’s because they haven’t seen the four noble truths.
https://suttacentral.net/sn56.131/en/sujato

The message of the Pansu Suttas appears the same as the message of the Lonaphala Sutta. The message of the Pansu Suttas appears to be when a non-Arahant enlightened person who has realised the Four Noble Truths falls away (cutā) from being human, such as if they are unmindful and perform an unmindful skillful action, due to realising the Four Noble Truths, they won't fall into the lower realms because they realise there is no self that did the unmindful unskilful action. Instead, they know the doer of the unskilful action was the element of ignorance. Therefore, their human status/coming-to-be (paccājāyanti) is not lost.
The Pansu Suttas can be contrasted with ordinary suttas about kamma, which are about the ordinary outcomes that follow from (upapajjati) various acts of kamma (actions).
It is important to note, in the ordinary suttas about kamma, proceeding to (upapajjati) 'heaven' ('a happy state') due to a skilful action is not permanent. 'Heaven' is not permanent in Buddhism.
In summary:

The Pansu Suttas SN 56.102-131 appear to be about, due to realising the Four Noble Truths, how the human or godly state (paccājāyanti) does not change significantly despite unmindfully falling away temporarily from that state.
The ordinary suttas about ordinary kamma are about  the ordinary outcomes that follow from (upapajjati) various acts of kamma (actions).

Note: The word two Pali words 'paccājāyanti' & 'upapajjati' commonly translated as 'reborn' are different. The word 'upapajjati' means 'to proceed closely to the former' (for example, from performing an action causing pain, one proceeds to a painful state). The 'paccājāyanti' appears to refer to the attainment of a realm status.

Hi, I have read this comment many times but I can’t fully comprehend it, My understanding of Buddhism is fairly low, and I would appreciate it if you can explain this in simpler english maybe? And to answer my topic are you saying that most humans won’t really be reborn in the lower realms?

This is a very intersting question and a hard reality. What makes you think people actually are ethical and moral?
Most of people have huge attachments, envy, and are easily dragged into evil conducts.
For exemple, try having a beautiful girlfriend/boyfriend, and see how many people will try to flirt with him/her despite knowing you are in a couple. Also witness jealousy around you.
Look at the world history. Does it seems peaceful? I think there is a false assumption in your question.
Since most people gravitate around greed, envy, selfishness, ignorance, they are doomed to go down instead of going up in the long term (hundred of life cycles as someone mentionned)

Yes, and just something to be trusted if told by the Awakened one and or One who knows and sees. If it happens that someone without virtues and morals equal of the Noble ones gains birth under humans, he/she nevertheless experiances a low realm equal life like an animal, ghost,... Just observe the different between animals and humans in how far they are different.

This doesn’t make sense to me because majority of humans though imperfect are ethical and moral. How true is this? How strict should we live our lives so that we can be reborn to a higher dimension?

Just do some quick math and you'll see it all makes sense, although it'd be a bit depressing to face this truth. So, assuming every sentient being gets a fair and equal chance for rebirths in any realm, just counting the total number of mammals in this world, there're ~ 130 billions. The number of humans in this world ~ 7.8 billions. So every mammal sentient being would have a 7.8 / ( 130 - 7.8 ) odds of rebirth into the human realm. Now that's just mammals, start factoring in every animal species, the hungry ghosts, the hell-dwellers, etc. and you'll see that that blind turtle simile the Buddha taught in SN 56.48 was not far-fetched at all. So, it's no longer a question about whether it's true, it's a question of whether you're strong, brave, and wise enough to face it in order to solve it.

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Determination and Impermanence
How can we have determination with this impermanent world, if determination is one of the paramitas?
"I will do that thing (A) whatever happens" is determination. But something else (B) can happen on the way that makes (A) a useless thing.
So, how can I have determination in the right way?

The mind & all mental things are impermanent. When the body ends its life, the mind also is impermanent.
But during life, for a Fully Enlightened One, the virtues of the mind are permanent.
The Buddha said of himself:

I am now old, aged, burdened with years, advanced in life, and come to
  the last stage: my years have turned eighty... Sariputta, even if you
  have to carry me about on a bed, still there will be no change in
  the lucidity of the Tathagata's wisdom.
MN 12

In accordance with dhamma there are four kinds of resolve (adhitthanani):

to gain (a) wisdom, (b) truth (sacca), (c) relinquishment (caga), (d) tranquility (upasama)

DN33
Needless to say, this is contrary to many contemporary cultural ideals like social status, material gain, achievements or accomplishments.


text:
What can I do to have my destination confirmed?
I have seen a lot of great buddhists who change their paths due to some kind of conditions. Recently, I also face a that kind of situation. When, I faced a dissapointment, I forgot all teachings that I have learnd. It got some time to understand the situation. It just a small one and I had knowledge to understand the situation. There may be some situations that out of my understandings.
What can I do to have my destination enlightenment , confirmed ?
Related question: What makes a monk to be a house holder ?

Never forget that the training is gradual, and that even a little step towards liberation is hugely valuable, because you've contributed to be a little freer in the present. Effort is key, but do not forget to be kind a patient with yourself. Maybe, you could start putting in practice what you've learnt when you're alone, and then put some effort to keep staying mindful when being with others or when in pressure. If you become able to keep mindfulness in those situations even for a fraction of time, next time will be easier to do it again. Kind regards!

It's not clear of what the related question mention is meant in this question, good householder.

@SamanaJohann I think the related question asks, "What makes a monk change their path to become a householder?"

Im not sure about guarantees but there are these relevant passages;

Association with people of integrity is a factor for stream-entry.
  Listening to the true Dhamma is a factor for stream-entry.
  Appropriate attention is a factor for stream-entry.
  Practice in accordance with the Dhamma is a factor for stream-entry.
  — SN 55.5
There is the case where a monk remains focused on unattractiveness with regard to the body, percipient of loathsomeness with regard to food, percipient of non-delight with regard to the entire world, (and) focused on inconstancy with regard to all fabrications. The perception of death is well established within him. [One such as this] attains the immediacy that leads to the ending of the effluents. -an4.163 (excerpts)
Admirable friendship, admirable companionship, admirable camaraderie is actually the whole of the holy life. When a monk has admirable people as friends, companions, & comrades, he can be expected to develop & pursue the noble eightfold path. -sn45.2
When, on observing that the monk is purified with regard to qualities based on greed, qualities based on aversion, qualities based on delusion, thinking: 'There in this venerable no such qualities based on greed, anger or delusion, with his mind overcome by which qualities, he might say, "I know," while not knowing, or say, "I see," while not seeing; or that he might urge another to act in a way that was for his/her long-term harm & pain he places conviction in him.
With the arising of conviction, he visits him & grows close to him. Growing close to him, he lends ear. Lending ear, he hears the Dhamma. Hearing the Dhamma, he remembers it. Remembering it, he penetrates the meaning of those dhammas. Penetrating the meaning, he comes to an agreement through pondering those dhammas. There being an agreement through pondering those dhammas, desire arises. With the arising of desire, he becomes willing. Willing, he contemplates (lit: "weighs," "compares"). Contemplating, he makes an exertion. Exerting himself, he both realizes the ultimate meaning of the truth with his body and sees by penetrating it with discernment. -mn95 (xcerpts)

As to related question. The analogical reasoning in the sutta is smth like this 'there are dangers on the journey, as there are for a sailors; sharks, waves, weather and whirlpools . That some warriors tremble and run away hearing drums of the enemy, some tremble at the sight of their banners, some are defeated in hand to hand combat, some get injured and recover, some get injured and do not recover.'
I assume many things may cause one to disrobe, longing for this or that, perhaps one has to take care of parents.
If one disrobes it doesn't necessarily mean that one's practice stagnates. I think pali lore has a story of a monk disrobing, becoming enlightened and rejoining the order.

Well, you forget everything you learned because you lack mindfulness. Loss of mindfulness is precisely what you described: forgetting the teachings.
You can't have your path confirmed. Advanced practitioners can tell you there opinions, but not confirm your level of attainment.
To define stream entry and the way it occurs is a rather arbitrary process, but I shall go on to do so anyways. Keep in mind, that a sotapanna can doubt their attainments because there is so much misinformation on what consitutes entering the stream. Only the Lord Buddha can definitively tell the attainments of another...
On stream entry.... One such way to describe stream entry is by getting into a state of meditative absorption, a great rapture will invade one, and a strike of luminosity (metaphorical and literal.) It is the attainment of samadhi, and consequent knowledge of anicca.
There are dhamma-followers and faith-followers. I don't know if they are sotapannas or not, but they are mentioned in the texts by the Lord Buddha. They seem to be culasotapanna (lesser stream enterers)(???):
Dhamma-followers are those that have reflected upon the dhamma and grasped it as correct. Faith-followers are those, that out of their faith in the Lord Buddha, have attained something (I don't know if this is the attainment of stream entry or not. I won't comment because I'd hate to spread misinformation.)
The characteristics of a sotapanna:

Perfection in keeping the Five Precepts
They have an intuitive grasp of the dhamma, but still fall prey to desire, aversion, and delusion
Buddhism is their life. It is a true refuge : that which they can rely on at all times
Confidence in the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha
Complete elimination of a sense of self consistent across time.
Complete elimination of a self inherent in any of the aggregates

Finally, I want to pose the question to you, what do you hope to benefit by getting a confirmation of your attainment? An ego boost? Wanting to have something to "show" for your practice?
Being a sotapanna doesn't matter if you still have suffering.

