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Does your lay Buddhist name follow you for life or does it change with different temples and masters?
When you are laity and given a Buddhist name does it change with different masters and temples or do you carry it with you for life? While mostly pertaining to the Vietnamese tradition I'm very curious about all. Thank you.

There are several people I know practicing Soto Zen here in the State who, when they've changed teachers, have asked for a new name.  But I've never gotten the impression that the teachers required this.

I believe the custom of giving an ordinary lay person a Buddhist name is particular to Mahayana traditions. I'm going to add that tag for clarity; but if I'm wrong, please feel free to remove it.

IMO the Mahayana tag works very well because this question most likely has the same answer across the Mahayana spectrum. Thank you adding it.

While not authoritative I checked with a [Vietnamese Mahayana] monk friend of mine and best translated he said that since we have accepted the Triple Gem in previous lives our Buddhist names should be the same so it is held for life. That is unless you don't like it then you're free to get another at another temple. It seems like a very Buddhist response but I can't source it.

In Sri Lanka it is generally the towns name followed by a name given at ordination.
E.g. Henepola Gunaratana

Henepola is the village name
Gunaratana is the name given at ordination

Balangoda Ananda Maitreya Thero from Balangoda
I guess in other countries you might follow different schemes.
You might become famous by the monastery's name: Ledi Sayadaw (U Ñanadhaja), PA Auk Sayadaw (U Āciṇṇa) though the Dhamma name is different and hardly used. E.g. U Ñanadhaja, U Āciṇṇa. I guess you see this more in Burma.
Also names can be completely independent of monastery or town. E.g. Thanisaro Bikkhu, Achan Cha. I guess this is more seen in Thai Land.
In all of these cases the lay name has been changes and a Dhamma name has been taken at ordination.

I didn't know that about Sri Lanka. Thank you. BTW everyone should read "The Jhanas in Theravada Buddhist Meditation" by Henepola Gunaratana aka Bhante G.

All of them are good books to read.

You are so right. They are all good. Thank you so for mentioning Bhante G. You reminded me to read his writings which brings me happiness.

Good that something more positive came out of this :)

While not quite answer I was looking for it is really interesting and has a lot of great information pertaining to the subject. It works towards the general audience. Thank you again for answering it.

You are welcome. Just out of curiosity if you find the information you are looking for please let me know. I am interested in knowing also.

Within the Triratna Buddhist Order, an order member is given a name upon ordination by his or her preceptor. This is part of the "private ordination" at which the practice of the ordinand is witnessed by the private preceptor as being effective. At the "public ordination", some time later, the name is made public and the ordinand is welcomed into the Order by a public preceptor (sometimes, but not always, a more senior order member than the private preceptor).
The name is both an aspiration and a recognition of something already present in the person, or one or the other (what may or may not be conveyed to the ordinand). The name may also hint at the individual path taken by the order member, as recognised by the private preceptor.
Some, but far from all, also change their legal name to the name given at ordination.
It happens that people leave the order for various reasons. I believe that some choose to keep their "Buddhist names". The name is, after all, actually not directly linked to them being member of the order, but to the recognition and witnessing of the effectiveness of their practice.
Regards,
Kusalananda

My experience with this is limited, but I'm happy to share what I've observed. My own practice is in the Theravada tradition where only ordained monastics and anagarikas receive a Buddhist name. An ordinary lay person would not receive one.
I've visited three local Mahayana groups and temples (in the US) as a guest and at each one it was mentioned that for those new to Buddhism, if one was interested in taking refuge formally for the first time, a taking refuge ceremony was periodically available. In this taking refuge ceremony, a dharma name would be given. Requirements varied from simple sincere interest in taking refuge (at two temples) to completing coursework in Buddhist studies and attending a retreat before the taking refuge ceremony became available (with a lay led group).
At the two temples (one Korean Seon and the other a mixed tradition with a Chan monk who visits periodically), dharma names were chosen for each person taking refuge by the monks. At the lay led Buddhist group (Jōdo Shinshū), a dharma name was chosen by the person taking refuge themselves from this list of names.
Obviously, this is nothing conclusive, but the offer at each of these locations was to those taking refuge/precepts for the first time (or for the first time formally or publicly). These being English speaking groups in the US, it was understood that virtually everyone in attendance had converted to Buddhism and the taking refuge ceremony was considered quite meaningful to formalize one's intentions to follow the Buddha's teachings.
Receiving a dharma name did not appear to be connected to the particular group, temple, teacher, or monk, but simply as part of an initiation into Buddhism for those who were regular members of each of the various groups.


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Does having a child has a negative/positive impact in karma?
The question aims towards to creating a new life and not to the desire from which said life is concived. Other way of this question would be: the act of giving a life which can be seen as a being with it's own karma, creates more karma to one self?
 Has the buddha ever talked about this?

Hello wanderer and welcome to Buddhism.SE. We've put together some information to help you get started here

Thank you very much, i have read that but please inform me if i infringe in some way any rule while im getting to know the site.

It depends on the intention behind the action. If the intention is unwholesome then it will lead to unwhole resultants and vice versa if its wholesome. It is the intention that has kammic potency.
Here is a quote from the wiki about what the Buddha said when he was about to leave his palace and at the same time got news about his newborn son:

"Prince Siddhartha was preparing himself to leave the palace. One account claims that when he received the news of his son's birth he replied Rāhu jāto, bandhanam jātam — "A rāhu is born, a fetter has arisen." Accordingly the child was named Rāhula, meaning "fetter", or "impediment", recognizing that the child could be a tie that bound him to his wife Yashodhara, a binding that may impede a search for enlightenment. Others, however, feel rāhu does not mean "fetter" in this sense. The second account, found in the Mūlasarvāstivāda vinaya, is that Rāhula received his name in accordance with an eclipse of the moon, caused by the snake Rahu. In Japanese he is called Ragora (羅睺羅).
Supporting the first account, in the Dhammapada, the pleasure and joy that a man receives in his wife and children is called a "soft fetter" that ties individuals to life and suffering, not just through eventual loss and separation of loved ones but more deeply and subtly may act as ties to cyclic existence (samsara)".

Having a child is a long term commitment, responsibility and attachment which comes part and parcel. Also raising a child can be a opportunity to do good as well in raising children the right way.  (Putta darasa sangaho. “cherishing of wife and children”- Mangala Sutta) This attachment can perhaps in the long run result in generation negative karma, while the positive aspects can lead to positive karma. It is up to you to balance the two, hence this aspect of Karma you accumulate more.

Initially Yes, but caring for them in the proper way negates and eventually swings into positive.

According to Buddhism, having a child involves three conditions a fertile female egg, male sperm, and a being to be born, that is, the transmigrant/samsaric consciousness (vijnana + in two parts knowing). During unprotected sex the transmigrant will latch on to the embryo who picks out the gender. When you know this I hope you will be much wiser.

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Is vipassana practice the same as insight practice?
Is vipassana practice the same as insight practice? Are the terms completely interchangeable? I know there is the vipassana movement but this appears to be Theravadin so it makes me think that vipassana only applies to Theravadin Buddhism? However I'm sure it's broader than that - our vipassana wiki says it is if that is anything to go by.

Just one small point though. To paraphrase my teacher, one doesn't practice vipassana (insight) as that is the goal not the practice. So one practices mindfulness (for example) with the goal of vipassana or insight. :)

They are synonymous. Insight is in fact the word that is used to translate the word Vipassana.
All schools of Buddhism that talk about meditation talk about Samatha and Vipassana (but of course they'll use the sanskrit names Shamatha and Vipashyana, or their translated terms 止 観 (Chinese Zhi and Guan, Japanese Shi and Kan) or in Tibetan shiné and lhatong. They understand the meanings of these somewhat differently but no one has a monopoly on any of them.
The Vipassana movement is a particular trend of Buddhist meditation that started in Burma in the 1800's and encompases several traditions (Mahasi Sayadaw, Goenka, Pa Auk Sayadaw, etc..) and they are called the Vipassana movement just because that is their primary emphasis. But other traditions have it too, even though they might very well use very different sounding language to talk about it and have different meditation methods.

In a loose sense they are both the same in English rendering. But if you look more critically insight (Panna) is the result of practising Vipassana.

Etymology
Prajñā is often translated as "wisdom", but is closer in meaning to "insight", "discriminating knowledge", or "intuitive apprehension".
jñā can be translated as "consciousness", "knowledge", or "understanding."
Pra is an intensifier which could be translated as "higher", "greater", "supreme" or "premium", or "being born or springing up", referring to a spontaneous type of knowing.

(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism))
And

Vipassanā (Pāli) or vipaśyanā (विपश्यना, Sanskrit; Chn. 觀 guān; Tib. ལྷག་མཐོང་, lhaktong; Wyl. lhag mthong) in the Buddhist tradition means insight into the true nature of reality, namely as the Three marks of existence: impermanence, suffering or unsatisfactoriness, and the realisation of non-self.

(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vipassan%C4%81)

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Can a buddhist get married?
Im 42 years old man...i have a girlfriend..and studying Yoga, Meditation and some basics of buddhism.
I came from a Hindu religion but somehow the buddhism suits me more.
I wonder if someone that is practicing buddhism or being a monk can be married to. Cos i love my girlfriend and thinking about getting married in couple of months...on the other hand i also feels like spending more time to study the buddhism and i also feel like to become a monk in the future.
Is there a middle way..like being married, studying buddhism and become a monk or is that not possible ?
thank.

Buddhists would be extinct if they couldn't! :) But monks(real) can't get married or have any sexual activities.

Hello Ray BSD and welcome to Buddhism.SE! We've put together some information to help you get started here.

One can't get married while a monastic but one doesn't have to get a divorce to ordain although it might make it more difficult to get ordained if one was already married. It really comes down to one's intentions. If one is trying to become  married and become a monk at the same time then one should deeply ponder one's intention. The Dhamma is truly about letting go and while in the beginning it is difficult to let go, mediators who are planning to ordain should plan to transcend sensual desire as well as planning on letting go of absolutely everything.

Monks cannot marry, but in your case best course of action is to practice as a lay person until you are fully ready to leave the householders responsibility and and become a monk. Being a monk would mean you will have to leave your girlfriend.

Why do you have to leave anyone?

