text:
Fathersday - how would a western disciple of the Buddha make use of this fest?
How and why would a "modern" or "western" follower of the Buddhas teaching celebrate this day, and use it to pay gratitude to his father as one of his/here first God and the other three Gods?
Maybe you like to share also how you fullfill this duty personaly to give others inspirations and ideas, meaning: Be not greedy in sharing possible merits you do or have done.
(Note: This question is given as a gift of Dhamma and not meant for commercial purpose or other wordily gains)

My father is dead but I try to go the extra mile and help--really help my eldest uncle and those closest to my father in ways that I can whether it is:

psychologically and emotionally supportive by giving happy thoughts and emotions and not supporting negativity
virtually supportive (I work in IT so I know most things that are useful) by setting up phone, accounts, etc.
reminisce about my father's good qualities and actions frequently with family, ignoring the bad

There's reason celebrate "Father's" or "Mother's day"  but it's been doing recently as you said by modern or western followers celebrate honoring fathers and celebrating parenthood, paternal bonds, and the influence of parents in society.
But I found there is "Sutra of Filial Piety"
The Sutra of Filial Piety (or Sutra on the Profundity of Filial Love, Sutra on Parental Benevolence) is an apocryphal sutra composed in China and apparently an exercise in Buddhist apologetics. It is claimed to have been translated by the monk Kumārajīva.
The text attempts to synthesise native Confucian ideals with Buddhist teachings and was probably produced by Chinese Buddhist monks in imitation of the Confucian Classic of Filial Piety. The sutra seeks to refute Confucian criticism that Buddhism's traditionally monastic focus undermines the virtue of ﬁlial piety.
The sutra is still highly popular in China and Japan and in the latter is sometimes used as a focus in Naikan-type introspection practices.
The Filial Piety Sutra
The Buddha Speaks about the Deep Kindness
of Parents and the Difficulty in Repaying it.

Thus I have heard, at one time, the Buddha dwelt at Shravasti, in the Jeta Grove, in the Garden of the Benefactor of Orphans and the Solitary, together with a gathering of great Bhikshus, twelve hundred fifty in all and with all of the Bodhisattvas, thirty-eight thousand in all.
At that time, the World Honoured One led the great assembly on a walk toward the south. Suddenly they came upon a pile of bones beside the road. The World Honoured One turned to face them, placed his five limbs on the ground, and bowed respectfully.
Ananda put his palms together and asked the World Honoured One, "The Tathagata is the GreatTeacher of the Triple Realm and the compassionate father of beings of the four kinds of births. He has the respect and reverence of the entire assembly.
  What is the reason that he now bows to a pile of dried bones?
The Buddha told Ananda, "Although all of you are my foremost disciples and have been members of the Sangha for a long time, you still have not achieved far-reaching understanding. This pile of bones could have belonged to my ancestors from former lives. They could have been my parents in many past lives. That is the reason I now bow to them." The Buddha continued speaking to Ananda, "These bones we are looking at can be divided into two groups. One group is composed of the bones of men, which are heavy and white in color. The other group is composed of the bones of women, which are light and black in color."
Ananda said to the Buddha, "World Honoured One, when men are alive in the world, they adorn their bodies with robes, belts, shoes, hats and other fine attire, so that they clearly assume a male appearance. When women are alive, they put on cosmetics, perfumes, powders, and elegant fragrances to adorn their bodies, so that they clearly assume a female appearance. Yet, once man and women die, all that is left are their bones. How does one tell them apart? Please teach us how you are able to distinguish them."
The Buddha answered Ananda, "If when men are in the world, they enter temples, listen to explanations of Sutras and Vinaya texts, make obeisance to the Triple Gem, and recite the Buddha's names, then when they die, their bones will be heavy and white in colour. Most women in the world have little wisdom and are saturated with emotion. They give birth to and raise children, feeling that this is their duty. Each child relies on its mother's milk for life and nourishment, and that milk is a transformation of the mother's blood. Each child can drink up to one thousand two hundred gallons of its mother's milk. Because of this drain on the mother's body whereby the child takes milk for its nourishment, the mother becomes worn and haggard and so her bones turn black in colour and are light in weight."
When Ananda heard these words, he felt a pain in his heart as if he had been stabbled and wept silently. He said to the World Honoured One,
"How can one repay one's mother's kindness and virtue?"
The Buddha told Ananda, "Listen well, and I will explain it for you in detail. The fetus grows in its mother's womb for ten lunar months. What bitterness she goes though while it dwells there! In the first month of pregnancy, the life of the fetus is as precarious as a dewdrop on grass: how likely that it will not last from morning to evening but will evaporate by midday!"
"During the second lunar month, the embryo congeals like curds. In the third month it is like coagulated blood. During the fourth month of pregnancy, the fetus begins to assume a slightly human form. During the fifth month in the womb, the child's five limbs- two legs, two arms, and a head- start to take shape. In the sixth lunar month of pregnancy, the child begins to develop the essences of the six sense faculties: the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind. During the seventh month, the three hundred sixty bones and joints are formed, and the eighty-four thousand hair pores are also complete. In the eight lunar month of the pregnancy, the intellect and the nine apertures are formed. By the ninth month the fetus has learned to assimilate the different nutrients of the foods it eats. For example, it can assimilate the essence of peaches, pears, certain plant roots and the five kinds of grains."
"Inside the mother's body, the solid internal organs used for storing hang downward, while the hollow internal organs used for processing, spiral upward. These can be likened to three mountains, which arise from the face of the earth. We can call these mountains Mount Sumeru, Karma Mountain, and Blood Mountain. These analogous mountains come together and form a single range in a pattern of upward peaks and downward valleys. So too, the coagulation of the mother's blood from her internal organs forms a single substance, which becomes the child's food."
"During the tenth month of pregnancy, the body of the fetus is completed and ready to be born. If the child is extremely filial, it will emerge with palms joined together in respect and the birth will be peaceful and auspicious. The mother will remain uninjured by the birth and will not suffer pain.
  However, if the child is extremely rebellious in nature, to the extent that it is capable of committing the five rebellious acts*, then it will injure its mother's womb, rip apart its mother's heart and liver, or get entangled in its mother's bones. The birth will feel like the slices of a thousand knives or like ten thousand sharp swords stabbing her heart. Those are the agonies involved in the birth of a defiant and rebellious child."

To explain more clearly, there are ten types of kindnesses bestowed by the mother on the child:

The first is the kindness of providing protection and care while the child is in the womb.
The second is the kindness of bearing suffering during the birth.
  The third is the kindness of forgetting all the pain once the child has been born.
The fourth is the kindness of eating the bitter herself and saving the sweet for the child.
The fifth is the kindness of moving the child to a dry place and lying in the wet herself.
The sixth is the kindness of suckling the child at her breast, nourishing and bringing up the child.
The seventh is the kindness of washing away the unclean.
The eight is the kindness of always thinking of the child when it has traveled far.
The ninth is the kindness of deep care and devotion.
The tenth is the kindness of ultimate pity and sympathy.

1. THE KINDNESS OF PROVIDING PROTECTION AND CARE WHILE THE CHILD IS IN THE WOMB

The causes and conditions from accumulated kalpas grows heavy,
  Until in this life the child ends up in its Mother's womb.
  As the months pass, the five vital organs develop;
  Within seven weeks the six sense organs start to grow.
  The mother's body becomes as heavy as a mountain;
  The stillness and movements of the fetus are like a kalpic wind disaster.
  The mother's fine clothes no longer hang properly,
  And so her mirror gathers dust.

2. THE KINDNESS OF BEARING SUFFERING DURING BIRTH

The pregnancy lasts for ten lunar months
  And culminates in difficult labour at the approach of the birth.
  Meanwhile, each morning the mother is seriously ill
  And during each day drowsy and sluggish.
  Her fear and agitation are difficult to describe;
  Grieving and tears fill her breast.
  She painfully tells her family
  That she is only afraid that death will overtake her.

