text:
In the Anapanasati Sutta, what is the difference between mind and mental processes?
The book Breath by Breath by Larry Rosenberg splits the Anapanasati Sutta into 4 tetrads. The wildmind website does a similar thing. In the second tetrad there is a verse that is rendered

He trains himself to breathe in sensitive to mental processes, and to
  breathe out sensitive to mental processes.

and in the third tetrad there is the verse

He trains himself to breathe in sensitive to the mind, and to breathe
  out sensitive to the mind.

What is the difference between mental processes and the mind? In their English translations they look very similar. What is the original Pali words or phrases? Do they have difference translations or nuances that may make the differences clearer.

From the Anapanasati Sutta

"Mindfulness of in-&-out breathing, when developed & pursued, is of great fruit, of great benefit. Mindfulness of in-&-out breathing, when developed & pursued, brings the four frames of reference to their culmination. The four frames of reference, when developed & pursued, bring the seven factors for awakening to their culmination. The seven factors for awakening, when developed & pursued, bring clear knowing & release to their culmination."

The four tetrads correspond to The Four Frames of Reference referred to above. They are (in Pali and English):

Kāyānupassanā satipaṭṭhāna: being mindful of the body as a frame of reference.
Vedanānupassanā satipaṭṭhāna: being mindful of feelings as a frame of reference.
Cittānupassanā satipaṭṭhāna: being mindful of the mind as a frame of reference.
Dhammānupassanā satipaṭṭhāna: being mindful of mental qualities as a frame of reference.

So the second tetrad in your example is mindfulness of feelings (vedanā) and the third is mindfulness of mind (citta).
A basic distinction of these is here:

1: The Body merely as a transient and compounded Form..
2: Feelings just as vanishing Reactions to sense-contact..
3: Mind only as a group of habitual and conditioned Moods..
4: All Phenomena (dhamma) simply as discrete momentary Mental States..

He trains himself to breathe in sensitive to mental processes, and to breathe out sensitive to mental processes.
(Cittasaṅkhārapaṭisaṃvedī assasissāmīti sikkhati. Cittasaṅkhārapaṭisaṃvedī passasissāmīti sikkhati.)
He trains himself to breathe in sensitive to the mind, and to breathe out sensitive to the mind.
(Cittapaṭisaṃvedi assasissāmīti sikkhati. Cittapaṭisaṃvedī passasissāmīti sikkhati.)

In MN 44 we find an explanation for cittasaṅkhāra:

"Now, lady, what are fabrications?"
"Perceptions & feelings are mental fabrications." (Thanissaro trans.)
(Saññā ca vedanā ca cittasaṅkhāroti.)

The Visuddhimagga says (VIII, 229ff):

The remaining [three] clauses should be understood in the same
way as to meaning; but there is this difference here.
The experiencing of bliss must be understood to be through three jhanas, and that of the mental formation through four.  The mental formation consists of the two aggregates of feeling and perception. And in the case of the clause, experiencing bliss, it is said in the Paþisambhidá in order to show the plane of insight here [as well]: “‘Bliss’: there are two kinds of bliss, bodily bliss and mental bliss” (Paþis I 188). Tranquilizing the mental formation: tranquilizing the gross mental formation; stopping it, is the meaning. And this should be understood in detail in the same way as given under the bodily formation (see §§176–85). Here, moreover, in the “happiness” clause feeling [which is actually being contemplated in this tetrad] is stated under the heading of “happiness” [which is a formation] but in the “bliss” clause feeling is stated in its own form. In the two “mental-formation” clauses the feeling is that [necessarily] associated with perception because of the words, “Perception and feeling belong to the mind, these things being bound up with the mind are mental formations” (Paþis I 188). So this tetrad should be understood to deal with contemplation of feeling.
(ix) In the third tetrad the experiencing of the [manner of] consciousness must
be understood to be through four jhanas

Ven. Buddhadasa [1] explains that second tetrad as concerned  specifically with pīti and sukha whereas the third is concerned with citta in a broader and deeper way.

[1] - Mindfulness With Breathing: A Manual for Serious Beginners

My head is spinning but this is a great answer, the quotes are super helpful. What I'm trying to figure out is exactly what Cittasaṅkhāra is referring to, and whether it's simply the previous two states (piti and sukha) or if it's something new associated with them. Any ideas about this? Does it really just mean "contemplating these last two things" (because collectively they are best referred to as mental formations)? Or is it more like "contemplating the mental formations associated with bliss and rapture"?

The second tetrad includes the term "citta sankhara", which means "mind-conditioner" and is defined in suttas SN 41.6 & MN 44. The feelings of rapture & happiness are the "mind-conditioner" because they condition the mind (citta) in certain ways (such as condition the citta to generate lust, delight, self-views, awe, etc, towards the feelings of rapture & happiness).
The third tetrad is about the citta itself. When the feelings of rapture & happiness are calmed away, what is left is the citta, which includes some possibly underlying defilements that have previously arisen in relation to or conditioned by the rapture & happiness.
Refer to Mindfulness With Breathing: Unveiling the secrets of life: A Manual for Serious Beginners by Buddhadāsa Bhikkhu

You'll want to look at Goddard's translations of mind essence. It's a essential read. A verbal chanted mantra that describes breath counting is essentially what I believe is intended from this text. It's not a short term task nor is it absolution. But it's not something you need read a text and grasp. He's telling you to breathe. Not think but breathe. Breath counting it's essential to a strong beginners form of meditation. You should be alert but an alert mind wanders. Like when your in bed and you think of a chore. You should be asleep. In this case it's the opposite. You should pay attention to your breath but not sacrifice mental efforts. After you master it one way. You flip it. The way I express it matches under the 3 pillars of Zen. Half breathe to ten and recount. After you do this 20 minutes a day without fail which takes weeks to months. You count both in and out. Then you go to the next step. The whole point is the brain would rather do anything other than upload into the ground below your feet and sit calmly. My roshi would have me sit on something uncomfortable so I would pay attention. If you're washing with your breath you're healing from your abuse as long as you put it down while meditating. You actually have a bigger problem then you understanding of this I'd recommend you focus on. If I point to the moon and say: "Look! The moon!" as I'm standing in front of you. Don't look at my fingers that's not the point.  You really need the moon. Not me pointing at it. Self help books will point at others pointing points but it's not unlike the language gaps from transition or the point of generational meaning. Or generally speaking....your trying to learn how to breathe even though as a baby you knew how to breathe. That's not the point. Pay attention to it and don't think too much

Gil Fronsdal explains the difference between mental fabrications/processes (Tetrad II) and the mind (Tetrad III) by describing Tetrad II a bit differently:

Pay attention to the enjoyment or rapture;
As time passes pay attention to the more refined pleasure that appears;
Experience or be sensitive to our tight thinking;
Relax the strained thinking that interrupts the meditation.

and Tetrad III

As your strained thinking starts subsiding, notice the quality of the mind.
Gladden the mind if the state of mind is down.
Steady the mind if it is too excited.
Release the deep preoccupations of the mind by looking at the drawbacks of the stress. Notice how small our problems are compared to the hugeness of the universe and time. Be creative and use what contemplation works with trial and error. Just like in the sutta, we must put aside greed and distress in reference to the world. The outside world that the preoccupations are aimed at.

Tai Sheridan in 'Buddha in Blue Jeans' seems to warning against mental fabrications in the practice of Buddhist Meditation in this short section from his book:
'Sit anywhere and be quiet:
on a couch, a bed, a bench, inside, outside,
leaning against a tree, by a lake, at the ocean,
in a garden, on an airplane, in your office chair,
on the floor, in your car.
Meditation cushions are okay too.
Sit at any time: morning, night,
one minute, three years.
Wear what you've got on.
Loosen your waist so that
your belly can move with your breath.
Sit as relaxed as possible.
Relax your muscles
when starting and during sitting.
Sit with your back straight but not stiff.
Keep your head upright with your ears level.
Respect all medical conditions.
Only take a posture you can.
All postures are okay.
Do what you can do.
Keep your eyes slightly opened and out of focus.
Closing them will make you sleepy and sometimes busy.
Opening them wide will keep you busy.
Breathe naturally through your nose.
Enjoy breathing.
Feel your breath.
Watch your breath.
Become your breath.
Be like a cat purring.
Follow your breath like ocean waves
coming in and out.
When you get distracted,
come back to the simplest
and most basic experience
of being alive,
your breathing.
That's it.
No belief.
No program.
No dogma.
You do not have to be Buddhist.
You can be of any faith, religion,
race, nationality, gender,
relationship status, or capacity.
Just sit quietly,
connect with your breath,
and pay attention
to what happens.
You will learn things.
Do it when you want.
You decide how much is enough for you.
If you do it daily, it will get into your bones.
Please enjoy sitting quietly!
The only way to learn sitting quietly is to do it.'

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What is the difference between a Vipassana Jhana and a Samatha Jhana?
Definitions of the term Jhana tend to emphasize the 'mind state' quality it refers to in various states of meditative absorption:

The jhanas are altered states of consciousness which are produced from periods of strong concentration. Dhamma Wiki
In Buddhism, it is a series of cultivated states of mind, which lead to "state of perfect equanimity and awareness (upekkhii-sati-piirisuddhl)." Wikipedia

So in the context of Samatha (concentration) meditation, Jhana states naturally arise as a consequence of concentration. What I'm struggling to understand is the term 'Vipassana Jhana'. Is it a state of mind that arises from insight or a state of mind conducive to insight?

Are you looking for something other than what the web search already offers? Yuttadhammo's Ask A Monk: Samatha Jhana, Vipassana Jhana; and the Dharma Overground's Samatha jhanas and Vipassana jhanas topics?