Monks are not permitted to have relationships. As a lay partitioner you can  have a partner but when you enter monastic life you have to leave your family behind as per Theravada monastic system,

Theravada monks (or any "vinaya compliant" monks) probably do not marry, but I think marriage of monks is not unheard of, at least, apparently, in japan -- I've personally met two soto zen monk/nun couples.

@Suminda Sirinath Salpitikorala - Why do you need to leave your family behind?

Has mentioned before Therevade monks cannot be in any relationship;  sexual, marriage, casual relationships (girlfriend / boyfriend) included.

@Motivated, going forth (into the monastic life) means leaving everything/everyone behind. Doesn't mean you can't speak to your family, but there are many rules which monastics must follow and many of them are geared towards creating conditions of solitude to create better conditions for practice and study. Solitude and family life doesn't mesh so well. :) This explains things very well if you are interested: The Bhikkus' Rules: A Guide for Laypeople.

@Robin111 - Why does solitude not mesh well with family if your family is open to providing you with the space and lifestyle?

Why monastics leave the householder life is probably a good question to ask separately to give plenty of space for answers and also so others can benefit from finding and reading the question/answers. :)


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"Gatha" (Verse) on mindfulness/contemplation of Death : Ven. Mahasi Sayadaw
Practice : Ven. Mahasi Sayadaw
Is there any "Gatha" (Verse) can be used to contemplate on "Death"?
The purpose is to use as an aid to generate necessary energy to continue practice [mostly as the first thing in the morning]

Because you mention the Mahasi Sayadaw in your question, most relevant is the Mahasi Sayadaw's discussion of the Purabheda Sutta:
http://static.sirimangalo.org/mahasi/Purabheda%20Sutta.htm
(Sorry, the formatting is off in this version)
There are some Pali phrases in that book that might be of interest, e.g.:

Vītataṇho purābhedā, pubbamanta manissito.
  Vemajjhe nupasaṅkheyo, tassa natthi purekkhataṃ.
The one who has removed craving before death, independent of past and future;
  who is not stuck in the present; for such a one there is no further becoming.

Also in the Mahasi Sayadaw tradition, it is customary to reflect on death before starting the practice:

The fourth protection for your psychological benefit is to reflect on the phenomenon of
  ever-approaching death. Buddhist teachings stress that life is uncertain, but death is
  certain; life is precarious but death is sure. Life has death as its goal. There is birth,
  disease, suffering, old age, and eventually, death. These are all aspects of the process of
  existence.
-- Mahasi Sayadaw, Practical Insight Meditation

The Pali for this is from the Dhammapada Commentary:

addhuvaṃ me jīvitaṃ, dhuvaṃ me maraṇaṃ
My life is unsure; my death is sure.
avassaṃ mayā maritabbameva,
Indeed, in the future I must die.
maraṇapariyosānaṃ me jīvitaṃ,
My life has death as its final end.
jīvitameva aniyataṃ, maraṇaṃ niyatanti
Life indeed is uncertain, death is certain.
-- Dhp-A 174 (pesakāradhītāvatthu)

These are often chanted before starting a meditation course in the Mahasi Sayadaw tradition.

Besides this, there are many verses about death in the tipitaka; the most common is that spoken by Sakka when the Buddha passed away:

“aniccā vata saṅkhārā, uppādavayadhammino.
  uppajjitvā nirujjhanti, tesaṃ vūpasamo sukho”ti.
Impermanent indeed are all formations; of a nature to arise and pass.
  Having arisen, they cease; their fading away is happiness.
-- DN 16

Another similar one we use often is Dhp 41:

aciraṃ vatayaṃ kāyo, pathaviṃ adhisessati.
  chuddho apetaviññāṇo, niratthaṃva kaliṅgaraṃ.
In no long time indeed will this body lie on the earth;
  Discarded, consciousness having departed, as useless as a charred log.

sabbe sankhara aniccati, yada pannyaya passati;                                       atha nibbindati dukkhe, yesa maggo vishuddhiya

The Upajjhatthana Sutta five remembrances is used in the evening chanting by many Theravadin temples and monasteries.
Five remembrances

Below are two English translations and the original Pali text of the "five remembrances":

I cannot avoid ageing.  I am subject to aging, have not gone beyond aging.  Jarādhammomhi jaraṃ anatīto....
I cannot avoid illness.     I am subject to illness, have not gone beyond illness.  Vyādhidhammomhi vyādhiṃ anatīto....
I cannot avoid death.   I am subject to death, have not gone beyond death.  Maraṇadhammomhi maraṇaṃ anatīto....
I will grow different, separate from all that is dear and appealing to me.  Sabbehi me piyehi manāpehi nānābhāvo vinābhāvo....
I am the owner of my actions, heir to my actions, born of my actions, related through my actions, and have my actions as my arbitrator. Whatever I do, for good or for evil, to that will I fall heir.[3]   Kammassakomhi kammadāyādo kammayoni kammabandhū kammapaṭisaraṇo yaṃ kammaṃ karissāmi kalyāṇaṃ vā pāpakaṃ vā tassa dāyādo bhavissāmī....[4]

The Buddha advised: "These are the five facts that one should reflect on often, whether one is a woman or a man, lay or ordained."[5]
The Upajjhatthana Sutta translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu
The actual gatha for chanting itself.

In The Dhammapada there are the Verse 46: The King of Death.

"Verse 46: One who knows that this body is impermanent like froth, and comprehends that it is insubstantial like a mirage, will cut the flowers of Mara (i.e., the three kinds of vatta or rounds), and pass out of sight of the King of Death."

Here is a video dhamma talk on The Dhammapada by Ven. Yuttadhammo. The video is about how one should practice in order for the King of Death not to be able to find one.
The video is called Dhammapada Verse 46: Where the King of Death Cannot See.

There are also Verses 21, 22, 23: The Mindful Never Die.

"Verse 21: Mindfulness is the way to the Deathless (Nibbana); unmindfulness is the way to Death. Those who are mindful do not die; those who are not mindful are as if already dead."
"Verse 22: Fully comprehending this, the wise, who are mindful, rejoice in being mindful and find delight in the domain of the Noble Ones (Ariyas)."
"Verse 23: The wise, constantly cultivating Tranquillity and Insight Development Practice, being ever mindful and steadfastly striving, realize Nibbana: Nibbana, which is free from the bonds of yoga; Nibbana, the Incomparable!"

Here is another video dhamma talk on The Dhammapada by Ven. Yuttadhammo. The video is called Dhammapada Verses 21, 22, and 23: The Mindful Never Die.
Lanka

In Aṅguttara Nikāya, Chakka Nipāta there are two discourses that helps the development of contemplation on death.

"... whoever develops mindfulness of death, thinking, 'O, that I might
  live for the interval that it takes to swallow having chewed up one
  morsel of food... for the interval that it takes to breathe out after
  breathing in, or to breathe in after breathing out, that I might
  attend to the Blessed One's instructions. I would have accomplished a
  great deal' — "
Maranassati Sutta: Mindfulness of Death (1)
"There is the case where a monk, as day departs and night returns,
  reflects: 'Many are the [possible] causes of my death. A snake might
  bite me, a scorpion might sting me, a centipede might bite me. That
  would be how my death would come about. That would be an obstruction
  for me. Stumbling, I might fall; my food, digested, might trouble me;
  my bile might be provoked, my phlegm... piercing wind forces [in the
  body] might be provoked. That would be how my death would come about.
  That would be an obstruction for me.'
  "Further, there is the case where a monk, as night departs and day
  returns, reflects: [repitition]
  Maranassati Sutta: Mindfulness of Death (2)


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What books address various difficulties that may arise during various stages of meditation practice?
I am looking for books that go beyond the usual introduction on how to do various form of Buddhist meditation practice but rather, in addition to describing the practices themselves, discuss various difficulties that may arise during various stages of meditation practice and what can be actively done to address these difficulties.

Welcome to the site. I edited the title slightly, to more closely match the question which you're asking.

Hello Devindra and welcome to Buddhism.SE! We've put together some tips to help you get started here. Also, if you  specify a particular type or tradition of meditation it may help you to get an answer more suitable for your practice. Be well.

... and thanks @Robin111 - good to be here!

The Five Hindrances disturb one's path in meditation and practice. The canonical description can be found in the Nivarana Sutta.
Here are some useful resources:
Book entitled Unhindered: A Mindful Path Through the Five Hindrances by Gil Fronsdal.
A selection of texts and their commentaries on The Five Mental Hindrances and Their Conquest by Nyanaponika Thera.
Essay on The Five Hindrances by Ajahn Brahmavamso. Another version of this.
Audio recordings on The Five Hindrances by Gil Fronsdal and Ines Freedman.
Online handouts: The Five Hindrances: Handouts for 2008-2009 Dharma Study Program. These seem to come from Gil Fronsdal. Should match the audio recordings.
Practicing with the Five Hindrances, a Q&A with Geri Larkin, Lama Palden, Ajahn Amaro, Michael Liebenson Grady and Sharon Salzberg.
Working with The Five Hindrances by Barbara O'Brien.
Yet another article: Methods of Working on the Five Hindrances
 by Kamalashila.

Here is a website with a teaching by Mahasi Sayadaw – Endless Moments of Insight. In here he address obstacles such as "distracting thoughts, physical discomfort, how to work with mental states, how to increase the number of objects that are being observed, distractions from the path etc.".

There is also this Q & A with Ven. Mahasi Sayadaw where he answers many important questions relating to the practice.

