text:
How do bodhisattvas, and those who would emulate them, respond to tyrants?
How do bodhisattvas, and those who would emulate them, respond to a tyrant or despot, e.g. a Hitler or Stalin?
Are Buddhists / Bodhisattvas suggesting a "non-resistance to evil by violence" (Tolstoy) and some strange notion of absolute forgiveness, practically or otherwise?
To have someone preach that we all forgive tyrants, as they may go for our throat, seems like a peculiar and sadistic form of madness.

A bodhisattva is one who has trained for lifetimes to perfect a sense of compassion for any and all sentient beings in an unbiased and equal way. With this in mind, how about you take a stab at answering your own question? Try to imagine having an overwhelmingly perfect sense of compassion and ask yourself: what would you do when confronted with Hitler? Would be interested to hear your answer…

Imagine working for eons solely for the benefit of others. Being faced with unimaginable situations and horrors, but always working to relieve the misery and suffering of others. How would such a being react when confronted with Hitler and his intentions to harm countless others?

Is a good thought experiment to try and develop a sense of intuition for what a perfect sense of compassion might be like! :)

I can't answer your question except facetiously @YesheTenley suggest he try harder at painting etc..

Is that because you view compassion as a form of weakness or that someone who has trained themself in such a perfection of compassion would be incapable of dealing with the likes of a Hitler?

it's not, I think, the former @YesheTenley I suppose it is a lack of familiarity with compassion of that sort

Very well, I've added an answer that is directly related to your question. See what you think.

Here is a Sutra that directly applies to your question. It is recognized in both the Tibetan and Chinese Mahayana canon.
From the The Skill in Means (Upayakausalya) Sutra as translated by Mark Tatz. The Tibetan Buddhist canon project has a new translation in progress.

Murder with Skill in Means: the Story of the Compassionate Ship’s
Captain
132 .
Then the Lord again addressed the Bodhisattva
Jñanottara: “Son of the family: Once upon a time, long before the
Thus-Come-One, the Worthy, the fully perfected Buddha Dīpaṁkara, there
were five hundred merchants who set sail on the high seas in search of
wealth. Among the company was a doer of dark deeds, a doer of evil
deeds, a robber well-trained in the art of weaponry, who had come on
board that very ship. He thought, ‘I will kill all these merchants when
they have completed their business and done what they set out to do,
take all their possessions and go to Jambu Continent.’
“Son of the
family: Then the merchants completed their business and set about to
depart. No sooner had they done so, than that deceitful person thought:
‘Now I will kill all these merchants, take all their possessions and go
to Jambu Continent. The time has come.’
133 .
“At the same time, among
the company on board was a captain named Great Compassionate (
sārthavāha mahākāruṇika ). While Captain Great Compassionate slept on
one occasion, the deities who dwelt in that ocean showed him this in a
dream:
“‘Among this ship’s company is a person named so and so, of
such and such sort of physique, of such and such garb, complexion and
shape—a robber, mischievous, a thief of others’ property. He
is thinking, “I will kill all these merchants, take all their
possessions and go to Jambu Continent.” To kill these merchants would
create formidable evil karma  for that person. Why so? These five
hundred merchants are all progressing toward supreme, right and full
awakening. If he should kill these Bodhisattvas, the fault—the
obstacle caused by the deed—would cause him to burn in the great
hells for as long as it takes each one of these Bodhisattvas to achieve
supreme, right and full awakening, consecutively. Therefore, Captain,
think of some skill in means to prevent this person from killing
the five hundred merchants and going to the great hells because of the
deed.’
134 .
“Son of the family: Then the captain Great Compassionate
awoke. He considered what means there might be to prevent that person
from killing the five hundred merchants and going to the great hells.
Seven days passed with a wind averse to sailing to Jambu Continent.
During those seven days he plunged deep into thought, not speaking to
anyone.
“He thought, ‘There is no means to prevent this
man from slaying the merchants and going to the great hells, but to
kill him.’
“And he thought, ‘If I were to report this to the merchants,
they would kill and slay him with   angry thoughts and all go to the
great hells themselves.’
“And he thought, ‘If I were to kill this
person, I would likewise burn in the great hells for
one hundred-thousand eons because of it. Yet I can bear to experience
the pain of the great hells, that this person not slay these five
hundred merchants and develop so much evil karma . I will kill this
person myself.
135 .
Son of the family: Accordingly, the captain Great
Compassionate protected those five hundred merchants and protected that
person from going to the great hells by deliberately stabbing
and slaying that person who was a robber with a spear, with great
compassion and skill in means. And all among the company completed
their business and each went to his own city.
136 .
“Son of the
family. At that time, in that life I was none other than the captain
Great Compassionate. Have no second thoughts or doubt on this point.
The five hundred merchants on board are the five hundred Bodhisattvas
who are to awaken to the supreme, right and full awakening in
this Auspicious Eon.
“Son of the family: For me, saṁsāra was curtailed
for one hundred-thousand eons because of that skill in means and great
compassion. And the robber died to be reborn in a world of
paradise.
137 .
“Son of the family, what do you think of this? Can
curtailing birth and death for one hundred-thousand eons with that
skill in means and that great compassion be regarded as
the Bodhisattva’s obstacle caused by past deeds? Do not view it in that
way. It should be regarded as his very skill in means."

A couple points I think are interesting and relevant here:

The Great Captain killed the robber out of immense compassion for the robber himself and the suffering he foresaw would follow the robber if he achieved his evil aims.
The Great Captain did this while completely understanding and accepting the personal consequence of burning in the hells for one hundred-thousand eons.
The Great Captain had sure foreknowledge of the outcome of the robber's intended actions and after a great deal of introspection and objective analysis that there was no other way to prevent the robber from accomplishing his evil deeds.
The Great Captain was a highly advanced Arya being. The Great Captain was no ordinary samsaric being acting out of regular egotistical thoughts or anger. The Great Captain had trained for immense numbers of eons to perfect
great compassion and wisdom.
It was only by virtue of the Great Captain's incredibly advanced training and pure intention resolving to personally suffer the consequences as well as sure wisdom correctly analyzing the situation that allowed the Great Captain to accomplish this skillful means without actually suffering the resultant terrible consequence of burning in the hells for one hundred thousand eons.
Most of us are nowhere near capable of this level of compassion and pure intent combined with wisdom. We'd best keep training.

deep, thanks. I appreciate it.

I am more used to stories about aryas praying (I think?) for assistance and a miraculous escape.

What really peeves me off is when I first heard this story, I was told it by Buddhist monk/nuns and they said that it was Buddha who killed the person. Essentially this is a Fable, not an actual event from history.

The account of this captain was told by Buddha Shakyamuni recounting a past life. At least that is what the Sutra says. So in this sense the Monks/Nuns were speaking the truth. Whether this is a fable or an actual event from history is a belief that can neither be confirmed nor denied by any evidence that I know of. Believe as you will or however seems most prudent to you.

Monks, who are professional practitioners of the Dhamma are expected to be completely pacifist.

"Well then, Punna. Now that I have instructed you with a brief
instruction, in which country are you going to live?"
"Lord, there is a country called Sunaparanta. I am going to live
there."
"Punna, the Sunaparanta people are fierce. They are rough. If they
insult and ridicule you, what will you think?"
"If they insult and ridicule me, I will think, 'These Sunaparanta
people are civilized, very civilized, in that they don't hit me with
their hands.' That is what I will think, O Blessed One. That is what I
will think, O One Well-gone."
"But if they hit you with their hands, what will you think?"
"...I will think, 'These Sunaparanta people are civilized, very
civilized, in that they don't hit me with a clod.'..."
"But if they hit you with a clod...?"
"...I will think, 'These Sunaparanta people are civilized, very
civilized, in that they don't hit me with a stick.'..."
"But if they hit you with a stick...?"
"...I will think, 'These Sunaparanta people are civilized, very
civilized, in that they don't hit me with a knife.'..."
"But if they hit you with a knife...?"
"...I will think, 'These Sunaparanta people are civilized, very
civilized, in that they don't take my life with a sharp knife.'..."
"But if they take your life with a sharp knife...?"
"If they take my life with a sharp knife, I will think, 'There are
disciples of the Blessed One who — horrified, humiliated, and
disgusted by the body and by life — have sought for an assassin, but
here I have met my assassin without searching for him.' 1 That is
what I will think, O Blessed One. That is what I will think, O One
Well-gone."
"Good, Punna, very good. Possessing such calm and self-control you are
fit to dwell among the Sunaparantans. Now it is time to do as you see
fit."
Then Ven. Punna, delighting and rejoicing in the Blessed One's words,
rising from his seat, bowed down to the Blessed One and left, keeping
him on his right side. Setting his dwelling in order and taking his
robe and bowl, he set out for the Sunaparanta country and, after
wandering stage by stage, he arrived there. There he lived. During
that Rains retreat he established 500 male and 500 female lay
followers in the practice, while he realized the three knowledges and
then attained total (final) Unbinding.
Then a large number of monks went to the Blessed One and on arrival,
having bowed down to him, sat to one side. As they were sitting there,
they said to him, "Lord, the clansman named Punna, whom the Blessed
One instructed with a brief instruction, has died. What is his
destination? What is his future state?"
"Monks, the clansman Punna was wise. He practiced the Dhamma in
accordance with the Dhamma and did not pester me with issues related
to the Dhamma. The clansman Punna is totally unbound."
SN 35.88

The Buddha when faced with the bandit and murderer Angulimala, employed psychic powers apparently, in addition to his wisdom in the method of teaching.