3. THE KINDNESS OF FORGETTING ALL THE PAIN ONCE THE CHILD HAS BEEN BORN

On the day the compassionate mothers bears the child,
  Her five organs all open wide,
  Leaving her totally exhausted in body and mind.
  The blood flows as from a slaughtered lamb;
  Yet, upon hearing that the child is healthy,
  She is overcome with redoubling joy,
  But after the joy, the grief returns,
  And the agony wrenches her very insides.

4. THE KINDNESS OF EATING THE BITTER HERSELF AND SAVING THE SWEET FOR THE CHILD

The kindness of both parents is profound and deep,
  Their care and devotion never cease.
  Never resting, the mother saves the sweet for the child,
  And without complain she swallows the bitter herself.
  Her love is weighty and her emotion difficult to bear;
  Her kindness is deep and so is her compassion.
  Only wanting the child to get its fill,
  The compassionate mother doesn't speak of her own hunger.

5. THE KINDNESS OF MOVING THE CHILD TO A DRY PLACE AND LYING IN THE WET HERSELF

The mother is willing to be wet
  So that the child can be dry.
  With her two breasts she satisfies its hunger and thirst;
  Covering it with her sleeve, she protects it from the wind and cold.
  In kindness, her head rarely rests on the pillow,
  And yet she does this happily,
  So long as the child is comfortable,
  The kind mother seeks no solace for herself.

6. THE KINDNESS OF SUCKLING THE CHILD AT HER BREAST, NOURISHING AND BRINGING UP THE CHILD

The kind mother is like the great earth.
  The stern father is like the encompassing heaven:
  One covers from above; the other supports from below.
  The kindness of parents is such that
  They know no hatred or anger toward their offspring,
  And are not displeased, even if the child is born crippled.
  After the mother carries the child in her womb and gives birth to it,
  The parents care for and protect it together until the end of their days.

7. THE KINDNESS OF WASHING AWAY THE UNCLEAN

Originally, she had a pretty face and a beautiful body,
  Her spirit was strong and vibrant.
  Her eyebrows were like fresh green willows,
  And her complexion would have put a red rose to shame.
  But her kindness is so deep she will forgo a beautiful face.
  Although washing away the filth injures her constitution,
  The kind mother acts solely for the sake of her sons and daughters,
  And willingly allows her beauty to fade.

8. THE KINDNESS OF ALWAYS THINKING OF THE CHILD WHEN IT HAS TRAVELED FAR

The death of loved ones is difficult to endure.
  But separation is also painful.
  When the child travels afar,
  The mother worries in her village.
  From morning until night, her heart is with her child,
  And a thousand tears fall from her eyes.
  Like the monkey weeping silently in love for her child,
  Bit by bit her heart is broken.

9. THE KINDNESS OF DEEP CARE AND DEVOTION

How heavy is parental kindness and emotional concern!
  Their kindness is deep and difficult to repay.
  Willingly they undergo suffering on their child's behalf.
  If the child toils, the parents are uncomfortable.
  If they hear that he has traveled far,
  They worry that at night he will have to lie in the cold.
  Even a moment's pain suffered by their sons and daughters.
  Will cause the parents sustained distress.

10. THE KINDNESS OF ULTIMATE COMPASSION AND SYMPATHY

The kindness of parents is profound and important.
  Their tender concern never cease.
  From the moment they awake each day, their thoughts are with their children.
  Whether the children are near or far away, the parents think of them often.
  Even if a mother lives for a hundred years,
  She will constantly worry about her eighty year old child.
  Do you wish to know when such kindness and love ends?
  It doesn't even begin to dissipate until her life is over!

Filial Piety Sutra
by Translated by Upasika Terri Nicholson
There are other suttas speak about "Mother" and "Father"

"Monks, I will teach you the level of a person of no integrity and the level of a person of integrity. Listen & pay close attention. I will speak."
"As you say, lord," the monks responded.........
Kataññu Suttas: Gratitude

And here is answer your question exactly:

This was said by the Blessed One, said by the Arahant, so I have heard: "Living with Brahma are those families where, in the home, mother & father are revered by the children. Living with the first devas are those families where, in the home, mother & father are revered by the children. Living with the first teachers are those families where, in the home, mother & father are revered by the children. Living with those worthy of gifts are those families where, in the home, mother & father are revered by the children.
'Brahma' is a designation for mother & father.
'The first devas' is a designation for mother & father.
'The first teachers' is a designation for mother & father.
  'Those worthy of gifts' is a designation for mother & father. Why is that? Mother & father do much for their children. They care for them, nourish them, introduce them to this world."
Mother & father,
   compassionate to their family,
   are called
  Brahma,
  first teachers,
  those worthy of gifts
  from their children.
  So the wise should pay them
  homage,
  honor
  with food & drink
  clothing & bedding
  anointing & bathing
  & washing their feet.
  Performing these services to their parents,
  the wise
  are praised right here
  and after death
  rejoice in heaven.
Itivuttaka: The Group of Fours

I was thinking while wishing my friend a father's day if it is in Buddhism but with your question I got that a lot beyond it.
Thanks a lot.
So even if Modern or western disciples and followers celebrates these fest on an occasion of Days. Buddha said it is responsibility for children to look after their parents.
All he said enchanted.


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Benefits of Producing and Caring for Children
Genetically speaking producing your own children perpetuates your own genes.
Buddha spoke at length about the 31 Planes of Existence.
What is Buddhism's (not just Theravada) position on having children? Namely the benefits of producing and caring for children?
Or does Buddhism mostly see them as a constraint (i.e. Rahula "chain") and there is no connection between between your own progeny and the afterlife?

It has now come to pass that fertility has fallen below the replacement rate in 97% of the countries on Earth, so the question of whether to have children (at least 2.1 per woman on average) is probably the most important and "non-self-interested" question on this site. So let us have some real answers! If a woman has only one child, then some other woman must have three, because babies only come in whole numbers. Many women choose to have none, so an equal number must have 4 or twice as many have 3. This is a physical fact, unless we want the population to drop precipitously.

Yes indeed this is true. This may be due to all the terrorism, resource shortages around the world, and general question about mankind's future...  On a totally different tangent related to this... I was wondering if there is any validity to this idea conveyed in this one book about how when producing children they are like experiences of yourself (across time and space) just like how a Buddha emanates so many different nirmanakaya manifestations..

Mundanely, the world population has more than doubled in the last 50 years; it sounds questionable to me to hear that "many other women must have 3 or 4 children"; I also find dubious the proposition that a question of of children is "most non-self-interested".

@ChrisW if no children were born for the next 50 years, that would be the end of the human race. People choose based on values, desires, etc, but from our perspective, continuing the race has to factor in, it is not just a given. I see raising a child as the most demanding and risky thing a person can possibly do. An increasing proportion of women are choosing to have few or none. Age pyramids only shrink as people age, they do not grow. Fewer born today means fewer alive for a long time. Does Buddhism say anything about this? Since this is the first question with this tag, apparently not.

Related question: Should a Buddhist have Children?

@ChrisW I added the 'children' tag to that question. I wonder what the answer is for those who do not hold with rebirth, other realms, etc, but I suppose that would not be Buddhism.

Ahmed,
From "Living in the World" in Awareness Itself by Ajaan Fuang Jotiko:

§ Once, when one of Ajaan Fuang's students was being pressured by her parents to look for a husband so that she could settle down and have children, she asked him, "Is it true what they say, that a woman gains a lot of merit in having a child, in that she gives someone else the chance to be born?"
"If that were true," he answered her, "then dogs would get gobs of merit, because they give birth to whole litters at a time."

How ever, once you have organiced your "Rahulas" production, you have certain duty out of you "linga"-worshiping (bhava-tanha) or craving after sensuality (kama-tanha) to care for it and get rightously ride of it (tanha). That starts with not harming it right from the moment of conception. "This has come into beeing."
So seeing such, the burdens and sacrifies other need to bear, one does no more desire for birth and a womb but tries to pay ones last dept of gratitude, giving all back and maybe even share the highest gift, once then made his own.
If you would not have been father, mother, son, daughter once, if not having Upanissaya to the Dhammas father, how could this seed possible cause a conception of light, here and now?
Its good to celerbrate the fathersday, and getting the lessons of gratitude understood rightly by performing.
Nobody called you to come.
(Note: This is a seed of Dhamma and not meant for commercial puposes or other wordily gains.)