There is this website with a teaching by Ven. Mahasi Sayadaw called Insight Meditation: Basic and Progressive Stages. In here obstacles such as "difficulties for the beginner, the wondering mind, pain, swaying, lazyness etc. are being addressed"

If you want some longer and more in-depth teachings here are some books by Ven. Mahasi Sayadaw.
The following books discuss both the meditation practice and the obstacles one can meet on the path. There are also given antidotes and methods for how to deal with such obstacles.
A Discourse on Vipassana
An extensive guideline through the practice of Vipassana meditation and explanation of the Satipatthana medthod, including how Nibbana is realized through this method of practice.
Fundamentals of Vipassana Meditation
This book includes an explanation of the difference of Samatha and Vipassana meditation, how Vipassana is practiced, the theory behind the practice, and how the practice achieves the goal of Nibbana and fulfills the Eightfold Noble Path.
Practical Vipassana Meditational Exercises
This is a brief look to the Vipassana meditation along with a few exercises to begin with.
Purpose of Practicing Kammatthana (Buddhist) Meditation
Ven. Mahasi Sayadaw explains the two kinds of meditations taught by the Buddha as well as a brief teaching on how to practice the two methods.
Satipatthana Vipassana Meditation
This book explains the Satipatthana Vipassana meditation method that's taught by the Buddha in the Satipatthana Sutta. It explains extensively the instructions given by the Buddha in the Satipatthana sutta, the practice, and the theory behind it.
Summary of Discourses on Purity and Insight (Visuddhi-Nana-Kattha)
This is a collection of discourses given by the Ven. Mahasi Sayadaw on the subjects of purity and insight.
The Satipatthana Meditation
This is yet another discourse to extensively discuss the Satipatthana meditation method prescribed by the Buddha in the Satipatthana Sutta.
Lanka

... how to do various form of Buddhist meditation practice ...

Wisdom Wide and Deep: A Practical Handbook for Mastering Jhana and Vipassana by Shaila Catherine covers all 40 meditation objects / types and is more accessible than the Vissudhi Magga. In general other books in the Pa Auk tradition covers all 40 subjects of meditation as this is part of the training though finally may settle on what works best for you. (This is one fully contained book covering all the Theravada meditation subjects.)
If you are interested in Anapana (limited to Anapana) have a look at: Mindfulness With Breathing : A Manual for Serious Beginners which is a very good book to read which covers all 16 steps of Anapana.
If you are looking for general Vippassana (limited to Vippassana) practice have a look at: The Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation (should be complimented with the instruction in the course) or Beyond the Breath: Extraordinary Mindfulness Through Whole-Body Vipassana Meditation (this discusses some question and issues people may face - but keep in mind evey one is unique, hence what you may face maybe different). But best is that you complement this with a course which you can apply through: https://www.dhamma.org/

Do these books "in addition to describing the practices themselves, discuss various difficulties that may arise during various stages of meditation practice and what can be actively done to address these difficulties"?

Main difficulties as per Theravada tradition is the 5 Hindrances. These cover Meditation Subject + Hindrances to a varying degree. Beyond the Breath: Extraordinary Mindfulness Through Whole-Body Vipassana Meditation covers other as aspects also.

Just curious why you asked about only these titles?

I asked about "only these titles", because the titles in ruben2020's answer are explicitly about the "five hindrances"; and Lanka's answer begins with "In here he address obstacles such as" and "discuss both the meditation practice and the obstacles" ... and so I thought it was evident that those other sets of titles specifically answer the question (i.e. they describe "difficulties"); I couldn't tell just from reading your answer whether the titles you suggested specifically address difficulties, and so (I hope you don't mind) I wanted to ask you to check that.

My answer also had: "... this discusses some question and issues people may face - but keep in mind evey one is unique, hence what you may face maybe different ..."

Yes you said that about the third book. The first two books are described as covering "all 40 meditation objects" and "all 16 steps" but you didn't mention hindrances or difficulties: and so I didn't know whether they answer the OP's request, which was for book recommendations which "go beyond the usual introduction on how to do various form of Buddhist meditation practice".

Not all books in the other answers have this wording also?

Any way any serious meditation manual will cover these aspect.

Also perhaps why didn't you check is a manual in only on the hindrances and not covering all forms of mediation practices?

Let us continue this discussion in chat.

The best I can think of for your purpose of methods, the practices, and difficulties that may arise is "Twenty-Five Doors to Meditation."
For the purpose of your question this is the best book IMO but it is not limited to only Theravadin or even Buddhist practices for that matter.
(However, all are related to the quest for release from the hindrances and skandhas that bind us to non-enlightenment and it is explained in these Buddhist terms rather than any other tradition.)


text:
Can meditation strengthen the sense of self?
When I practice mindfulness meditation I can sometimes become acutely aware of my sense of self. It seems to go from a dull background awareness of self to a feeling that the sense of self is very pervasive and almost invasive into all aspects of experience. Naively I would expect that meditation would have the opposite affect and weaken the sense of self. In fairness sometimes it does but sometimes it appears to have this opposite effect.
Is that a documented result of meditation. Is there advice out there from established teachers (of any schools) about working with this? Is it just me? Has anyone got advice based on their own experience?

What is this "sense of self" you refer to? Elements of your personality? Or perhaps the limits of your individuality, made aware by the boundaries of your senses and body? Or something else?

@ThiagoSilva thank you for the comment. This to me points at something very useful. An opportunity for further examination perhaps. Would you consider a fuller and we so I could have the opportunity to upvote. Many thanks

Just do what you're doing. When you notice your self, don't fight it. Your sense of self is there for a purpose. The purpose is to find out the cause. Once the cause of self is found, the cause is removed. When the cause is removed, self ceases.
When meditation is done gently, spontaneously, peacefully, one becomes absorbed in meditation. When one is absorbed in meditation, thinking ceases. When thinking ceases, self ceases.

I like this answer, and I am not differing with it, but I would say that when thinking ceases, ego drops flat, and self is revealed. It is a ways to go to have the self drop also. Perhaps this is what the OP is perceiving - ego down but still a self? This is how I understand the OP's question, in terms of my own experience.

When thinking ceases, ego ceases. When ego ceases, "the real you" is revealed. When "the real you" is revealed, the perception "oh this is the real me" arises. When the perception "oh this is the real me" ceases, the perception "oh I am everywhere and in everything" arises. When the perception "oh I am everywhere and in everything" ceases, the perception "oh I am infinite and eternal" arises. When the perception "oh I am infinite and eternal" ceases, the perception "oh I perceive nothing" arises.

When the perception "oh I perceive nothing" ceases, the perception "oh there is no perception" arises. When the perception "oh there is no perception" ceases, perception ceases. When perception ceases, there is nothing else to be accomplished - ignorance has come to an end.

Well, I see your point. Just not sure how it directly connects to the OPs question. What I would say is that it is likely to be a long and non-obvious road, and there are people all along it at different stages who wish to be helpful. I am learning to not give advice. So, I gave my experience, as the OP asked. But I have learned that no two people have the same experiences or need the same things. "It is good to say little. Better still to say nothing."

This is because you don't notice the senses at their unadulterated state. Seeing is just seeing, hearing is just hearing, feeling is just feeling and so on. Your mind already has Sakkayaditti(the false view of taking the senses as self) which jumps the gun as soon as the sense doors receive Rupa. This is what's meant by Pamada. You have to be Appamada and catch the sense before Sakkayadhitti spoils it and turns you into Alice in the wonderland.:)

When your sense of self arises it means you're holding on to something. So it's either a craving you're holding onto or a view. Either way your meditation has made you more aware of your sense of self; and that is good!

If one practices insight meditation correctly then the practice will actually weaken the sense of Self. One will come to realize that the idea/sense of self is merely a mental formation belonging to the 4th aggregate.
By diligent and repeated practice one will come to see the 3 signs of existence, i.e. the mental formation is both impermanent, unsatisfactory and uncontrollable/ungovernable meaning it cannot be a Self.
If a Self could exist it would be something that one is in control of, something that is amenable to ones will. Through insight meditation we find that nothing in the conditioned realm is really like that.
Here is a great quote by Mahasi Sayadaw. Unfortunately i cannot find where he said it so there is no reference.
"There is deeds, but no doer.
There is movement, but no mover.
There is no unmoving mover behind the movement."

Ajahn Punnadhammo told in an audio dhamma talk that when he became a monk and did extensive walking meditation he would sometimes get caught up in phenomena and identifying with them. So what he did was to put up a sign at the end of his walking path.
The sign said: NOT ME, NOT MINE. He looked at that everytime he got caught up in phenomena.
Here is an audio dhamma talk on Anatta by Ajahn Punnadhammo. In here he talks about how the Buddha explained the 4 four ways in which we create a Self and the 3 levels of which we create a Self. The talk is highly recommendable.

Continue your meditation practice and eventually you will come to realise the 3 universal characteristics of impermanance, suffering and non-self, then you will realise the difference between self- ignorance- and non-self- wisdom.
Metta.

Satipatthana Sutta helps here.

[5] "Furthermore...just as a skilled butcher or his apprentice, having killed a cow, would sit at a crossroads cutting it up into pieces, the monk contemplates this very body — however it stands, however it is disposed — in terms of properties: 'In this body there is the earth property, the liquid property, the fire property, & the wind property.'
"In this way he remains focused internally on the body in & of itself, or focused externally... unsustained by anything in the world. This is how a monk remains focused on the body in & of itself.
[6] "Furthermore, as if he were to see a corpse cast away in a charnel ground — one day, two days, three days dead — bloated, livid, & festering, he applies it to this very body, 'This body, too: Such is its nature, such is its future, such its unavoidable fate'...
"Or again, as if he were to see a corpse cast away in a charnel ground, picked at by crows, vultures, & hawks, by dogs, hyenas, & various other creatures... a skeleton smeared with flesh & blood, connected with tendons... a fleshless skeleton smeared with blood, connected with tendons... a skeleton without flesh or blood, connected with tendons... bones detached from their tendons, scattered in all directions — here a hand bone, there a foot bone, here a shin bone, there a thigh bone, here a hip bone, there a back bone, here a rib, there a breast bone, here a shoulder bone, there a neck bone, here a jaw bone, there a tooth, here a skull... the bones whitened, somewhat like the color of shells... piled up, more than a year old... decomposed into a powder: He applies it to this very body, 'This body, too: Such is its nature, such is its future, such its unavoidable fate.'
"In this way he remains focused internally on the body in & of itself, or externally on the body in & of itself, or both internally & externally on the body in & of itself. Or he remains focused on the phenomenon of origination with regard to the body, on the phenomenon of passing away with regard to the body, or on the phenomenon of origination & passing away with regard to the body. Or his mindfulness that 'There is a body' is maintained to the extent of knowledge & remembrance. And he remains independent, unsustained by (not clinging to) anything in the world. This is how a monk remains focused on the body in & of itself.

http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.010.than.html

I see this as convincing the ego that it will come to an end, in terms of the body. The Heart Sutra basically says, "and so also with the other four skandas." Convince the ego it cannot control these things. Then the naked self is revealed, which I think is what the OP is experiencing. Then, eventually... the self is also transcended. "Gone, gone, gone beyond, gone completely beyond, Bodhi, svaha." I think that you are saying: Be Relentless. I agree.