To gain a secure destination, one needs to enter tje stream, good householder, and here a set of collections of the Buddha, how to gain it: Into the Stream: A Study Guide on the First Stage of Awakening.
(Note: this is not given for insecure destination by exchange, staks, and trade binding, intended, for the world, but for the secure destination of lasting liberation from this wheel: to bind toward Nibbana for those able to take the gift)


text:
Good source of mantras with their meanings
Where can I find a reliable list of mantras with their respective translations?

http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/bookchant.pdf
https://www.amaravati.org/dhamma-books/chanting-book/
These are chantings. The translations are also present. Hope this helps :)


text:
How did the Buddha debate?
Was he trying to convince or persuade people?  Did he go towards them or did he let them come to spread the Dhamma?  How did he react when he was not understood or listened?
I have noticed that I often tend to get carried away in debates where I try to convince my interlocutor of the truth of Buddhism and I get angry when he doesn't listen to me or disagree with me and then I blame myself for having debated in the first place.  Then I often find myself with the feeling that I should have kept quiet, and I remember this quote:

He detested objective truths, the burden of argument, sustained
  reasoning. He disliked demonstrating, he wanted to convince no one.
  Others are a dialectician’s invention.

Cioran, The Trouble with Being Born

Should we keep quiet in a "save yourself before saving others" logic?

The Pali suttas say the Dhamma is taught only to those who are interested, per AN 9.5:

The best sort of kindly speech is to teach the Dhamma again and again
  to someone who is engaged and who lends an ear.
Etadaggaṃ, bhikkhave, peyyavajjānaṃ yadidaṃ atthikassa ohitasotassa
  punappunaṃ dhammaṃ deseti.
https://suttacentral.net/an9.5/en/sujato

The Pali suttas say debate is not the purpose of Dhamma, per MN 22:

They just memorize the teaching for the sake of finding fault and
  winning debates. They don’t realize the goal for which they memorized
  them. Because they’re wrongly grasped, those teachings lead to their
  lasting harm and suffering. Why is that? Because of their wrong grasp
  of the teachings.
https://suttacentral.net/mn22/en/sujato

The Pali suttas generally show the Buddha debated people who visited him to debate him, such as MN 35:

Now at that time Saccaka, the son of Jain parents, was staying in
  Vesālī. He was a debater and clever speaker regarded as holy by many
  people. He was telling a crowd in Vesālī: “If I was to take them on in
  debate, I don’t see any ascetic or brahmin—leader of an order or a
  community, or the teacher of a community, even one who claims to be a
  perfected one, a fully awakened Buddha—who would not shake and rock
  and tremble, sweating from the armpits".
Hopefully, some time or other I’ll get to meet Master Gotama, and we
  can have a discussion. And hopefully I can dissuade him from his
  harmful misconceptions.”
https://suttacentral.net/mn35/en/sujato

He was giving analytical and categorical answers in due time. Stayed on topic. Didn't show hostility. Posed counter questions in due time. Did not back down. Was not intimidated.
It is not a complete list.


text:
How does one cope with despair using Buddhist practises?
I had rather severe melancholia for some time and I still feel deep despair occasionally.
For example, today, just after the workout and a good meal, I felt severe, yet inexplicable, mental suffering. No one offended me or anything bad happened recently, but I could not relax or concentrate on something. I just felt anger (not to anyone particular), self-pity and deep dissatisfaction. I wanted to pop tranquillizer firstly but instead decided just to sit down and practice open-monitoring meditation. I cried a bit, but these feelings have largely gone and I feel calmer now (though not happy for sure).
Every day I feel this subtle dissatisfaction and it often progresses to those hysterical outbreaks (uncharacteristic for males, I know). Despite that, I feel mostly drowsy during the day, not nervous, but this is quite another problem for which I think meditation on breath is the main solution, as it helps you stay awake and more concentrated.
Is open-monitoring meditation the best idea when you feel you are about to cry? I thought about Metta meditation, too, but wishing yourself or anyone else happiness sounds like a joke during those outbreaks. I often practice Metta before sleep though.
So what would you recommend on preventing and "treating" these hysterical reactions? You know, psychiatrists and psychologists have nothing to offer to deal with it, except for the drugs...

One thing to realize about metta is that you're supposed to wish for/visualize the end of suffering.  You're not the only person with depression.  Millions of other people are suffering just like you are.  I know you have empathy for them.  Tune into that and visualize healing energy leaving you.  That said, metta is good because it aligns your thoughts in a positive way, not because it will stop your depression.

Metta always works. You just have to give it some time to start working. You can't expect to get good results if you don't put some serious effort in the buddhist practice. Just when you don't feel like practicing metta, that's when you need to practice most. It may feel like you are going against yourself but that's how you cleanse your mind from material dust and negative emotions. End of suffering is not a cheap thing.

I'd suggest that what you're experiencing may be a physical disorder that needs medical treatment and lifestyle changes, not Buddhism. Buddhism won't hurt, but it's not likely to help much with the underlying physical pathology. Talk to a doctor.

@CanadianCoder This post is 3 years old. I feel better now, though not perfect. Buddhism probably helped, along with other things. I had seen a number of “doctors” called psychiatrists before this post and I can assure you that their treatments caused me a great harm, and led to a low point that this post represents.

For example, today, just after the workout and a good meal, I felt severe, yet inexplicable, mental suffering.
I usually have trouble after a meal, I don't know why.
So I tend to take a nap or go to sleep then.
I'm not saying that's especially Buddhist, just that's my experience of what happens and how I cope.
I wanted to pop tranquillizer firstly
So I guess you have a psychiatric prescription for a mood-altering drug.
I don't know what to say about that, I don't want to contradict your psychiatrist.
Conventional wisdom is that psychiatric drugs can be effective, even necessary -- but have side-effects too, and so it can be difficult or dangerous to stop using them or to keep on using them.
Basically your prescription is outside my experience, it may be a factor but it's not to be discussed here.
Is open-monitoring meditation the best idea when you feel you are about to cry?
The last time I went through a period of crying often, there was a cause or trigger (i.e. someone close to me had died).
The best cure for that I found was the first three suttas, i.e.:

The four noble truths ("suffering arises when you want things to be other than as they are, and stops when craving stops")
The fire sermon ("sense-experiences are impermanent and attaching to them causes suffering")
The anatta sutta ("viewing the aggregates as 'self' is a source of suffering")

There are more suttas than just those three, but they addressed most of what ailed me -- attachment, craving, suffering, and self-pity.
Assuming that moments of suffering end (even if they keep repeating themselves) the question arises, "what to do instead of suffering?"
Now people can and do become monks for example, I assume that's to gain good teachers and an opportunity to practice full-time.
Apart from that (i.e. if you don't do that) I think that Buddhism has three bits of advice:

Some things are "necessities" of life (food, clothing, shelter, and IMO sleep and some exercise too). We're supposed to avoid "extremes", so keep up these healthy practices.
It's important to have a good friend -- someone who is wise, moral, self-controlled, skilful -- someone you can "depend" on, maybe gradually learn to be like them.
Some behaviours are moral and some are immoral -- moral behaviour, intending to help and to not hurt other people, doing the best you can, is behaviour which you don't end up regretting: "I'm glad I tried to do that, no remorse".

So trying to do moral things, to help other people (and yourself), is a basis or a foundation.
Anyway for me I guess the best idea is "recollecting the dhamma".
wishing yourself or anyone else happiness sounds like a joke during those outbreaks.
Maybe wishing for "non-suffering" or for the "cessation of suffering" or "liberation (from suffering)" makes sense.
One other possibility is to concentrate on current sensations as you become aware of sensing them (including sight, touch, hearing). One of the versions of the metta gatha is, "may I be safe from internal and external harm". If you've been traumatised by some past event it might be reassuring to be aware (to realise, to sense) that the traumatic event is not in fact still happening now.