Buddhism holds a favorable view on having children because only a human can become a fully enlightened Buddha, and being born as a human is a rare occurrence.
I know you asked for a general Buddhist perspective, not just Theravada, but the Chiggala Sutta does a great job of illustrating how rare a human birth is.

"Monks, suppose that this great earth were totally covered with water, and a man were to toss a yoke with a single hole there. A wind from the east would push it west, a wind from the west would push it east. A wind from the north would push it south, a wind from the south would push it north. And suppose a blind sea-turtle were there. It would come to the surface once every one hundred years. Now what do you think: would that blind sea-turtle, coming to the surface once every one hundred years, stick his neck into the yoke with a single hole?"
"It would be a sheer coincidence, lord, that the blind sea-turtle, coming to the surface once every one hundred years, would stick his neck into the yoke with a single hole."
"It's likewise a sheer coincidence that one obtains the human state. It's likewise a sheer coincidence that a Tathagata, worthy & rightly self-awakened, arises in the world. It's likewise a sheer coincidence that a doctrine & discipline expounded by a Tathagata appears in the world. Now, this human state has been obtained. A Tathagata, worthy & rightly self-awakened, has arisen in the world. A doctrine & discipline expounded by a Tathagata appears in the world.

The Wikipedia page Human beings in Buddhism states the same thing from a general Buddhist standpoint.

Being born is unlikely. Yet, if none were born, none would need enlightenment. Surely the best answer is simply to not have any more children, and bring the human race to an end? No more suffering. (In other words, I do not see how your quote answers the question.)

There's a Zen story that may be topical, here: Is That So?
Not producing, but at least caring for children.
I suppose the children benefit (from your care), and you get to do the right (caring, virtuous) thing.
I suppose there may be down-side to it too: if that circumstance prompts you to be selfish, aversive, grasping, cruel, etc.

Of course we must care for those who are alive. But need we produce any more? Is there a responsibility to have children and that not to is selfish, as I have been told many times? That is the root of the question.

That ("being told") sounds like a social pressure/responsibility. It's not for everyone.

Having reread the Question, I now have no idea what is being asked. I further think the the other Answers do not address it. There is a good question in there, but it is not clear yet, at least to me.

I think it's a personal question (see e.g. here for a related question from the same OP). Also I suspect that the canonical Pali position is obvious to the OP, and that they are (he is) asking for references to canonical positions on the subject from non-Theravada schools.

Yes no comprende understands the heart of the question... the story Chris shares I like and is suggesting "it is not important important to have your own child, there are plenty of parent-less children that need our help"... that brings the second part of my question if there is some esoteric connection (31 planes of existence) to having children--some sort of afterlife connection/benefit...

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How is a living being/lifeform defined in Buddhism?
As asked in the question, what are the characteristics by which a thing is classified as 'living being' or 'non-living' ?
How is a lifeform defined in Buddhism, I mean, like how humans consider themselves as living beings due to various facts such as: their  experience in this world due to consciousness, their actions (kamma), etc.
If lifeform is defined as something that has consciousness and capable of producing kamma, what things are concious?
Is a plant a living being/conscious? Is a stone living being/conscious? Is the universe conscious? Is everything a lifeform in some way?
Is rebirth possible only as a lifeform? (I mean, by rebirth, just a transfer of consciousness/experience subject to different conditions. Please correct me if I'm wrong)
Can our next rebirth be as a stone/whatever, other than the 5 predefined possibilities (human, god, ghost, animal, hell) in Buddhism?
I'd be glad if all the questions are addressed :)

My (Mahayana based, but not orthodox) answer: Nonduality. Mind and form are two aspects of the same ground reality. In modern language, information cannot exist apart from some type of media, and media always caries some information.
Under certain conditions (12 nidanas)  information emerges as awareness or experience (vijnana) of the world and then a notion of inner self emerges as a logical complement of the outer world, identifying with whatever media that happens to be an invariant part of experience.
In Tibetan folklore, they speak about bad rebirths when a wave of awareness identifies with an inanimate object like a door, and suffers greatly every time the door opens and closes. This is just a metaphorical example to show that self-identification is rather arbitrary.
In this ultimate sense, there's no sentient beings as such, there's just a sea of information, carried on the various media, with currents moving and mixing all the time, without beginning and end.
That's the extent to which we can speak of sentience, as emergent property of information, as it models and reflects the other forms.
As for the definition of living beings (whether sentient or not), we call it a living being if it is born and lives (and invariably dies). But if you really think about it, you will see that these notions are not well defined - that's because they are not really inherent in the world, they are projected by us, the observers, however approximately and arbitrarily.
In reality, there are no boundaries between things, in space nor in time. Strictly speaking, there's no moment when something is born, everything is a continuum. Not just living beings, but all objects, all entities are mindmade constructs - models or abstractions. In reality there are no entities.
This should get you a half inch closer to understanding Emptiness. You are on the right track with this questions, without a doubt. Keep thinking about things like that and it will get clear in time.

So, is it the ultimate knowledge that's important? Is rebirth meaningless from the context of your answer (which is what I think it is)? Was it used by Buddha because only if it was said that way, people would take the path of knowledge?

Being can be classified as:

has 5 aggregates or at least the mental subset
has has Nama-Rupa if in the material realm or Nama in the non material realms
has at least mind in the 6 sense faculties
arisen through Dependent Origination (DO)
subjected to the the 4 Noble Truths (4NT)
out of the 6 elements at least has consciousness
has Citta and Cetasika and in the material realms rupa
nourished and sustained by the 4 nutriments

A plant also lives but is not a being as it does not meet the above. It does not have a mind (henceforth Citta and Cetasika doe not arise) or consciousness, not subjected DO or 4NT. Plants also need nutrients but not the 4 nutrients which sustain a being.
A being is born another being in one of the 31 planes of existence or becomes extinguished if you attain Nibbana. An animate being cannot become an inanimate object like a stone.
Perhaps a way to access if a something is alive is through birth, aging and death along with the above factors. Something that is born ages and dies. Plants also does the same so they are alive but not beings.

Doesn't the characteristics you have listed seem just from a human point of view? That's how we humans can define our livingness. How does this attribute for the entireness of the possibilities, which we haven't seen? We don't know about things we have completely seen and understood.

These are general way you can define a  being (Sata) in any of the 31 planes of existence.

I feel, one cannot decide livingness based on these, since there is no way we can know if a stone/whatever object is consciousness, is capable of chetas (thinking), or even they may possess different sense faculties. It may sound like I'm blabbering; I don't know why but from my humble point of view, I feel these are very specific to humans and few animals. We cannot think about things/ideas which we have no basic ideas about (for there are infinite possibilities), which is a limitation of our mind. Anyway, thank you very much my friend for your answer :)

As asked in the question, what are the characteristics by which a thing is classified as 'living being' or 'non-living' ? How is a lifeform defined in Buddhism?

A living being 'breathes'. The Pali word is 'pāṇa'. The Pali states:

Idha, cunda, ekacco pāṇātipātī hoti luddo lohitapāṇi hatapahate niviṭṭho adayāpanno sabba pāṇabhūtesu.
There is the case where a certain person takes life, is a hunter, bloody-handed, devoted to killing & slaying, showing no mercy to
living beings.
Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta

This is how a 'living being' is defined.

I mean, like how humans consider themselves as living beings due to
various facts such as: their experience in this world due to
consciousness, their actions (kamma), etc.

No.
A "living being" (pāṇabhūtesu) is not the same as "a being" ("satta"). A "satta" is merely an idea or view. Please refer to SN 23.2 and SN 5.10 for an explanation.
if a living being (pāṇabhūtesu) perform kamma (actions), they develop ideas or view of 'self', which is the meaning of 'a being' ('satta').
Note: Not all living beings perform kamma. Only homo sapiens & possibly higher life forms perform kamma.

If lifeform is defined as something that has consciousness and capable of producing kamma, what things are conscious?