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Distractions during practice ( Goenka)
I recently completed a 10 day Goenka retreat. When we began vipassana on the 4th day, I noticed that I was getting a lot of tension/pressure/movement around my eyes. I informed the teacher of this and she instructed me to try practicing with my eyes open to train my eyes to not move to the same point of focus as my mind (presuming that that's what was happening). It's been several weeks now since the end of the retreat and I've remained practicing 2.5-3 hours a day, every day, except since the end of the retreat I've practiced with eyes closed. The tension/pressure/movement hasn't gone away; if anything its gotten worse, to the point now that it's getting very difficult to do full body scans because the intensity of sensation around my eyes fully averts my attention back to the forehead area. Sometimes it's just a very intense but dull pressure, other times it's random and very sporadic movement of sensations, other times its a very intense energetic feeling. How do I deal with this?

You have very strong concentration but your mindfulness is lacking behind. Every time you fix your mind on an area the concentration takes over and because you have strong sensations in the eyes your concentration takes you back to the eyes.
The solution is to scan faster whereby you increase your mindfulness and not let concentration zoom in. When you have succeeded to prevent going back to the eyes then slowly slow down your scan.
You may have to start to scan as fast as a Xerox machine.

With that same concept in mind, could I also practice walking meditation at a faster pace to strengthen mindfulness?

Yes, of course. That's what I also do. I just do left right, left right, anchoring the the mind to just the walking. Try it!

Just focus on the sensation and realise that it is your aversion to the sensation which is creating your suffering, and not...the sensation causing you to suffer. There is nothing intrinsically bad or painful about the sensation, the pain and suffering is coming from your aversion, you wish to experience different sensations during your meditation, you wish to control your mind... that is causing your pain and suffering, it's your ignorance of the truth- you control nothing!!
I hope this helps! Metta.

The sensation isn't really causing  suffering, just impeding my ability to practice. In the Goenka tradition you have to move the focus of your mind from head to toe, becoming aware of the sensations present on that point of the body, scanning the entirety of the body in this way. If I'm currently "scanning" my stomach, but the sensations around my eyes are so intense that I can't focus on my stomach, therein lies my issue. In this tradition you aren't supposed to "just focus on the sensation", as you say. You're supposed to move awareness in an orderly fashion across the entire body.

Okay. Good luck!

thank you! and thank you for your comment; unfortunately I think I'm just practicing a somewhat weird tradition of vipassana it seems?

@LeeHebditch Please keep up your contribution.

Great answer by Lee Hebditch. Following is to compliment.
Your sub concious mind (Bhavanga) is the store of past Sankhara. They give results by "bubbling up". The area may have relationship to where the Karma effects.
Since you get sensations tied to your eye faculty is perhaps (speculation here) you have done some Karma in the past relating to you eye like perhaps: making someone blind or maybe donating reading glasses. The resulting sensation can be either pleasant and unpleasant.
If the sensations are unpleasant this means your past Karma has aversion as the basis. If you react with aversion you multiply this fabrication (Karma) by creating new Karma which will give similar results in the future.
If the sensation is pleasant then this means your past Karma has craving as the base. If you react with craving, you you are again creating new fabrications.
So best cause of action is not to react and be mindful and being eqaunimous while analysing the sensation. Stay with the sensation with for a while and them more on. When you stay with the sensation, there is a tendency that it might pass away. But not for too long as you: will miss more subtle sensation arising and passing away in the rest of the body, you might develop a attachment or aversion to the sensation.
You can analyse this sensation in the following ways: the start (or from 1st time you noticed) to end of the sensation (if it is short lived), start from the boundary to the centre and then to the other side, dividing the areas into smaller pieces, if you can at the level of arising and passing.
Again something additional to compliment Lee Hebditch's answer.

Other answers were good enough, but since I had almost similar problem here's my two cents. I try to make a list of all the reasons I found for my problem:
First Evil Eye glasses!
I were eye glasses and after my second vipassana I realized pressure I was feeling on my nose and template were from the weight of eye glasses. so the first thing you should investigate is physical problems. when this pressure is more intense. Does yoga, watching tv, looking at phone, etc. making it better or worse. Like a scientist you can examine all these factors.
Second, too much thinking!
yep, that's right. I realized I think way too much even doing anapana and vipassana and I realized more I think, the tension in my head increases. Now when this happen either I go back to anapana and with breath-out I tell to my body be relax, be gentle or if it doesn't stop tp the point that practicing is impossible I switch to walking meditation (i.e. walking watching my breath or sensations)
Third, Not right time
I also noticed I cannot meditate all time and in every situation. early morning and late at night or after a short nap afternoon was not ideal for my. my mind was dull and easily agitated so i tested different hours of day and find the hours that my body was most relaxed and I try to stick to these hours for daily meditation.
There were other little experiments that I made which may or may not helped my solve this problem. Like one sitting I just scanned left part of my body and the next sitting the other part. or in one sitting for example I would skip the head totally and in the other I would just scan head. I know Mr.Goenka seriously warns about changing the method but when you are uncomfortable to the level that you may give up practicing altogether, its better test a couple of things. At least, this is what I think.
Take care and I'm sure you'll be able to overcome your problem in no time

I think this maybe related to your degree of concentration. I say this because I have been having the same thing occur.
Often the eye tension continues outside of meditation due to the continued contemplation of internal and external phenomena. My concentration could be too focused or out of sync with generating insight. I'm not sure just yet.
The fact remains that this is a hindrance to the greater exercise. I would spend some extra time on this eye tension in the same way that you would use your attention elsewhere on other bodily phenomena. It would be fitting to spend several minutes on this or until you feel that you can continue with scanning.
The unpleasant eye experience will have, within it, its own shifting characteristics and undulating intensities. If you're very astute you may also see a transaction occuring between the unpleasant sensation and the mind. The noticing of this transaction is key and is often overlooked by even the most experienced meditator. Mind can bypass the grossness of its monologues and dialogues and take on a much more subtle form of interpretation of bodily phenomena. This can fool the meditator into 'thinking' that mind is not contributing to the unpleasant phenomena.
Moreover, one might consider a medical check up.


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How do animals attain enlightenment?
The Wikipedia article on animals in Buddhism states that animals have Buddha nature, and therefore have potential for enlightenment. I do not dispute this as I sit here petting my cat, but wonder - what are the actual mechanics of how they might go about this? For humans, the path is laid out for us in the teachings of the Buddha. But how can an animal achieve the same final goal?

Ignorance is the cause of birth and death. Birth and death comes from craving. Craving comes from desire. Desire comes from wanting pleasure. Pleasure comes from avoiding suffering.
When a being comes to this plane, it comes because it's ignorant of who it is. That being starts to learn. While learning, it does many mistakes. It invents birth. It invents death. It searches for pleasure. It avoids suffering to find pleasure. It does so many many many many many lives.
When a lion came to this plane, it came because it was ignorant of who it was. That lion is learning. While learning, it did many many mistakes. It was born. It wanted to live. It searched for pleasure. It avoided suffering. The more it found pleasure and avoided suffering, the more it learned. The more it learned, the more it knew after death. The more it knew after death, the more it knew after rebirth. Positive kamma was building up many many many many lives.
When that being was reborn into this plane, it was reborn because it was ignorant of who it was. That being has learned. While learning, it did many many many mistakes. It was born. It wanted to live. It learned that by avoiding suffering, pleasure will come. By avoiding suffering and searching for pleasure, that being learned good-and-bad. The more it learned, the more it knew after death. The more it knew after death, the more it knew after rebirth. Positive kamma was building up many many many lives.
When that being was reborn into this plane, it was reborn because it was ignorant of who it was. That being has learned. While learning, it did many many many many mistakes. It was born. It wanted to live. From differentiating good-and-bad it learned to avoid suffering. The more it avoided suffering, the more it knew. The more it knew, the more it renounced suffering, pleasure, desire, craving, death and birth. Positive kamma was building up many many lives.
When a being comes to this plane and renounces birth, death, craving, desire, pleasure and suffering, that being is liberated. It knows: "Oh, ignorance! Ignorant I was! I did many many many many many mistakes. That's the reason for all this mess."
By completely eliminating suffering, pleasure, desire, craving, death and birth, ignorance ceased. When ignorance ceased, it learned who it was. By learning who it was, kamma was found. By finding kamma, kamma was unwinded. By unwinding kamma, knowledge about previous lives arose. By arising knowledge of previous lives, that being knew: "This is suffering. This is the cause of suffering. This is the end of suffering. This is the end of all this mess".

++ This is all about Karma and Vipaka. Nice :)

In short they get reborn as a human being sometime in the future and practice.
You could help by reading some dhamma(suttas) to your cat if you wish.
There is a precedence in a sutta where a frog was listening to a Buddha's discourse and got killed because someone accidentally impaled it with a walking stick. It was then reborn as a deva.

In short they get reborn as a human being sometime in the future and practice. Well that is not always true :)

@Siddhartha please specify the "not always true" exception and which traditions it comes from. :)

As per Vajrayana, all beings are capable of taking a rebirth into any of these six realms. 1) God Realm 2) Jealous god realm 3) Human realm 4) Animal realm 5) Hungry ghost realm and 6) Hell realm. So an animal can “upgrade” to a human birth. Or if enlightened merge into God Realm.
Theravada or Ditthi-yana may have a different opinion but the basic point is that it is not necessary for an animal to take a rebirth only in Human form.

@Siddharth Rout, that comment is worthy of a full answer. Post if you wish :-)

No Thanks @Anthony. I am done with Buddhism forum. I have already deleted all my answers and put in a request to delete my account :)

An animal can't be liberated as an animal; that being itself may be liberated in future births in higher realms of being.

Understood - but how does the animal attain the higher level of being? A lion, for example, has lion tendencies, and so kills other animals to survive. A human doing that may be knocked down a notch in the samsara reckoning, but the lion...?

the lion wasn't always a lion; the lion may have past seeds he has sown which may help him in the future. but as you say, it is not easy to be born a human. This is all just conjecture though. Only a Buddha can fully understand kamma. The best way the rest of us can appreciate it is through the direct experience of practicing meditation.