Carrying his robes & bowl, he went along the road to where Angulimala
was staying. Cowherds, shepherds, & farmers saw him going along the
road to where Angulimala was staying, and on seeing him said to him,
"Don't go along that road, contemplative, for on that road is
Angulimala: brutal, bloody-handed, devoted to killing & slaying,
showing no mercy to living beings. He has turned villages into
non-villages, towns into non-towns, settled countryside into unsettled
countryside. Having repeatedly killed human beings, he wears a garland
made of fingers. Groups of ten, twenty, thirty, & forty men have gone
along that road, and even they have fallen into Angulimala's hands."
When this was said, the Blessed One kept going in silence. ....
Then Angulimala saw the Blessed One coming from afar and on seeing
him, this thought occurred to him: "Isn't it amazing! Isn't it
astounding! Groups of ten, twenty, thirty, & forty men have gone along
this road, and even they have fallen into my hands, and yet now this
contemplative comes attacking, as it were, alone and without a
companion. Why don't I kill him?" So Angulimala, taking up his sword &
shield, buckling on his bow & quiver, followed right behind the
Blessed One.
Then the Blessed One willed a feat of psychic power such that
Angulimala, though running with all his might, could not catch up with
the Blessed One walking at normal pace. Then the thought occurred to
Angulimala: "Isn't it amazing! Isn't it astounding! In the past I've
chased & seized even a swift-running elephant, a swift-running horse,
a swift-running chariot, a swift-running deer. But now, even though
I'm running with all my might, I can't catch up with this
contemplative walking at normal pace." So he stopped and called out to
the Blessed One, "Stop, contemplative! Stop!"
"I have stopped, Angulimala. You stop."
Then the thought occurred to Angulimala, "These Sakyan contemplatives
are speakers of the truth, asserters of the truths, and yet this
contemplative, even while walking, says, 'I have stopped, Angulimala.
You stop.' Why don't I question him?"
MN 86

While violence and destruction is strongly discouraged in Buddhism, it is ok for a bonafide ruler or government ("wheel-turning monarch") to establish police and armed forces to:

protect and guard the people
ensure peace
ensure that justice prevails

This generally applies to lay persons and not monks.

‘But sire, what are the noble duties of a wheel-turning monarch?’
‘Well then, my dear, relying only on principle—honoring, respecting,
and venerating principle, having principle as your flag, banner, and
authority — provide just protection and security for your court,
troops, aristocrats, vassals, brahmins and householders, people of
town and country, ascetics and brahmins, beasts and birds. Do not let
injustice prevail in the realm. Pay money to the penniless in the
realm.
DN 26

Since you're asking Buddhists, taking our point of view into account is important. According to the Buddha, we've all suffered brutal, grisly fates beyond count.
'Long have you thus experienced stress, experienced pain, experienced loss, swelling the cemeteries — enough to become disenchanted with all fabricated things, enough to become dispassionate, enough to be released."'
https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn15/sn15.003.than.html
The Buddha also describes the amount of time we've been suffering these horrendous fates.
'“Suppose there was a huge stone mountain, a league long, a league wide, and a league high, with no cracks or holes, one solid mass. And as each century passed someone would stroke it with a fine cloth from Kāsī. By this means the huge stone mountain would be worn away before the eon comes to an end. That’s how long an eon is. And we’ve transmigrated through many such eons, many hundreds, many thousands, many hundreds of thousands."'
https://suttacentral.net/sn15.5/en/sujato?layout=plain&reference=none&notes=asterisk&highlight=false&script=latin
What I take away from that is that no matter how horrendous an experience we or someone we know have/has in this life, similar things have been happening to us for a truly indescribable amount of time.
Another aspect of this is the Buddha's simile about being dismembered and how you should feel toward your attackers.
'"Monks, even if bandits were to savagely sever you, limb by limb, with a double-handled saw, even then, whoever of you harbors ill will at heart would not be upholding my Teaching."'
https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.021x.budd.html
The main thing to take away from this in my opinion is that Buddhist thought is a reaction to experiencing suffering over a duration that's not something we can truly comprehend. When we hear about someone being murdered horribly, part of the offensiveness of that is the idea that they had their "one chance" at life taken away horribly. The Buddha's word does not agree with that and describes a world where we've all experienced that countless times.
The Buddha prescribes loving kindness to LITERALLY everyone, no exceptions. That sounds like saying you should accept people doing horrible things to each other, but you can oppose them while still having empathy for any aggressors. You can oppose people non violently and still not harbor hatred or animosity toward them.

I'm reminded of the story of I think one of the aryadevas finding some maggots and letting them eat his body to stay alive. one may ask whether we could compassionately allow someone to commit genocide etc., for them

I see what you're saying and think it comes down to how much you've achieved in your practice. As a layperson I can honestly tell you I would commit violence to spare my loved ones from a genocidal person, but I do believe that that's not skillful or helpful for me OR them in the long run. If we're all "doomed" to suffer countless horrors, and the Buddha specifically says that generating bad kamma to avoid that is not in accordance with his teaching, that's a bad course of action to take. One of the "fetters" you need to unburden yourself from is aversion, and I think that applies here.

By the way I don't think your question should be downvoted the way it is. I think it's a very important question with subtle implications and it's something most people exposed to Buddhism will come to at some point. "Should you accept people committing evil?"

I'm a huge proponent of Tonglen practice, which captures the heart essence of Bodhisattva action.
When we witness the actions of despots, violence, and global atrocities— this is a call to practice.

“We must surrender our hopes and expectations, as well as our fears,
and march directly into disappointment, work with disappointment, go
into it, and make it our way of life, which is a very hard thing to
do. Disappointment is a good sign of basic intelligence. It cannot be
compared to anything else: it is so sharp, precise, obvious, and
direct. If we can open, then we suddenly begin to see that our
expectations are irrelevant compared with the reality of the
situations we are facing.” ― Chogyam Trungpa

How I have been personally practicing through the war in Ukraine, and the January 6 Insurrection, is described in this piece: https://sunyata.info/writing/2022/3/25/a-prayer-for-ukraine.


text:
Is there a Pali name for a state of being in which one experiences “craving without a target”?
I am speaking of a state of mild but persistent agitation in which one
notices the arising of the habit of
(1) sorting through the current collection of unresolved discomforts with the intention of picking one to latch onto,
(2) orienting oneself towards the desired sensory experience and
(3) re-entering the cycle of greed, hatred and delusion with respect to that desired sensory experience
BUT chooses not to re-enter the cycle.
I am speaking of a very unusual state in which
the cycle of samsara is not entered
but neither has the agitation to re-enter it ceased.
Kind of like “craving without a target”.
Kind of like an inner conflict between (1) a part which wants to relieve the agitation by latching onto a target for craving and (2) a part which wants to find a more skillful means of extinguishing the agitation.
Kind of like being in a hinterland between suffering and the end of suffering.
I have a vague intuition this state might be related to “stream entry” but I am not certain about that.
Does this sound similar to anything the Buddha spoke about?

I’m not sure if this is what you are describing, but I have seen other Buddhist teachers give a similar description to someone becoming aware of the subtlest form of dhukka: all pervasive dissatisfaction

sounds like craving for becoming, like when i binge drink, then i crave for becoming healthy, good, etc..

@lilredindy: 1/ Very interesting. Depending upon the precise meaning the Buddha intended for the terms “kāma” (sense-desires) and “bhava” (becoming), either “craving for becoming” or “craving for non-becoming” might be a match. The aim is to uproot the habits of “pulling towards that which is pleasurable” and “pushing away that which is unpleasurable” (but is uncorrupted by the desire for identity). So I am uncertain.

2/ As @OyaMist wisely alluded to, even a skillful desire can be a source of suffering if one craves for its immediate gratification. It is more skillful to patiently but persistently cultivate its arising.

@AlexRyan i think you are right, your last comment is the same as equanimity(upeksha), that is a factor of awakening.

Do you mean boredom?
It's called neutral feeling or neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling i.e. adukkhamasukha vedana.
The neither-pleasant-nor-painful feelings also known as neutral feelings is one of three types of feeling including pleasant and painful. Feelings here means sensations experienced by the six senses (including the mind).
Neutral feelings invoke neither pleasure nor pain. For e.g. if you stay in the same house everyday, then the overly familiar sensations of the sights, sounds and smell of the house will not invoke any feeling in you other than boredom.
The definition of neutral feeling comes in MN 44 and also states its relationship to ignorance:

Neutral feeling is pleasant when there is knowledge, and painful when
there is ignorance.”
“The underlying tendency for greed underlies pleasant feeling. The
underlying tendency for repulsion underlies painful feeling. The
underlying tendency for ignorance underlies neutral feeling.”
MN 44

In Contemplation of Feeling, Nyanaponika Thera explained this:

Pleasant feeling is habitually linked with enjoyment and desire;
unpleasant feeling with aversion; neutral feeling with boredom and
confusion, but also serving as background for wrong views.

Also:

“Mendicants, there are these three feelings. What three? Pleasant,
painful, and neutral feeling. Pleasant feeling should be seen as
suffering. Painful feeling should be seen as a dart. Neutral feeling
should be seen as impermanent. When a mendicant has seen these three
feelings in this way, they’re called a mendicant who has cut off
craving, untied the fetters, and by rightly comprehending conceit has
made an end of suffering.
SN 36.5

The neither-pleasant-nor-painful feelings also known as neutral feelings, normally make us bored or dissatisfied. Cravings would lead one to seek pleasures (kama tanha) or to become something or achieve something (bhava tanha) rather than sit around all day experiencing neutral feelings that don't bring satisfaction.
No feelings at all, would also be a cause for boredom and dissatisfaction. From the same article by Nyanaponika Thera, we read the commentary of the suttas and his comment:

Comy.: "From the fourth Jhana onwards, it is the
neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling (that is present in these
meditative states). But this neutral feeling, too, is called
'pleasure' (sukha), on account of its being peaceful and sublime. What
arises by way of the five cords of sensual desire and by way of the
eight meditative attainments is called 'pleasure as being felt'
(vedayita-sukha). The state of Cessation of Perception and Feeling is
a 'pleasure, not being felt' (avedayita-sukha). Hence, whether it be
pleasure felt or not felt, both are assuredly 'pleasure,' in the sense
of their being painfree states (niddukkhabhava-sankhatena sukhena)."
In AN 9.34, the venerable Sariputta exclaims: "Nibbana is happiness,
friend; Nibbana is happiness, indeed!" The monk Udayi then asked: "How
can there be happiness when there is no feeling?" The venerable
Sariputta replied: "Just this is happiness, friend, that therein there
is no feeling."

To the arahant, neutral feelings, no feelings and Nibbana are all pleasant.

Thanks. I am uncertain.
I had never considered the neutral feeling tone as being mildly but persistently unpleasant before.
If this is the meaning of the word, this might be a match.

Still uncertain though. It’s kind of like (1) saying no to the temptation of greed, (2) saying no to the temptation of hate, whilst also being confused (about how to suppress the agitation without choosing one of these) while at the same time not being deluded. i.e. Not clinging to views. Not ignoring the arrow in the heart of misprediction.

@AlexRyan, to illustrate Ruben's point, we also have: > AN2.6:2.1: When you keep seeing things that are prone to being fettered as boring, you give up greed, hate, and delusion.