Most living beings have consciousness, even if it is very primitive. For example, a worm will wriggle & try to escape if you touch it. That a worm senses sense stimuli would classify it as a conscious living being.
Where as a tree may breathe (carbon dioxide) however a tree is probably not conscious because it cannot sense & react to sense stimuli.

Is a plant a living being/conscious?

I answered this question before I read it. A plant is probably not a living being in the sense of the word "pāṇabhūtesu" because killing plants does not fall under the precept about killing.
However, plants are obviously considered to be life forms.

Is a stone living being/conscious?

Of course not because as stone does not breath or have consciousness.

Is the universe conscious? Is everything a lifeform in some way?

That question is too deep & outside the scope of Buddhism. There are forces in the universe such as homeostasis & gravity; which infer some degree of communication but this is outside of the scope of Buddhism because Buddhism is only about ending suffering.
Buddhism states life (vitality) is dependent on heat & heat is dependent on vitality (MN 43). So what exactly is "life"? How long or short is a piece of string?

Is rebirth possible only as a lifeform? (I mean, by rebirth, just a transfer of consciousness/experience subject to different conditions.
Please correct me if I'm wrong)

In Buddhism, the word 'birth' ('jati') refers to the arising of 'self-view' or egoism. Please refer SN 22.81, for example, or SN 12.2, which defines 'birth' as the production of the view of 'a being' ('satta'). 'Re-birth' is psychological rather than physical.

There is the case where an uninstructed...person — assumes form to be a self. That assumption is a fabrication. Now what is the cause, what is the origination, what is the birth, what is the coming-into-existence of that fabrication? To an uninstructed, run-of-the-mill person, touched by that which is felt born of contact with ignorance, craving arises. That fabrication is born of that. SN 22.81

Can our next rebirth be as a stone/whatever, other than the 5 predefined possibilities (human, god, ghost, animal, hell) in Buddhism?

If you are humane, moral & non-violent, this is a human rebirth. If you are extraordinarily loving, wealthy or powerful, this is a godly rebirth. If you are addicted to craving, this is a ghost rebirth. If you are immoral, violent & unthinking, this is an animal rebirth. If you are suffering or angry, this is a hell rebirth. In one single hour, you can reborn many times, whenever the mind grasps or mistakes different emotions as 'self'.
The next time the mind thinks the thought "I", "me", "mine", 'self", "him", "her", "them","us", "your", "you" or "our", this is the next rebirth. The Buddha taught each new birth brings suffering.

So, 'rebirth' refers to the state of the mind, and not what after the human body dies? There is no rebirth after death? If there is, where does the consciousness take form into? Into the 5 forms again?

Buddhism defines consciousness as cognition. MN 43 & SN 22.79 state: 'It cognizes, it cognizes': Thus, friend, it is said to be 'consciousness.' And what does it cognize? It cognizes 'pleasant.' It cognizes 'painful.' It cognizes 'neither painful nor pleasant.' 'It cognizes, it cognizes': Thus it is said to be 'consciousness.'" SN 12.2 states: "And what is consciousness? These six are classes of consciousness: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, intellect-consciousness. This is called consciousness."

Isn't cognition/consciousness (as defined above) because of our brain, from a scientific perspective? 2. Your above comment didn't completely answer my 1st comment. Does consciousness still remain after death of human body? If yes, how? Is that also called rebirth?

MN 38, SN 22.53 & MN 9 each state consciousness is dependently arisen; that consciousness cannot arise without the sense organs or without a physical body. SN 22.53: "Were someone to say, 'I will describe a coming, a going, a passing away, an arising, a growth, an increase, or a proliferation of consciousness apart from form, from feeling, from perception, from fabrications,' that would be impossible.". Regards

So what happens after death/cessation of the dependently co-arisen agents (sense organs & physical body)? Does consciousness cease to exist?

"Death" is another "self-view", the idea that "I am going to die". When there is no "self-view", there is no "death". Regards. MN 140: Bhikkhu, ‘I am’ is a conceiving; ‘I am this’ is a conceiving; ‘I shall be’ is a conceiving; ‘I shall not be’ is a conceiving; By overcoming all conceivings, bhikkhu, one is called a sage at peace. And the sage at peace is not born, does not age, does not die; he is not shaken and does not yearn. For there is nothing present in him by which he might be born. Not being born, how could he age? Not ageing, how could he die?

"Death is a self-view." I accept that. Here by death, I mean the physical death (Gautama Buddha also physically died). So, my question was, since consciousness is dependently arisen with sense organs & physical body, what happens to consciousness, when the factors from which it arised cease to exist?

@GokulNC... earlier on another OP I mentioned, "There is a tendency to translate Tipitaka suttas word-by-word, and because of the inclusion of Sanskrit words, this has led to significant confusion and many contradictions. So we do not know whether we are following Vedic concepts, thinking that they are Dhamma.". No one seem to know the answer to your question. So there really IS a hidden side. When time permits I will answer you - but you will not find anywhere in any of the English translations of Dhamma what I'm to tell you in time to come... till then.... with metta!

@SapthaVisuddhi Shall I put that up as a separate question? Can you please answer it then, my friend? I'd be thankful to know it :)

@Gokul NC... I will try to provide a short answer in this OP, & will only get to write at length, towards the second half of next month. I lam planning to go on a Meditation Retreat.  It will end only on the 16th of next month. After that I will have all the time in the world to answer any of your questions.

@Gokul NC.... I managed to find some time to put together an answer.

Being conscious, having consciousness, feeling, certain intellect... is not what makes a being a living being, thought on Unconscious beings (asaññasatta), still considered as satta (beings) althought nāma (mind is very subtile), Like a empty glass would be considered as empty of liquid, yet still wet.
Sects have developed their certain views and for the most plant like is not considered as living being, but if we take a look at the suttas, Buddha did not spoke of a para-Samsara in the wheel of birth:

"Vaseññha, I will tell you step by step how it happens,
The classification of living things in this and other births.
Look at the grass and trees, although they are not aware,
This and the other have attributes peculiar to their births.
So also insects, like grasshoppers and ants
They have attributes peculiar to their births.
Look at the animals small and large
They have attributes peculiar to their births.
Look at the serpents with long backs going on their bellies,
They have attributes peculiar to their births.
Look at the fish too, who find food in the water.
They have attributes peculiar to their births.
Look at the birds flying through the air.
They have attributes peculiar to their births.
Although these have various attributes, at birth,
In humans various attributes are not evident at birth.
They are not in the hair, head, ears or eyes
Not in the mouth, nose, lips or eye-lashes
from: Vāseṭṭha Sutta: To the Brahmin Vasettha

In judging at least, there are indications that the Buddha left it to ones possibility to recognice it as such, which is on one hand seen in the fact that in certain rules dealing with live not only the factor "it must be a living being" but also "one needs to recognize it as living being" are needed to be present.
In regard of how careful one needs to observe the pointing on: "even if as small as an bedbug" shows not only matters of size but also the knowing "this could have life" when thinking on egg as criteria.
In the Metta-sutta, the Lord Buddha is said to have meantioned: sata (creatures), pāṇā (what has life/breath), bhūtā (being born) and also "seeking for birth", aside of size and visibility as objects of metta (goodwill)
So generally, rather to seek for food that does not cause suffering or to speculate that in this or that birth one becomes not just food at the end, is to use the fact that life needs food, and life always ends up as being just food, wiser to let all appearances of life one recognises be a force od saṃvega ("fear") and to go on an gain and use life best and proper to make suffering an end while being as harmless as possible: Puttamansa Sutta: A Son's Flesh
And seeing that to much answering might derive others here from certain food from it, its maybe also a good time to make a leave here for now and let others take birth as they like by do not derive them from possible taking even a birth followed by Saddha (refuge in the Gems and Sila) and end up in the Unbound, the deathlessness.
By practicing the four Jhanas (improper) one can become a Unconscious beings (asaññasatta) which is generally not so desired by the most.
Anumodana, and don't forget your duties in regard of your Gods and father and ancestors not today!
Specially dedicated for: On Being of Noble birth - Stream winner reborn as human
(Note: This is a gift of Dhamma and not meant for commercial purpose or other wordily gains)

MN 98 states difference among people are only "verbal designations" that accord with "conventions". Try to find a better translation of MN 98. Regards

In the Sacca-vibhanga Sutta: Discourse on The Analysis of the Truths to the question, "What is death? This was the answer given:

"What is death? It is the passing away of beings in the various classes of beings; the falling away, the breaking up, the disappearance, the death, making end of life, the breaking up of the aggregates, the laying down of the body. This is called death.”