There are some interesting cases among animals not only cat but birds, dogs, cows, fish and any kind.
Hope this is helpful.
Don't take it too seriously but for your reference.
About a cat who refuse to eat chicken, catfood, fish, or any meats and only eating vegetables and shedding tears when given food.
https://youtu.be/CN5yKheno_s

"Dog tries to save fish with water"
http://youtu.be/Mx_X6hmhwrs
Watch it and it inspires.

Hello DanEng and welcome to Buddhism.SE. We've put together some useful information to help you get started here.

Hi DanEng:) One-line answers cannot really be considered answers. Could you add some more text material or references to the texts? Thank you.


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Buddhist shaolin monks and their practice
I once saw a television program about Buddhist shaolin monks. They were extremely skilled in martial arts and begin their training as young as 3-4 years old. Their day consists of martial arts training and Buddhist practice.
I was wondering about two things:

What Buddhist tradition do shaolin monks follow?
What kind of meditation do they practice?

Thank you for your time.
Lanka
Click on photos for full size

AFAIK Buddhism in nature is the path of eliminating sufferings, cultivating perfect wisdom and attaining enlightenment. There is no "tradition" per se.
Here is an interesting read

My Tai Chi teacher said he was from Wudang: that they closed the monastery there during the Great Cultural Revolution and made people find work (so, he worked as a bodyguard then and training soldiers). I think that the Chinese State isn't happy with there being too many different political organizations; for example, Christians are allowed, but not Roman Catholics, so whatever is happening in Shaolin is politically compatible with the Chinese State.

I also guess (but this is just a guess, I don't know and have never met anyone from Shaolin) that they (the State) might see Shaolin as being chiefly important for its cultural (or even touristic) appeal and legacy, rather than for its Buddhist tradition.

@Chris. Thanks a lot for the insight-answers. Do you know about the current political situtation for these monks? I mean it sounds like their culture and oppertunity for practice is being taken away from them by the government. When looking at pictures of them they seem to just mind their own business in the mountains. They seem peaceful.

The Cultural Revolution happened decades ago, under Mao Zedong: The government purged Buddhist materials from within the monastery walls, leaving it barren for years. I don't know what the current situation is, but I'm speculating that "tradition" was disrupted somewhat.

I see. I will try read up on the link you gave. I find these monks fascinating. The way they develop both body and mind. I mean in other buddhists traditions one meditates to achieve insight into the impermanence of the human body and here these monks are training to perfect their human form and to make it hard like iron so it can perform magnificent techniques. I wonder if that is their "nibbana".

Shaolin Buddhism
"Action Meditation"
Basically Shaolin martial arts come from the idea of “action meditation” of Chan (dhyana – Sanskrit, Jhana – pali) Buddhism (Mahayana).
The first Shaolin temple was started by an Indian Theravada monk called Buddhabhadra and the next Abbot of the temple was the famous Indian Mahayana monk called Bodhidharma who brought Chan Buddhism to China.
Batuo and the Shaolin Temple

The Shaolin Temple was founded in 495 by the Indian monk Batuo, or Buddhabhadra. After traveling to China, he received permission from Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei dynasty to build a temple at the foot of Shaoshi mountain in the Song mountain range in the Henan province. The word Lin means forest in Chinese, thus the temple was named Shaolin for the forest at the foot of Shaoshi mountain.
Batuo preached the orthodox teachings of Hinayana, or Nikaya Buddhism (Xiao Sheng in Chinese). In this type of Buddhism, which closely follows the teachings of Shakyamuni, there are 250 rules for monks and 500 rules for nuns. Batuo had two disciples named Sengchou and Huiguang, who were both martial artists before becoming monks. They were the first ones to bring martial arts to the temple.

Bodhidharma

Bodhidharma (PutiDamo or just Damo in Chinese) was another prince of a clan in what is now India. He also chose to leave the royal life to become a monk. When Bodhidharma came to the temple in 527, he brought the teachings of Chan Buddhism, part of the Mahayana (Da Cheng) school. This understanding had been passed down directly from Mahakasyapa to Bodhidharma's master Prajnatara, who was the 27th in the lineage. Bodhidharma was the 28th, and the first patriarch of Chan in China.
Bodhidharma created 4 integral parts of Shaolin Kungfu, also sutras. They were

2 qigong (Chi Kung) forms; the Yijin Jing (Muscle Tendon Changing Sutra) and the Xisui Jing (Bone Marrow Washing Sutra)
The Wuxing quan, the 5 original animal forms (Dragon, Tiger, Leopard, Crane, and Snake)
The Luohan Shiba Shou, The 18 Luohan Palms

Bodhidharma's disciple Huike was, like Sengchou and Huiguang, a military man before becoming a monk, and also brought martial arts knowledge to the temple. Huike became Damo's successor, and after him there were four more before the lineage ended. They were Sengcan, Daoxin, Hongren, and Huineng.

More on Shaolin Martial Arts

Shaolin monks practice Ch'an Buddhism. They say that the teachings of Ch'an Buddhism are inseperable from Shaolin martial arts, and that to reach the highest level both are required.
Often it is said that Bodhidharma visited the temple and found that the monks were not physically fit to make progress in meditation. This is why he created the chi kung forms Yi Jin Jing (Muscle Tendon Changing Sutra) and the Xi Sui Jing (Bone Marrow Washing Sutra). It is said that his teachings formed the basis for Shaolin martial arts. Martial arts were practiced in China long before this time, and other traditions including Taoism no doubt influenced the development of Shaolin.
In Western culture it is very natural to talk a lot and ask lots of questions. Also in the West, if someone wants to learn about Buddhism they often start to read lots of sutras and books. But Shaolin Buddhism in common with other types of "Zen" Buddhism places an emphasis on experience. It is "A transmission outside of the scriptures, not relying on words, pointing directly to one's mind. The attainment of Buddhahood by seeing into one's nature."
Shaolin Buddhism is an esoteric form of Buddhism which incorporates a thorough knowledge of internal energy (chi). Skill in cultivating this energy can lead to feats that appear superhuman. It is used both for healing and for martial arts. Also internal energy is considered essential for deep states of meditation.
Shaolin monks practice both mindfulness meditation and concentration meditation. There is also the philosophy that everything you do can be a form of meditation. Sometimes students are given a koan (gong'an), or a hua tou.
The master is able to tell which methods of meditation are best for the student at their particular stage of practice.
Shaolin Buddhism has now spread worldwide with temples in many countries.


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Proper practice with the five hindrances
What is the proper way one should incorporate the concept of the five hindrances into the practice?
For instance, should a lustful thought arise in the mind, followed by a bodily sensation, at what point is the sensual desire noted and in what way do we go about "overcoming" it?
Are the five hindrances done away with through proper understanding and experience of their impermanence? thank you

Hello Ryan and welcome to Buddhism.SE. We've put together some useful information to help you get started here.

I have recently posted an answer to a question very similar to yours. In there i write about The Five Hindrances and give references to a book and an audio dhamma talk on the topic. In the book and audio talk a thourough description of the hindrances and their antidotes are given.
You can find the answer here. Maybe it can be of help to you.

What is the proper way one should incorporate the concept of the five hindrances into the practice?

The hindrances are what blocks one from developing in meditation. When the mind is obscurred by concepts, desires, doubts etc. and therefore not being able to "see clearly" there will be wavering in the mind. When there is wavering in the mind the true nature of phenomena cannot be seen, i.e. the 3 signs of existence.
You mention impermanence yourself and that is one of them. The other two are; dukkha = unsatisfactoriness and anatta = not-self, the impersonal nature of phenomena.
There are different ways to deal with the hindrances. As Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi talks about in the audio dhamma talk one can note the hindrance a couple of times and return to the primary object of meditation e.g. the rising and falling of the abdomen. The hindrance might come back multiple times and with greater intensity. One can then leave the abdomen and instead take the hindrance as a primary meditation object. If that does not work too then one can begin to administer antidotes to the hindrance. See the quote in next section.

Here is a quote on how to overcome the first hindrance which is "Sensual Desire":

SENSUAL DESIRE

A. Nourishment of Sensual Desire
  There are beautiful objects; frequently giving unwise attention to them — this is the nourishment for the arising of sensual desire that has not arisen, and the nourishment for the increase and strengthening of sensual desire that has already arisen.
— SN 46:51
B. Denourishing of Sensual Desire
  There are impure objects (used for meditation); frequently giving wise attention to them — this is the denourishing of the arising of sensual desire that has not yet arisen, and the denourishing of the increase and strengthening of sensual desire that has already arisen.
— SN 46:51
Six things are conducive to the abandonment of sensual desire:
Learning how to meditate on impure objects;
  Devoting oneself to the meditation on the impure;
  Guarding the sense doors;
  Moderation in eating;
  Noble friendship;
  Suitable conversation.
  — Commentary to the Satipatthana Sutta

Learning how to meditate about impure objects
  & 2. Devoting oneself to the meditation on the impure
  (a) Impure objects
  In him who is devoted to the meditation about impure objects, repulsion towards beautiful objects is firmly established. This is the result.

— AN 5:36
"Impure object" refers, in particular, to the cemetery meditations as given in the Satipatthana Sutta and explained in the Visuddhimagga; but it refers also to the repulsive aspects of sense objects in general.
(b) The loathsomeness of the body
  Herein, monks, a monk reflects on just this body, confined within the skin and full of manifold impurities from the soles upward and from the top of the hair down: "There is in this body: hair of the head, hair of the body, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, pleura, spleen, lungs, intestines, bowels, stomach, excrement, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, lymph, saliva, mucus, fluid of the joints, urine (and the brain in the skull)."
— MN 10
By bones and sinews knit,
  With flesh and tissue smeared,
  And hidden by the skin, the body
  Does not appear as it really is...
  The fool thinks it beautiful,
  His ignorance misguiding him...
  — Sutta Nipata, v.194,199
(c) Various contemplations
  Sense objects give little enjoyment, but much pain and much despair; the danger in them prevails.
— MN 14
The unpleasant overwhelms a thoughtless man in the guise of the pleasant, the disagreeable overwhelms him in the guise of the agreeable, the painful in the guise of pleasure.
— Udana, 2:8

Guarding the sense doors
  How does one guard the sense doors? Herein, a monk, having seen a form, does not seize upon its (delusive) appearance as a whole, nor on its details. If his sense of sight were uncontrolled, covetousness, grief and other evil, unwholesome states would flow into him. Therefore he practices for the sake of its control, he watches over the sense of sight, he enters upon its control. Having heard a sound... smelt an odor... tasted a taste... felt a touch... cognized a mental object, he does not seize upon its (delusive) appearance as a whole... he enters upon its control.