My understanding of the Ask a Monk video was that he ended up comparing and discussing Samatha and Vipassana rather than talking about the Jhanas in particular. Maybe I missed something there. I will check out Dharma Overground. That seems to be closer to what I'm actually asking.

If you are interested in general in Jhanas, then Ajahn Brahm has a book called Mindfulness, Bliss and Beyond . There's a free PDF that seems to cover some of the essential bits (146kb) from him on Jhanas that maybe easier to access right away.

Thanks @Buddho I have that particular book. It is on my To Read list at the moment. Maybe I'll fast track to it now :)

Jhana (Pali) or Dhyana (Sanskrit) translates as "meditative absorption" (since there is no equivalent English word it's close but not exact). So a jhana is merely a highly focused state away from normal consciousness and normal body and mind states. There are also custom jhanas apart from the usual rupa/arupa jhanas, but since they aren't very common nor very useful, we ignore them.

Ven. Yuttadhammo has written an interesting post about this topic on his weblog Truth Is Within. The post is called "Mahasi Sayadaw on Jhana".
Here is a quote from the section: "First Absorption and Conceit":

“Cunda, I will tell you about the cause of misconception and conceit in connection with the practice of meditation. Among my disciples, there are some monks who have attained the first absorption that is characterised by joy (pīti) and freedom from sensual desire, hindrances, and discursive thinking.”
Absorption (jhāna)² is the concentration of attention on one single object such as earth, water, in-and -out-breathing, an organ of the body or a corpse. This state of consciousness involving concentration and tranquillity is samatha jhāna. The other kind of absorption is vipassanā jhāna, which has as its object the contemplation and insight-knowledge of the three characteristics: impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, and insubstantiality.

Here is a quote from the section: "Abiding in Bliss Here and Now
":

The first absorption is not the practice of effacement that helps to root out the defilements. In the Sallekha Sutta, the Buddha calls it abiding in bliss here and now (ditthadhamma-sukhavihāra). While the meditator is in absorption, the mind is fixed on a single object. With the mind free from all unwholesome distractions, he or she is calm and peaceful. This state may continue for two or three hours.
The Buddha also pointed out how illusion and complacency may arise from the second absorption with its three characteristics — rapture, joy, and one-pointedness, or from the third absorption with its joy and one-pointedness, or from the fourth absorption with its equanimity and one-pointedness. Of course, the second, third, and fourth absorptions are more sublime than the preceding states of consciousness, but they ensure only bliss in the present life, and can by no means be equated with practice of effacement that is designed to eliminate defilements.
Nor can the practice of effacement be equated with the absorptions of unbounded space (ākāsānañcāyatana), unbounded consciousness (viññānañcāyatana), nothingness (ākiñcaññāyatana), and that of neither-perception-nor-non-perception (nevasaññā-nāsaññāyatana), which do not help to overcome defilements. They lead only to peaceful bliss and as such are called peaceful abidings (santavihāra).
Absorption in Insight Meditation
Insight meditation and absorption have some characteristics in common. When the practice of mindfulness is well established at the exploratory stage, i.e. knowledge by comprehension (sammasanañāna), there are initial application (vitakka), sustained application (vicāra), joy (pīti), bliss (sukha), and one-pointedness (ekagattā). Thus, whenever the meditator observes any phenomenon, his insight meditation is somewhat like the first absorption with its five characteristics.
When the meditator gains insight-knowledge of the arising and passing away of all phenomena, he is fully aware of an arising object without initial or sustained application. He has intense joy, bliss, and tranquillity, thus his meditation is somewhat like the second absorption with its three attributes.
The disappearance of the light, and so forth — the corruptions of insight (upakkilesa) — marks an advance in the insight-knowledge of the arising and passing away of phenomena. Then there is no joy, but bliss is very intense. The mind is tranquil and free from distractions. The meditator has the bliss and one-pointedness that are characteristics of the third absorption.
The higher levels of insight-knowledge such as knowledge of dissolution (bhangañāna), wherein the meditator sees only the passing away usually have nothing to do with joy. They are characterised by equanimity and one-pointedness. The former is especially pronounced at the stage of knowledge of equanimity about formations. At this stage the insight meditation is akin to the fourth absorption with its two attributes of equanimity and one-pointedness.
Furthermore, at times the meditator’s whole body disappears, giving him the impression of being in space. At that moment he is like a person absorbed in ākāsānañcāyatana jhāna. At other times, attention is fixed exclusively on consciousness and then the meditator’s state of consciousness resembles viññānañcāyatana jhāna. On occasions, it seems as though he were noting nothingness, a state somewhat like ākiñcaññāyatana jhāna. Sometimes the consciousness may be so transcendental that it becomes non-existent, a state on par with that of nevasaññā-nāsaññāyatana jhāna.
These characteristics that insight meditation has in common with absorption often leads to complacency, which is an obstacle to spiritual progress. In meditation it is necessary to note these unusual experiences and reject them. In the Sallekha Sutta, the Buddha, after pointing out the misleading nature of absorption, proceeds to spell out the practice of effacement that is calculated to root out defilements.

I do recommend reading the whole blogpost. Its well written and i think it will provide the answers you are looking for.
Lanka

I would ask for the definition of "somewhat like" if I were you!..lol Would you settle for a "somewhat like" jhana. Possibly getting a "somewhat like" enlightenment.

@Samadhi. Thanks for the concern. Although words and phrases are just conventional terms belonging to conventional language, again belonging to conditioned reality. Do not put too much value into this. Actually the Buddha said: "It's okay to use conventional language but do not be fooled thereby". Having discussions about these profound things will not give much anyway. The way to understand these things are through insight meditation practice and the gaining of experiental knowledge.

Ok great! Exactly what I was looking for Lanka. Since asking the question, subsequent research led me to Kenneth Folk's 20 Strata of Mind Here he seems to affirm the blog post you mention. Since Kenneth comes out of the Mahasi Sayadaw tradition, this is hardly surprising.

There is no samatha jhana nor is there vipassana jhana mentioned in the suttas, I may have missed it!
There are the 4 rupa jhanas mentioned with each containing various jhana factors and 4 arupa jhanas.
IMHO, the distinction is made to rationalise some meditation practices which dispense with the development of jhanas as a necessary step.

Vipassanā jhanas are stages that describe the development of "vipassanā"meditation practice as described in modern Burmese Vipassana meditation.[31]
 Mahasi Sayadaw
's student Sayadaw U Pandita
 describes the four "vipassanā jhanas".

Origins

In the sutta pitaka the term "vipassanā" is hardly mentioned:
If you look directly at the Pali discourses — the earliest extant sources for our knowledge of the Buddha's teachings — you'll find that although they do use the word samatha to mean tranquillity, and vipassanā to mean clear-seeing, they otherwise confirm none of the received wisdom about these terms. Only rarely do they make use of the word vipassanā — a sharp contrast to their frequent use of the word jhana. When they depict the Buddha telling his disciples to go meditate, they never quote him as saying "go do vipassanā," but always "go do jhana." And they never equate the word vipassanā with any mindfulness techniques.[8]

Your answer and this overview by Leigh Brasington helped clarify my question somewhat.

Ask A Monk: Samatha Jhana, Vipassana Jhana says (if I paraphrase properly),

Samatha Jhana (e.g. concentrating on a white disk) cannot lead to insight because it's concentration on a conception (e.g. on the colour "white").
Samatha Jhana involves focus on something stable, but if you focus on something stable then you won't see "impermanent, suffering, and non-self".
Vipassana Jhana is meditation on the three characteristics, which are common to all real things. This Jhana is necessary to become enlightened because it's what allows you to let go.
Samatha Jhana (concentration) was discovered before Buddhism (e.g. Hindu practitioners are expert).
Jhana is necessary but Samatha Jhana is not necessary for enlightenment: what is required is to see things clearly.

Thanks for the summary above @ChrisW but unless I'm missing something, as I said in above comment, he is actually talking about the distinction between vipassana and samatha but not about the technical distinctions between the Jhanas (mind states) of the two. A 'mind state' (absorption) is qualitatively different to an 'insight' IMO. My understanding is that Jhanas are 'mind state's and so am having difficulty in reconciling 'mind state' and 'insight'.

This dictionary defines "Jhāna" as "literally meditation" and "technical term for a special religious experience". I don't know (I really don't know) whether "absorption" is the right word to use for a meditation that's meant to lead to, I don't know, renunciation or detachment.

The proof it seems, in this case, is very much in the pudding ...

@Devindra A Chinese speaker once told me that English is difficult because it has so many distinct words; Chinese for example has "people vehicle" (bus), "private vehicle" (car), "public vehicle" (taxi), "human vehicle" (bicycle), "goods vehicle" (truck or lorry) etc. Is it interesting that they're both called "jhana", or that they're all called "vehicle"? Or are you more interested in the difference, "Samatha" versus "vipassana"? Might this answer and its references help (because I think that's meant to describe enlightened awareness)?

Just trying to REALLY understand Jhana ... here is some clue as to my conundrum http://www.leighb.com/jhanantp.htm - here the author gives a subjective idea of just how the concept 'Jhana' has evolved through history and the various lineages and teachers who all have there own experiential focus.

The confusion arise because the Burmese use vipassana to mean the method of meditation as taught by mahasi sayadaw. It is also used by those in the vipassana/goenka tradition/movement. These teachers discourage the practise of jhana. To have an understanding of jhana, you need to look at teachers from other traditions eg Ayya Khema, Ajahn Brahm etc. As Thanissaro bhikkhu has pointed out, there is no such thing as vipassana jhana in the suttas. In fact, jhana is the word used often by Buddha not vipassana. And, yes Leigh brasington is an expert on jhana.