Thank you very much, very useful answer. Actually, I've stopped going to psychiatrists and taking their drugs several months ago. Nothing got worse, but not much better either. I became convinced by my own and other's people experience that psychiatry does more harm than good. You could notice how I avoid using psychiatric terms ("depression" etc.).  The only drug that I take occasionally is a benzodiazepine, for which I got prescription before breaking with psychiatry. It's not for 'mood', but rather for 'anxiety'.

Good householder. Just observe the precepts well and seriouse, change your livelihood and style so that this is possible and train yourself in generosity. Nonsens to try to fix here things by forced meditations. Metta, of course, is the base, right view, of all this simple training, good householder. From freedom of remorse, through keeping precepts, based on right view, the path develops on the given cources by "itself", including right conncentration, knowledge... insight of the destruction of effluents, followed by release from all suffering.
Silena sugati yanti,
Silena boghasampada,
Silena nibbutam yanti,
Tasma Silam vasodhaye.
Virtue leads to happiness,
Virtue leads to wealth (incl. real wealth),
Virtue leads to Awakening, Nibbana,
This is why we should stick to them.
A good, generouse given read in addition: The Healing Power of the Precepts.
(Note: not given for trade, exchange, stackes, or other binders to the world but for liberation of this wheel)

Good exercise and healthy diet daily. When the body is healthy, it's a lot easier to tame the mind. Follow the Mayo clinic guideline for recommended daily amount of exercise.

The thing is, I have a good diet and exercise a lot, though shin splints do haunt me. My body is pretty lean and muscular, no one can imagine how bad I can feel inside because physically I'm young, healthy and attractive.

If possible, find a qualified teacher near you (personally I'd prefer a monastic, such as Thanissaro Bhikkhu),  that can work with you over a sustained period of time. Deeper work of the mind requires time, hard work and patience.

Samana Johan gave a good answer,do that.
Furthermore get some admirable friends, do not associate with shitty people. Good company in definitive sense is all of the holy life. No friendship with fools.
I will add that Buddha praised giving gifts, he also told householders to not be content having provided gifts to the Sangha but to also attain 'seclusion'.

Lord, when a disciple of the noble ones enters & remains in seclusion & rapture, there are five possibilities that do not exist at that time: The pain & distress dependent on sensuality do not exist at that time. The pleasure & joy dependent on sensuality do not exist at that time. The pain & distress dependent on what is unskillful do not exist at that time. The pleasure & joy dependent on what is unskillful do not exist at that time. The pain & distress dependent on what is skillful do not exist at that time. When a disciple of the noble ones enters & remains in seclusion & rapture, these five possibilities do not exist at that time."

It does not need to be a 'deep meditative state'. Ie if one thinks about virtue, the buddha, one's good deeds it can be accompanied by gladness and be quite pleasant.
These states at that time are secluded from the five things that don't exist at that time.
You could try finding themes of ideas to entertain which work to seclude by directing elsewhere.

"Whatever a monk keeps pursuing with his thinking & pondering, that becomes the inclination of his awareness. If a monk keeps pursuing thinking imbued with sensuality, abandoning thinking imbued with renunciation, his mind is bent by that thinking imbued with sensuality. If a monk keeps pursuing thinking imbued with ill will, abandoning thinking imbued with non-ill will, his mind is bent by that thinking imbued with ill will. If a monk keeps pursuing thinking imbued with harmfulness, abandoning thinking imbued with harmlessness, his mind is bent by that thinking imbued with harmfulness.

This is how it comes about.
When one trains ie mindfulness of breathing, it's also called 'perception of in and out breaths'.
One can basicly sit perceiving the in and out breaths. One can contemplate their cessation and impermanence, at that time one's theme is also impermanence and one trains perception of impermanence.
One should be mindful of the arising, the persisting and the passing away in regards to feelings and perceptions.
If mind is not easily calmed by the perception of in ans out breathing, one should direct the mind to a different theme. There are too many to list, i have a list tho;
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1kZxstsAvjhj9Svc47RUKRIyKQMuHMD4adIvr_7pp2uI/edit?usp=drivesdk

Sluggish/Tired Mind
"At such times, monks, as the mind is sluggish, that is the wrong time to cultivate the enlightenment-factor[1] of tranquillity, the enlightenment-factor of concentration, the enlightenment-factor of equanimity. What is the reason? A sluggish mind is hard to arouse by these factors.
  "But, monks, when the mind is sluggish, that is the right time to cultivate the enlightenment-factor of investigation-of-states, the enlightenment-factor of energy, the enlightenment-factor of rapture.[2] What is the reason? A sluggish mind is easy to arouse by these factors.

Aroused/Active/Agitated Mind

"Monks, when the mind is agitated,[3] that is the wrong time to cultivate the enlightenment-factors of investigation-of-states, of energy, of rapture. Why? An agitated mind is hard to calm through these factors.
  "When the mind is agitated, that is the right time to cultivate the enlightenment-factors of tranquillity, concentration, equanimity. Why? Because an agitated mind is easy to calm[4] through these factors.

Buddha definitely taught directing the mind;

“There is the case of a monk who remains focused on the body in & of itself—ardent, alert, & mindful—subduing greed & distress with reference to the world. As he remains thus focused on the body in & of itself, a fever based on the body arises within his body, or there is sluggishness in his awareness, or his mind becomes scattered externally. He should then direct his mind to any inspiring theme. As his mind is directed to any inspiring theme, delight arises within him. In one who feels delight, rapture arises.
In one whose mind is enraptured, the body grows calm. His body calm, he feels pleasure. As he feels pleasure, his mind grows concentrated.
He reflects, ‘I have attained the aim to which my mind was directed. Let me withdraw [my mind from the inspiring theme].’ He withdraws & engages neither in directed thought nor in evaluation. He
  discerns, ‘I am not thinking or evaluating. I am inwardly mindful & at ease.’
“This, Ananda, is development based on directing.
And what is development based on not directing? A monk, when not directing his mind to external things, discerns, ‘My mind is not directed to external
  things. It is unconstricted [asankhitta] front & back—released & undirected. And then, I remain focused on the body in & of itself. I am ardent, alert, mindful, & at ease.’
“When not directing his mind to external things, he discerns, ‘My mind is not directed to external things. It is unconstricted front & back—released & undirected. And then, I remain focused on feelings… mind… mental qualities in & of themselves. I am ardent, alert, mindful, & at ease.’
“This, Ananda, is development based on not directing.

If want to read more details on meditation and overcoming hindrances;
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1hRy-g6o8yKsDQnR6_sbBbY5ZVpDbQ5-_LURXqwxS7YU/edit?usp=drivesdk
You should separate your thoughts categorically as to whether they are associated with desire,anger or delusion; or not associated.
Then you start actively calming the bad ones as instructed here;
https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.020.than.html
https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.020.than.html

May your body chemistry respond to your aspirations, friend.
Medicine Buddha study suggests these steps:
Know the sickness.
Abandon the cause of the sickness.
Aspire the cure.
Rely upon practices that release / transform the power of the sickness.
For me the practice of Tonglen is reliable. Recognize that many others struggle with the same sickness. Sincerely Offer in your heart, to bear it for them since you are so familiar with it already. Offer them a break. Evoke an experience of relief you have accessed in your life. Send out that experience as a gift to the others suffering as you are. In this practice you may find your own feeling of dark isolation, even to self pity, is lightened and released, even if only a little at a time.
I use this lately for despair, sorrow, guilt, rage and fear triggered by world conditions and human failure. I feel personal failure, guilt of not doing enough, grand delusions my lifelong service to prevent environmental trends we see today should have Worked. Tonglen helps me as I imagine others I admire who have served so nobly to released from this kind of despair and pain.I need to do this often!
I wish you freedom in your life, moment to moment, in your way forward. you are well equipped. You can abandon the cause of your sickness, lifted away from it as you aspire to health and joyful mind for yourself and others like you.
Thank you for sharing of yourself here.