AN2.6:2.2: When these are given up, you’re freed from rebirth, old age, and death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and distress.
AN2.6:2.3: You’re freed from suffering, I say.

@OyaMist: 1/2:Thanks. This is making more sense to me now. Logically, feeling tone gives rise to our habitual compulsions to movement. If a habitual movement is discovered to be unskillful, we necessarily must change the feeling tone which gives rise to it in order to release the less skillful habit and replace it with a more skillful habit. This rewiring process is always unpleasant. It always gives rise to agitation.

@OyaMist: 2/2: If the habit we are seeking to replace is the deepest of all habits (namely, the habit of pulling towards that which is pleasant and pushing away that which is unpleasant), it is reasonable to presume that the rewiring experience may be more unpleasant than usual. It might even, for example, give rise to pains in the chest & swelling of the gut.

@AlexRyan. Although the "rewiring experience" may be initially unpleasant, consider that a stream-enterer would see such skillful effort as productive, much like committing to an exercise regime that over time yields ease and freedom. People who exercise regularly find the exercise enjoyable. What changed? The right view of a stream enterer.  NOTE: Discussion is awkward on BSE--there are more interactive forums such as SuttaCentral.net Discourse&Discover. BSE is great for finding references, but not so great for discussion

@OyaMist You can use the chat feature of BSE for lengthy discussions.

Indeed, BSE chat is helpful,

pariyesana, searching, looking around for satisfaction.

Very interesting. The searching for a mechanism to end the agitation is a match for the phenomenon in question. I suspect it is not the searching itself but rather the searching tainted by the craving for immediate gratification which is the source of the agitation. I am unable to determine from suttacentral.net if this term has that connotation.

it sounds like restlessness, worry, etc., an inability to concentrate one's effort..
the 5 hindrances from the wiki:

Restlessness-and-worry (uddhacca-kukkucca): the inability to calm the
mind and focus one's energy.

also check out "How to Deal With Worrying With Buddhist Practices".

Very interesting. Uddhacca feels like a match. I suspect my initial characterization of “craving without a target” to be delusion on my part. Craving always has a target (I think). If we are not consciously aware of what the target is, we might label this craving “restlessness”. But, when we sit with the restlessness and allow the underlying conflict to emerge into full consciousness, the true target of the craving is revealed.

yeah, i agree...it's just a misunderstanding on your part, but you seem to have figured it out

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text:
Life after death in buddhism
What is the main basic difference between Hinduism and Buddhism regarding Life after death ?

One of the most fundamental differences is that Hindus believe in a soul (atman) that passes from one life to a next, like when "you die", "you" will be reborn in heaven.
Buddhists know this to be untrue. What dies and what arises is just formation of aggregates which in of themself are products of the flow of karma, not any sort of "self" that is within a soul.
Some later (Mahayanist) Buddhist teachers have tried to mistakenly proport this atman concept, most noticibly asanga, though this is not the Buddhas teachings, Anatta, non self is at the fundamentals of Buddhas teachings and in turn at the fundamental differences between Hindu and Buddhist understandings.
Though more often than not the explanations of realms and existences in the cosmology of both sects coincide.
So heaven and hell exist in both for eg.

Hinduism teaches that each person has an immortal soul or self that reincarnates and transmigrates after death. It changes body like a person changing clothes.

As a person sheds worn-out garments
and wears new ones, likewise, at
the time of death, the soul casts
off its worn-out body and enters a
new one.
Hindu text BG 2.22

Buddhism teaches that all phenomena is not self (sabbe dhamma anatta) - Dhp 279. Please see this answer for details.
From moment to moment, there is birth, death and (re)birth of chained conditioned processes until final liberation.
The mental idea of the self (that arises from the chained conditioned processes) has renewed existence through transfer of information, as long as craving has not ceased.
The quote below explains this transfer of information using analogies.

The king asked: "Venerable Nagasena, is it so that one does not
transmigrate and one is reborn?"
"Yes, your majesty, one does not transmigrate and one is reborn."
"How, venerable Nagasena, is it that one does not transmigrate and one
is reborn? Give me an analogy."
"Just as, your majesty, if someone kindled one lamp from another, is
it indeed so, your majesty, that the lamp would transmigrate from the
other lamp?"
"Certainly not, venerable sir."
"Indeed just so, your majesty, one does not transmigrate and one is
reborn."
"Give me another analogy."
"Do you remember, your majesty, when you were a boy learning some
verse from a teacher?"
"Yes, venerable sir."
"Your majesty, did this verse transmigrate from the teacher?"
"Certainly not, venerable sir."
"Indeed just so, your majesty, one does not transmigrate and one is
reborn."
"You are clever, venerable Nagasena.".
Milindapanha 3.5.5

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text:
Does a risk of death exist in the awakening process?
I have a vague recollection of a Dhamma teacher saying that, in the process of awakening, the practitioner eventually reaches a stage of development where they either awaken fully or they die.
I'm not sure if my memory of this is correct or not.
I have a vague recollection of the Dhamma teacher treating this as a myth which is not to be taken seriously. For this reason, I may have discarded it.
However, I am intensely curious. Is anything like this mentioned anywhere in the suttas?

not that I'm aware of, though if you can attain "nirodha samapatti", it kinda makes sense if you could just spontaneously die, also. maybe you're confusing the 'great death' in zen: enlightenment.

Yes, but only in the sense that the risk of death is ever present. You could die right in the next moment regardless what you do. So don't waste any time. Death is common. An auspicious birth with a chance at liberation via the Buddhist path and the fruits thereof are not.


text:
Four kinds of people. "attahitaya ca patipanno". Good for yourself and others
According to this website, it says...

The Buddha classified persons into four kinds on the basis of one’s attitude towards one’s own interest and one’s attitude towards the interest of others.

I started source text research and I found this website, using the search word of

attahitaya ca patipanno parahitaya ca

The website says its source text is

Sutta Pitaka Vol 13 : Sutta. Aṅ. (2): catukkanipāto 96

But I could not find such text on SuttaCentral.
Does anyone know the correct index of the text?

AN 4.95

one who practices to benefit both themselves and others
attahitāya ceva paṭipanno parahitāya ca

There's more than one numbering system, as you can see here, for example AN 4.95 and A ii 95

AN 4.95: Chavalata Sutta — Wood from a Pyre/The Firebrand {A ii 95}

See also Tripitaka Section Numbering


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A question on Mano
In Nanavira's Notes of Dhamma on Mano:

Note that just as the eye, as cakkhāyatana or cakkhudhātu, is that yena lokasmim lokasaññī hoti lokamānī ('[that] by which, in the world, one is a perceiver and conceiver of the world') (Salāyatana Samy. xii,3 <S.iv,95>), i.e. that thing in the world dependent upon which there is perceiving and conceiving of the world, namely a spherical lump of flesh set in my face; so the mind, as manāyatana or manodhātu, also is that yena lokasmim lokasaññī hoti lokamānī, i.e. that thing in the world dependent upon which there is perceiving and conceiving of the world, namely various ill-defined parts of my body, but principally a mass of grey matter contained in my head (physiological and neurological descriptions are strictly out of place—see PHASSA).[c] This is in agreement with the fact that all five khandhā arise in connexion with each of the six āyatanāni—see NĀMA & PHASSA [a]. For 'perceiving and conceiving' see MAMA [a].

More loosely, in other contexts, the mind (mano) is simply 'imagination' or 'reflexion', which, strictly, in the context of the foregoing paragraph, is manoviññāna, i.e. the presence of images. See NĀMA [c]. The Vibhanga (of the Abhidhamma Pitaka) introduces chaos by supposing that manodhātu and manoviññānadhatu are successive stages of awareness, differing only in intensity (and perhaps also, somehow, in kind). See CITTA.

Why does he feel that imagination is a looser translation of the word mano than the way it is defined in the previous paragraph?

does chaos mean something like organic freedom?

As usual, it is difficult for me to make sense of the discursive thinking of Nanavira.
Manoviññāna is a type of consciousness/reflexion (viññāna) therefore has no relationship whatsoever to the word 'mano' ('perceiver-conceiver'/'intellect').
Compare to the words 'jet fuel'. A fuel is not a jet & a jet is not a fuel.

And yet, "jet fuel" is a fuel for jets, so to say that "jet" and "jet fuel" have no relationship whatsoever is false.

Why does he feel that imagination is a looser translation of the word mano?

He doesn't state nor imply that imagination is a looser translation. Nanavira says that the word mano is used in two contexts, a stricter one and a looser one, with distinct meaning in each of the contexts:

In a strict or technical context, mano is used as the base (ayatana) of perceiving and conceiving in the corresponding realm (dhatu) of "the mental".
In a looser or casual context, mano is used to mean roughly imagination or reflection.

Then Nanavira goes on and makes a statement that the second meaning (imagination/reflection) has a more precise technical term in the first (technical) context and that term is manovijnana, because technically imagination/reflection is nothing more than experience of mental images.
At this time I'm making no comment as to whether what Nanavira says is valid or helpful but it seems clear that's what he is saying.
In any case, it's clear that the qualifier "looser" pertains to the sense in which the word mano is used in the second context, not to its translation as English word "imagination".


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Where did the Buddha say that Teachings that don't contain the Noble Eightfold Path cannot lead to Enlightenment?
Question is in the title. I remember reading that statement in a Theravada Buddhist book or PDF file but now I can't seem to find it.
Help would be much appreciated.

It's in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta. In whichever teaching and discipline/ training the Noble Eightfold Path is not found, the four types of enlightened persons cannot be found also.

“Subhadda, in whatever teaching and training the noble eightfold path
is not found, there is no true ascetic found, no second ascetic, no
third ascetic, and no fourth ascetic. In whatever teaching and
training the noble eightfold path is found, there is a true ascetic
found, a second ascetic, a third ascetic, and a fourth ascetic. In
this teaching and training the noble eightfold path is found. Only
here is there a true ascetic, here a second ascetic, here a third
ascetic, and here a fourth ascetic. Other sects are empty of ascetics.
DN 16

Thank you so much for this.


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Nibbana or the Kingdom?
Several years ago, One of my mates gave a book - 'Nibbana (Nirvana) or the Kingom'. I am trying to check any other recent prints. The last print was in 1964. Were there any rewrites?
Can someone give a synopsis?