Thanks for this. Welcome Vin Ferato Buddhism.SE! Our Welcome page has useful tips for posting questions and answers.

As I see it Vipassana and Samatha Jhana linguistic development to distinguish between Jhana born from contemplating on the 4 Satipatthana as in the Saṅkhitta Dhamma Sutta (as Vipassana Jhana) and based on conceptual or mental constructions.
Mental and conceptual constructions (pannatti) are more susceptible to distortions of the mind where by you may see this construction as perhaps permanent and not see its impermanent nature. Likewise other other distortion can happen. For more on these distortions see: Vipallasa Sutta. Jhana based on such conceptual framework this is mainly the mode of pratice in Samatha meditation can be identified as Samatha Jhana.

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Can Buddhists see into the future?
It's said that Buddhist practice can cause the arising of certain psychic powers. This answer hints that one of those physic powers might be precognition. Have I understood that correctly? I've never read anything about this in any of the texts. I wonder if anyone else has and can provide a reference where precognition is written about.

Look into Anagathawamsa(Anagatha Wanshaya). This was preached by the Buddha on the invitation of venerable Sariputta, after performing the twin miracle at kapilavastu. It contains future predictions. Also the "Saptha Suryodgamana Sutta" which describes how the world will end.

@SankhaKulathantille Thanks for the comment. If you're willing it can sometime be better for the site (i.e. for future readers) if you post your answer as an answer, instead of posting it as a comment, even if it's only a short answer ... because a correct, popular, and/or useful answer can (unlike a comment) be more visibly upvoted and accepted.

I couldn't find any English translations. I will convert it into an answer, if i do.

@SankhaKulathantille Is this one of them? [Anagata Bhayani Suttas
The Discourses on Future Dangers](http://www.buddhasutra.com/files/anagata_bhayani_suttas.htm)

Also there's a description of the end of the world here (I don't know whether that's like the Saptha Suryodgamana).

Actually Anagathawamsa is about Buddha Maithriya. But the "end of the world" link is correct.

@SankhaKulathantille This document says "We have gathered here all the information we could find in the Theravada tradition concerning the coming Buddha", that it's a revised edition including suggestions made by Venerable Bhikkhu Bodhi, and that the "Anagatavamsa" (or "Anagata-vamsa" seems to be the usual transliteration) is said to have been written in about the 12th century CE ("Just as the future Buddha Metteyya became more important for Buddhists as the centuries went by, many of the texts giving infomation about him are fairly late").

The author said "many of the texts giving infomation about him are fairly late" not "fairy tale".

Yes, my mistake! Thanks! But the article in general seems to doubt the authenticity of the text. Anyways. please post if you find an English translation of it.

Buddha clearly states wasting time on this kind is thing is similar to a man, being struck by an arrow and taken to a doctor, prior to letting the doctor treat him, asks countless questions about the arrow and the person who shot it

@RavindranathAkila Please read Answers vs Advice.

I'll follow it once it reaches about a 100 votes. Thanks Chris!

yes. upto 2 days ahead..for more become a three-eyed Raven

Pa Auk Sayadaw treats this topic in Knowing and Seeing, P. 190-196.
According to the Sayadaw, follow the method given for discerning the past, making appropriate changes to see the future, including future lives. He says there are multiple methods and this is one of them.

How You Discern the Past
To discern the past, you begin by making an offering of either
  candles, flowers, or incense at a pagoda, or to a Buddha image. You
  should make a wish for the rebirth you desire, for example, to become
  a monk, nun, man, woman, or deva.
    Afterwards, you should go and sit in
  meditation, develop concentration, and discern in turn internal and
  external mentality and materiality. This is neces- sary, because if
  you cannot discern external mentality and materiality, you will have
  great difficulty discern- ing past mentality and materiality. That is
  because the discernment of external mentality and materiality is
  similar to the discernment of past mentality and materiality.  Then you
  should discern the mentality and materiality that occurred at the time
  of making the offering at the pagoda or Buddha image, as if they were
  an external object. When doing this, an image of yourself at the time
  of offering appears. You should discern the four elements in that
  image.  When the image breaks into kalàpas, discern all 190 the types
  of materiality in the six doors, especially the fifty-four types in
  the heart-base. Then you will be able to discern the bhavaïga
  consciousnesses, and the mind- door thought-processes that that arise
  in-between. You should discern those mind-door thought-processes
  backwards and forwards, and find the defilement-round (kilesavañña)
  mind-door thought-process with twenty mental formations, and
  kamma-round (kammavañña) mind-door thought-process
  (manodvàra-vãthi) with thirty- four mental formations.  Let me
  illustrate with a practical example: the case of making an offering of
  candles, flowers, or incense to a Buddha image, and making a wish to
  be reborn to become a monk.  In this case, ignorance is to deludedly
  think that ‘a monk’ is an ultimate reality; craving is the desire and
  longing for life as a monk; and clinging is the attach- ment to life
  as a monk. These three, ignorance, craving, and clinging, are all
  found in the consciousness that makes up the round of defilements
  (kilesa-vañña).  If, instead of making a wish to be reborn to become
  a monk, you had made a wish to be reborn to become a woman, then the
  ignorance would be to deludedly think that ‘a woman’ is an ultimate
  reality; craving would be the desire and longing for life as a woman;
  and clinging the attachment to life as a woman.  In the examples,
  volitional formations (saïkhàra) are the wholesome intentions
  (kusala-cetanà) of the offering, and kamma is their force of kamma.
  Both are found in the consciousnesses that make up the kamma round of
  dependent-origination.  When you are thus able to discern the
  mentality and materiality of the defilement- and kamma-round of the
  recent past, you should go back to the more distant past time previous
  to the offering, and in the same way discern the mentality and
  materiality. Then go back a little further again, and repeat the
  process. In this way, you discern the mentality and materiality of one
  day ago, one week ago, one month ago, one year ago, two years ago,
  three years ago and so on. Eventually you will be able to discern
  right back to the mentality-materiality of the rebirth-linking
  consciousness (pañisandhi-citta) which arose at the conception of
  this life.  By looking for the causes of conception, you go back even
  further, and see either the mentality- materiality of the time near
  death in the previous life, or the object of the near-death
  impulsion-consciousness (maraõàsanna-javana-citta). There are three
  possible objects for the near death impulsion:
  1. Kamma; again having the thoughts that pro- duced a particular good or bad action in the past, for example, an offering.
  2. Kamma sign (kamma-nimitta); for example, a pagoda, a monk, flowers, or an object offered.
  3. Rebirth sign (gati-nimitta); the place where you will be reborn. For a human rebirth it is the future mother’s womb, and is usually red
  like a red carpet.  If you discern the mentality-materiality near
  death, you will also discern the object of the near death
  impulsion, be it kamma, kamma sign, or rebirth sign. This object
  appears because of the force of kamma which produced the
  rebirth-linking consciousness (pañisandhi-citta). When you discern
  this, you are able to discern also the volitional formations and kamma
  that produced the resultant aggre- gates of this life, and the
  preceding ignorance, craving, and clinging. After that, you should
  discern the other mental formations of that kamma- and
  defilement-round.
How You Discern the Future
Once the power of this insight-knowledge has been de- veloped by
  discerning the causes and effects through those past lives, you can,
  in the same way, discern the causes and effects in future lives. The
  future you will see, and which may still change, is the result of both
  past and present causes, one of which is the medita- tion you are
  doing. To discern the future, you begin by discerning the present
  materiality-mentality, and then look into the future until the time of
  death in this life. Then either the kamma, kamma sign, or rebirth sign
  will appear, because of the force of a particular kamma you performed
  in this life. You will then be able to discern the rebirth-linking
  mentality-materiality to be produced in the future life.  You must
  discern as many lives into the future as it takes till ignorance
  ceases without remainder. This happens with the attainment of the
  arahant path(arahatta-magga), that is, your own attainment of
  ara- hantship. You should then continue discerning into the future,
  until you see that the five aggregates, mentality- materiality, cease
  without remainder, that is, at the end of the arahant life, at your
  own Parinibbàna. Thus you will have looked into the future, and seen
  the complete cessation of phenomena (dhamma).  Discerning the five
  aggregates of the past, present, and future, and also discerning their
  causal relation, is what I call the fifth method. Having completed the
  fifth method, you can now learn what is called the first method, the
  one taught by the Buddha.  The first method of discerning dependent-
  origination (pañiccasamuppàda) goes over three lives, and in forward
  order. It begins with the causes in the past life, that is, ignorance
  and volitional formations. They cause the results in the present life:
  the rebirth-linking consciousness, mentality-materiality, the six
  sense- bases, contact, and feeling. There are then the causes in this
  life, craving, clinging, and becoming, which cause the results of
  birth, ageing, death, and all forms of suffering in the future life.
  You have to look for ignorance, craving and clinging in the defilement
  round, see how it causes the kamma round, and how the kammic force of
  the kamma round in turn causes the five aggregates of conception.  That
  concludes my brief explanation of how to discern dependent-origination
  according to the fifth and first methods. There are many more details
  which you can learn by practising with a proper teacher.

 The Buddha makes predictions about the future in the suttas and, in one case, if I recall correctly, takes action to prevent a disciple from having a bad rebirth; it is a female disciple who is a weaver or something if I am correct. If anyone knows what I am referring to, please do leave a comment.