I don’t think I have experienced anything comparable to your situation so my suggestion may or may not work for you. Personally, I find mindfulness meditation useful. It would fall somewhere between open monitoring and focused attention. Specifically, the attention is on the state of the mind. To do so we want to do a comparison of the mind’s state or well-being at various points throughout the day.
This mindfulness technique requires a consistent effort throughout your waking hours, it involves taking a pause to check and reflect at intervals, like once or twice each hour. Ask yourself mentally where is the mind or in what state is your mind. Take note of your mind’s state at intervals throughout the day. The intervals can be longer or shorter, just don’t forget and pick up again if you fail to remember. The trick is to let this pause, check and reflect be as natural as possible so that it becomes habitual.
Try to compare the mind’s state versus the previous checks, is it better or worse? If it is worse, try to figure out if there is anything that causes the deterioration. If it is better, try to understand the cause as well. Try to avoid those causes that result in a degradation of the mind’s well-being and encourage those causes that improve the mind’s well-being. If there’s no change, check again if you had ignored any changes (in terms of feeling, emotions, mental clarity, anxiety, stress and so on). If not, just maintain the practice.
The aim is not to allow your mind to be caught unconsciously or unintentionally at a cliff’s edge but to have enough early warning if it is heading in the wrong direction. It takes far less effort to steer your mind away from the edge than to slow down its momentum when it is falling. And if in spite of all these, you still suffered from an episode, try to pause (hopefully, this is habitual by now that you have enough presence of mind to temporarily halt the onslaught) and rewind to maybe 10 or 15 min ago and reflect on what was the state of your mind then. Was it OK then. If it was, ask yourself if there was any trigger. Sometimes, the trigger is not obvious but the mind is already primed to fall into depression over a period of hours and maybe even days or longer. It's like being on the edge of a precipice….just the slightest nudge and off it goes. In that case, you need to rewind to even further back like hours or even days or longer. The idea is that it is easy to detect an avalanche but hard to detect the conditions that gradually build up an avalanche. And it is this gradual build-up that we usually fail to catch but that turns into an avalanche once it reaches a tipping point.
Lastly, I think it is far easier to check and catch the mind’s state i.e. whether it is experiencing a low or high tide, if we are at normal level most of the time. In your case, I assume it maybe already at a low level (i.e. low energy, melancholic, anxious or unease) so I am not sure if this technique will work out for you. May this be useful, with Metta!

Don't allow your mind to stop your metta practice. Mind should be controlled. When I feel bad I do metta. It may not work immediately but after some time of chanting metta mantra, my mind gets cleansed from negative thoughts and I start feeling better.
Don't give up. You may feel horrible in the beginning of metta practice but that's normal; mind is getting cleansed from material dust. Try to understand: metta practice is a action in the mode of goodness. Like all actions in the mode of goodness, they are bitter in the beginning but sweet at the end.

Your melancholia is due to your desire. It is evident in your writing that you have desire: you want to escape from pain. You desire different moods and experiences.

For example, today, just after the workout and a good meal, I felt severe, yet inexplicable, mental suffering

That is the desire I am talking about. You still believe that exercise and food, sensual pleasures, will eliminate dukkha. You are trying to think your way out of depression by searching for that which causes it. Your depression spawns from your thinking: trying to figure out why you are depressed. Since you can't figure out why, then you endlessly ruminate.
It's a catch-22, and it gets worse the more you engage in it.That is kamma.
You need to find ways to uplift the mind, such as chanting or recollecting on the precepts, the triple gems, or recollecting on nibbana.

Sure, I have a desire. If I had not, it would mean that I'm an enlightened person, what is obviously not true. I don't believe that "sensual pleasures will eliminate dukkha", though I do believe that exercising, being healthy and not deficient in nutrients can uplift one's mood, and this is scientifically proven. It is scientifically proven that a lack of exercise and nutrients bring more suffering. But obviously, these things are not enough for eliminating dukkha.


text:
What are your thoughts on Ajahn Maha Bua?
Shedding Tears in Amazement of the Dhamma
I am posting this because I've yet to post a question.
I should note that I respect Ajahn Maha Bua a lot. In fact, both of my teachers were students of his.
However, Ajahn Maha Bua is the most controversial figure in Buddhism.
Regardless if he were an arahant, I can definitively say he is an inspiration to me, and a superb teacher. Where would I be if not for Luangta?
Thoughts?

My person perceives Ajahn Bua as controversal in regard of both: the Buddha and his teacher (note that he wrote the documentation on Ven. Mun, in adittion. How ever, the/a question like this, does not easy give ways out of just opinion exchanges, in a pointles sense. While Mun can be traced as at least Noble One, Bua was as far as reported a wordling, not gone beyond Sakaya ditthi at all, and a violator of high rules.

Bua can be seen as the father of that what is known as Dhammakaya-ideology.

@SamanaJohann What high rules? Yes, I see your stance.

Sg. 13 by foundraicing huge amout from faithful to sacify it for the Nations knowns as "Thai help Thai", accepting huge amount of money and gold and after that gave it to the nation... my person thinks that his disciples are still not ashamed to provide the pictures on his website (global advertisement pages, managed by his monastic disciples). Rember the Bio of his teacher who rejected and hardly rebuked a ministerial request a monk followed to help build a school). And his taughs, when right translated, are not really leading toward Nibbana but easy to "Atman", Nyom Kovida.

I've read some of his stuff on the asubhasannam training & progression. It's pretty good/interesting. Title is "Samadhi begets wisdom" or something like this.
I've also read excerpts from his other book, that about Ajahn Mun. That one makes me think that the author, if he himself believes those things, at the time of writing, is quite certainly not Ariya.
I think he is probably an accomplished yogi in general tho. Maybe like Alara Kalama or Uddaka Ramaputta attainments & views.
That book i recommended is pretty shocking, it's hard to imagine what life was like for ven. maha bowas and of his monks.
Another thing is that sometimes he seemed somewhat cruel, like on occasion he said some things about children as being just out of hell. The way he carried himself in general from what i've seen has been less impressing, chewing tobbacco, crying, harshly complaining about children.
I've heard he said once to fill a new meditation house that was done built, knee deep, with excrement.
Im sure some might think these are eccentrisities of an Ariya but i see nothing of this sort in the Sutta Pitaka nor Jataka.
This is my impression.

I was never drawn to Maha Boowa's books on meditation when I practised in Thailand but the following book that includes more worldly dhammas is very good: A Life of Inner Quality.
Maha Boowa is another Thai Guru the Thai people praise. Thai Buddhism has a Guru culture, similar to Hindu India. In the video, the public hysterics of Maha Boowa are obviously for the benefit of the lay people surrounding him. Its seems he wants these laypeople to believe in reincarnation.


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Things that I have pirated in the past
Ever since I was a kid I have pirated and bought illegal copies of many different kind of media such as music, movies, video games and softwares.
Now as an adult do I have to pay for all these things legally? The problem is I have a family to take care of and if I had to repay all of these I might end up being in debt. The prices for these items will probably be different now anyway. Besides it will take a lot of time to remember all of the things I pirated.

The important thing is to start training.
Don't dwell on the past.
Angulimalla killed a bunch of people and still managed to not let it stop him from reaching Arahantship and your past should't be turned into a hindrance for you.
Angulimalla did stop doing stuff he would later regret and just trained.
If instead he thought 'i must make  amends for this bad thing i did otherwise [ie serve the families, help out the orphans etc etc]' he would never have made it to max lvl. He could be a nanny.
He also did not escape his kamma, which he had to endure:

MN86:17.2: Now at that time someone threw a stone that hit Aṅgulimāla, someone else threw a stick, and someone else threw gravel.  Then Aṅgulimāla—with cracked head, bleeding, his bowl broken, and his outer robe torn—went to the Buddha. The Buddha saw him coming off in the distance, and said to him,  “Endure it, brahmin! Endure it, brahmin! You’re experiencing in this life the result of deeds that might have caused you to be tormented in hell for many years, many hundreds or thousands of years.”

Forget about it. Your actions did not cause any significant harm.
However, don't do it again, for the sake of developing Dhamma.

First of all, Sadhu, good householder, appreciation for seeing a fault.
Legal systems of sociaties often have the possibility of voluntary disclosure as a possibility to get free of remorse, look if there is a punish necessarily, and sometimes also ask the aggrieved juristic person if wishing to take part on the investigation.
Confession, (toward a teacher/good friend who has possible not equal offence), is called purification (if done toward a pure in this regard) and is already a release to be able to walk on, and the strong resolve not to do it again, knowing the disadvantage protect from repeating offend. Once confession is done, there is no more need to be pulled down, and the danger of repeating is good reduced by keep the disadvantages and risk of binding of having fallen in debt good in mind when taking on something.
Mudita
(Note that this is not given for stacks, exchange or any trade that binds, but for release.)

Pirating anything such as software, movies, music, video games etc is neutral karma in the sense of good/bad.
Despite what people and our laws may say pirating i.e making a copy of something is NOT stealing, so in the moral/ethical restraints of vinaya/precepts you are not breaking any vow or precept.
Buddha did not lay down an ethical constraint of not copying something, if so when you look or take a picture of a person you would "steal" their image! or we could internet search for an image of the mona lisa and find countless "priceless fine art thieves"
Buddha laid down an ethical restriction of taking physical belongings that are claimed and belong to others. This is not the case when one pirates a song or a movie.
Now if you stole the source code of a video game, or the original recording of a song or movie now that IS stealing.
Pirating movies, music, games etc is just making a copy of an immaterial phenomena, the original material recording still belongs to the author.
EDIT:
For those people downvoting this actual logical comment as if my opinion and logic is invalid I point you to THIS thread, where Yuttadhammo explains the actual implications of the concept on more depth.


text:
Sati • Yonisomanasikara
Dearest friends, seeking to clarify my fragmentary understanding of these matters, I would very much appreciate your comments on the distinction between Sati Mindfulness and Yonisomanasikara Attention by way of the Matrix.
Warmhearted, grateful thanks for you taking the time to offer some help.