"Also, is there any commonly quoted verse by Buddha/Mahayana studies on the root cause of Suffering?" - Is this in reference to the same book? If not, you should create a new question.

The 1964 edition of that book (by Egerton Baptist) is the most recent edition.

Published in 1964, the author, a Christian-turned-Buddhist, compares the proverbial Christian adage “kingdom of god” to the Buddhist Brahma heaven.  He also claims that Jesus was not completely enlightened, perhaps more like a bodhisattva, and who upon being reborn (2nd coming) could achieve full buddhahood.  For the author, statement such as, “to be one with my father” is proof that Jesus’ trajectory is the Brahma realm, not nibbana.  He references Mahāgovindasutta (The Great Steward) Sutta in which, in a past life, Buddha taught the path that leads to rebirth in the Brahma realm.  After the centaur recites Buddha's past life story, Buddha’s reply is:

“I remember, Pañcasikha. I myself was the brahmin Great Steward at
that time.  And I taught those disciples the path to rebirth in the
company of Brahmā. But that spiritual path of mine doesn’t lead to
disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and
extinguishment. It only leads as far as rebirth in the Brahmā realm.
But this spiritual path does lead to disillusionment, dispassion,
cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. And what is
the spiritual path that leads to extinguishment? It is simply this
noble eightfold path, that is: right view, right thought, right
speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right
mindfulness, and right immersion. This is the spiritual path that
leads to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight,
awakening, and extinguishment.

The author also claims other gnostic teachings of Jesus such as karma and rebirth.

Brahma is not the Almighty... Even Brahma's enlightenment is incomplete. Truth is bitter. Isn't Nibbana laziness? Bliss all the time? while other's bicycle Ha? A true yogi never rests...Ask Brahma..He knows what it takes to make something. The level of effort. The comprehension requirement.  You think Nibbana is free :-)  blue_ego ? . Think again.


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How does decisive supporting cause (upanissaya paccaya) work? (and some related questions)
According to Theravada Buddhism:
1.How does Decisive Supporting Cause (Upanissaya Paccaya) work?  For example, when Venerable arahant Anuruddha asked Sangha what to do to attain divine-eye in Lord Padumuttara Buddha's dispensation, why did Sangha tell him to offer light to Buddha's stupa instead of practising kasina meditation? Did that offering become a supporting cause for him to attain divine eye? If yes, how? Aren't sensual wholesome kamma and fine-material (rupavacara) kamma different and unrelated?
2.Similarly, Venerable arahant Panchadeepadaika (Apadana pali - Bhikkuni apadana, 15th apadana) says that she became proficient in samadhi and dibba-caccu abhinna (divine-eye) as a result of offering 5 lamps to Lord Padumuttara Buddha's bodhi tree. She must not have practised kasina because she was born in the second deva realm in the subsequent life. How did this happen? Does the results of light-offering kamma give you the ability (such as a clear mind) to succeed in kasina meditation therefore attain samadhi and abhinna?
3.Also, Venerable arahant Pilindawachcha  (Apadana pali - Bhikku apadana, 391st apadana) says that he obtained a great wisdom power as a result of offering knives, needles, razors and fragrance to Lord Padumuttara Buddha and Sangha. Can you please explain how offering can increase wisdom through Upanissaya Paccaya? I thought wisdom can only be developed through meditation.
4.I think my samadhi and wisdom faculty, out of five faculties, are very weak. If I made an offering to Buddha (such as light, fragrance) and Sangha and make a wish that in future lives, I get the ability to attain all 8 jhanas and abhinna quickly in one sitting and to develop vipassana meditation quickly and deeply, would such a wish become true? Can that kamma develop my five faculties so that I become proficient in meditation in future lives and attain nirvana?
Thank you. May the Triple Gem Bless you all!

Paccaya, origination, doesn't need to arising. It could be arose or will arise or never arise (imagination). Our parent don't need to be alive, living, when we recall to them (arammana-upanissaya-paccaya).

It doesn't work that way around. Does one know whether not having given light on good place before? Or what else required? Paramis are technical complete at once, if going forth in this Sasana. So better to seek for Upanissaya toward the good Sangha, as present most useful Nissaya-paccaya and gives up what ever still carried with.
(one wouldn't be able to take this, if there had been no upanissaya-paccaya before, no strong relation cause.)

You may want to refer to Upanisasutta
If you can see that wishing for a future life itself as craving, caused by ignorance and the delusion, you would abandon it. If you have Faith in the Buddha, then your goal should be Nibbana. That is, to end Rebirth.
If your goal becomes Nibbana instead, then you can start practicing (i.e. developing) the Noble Eight Fold Path and Five Powers and Five Faculties will develop as a result of that.
As a starting point you can refer to this meditation on the Noble Eightfold path which is the first out of a 15 meditation program, and the last one is Suka patipada Khippabhinna -pleasant means and quick realization.


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How would Buddhists reply to this paradox of enlightenment
(1) Enlightenment is inherently desirable
(2) Self-Interested desires prevent us from attaining enlightenment
(3) In order to attain enlightenment, one must train oneself to give up self-interested desires
(4) One does not engage in deliberate action unless one desires the foreseen result of actions

what is inherently desirable about enlightenment ?

I'll try to relate that to what the suttas say.
Enlightenment is inherently desirable
I'm not sure what "enlightenment" is -- i.e. what, in Buddhist doctrine, is translated as "enlightenment"?
Enlightenment in Buddhism [Wikipedia] suggests it's any of several terms:

bodhi -- knowledge or wisdom, etymologically related to "awake"
vimutti -- release (i.e. related to being freed)
others -- paññā (insight), kenshho and satori (Japanese), nibbana, and Buddhahood

If I try to summarise Buddhism in one word, it's not "enlightenment" but rather "dukkha-nirodha" i.e. "cessation of suffering".
Self-Interested desires prevent us from attaining enlightenment
I'm not sure it's useful to use "self" in language.
In particular it's "wrong view" -- a thicket -- to say for example "self exists" and/or "self doesn't exist".
If you need to use that language then the ideal is "practice which benefits both self and others (AN 4.95)".
I find it clearer to remove "self" from the sentence, so instead of seeing something as "my suffering" just see it as "suffering".
So the sentence becomes, "desires prevent us from attaining enlightenment".
And in reply to that, Buddhism distinguishes between wholesome and unwholesome desires -- i.e. taṇhā (which is referenced in the Second Noble Truth), and chanda which is defined for example here or in a bit more detail here, the point being that chanda (one type of desire) isn't necessarily a bad thing.
You may be right though, that if you don't know what enlightenment is, and don't know how to go about it, and want it anyway, then that "wanting" and so on may be the unwholesome form of desire, i.e. an example of the kind of thing that actually causes suffering and delusion.
I'm not sure how items 3 and 4 in the OP were meant to add to the alleged paradox, so I won't address them directly -- they seem to be more of 2, i.e. talking about "self-interested" and "desire".
You might be interested in the Brahmana Sutta (SN 51.15) which answers someone's saying that "it's impossible that one could abandon desire by means of desire" (using the word chanda for desire). The answer is that you desire e.g. to go to the park (I suspect that "park" there is a reference to "forest monastery" i.e. where the monks are), and so you go (i.e. do that), and when you get there then the corresponding desire is allayed (i.e. paṭippassaddha which I think of as a nirodha again).
I guess that, in summary, nirodha isn't impossible. Maybe you have to recognise what it is that sustains (perpetuates) dukkha, and not attach to that.

I'll clarify on 3 and 4 for you. The third proposition is to suggest that we are not going to attain enlightenment just through luck and that we WORK at it to make it happen. This leads on to the 4th proposition, meaning that you are only going to 'put in the work' to attain enlightenment because its something they desire, but i think you make a good point with the two types of desires in buddhism and using AN 4.95. Thanks :)

You say "unless one desires" as a proposition -- but instead I see that instead as an axiom -- i.e. if you're suffering, in hell or a hungry ghost, then of course you desire liberation/cessation of suffering ... it's almost axiomatic/inherent, in the definition of what "suffering" is or implies. One exception I guess is when people don't "see" dukkha. Another analysis is the "Three poisons" -- desire (for what's attractive), aversion (to what's painful), and confusion (or maybe ignorance, about what's neither).

"There’s a passage where Ven. Ananda is being questioned by a brahman. The brahman has come to see Ananda in the park where he’s staying and asks him, “What is the purpose of this path you follow?” And Ananda says, “One of the purposes is to put an end to desire.” The brahman asks, “How do you do that?” Then Ananda explains a set of teachings that are called the bases for success: concentration based on desire, concentration based on persistence, concentration based on intent, and concentration based on your powers of analysis.

The brahman says, “That’s impossible. How can you use desire to get rid of desire?” And Ananda asks him, “Before you came to the park, did you have desire to come to the park?” “Well, yes.” “Now that you’re here, where is the desire?” “It’s gone.” “In the same way, you use desire to put an end to desire — if you do it right.”

~ Thanissaro Bhikkhu "The Desire to End All Desires" https://www.dhammatalks.org/Archive/Writings/Transcripts/190314_The_Desire_to_End_All_Desires.pdf

There is no basis, other than bad practice, to assume that 4 creates a logical problem. I say “bad practice” to indicate when a practitioner engages in seeking enlightenment for themselves. The correct practice is engaged in when the goal is to benefit all sentient beings. This is both a desirable goal for oneself along the way, as well as a benefit along the way for others. Its desirability gives motivation to practice to help others. And helping others by overcoming ones ego-centric focus enables success.

you make a fine and subtle point.  this is also known as the paradox of becoming and there is actually a book titled the same.
the thing about enlightenment that is strange - at least as far as I understand it - is that it's part theory and part practice.  The theory part is more or less taken care of - in the form of teachings, discourse, 8-fold path, Buddhism SE, etc.  The realization of that is what is missing.  Nobody else can do that for you, but fortunately the groundwork is already there.  That doesn't make it easy, but it's better than being clueless.

There's a copy of the book here: The Paradox of Becoming. Can you explain or summarize, and quote from it to show, how it relates to or answers the OP's question?

You're conflating the Pali tanha with the English word desire.  Tanha is better translated as thirst.  It's an unthinking and karmically originated compulsion to do something or an adverse reaction prompting us to avoid something else.  It has no relation to the noble intention to seek enlightenment.  You can have tanha for enlightenment, but that path doesn't lead to enlightenment.  Tanha has to be replaced by adhitthana which means resolution and determination.  These are vastly different things.