The story of The Weaver's Daughter includes, The following thought, we are told, occurred to him, "If this maiden leaves, she will die as a worldling[8] and her future state will be uncertain. But if she comes to me, she will depart established in the fruit of stream-entry, and her future state will be certain, for she will be reborn in the world of the Tusita gods." We are told that there was no escape from death for her that day.

With Buddhism practice you can see into the future, but that's not a psychic power, but just mere observation.
A liberated mind gains knowledge about things and sees "things as they really are. Thus, he can see with greater probability what these things will become.

+1 for the last section on clear comprehension.

Can Buddhists see into the future?

Here are some prophecies made by Padmasambhava :

Many people are familiar with the prophecies of Nostradamus made more than seven hundred years ago, but few people are aware of the
  prophecies made by Padmasambhava (also known as Guru Rinpoche), the
  founder of Tibetan Buddhism, more than one thousand years ago.
When asked by his disciple when is the beginning of Dharma-ending age,
  Guru Rinpoche replied; “When the Iron Birds(1) are flying in the sky
  and the Iron Horses(1) are running on the roads, we know that
  dharma-ending age has arrived. At this time, Tibetan Buddhism shall
  flourish globally. When the iron bird flies and the horses run on
  wheels, the Tibetan people will be scattered like ants across the
  world, and the Dharma will come to the land of the red men (Western
  Countries).
In this Dharma-ending age, “Rulers do not act like Rulers, Subjects do
  not act like Subjects, Fathers do no act like Fathers, Sons do not act
  like Sons” (2), the relationships between Fathers and Sons are more
  like Playmates. Women do not honor and uphold chastity; men indulge in
  lust and unrestrained sexual misconducts.
Note: 1) Iron Birds and Iron Horses are known now as Airplanes, Cars
  and Trains. 2) This reminds me of Confucius’ Analects: “...ruler be a
  ruler, the subject a subject, the father a father, the son a son”,
  with regards to maintaining a world of order. What this means is that
  ruler shall uphold the duty as a ruler by serving the interests of the
  citizens. The citizens shall behave like citizens, by being
  law-abiding, respect the authorities and maintain law and order.
  Parents should act as parents by being providers, teachers and
  guardians to their children. Children shall be obedient and respect
  their parents.
Guru Rinpoche further prophesied that in that era (or rather now),
  carriages do not require horses to move, they self-propel (3).
  Youngsters in that era step on something that shaped like a bullhorn
  and there are wheels underneath that allow them to skate everywhere
  (4). It is even stranger that people in that era do not need to leave
  their houses to know things that happen around the world, just by
  sitting in front of a mirror (5）.
Note: 3, 4, 5) Car, Skateboard, Roller Blades, TV and LCD panels, i.e.
  computer with internet connections.
Guru Rinpoche further said that in that era, many ordained monks are
  greedy and pursue wealth and fame. They travel everywhere to cheat on
  their followers. They plan and think of ways to get offerings and
  donations from followers and possess their own private wealth and
  properties, yet they do not engage in any Buddhist practices or
  chanting on their own. They indulge in music, dance and
  entertainments. They break precepts and vows without any remorse (6).
Note: 6) This is happening now.  Bogus monks are everywhere especially
  in the Eastern countries. This prophecy coincides with Buddha’s
  prediction that “There is no disappearing of the true Dhamma until a
  counterfeit Dhamma arises in the world. Once a counterfeit Dhamma
  arises then there is a disappearing of the true Dhamma.”
When i read that The Buddha told his disciples the most important
  sutra of all, the Surangama Sutra, should be the first to be
  destroyed, i asked myself how could any teaching be destroyed at this
  digital age?  I could print a thousands copies and bury them
  underground and someday someone would dig it up and revives the
  teachings again.  Or i could upload copies of the sutra to all the
  available servers on the internet. How could it possibly be destroyed?
Then one day, while doing research and reading news regarding some
  Buddhist sect in Taiwan proclaiming that the Surangama Sutra is fake
  and that Buddha never taught that, do i realize what Buddha meant by
  "Destroy".  This realization was brought to me by a renowned Buddhist
  master over a seminar that Sutras do not get destroyed physically,
  they are destroyed by being "discredited".  In other words, by saying
  that Surangama Sutra is fake and that Buddha never taught that, nobody
  will ever read or bothered with that Sutra again and that is how it is
  "destroyed".  This will eventually happen to the entire Buddhism as
  the predicted by The Buddha, as the Dharma ends when nobody has faith
  or believe in it anymore. I would also like to note that the
  credibility of Buddhism is in the hands of those who represent it,
  those who spread and teach in the name of Buddhism especially those in
  "high authority" and/or with many followers.  That puts Buddhism at
  stake because its credibility is tied to these people.  So The Buddha
  said, in the Dharma-ending age "follow only the Buddha-Dharma, and not
  the person who teaches it. In other words, The Buddha warned us
  against "Idolism". It is The Buddha's teaching and your own practices
  that liberate you, not any mundane person, not even any
  self-proclaimed or public-acknowledged certified born-again "Buddha".
  The original teachings of The Enlightened Ones could also be corrupted
  or altered by self-profiteering persons or by intellectuals. This was
  also the reason Guru Rinpoche concealed countless Terma teachings to
  prevent the destruction of the secret mantrayana.  And for each of
  these terma treasure, the time, the identity of its revealer, the
  person who would receive and hold the teachings were also predicted.
With regards to mundane lives, Guru Rinpoche commented that in that
  era, husband and wife relationship shall be ruined and damaged by
  so-called “double-tongues” women, who instigate, provoke and create
  disharmony within families(7). Unfilial sons and daughters will chase
  their parents out from home. Brothers and sisters shall fight among
  themselves for inheritance, and violate the five precepts without
  remorse. Buddha’s teaching gradually faded and eventually lost. There
  shall be incest among the closest kin. Many people shall be addicted
  to gambling, drugs and alcohol. Buddhas’ statues and paintings,
  Buddhist ritual instruments are sold in flea markets on the streets
  (8). Vintage valuables passed down from generations to generations
  shall be sold and auctioned in international markets. Deforestation
  and over exploitation of nature causes ecological imbalances thereby
  resulting in frequent natural disasters. Thieves and robberies shall
  infest the entire city and paupers and beggars are seen everywhere.
Note: Can anyone tell me what is not happening now?
7) The word “double-tongues” mentioned is what is known to us now as
  “double-headed”. He specified women that include friends, relatives
  and kin. This means gossipy friends and kins deliberately giving bad
  advises and information to create disharmony between husbands and
  wives and eventually breaking up families. 8) It was mentioned that
  the karma for such phenomenon is the widespread of infectious
  diseases.
In the year of metal dragon (9), demons entered the water (10). In the
  year of Metal Snake(11）, demons entered the wind and thunder frost
  hail, wreaking havoc and creating disasters for many (12). In the year
  of Water Goat (13), here shall be widespread of infectious diseases
  (14).
Note: 9) Year 2000 is the year of Metal Dragon based on the Tibetan
  Calendar. 10) On August 12, 2000, the Russian Oscar II class submarine
  Kursk sank in the Barents Sea and exploded. 11) Year 2001 is the year
  of Metal Snake based on the Tibetan Calendar. 12) i) Tropical Storm
  Allison that devastated southeast Texas happened in June
  2001. ii) The 2001 Gujarat earthquake occurred in India, killing 20,000 people and causing injuries to 166,000 others. 13) Year 2003 is
  the year of Water Goat based on the Tibetan Calendar. 14) The outbreak
  of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) happened in 2003.
These incidents might not "appear" to be catastrophic or on global
  scale. Similar to Chinese Calendar, the Tibetan Calender Year has a 60
  years cycle. For instance, in year 2000 it was year of Metal Dragon
  and in the year of 2060 it should be another year of Metal Dragon.
  Should He could be referred to any year with that specific
  Element-Animal.
Alcoholics shall die of cerebrovascular diseases; gamblers shall die
  of stomach disorder; slander shall die of throat-related diseases;
  heavy smokers shall die of lungs diseases; over consumption of eggs,
  garlic and onion causes frequent nightmares resulting in mental
  disturbances and eventually related death; hunters and slaughter of
  animals shall die of liver and intestines related diseases, sinners
  and those with heavy bad karma shall die of many types of diseases
  that are painful and sufferings.
The year of Wood Rooster is when the strength of Buddhism is the
  weakest. Evil spirits and demons shall take opportunity at this time
  to wrench more havocs and creating more damages. In the year of Earth
  Ox15, there shall be wars among countries and many people shall
  perish.
Note: 15) 2009 is the Year of Earth Ox based on the Tibetan Calendar.
  However it might not necessary be this year. It could be another cycle
  of Earth Ox which is 60 years from now. But for sure in 2009 we have
  encountered frequent natural disasters of different scale.
The origin of this translated text is in Chinese. Any mistake in the
  translation is solely my responsibility. I am not sure if there is
  other more complete translation out there in English, if there is,
  please inform me. Anyone is free to use the content of this
  translation, responsibly.
Homage to Guru Rinpoche, if not because of Him i weren’t be alive
  today doing this translation.

Om Ah Hum Vajra Guru Padma Siddhi Hum.
source

would you point me to the Chinese source? i share your view! esp. the destruction of the Dharma. danger - eng. translated Suttas (from Pali) - wrong view formed due to incorrect translation, e.g. Anatta (無我) is so wrongly understood it's a convenience for hijacking to implement global AI - my opinion. widespread view questioning the authenticity of other Sutras from other sources due to propagated view that Buddha spoke/taught in Pali or similar... [link]http://buddhism.stackexchange.com/questions/19340/are-there-any-proven-facts-to-support-that-pali-is-more-authentic-for-the-buddha

@Bhumishu 米殊   Totally agree. I was unable to find the Chinese source though.