Samma Sati is a factor of Noble Eightfold Path. Yonisomanasikara is a factor of Sotapanna. Perhaps Yonisomanasikara is the fruit of following the path. (practicing Satipathana)
Further reading:
Association with people of integrity is a factor for stream-entry.
Listening to the true Dhamma is a factor for stream-entry.
Appropriate attention is a factor for stream-entry.
Practice in accordance with the Dhamma is a factor for stream-entry.
— SN 55.5
https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/study/into_the_stream.html
https://dhammawheel.com/viewtopic.php?f=13&t=31179&hilit=

For a change we both agree!! -)

I respect your contribution and appreciate it but this came to my senses when I listened to Ven. Vijithananda.

Sati is a factor of concentration. Sati means remembering.
Yonisomanasikara is a factor of wisdom. It means thoroughly examining.
For example, you read or hear Dhamma Teachings. The teachings say you should thoroughly examine & think about the teachings after hearing the teachings. This thoroughly examining & thinking about the teachings is yonisomanasikara.
Then when the teachings are understood, you continuously remember to keep the teachings in mind so you can continuously practise the teachings. This continuously remembering to keep the teachings in mind & to not be forgetful of the teachings is sati (mindfulness).

Thus associating with good persons, becoming full, fills up hearing
  the good Dhamma. Hearing the good Dhamma, becoming full, fills up
  faith. Faith, becoming full, fills up careful attention (yoniso
  manasikārā). Careful attention, becoming full, fills up mindfulness
  and clear comprehension. Mindfulness (sati) and clear comprehension, becoming
  full, fill up restraint of the sense faculties. Restraint of the sense
  faculties, becoming full, fills up the three kinds of good conduct.
  The three kinds of good conduct, becoming full, fill up the four
  establishments of mindfulness. The four establishments of mindfulness,
  becoming full, fill up the seven factors of enlightenment. The seven
  factors of enlightenment, becoming full, fill up true knowledge and
  liberation. Thus there is nutriment for true knowledge and liberation,
  and in this way they become full.
AN 10.61

I caution people not to oversimplify and separate ideas into definite categories. Many special terms in Dhamma are nuanced and straddle several categories simultaneously.
IMO the best bet is find the suttas which best exemplify the term and try to understand it in that context.
Two of the best, IMO, are SN 46.2 and AN 7.63.
http://lucid24.org/sn/sn46/sn46-002/index.html
watch how yoniso and a-yoniso mana sikara are used in that sutta.
now think about the relationship from that, and what the gatekeeper (sati) does in this sutta:
http://lucid24.org/an/an07/an07-0067/index.html

I edited this answer. BSE is not a debating site. Please do not include my answer within your answer. Thank you

@frankk Am I right in guessing that you're the author of lucid24.org? If so it would be better to mention that in your answer here, when you reference that site -- for example you could answer something like, "See my translation and synopsis at http://lucid24.org/sn/sn46/sn46-002/index.html and watch how yoniso and a-yoniso mana sikara are used in that sutta." -- and/or disclose your affiliation in your user profile. I ask because this Help topic says, "you must disclose your affiliation in your answers" (if there is an affiliation).

chrisW, yes, i've updated my profile to include that disclaimer.

Dhammadhatu, please don't edit my answers in a self serving way and abuse your editor privileges. Please restore my answer to its original form. This is not a debate. You posted some incomplete/misleading/wrong information, I pointed it out. You had your say, I had my say, and it's not a debate unless you make it so. I consciouslessly had not downvoted your answer before, but now that you're making an issue of it I downvoted it.

(Dhammadhatu's account is temporarily suspended.)

I think Dhammadhatu's edit was alright. One of the ways to ensure that this remains a Q&A (question and answer) site, instead of a "forum", is for each answer to answer the OP's question independently, instead of addressing other answers -- this helps to avoid debate and cross-talk between the authors of different answers. I think your answer still makes perfect sense even with the edit, i.e. it's on-topic and directly answers what the OP is asking.

If you think that an answer (like DD's) is wrong then it might be allowable to post a comment under the answer -- but it's usually better to (instead of commenting on the other answer) post another better answer of your own instead.


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Animals and morality
I'm thinking a lot about the animal issue right now, and a question came to me. Are the five precepts universal? If so, are animals required to respect them? If not, what morals must animals follow? There is obviously a form of morality involved because, if I understand correctly, an animal can generate bad kamma and be reborn in an inferior realm.
Even if, according to this site, animals cannot generate good kamma?

(...) Animal behavior is also run by instinct, which means that animals cannot generate good karma, they are simply working off the bad. (...)

On Wikipedia, I read that :

(...) The Buddha expounded that sentient beings currently living in the animal realm have been our mothers, brothers, sisters, fathers, children, friends in past rebirths. One could not, therefore, make a hard distinction between moral rules applicable to animals and those applicable to humans; ultimately humans and animals were part of a single family. They are all interconnected. (...)

So, how to understand the first precept? Does an animal like a lion, which kills another animal for food, generate bad kamma? I don't think so, because his intention is not bad. Does that mean that the first precept would only concern torture? For example, a dolphin that tortures his prey before eating it would generate bad kamma? But isn't it in the instinct of animals to do such things? A cat almost always tortures his prey before killing it.
In short, many questions, but I wondered if there were any Buddhist texts or philosophers who had spoken about the question of morality in other realms of existence, the animal realm in particular.
I read in "An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics" of Peter Harvey, chap. Attitude to and treatment of the natural world, that :

(...) Buddhist Jataka stories often attribute noble actions to such animals as monkeys and elephants, and there is also a reference to some animals keeping the five precepts (Vin. II.162). (...)

Would this mean that being a herbivore is a better rebirth, because it is easier to keep the precepts, where a carnivore is almost doomed to produce bad kamma and be reborn in an inferior realm?

(...) in one Jataka story, (...) the Buddha in a past life is said to have been a crane who only ate fish when he found them already dead (J. I.206–8). (...)

If so, are animals required to respect them?
In some sense even "people" aren't "required" to respect them, but "you" are (see the Parable of the Saw).
One could not, therefore, make a hard distinction between moral rules applicable to animals and those applicable to humans
I read that as saying, "One should not kill a person and one also should not kill an animal" -- i.e. the topic is the moral rules for you to follow.

The Buddha says little about the animal path. For example, we have:

AN1.365-367:1.1: “… the sentient beings who die as animals and are reborn as humans are few, while those who die as animals and are reborn in hell, or the animal realm, or the ghost realm are many.”

Interestingly, we ALSO have:

AN1.368-370:1.1: “… the sentient beings who die as animals and are reborn as gods are few, while those who die as animals and are reborn in hell, or the animal realm, or the ghost realm are many.”

The opportunity to practice the Noble Eightfold Path as a human is quite rare. Perhaps thinking too much about animals--one might die and end up as one. When I speak the Dhamma to my cat, she ignores me. But humans can hear and practice the Dhamma.

AN2.126:1.1: “There are two conditions for the arising of right view. What two? The words of another and proper attention.

Amazing quotes! Thanks

(This is a strictly opinion based answer. You have been warned.)
The concept of rebirth has multiple meanings depending on person and context. It's very much prone to bring confusion.
I personally believe that rebirth only makes sense as a figure of expression regarding the process of how our intentions and actions adds to our perception of a self during a lifetime.
Therefore, i also believe that notions of animals/human realms or social status are metaphorical, and will only make sense once we see them as metaphors for the fruits of buddhist practice (or lack thereof), and not literal ontological claims.
I'll leave explanations based on the literal meaning of physical rebirth to those who believe that it's a existing phenomenon. The burden of evidence is on those who makes those claims.
Therefore, morality, or the five precepts can be understood as an affair that only concerns human beings. It should be obvious if one looks at what the precepts say.
I suppose the concept of karma for animals holds true to the extent that their actions bears consequences just like anything else in this conditioned world. However, claiming that animals has moral intent in the same vein as human beings becomes quite the stretch of imagination.

Animals are quite cruel.
An animal of this or that kind is of the same elements as another animal of kind.
As one is cruel to another there is then also a tendency for cruelty for oneself because it is a not understanding the very same elements comprising both beings thats promts cruelty element.
It is the path of development of cruelty towards themselves and towards another that led them to be born in that bad place in the first place.
Their killing is unwholesome and further begets bad results. They can however do good things as well.
If they do good things then the good will eventually mature and they will attain a better state.