You are concerned about what happens when a person dies. Of what I’ve read, this is what takes place. We have three types (some say four) of bodies. One is the physical body that we leave at the time of death. The other two are the two parts of the mental (astral) body. This never dies, and gets transformed into an energy form (that is beyond time and space) at the time of Parinibbana.
Vinnana is always out looking for nourishment for the continuation of life from existence to existence. The food that Vinnana gathers get stored as a cittaja force, or as kamma seeds. These in turn become food for the sustenance of the vinnana. I’d call this the astral body of ours.
This astral body of ours (you may call it the vinnana) is always conditioned by the sansaric habits that we acquire from one bhava to another bhava. Also mainly three types of Cravings (Asava) and temptations (Anusaya) that lie dormant in us until the conditions are right and ripe.
The three Asava (that are steeped in Avijja) are: Ditti-asava, Kamasava, and Bhava-asava. These are deep rooted attachments that we have for certain views, for sense pleasures, and for existance. As long as these factors are there we will forever go in this sansaric journey.
Once you get into the Path, from the Stream Entrant Stage onwards, and as you go upstream from one stage to another, the ‘asava’ will start to lessen their hold on this astral body, and eventually get reduced to nothing. The way to go about this is the Noble Eighfold Path.
Sansära (or samsara) = san + sära (meaning fruitful) = perception that “san” are good, fruitful. Thus one continues in the long rebirth process with the wrong perception that it is fruitful.
Sammä = san + mä (meaning eliminate) = eliminate or route out “san”. Thus Samma Ditthi is routing out the wrong views that keeps one bound to sansara.
Tthe significance of “san” is illustrated in the verse that Ven. Assaji delivered to Upatissa (Ven. Sariputta before ordaining):

“Ye dhamma hetu pabbava, te  san hetun Thathagatho aha, Te san ca yo nirodho, evan vadi maha Samano”

Te = three,   hetu = cause,  nirodha = nir+uda = stop from arising
 “All dhamma (in this world) arise due to causes arising from the three “san”s: raga, dosa, moha. The Buddha has shown how to eliminate those “san”s and thus stop dhamma from arising”.

A sentient living being, based on the sutta below, is one with the five aggregates present. But this is just a convention, just as the convention of what we call a chariot.
The five aggregates are form, feeling (or sensation), perception, consciousness and mental formations.
From SN 5.10:

Just as, with an assemblage of parts,
The word 'chariot' is used,
So, when the aggregates are present,
There's the convention 'a being.'

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text:
If there are no past and future lives, why should we practice Buddhism?
If there are no past and future lives and everything ends at the moment of death. Why should we bother with anything at all?
Why would the Buddha teach for 45 years if all our problems are definitely solved at the moment of death?

According to Buddhism, I think there are past and future lives. There are many verses where Gautama Buddha explains his past life experiences.

@Gokul NC When were those verses written?

No, there are indeed lives. Buddha persuaded one of his relative to become monk to get pleasures in heaven. I also was amazed after reading some answers here which doesn't believe in Afterlife.

Possible duplicate of Why is life so important?

Life does not end with the moment of death. A new birth is taken based on the last thought that came at the time of death. If you it is suicide, the thoughts towards the end of your life are not positive. Therefore your future existence will not be a good one. It will be one of misery and pain.
The Buddha taught the realism of how misery arises and the way out of it. By practicing Buddhism you can get out of the pain in this lifetime and the next and also perhaps totally eradicate it. Total eradication happens when you are extinguished, which does not happen through suicide, but through the releasing causality (Dependent Origination, 4 Noble Truths, Conditional Relations).
All your problem are not solved at death. Death does not solve any problems but creates more, in terms misery to those you leave behind. The real solution is to understand causality thereby understand how your problems originate and do the needful so that the problems do not arise. You will find the unpleasantness of most of your problems are psychological and can be addressed change of your perspective and outlook of the world. One such change of paradigm is understanding the 3 Universal Characteristic which will intern let you understand causality. Armed with the wisdom of causality your perspective and outlook of the world will change. This means you can keep your mind free from worry and problems.
Getting this understanding of causality is not dogmatic or esoteric. the objective of the Buddhist practice is to understand causality so you can overcome your problems, misery or general unsafateryness of life. Anyone who practices Buddhism walks the Noble 8 Fold Path, is the how you find the way out of misery.  The method to get the understanding of causality, the method to come out of all your misery or walking the Noble 8 Fold Path is also organised as the 3 Fold Training.

"A new birth is taken based on the last thought that came at the time of death." - Can you please link to a source of Buddhist text where this is mentioned?

See section "The mind at the time of death" and "Rebirth Consciousness" in The Abhidhamma in Practice by N.K.G. Mendis

@GokulNC See also this topic: Last thought before death?

There is no real difference between:
this current moment in life with future moments afterwards with Nirvana as the climax
and
this current life with a string of lives afterwards with Nirvana as the climax.
The practitioner of the Buddha's teaching, done without ego, needs no future incentive.
Therefore,
We "should" practice to become enlightened and help others achieve enlightenment in this very life.

In the pali canon, the Kesaputtiya sutta have the Buddha explaining the benefits of practicing high virtue by those who may believe in the after life, who may not believe it, who may believe there's no karma law, and who may not believe there's karma law.
He states that a virtuous person who practices virtue and the brahma-viharas have four assurances in his life here and now:

“This noble disciple, Kālāmas, whose mind is in this way without enmity, without ill will, undefiled, and pure, has won four assurances in this very life.
“The first assurance he has won is this: ‘If there is another world, and if there is the fruit and result of good and bad deeds, it is possible that with the breakup of the body, after death, I will be reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world.’
“The second assurance he has won is this: ‘If there is no other world, and there is no fruit and result of good and bad deeds, still right here, in this very life, I maintain myself in happiness, without enmity and ill will, free of trouble.
“The third assurance he has won is this: ‘Suppose evil comes to one who does evil. Then, when I have no evil intentions toward anyone, how can suffering afflict me, since I do no evil deed?’
“The fourth assurance he has won is this: ‘Suppose evil does not come to one who does evil. Then right here I see myself purified in both respects.’
-- AN 3.65

Similarly, in another sutta, the Buddha explains how a wise man considers the teachers that advocated nihilism. By understanding that after death there is no consequences for their actions, these teachers apparently felt themselves free to do whatever they wanted, including evil things.

“About this a wise man considers thus: ‘If there is no other world, then on the dissolution of the body this good person will have made himself safe enough. But if there is another world, then on the dissolution of the body, after death, he will reappear in a state of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, even in hell. Now whether or not the word of those good recluses and brahmins is true, let me assume that there is no other world: still this good person is here and now censured by the wise as an immoral person, one of wrong view who holds the doctrine of nihilism. But on the other hand, if there is another world, then this good person has made an unlucky throw on both counts: since he is censured by the wise here and now, and since on the dissolution of the body, after death, he will reappear in a state of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, even in hell. He has wrongly accepted and undertaken this incontrovertible teaching in such a way that it extends only to one side and excludes the wholesome alternative.’
-- MN 60

If you are sick or feeling unwell, why see a doctor?
If you live in a cave, why live in a clean modern house?
If you can walk, why drive a car or fly in an airplane?
If you are hungry, why eat?
If you are thirsty, why drink?
If there are no past and future lives, why should we practice Buddhism?
For happiness, ease & well-being.

The Buddha is called the 'Spiritual Doctor' and taught:

"In the past & now, I teach about suffering & the cessation of suffering".(MN 22)

The Buddha taught his Dhamma & goal are visible & experience in the here-&-now.
Buddhism is practised for Nibbana, which is called the "highest happiness".
If there are no past and future lives, we practice Buddhism for true happiness.
It is ideal to practise Buddhism in this life rather than wait for a future life.