On the main topic of the question "Can Buddhas see into future"
Yes,here are some incidents given in Buddhist teachings...

One morning when lord Buddha was scanning the universe he saw that a
boy is about to be murdered by a bunch of thieves but had the
potential to reach dharma.So Lord Buddha left the temple early in the
morning and entered the jungle in which this would happen,and waited
under a tree until the boy shows up.Finally he came and saw this
beautiful sage sitting down nest to a tree and talked to him without
knowing that he was Lord Buddha.Lord Buddha did not said a word about
his death,instead he asked the boy are you in the refuge of triple
gems?.The boy said no,So lord Buddha taught the boy about triple
gems and the safety that it could provide.The boy was a wise one and
became a follower.Lord Buddha taught him some rhymes to remember,so
he learned them and went on his way.In the moment the thieves
attacked him he was still chanting it.He was killed and had a birth
in the deva realm.These "Gatha" (rhymes) are still famous to this
day,they are called "Chatta manavaka gatha"
There was an infamous murderer called "Angulimaala".He killed people
to take a finger as trophy (an order given by his cunning teacher to
take revenge from him after being deceived by jealous students).Lord
Buddha saw that unless Lord Buddha intervene he will kill his mother
today(Angulimaala had the potential to be an arahant).So lord Buddha
stopped him and he went on to became the very famous "Arahant
Angulimaala.

So the conclusion is not only Lord Buddhas can see into the future that is a part of the daily routing.Unlike in Hollywood movies Lord Buddhas do not disturb the events of future,instead they turn the events into more positive ones.

Actually it depends on the approach.You can practise the buddhism to attain nirvana without any such psychic power.There are two ways of mediation that is 1) Vipassana Meditation 2) Samatha Meditation
first one is what Lord Buddha specifically discovered and preached to attain the Nirvana (Practising this method alone will not gain such psychic powers it only helps to realized the nature of the world).
The second method which is also preached by Lord Buddha with some different ways even though the similar techniques were there even before Lord Buddha started preaching(e.g: in Hidunism).Actually this second way of meditation leads to different psychic powers.

I guess that the Ṛddhi (or iddhi) article is an overview of such powers.
I suppose that "seeing the future" is what's called "Divine eye".
A quick search for "Divine eye" on accesstoinsight suggests it's used in the context of being able to see beings' kammic destination, for example,

Gradually there unfolded before his inner vision his experiences in many past births, even during many cosmic aeons; in the middle watch of the night he developed the "divine eye" by which he could see beings passing away and taking rebirth in accordance with their karma, their deeds; and in the last watch of the night he penetrated the deepest truths of existence, the most basic laws of reality, and thereby removed from his mind the subtlest veils of ignorance.

A passage like this one suggests it's not exactly about being able to see the future,

Dibba-cakkhu: clairvoyance. You gain eyes on two levels. The outer level is called the mansa-cakkhu, the eye of the flesh, which enables you to look at human beings in the world, devas in the world. The eye of discernment allows you to examine the defilements of human beings: those with coarse defilements, those with thick defilements, those with faith in the Buddha's teachings, those with none, those who have the potential to be taught, those with no potential at all. You can consider them with your internal discernment. This is called pañña-cakkhu, the eye of discernment. In this way you have eyes on two levels.

This topic might be related too: Predetermined future vs. Free will in Buddhism

Precognition seems to arise in some practitioners. It can be a distraction and lead to spiritual materialism. Chogyam Trungpa's "no big deal" injunction applies to these psychic powers. Anytime that fascination arises, it can fuel the ego's desire for existence and power. Practice reveals the emptiness of self and of phenomena, which includes precognition.
Nevertheless, these phenomena of precognition do arise. A great resource on this is Daniel Ingram's book Mastering the Core Teachings of the Buddha. He gives several examples of practitioners becoming fascinated with these things with tragic results.
Daniel also refers readers to Henepola Gunaratana's book "The Path of Serenity and Insight" for more details on the arising of psychic powers during practice.
This recent article points to scientific evidence of precognition. I believe it captures the essence of this as experimentally existing. Is Precognition Real?
I have had many experiences with precognition. It's not necessarily helpful and doesn't imply you can change any foreseen events. You still have to live this present moment of "now," which is the only "real" time that ever exists.
Practices such as Mahamudra can ground you in the ordinariness of normal life, yet reality's dream-like nature is also fully present. Life is a mystery.
Attaining psychic powers is usually just another diversion that can create the illusion of being separate and special. That is an error. Precognition happens for some practitioners. Bodhisattvas like Padmasambhava have shown that precognition can be used skillfully.

I have no writings to reference, only my personal experience with a very old and wise Monk in Singapore 1986. He not only saw my immediate future, he was able to influence the outcomes of future events thousands of miles away.The method was similar to one described by others, using a candle and peering into a bowl of water.
As I watched, he gazed into the reflection of the candle off the water. He appeared to be unhappy with what he saw, pulled a small rock from the bowl spoke something and threw the rock into the bowl and looked again. This happened 5 times until he seemed satisfied. He put out the candle by dipping it into the water and said O.K. you go to India on the 5th of May. I was sent on an offshore diving job in India on the 5th as he said. The story is much longer than I can write here, but the old monk has influenced my life several times from 12000 miles away.
For any who doubt the teachings of Buddha, I can only say "you will see".

I have personal experience about this. most astrologers and saints or Buddhist monks can tell you few things about your pasts but about future whatever they say is not always happen.

all_licenses: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/


text:
How do you help or take on the sufferings of others?
In the past month or so, a number of people i know are suffering in a number of ways e.g. cancer, allergies, etc. Especially when a child is concerned, i am inclined to 'take on' their suffering. Despite everything i do to help, i am compelled to take more on for them as i would like their suffering to reduce or end.
How does one help or take on the sufferings of others? This is especially so when in the company of children under the age of 4.

You're already doing it. You take on the sufferings of others by helping them.

By helping them however you can, and by being an example to them through your practice.

Lay practitioner here. I expect more educated answers will follow. But for me, I don't think a person can exactly "take on" the suffering of another. It is up to each of us to work our way through the mental delusions that permit our own suffering. Having said that, the peace we exude has, I believe, an effect on those around us. Just as when we act with anger in our hearts, our actions are likely to reflect this mental state, when we act with peace in our hearts, our actions will reflect that, and will have a positive effect on those with whom we interact.
One way to look at it is that instead of the view that "this person is suffering," think that, "there is suffering." The fact that it's "their" suffering or "your" suffering is illusion. There is simply suffering, and the work "you" do to reduce the causes of suffering has an effect on all suffering.


text:
Is there anything in Buddhism analogous to the Christian Eucharist?
I hope to have a go at reading a little about the Eucharist. Because my religious sympathies largely lie with Buddhism, I thought it'd be good to know of anything comparative therein.

This Wikipedia article seems like a good introduction to the Eucharist. I suspect that this question isn't on-topic: because you're trying to understand the Christian Eucharist (about which you've read very little so far), not asking a question to try to understand Buddhism.

hi @ChrisW thanks for the reply but of course i don't think it's off topic, as e.g. i do believe i'm asking a question to try and understand buddhism

If you haven't yet read even a little about the Eucharist, then how can telling you "this practice in Buddhism reminds me of the Eucharist" help you understand Buddhism? IMO the Eucharist isn't mainly about Transubstantiation (except perhaps as a reminder that the human body must eat, lives and will die) but is more about a) remembrance or mindfulness of Jesus (which is maybe like going to the Buddha for refuge) b) about gratitude or thanksgiving, e.g. for liberation (which might exist in Buddhism somehow but not exactly the same because there is no God to thank) ...

... c) eating, which is also a practice in Buddhism, e.g. Three Buddhist Verses to Chant Before Eating d) gathering into a community. However I don't see how to answer this question without it being more about the Eucharist than about Buddhism. Can you explain how to do that, and/or edit the question to make so that it doesn't seem to be asking "How could you explain the Christian Eucharist, to a Buddhist, using Buddhist practices and beliefs as an analogy"?

One analogy is that, whereas Christ said "This is my body" during their last supper while giving thanks and breaking bread, during the Buddha's last night he said that the Dhamma would be his body.

Your question asks if there is "anything analogous." In my experience, the tsok feast fits that bill. Sharing the food gifts that were offered leads to a similar virtuous and calm mind, with feelings of gratitude and appreciation of community.

Hi Brian and welcome to Buddhism SE. We have some guidelines for new user that you might find useful.

Chod practice.
It is a practice of offering one's body and blood.

Christ spoke in parables so it is difficult do say anything definite but it looks like it possibly could be  a mindfulness ritual to remember the teachings of Christ and the potential of Christ is inside everyone... like every one is a Buddha.


text:
Dealing with angriness or sadness that comes up with "meditation"
Ok, my "meditation" is physical exercise where I

concentrate on what I am doing
concentrate on my breath

If I exercise in morning, I feel violent anger.
When I confront why I feel such anger, I start to cry and talk to God Almighty (that is my believe system. I understand Buddhism doesn't believe in God, but rather, the awareness that we are living in illusion breaks you free. Similar belief in Hinduism except they believe in outer God and inner God and when those two reconcile, it gives awareness that we are living in illusion)
If I exercise in afternoon after I come home from office, I feel heavy sadness.
It's as if I want to cry, but the tears cannot come out, and the only comfort I can get is a nice hug from a big teddy bear, or I will feel comfort in wearing a warm sweater, even though it is summer.
How to deal with it without being ashamed of such feelings?
I know Buddha just looked these feelings straight in the eye, but were these feelings ever so bad for him?
Maybe Buddhism and Hinduism say those feelings come from actions in past life, i.e. we weren't humans, but rather animals in the jungle who has a "kill or be killed" mentality, which is really similar for many humans.
I considered posting this in fitness.stackexchange.com, but I believe this falls more in line with meditation and what Buddha teaches.
Addition
I believe the following is relevant.
When I was younger I had patellar sublaxation, where the knee patella would be unstable, come out of joint, and I would cry and scream in pain till the patella was put back in place. I would be traumatized rest of the day.
I was told to do exercises for patellar sublaxation, and to increase strength around knee.
When I jog (which is great for knee strength, and resistance), I have horrible flashbacks of that traumatic pain, and I keep trying to reassure myself that everything is ok, I am working towards a solution with exercise, but my thoughts keep going back to that dark place, and I keep thinking, what karmas must be worked out and resolved?
Thanks for any guidance!