Biological animals are not subject to the laws of kamma, as follows:

The human world is the world of intentional action. Human beings have very sophisticated levels of intention, which, in conjunction with their thought processes, allow them to achieve things which would be impossible for other animals. Although the lower animals, too, possess intention, it is limited to a nominal degree, being largely on the instinctual level.
Bhikkhu P.A. Payutto

In Buddhism, the word "animal' refers to a state of mind of people. For example, Angulimala was a 'animal' before the Buddha reformed him (see video). For example, the suttas say:

Bhikkhus, a god, a human or any other good state would not be evident
  from actions born of greed, hate and delusion. Yet, bhikkhus, from
  actions born of greed, hate and delusion a hellish being, an animal
  birth a ghostly birth or some other bad state would be evident. AN
  6.39

Sooner, I say, would that blind turtle, coming to the surface once every hundred years, insert its
  neck into that yoke with a single hole than the fool who has gone once
  to the nether world would regain the human state. For what reason?
  Because here, bhikkhus, there is no conduct guided by the Dhamma, no
  righteous conduct, no wholesome activity, no meritorious activity.
  Here there prevails mutual devouring, the devouring of the weak. SN
  56.47

Now on that occasion the wanderers of other persuasions had come together in a gathering and were sitting,
  discussing many kinds of bestial (animal) topics, making a great noise
  and racket. AN 10.93

Bhikkhus, these two bright principles protect the world. What are the two? Shame and fear of
  wrongdoing. If, bhikkhus, these two bright principles did not protect
  the world, there would not be discerned respect for mother or maternal
  aunt or maternal uncle’s wife or a teacher’s wife or the wives of
  other honored persons, and the world would have fallen into
  promiscuity, as with goats, sheep, chickens, pigs, dogs, and jackals.
  But as these two bright principles protect the world, there is discerned respect for mother… and the wives of other honored persons. AN 2.9

Thus the suttas also say people that behave like animals can stop doing so and realise the Four Noble Truths:

SN 56.120-123: Then the Buddha, picking up a little bit of dirt under his fingernail, addressed the monks: “What do you think, monks? Which is more: the little bit of dirt under my fingernail, or this great earth?”
“Venerable Sir, the great earth is certainly more. The little bit of dirt under your fingernail is tiny. Compared to the great earth, it cannot be reckoned or compared, it’s not even a fraction.”
“In the same way,
SN 56.120: “… the beings who fall away (cutā) from the animal state (tiracchānayoniyā) and are re-categorized (paccājāyanti) as humans are few...”
SN 56.123: “… the beings who fall away from the animal state and are re-categorized as gods are few...”
SN 56.131: "...Why is that? Because... [those former animals have]... seen the Four Noble Truths..."

I think you shouldn't have deleted the word "not" in the last sentence -- the sutta SN 56.131 says "Adiṭṭhattā" -- i.e. "not seen". So I think that the suttas are saying that "most beings (e.g. animals etc.) fall away (to a lower realm) because they haven't seen the 4NT". And logically I'm not sure that should be understood as evidence that all beings (especially animals) are able to see them.

What rationale do you have for your "thinking"? You appear to have neglected how the sutta applies to the "few". Why don't you ask Sujato to comment, who just made a post on the forum? Thanks

The way in which you choose to interpret the sutta doesn't bother me much, I've heard it from you before of course. But I thought you maybe shouldn't misquote the literal text: the sutta says "not seen". You might interpret that as meaning that "a few see" but that's not what the sutta literally says, and your formatting your interpretation as if it were a direct quote like that does bother me some.

Unlike you, I am a Buddhist. I don't deliberately slander sutta nor take refuge in puthujjana scholars. My formatting & interpretation accords with the probable meaning. How many times have I shown your views to be wrong? How many? All of this time, and you are yet to taste the flavour of the soup.

The sutta quoted uses the same metaphor as the following sutta: https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn13/sn13.001.than.html  , where the larger & smaller apply to good & bad. It appears you are wrong, ChrisW, again. How long must you doubt?

My comment wasn''t about your interpreting metaphors -- it was to mention that you were misquoting the text of SN 56.131.

I understand. But the sutta uses the metaphor of the "few" vs "many". I will post the introduction of the sutta for you.

It appears the suttas from https://suttacentral.net/sn56.61/en/sujato support my interpretation because these suttas refer to virtues & often refer to high virtues.


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Does mahayana believe in omniscience of the Buddha?
I read about the 18 characteristics of a Buddha, and the last three say he has knowledge of the past, present and future. Do mahayanists believe this means he has complete knowledge of everything in the past, present and future, or does it rather mean he has some specific knowledge of the past, present and future? As in, he knows some things that happened or that he did yesterday or some time in the past, some things that happen or which he does right now, and some things that will happen in the future.

In Mahayana omniscience refers to prajna-paramita, the perfection of wisdom also known as the knowledge of all modes.
This comes from direct realization of Emptiness, and results in Buddha having no position, not leaning on any dharma or sign. Not assuming anything as the absolute point of reference. (There are many ways to talk about this.)
Having no position, Buddha knows all positions and all modes of cognition. Hence, the knowledge of all modes aka omniscience in short.

So he does have full knowledge of past present and future right?

@MalikA How can you have past present or future, without an absolute point of reference?

I wonder about this. To me Nagarjuna explains the Buddha's position. It's just that it's so subtle that it can look like the absence of a position. I might ask a question about this. No doubt, as usual, there will two ways of looking at it.


text:
Can I plan for future while doing meditation on death?
Buddha said about meditation on death : "Even if a person aware about his death can be happen within that day is late. If someone thinks, his death can be happen within current breath is not late". According to that, Can we think about future at all? How can we manage neccessery things without thinking about future ? (I know that, for a  buddhist, there can only be one dream or goal. But what about food, money for living ?)
Why meditation on death is a good karma ?
Isn't it a good karma to meditate on other things ? (thinking about failure of an ongoing project, end of a relationship etc.) (However thinking on death covers all)
Sorry for bad english.
King regards.

If a little wise, thinking on the insecure states of all things it's normal to do neither foolish things nor invest much of what will not last long and focuses on steps toward beyound of what is sure (e.g. depart from all what is dear), good householder. memento mori Seeing this the wise focuses on merits of all 10 kind.

Meditation on death is a good method thus good results can be expected. After all,  meditation on death IS planning for the future. Mediation on death is far and way the most noticeably useful thing I've done in my life so far. In no sense does it obviate or hinder planning for the future. It's just that one tends to plan for a rather different future and be less stressed about it.

Not sure where the quote is from, but the instant death that buddha talks about seems to regard the death of the self. He is talking about anicca and anatta, in other words.
One can of course plan for the future - or ones livelyhood - for instance, but there is a difference whether one plans with attachment or whether one plans with reminiscence of impermanence.

It's from the Marananussati Sutta AN 6.19

Buddha's advice was to always concentrate on the present moment, but it may prove very challenging for basically for any regular person.
Planning about the future cannot be stopped if you are living as a layperson therefore I don't think you should stop doing that either. But as Buddha said if you could at least think that you will die every day (at the beginning) you could have less attachments in life. Later on you can increase the frequency to every breath but it may prove difficult for a layperson as it is much more suitable for a monk who has less duties and bondages.
Another way of doing the meditation on death (Taught to me by a Thero) would be to think how you would be on your deathbed, you will lose your senses, lifting your arms or even your fingers would be an almost impossible task. Regrets in life on not being able to cultivate Kusala Kamma (Kusal is different from merits, as Kusal leads you to liberation while merits lead you to more births which are comfortable) etc... That way you would be able to become much more motivated to achieve Nibbana as soon as possible.
Recollection and Mindfulness of the death is a meditation for people who have weak willpower to acheieve nibbana and it could also be used for worldy achievments as well but is not recommended.
Insight meditation generates good karma (Kusal), as when you see the truth (past the veil of illusion) you see what it is for what it is, which is nothing. When recollection and Mindfulness of death is done to a certain point you will realise that we are dying and being born every second but this would be a bit complex for now, but I digress. When meditating on worldly things like "(thinking about failure of an ongoing project, end of a relationship etc.)" it doesn't generate Kusala Kamma as it is not real (Again the concept of instant death, which leads to Impermenance (Anicca) and Soullessness (Anatma). You can gain more information about the last past of your question by knowing about the lifespan of Rupa Kalapa.

There is case where one develops perception of death, in short;

Life is uncertain death is certain
  I may die in 100 years... in 1 year... in a month... in a week... in a day... in an hour... on the in or out breath.

The dying on the in & out breath is the one bringing about most urgency.
Furthermore before going to sleep and after waking one contemplates;

In many ways can death come to me, proceeding to contemplate causes

having contemplated the various causes, one reviews;

Are there any bad qualities in the mind that would lead to my detriment if i was to die during the night or to die during the day?