— SN 35:120
There are forms perceptible by the eye, which are desirable, lovely, pleasing, agreeable, associated with desire, arousing lust. If the monk does not delight in them, is not attached to them, does not welcome them, then in him thus not delighting in them, not being attached to them and not welcoming them, delight (in these forms) ceases; if delight is absent, there is no bondage. There are sounds perceptible by the ear... odors perceptible by the mind... if delight is absent, there is no bondage.
— SN 35:63

Moderation in eating
  How is he moderate in eating? Herein a monk takes his food after wise consideration: not for the purpose of enjoyment, of pride, of beautifying the body or adorning it (with muscles); but only for the sake of maintaining and sustaining this body, to avoid harm and to support the holy life, thinking: "Thus I shall destroy the old painful feeling and shall not let a new one rise. Long life will be mine, blamelessness and well-being."

— MN 2; MN 39

Noble friendship
  Reference is here, in particular, to such friends who have experience and can be a model and help in overcoming sensual desire, especially in meditating on impurity. But it applies also to noble friendship in general. The same twofold explanation holds true also for the other hindrances, with due alterations.

The entire holy life, Ananda, is noble friendship, noble companionship, noble association. Of a monk, Ananda, who has a noble friend, a noble companion, a noble associate, it is to be expected that he will cultivate and practice the Noble Eightfold Path.
— SN 45:2

Suitable conversation
  Reference is here in particular to conversation about the overcoming of sensual desire, especially about meditating on impurity. But it applies also to every conversation which is suitable to advance one's progress on the path. With due alterations this explanation holds true also for the other hindrances.

If the mind of a monk is bent on speaking, he (should remember this): "Talk which is low, coarse, worldly, not noble, not salutary, not leading to detachment, not to freedom from passion, not to cessation, not to tranquillity, not to higher knowledge, not to enlightenment, not to Nibbana, namely, talk about kings, robbers and ministers, talk about armies, dangers and war, about food and drink, clothes, couches, garlands, perfumes, relatives, cars, villages, towns, cities, and provinces, about women and wine, gossip of the street and of the well, talk about the ancestors, about various trifles, tales about the origin of the world and the ocean, talk about what happened and what did not happen — such and similar talk I shall not entertain." Thus he is clearly conscious about it.
But talk about austere life, talk suitable for the unfolding of the mind, talk which is conducive to complete detachment, to freedom from passion, to cessation, tranquillity, higher knowledge, enlightenment and to Nibbana, namely, talk about a life of frugality, about contentedness, solitude, aloofness from society, about rousing one's energy, talk about virtue, concentration, wisdom, deliverance, about the vision and knowledge of deliverance — such talk I shall entertain." Thus he is clearly conscious about it.
— MN 122
These things, too, are helpful in conquering sensual desire:
One-pointedness of mind, of the factors of absorption (jhananga);
  Mindfulness, of the spiritual faculties (indriya);
  Mindfulness, of the factors of enlightenment (bojjhanga).
-- "The Five Mental Hindrances and Their Conquest" by Ven. Nyanaponika Thera

Lanka

What is the proper way one should incorporate the concept of the five hindrances into the practice?

Sensory desire and Ill-will - recognise the sensation associated with it, analyse this sensation by dividing and dissecting it and closely observing it, know what this is also arising and passing devoid of craving and aversion
Restlessness - Recognise it and try to switch to Anapana for a while to develop more concentration. Also try scanning the body fast but progressively slow downing
Sloth and torpor - can the body in rapid succession then try to investigate the Dhamma by looking smaller areas
Doubt - When your faith is not as mature to the level of your theoretical knowledge - Intensify you practice to experience what you know as theory

For instance, should a lustful thought arise in the mind, followed by a bodily sensation, at what point is the sensual desire noted and in what way do we go about "overcoming" it?

Look as the sensation devoid of craving or clinging. Note the sensation of then you get the sensation. When you come in contact with the object of lust (the thought or contact). See above on overcoming it.

Are the five hindrances done away with through proper understanding and experience of their impermanence?

This is one as aspect of it. See above.


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What if the Buddha wasn't a prince?
If the Buddha wasn't a prince would his outlook on life been different? If he was a farmer looking after his land, feeding his family for example, would he have simply left his responsibilities behind to attain Nirvana?
If he was the father or husband of a family that needed him, would he have left them?
The purpose of the question is to understand that the Buddha left his family who had all the comforts in life. He didn't need to be concerned with their welfare since they would be provided for. How does one relate this lives of those who do not have these safety nets?

Regardless of the family situation, there's no issue in leaving if the intention is to genuinely strive for enlightenment.

To the first few questions the answer lies with parami/paramitas. These are the perfections which someone who made a vow to become a Buddha will have to develop to perfection for countless aeons. So a Buddha is someone who have trained for aeons until he is perfect to re-discover dhamma and teach. So his last birth will always be of a high social class.
"How does one relate this lives of those who do not have these safety nets?"
Develop the ten paramis and situations in life will change in such that one may have the opportunity.
In the Pāli canon's Buddhavaṃsa[3] the Ten Perfections (dasa pāramiyo) are (original terms in Pāli):
Dāna pāramī : generosity, giving of oneself
Sīla pāramī : virtue, morality, proper conduct
Nekkhamma pāramī : renunciation
Paññā pāramī : transcendental wisdom, insight
Viriya (also spelled vīriya) pāramī : energy, diligence, vigour, effort
Khanti pāramī : patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance
Sacca pāramī : truthfulness, honesty
Adhiṭṭhāna (adhitthana) pāramī : determination, resolution
Mettā pāramī : loving-kindness
Upekkhā (also spelled upekhā) pāramī : equanimity, serenity

The Buddha will always be of a Noble birth and high social status. Not all Buddhas were in the past were princes. This said, the rest of the hypothetical speculation will not hold.


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Introduction to Samadhi meditation
Can anyone give me a brief introduction into practicing samadhi meditation? I could start saying i understand the common principles of meditation. I had practiced a peacefull breath based meditation in the past, but i didn't have any instruction whatsoever. Recently in my life i been practicing vipassana meditation, but i ended dropping it. I think samadhi meditation may be what i'm looking for for this moment in my life.

If you did before you can easy to start it again.First few days you will fell that you can't do it like previous.But most important thing is don't discourage and continue it.Triple gem bless you.

I would recommend three great dhamma talks for you. They contain in-depth descriptions of the practice of Samatha Meditation and also how to practice it.
The first one is called "Samatha Meditation" by Ajahn Punnadhammo. In here the basic principles are discussed.
There is also a second one by him called "Samatha - Vipassana" which i would also recommend. Here he talks about the differences between the two.
The third one is called "Meditation" by Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi. In here he talks about both Samatha and Vipassana Meditation. He discusses many aspects of the practices both basic principles and obstacles to progression.

Insight meditation is what you ultimately strive at. You can start with Samadhi and progress to insight.
When getting instructions for Samadhi meditation it is best you get this from a competent teacher who can guide you. Have a look at the World Buddhist Directory to see if you can locate some on in your area: http://www.buddhanet.info/wbd/. If you want to try out using Anapana to develop Samadhi and them progress to Vippassana perhaps you can also try out a course at: https://www.dhamma.org/en/index. (There are over 200 centres world wide.)
In case you are in the receptive area some relevant centres maybe (check if the do the type of Samatha mediation you want to practice):

http://bhavanasociety.org/
http://www.dhammasukha.org/
http://www.dhammatalks.org/
http://www.imsb.org/ (Though the name suggests insight the teacher is from Pa Auk tradition hence competent to teach Samatha)
http://cms.bswa.org.au/
http://www.amaravati.org/
http://www.samatha.org/

One of the best book I've read on Samadhi is by Ajahn Sucitto called Meditation:A way of Awakening especially about sitting posture.
If we get the sitting posture right half the work of meditation is done. His description of sitting posture is unparalleled in its precision, i.e. from my experience.

You don't need much (if any at all) instruction when beginning the practise, since the aim of the practise is to concentrate the mind.
The key to success in any kind of Samatha meditation is to concentrate on your meditation object for as long as you can, and keep coming back to it when your attention falls away. For example, you can use your breath as a meditation object. As you keep doing this, your mind becomes calmer and concentrated.
When you keep doing this for a long period of time (depends on how regularly you practise, how long you practise during each session, etc.), and your concentration becomes very good, then a sign of concentration appears. Here too, not much instruction is needed - you just keep concentrating on your meditation object as before, and your concentration will develop even more. As you do this, the sign of concentration becomes more and more stable. When the sign of concentration is very stable, then you switch your meditation object to the sign. The sign (if you are using the breath as an object) can be seen as a light in the inner eye, or it can be felt as a sensation at your nose tip.
But you don't have to worry about the sign in the beginning. Just keep coming back to the object, be regular in your practise and practise frequently.


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Is it possible to see the counterpart sign (nimitta) with eyes open?
As a beginner, I practice two forms of meditation: one focusing on the breath (typically with eyes closed), and one focusing on a colored disc (kasina), obviously with eyes open (unless cultivating the after-image). All descriptions I have seen for the former describe the arising of the counterpart sign when the eyes are closed. However, from what I have read on kasina meditation, the counterpart sign seems to arise with the eyes open. I have not experienced either of these myself (and in fact, this link dismisses its importance altogether), so I would like to ask: is it possible for nimitta to form iin either case?