I understand what you are saying. If you feel comfortable practicing for this life only. I respect that. Personally, if I did not believe there were past and future lives I would end my own life. Not experiencing anything at all is immensely superior to any kind of experience. I do not advocate this for anyone since I strongly believe there are other lives.

The noble eightfold ends suffering & brings peace & wisdom (understanding). When peace is experienced, the wish to end life does not exist. The Buddhist path is practised to end every kind of suffering. We should try to experience the freedom from giving up attachment. Kind regards

@Jay8b Yes. This.

I am not sure where you get the idea that there are no past or future lives. Sakyamuni wasn't concerned about past or future lives generally although he even mentioned past lives. He wanted to focus on this very moment. Just this one right here. Let's see if we can master our insecurities and infirmities for one second and find a perfect moment. That doesnt mean the other moments dont exist or matter.
Why? Thats a good question and it alludes to the broader thought - what is our purpose? We enter this world with basic needs and a basic way to resolve them. We're uncomfortable so we cry. We are self-serving creatures from the start. "Me" thinking.
"Me" thinking is fine for an isolated creature in a state of nature at the top of the food chain able to deal with its' environment. But we are a frail species that flourishes through COOPERATIVE efforts. Operationally as a species we arent loners but social creatures - which requires more thoughts about one another lest the freedom to swing my fist interferes with my neighbors nose. As a species we thrive on "WE" thinking more than "ME".
I am a behaviorist by profession and I find the biological evidence intriguing in this discussion. Our own brains are structured the same as other social creatures who we revere for their collaberative lifestyles and close-knit family ties. The corvids (crows, ravens), the orca, dolphins, elephants, primates - all species that have complicated frontal cortex centers for social communication and show remarkably human-like tendencies in empathy such as mourning their dead and placing their own safety at risk to help their family. Our very own brains are designed to emphasize "we" thinking.
This is our physical purpose on the planet Earth. First to achieve "we" thinking in ourselves and then assist others in reaching it as well. Buddhism serves this well. This doesnt explain the consciousness aspect though.
If our body's purpose is to interact collaberatively with others to further our species - then what is the purpose of our consciousness? It exists aside and independent of our form. It is a 4th dimensional being trapped in a 3-dimensional body that only perceives in 2 dimensions with cues for the third. Getting past these limits is the driving purpose of consciousness. Growth before bodily death and even the cessation of death itself. Ending the cycle so to speak.
Here Buddhism serves us as well. Or at least we hope it does. We have no empirical way of knowing if guiding one another to a specific manner of thought will achieve the lofty goal of dimensional ascension. Either ONE single person breaks through and all of us follow once time is meaningless or ALL must break through together. Theoretically. If it exists at all it is probably somewhere short of either extreme. I view it as a sort of human murmuration (see the Starlings). We communicate with one another because we seek the other's awareness to add to our own. BUT being of similar minds and with homogenization making our needs and somesuch common we should have similar thoughts. To be back to the consciousness whole where our awareness is that of all instead of just our little spot. We seek to be aware as one. Doing that we can abandon other uniform rules that actually hinder us like causation - which makes us think linearly and give time its' power. I know it seems convoluted and complex but it's really simple. We think as one to pierce the veil of of our dimensional bonds. Thats the purpose of consciousness.
This is why we live. To assist and elevate one another to a higher plane both physically and consciously. To improve.

IMHO, ultimately, there is no purpose. Buddhism doesn't explicitly define any purpose.

I dont consider Buddhism to be some strict set of boundaries that I must confine myself within. To me it is a tool to use as I surf this existence. I see the purpose myself and find it in the Upanishads. Thats enough for me.

Real Buddhism is only concerned with the living right now and minimising pain
Real Buddhism isn't about past and future or multiple-lives

Comments are not for extended discussion; this conversation has been moved to chat.

Just to live happily
Even though there are past and future lives , Buddhism is really important to live happily. We all do various things to find happiness . We run after stuff in our entire lives thinking that the end result will make us happy and we get tired all the time. Buddhism teaches us to live in this moment, right now , and how to make this moment happy. Buddhism helps us to make the speed of our thoughts slower . And to get rid of the bad thoughts and make more good thoughts. Ultimately the happiness.
If you can develop your mind to a level of stream enterer , you will feel really happy, most of the time , and you will loose strong attachments , and loose the concept of ‘I ‘ and ‘Me’ to some extent. You will no longer have reasons to cry . You will understand how your mind works and how it changes every moment. And you will be truly free like a bird and be happy all the time .
So that’s just the beginning of the peace . If you achieve nirvana in this life can you imagine how great it will be ? But if you really needed to achieve nirvana , you wont be able to achieve it , because you have to get rid of every need you have , ultimately you have to give up the need to achieve nirvana. Then only you can achieve it .
So basically true(practical ) Buddhism = true happiness. Don’t even have to think about past or future lives . :-)


text:
Odd Experience in Meditation
I feel that when I sit down to meditate, when I am completely still and just sitting, my mind tends to be not very pliable. It's like I cannot do anything, just be conscious without the ability to direct my attention. However, when I am on a bus, or walking, my attention is easily directed; it is only when I am in sitting posture that something seems to freeze my mind and attention, or make it less pliable. In sum, it feels, sitting, that I cannot do anything. Could this be something with the energetic body? Something with the inner channels? I dunno.
Also, this tendency towards lack of pliancy makes my static meditations very difficult. Should I just sit consistently in this non-pliant state and just wait it out?
Thanks for any feedback.

Look where you mind goes. If it jumps to a pain know you attention is on the pain. If it is a thought know that it is with the thought. If your attention is on a ___ just know that your attention is with ____.
With each object your mind jumps to there is a sensation attached. If it a pain it is unpleasant. If it is sweet memory it is pleasant. If it is a birds chirping it can be neutral. What ever that grabs your attention just know the sensation.
In all these cases for each sound you experience though through your physical senses there is a metal reaction also which is also either pleasant, unpleasant or neutral. You should maintain equanimity so you do not get the mental reaction. In addition try to see in impermanence of each experience. All experience has a start, middle and and end. Also if you diver the sensation into smaller areas and examine them, large sensation is made up of smaller sensations clusters which shorter lived than the affected area. You can continue this division seeing more subtler and subtler clusters until you come to a level it is indivisible and changes seem unimaginably rapid. In addition you will see because of stimuli at the sense faculty only the some sensation started and when that simply subsides the stimuli the sensation disappears. You are not in control of the stimuli nor the pleasant experiences which you might want to prolong or unpleasant which you might want to shorten or get rid of.
Also developing the Jhana factors of:

bringing the mind to the object
sustaining the mind on the object

may help you develop more focus.
Also your meditation is not entirely in your control, i.e. it is non self, hence having expectation will be counter productive. Also getting attached to these expectation can be more counterproductive and it will cause unsatisfactoriness with the meditation. So practice the meditation techniques to the best of your ability without expectation or attachment to the expectation.

Good!  Sounds like things are going well.  When people begin meditating, they generally come at it with a bunch of preconceptions.  I think one of the most common is that the meditating mind will be as lucid and as clear as the one that takes a science exam, writes an essay, or does higher mathematics.  Clarity in meditation does eventually come, but it is of a very different character than the one that often arises with hardcore intellectual endeavors.  Before you get there, however, you have to pass through a number of states that can feel thick, muddy, and muddled.  It's all a part of the process.
My best advice is to just let things settle for now.  Don't beat yourself up if you can't keep your attention pinned to your breath.  Just keep at it.  Eventually the mind will become pliable.  It only feels like you are more engaged when on a bus or walking around town because the object of your attention is so course. The breath is subtle. To really follow it, you have to develop an equally subtle sort of concentration.  That involves not just an application of mind, but also a letting go.


text:
Why people in our realm are so fundamentally different?
Apparently, almost all of us living on Earth are the results of specific Bardo Thodol events, that led us here. We all failed to get to the higher realms. Except of course those who voluntarily chosen this place to serve and educate. And those for whom this realm is actually a promotion. We were all reborn.
Considering the countless number of realms, wouldn't it make more sense for people to be much similar in nature being born in one place? Does it mean that all the differences (smart/dumb, greedy/generous, kind/evil, materialistic/non-materialistic, spiritual/ignorant, educated/illiterate...etc) are less important, than something fundamental that unifies us? what is it then? Lust? desires? Outside world is the result of one's development and ultimate true nature of the beings here, so we all deserve what we have? Why such gigantic variety and number of variables? to increase the choice selection for the next life?