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About the Buddha tasting vinegar
The Vinegar Tasters is a very interesting subject in Chinese art. It depicts Confucius, the Buddha and Laozi tasting vinegar.

A common interpretation is the following:

Confucius is depicted with a sour face, because in confucionism life is "sour", that's why we need rules etc. The Buddha is depicted with a bitter face, because the Buddha saw life as full of suffering etc, while Laozi is depicted smiling, because the vinegar is sweet to him, because he understands "the perfect nature of vinegar".

Despite the point of view of the Buddha (that life is full of dukkha), he understood that vinegar is vinegar, just as Laozi; and, knowing that, why would he have a bitter face? Is this depiction raising the image of Laozi and daoism and mistreating buddhism as pessimistic? Or is it more like a "Buddha sees the vinegar as it is" thing while Laozi sees it as sweet and thus "lying to himself"?

This question is pretty much opinion-based, with answers being subjective interpretations of the painting.

Well, it is a caricature. And as any caricature it simplifies things while exaggerating and making fun of quite obvious aspects.
The substance they taste is not necessarily vinegar, it is the wine of life, but as it happens in real life the wine is rather not perfect.
To Confucius it is sour because in his view someone responsible did not fulfill his duty. Whether it was the wine maker or the person responsible for its storage - they must have neglected their responsibility and so the wine turned sour. This is how confucianism sees the world, as an interplay of social roles and duties. "It would be perfect, if only those fools followed the rules!"
To "the Buddha" all wine is bitter, an obvious allegory for the First Noble Truth. "Life is inherently imperfect." -- says the caricature.
The Lao-Tzu is supposedly above this viewpoint, in harmony with how things are, seeing the higher kind of inherent perfection even in the perpetually imperfect. This is the view not just of the Taoism but also of Mahayana's Dzogchen.
Who is the real buddha here? Don't tell me it's Lao-Tzu, it's not so obvious. Would the Buddha taste our life in the 21st century and conclude that it's perfect? It's not so simple.
The real Buddha, of course, would understand that reality has many sides and does not have the single taste. Its taste depends on what aspect you focus on.
The wine of life is sour, and it is bitter, and it is sweet. The beauty, as is the dread, is in the eyes of beholder. Unfortunately, most of beholders completely identify with their viewpoints and don't as much as entertain other perspectives, let alone grant them equal weight to their own.
To break free from a single viewpoint is, therefore, to stand above the caricature and to taste the real life.
Certainly, to only focus on the bitter aspect is what Buddha called "to maintain oneself in a maimed and injured condition". Don't do that to yourself.

That's a questionable interpretation. The expressions aren't about the taste of the vinegar itself, but about the experience of that taste:

Confucius looks sour because (in his view) we are obliged to put up with such unpleasant experiences. We have to taste the vinegar even though we don't want to.
The Buddha looks bitter because (in his view) unpleasant experiences are conditions we inflict on ourselves through our own determined ignorance. We don't have to taste the vinegar, but we don't know how not to taste it.
Lao Tsu looks happy because (in his view) experiences aren't unpleasant or pleasant; they are just what-they-are. Vinegar tastes exactly like vinegar, so no worries.

It's all a bit tongue-in-cheek, obviously, but it does seem to capture the essence of each worldview.

What ever feeling, good householder, whether pleasant, painful or neither-pleasant-nor-painful, has been declared as dukkha, a cancer, by the Sublime Buddha.
It's neither good to put the Sublime Buddha on the stage of the Niganthas, nor to call equanimity (even that of housholder) as the highest.
If looking for the Sublime Buddha in this images, it's that what does not take on any objectivication there, does not take part on what ever isn't real and will be therefore not traced by any getting absorbed in the world.


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Jataka Story Request: Mindfulness, Radiant Complexion and Grass Simile
I'm looking for a story in the Jataka wherein the Buddha talks about mindfulness and the importance of not living in the past or future. He compares the mind living in the past or future to grass that has been cut off from its root. When that happens the grass will dry out and the same thing happens to the mind that does not live in the present moment.
It was asked how monks who only eat 1 meal a day or sometimes don't eat at all can still retain such radiant complexion. That's where the Buddha taught the above grass simile.
Here's a link to the video where Bhante talks about it. It's mentioned at 6:45 into the video.
Can anyone help me find the Jataka story?
Thank you for your time.

That was a fun search, thank you.
I found it in 538. Muga-Pakkha Jātaka, quoted below.

At that moment the queen Candadevi, surrounded by the royal ladies,
came up, and after clasping her dear son’s feet and saluting him, sat
on one side with her eyes full of tears. The king said to her, “Lady,
see what thy son’s food is,” and put some of the leaves into her hand
and also gave a little to the other ladies, who took it, saying, “O my
lord, dost thou indeed eat such food? thou endurest great hardship,”
and sat down. Then the king said, “O my son, this appears wonderful to
me,” and he spoke a stanza:

“Most strange indeed it seems to me that thou thus left alone
Livest on such mean food and yet thy colour is not gone.”

The prince thus replied:

“Upon this bed of leaves strewn here I lie indeed alone,—
A pleasant bed it is and so my colour is not gone;
Girt with their swords no cruel guards stand sternly looking on,—
A pleasant bed it is and so my colour is not gone;
Over the past I do not mourn nor for the future weep,—
I meet the present as it comes, and so my colour keep.
Mourning about the hopeless past or some uncertain future need,—
This dries a young man’s vigour up as when you cut a fresh green reed.”

Thank you so much.

I couldn't find the exact same simile. But there are two similar similes.
The first is about the contemplative being withdrawn or not being withdrawn from sensuality in body and mind.

"Then these three similes — spontaneous, never before heard — appeared
to me. Suppose there were a wet, sappy piece of timber lying in the
water, and a man were to come along with an upper fire-stick,
thinking, 'I'll light a fire. I'll produce heat.' Now what do you
think? Would he be able to light a fire and produce heat by rubbing
the upper fire-stick in the wet, sappy timber lying in the water?"
"No, Master Gotama. Why is that? Because the timber is wet & sappy,
and besides it is lying in the water. Eventually the man would reap
only his share of weariness & disappointment."
"So it is with any brahman or contemplative who does not live
withdrawn from sensuality in body & mind, and whose desire,
infatuation, urge, thirst, & fever for sensuality is not relinquished
& stilled within him: Whether or not he feels painful, racking,
piercing feelings due to his striving [for Awakening], he is incapable
of knowledge, vision, & unexcelled self-awakening. This was the first
simile — spontaneous, never before heard — that appeared to me.
"Then a second simile — spontaneous, never before heard — appeared to
me. Suppose there were a wet, sappy piece of timber lying on land far
from water, and a man were to come along with an upper fire-stick,
thinking, 'I'll light a fire. I'll produce heat.' Now what do you
think? Would he be able to light a fire and produce heat by rubbing
the upper fire-stick in the wet, sappy timber lying on land far from
water?"
"No, Master Gotama. Why is that? Because the timber is wet & sappy,
even though it is lying on land far from water. Eventually the man
would reap only his share of weariness & disappointment."
"So it is with any brahman or contemplative who lives withdrawn from
sensuality in body only, but whose desire, infatuation, urge, thirst,
& fever for sensuality is not relinquished & stilled within him:
Whether or not he feels painful, racking, piercing feelings due to his
striving, he is incapable of knowledge, vision, & unexcelled
self-awakening. This was the second simile — spontaneous, never before
heard — that appeared to me.
"Then a third simile — spontaneous, never before heard — appeared to
me. Suppose there were a dry, sapless piece of timber lying on land
far from water, and a man were to come along with an upper fire-stick,
thinking, 'I'll light a fire. I'll produce heat.' Now what do you
think? Would he be able to light a fire and produce heat by rubbing
the upper fire-stick in the dry, sapless timber lying on land?"
"Yes, Master Gotama. Why is that? Because the timber is dry & sapless,
and besides it is lying on land far from water."
"So it is with any brahman or contemplative who lives withdrawn from
sensuality in body & mind, and whose desire, infatuation, urge,
thirst, & fever for sensuality is relinquished & stilled within him:
Whether or not he feels painful, racking, piercing feelings due to his
striving, he is capable of knowledge, vision, & unexcelled
self-awakening. This was the third simile — spontaneous, never before
heard — that appeared to me.
Maha Saccaka Sutta (MN 36)

The second is about the mind being sluggish or not sluggish, agitated or not agitated, and which are the appropriate enlightenment factors for it depending on situation.

"At such times, monks, as the mind is sluggish, that is the wrong time
to cultivate the enlightenment-factor of tranquillity, the
enlightenment-factor of concentration, the enlightenment-factor of
equanimity. What is the reason? A sluggish mind is hard to arouse by
these factors.
"Suppose a man wants to make a small fire blaze. If he heaps wet
grass, wet cow-dung and wet sticks on it, if he exposes it to wind and
rain and sprinkles it with dust, can he make that small fire blaze?"
"No indeed, Lord."
"Just so, when the mind is sluggish it is the wrong time to cultivate
the enlightenment-factors of tranquillity, concentration and
equanimity, because a sluggish mind is hard to arouse through these
factors.
"But, monks, when the mind is sluggish, that is the right time to
cultivate the enlightenment-factor of investigation-of-states, the
enlightenment-factor of energy, the enlightenment-factor of rapture.
What is the reason? A sluggish mind is easy to arouse by these
factors.
"Suppose a man wants to make a small fire blaze. If he heaps dry
grass, dry cow-dung and dry sticks on it, blows on it with his mouth,
and does not sprinkle it with dust, can he make that fire blaze?"
"Yes indeed, Lord."
"... a sluggish mind is easy to arouse through these factors.
"Monks, when the mind is agitated, that is the wrong time to cultivate
the enlightenment-factors of investigation-of-states, of energy, of
rapture. Why? An agitated mind is hard to calm through these factors.
"Suppose a man wants to put a big fire out. If he heaps dry cow-dung
and dry sticks on it, blow on it with his mouth, and does not sprinkle
it with dust, can he put that fire out?"
"No indeed, Lord."
"... an agitated mind is not easy to calm through these factors.
"When the mind is agitated, that is the right time to cultivate the
enlightenment-factors of tranquillity, concentration, equanimity. Why?
Because an agitated mind is easy to calm through these factors.
"Suppose a man wants to put out a big fire. If he heaps wet grass, wet
cow-dung, wet sticks on it and if he exposes it to wind and rain, if
he sprinkles it with dust, can he put that big fire out?"
"Yes indeed, Lord."
"Just so, monks, when the mind is agitated, that is the right time to
cultivate the enlightenment-factors of tranquillity, concentration,
equanimity. An agitated mind is easy to calm through these factors.
"But as for mindfulness, monks, I declare that it is always useful."
Aggi Sutta (SN 46.53)

Thank you so much for the answer.