This is a similar question to Meditating with an overwhelming emotion. Check that for some more advice.

How to deal with it without being ashamed of such feelings?
There's nothing wrong with feeling shame. How to deal with it? From a Buddhist point of view, you should practice meditation, and in my opinion, Vipassana meditation.
By doing so you will come to terms with these feelings as they arise and they will no longer effect you in such a way, and by the sound if it, you will also be able to come to terms with this aversion you've built up to the intense experiences of pain you had in the past, which may have had some role to play in leading to your present experiences of anger and depression.
Here is a brief article on pain and how meditation can help you come to terms with it: http://www.shinzen.org/Articles/artPain.pdf
And here is a good talk from a Buddhist point of view on the experience of pain and how it can be useful for us: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BldDclolLCg
In any case, I would suggest you shift your focus from the healing of your knee, to the healing of your mind, as that is where both these negative emotions are arising, and the suffering from the pain in your knee. We dont always have a choice in experiencing pain, but suffering because of it is a choice. Best of luck.

I woke up early this morning and was afraid to exercise because of the anger that would arise. I've had this problem for as long as I could remember. I think I should bite the bullet, exercise in morning and if anger comes up, deal with it, talk it out, cry about it. Till I am aware of it and am no longer bothered......

I read your question, and I think my opinion is that the Buddhist belief system is not exactly "awareness that we are living in illusion", and it is not like a "similar belief in Hinduism" ... but Buddhism actually has wisdom and practices to help with sorrow and anger (in fact, "to help with sorrow and anger" is virtually the main purpose of Buddhism, i.e. the reason why the Buddha invented it) and so to answer your question I want to write a summary to introduce or explain Buddhism.

The Buddhists' "Noble Eightfold Path" has three partitions

Virtue
Mindfulness
Wisdom

Any one of these can be helpful (and people are encouraged to make progress in all three):

I think that "virtue" improves your relationship with yourself and other people, and can be helpful no matter what you think of karma.
And "mindfulness" is to do with meditation, concentration, and insight.
The basis of wisdom is the four noble truths, which are, something like,

Suffering exists
The origin of suffering is craving and ignorance
Suffering ceases with the cessation of craving
The Eightfold Path is the way which leads to the end of suffering

I expect that both "virtue" and "mindfulness" can help with sadness (for example, one of the suttas says that "skillful virtues" leads to "freedom from remorse", which leads to "joy", etc.).
I want to say a bit about "wisdom", how knowledge of the four noble truths might help with sadness:

"I am feel sad now: that's not surprising because things are well known to be unsatisfactory"
"If I feel sad that is because I am craving something"
"If I stop my ignorant craving then I will stop feeling sad"

In summary if I feel sad, then I recognize that I'm feeling sad; remember that sadness is associated with craving; wonder what craving is causing sadness; see that craving is or was ignorant (ignorant because it causes suffering); and intend for that craving to cease, and for the sadness which it originated to cease with it.
Another fundamental of Buddhist wisdom is that things are impermanent. If you're not feeling sad, and suddenly you feel sad, then maybe soon you'll feel not sad again (the sadness being impermanent).

As for dealing with "anger", the doctrine about three poisons suggest that anger is related to aversion ("I don't want that") which is again related to a type craving ("I want that not to be"); so anger too can be handled by non-craving ... or by advesa and metta.
If I sometimes (hopefully briefly) feel angry there's a verse I like to remember from the Dhammapada,

Hatred is never appeased by hatred in this world. By non-hatred alone is hatred appeased. This is a law eternal.

Well, I hope the above can be a useful introduction to Buddhism.
I didn't mention karma. I suspect that karma may be more important in Hinduism than in Buddhism, because apparently (correct me if I'm wrong) Hindus believe that our current state is caused by past karma (which is why you might be wondering about actions in a past life), whereas Buddhism believes that karma is only one of the factors which affects our current state.
I don't know what to tell you about your individual state. I'm not a doctor or a teacher.
For physical exercise I personally like bicycling more than jogging. I can cycle for hours (can't jog for hours), and find the exercise increases my breathing (more than walking does, e.g. because I try to cycle fast or up-hill) and it's relatively easy on my knees and hips etc.
One answer like this can't solve your problem (perhaps only you can solve your problem) but I hope you discover how to maintain equanimity.

Hatred is never appeased by hatred in this world. By non-hatred alone is hatred appeased. This is a law eternal. I've noticed when I want to do something to help the world, i.e study medicine to perform reconstruction surgery for unfortunate people, perhaps make some medical breakthroughs to streamline surgery process, I no longer feel angry. But I got to remember such life goals!

I agree biking is easier on joints, but jogging also builds some resistance. I would like to be able to do both, hopefully once I find a nice stationary bike .....

It seems that you feel that you've been dealt with a raw deal in this life.
Accept who you are, what you've got and remind yourself the countless blessing you've got in this life and shun those negative thoughts.
Start with the first blessing which is you are born human..

Well, we've all had unfair things happen to us, it depends on how one takes it in.

Yes, they say best prayer is "Thank you" to God, Universe, etc

concentrate on what I am doing

Concentration on what you do on its own right is not Insight Meditation. You have to be mindful of the arising and passing of sensations.
An acrobat, surgeon, ballerina, etc. must be concentrate on what they do, but this concentration does not make them less stressful. perhaps it makes them more stressful. This is what you are experiencing.

concentrate on my breath

This is very good. But when doing this release the tension in you body and mind by passing your mind in any areas there might be discomfort.

On emotional instability

Emotional instability is an offshoot of ill-will. In the case of being emotional equanimity.


text:
Ordination procedure in Theravada Buddhism - What if parents are not alive anymore?
I read that a person must get permission from his og her parents but what if that persons parents are not alive anymore. Can that person then not become ordained in this life?
Thank you for your time.

I'm sure the answer is they CAN be ordained. The purpose behind this rule I believe is to not create schisms or tension within family's, with respect to your parent's wishes, and also to be sure that a person is not running away from any responsibilities within their family, i.e. helping their parents or so on. So if a persons parents are passed away,none of these concerns are an issue and the rule should therefore not even be applicable or of concern to them.

The commentary to this rule has some interesting discussion, including an answer to your question:

mātāpitaro matā, dārako cūḷamātādīnaṃ santike saṃvaddho, tasmiṃ pabbājiyamāne ñātakā kalahaṃ vā karonti, khiyyanti vā, tasmā vivādupacchedanatthaṃ āpucchitvāva pabbājetabbo. anāpucchā pabbājentassa pana āpatti natthi.
In the case where one's mother and father are dead, a child brought up in the home of a "little-mother" (step-mother? aunt?) etc., when causing them to go forth their relatives make a quarrel or feel dejected, therefore, for the purpose of cutting off dispute, should also be made to go forth after asking leave. But in the case of causing them to go forth without asking leave, there is no offence.
-- mahāvagga-aṭṭhakathā, 1. mahākhandhakaṃ, rāhulavatthukathā

The commentary then says something that is not quite clear to me:

putto attānaṃ nissāya jīvati, na mātāpitaro. sacepi rājā hoti, āpucchitvāva pabbājetabbo.
A son lives in dependence on himself, not on his mother or father. If he is a king, he should be made to go forth without having asked leave at all.
-- Ibid

I think these two sentences are meant to go together, and the period is a modern error, but it doesn't then say what a non-king should do in this instance. I don't see this as an issue, since clearly the previous statement still stands - without parents, asking permission is simply a courtesy.
Bonus - the commentary also contains the following edification:

eko mātāpitūhi saddhiṃ bhaṇḍitvā “pabbājetha man”ti āgacchati, “āpucchitvā ehī”ti ca vutto “nāhaṃ gacchāmi, sace maṃ na pabbājetha, vihāraṃ vā jhāpemi, satthena vā tumhe paharāmi, tumhākaṃ ñātakaupaṭṭhākānaṃ vā ārāmacchedanādīhi anatthaṃ uppādemi, rukkhā vā patitvā marāmi, coramajjhaṃ vā pavisāmi, desantaraṃ vā gacchāmī”ti vadati, taṃ jīvasseva rakkhaṇatthāya pabbājetuṃ vaṭṭati.
One, having quarrelled with their mother and father, comes saying "cause me to go forth." And when told, "having asked leave, come," says, "I will not go. If you do not cause me to go forth, I will set the vihara on fire, or I will beat you with a stick, or I will bring about some unbeneficial thing like destroying the homes of your relatives and supporters, or I will fall from a tree and die, or enter into the midst of thieves, or go to the borderlands," it is proper, for the sole purpose of protecting life, to cause him to go forth.
-- Ibid

Just the answer i was looking for. Thanks a lot Bhante.

but surely the why leads directly to the answer, no? common sense. my teacher once said this: all religions have a version of the same basic rules (don't kill, don't steal, don't become intoxicated, etc).
now why is that?
it's because those activities cause turmoil and drama, which are obstacles to gaining clarity and equanimity.
spiritual goals, like any goals, are reached more easily when you clear the path to them. the more barriers you have to climb, the longer it takes to reach your destination.
causing upset in your family creates an obstacle, both inner and outer. the ruminations and unhappy thoughts you will have from it will distract you from your purpose, and you family may also try to turn you from it because they too are unhappy.
better to spend the time cultivating patience and sensitivity to timing.  then, when the proper conditions arrive to become a monk without causing suffering to yourself and others, your path will be easier and more focused.