If there are such bad qualities one resolves on working to elimimate them asap.
This would be kind of planning for future.
Refer to maranasati sutta 1&2. Thereis also a Sutta where the Buddha talks about how short the human life is in terms of how many seasons, days, nights and meals, it is a good one. Don't recall the title of the latter.
The way i do it is by starting with the general shortness of human life and then narrow it down to in and out breath. I also do the other morning/evening contemplation and the reviewing of mind.
One who develops perception of death is getting a lot of motivation & urgency to train and the priorities are straightened up.
It is also tied up with perception of impermanence and parting. These also have good results as they establish these inclinations in mind, distancing from the perception of attractiveness and reliability.
I usually get an affinity for that theme and am not much distracted. If i am distracted i change to something that i think will calm it down.

In general, planning is willful thinking and willful thinking is not meditation.
This means that you CAN plan, but that is not true meditation.
"Meditating on death" actually means "thinking deeply on death". That is reflection, not meditation.
It can be useful, but thinking, pondering, reflecting is not meditating.

meditation on death is not what on dhamma. It's a misunderstanding by some people. It’s mentioned to focus on rising (udayangama) and falling(=death) (aththangama) of five aggregates which are rupa, vedana, sagna, sankara, vingnana.
Instead of this now some teachers are teaching to focus only on falling or death or ending of the life but not about aggregates.
So find the correct teacher or study the canon by your self. But translations has many mis interpretations due to the lack of knowledge in original language.


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Is 'kata nana' a synonym for 'pativedha nana'?
Is 'kata nana' a synonym for 'pativedha nana'?
I wonder if there is a (slight) difference between these two words. Can they be used as synonyms?

Kata = goodness, giving, worked, done, made; pativedha = insight, penetrating; ñāṇa = knowledge. Maybe good to know the context where it is used. katanana ~ knowledge of that there is giving "there are gifts, sacrifies"; pativedha ~ knowledge about penetration. Common is the word kataññū-pativedha, penetration of gratitude. It could be also confused with common "katavedin" grateful and mindful of benefits.

'Pativedha nana' is the full-blown development of insight knowledge which occurs when ñana-nana-sampayutta dhammas cease to exist. It has absolutely nothing to do with 'kata nana'.
'Kata nana' is a very preliminary form of insight knowledge which means that one is realizing the impermanence of all dhammas (including ñana, nana, and panna). Perhaps better to say that one has, at the very least, realized the impermanence of all dhammas in the 6 sense spheres.


text:
Do the Theravādins believe in the Buddhaguṇas?
In the Pāli Theravāda tradition, are there any specific guṇas that a sammāsambuddha has that an arhat has not?

The word guṇa is merely not often used under modern, "giving, goodness, skill". Sure there are, and the praise of goodness of the Sublime Buddha is broad and found all over the heritages signs.

According to the sutta below, the main difference between the Sammasambuddha and the Arhat is that a Sammasambuddha discovers the previously unknown (or forgotten) path, becomes an expert of the path and is able to explain and teach the path to others.
On the other hand, the monk freed by wisdom (and therefore an Arhat) does so, following the path taught by the Sammasambuddha.
The other qualities described in the suttas like psychic powers (e.g. Moggallana) or the ability to be an eloquent and articulate teacher (e.g. Sariputta), may also be obtained by an Arhat.
Please note that when I say Arhat above, I mean a non-Buddha Arhat. This distinction is important, because the Buddha is also an Arhat.
From SN 22.58:

“Mendicants, a Realized One, a perfected one, a fully awakened Buddha
  is freed by not grasping, due to disillusionment, dispassion, and
  cessation regarding form. They’re called a fully awakened Buddha. A
  mendicant freed by wisdom is also freed by not grasping, due to
  disillusionment, dispassion, and cessation regarding form. They’re
  called a mendicant freed by wisdom.
A Realized One, a perfected one, a fully awakened Buddha is freed by
  not grasping, due to disillusionment, dispassion, and cessation
  regarding feeling …
perception …
choices …
consciousness. They’re called a fully awakened Buddha. A mendicant
  freed by wisdom is also freed by not grasping, due to disillusionment,
  dispassion, and cessation regarding consciousness. They’re called a
  mendicant freed by wisdom.
What, then, is the difference between a Realized One, a perfected one,
  a fully awakened Buddha, and a mendicant freed by wisdom?”
“Our teachings are rooted in the Buddha. He is our guide and our
  refuge. Sir, may the Buddha himself please clarify the meaning of
  this. The mendicants will listen and remember it.”
“Well then, mendicants, listen and pay close attention, I will speak.”
“Yes, sir,” they replied. The Buddha said this:
“A Realized One, a perfected one, a fully awakened Buddha gives rise
  to the unarisen path, gives birth to the unborn path, and explains the
  unexplained path. They know the path, understand the path, and are
  experts in the path. And now the disciples live following the path;
  they acquire it later.
This is the difference between a Realized One, a perfected one, a
  fully awakened Buddha, and a mendicant freed by wisdom.”


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A scientific error of the Buddha?
Is it a scientific error of the Buddha?

Sāriputta, there are these four kinds of reproduction. What four? Reproduction for creatures born from an egg, from a womb, from moisture, or spontaneously.
And what is reproduction from an egg? There are beings who are born by breaking out of an eggshell. This is called reproduction from an egg. And what is reproduction from a womb? There are beings who are born by breaking out of the amniotic sac. This is called reproduction from a womb. And what is reproduction from moisture? There are beings who are born in a rotten fish, in a rotten corpse, in rotten dough, in a cesspool or a sump. This is called reproduction from moisture. And what is spontaneous reproduction? Gods, hell-beings, certain humans, and certain beings in the lower realms. This is called spontaneous reproduction. These are the four kinds of reproduction

MN 12

This idea was common in ancient times and was understandable because they had no way of understanding how maggots "appeared" on decomposing bodies, but we now know that it is false.
If it is a scientific error of the Buddha, then how can we understand his omniscience? Couldn't he see with his supernatural eye that maggots weren't really born from the decomposition of bodies? His knowledge is supposed to encompass the whole cycle of rebirths, I find it hard to see how he could be wrong about the birth of a whole part of these animal beings.

Omniscience is not a knowledge of all the details.

I could not find any commentaries with a detailed explanation on this.
I'll use the Bodhi translation of MN 12:

What is egg-born generation? There are these beings born by breaking
  out of the shell of an egg; this is called egg-born generation. What
  is womb-born generation? There are these beings born by breaking out
  from the caul; this is called womb-born generation. What is
  moisture-born generation? There are these beings born in a rotten
  fish, in a rotten corpse, in rotten porridge, in a cesspit, or in a
  sewer; this is called moisture-born generation. What is spontaneous
  generation? There are gods and denizens of hell and certain human
  beings and some beings in the lower worlds; this is called spontaneous
  generation. These are the four kinds of generation.

Maggots are egg-born.
For moisture-born, we could apply this to bacteria and maybe fungi.
Bacteria involved in decomposition of the human body after death, usually come from the gut microbiome and other places in or on the body where there is bacteria. The other cases of rotten porridge, cesspit, sewer and rotten fish appear to imply the reproduction of bacteria too.
Bacteria are certainly not egg-born, womb-born or spontaneously generated. So, they can only fall in the category of moisture-born. Moisture-born here simply means that these beings reproduce only when the conditions are favourable for reproduction.
Mold in bread are caused by spores of fungi. They require moisture to reproduce. I don't consider fungal spores to be a kind of egg. But I suppose it could be interpreted as moisture-born (i.e. when the conditions are favourable) or egg-born (i.e. from fungal spores).
Spontaneous generation seem to apply to beings like devas (gods) and those in hell.

"bacteria and maybe fungi." It seems to be a well thought answer after investigation, consideration and broad prove of known observed, good householder. Sadhu

This passage is about rebirths.  Bacteria and fungi are not sentient beings concerned with rebirths, nor are they born of moisture...

Good point Kalapa, but did Buddha know about bacteria and viruses?

Buddha probably based the first three examples of birth from how people understood the origins of life of his time. You are right that he was neither a scientist or a biologist in our contemporary understanding, and i doubt he was looking to outline a biological taxonomy of all life.
Instead - to my understanding - he used these four examples of birth to arrive at the point that "spontaneous generation" of birth is the subject of his teaching.
The word "spontaneous" is translated from the pali word opapatika. Looking closer at the meaning, we see that it also means "being reborn without parents":
https://suttacentral.net/define/opap%C4%81tika
To me, this implies a reference to the form rebirth known as jati:
https://suttacentral.net/define/j%C4%81ti
In other words, buddha is referencing rebirth as described further in the topic of dependent origination.