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What did the Buddha say about saying "I'm sorry"?
In the United States, many people find it cringy and even offensive when someone says "I'm sorry," especially when he or she does it frequently. Did the Buddha or any Buddhist teachers have any guidance on this point?

The purpose of saying "I'm sorry" has somewhat gone astray nowadays. Too often it has become a token utterance bereft of heart. The Buddha points out the key aspects of dealing with transgressions:

SN11.24:2.1: “Mendicants, there are two fools.
SN11.24:2.2: One who doesn’t recognize when they’ve made a mistake. And one who doesn’t properly accept the confession of someone who’s made a mistake.

The Buddha also teaches beyond mere apology, and AN5.142 is well worth readying and studying in its entirety. Especially take note of the teaching on regret:

AN5.142:6.4: ‘Venerable, the defilements born of transgression are found in you, and the defilements born of regret grow. You would do well to give up the defilements born of transgression and get rid of the defilements born of regret, and then develop the mind and wisdom.

It's praisworthy if one sees a fault as fault, and confesses it, ask for pardon as well. Not seeing a fault as fault, not confessing it, not asking for pardon, such one is called a fool, like someone who rejects a pardon, good householder. Reconciliation, Right & Wrong gives further food for release on this topic.

"As for the times when you realize that you’ve harmed others, the Buddha recommends that you understand that remorse is not going to undo the harm, so if an apology is appropriate, you apologize. In any case, you resolve not to repeat the harmful action again. Then you spread thoughts of goodwill [mettā] in all directions.

This accomplishes several things. It reminds you of your own goodness, so that you don’t — in defense of your self-image — revert to the sort of denial that refuses to admit that any harm was done. It strengthens your determination to stick with your resolve not to do harm. And it forces you to examine your actions to see their actual effect: If any of your other habits are harmful, you want to abandon them before they cause further harm. In other words, you don’t want your goodwill to be just an ungrounded, floating idea. You want to apply it scrupulously to the nitty-gritty of all your interactions with others. That way your goodwill becomes honest. And it actually does have an impact, which is why we develop this attitude to begin with: to make sure that it truly animates our thoughts, words, and deeds in a way that leads to a happiness harmless for all."

~ Thanissaro Bhikkhu "Metta Means Goodwill" https://www.dhammatalks.org/books/BeyondAllDirections/Section0007.html

The blamer, afflicted with this view (and suffering from it), but still detached enough from the view to question it, would do well to acknowledge and reflect on their uncertainty about it. Because that is what will allow them to take a step back and see the view as unskillful, stressful, harmful and unworthy of sustaining. When they see the view clearly as the origin of the problem (the stress and suffering that they are feeling), then they can drop it. It will still exist, but they no longer identify with it as "me" or "mine".


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Does consciousness, or wakefulness, have any relationship to space or time?
In my years of meditation practice, I have both experienced time contracting (appearing to pass at great speed) or dilating and seeming to come to a near standstill.
I begin my meditation practice by relaxing and following the breath. As this settles,  respiration becomes very slow. During this slowing of breath, the awareness of the heartbeat becomes more prominent, and it also appears to slow down to where the heart's contraction seems to occur in slow motion. I can feel/witness the contraction and sense (or imagine I am sensing) the opening and closing of heart valves. There is no striving or effort to do this, it is occurring along with the awareness of the rest of the body.
What I find unusual and have not been able to explain is that I am wearing an iWatch during this to record my mediation, and it shows that during these super relaxed periods when I am consciousness and experiencing a slowing of time and heartbeat, the iWatch is measuring an increase in heart rate! The HRV can get rather wonky and large as well.
This perception of space and time becoming distorted (I meditate mostly with eyes open) seems to occur more often the more I practice. After deep retreats, the phenomena can lead to strange occurrences around feeling or seeing future and past events as converging or simultaneously occurring.
This recent article https://boingboing.net/2022/08/17/is-precognition-real.html aligns with what I have experienced about these time distortions. The characteristics and phenomena that enhance precognition seem to relate to deep meditative practice.
What have you experienced in your practice around time and space distortion, and has this led to any precognition experiences, as mentioned in this article?
What does the Buddhist philosophy in different traditions say about time itself?
Does time exist? If so, how do we experientially know this? There appears just to be a never-ending change of state. Here and now seems always to be here and now, although how spacious that here and now "feels" does change.

In Theravada terms, time and space refer to the fetter known as 'aruparaga'. It is the 7th fetter, which has been built over many decades of exposure to the world culture regarding all formless concepts - time, space, borders and ideas about 'other worlds' traditionally referenced as an attachment to the formless realms. However, in its fundaments, it refers to the most intimate, and direct experience - the domesticated reality of the six-sense experience - rather than ideas about 'other beings' in another plane of reality.
This fetter can break permanently in one single swoop, or, as in the case of your meditation session, it can break in fragments. The fragmentation method is the most common, as it is a belief structure that has been worked into the psyche over a long period of time, but that 'time' is a creation of itself and thus holds itself captive through cause and effect, which takes 'time'. As such, the experience of time is merely a belief imposed upon you by the collective. More importantly, it is a belief that can be seen through and eradicated along with other formless beliefs like the experience that one 'thinks' there is a border between the inner subjective world and the outer objective world.
What you therefore term 'consciousness' is typically known in Theravada as the six-sense consciousnesses: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind - and these are the primary components that allow something of a conditioned experience to take place alongside something called an 'external world'; the external world and the subjective reflection of that world both arise together. Within that conditioned experience, one cognizes the passage of time.
Now, here's the question which attempts to reason with your enquiry... from where does my awareness occur if not at the six-sense doors? I've never been able to answer that question simply because I don't see there to be a relationship between what one might call 'form' and what one might call 'consciousness', let me try to explain...
The six-sense experience and consciousness could be said to be the same thing, (I didn't enjoy writing that part, but anyway!) and therefore what the sense organs perceive are also not considered relatable objects. When there is somebody there that lays claim to the six sense organs, perceptions arise and then a world with all its relatable objects. There are no relationships, but only the appearance of manifold objects seemingly complementing each other. Does the flower have a relationship with the sun? Not at all. They both simply work in unison as a single unit and the onlooker who admires the sun shining upon the flower is the same unifying phenomena somehow cognizing itself. There was never any disconnect, therefore nothing needed to be re-connected. This is a way of writing about Sunyata or emptiness. The idea of being disconnected or separate is a belief we hold in the mind. Interestingly, the idea that we are seperate is also one of the manifold ways in which this fundamental connection gives an expression of itself, but that condition is rather a pain in the arse, which forced me to discover the bigger picture.
In terms of resources, one might think of Indras net, where every dew drop in the net reflects every other dew drop. I think some sub-cultures of the Mahayana schools played around with the Idra's Net concept. There isn't a relationship happening there, anything considered in a relatable sense is imparted in the form of language, stories and those kinds of whatnots - that is when form comes into being, through the belief in language. This is not to say we must walk around in some stupefied Zen state; No. Language has a very simple functional role, and that's about it.
In summary, what I'm describing is the neurotic tendencies of the mind, which keep one running around in maddening circles... like a clown on a unicycle.
The fetter model is largely dynamic for most people, so one can begin to break higher fetters while some lower fetters remain intact.
Good luck, my friend!

Thank you, Max. This is extremely helpful! And I must say, your description of this is right on point. I have not heard of the fetter model before and I will look into it. Do you have a resource you recommend?

I don't see there to be a relationship between what one might call 'form' and what one might call 'consciousness'.

@Christopher Sunyata - I'm largely drawing upon my own vocabulary in a poor attempt to describe a non-experience, but where that points is actually outside of the vocabulary; outside of sentences & words, and thus the dualitues they create. Incidentally, it is also around the 6-7 fetter where the reality of words loose their solidity, as these too are largely formless concepts. However, I will try to update the answer to include a resource regarding form and consciousness.

@Chistopher Sunyata - updated to address the form/consciousness query. I see you haven't been around long - have you tried up-voting or down-voting answers, yet? You can also accept an answer as being the correct one: See here

All six dhātus (elements) aren't real, lasting, a refuge, good householder. Earth, water, wind, fire, "time/space", consciousness, are subject to change, decay and not for sure. Not reallt possible to control, regard it as own.
One seeing that clear, having found refuge into the Gems, is headed for beyond, cut off of ways down.
But good, how ever, to penetrate form first, as one easy get's lost in time and space while consuming on sensuality, using off precious possibilities, space and time, seldom to arise for one. Time and space, possibility, conditions are running out fast.

Does consciousness, or wakefulness, have any relationship to space or time?

Space and time are concepts. They don't exist in an ultimate sense making the question unanswerable.
I think the basis of the question is wrong due to time and space being concepts. Instead one should be mindful of the thinking process when reflecting on such questions. Diving deeper into concepts is not beneficial or useful.

No, to reach the oneness state, time, space are distractions.

My master, my teacher is Lord Buddha and I follow Dhamma which Buddha preached and asked us to follow.  If we want to completely remove ego and be free from rebirth.
He asked us not to waste our time by experimenting or searching some words like time, space, galaxy, universal stars etc.
While we are meditating we are facing these kind of questions then we keep our main purpose aside and going after the question. That is where we need to have "sathi"[ keep the mind or consciousness on one purpose.
In your question I feel while meditating you raised with the question. Then you kept aside your main targeted meditation quote or concept you now going with your question about the relationship with the consciousness and time space which is completely away from your targeted aim. This process avoiding your consciousness upgrading to the next level.
Let the body have all these changes leave it then and there. Concentrate directly to your meditaion quote or the target.  One's One Bikku followed "Anapana Sathi meditation" and  attained to "Sothapaththi Pala" The First State of mind asked lord Buddha what he should do next. Lord Buddha advice the monk to do the same again and again until he attain Nibbana.
The stage where you wer is nearing the understanding or the awareness of matters. knowledge of body organs and it's structure. But because of you take the mind away and start searching something else your concentration to the point was broken.
Once you realize that the mind takes another purpose you need to bring it back and reinstate to the point. This is very natural and that is where we need "Sathi" mindfulness or awareness to bring back and reinstate the mind to the meditaion point.
Further instructions read this article carefully: SathiPattana Lord Buddha Words. It will clear your question.