I think Ryan's comment explained why it's likely that ordination is possible. A good answer would provide evidence e.g. a copy of the rules in question (which is what the OP said he was looking for in this answer).

Thanks for the answer but it does not answer the question. I asked if a person can be ordained if that persons parents are not alive anymore. Your answer seems to be about why the rule is there. I appreciate your effort though.


text:
Ordination procedure in Theravada Buddhism - What are grievous crimes?
I read in this answer that if one wants to become a Bhikkhu then "He must never have committed any grievous crimes".

What could examples of grievous crimes be?
What if crimes where committed many years ago. Does that have any value in the ordination procedure or does it automatically result in one not being able to become ordained in this life?

Thank you for your time.

I believe its speaking of killing of your mother, father, murder of an Arahant, wounding the Buddha, or creating a schism in the Sangha.

Page 99 of this account of The
Buddhist
Monastic
Code list 11 types who should not be ordained as bhikkhus,

a pandaka (essentially, a eunuch or a person born neuter—see Sanghadisesa
  2),
a “non-human” being, (this includes nagas, petas, devas, and yakkhas),
a hermaphrodite,
a person who poses as a bhikkhu without having been ordained,
a bhikkhu who has ordained in another religion without first giving up his
  status as a bhikkhu,
a person who has murdered his father,
a person who has murdered his mother,
a person who has murdered an arahant,
a person who has sexually molested a bhikkhuni,
a person who has maliciously injured a Buddha to the point of causing him to
  bleed, and
a person who has dishonestly caused a schism in the Sangha, knowing or
  suspecting that his position was contrary to the Dhamma-Vinaya.

Pages 44 through 98 describe just four parajika rules, where if a bhikkhu breaks (or has broken) one of these rules then they are automatically no longer a bhikkhu and cannot ordain again in this life:

Sexual intercourse
Stealing
Killing
Falsely claiming a superior human state

Just the answer I was looking for. Thanks Chris.

Thanks Lanka, that's good to know. An answer like this one is very bare, no personality, personal opinion (or even politeness), it's nothing but a reference ... so I'm glad to hear that that's actually all you were looking for in this answer.


text:
How does the idea of Bodhisatva in Mahayana mesh with anattā?
As this is my first posted question, I welcome input as to how to improve it. Many thanks in advance.
When I have heard Mahayana practitioners discuss the concept of Bodhisatva as it varies from Theravadan teachings, it's spoken of as a mark against Theravada. It's suggested that Theravada lacks compassion for others, and that the Bodhisatva ideal "repairs" this lack of compassion.
When I consider this idea, I can't escape the feeling that the concept of a Bodhisatva ("me") helping "others" seems contrary to the idea of anattā. The idea that I would focus on self-ness (either my own or that of another) seems like a mistaken view. Instead, when I think of suffering, I think that, "there is suffering," not that "I am suffering" or "they are suffering." As such, the Bodhisatva concept seems to guide my thinking away from what I believe is Buddha's teacing of correct understanding.
As to lack of compassion... my thinking is that the work I do in my practice is meant to reduce suffering. Not to reduce my suffering and ignore that of others, but to reduce suffering itself.
And so my question is this: Am I understanding the pieces of this correctly? I realize some here adhere to different parts of this issue, and I appreciate feedback from both sides. Perhaps someone can explain how they think of the idea of "no-self" as it related to the Bodhisatva idea?

The lines between helping the self and helping others haven't always been very clear even to accomplished masters of either tradition,  for example, this is from Huang Po,

Even if you go through all the stages of a Bodhisattva's progress
  toward Buddhahood, one by one; when at last, in a single flash, you
  attain to full realization, you will only be realizing the
  Buddha-Nature which has been with you all the time; and by all the
  foregoing stages you will have added to it nothing at all.

(source)
Then there is of course the position that the very idea of a Bodhisattva way of life isn't a purely Mahayana experiment.

There is a wide-spread belief, particularly in the West, that the
  ideal of the Theravada, which they conveniently identify with
  Hinayana, is to become an Arahant while that of the Mahayana is to
  become a Bodhisattva and finally to attain the state of a Buddha. It
  must be categorically stated that this is incorrect. This idea was
  spread by some early Orientalists at a time when Buddhist studies were
  beginning in the West, and the others who followed them accepted it
  without taking the trouble to go into the problem by examining the
  texts and living traditions in Buddhist countries. But the fact is
  that both the Theravada and the Mahayana unanimously accept the
  Bodhisattva ideal as the highest.

(source)
When one has gone beyond the idea of self in either case, where does the I end and the We begin?

This is related to this question.
The anatta concept doesn't say that there is no self - it says "not self" as in "all phenomena is not self". There is a self, but it is not permanent and is not independent from the inter-workings of the senses, sensation, perception, mind and consciousness.
For e.g. a static image that is projected on the wall - it is a result of light projected onto a wall from a projector. If you dig deeper, you can explain how a projector works, how electronics and electricity works. The image does not exist permanently and independently from the wall or projector or electricity. But this does not mean that the image does not exist. Surely it exists.
Also, to quote this answer, anatta relates to absolute truth, however, the self that exists relates to relative truth.
While you have not yet attained Nirvana (Bodhisattvas included), suffering is still experienced, hence the self still persists and rebirth continues to take place. When you knock your head on the wall and say "ouch", you know that you are still subject to suffering.
In the Acela Sutta, Kassapa asks the Buddha whether the suffering that one experiences, is caused by oneself, is caused by another, is caused both by oneself and another, is not caused by oneself or another but arises spontaneously, or it doesn't exist? The Buddha says that suffering exists, but it is not useful for us to speculate "who" ultimately caused it, from the perspective of absolute truth. If the self caused the suffering, then it is the eternalistic argument. If no one caused it, then it is the nihilistic argument. But instead, the Buddha taught Kassapa the middle path, which is dependent origination.
So, it is also not as easy as there is no self at all, or that there is definitely a self, and trying to link the effort to liberate oneself or other beings to one of these. Rather, the Buddha prefers us to ignore that part ("Don't say that, Kassapa") and focus on dependent origination.
Compassion by itself can be a contributor towards liberation from suffering according to the Nissaraniya Sutta:

It's impossible, there is no way that — when compassion has been
  developed, pursued, handed the reins and taken as a basis, given a
  grounding, steadied, consolidated, and well-undertaken as an
  awareness-release — viciousness would still keep overpowering the
  mind. That possibility doesn't exist, for this is the escape from
  viciousness: compassion as an awareness-release.'

I don't think Theravada lacks compassion, as it teaches the practice of the Brahmaviharas. But is it selfish to liberate oneself before trying to liberate others? Well, I think in Theravada there are the four stages of enlightenment (which can last up to 7 births from the first stage), plus an Arahant can continue to teach, till parinibbana, so there is still plenty of chance for one to contribute towards the liberation of others, but not quite till the hells are empty.

Thank you for your discussion! I understand the anatta is not "no-self," but I think that it suggests that thoughts of "self" are ultimately empty and meaningless. As per the the answer you linked, thoughts of "self" are meaningless at the level of ultimate truth. Therein lies my confusion. It seems as though the Bodhisatva idea is encouraging attachment to the concept of "self," which is meaningless in the realm of ultimate truth. Does that not suggest that the idea of Bodhisatva is, itself, meaningless in the realm of ultimate truth?

The idea of Bodhisattva is meaningful in the realm of relative truth and suffering, as long as you are still subject to it.

As to the first paragraph regarding selfishness of Theravada, I would say it's wrong view or misunderstanding from the Mahayana counter part as my explanations later would show.
As to the second paragraph regarding compassion to oneself & others and difference between  Mahayana and Theravada see my post there.
The middle way is seeing both ultimate & conventional reality and acting according to the reality of the situation, depending on personal characteristics. Acting according to just either one of realities is an extreme.
When true compassion arises in one there is only concern for the relieving of suffering of the other, there isn't a sense of self that I'm doing this, but rather this needs to be done.
And for an accomplished person, an Anagami (whose sense of self is much reduced) and higher, there isn't a feeling of one doing it, nor is there a sense of achievement, but for lesser beings: feel-good to pride.
So Theravadin Anagamis and above are true Bodhisattvas, but there's one caveat: most of those who chose the Theravadin path have concerns for me first others second, characteristics, make-up or tendencies. Those whose tendencies are others first and me second, are attracted to the Mahayana paths.
EDIT:
One of the suttas says, there are four types of persons:
1) One who does no good to himself or others. ( probably won't practice)
2) One who does good for himself and not for others. ( will probably choose Theravada)
3) One who does good for others but not for himself. ( Will probably choose Mahayana )
4) One who does good for others and himself. ( Accomplished persons).

What sutta is this you're referencing ? I'm assuming there aren't the quotations after the list of the four type of people and this was your addition? I would have to disagree; A person who ordains, regardless as a Theravada or Mahayana monk will generally be doing good for both themselves and for others, as the two are very much mutually exclusive. Unless you have evil intention, you can't help others and not help yourself, and vice versa.