Hello IIya and welcome to Buddhism SE. We also have a Guide and a Resource tab for new users that you might like. Enjoy your time here.

The truth is, we don't all live in the same world. The world you perceive is a projection of your mind, so what you see largely depends on your energy which in its turn depends on your karma. Phenomenal reality is not an aquarium full of fish, it's more complicated than that. To the extent that our energy is similar, which means we have made many similar choices in the past, our realities will be overlapping and vice versa.
Someone who came here to teach, may not at all live in the same reality that you live in, but they can project an image into your reality.
My teacher said, a murderer lives in a very different reality than his victim, but they overlap around a few attachments they have in common.
It's complicated, but for practical purposes it's enough to know that it all depends on karma (long term) and on your energy/state of mind (in the immediate timeframe). Karma is what we can control by being careful. Energy can be tuned in meditation and also by controlling your attention. Also, Karma affects your future energy, and energy affects your choices, therefore your karma.

Just to clarify: if we live in the different worlds, when you turn on the news, do you see what i see? when you walk in the forest, do you see only the beauty of the flowers and trees or also observe the fox devouring the chipmunk? Or you implying the multiple parallel universes that are somehow bridged via karma mechanisms? I am not arguing, only wanted to make sure that I understood you. I will definitely do more reading on the subject, whatever I can find.

I certainly don't see what you see - because my interpretation is different, what I pay attention to is different too.

The short answer is Kamma and ignorance.

The three marks of existence are those fundamental properties that are universal throughout Samsara, no one is born in a truly different state.
The Buddha did not ask 'why' with regards to variety, but one could say that variety within Samsara is perceived to be infinite because without Atman finality cannot be drawn in a concrete fashion (no concrete or Essential delineation of 'that which exists and is (can be) perceived' and 'that which exists but is never (can never be) perceived' is possible)..

“Contacted, bhikkhus, one feels, contacted one intends, contacted one
  perceives." SN 35.93

Contact is what unifies experience, empty of contact, there isn't much to talk about. Intention, right intention, is what determines our lives, whether this one or the next. Intention is what determines what Kamma one acquires, and hence the fruit one reaps.

I'm not sure that people in our realm are so fundamentally different.
For example, the Dalai Lama is quoted as saying,

As human beings we are all the same. We have this marvelous intelligence, which sometimes creates problems for us, but when influenced by warm-heartedness can be very constructive. In this context we need to appreciate the value of having moral principles.

And,

Firstly, as a human being, His Holiness is committed to the promotion of human values such as compassion, forgiveness, tolerance, contentment and self-discipline. He says that as human beings we are all the same. We all want happiness and do not want suffering. Even people who do not believe in religion can benefit if they incorporate these human values into their lives.

diversity in Karma lead to diversity of life expectancy, attractiveness, health, experiences, etc.
diversity in genetics leads to changes in appearances and health also.
diversity of habitual tendencies which have build up over time different habits of which some may be generosity, kindness, etc.
diversity of of past Sankhara also may lead to ignorance, situation which lead on to attachment, aversion, etc.


text:
What type of tanha, is the tanha to end tanha?
This is from the Bhikkhuni Sutta AN 4.159
"Taṇhā sambhuto ayaṃ bhagini kāyo, taṇhaṃ nissāya taṇhā pahātabbā"
"'This body, Sister, comes into being through craving. And yet it is by relying on craving that craving is to be abandoned.'
(Translation from Access To Insight)
Now this tanha, is it a kaama tanha, bhava tanha, vibhava tanha, any of them, or something other than them?
This is more of an academic question so, please answer when time permits. Thank you in advance.
With metta.

It is bhava-tanha.
If you read the same Bhikkhuni Sutta you quoted in the question, it says:

This body comes into being through craving. And yet it is by relying on craving that craving is to be abandoned.' Thus was it said. And in reference to what was it said? There is the case, sister, where a monk hears, 'The monk named such-and-such, they say, through the ending of the fermentations, has entered & remains in the fermentation-free awareness-release & discernment-release, having known & realized them for himself in the here & now.' The thought occurs to him, 'I hope that I, too, will — through the ending of the fermentations — enter & remain in the fermentation-free awareness-release & discernment-release, having known & realized them for myself in the here & now.

Bhava-tanha is a craving to be a certain way. It's a wish or a dream of having oneself occupy a certain position in the future. This is exactly what this is, a desire to be enlightened, achieve Nirvana, become Buddha etc.

Thank you Andrei. Your answer is in line with understanding as well.

Brahmana Sutta: To Unnabha the Brahman

I have heard that on one occasion Ven. Ananda was staying in Kosambi, at Ghosita's Park. Then the Brahman Unnabha went to where Ven. Ananda was staying and on arrival greeted him courteously. After an exchange of friendly greetings & courtesies, he sat to one side. As he was sitting there, he said to Ven. Ananda: "Master Ananda, what is the aim of this holy life lived under Gotama the contemplative?"

"Brahman, the holy life is lived under the Blessed One with the aim of abandoning desire."
"Is there a path, is there a practice, for the abandoning of that desire?"
"Yes, there is a path, there is a practice, for the abandoning of that desire."
"What is the path, the practice, for the abandoning of that desire?"

"Brahman, there is the case where a monk develops the base of power endowed with concentration founded on desire & the fabrications of exertion. He develops the base of power endowed with concentration founded on persistence... concentration founded on intent... concentration founded on discrimination & the fabrications of exertion. This, Brahman, is the path, this is the practice for the abandoning of that desire."

"If that's so, Master Ananda, then it's an endless path, and not one with an end, for it's impossible that one could abandon desire by means of desire."
"In that case, brahman, let me question you on this matter. Answer as you see fit. What do you think: Didn't you first have desire, thinking, 'I'll go to the park,' and then when you reached the park, wasn't that particular desire allayed?"
"Yes, sir."
"Didn't you first have persistence, thinking, 'I'll go to the park,' and then when you reached the park, wasn't that particular persistence allayed?"
"Yes, sir."
"Didn't you first have the intent, thinking, 'I'll go to the park,' and then when you reached the park, wasn't that particular intent allayed?"
"Yes, sir."
"Didn't you first have [an act of] discrimination, thinking, 'I'll go to the park,' and then when you reached the park, wasn't that particular act of discrimination allayed?"
"Yes, sir."
CHANDA is a different kind of Tanha. One needs to have an liking (more like an obsessed liking) for the PATH; this is called chanda which we can translate as liking. It is not greed, but pure in quality and grows to become a life goal. Chanda is NOT greed, it is the determination to attain a goal.

Agree in the Brahmana Sutta, Ven Ananda uses the word "chanda". Yet in the Bhikkhuni Sutta Ven Ananda uses the word "tanha". Yet even if we say that chanda is a different kind of tanha, i.e. it is a type of tanha nonetheless, are you asserting that type of tanha falls outside the 3 types of tanha namely kaama bhava and vibhava? If so why doesn't this tanha have its own classification?

The way I umderstand it, Chanda is a form of loba, and hence the warning not to go to extremes (agathi).

Chanda can be used in two different ways. In “kämachanda”, it is mind blinded by käma or sense pleasures. So it is like Tanha. In this case “Chanda” wrapping one’s mind with samma vaca, samma kammanta, and samma ajiva. As you are Sinhalese, this is the ‘nirukthi’ of the word:  (cha + anda, where “cha” is mind and “anda” is “anduma” or clothes).

It is interesting the way you dis-aggregated the word 'Chanda'. Is that from the Pali?