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Best Meditation for Stress
I've been meditating using different types of meditation for years now. I've been feeling a lot of stress lately, and I want to calm down in the ideal way. I've been reading neuroscience studies claiming that breath meditation is the most effective to calm down the amygdala, a key brain region in stress.
However, when I meditate on the breath, I feel somewhat tense. When I meditate openly (without object), I get shivers on my body as if I were getting calmer. During focused breath meditation, this doesn't happen. I'm having a lot of trouble figuring out whether, on the long term, breath meditation is really more calming than an objectless meditation or even of loving-kindness.
How can one know what type of meditation is most calming and de-stressing long-term?

Unlike the modern "western" medicine, which often treats the symptoms and superficial causes, Buddhism is all about finding and removing the root causes of dukkha (~suffering) including its subtype we simply call "stress".
If you think about it, and as the Buddha himself said, all of the Buddhist path is about stopping suffering and arresting causes of suffering. Specifically, the group of teachings known as The Noble Eightfold Path is a collection of methods for preventing creation of the causes of stress at all levels, from coarse to subtle and from social to innermost.
It should go  without saying, but I will still say it, that you having lots of stress in your life is indicative of gaps in your practice of The Eightfold Path. Why don't you review it and see what you get.
Leaving that aside, when it comes to meditation, suttas explain that meditation goes in progression from basic to advanced. The goal of basic meditation is to learn to focus, because most people are rather scatterbrained and are easily distracted by their own thoughts. The goal of advanced meditation is to identify and resolve emotional and mental hangups that serve as inner causes of stress.
When I say "hangups" I mean a broad class of issues like prejudices, stereotypes, overgeneralizations, internalized misconceptions, and reifications.
The work of advanced meditation is to

notice there's something in the fog
feel through the fog until you can more or less clearly see the issue
focus on the issue and observe it until its inner workings are clear
find the abstract core of the issue - the metaphorical handle you're holding on to,
resolve the issue by letting go of the handle

This process is repeated dozens and hundreds of times, taking whatever next instance of stress that comes to mind and tracing it back to its source in your psyche.
By now it should be clear that basic meditation on single object cannot by itself undo your knots and tangles. You have to work with your actual feelings and their conceptual/preconceptual roots.
Now, what is the role of objectless open-ended meditation and where does it fit in this process. The way I was taught, its role is to serve as the base camp from which the exploration of hangups takes place.
In other words, the objectless meditation, and meditation on breath too, is where you start from, and where you come back to every time you get lost, and after every successful uprooting of a hangup. While having a basecamp is important, if you stay in the camp day after day, your vacation will be over before you climb that mountain and see that bear. LOL, today I'm all over the place with my metaphors :)
I'm sorry to disappoint you if you assumed you can just sit in meditation and it will work by itself. You have to make an actual effort to explore and process your crap. Otherwise you'll just keep churning the same stress over and over.

"There’s a story of a young American monk ordained in Thailand who went to study with one of the famous forest ajaans. He asked the ajaan, “What meditation object is going to bring calm and peace to my mind?” And the ajaan said, “I don’t know. You have to find out.” The young monk hearing, “I don’t know,” thought it meant that “I don’t know anything about meditation.” He ended up disrobing and going someplace else. But that’s not what the ajaan meant. What he meant was that each of us has to find out what’s going to work for us as we meditate. You have to find the object that’s most suitable for you, and the best way to relate to it. The whole purpose of developing concentration is to get the mind to settle down, and the way to get it to settle down is to give it a place where it likes to stay settled. What’s going to work for you is going to depend on your preferences, on your background, on all kinds of factors that are purely personal.

For each of us, the process of developing concentration is an individual thing. So you have to explore. There’s no telling exactly what kind of breathing is going to be good for you, or whether there are times when you need to focus on something else instead: like recollecting the Buddha, recollecting the Dhamma, the Sangha, contemplating of the body, developing thoughts of goodwill, compassion, empathetic joy, or equanimity. It’s really a personal matter which of these is going to work for you.

There’s no one-size-fits-all kind of meditation. Breath meditation comes the closest to a universal object because, after all, we all have a breath, and for all of us it’s an important part of our lives. Ajaan Lee recommends taking it as your home base. It’s the safest of all meditation objects. But there are times when you need to forage around in other areas. You may find yourself way off in left field and have to find your way back to home base. It may require thoughts of goodwill to get back there or it may require contemplation of the body. This is something you have to explore for yourself. You have to experiment. You have to learn how to observe to see what works."

~ Thanissaro Bhikkhu "The Riddle Tree" https://www.dhammatalks.org/books/ePubDhammaTalks_v3/Section0018.html

In practice, stress relief usually comes from good physical habits. Are you eating well, exercising regularly, avoiding too much caffeine, drugs, and alcohol.
Meditation without those habits as a prerequisite is unlikely to do much for your stress levels. It's better than nothing, but you need to get your body right before you can get your mind right.
Once your health is taken care of, whatever type of meditation you find the most enjoyable is the one to go with.

Transcendental Meditation (TM) is shown by extensive scientific research to reduce stress indicators such as cortisol.  Numerous studies show reduced anxiety among TM meditators.  In a study by the American Heart Association TM significantly lowered blood pressure, indicating reduced stress.
Rev. Oshima, a Japanese Buddhist monk and teacher of TM, has taught it to thousands of Buddhist monks in Thailand and Sri Lanka, with good results.  Top Buddhist monks from Nepal and Tibet also practice TM and have said it produces unique and valuable experiences and benefits.

Well Samatha meditation will only cover up the defilements that cause you stress. It's a temporary way of being free from stress.
In the long run its ofc not suitable.
It would be better to start practicing vipassana meditation.

While the recommendation in this answer is good for the long term and solves the root cause of the problem, body sweeping or body scanning meditation as suggested below, can be a quick temporary fix.
From pages 17 - 18 of the book "The Art of Disappearing" by Ven. Ajahn Brahm:

I’ve found that body sweeping is a useful technique for people who are
restless. It was one of the meditations I introduced at a recent
retreat and the meditators loved it. They were mainly executives, very
busy people. They were so restless that giving them something to do
proved very beneficial. Slowly noticing the feelings in the body from
the toes all the way up to the head really calmed them down. It was an
active meditation but it was focused in the moment. There was not much
thinking that could go on, and so by the end of the sweeping they were
actually quite calm— surprisingly so. Of course, those who knew how to
go further carried on from there, and I was pleased that some people
got into very nice meditation for the first time.
It’s always a great joy as a teacher when students understand what
meditation is like for the first time. It is marvelous when someone
says, “It was so easy and I got so focused. I couldn’t hear anything.
I was just really inside myself. It was so nice.” The people who get
deep meditation are sometimes the ones I least expect it of. It’s
truly wonderful, and sometimes it all starts with body meditation.
Having seen those results, I want to encourage this sort of practice.
When you’re meditating, don’t just sit there and do nothing or fall
asleep. Don’t just sit there and say, “present-moment awareness,” and
then start thinking about all sorts of things. Try to develop the body
meditation. It’s not about understanding the nature of the body.
That’s a type of body contemplation that I don’t think is very useful
until after you get into deep meditation. Instead, just be aware of
the feelings in the body. Give yourself another technique in your
meditation repertoire to use during a long retreat day.

I found a Youtube video here on body sweeping meditation guided by Ajahn Brahm.

It ain't what you do, it's the way that you do it. That's what gets results. Breath meditation, brahma viharas, those are very fundamental tools all good meditators should have and use regularly. That said, I don't think it's easy to find genuine instructions on how to practice correctly according to how the Buddha taught in the suttas. Most teachings I've seen are some combination of watered down and/or over complicated by LBT (late buddhist teachings) that tend to add more tension than relaxation.
If breath meditation is making you tense, you're almost definitely not practicing it according to how the Buddha taught, or you have some physical health problems that need to be addressed first or concurrently.

Expert - Breathing
Intermediate - Walking
Beginner - Walking with chewing gum

Starters - Lift weight - It will power you up.


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Question on the eighth precept of Vipassana
The 8th precept in vipassana says to abstain from using high or luxurious beds.
Should I sleep on the floor not on bed ?

Normally monks used to have a bed height below the knee and simple one with two inches mattress. Here we need to understand the concept behind the precept.  According to buddha one should refrain from the mind, having luxury, not in physically.  But avoiding physical luxury automatically refrain from the luxury mind.  Because of that we used to live with simplicity. Lord buddha preferred to live with nature like under the tree, near the waterfall, with very minimal facilities.  But Buddha accepted palaces and comfortable things chairs beds etc.
The reason behind is until we become enlightened we have to follow the said path.  If we use more comfortable things automatically mind sets to those comfort and used to seeks those comfort.  It may hinder the following the middle path for the enlightenment.  That is why Buddha asked us to avoid two extremes an be in the middle path always.  Hope you got the idea.
Another important thing you should not touch the buddhism in words and its meanings.  Words there to explain the consequences or the occurrences.  We need to feel it from the mind, catch them using meditative wisdom. For that, first you need to learn the concept using words.  Example:- Matters 4 main Elements. Earth, Water, Fire and Air. In Earth element, it is spreading through hard to softness you have to feel each points differences with the next point.  Actually this can not e done using words even you understood using meditative wisdom.  If so lord Buddha would have already told us. But once you start experiencing the differ of the matters little by little you will understand the wisdom of lord buddha.
This is how monks used to have their beds.  This will clear your answer for your question by seeing these pictures.
01.
02.
03.
04.
May Triple Gem Bless you!!!

There's at least one Q&A on that topic at suttacentral:

Eighth Precept: What Constitutes “High and Luxurious”?

In summary the interpretation of that precept seems to vary:

I’ve seen different Theravada communities set various expectations as to how their 8 Preceptors should follow Precept No 8.

I gather that "a bed" is permitted, only not a "high and luxurious" one.
So something like "a mat" may be OK; or perhaps a thin camping-mattress.