I do not practice Samatha also from what I have heard:
Generally you don't get the counterpart sign with eyes open, but there may be cases of practitioners who can enter the Jhanas with eyes open. Perhaps more among people who do the Akasa Kasina.  (If I remember write in a chronicle late Ven. Ananda Mitri Thero mentions such a Yogi doing the Akasa Kasina) In actually what needs to be done in Kasina is to create the perception of the meditation object in your minds eye. If it is Yellow, create a yellow circle in your mind. To do this generally it helps to have your eyes closed so you do not have any distractions.
Another observation of the 2 links is: one in on Kasina and the other seams to be on Anapana. (I only skimmed through it.) So what is said for Anapana may not be generalised to Kasina.
Having said this, on a site note, it is advisable to always have a teacher when doing Samatha. It is generally dangerous to do by just reading books or material you collect from forums or the internet. If you are in US maybe you can try: http://www.imsb.org/. Perhaps the teacher can teach Kasina. If you are in some other location try: http://www.buddhanet.info/wbd/. The Pa Auk tradition generally train their followers in all the 40 meditation subjects (you have to choose a suitable subject for your self), hence try to see if you can locate a teacher in this tradition in your area.

The proof of the pudding is in the eating, no matter how many books are written about the pudding. Once eaten there can be no mistake about it.
As a samatha meditator, both the signs exist for both types of meditation and which still appear when the eyes are open if they are vivid.
Having said that I've quiet a few  fellow  meditators who do not see the signs but continue to develop Jhanas using feeling.

Agreed, both cases can occur, eyes open and shut for nimitta and jhana.

It might vary from meditator to meditator.
The following quote is from the book "Practicing The Jhanas" by Tina Rasmussen and Stephen Snyder. They were both students of Pa Auk Sayadaw and undertook a Samatha Meditation Course under his guidance.
They write in the book that they achieved the 4 material jhanas and the 4 immaterial jhanas.
Here is a description of Tina Rasmussen's practice where it's talked about her being able to see the nimitta with open eyes:

"... The nimitta will arise more and more often as continuity of practice continues. It will gradually increase in size and be present more continuously throughout sitting meditation and even while the meditator is moving around with eyes open. We each had the experience of seeing the nimitta, on occasion, when our eyes were open while walking or eating. For Tina, at some points the nimitta was visible consistently while walking around with eyes open. This is not required or necessary but can happen. Once the nimitta is present for the duration of nearly every meditation period, it is considered to be stable... "
-- Practicing The Jhanas, Ch. 4, p. 181


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How are Buddhist Sacred Texts used in practice and historically, given the questioned authenticity of some of them
I'm curious on how Buddhist Sacred Texts are used in teachings and in practice.
The Buddha often says not to solely follow transmitted tradition, instead Buddhists are "exhorted to know for themselves."
(Pg 2-3, of Scriptural Authority: A Buddhist Perspective by Shi Zhiru).
However, some sutras give sacred texts a much stronger authority (Pg 4).
Given that some sacred texts are not evidently authentic, some of which are written hundreds or even thousands of years after the Buddha's passing, what authority do practicing monks and the Sangha give to the sacred texts? How are these texts used? Are they used merely as a guidebook or as intensely analyzed, as say, the Christian Bible?
I appreciate any answers with any sources if used! Thanks

Hello Alexander and welcome to Buddhism.SE! We've put together some useful information to help you get started here.

From a more secular perspective the Pail Canon has the definite merit of being closer to the time of the Buddha so could (controversially?) be argued has the greatest authenticity. However there is an enormous canon of Mahayana literature that from a historic point of view was written hundreds of years after the time of the Historical Buddha. To the adherents of these forms of Buddhism these texts most certainly don't lack authenticity. In fact the ones that I'm familiar with go further and insist that they are higher teachings that build on more provisional early texts.
A couple of examples
The Perfection of Wisdom sutras are early Mahayana texts. The tradition goes that the Buddha entrusted the texts to the Nagas (water snakes or dragons). Hundreds of years later Nagarjuna rediscovered these from the nagas then redistributed them to the world. So according to tradition the texts are authentic although they were only available much later on.
Another Mahayana text the Lotus Sutra goes to great lengths to point out that the text is the authentic word of the Buddha even though it was written after his death. It asserts that it is a higher teaching that augments and to some extent supersedes the early texts. In this case the Buddha is still teaching the text but in this work the Buddha is seen more as existing throughout time and takes on a more cosmic aspect so the words been written afterwards become less of a problem. This quote illustrates the timeless aspect of the Buddha in the Lotus sutra

Suppose all these worlds, whether or not a particle was left in them,
  were reduced to particles, and each particle represented a kalpa. The
  period of time since I became a buddha would exceed this by hundreds
  of thousands of myriads of koṭis of nayutas of incalculable kalpas.
  Since then I have constantly been residing in the sahā world,
  teaching the Dharma and inspiring sentient beings. I have also been
  leading and benefiting sentient beings in incalculable hundreds of
  thousands of myriads of koṭis of nayutas of other worlds.

Use of the texts
As to how people understand of use these texts - since the later texts are still seen as the authentic Buddhist text they will be used in that manner. Bear in mind also there are texts that do not make the claim to be the authentic word of the buddha such as Santideva's Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra. A huge number of people, past and present, find these texts hugely rewarding spiritual works in the same way as people have an enormous regard for Christian works such as An Imitation of Christ. It doesn't need to the the direct word of the the Buddha to be a valuable spiritual work.
I have personally read (a reasonable portion of) the Pali canon and the Mahayana works listed here (Diamond sutra and Heart sutra from the perfection of wisdom) and I would urge anyone who is interested to spend time with the Mahayana texts as well as the Pali Canon texts. It's my belief that these works aren't (just) instructional manuals - the reading of them is an act of devotion and Buddhist practice in and of itself. Read the Lotus Sutra and allow the great swirling cosmic vastness of it all transport you somewhere else.

The Tipitaka was written down during the 4th Buddhist council which was held in Sri Lanka. It was headed by Venerable Maharakkhita and five hundred other Arahants. Lord Buddha never said not to accept the word of the Arahanths. Those who question the authenticity of the Tipitaka and the commentaries are just individuals surfacing from time to time. They don't represent any Buddhist council and they might not even have attained any stage of enlightenment. So unless you have undeniable proof that some teaching is not inline with Buddhism, it's best to accept the ruling of the councils instead of accepting the modern commentaries of certain individuals when you don't have proof either way. It takes away the worry of having to prove everything and gives you a nice state of mind to work on your salvation with confidence.

Expecting some downvotes since this view isn't so popular with new age Buddhists :D

I hope that people wouldn't downvote (any) answer because it comes from a different tradition to their own practice. Your answer (and many of our answers) are a genuine and accurate representation of a Buddhist tradition and I thank you for that contribution even though it's not my exact interpretation of things (see my answer for that!!). The site supports all traditions. Thank you +1

I'm curious on how Buddhist Sacred Texts are used in teachings and in practice [...] what authority do practicing monks and the Sangha give to the sacred texts? How are these texts used? Are they used merely as a guidebook or as intensely analyzed, as say, the Christian Bible?

In general, I think it really depends on the sangha and school. For example, in Sōtō Zen, probably the most read sutra is the Heart Suttra and Dōgen Zengi texts are frequently used. Texts are used by monks in the context of practice and any analysis that sidetracks from this purpose or shows signs of intellectual exercise, even slightly, might be explicitly discouraged (e.g. left to academics).
Monks, in Zen, don't seem very inclined to scholasticism. Also, they don't seem to easily fall in the trap of mixing the value of texts and attachment to it -- as attaching to written words is famously made fun of.
Yet, scholastic work was not only common but prominent in many eras and many traditions. During the early sects, different abhidhamma systems developed and were used as platform for discussing doctrinal points and divergences (even treatises on how to develop formal proofs were elaborated). Also, monks started writing exegesis.
Theravada inherited this tradition. In general, I think its monks, versed not only in the nikayas but in abhidhamma and exegetical literature would not hesitate to scrutinize any doctrinal text and analyze them in their minutia. In many lineages, abhidhamma has a distinguished role, though commentaries often receive surprising authoritative status. For example, some monks see buddhism strictly through the eyes of Buddhagosa.
Another example, Ledi Sayadaw caused great turmoil for writing numerous corrections to a commentarial book -- this reaction certainly smell a little dogmatic and not showing much of the skills of the Buddha's recommendation to the Kalamas. Also, it seems Ledi was a champion in turning abhidhamma as a guide for meditation.
Suttas are also not only restricted to be quoted in dhamma talks. They are chanted, memorized and studied by monks and lay people and they practice meditation following what has been taught in them.

Some general guidelines the Buddha gave to Gotami in AN 8.53:

"Gotami, the qualities of which you may know, 'These qualities lead to passion, not to dispassion; to being fettered, not to being unfettered; to accumulating, not to shedding; to self-aggrandizement, not to modesty; to discontent, not to contentment; to entanglement, not to seclusion; to laziness, not to aroused persistence; to being burdensome, not to being unburdensome': You may categorically hold, 'This is not the Dhamma, this is not the Vinaya, this is not the Teacher's instruction.'
"As for the qualities of which you may know, 'These qualities lead to dispassion, not to passion; to being unfettered, not to being fettered; to shedding, not to accumulating; to modesty, not to self-aggrandizement; to contentment, not to discontent; to seclusion, not to entanglement; to aroused persistence, not to laziness; to being unburdensome, not to being burdensome': You may categorically hold, 'This is the Dhamma, this is the Vinaya, this is the Teacher's instruction.'"

Further details to explain those themes are available in AN 8.30

What is a prescriptions for?
Its main purpose is to cure the ailment of a dis-ease called suffering. Interminable suffering called Samsara.
Over the centuries different traditions have added their own flavours to the original prescriptions to it make it much more appealing and less bitter. The prescriptions still work as can be attested by those who are cured.
The prescriptions nowadays have different sweeteners that all.

From the perspective of authenticity, Pali tipitaka is the most reliable source. Most Mahayana sutras did not come into being until at least 700 years after Buddha's passing.

Hello and welcome to Buddhism.SE. We've put together some tips to help you get started here.

I think that some of the Chinese scriptures are also Early: Āgama (Buddhism)

Agama is just the translation of the Suttapitaka in Pali Tipitaka. Their is direction correspondence between the five components of Suttapitaka and the four parts in Chinese Agama. However, Agama is considered as a Theravade scripture in China and largely overlooked or even despised on for more than a thousand years.

The substance of this answer is that (for one sutta) some scholars compared the Pali version with the Chinese version, in order to try to see which version of the sutta was closer to the original (and they decided in that case that it looked like the Agama was the more original and that the Pali version had some later additions). It was quite interesting! That might be exceptional though (e.g. Wikipedia describes the Pali canon as "the first known and most complete extant early Buddhist canon").