What was spoken during Buddha’s time was Magadhi Prakruth language. It was very similar to the Sinhala language of antiquity. Magadhi was a language of the educated. When in Sinhala (Hela) language, Commentaries were written for Buddha Dhamma preached in Magadhi language, they used what was called “Artha, Dharma, Nirukthi and Patibhana.” Listen to Walasmulle Abhaya Thero’s sermons. He just arrived in Toronto from Vancouver & we will meet him today & attend the 14 day meditation retreat. All sermons are there online in “Nirapekshathwaye Maga”.

"And this, monks, is the noble truth of the origination of stress: the craving that makes for further becoming — accompanied by passion & delight, relishing now here & now there — i.e., craving for sensual pleasure, craving for becoming, craving for non-becoming. Sn56.11
  Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta

The Tanha that causes suffering are of 3 types. Kama Tanha, Bhava Tanha, Vibhava Tanha (sensual pleasure, craving for becoming, craving for non-becoming).
And as mentioned above the Buddha specifically says that the origination of stress is the Tanha that makes for further becoming. To continue this samsara.
Tanha for destruction of Tanha (Niravana) isn't technically the Tanha that we know. You could use the word Chanda(1 of the 4 Iddhipada) which means the strong likeliness to attain nibbana (Intention or purpose or desire or zeal to attain nirvana) . So it's a matter of the wordings in which you are confused with.
Tanha to end Tanha isn't the Tanha that makes us continue samsara. It's Chanda.

Hi Akila, thank you for your reply. However the word in the Pali (given above) is tanha not chanda.

@Kaveenga... I think that what Akila said was right. I am too busy these days to write answers, but I will post a direct translation of a Sutta, that is more to what you are looking for.... with metta.

@KaveengaWijayasekara Yes. As I explained earlier, Tanha is basically craving that causes suffering. The Tanha or Asava to abandon Tanha isn't technically Tanha and it doesn't come under the 3 types of Tanha mentioned by the Buddha in the abovementioned sutta. That willingness or asava is called Chanda. Not Tanha. I think Saptha Visuddhi has also put a good explanation.

So when Ven Ananda used the word Tanha he actually meant Chanda?

Yes, it is a different kind of Tanha. One needs to have an liking (more like an obsessed liking) for the PATH; this is called chanda which we can translate as liking. It is not greed, but pure in quality and grows to become a life goal. Chanda is NOT greed, it is the determination to attain a goal.

Exactly. Some people gets confused with the word desire/tanha with the desire/chanda to attain nirvana. It's a matter of using the words in the proper context. Keep researching things like this. The more you do this, the more you will go deep in the Dhamma. Good that you asked this question.

So did Ven. Ananda use the word Tanha out of context in the Bhikkhuni Sutta? My OP is about the word 'Tanha' as in the Bhikkhuni Sutta, not 'chanda'.

The Tanha that Ben Ananda explains is about Chanda. Not the Tanha that comes under the three types

Craving for Nibbana as an alternative to craving for sense sphere experiences is craving to abandon craving.

Yes and how are we to classify that tanha within the threefold expansion of tanha as kaama, bhava and vibhava?

It does not fall into this categorisation. It is not Kama Tanha since it is not directed as a sense sphere object, it not Bhava Tanha as it is not directed at longing for an existence, and not Vibhava Tanha as it is not based on avoiding experience and existence. But having said that it is most closest to Vibhava Tanha. Also the desire for Nibbana should be more a Chanda than a Tanha in the sense of Kama, Bhava & Vibhava Tanha. In Nibbana you do not come together (no rel Vibhava Tanha) or part with (no rel Vibhava Tanha) any experience and the happiness experienced is not sensory (no rel Kama)


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Did Siddartha have a back problem?
in Week 3 Mindfulness of Emotions an online course at:http://www.insightmeditationcenter.org/books-articles/articles/introduction-to-meditation-transcripts/all/1/
Gil Fronsdal says "... the Buddha had a bad back. You wouldn’t believe it with his good posture, but he had a bad back and sometimes he couldn’t give his Dharma talk, so he’d lie down instead and have one of his senior disciples give a talk."
Anyone know where he might have got this information from?

So the Blessed One, putting on his robe and taking up his bowl & outer
  robe, went together with a community of monks to the reception hall.
  On arrival he washed his feet, entered the hall, and sat with his back
  to the central post, facing east. The community of monks washed their
  feet, entered the hall, and sat with their backs to the western wall,
  facing east, ranged around the Blessed One. The Kapilavatthu Sakyans
  washed their feet, entered the hall, and sat with their backs to the
  eastern wall, facing west, ranged around the Blessed One. Then the
  Blessed One — having spent most of the night instructing, urging,
  rousing, & encouraging the Kapilavatthu Sakyans with a Dhamma talk —
  said to Ven. Ananda, "Ananda, speak to the Kapilavatthu Sakyans about
  the person who follows the practice for one in training. [2] My back
  aches. I will rest it." - Sekha-patipada Sutta : MN 53

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.053.than.html

whether this was a chronic condition is unknown.


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Different Reasons of Dhamma's Decline
In many suttas the Buddha stated different reasons for the decline of the Dhamma. Why and how it happens. The different causes. Can I have the references of those suttas?
-Metta

Saddhammapatirupaka Sutta: A Counterfeit of the True Dhamma (SN 16.13)

Ani Sutta - have desire to learn the Dhamma as taught by the Buddha and not anyone else
Anagata bhaya Sutta - teaching not practiced in earnest and procrastination
Sugata Vinaya Sutta - monks become unapproachable and have wrong understanding
Ovada Suttas - boastful about preaching ability, lack of faith, moral shame and fear, elders not setting a good example
Kimbila Suttas - lack of mutual respect towards the teacher, Dhamma, Sangha, practice, each other, heedfulness and hospitality
Saddhamma Patirupaka Sutta - counterfeit Dhamma emerging and unspiritual people lead to decline
Appamada Sutta - heedlessness,  indolence, excessive desires, unwise attention, lack of full awareness, evil friends, neglect of the wholesome lead to decline. Opposite preserves the Dhamma.
Thiti Sutta / Parihana Sutta - Satipatthana not being practiced. Practicing preserves the Dhamma.
Mahā,parinibbāna Sutta - being anxious to learn and practice Dhamma will result in the highest attainments [and preserve it]
Vinaya Cullavagga - admission of women
etc.

More on this see the references of: The Dharma-ending Age by Piya Tan

In addition the commentarial literature has the 5 antaradhāna which is mentioned in another answer. They are:

adhigama-antaradhāna - attainments disappear, because the practice is polluted with miss conception.
paṭipatti-antaradhāna - because attainments are disappear, the practice is neglected, hence it disappear
pariyatti-antaradhāna - because practice are disappear, the learning is neglected, hence it disappear
liṅga-antaradhāna - because learning are disappear, the monasticism (Sangha) is neglected, hence it disappear
dhātu-antaradhāna - because reverence to wards the Dhātu disappear, the Dhātu is neglected, hence it disappear
So ends the Sasana and beings the dark ages

+1 Interesting to compare what the Buddha mentioned as the reasons to the decline of Buddhism vs what the focus in Sri Lanka is when it comes to protecting Buddhism

"Formerly, bhikkhus, the Dasaarahas had a summoning-drum. As the drum began to split the Dasaarahas inserted one peg and then another peg until in time the summoning-drum's old drumhead had disappeared and only a framework of pegs remained.
"Even so, bhikkhus, will the bhikkhus become in the future. And those discourses spoken by the Tathaagata, profound in meaning, transcendental, dealing with voidness, to these they will not listen when they are recited, they will not lend an ear, they will not set the heart upon final knowledge[48] and will not consider that those things should be learned and mastered. But those discourses made by poets, poetry, mere beautiful words and phrases, spoken by outsiders and disciples, to these they will listen... they will consider that these things should be learned and mastered.
"Therefore, bhikkhus, I say, you should train yourselves thus:
"'Those discourses spoken by the Tathaagata profound in meaning, transcendental, dealing with voidness, to these we will listen when they are recited, we will lend an ear, we will set the heart upon final knowledge and we will consider that these things should be learned and mastered.'"
— SN 20.7

5  antaradhāna, in this commentary of this sutta, is completely conclusion.