Good sleeping is good for the meditation, but sleeping too much is bad for the meditation.
Normal people can't have good sleeping on the cold concrete cement, but better on the hard wooden bed and too much better on the king's bed.
In the same case on the difference situation, some day normal people is sick hardly, maybe the king's bed is better, then his healthy is return and the king's bed is too much good again.
On every case the wholesome meditation's development is the measure.
The way to know whether "what's  good" and "what's  bad" is the Mastery Jhana Meditation like the Buddha is teaching "Keeping on the concentration meditation because the  jhana-mastery can see the truth".

When we think about the precepts, it's always best to remember that the Buddha advocated the middle path: the path that avoids extremes. It's common even today for wealthy people to have thick, luxurious mattresses that go well beyond the needs for comfort towards pure sybaritic pleasure.  See for instance:

We don't have to sleep on a mattress on the floor; a simple frame with a simple bed for the simple purpose of sleep is perfectly appropriate. Asceticism can be as much a trap for the ego as conspicuous wealth if one engages in self-denial for the purpose of demonstrating ones own superiority.

That's pretty the best way to follow the conducts of the Arahats, yet a mat to get not dirty and catch no cold, a simple, wouldn't be wrong.

Depends on where you live. If one lives in a cold place sleeping directly on the floor might not be a good idea for health-related reasons. Instead using a low bed or very thick mattress would be good. Otherwise one can use a simple bed.
The most important thing though is to be mindful of the arising of any liking and attachment towards the bed especially when waking up in the morning and experiencing the warmth and cosiness of the bed.


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Does a Pali thesaurus exist?
When seeking to refine my mental maps of the world in any domain of expertise to more precisely differentiate between similar terms, I have found a thesaurus to be an invaluable tool.
The domain of expertise of the Buddha, namely the path from suffering to the end of suffering, is arguably of more importance than any other domain of expertise, and yet, I am not able to find a Pali thesaurus.
Does this exist?
Is anyone working on this?

A Pali dictionary will likely be of more use than a thesaurus. A thesaurus provides synonyms that support a variety of expression. However, the Buddha taught in a very precise manner, using the exact same phrase over and over again for many many years. In mathematics, we don't look for synonyms of "line" since it is precisely defined.
However, the Buddha did in fact adapt his teachings to suit the varying needs of his audience. For example, the key phrase "root of suffering" or "dukkhassa mūlan" is found in several variations:

MN1:171.4: ‘Nandī dukkhassa mūlan’ti—
MN1:171.4: Because he has understood that relishing is the root of suffering,

MN66:17.1: Idha panudāyi, ekacco puggalo ‘upadhi dukkhassa mūlan’ti—
MN66:17.1: Take another person who, understanding that attachment is the root of suffering,

A thesaurus shows the connections between similar words, but the Buddha used the same simple, everyday words (e.g. "root") to reach all audiences. The subtlety of the teachings arises from the combination of these simple words into memorable, powerful phrases. This style of teaching naturally leads us to a search for phrases, not words. The words are indeed important, but only as atomic building blocks for the phrases.
And so we find that these phrases are key to understanding the suttas. It is these phrases, not individual words, that connect the suttas together in constellations of meaning.
If you would be interested in using phrases to explore the teachings, you might find it useful to look at voice.suttacentral.net. In the search box, simply type an English word and it will display key phrases that use that word. It's not a thesaurus, but it does help build mental maps in both English and Pali.

Forgive me. I should have been more forthcoming in my aim. I believe the arahats have completely disappeared because incorrect meanings have been given to the terms used by the Buddha. These incorrect meanings have been solidified in the Pali dictionaries.
If this hypothesis is true, our task becomes the rediscovery of what the Buddha actually meant by each of these terms.
I have found a thesaurus to be useful for this type of work in other domains because it makes the process of "similarity and difference" discovery much quicker.

The importance of "phrases" rather than "words" is very helpful. So too is the suttacentral tool to explore these. Thank you.

You can use a Pali-English dictionary, to find similar words.
For e.g. I searched for "contented" on the PTS Pali-English dictionary and was able to find:

Anukkaṇṭhana Anukkaṇṭhana (nt.) [an + ukkaṇṭhana] having no lack
anything, being contented or happy J vi.4.
Tittimant Tittimant (adj.) [titti+mant] satisfied, contented, so read
at J iii.70 & vi.508 for kittimant.
Tussati Tussati [Sk. tuṣyati to *teus to be quiet, contented, happy]
to be satisfied, pleased or happy J iii.280; iv.138; Miln 210. Cp.
tuṭṭha (pp.), tuṭṭhi, tuṇhī, tosa, tosana, toseti.
Santussati Santussati [saŋ+tussati] to be contented, or pleased, or
happy; ppr. ˚amāna Sn 42. — pp. santuṭṭha & ˚tusita.
Somanassita Somanassita (adj.) [Caus. pp. formation fr. somanassa]
satisfied, pleased, contented VvA 351.

You may also find it useful to refeer to The Pali Text Society's Pali-English. Dictionary, edited by T. W. Rhys Davids, a brilliant English scholar of Pali language.


text:
How does Buddhism relate to other religions?
Can you be a Buddhist and believe in another religion at the same time?

Actually no. One who has become a "Buddhist", meaning having entered the stream, having the Tripple Gems as firm refuge, does no more seek refuge anywhere else, does no more value other teachings then the Sublime Buddhas Dhamma.
But it's of course possible to make use of the Dhamma, the right practice for it, if one desires for becoming in this or them realm, desires for this or that re-union, even for good ways in this sensual realm. So even if one desires toward union with certain Brahma, God, , good wandering on, one is able to take on proper advices, by the Sublime Buddhas Dhamma, to go for it, good Brahman.


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Enlightened beings (Amitabha, Padmasambhava) created mantras so that people chanting them can gradually 'mould' their mindstream to a similar state
This is how I understand it and I'd like some clarity on where I'm right/wrong.
Rebirth/the next birth happens when the mindstream, attracted to particular situations because of its mental imprints , 'finds' a suitable host body after death and incarnates into the flesh.
Then the being, be it human or animal or deva, undergoes a series of situations due to karmic conditioning, creates more karmic conditioning, dies and is born again ad infinitum, unless it has the fortune (or karma, really) to encounter Buddhist teachings.
Then the seed of enlightenment is planted; the being goes through several lives become increasingly interested in transcending the cycle of suffering. They follow Buddhist teachings consciously and diligently until they attain enlightenment. It doesn't have to explicitly be 'Buddhist teachings', but the being's motivation has to stem from compassion and bodhicitta.
Certain enlightened beings who have already figured out the whole cycle & broken out of it (e.g. Amitabha, Padmasambhava etc.) leave being technology that unenlightened beings can use to break out of the cycle. i.e. Mantras.
I would guess that its because chanting the mantras gradually shapes the mindstream to be more similar to that of the enlightened beings'. That's why its recommend to practice one mantra diligently, rather than spread out your efforts across several, and that 'all practice is the same because buddha-nature is the same'.
Is my understanding wrong in any way?

Does this understanding come from within a particular sect? That might help orient answers.

My background is mostly Mahayana but I would assume(?) what I described applies to Buddhism in general

Buddhism is a big and diverse thing. I lean towards Western secular Buddhism myself, so I view concepts like reincarnation and karma quite differently than (say) a traditional Theravada or Soto Zen practitioner. Only a few Buddhist sects use mantras, and you'd ideally want someone from one of those sects to answer your question.

You might like this topic: What is meant by Namu Amida Butsu and also Nam-myoho-renge-kyo?

The following text expresses the effect of the nembutsu (the chanting of the name of Amitabha Buddha in Pure Land Buddhism), causing rebirth into the Pure Land in this life itself through oneness of being and taking of refuge.
From Japanese Pure Land Philosophy on Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

Thinkers like Shinran and Shōkū, however, both understood the
utterance of nembutsu to be fulfilled practice because it arises from
the oneness of being and Buddha expressed as shinjin or taking refuge.
Further, because of this oneness, a person’s attainment of birth in
the Pure Land is completely settled in the immediate present.
The effects of the oneness are manifested not only in the occurrence
of birth in the Pure Land at death, but also in various ways in
present life. Shōkū speaks of a variety of benefits received in the
present by the person of the nembutsu, including the elimination of
the effects of past evil acts, extension of life, avoidance of various
calamities, protection of buddhas, seeing of Amida, and so on. One
should not pursue such benefits for their own sake, but they naturally
come about for the person of the nembutsu whose birth in the Pure Land
is settled. Thus, to express the condition of the nembutsu
practitioner, Shōkū even distinguishes two types of Pure Land “birth,”
“immediate birth” (sokuben ōjō) while remaining burdened with
afflicting passions in present life and birth into the Pure Land at
the time of death (tōtoku ōjō).


text:
What is the source of this information about "underground serpents"?
I've seen this glossary entry in a couple of places:
Hīnayāna: “Inferior Vehicle,” a pejorative term, coined by a group who called themselves followers of the Mahāyāna, the “Great Vehicle,” to denote the path of practice of those who aimed at Arahantship, rather than full Buddhahood. Hīnayānists refused to recognize the later discourses, composed by the Mahāyānists, that claimed to contain teachings that the Buddha felt were too deep for his first generation of disciples, and which he thus secretly entrusted to underground serpents. The Theravāda school of today is a descendent of the Hīnayāna.
Does anyone know where this claim about the origin of Mahāyāna texts comes from?

Related: Mahayana revealed from Naga world to 1st century CE+ - Why?

Apparently it comes from popular legends.
From the Encyclopedia Brittanica entry on Nagarjuna:

Nagarjuna is particularly associated with the Prajnaparamita
(“Perfection of Wisdom”) sutras in this corpus. According to legend,
he retrieved from the bottom of the sea a perfection-of-wisdom sutra
that the Buddha had entrusted to the king of the nagas (water deities)
for safekeeping.

From the New World Encyclopedia entry on Nagarjuna:

Popular legends of Nagarjuna's life state that he traveled deep into
the earth through his meditative powers (siddhi) to the lair of the
nāga king, who had been entrusted by the Buddha with the Prajñā
Pāramitā Sutras. Seeing that Nagarjuna was the one prophesied by
Gautama who would "give vast and perfect explanations of the Buddha's
teachings" (Gyamtso 2003, ix), he gave these texts to him to bring
back to the surface. This story is used to explain the first part of
his name (the second, arjuna, meaning “bright,” “shining,” or
“silver”), his close association with the Prajñā Pāramitā Sutras, and
his depiction in iconography with snakes extending over his head.