This is what I thought too, till I took a closer look at the surrounding text in MN 12: "suppose someone were to say this: ‘The ascetic Gotama has no superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones …’ Unless they give up that speech and that thought, and let go of that view, they will be cast down to hell. Sāriputta, there are these four kinds of reproduction. What four? ... Suppose someone were to say this: ‘The ascetic Gotama has no superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones ..."

The surrounding text of MN 12 seems to suggest that the knowledge of the four kinds of reproduction is meant to prove that the Buddha has superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the noble ones.

"If it is a scientific error of the Buddha, then how can we understand his omniscience? Couldn't he see with his supernatural eye that maggots weren't really born from the decomposition of bodies?"
Actually from this you can now understand Buddha's omniscience completely and conclude he was not omniscient.


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What's the purpose of AN 2.61?
What could be the purpose of the Buddha teaching AN 2.61 below? Why is this relevant? How is this useful?
AN 2.61 states:

“Mendicants, females die without getting enough of two things.
“Dvinnaṃ dhammānaṃ, bhikkhave, atitto appaṭivāno mātugāmo kālaṃ
  karoti.
What two?
Katamesaṃ dvinnaṃ?
Sexual intercourse and giving birth.
Methunasamāpattiyā ca vijāyanassa ca.
Females die without getting enough of these two things.”
Imesaṃ kho, bhikkhave, dvinnaṃ dhammānaṃ atitto appaṭivāno mātugāmo kālaṃ
  karotī”ti.

Oh boy. This one looks like a minefield.

Good householder, interested,
A teaching to monks on their biggest danger, the female (as in many teaching to keep them careful and in good distance to fire for them): To develope on one hand compassion and goodwill, avoid tendencies which lead to femal circumstances for one self, and to don't oriented, walk after, femal in general, as well as stay aware of the danger of improper assosiation beyond giving out of compassion useful for the path.
One might know that most of the womans-attribut-teachings had been taught toward Ven. Ananda, who cleared had been very attached to female and tended to sacrifice his own practice for the sake of womans issues. It's also clear that one encounters dangers best right on the high peak.
Further: Sex should also be understood in all of it's kind, with union with devas on the top refined, or just socialicing. Giving birth means to desire (control, owning of offsprings). It would be possible likewise taught to nuns, yet not done to do not confuse hierarchy and orders.
On sex, copling: Methuna Sutta: The Discourse on Coupling. Sex can be understood als as enteraining, nourishing, uppadana in it's deep meaning. After a nother Dhammatalk and satisfaction of desire for the bliss of understand, know, is similar pattern like seeking for sex.
Satisfied? Or want more or again?
At least, but not to forget, as found in the Bhikkhuni Sutta, pride is used to overcome pride, and what drives a woman more to eager effort then to suggest that not matching a mans capability.

”'This body comes into being through conceit. And yet it is by relying on conceit that conceit is to be abandoned.' Thus was it said. And in reference to what was it said? There is the case, sister, where a monk hears, 'The monk named such-and-such, they say, through the ending of the fermentations, has entered & remains in the fermentation-free awareness-release & discernment-release, having known & realized them for himself in the here & now.' The thought occurs to him, 'The monk named such-and-such, they say, through the ending of the fermentations, has entered & remains in the fermentation-free awareness-release & discernment-release, having known & realized them for himself in the here & now. Then why not me?' Then, at a later time, he abandons conceit, having relied on conceit. 'This body comes into being through conceit. And yet it is by relying on conceit that conceit is to be abandoned.' Thus was it said, and in reference to this was it said.

A strategy to enforce what ever recources of effort for the practice, which was often used by the Buddha, "You could be as free as I am, unbond, as you see, is possible. Provoting is a very effective means for motivation.

They can see even from afar. Even up close, they are invisible. With their awareness they know the minds of others. They would know this of me: "Look, my friends, at this clansman who — though he has in good faith gone forth from the home life into homelessness — remains overcome with evil, unskillful mental qualities."' So he reflects on this: 'My persistence will be aroused & not lax; my mindfulness established & not confused; my body calm & not aroused; my mind centered & unified.' AN 3.40

(Possible more and extended, at least with place to ask further and discuss, in proper and given circumastanecs for such, here: [Q&A] What purpose do "bad disriminating seeming" Sutta have, like in AN 2.61?.)
(Note that this is not given for trade exchange, stacks and other, even good seeming Sex, coupling, bound in dependency, but for liberation from desire of it)

I suppose "to die without getting enough" is a colloquial expression for being insatiable, indefatigable.
This is an emphatic way of saying that women have a strong instinctual desire to bear children. If you polled a big enough sample of women I suspect majority would say they like to have children, enjoy having children, and many would say they'd want to have more then one child if allowed by the living circumstances.
The point of this in context of Buddha's teaching is that samsara has built-in mechanisms for self-continuation. Natural phenomena have innate tendency to proliferate, to continue, to support their kin, to procreate.
Left unchecked, the stream of samsara rolls forward endlessly regenerating ignorance, confusion, desire, suffering, and desire to escape suffering. It is the ignorant pursuit of this desire is what supports the stream's momentum to roll on and on.

What could be the purpose of the Buddha teaching AN 2.61 below? Why is this relevant? How is this useful?

Without knowing, i assume that Samana Johanns answer is an accurate description of the views from buddhas time. It may explain the original purpose, relevance and usefulness of the sutta. Provided that we avoid getting caught in semantics (nimitta), the underlying meaning goes beyond attributes such as gender, for instance.
If one believes that anicca and anatta are true, it follows that norms and values aren't consistent between ages, persons or societies.
Two possible exceptions to the above could be compassion (karuna) and joy for others (mudita); two of the four brahmaviharas, which are claimed to be "timeless beautiful mental factors" (appamanna sobhana cetasikas), and therefore unbound to a specific person, era or location.
https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/appamanna

I'm quite likely mistaken -- I'm not a scholar -- but when I read...

Mendicants, these two are worthy of a monument. What two? The Realized One, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha; and the wheel-turning monarch. These are the two who are worthy of a monument."

...then I imagine that the text might have been added a little late: i.e. at a time when people had become interested in what Buddhism had to say about the State and the Monarch and Society.
So -- though other answers might explain that's a useful or a skilful teaching -- I guess it's possible it might be similar to this answer.
And the observation in question is not my experience of all women -- I understand it to be true sometimes but not always, so occasionally but not generally.
When I say this I'm not by the way trying to imply that promiscuous sex associated with modern contraception is the new normal -- but my social experience of "females" is in and of societies where women have the same education as men, go to the same schools, learn to read and so on, which is relatively recent (i.e. maybe only in the last 100 years or so). People are individuals, I'm not sure it's sensible to generalise about differences in what people want, and suspect that many "generalisations" of this sort may be socially conditioned and/or stereotypes.
This didn't answer your question though, i.e. "what could be the purpose"? As for the "purpose" of the teaching I thought that Samana Johann's answer seemed plausible.

Building a monument (stupa) for a Buddha or for a wheel turning monarch and the purpose for it, is explained in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta (DN 16). Of course, some people say all of DN is a later addition.

I would not like to claim that the whole of DN 16 is inauthentic. But the study referenced in this answer argued (or it observed) that a single anti-feminist line appeared to have been inserted later, into a pre-existing sutta, so I wonder if it's possible that might be so here too.

I won't accept my own answer here, but just to share.
This verse from the Rhinoceros Sutta holds the answer:

There is sporting (flirting) & love
  in the midst of companions,
  & abundant fondness for offspring.
  (While) feeling disgust
  at the prospect of parting
  from those who'd be dear,
  wander alone like a rhinoceros.

It exhorts those aspiring towards enlightenment (especially those interested in the monastic life) to flee from ignoble companions who are hungry for romance, sex and procreation.
Also from Iti 109:

This was said by the Blessed One, said by the Arahant, so I have
  heard: "Suppose a man was being carried along by the flow of a river,
  lovely & alluring. And then another man with good eyesight, standing
  on the bank, on seeing him would say: 'My good man, even though you
  are being carried along by the flow of a river, lovely & alluring,
  further down from here is a pool with waves & whirlpools, with
  monsters & demons. On reaching that pool you will suffer death or
  death-like pain.' Then the first man, on hearing the words of the
  second man, would make an effort with his hands & feet to go against
  the flow.
"I have given you this simile to illustrate a meaning. The meaning is
  this: the flow of the river stands for craving. Lovely & alluring
  stands for the six internal sense-media. The pool further down stands
  for the five lower fetters. The waves stand for anger & distress. The
  whirlpools stand for the five strings of sensuality. The monsters &
  demons stand for the opposite sex. Against the flow stands for
  renunciation. Making an effort with hands & feet stands for the
  arousing of persistence. The man with good eyesight standing on the
  bank stands for the Tathagata, worthy & rightly self-awakened."