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Can I ordain if i have psoriasis?
Is one able to be ordained if they have psoriasis? It's similar to eczema but not identical? Will this vary depending on where you go to ordain? Thank you.

Psoriasis is not a terminal illness and it is also not contagious, so I guess it should not be a problem.

@ruben2020: As far as I know (and have been able to research), eczema isn't terminal or contagious either.

It all depends on how severe it is. Two things that are of concern are:
1) Is it visible i.e. on the face or other exposed part of the body such that it puts the faithful followers off?
2) Is it serious such that the itchyness interferes with the cultivation of the practice?
If answers to those two questions are no then there shouldn't be a problem.
I know of a monk who is allergic to wheat and lots who are lacto sensitive.

Sorry if I'm being argumentative here, but if someone is put off by seeing the suffering of another, I wouldn't call them a "faithful follower" of Buddhism. Also, given that psoriasis worsens (for some sufferers, at least) when the afflicted person is stressed and gets better when when that person relaxes, it seems entirely possible that cultivating practice could lead to a lessening of the condition.

I am allergic to wheat, and ordained. There are times where psoriasis happens with people. It's a condition of one's immune system. If someone has a cold, do we ordain them? If they have lupus, do we ordain? These are conditions. Suffering is a matter of mind. Discomfort is a matter of physiology. If we observe that someone has not overcome their suffering (even if in pain or discomfort), then we don't ordain. If we observe that these things are not an impediment, then we are free to ordain. I hope that clarifies.


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The time between kalpas
When a world system has gone through devolution and is in statis, before the next evolution, where are all the beings from that world system? I've read some of them are born into brahman realms, but surely not all of the trillions of different beings alive on earth are born there during this time? So what happens to them while there are no lower realms to be born into?

They lay dormant? Every realm including the brahma worlds are not permanent

During the destruction of the world, most living beings become Brahmas and dwell in Brahma realms which are not affected by the fire. One hundred thousand years prior to the end of the world, a type of Devas called Loka Viyuha, who foresee this doom, come down to human world disguised as humans, announce the coming obliteration. Most beings on hearing this warning get rid of their reckless way of life and practice meritorious deeds and are born in Deva realms. From there they meditate and attain Jhana to get to Brahma realms. Hell beings are also born in human realm due to their past good Kamma and go up from there. Therefore all beings except those who profess wrong views (Nihilism AKA niyata miccha ditthi) reach Brahma loka at least once.
Those who cannot escape the destruction are born in a hell called Lokantharika Naraka.
The Lokantarika Hell
When three universes meet, there is space where Lokantarika hell exists, where neither sunray nor moonbeam can reach. Complete darkness reigns there. Beings in this hell cling to the walls of the universe in complete darkness. They mistake the other sinner to be some food, and try to bite each other. On doing so, they fall down into the icy/acidic water and perish.

Any references from canonical texts?

Visuddhimagga mentions Loka Viyuha devas and Lokantharika naraka where it talks about the end of the world. It's mentioned in the Abhidhamma as well I think

My understanding is that, that's the only world available until new world system starts forming, and they start falling down again.
So you can say we all have a little bit of respite but once in a kalpas, not much isn't it.

Ignorance in beings creates universes. Universes create suffering in beings. Suffering in beings creates evolution in universes. Evolution in universes creates knowledge in beings. Knowledge in beings creates karma.
Positive karma leads to the end of ignorance in beings. The end of ignorance in beings leads to the end of suffering in beings. The end of suffering in beings leads to awakening of beings. Awakening of beings leads to final liberation of beings. Final liberation of beings leads to deathless births of beings outside universes.
Deathless births of beings outside universes and karma of beings inside universes creates destruction of universes. When destruction of universes overweights creation of universes, devolution arises. When devolution arises, the bodies of beings in universes are destroyed. When bodies of beings in universes are destroyed, their karma remains.
Remained karma creates ignorant beings. New ignorant beings come to universes from higher/lower planes. Ignorance in beings creates universes...
The cycle is repeated.


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The arising of arrogance
I'd like to share a situation that happened to me and brought me a question about this arising of arrogance.
I was driving and another driver got mad at me for a not-so-correct maneuver I did. At first I felt a bit uncomfortable for making him angry, but quickly I felt more compassion for the fact that he was feeling anger than any other un wholesome state of mind.
Until a bit of arrogance arose, when a thought appeared: I was able to feel in peace even though the situation, while he let that unrest him and feel anger.
Is that arising of this kind of arrogance usual? How could I meditate upon it or think about the causes and consequences of it? The problem I have is that I do feel sometimes like I'm in a better path to happiness (that is buddhism) than others but that makes this arrogance appear.

I was able to feel in peace even though the situation, while he let that unrest him and feel anger.

The Brahmavihara Sutta (see also Wikipedia) mentions 'sublime attitudes' including equanimity and compassion.
To the extent that you develop equanimity, to that extent perhaps you can be content. If arrogance arises, so that you are no longer in a state of equanimity (no longer "devoid of ill will, unbewildered, alert, mindful" and "with detachment"), then there's little to be proud about any more! So perhaps it's self-limiting, i.e. when you're arrogant then there's nothing to be arrogant about.
Another thing is that the experiencing of anger is unsatisfactory. If you can skillfully avoid the experience of anger then you should probably feel Muditā i.e. "the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings" towards yourself, i.e. "it's fortunate that this person didn't suffer from anger".
Similarly if another person is suffering because they're angry then compassion, "the wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering", i.e. "may this person become freed from anger".
Perhaps you can sometimes 'turn it around' as well: instead of seeing the other person as angry, see them as not angry. If they didn't pull a gun on you or die of apoplexy, you could (possibly) think "that person is doing quite well at controlling their anger" as well as trying to root out the cause of that anger.
So 'metta meditation' might be a form of meditation to help inform "the causes and consequences of it". You mention that you were already doing that, i.e. "I felt more compassion for the fact that he was feeling anger". Maybe it would work to feel some compassion towards your own kilesas i.e. "may this person become free of conceit, delusion, doubt".
I guess that one of the worst things that could happen, a worst-case scenario, might be to welcome and to enjoy and to become attached to that arrogance: if you go around with the attitude, "I'm so great and good, because other people get angry with me and I skillfully don't get angry with them in return" and then because of that you're going around provoking other people to anger. So, instead, also avoid repeating the "not-so-correct maneuver" which provokes other people to anger.

The feeling of pride is okay in the sense that it is conditioned so long as you do not act following that feeling.
That you are able to notice the arising of the feeling shows some mindfulness and restraint.
Conceit is one of the 10 fetters to be abandoned by an Anagami, the last stage of the practice.
So long as you are not holding on to that pride or perpetuating it you are doing fine.
To stop pride & conceit from arising don't compare!

Just by calling it pride rather than arrogance really makes things easier to handle and understand. Thanks.

I've added a link to pride & conceit if you want further information. :)

@Samadhi is it ok to counter pride with the percepetion of a skeleton?

Yes it is. Perception of a skeleton is perception of, rupa, one of the five khandas (an ultimate reality, paramattha dhamma) and perception of a person is a perception of pannati (concept) or a conventional reality (sammuti sacca).


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What is the difference between samadhi and samatha?
I am in the habit of getting the concepts samatha and samadhi mixed up. To me they seem like related or even similar concepts. Is that correct? My understanding is that samatha seems like the process of integration and samadhi seems like the result of integration. Is that the correct interpretation?
As a related point are the underlying concepts related if you consider the Pali origins of the words i.e. do they have similar roots in the language?

Samatha is tranquility meditation, meditating on a stable object with the objective of reaching calm states/jhanas.
Samadhi is concentration. The Buddha's teachings of the eightfold noble path are divided into three categories; sila (morality), samadhi (concentration), and panna (wisdom/understanding).
Samadhi is the meditation portion of the Buddha's teachings (Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration) and would include Samatha plus other types of meditation.

Just to add to what Robin has said and answer your last question.
"..are the underlying concepts related if you consider the Pali origins of the words i.e. do they have similar roots in the language?"

Samadhi (Sanskrit: समाधि, ...), also called samāpatti, in Buddhism, ... is meditative absorption, attained by the practice of Jhana. In samadhi the mind becomes still, one-pointed or concentrated while individual awareness remains present.

Sometimes upacara samadhi and appana samadhi is used to distinguished between threshold concentration and absorbed concentration.
Whereas:

Samatha (Pāli), (Sanskrit: शमथ, śamatha[note 1] is the Buddhist practice (bhavana) of the calming of the mind (citta) and its 'formations' (sankhara). This is done by practicing single-pointed meditation most commonly through mindfulness of breathing. Samatha is common to all Buddhist traditions.

Paring it down to a few words. Samadhi is concentration and Samatha is a practice.
As to your understanding:

My understanding is that samatha seems like the process of integration and samadhi seems like the result of integration.

Very close but if you replace "integration" with "concentrating" spot on.

That definition of Samatha above says it is the practice of "single-pointed meditation most commonly through mindfullness of breathing".  But 'single-pointed' typically refers to concentration meditation, and 'mindfullness of breathing' must be a form of mindfullness, and aren't these things different?

Samādhi means the stability of mind.
Samatha means the peace of mind.
Wholesome mind arising is a friend.
Unwholesome mind arising is an enemy.
Uddhacca mind factor is instability of mind.
There is no peace and no stability while the nation is battling the enemies in the war.
There is the peace and the stability after the nation has no war by making friends instead of collecting the enemies.
See Ma.A. (papa–ca.1) Dvedhāvitakkasuttavaṇṇanā. Actually, there is a sutta as well, but I can't remember where it is in AN Ekakanipāta.

Samapatti and Samadhi is equal but not the same Samapatti is a state of oneness but Samadhi is a state of emptiness Samapatti is the first stage of Samadhi There are verious stages of Samapatti SABITARKA NIRBITARKA SABICHARA and NIRBICHARAA. Samadhi is of two types SAVIJA  and NIRVIJA.In both cases there is gradual cessation of the subject  It starts from the mind then intellect and finally the cessation of the Self This is called SWARUPASUNYAABASTA

Would you please provide references for your answer to above question?