When you help others, you help yourself by bettering yourself. When you help yourself, you're doing a favor to others by being a better person yourself.

Also, a Bodhisattva in the Mahayana tradition is one who takes up the direction of becoming a Buddha, so as far as the Theravada is concerned, Anagamis and Arahants are NOT equivalent to this.

@Ryan The referenced sutta sounds like A ii 94

Samadhi might you be able to answer the question without making generalizations about "Theravada is chosen by people who are me-first" and "Mahayana is attractive to people who are others-first"? Is it possible that's a stereotype that's not worth perpetuating, and isn't needed in order to answer the question?

The catch word is "probably"! How probable is "probably". It seems that some takes of "probably" is close to certainty! That is certainly not my take of probably!

The context I'm talking is not all people in general, but within the context of Buddhist who are Mahayana or Theravada as implied in OP.

@ChrisW - I'm talking not of stereotype s but of tendencies, make-up, character which I pointed out earlier. Buddhism is about kammic tendencies.

@Ryan - talking in context of the OP who's struggling to understand Bodhisattvas within the Theravadin tradition, I've just pointed out that one can take Anagamis and higher as Bodhisattvas. It's probable that I didn't know that the Bodhisattvas path is to become a Buddha!

...It's probably time to say goodbye!

Not "goodbye" forever, I hope! When I didn't reply, that was because I couldn't think of anything useful to add to what you said. "Bodhisatta" is a term used in Theravada. And IMO the OP wasn't "struggling to understand Bodhisattvas within the Theravadin tradition", but was rather struggling to understand helping "others" in any tradition that teaches "anattā", and non-duality (i.e. non duality between "self" and "other"), and "the realm of ultimate truth".

One idea is that having a view-of-self is conducive to suffering (viewing a conditioned, impermanent and unsatisfactory thing as "self"), and therefore it's better to choose to develop a view of non-self.
One way to practice this view, is to view yourself as being like others (and others as being like yourself): because that avoids (or tries to avoid) putting undue emphasis on "me".
Perhaps a view like this (i.e "treat others as yourself, with compassion") is common to many human cultures: see Golden Rule.
If "you" wanted to attain liberation and you're eventually successful, don't you think it makes sense to help others do the same? If a bodhisattva is defined as one who has Bodhicitta, don't you find that's identical to the thought process of the Buddha soon after he attained his enlightenment?
Ayacana Sutta

Then the Blessed One, having understood Brahma's invitation, out of compassion for beings, surveyed the world with the eye of an Awakened One. As he did so, he saw beings with little dust in their eyes [etc.]

Maybe the view of "emptiness" is to help you avoid clinging to the world: but it would be going too far, it would be untrue to say, "there are no sentient beings in the world, who suffer and want enlightenment."

Beware that this is all my guess and that I have little knowledge about Mahayana.

Thank you! Yes, I see the point of helping others, but it seems that "others" is a misunderstanding of ultimate truth. "Me" and "others" isn't the point -- the point is "suffering" itself. As such, as I work to eliminate suffering, I am, in fact, helping "others." Developing a view of "no-self" is, I think, equally mistaken, as I think the point is that "self" and "no-self" are meaningless in the realm of ultimate truth. ... Having said that, I'm still chewing on all this! Thank you for your thoughts.

Does this help? IMO it suggests that "there are no 'others'" is wrong view; and that there are two types of right view: one is "good actions" etc.; and the other is "noble and without effluents" (where "effluent" is maybe described in this answer).


text:
How do you develop the right view with lack of information, knowledge and time?
One of the tenets of the eight fold path is developing right view which in my opinion can be subjective based on variables or factors such as your upbringing, exposure, experience and like.
How does one develop right views when there is a lack of information and knowledge and there is a constraint of time?
Alternatively how does one maintain right views when you may have some information and little knowledge and there is a constraint of time?

You might also like the Sammaditthi Sutta: The Discourse on Right View: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.009.ntbb.html

Firstly, here is a short quote on "Right View" by Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi:

"Right view is placed first because right view is the eye that guides and directs all the other factors. In the practice of the path, we need the vision and understanding supplied by right views, in order to see the way to travel along the path. Then we need the other factors, conduct or practice, in order to bring us to our destination.
  Right view is placed at the begining of the path to show that before we can set foot on the actual practice, we need the understanding provided by right view, as our guide, our inner director, to show us where we are starting from, where we are heading, and what are the successive stages to be passed through in practice.
Usually the Buddha defines right view as the understanding of the Four Noble Truths: suffering, the origin, its cessation and the way to its cessation. To follow the path right from the start we need a correct perspective on the human condition. We have to see that our lives are not fully satisfactory, that life is impermanent, that it is subject to suffering, and we have to understand that suffering is something that we have to penetrate by means of knowledge, something that we have to conquer, and not something we should escape from by pain removers, entertainment, distractions or dull forgetfulness.
At the deepest level we have to see that all things that make up our being, the five aggregates, are impermanent, constantly changing, and therefore cannot be held to as a basis for security or unchanging happiness. Then we have to see that the cause of Dukkha lies in our own mind. Nobody is imposing it on us. We cannot put the blame outside ourselves. It is through our own craving and clinging that we produce suffering and pain for ourselves. Then when we see that the cause of the Dukkha lies in our own mind, we understand that the key to liberation too lies in our own mind. That key is the overcoming of ignorance and craving by means of wisdom. Then, to enter the path, we need the confidence that by following the Noble Eightfold Path we can reach the goal, the cessation of suffering.
The Buddha defines right view as the understanding of the Four Noble Truths for a very improtant reason, namely, that he does not want his disciples to practice his teaching merely out of feelings of devotion. Rather, he wants them to follow the path on the basis of their own understanding. Their own insight into the nature of human life.
As we'll see later, the path begins with an elementary level of right understanding. As the mind develops in the course of practice, the understanding will gradually deepen, expand and widen, and as it does so we come back again and again to right view."

Here is a more in-depth quote on "Right View" from the book "The Noble Eightfold Path -
The Way to the End of Suffering" by Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi, p. 13-15:

"Right view provides the perspective for practice, right intention the sense of direction. But the two do not expire in this preparatory role. For when the mind has been refined by the training in moral discipline and concentration, it arrives at a superior right view and right intention, which now form the proper training in the higher wisdom.
Right view is the forerunner of the entire path, the guide for all the other factors. It enables us to understand our starting point, our destination, and the successive landmarks to pass as practice advances. To attempt to engage in the practice without a foundation of right view is to risk getting lost in the futility of undirected movement. Doing so might be compared to wanting to drive someplace without consulting a roadmap or listening to the suggestions of an experienced driver. One might get into the car and start to drive, but rather than approaching closer to one’s destination, one is more likely to move farther away from it. To arrive at the desired place one has to have some idea of its general direction and of the roads leading to it. Analogous considerations apply to the practice of the path, which takes place in a framework of understanding established by right view.
The importance of right view can be gauged from the fact that our perspectives on the crucial issues of reality and value have a bearing that goes beyond mere theoretical convictions.
  They govern our attitudes, our actions, our whole orientation to existence. Our views might not be clearly formulated in our mind; we might have only a hazy conceptual grasp of our beliefs. But whether formulated or not, expressed or maintained in silence, these views have a far-reaching influence. They struc- ture our perceptions, order our values, crystallize into the idea- tional framework through which we interpret to ourselves the meaning of our being in the world.
These views then condition action. They lie behind our choices and goals, and our efforts to turn these goals from ideals into actuality. The actions themselves might determine consequences, but the actions along with their consequences hinge on the views from which they spring. Since views imply an
  “ontological commitment,” a decision on the question of what is real and true, it follows that views divide into two classes, right views and wrong views. The former correspond to what is real, the latter deviate from the real and confirm the false in its place.
These two different kinds of views, the Buddha teaches, lead to radically disparate lines of action, and thence to opposite results. If we hold a wrong view, even if that view is vague, it will lead us towards courses of action that eventuate in suffering. On the other hand, if we adopt a right view, that view will steer us towards right action, and thereby towards freedom from suffer- ing. Though our conceptual orientation towards the world might seem innocuous and inconsequential, when looked at closely it reveals itself to be the decisive determinant of our whole course of future development. The Buddha himself says that he sees no single factor so responsible for the arising of unwholesome states of mind as wrong view, and no factor so helpful for the arising of wholesome states of mind as right view. Again, he says that there is no single factor so responsible for the suffering of living beings as wrong view, and no factor so potent in promoting the good of living beings as right view (AN 1:16.2).
In its fullest measure right view involves a correct understanding of the entire Dhamma or teaching of the Buddha, and thus its scope is equal to the range of the Dhamma itself. But for practical purposes two kinds of right view stand out as primary. One is mundane right view, right view which operates
  within the confines of the world. The other is supramundane right view, the superior right view which leads to liberation from the world. The first is concerned with the laws governing material and spiritual progress within the round of becoming, with the principles that lead to higher and lower states of exist- ence, to mundane happiness and suffering. The second is concerned with the principles essential to liberation. It does not aim merely at spiritual progress from life to life, but at emancipation from the cycle of recurring lives and deaths."

Lastly, here is a very detailed audio dhamma talk called "The Noble Eightfold Path" by Ven. Bhikkhu Bodhi. In here he talks about all the path factors and explains them. This is a very good talk that i highly recommend.

Right view is basically the knowledge/realisation of Four Nobel Truth, which is not subjective. Our current view about things we observe is subjective and we need to have the right effort to get to the right view. The main constraint is not the time, it's the priority I suppose.

Yes I think that 'right view' is defined, in the Maha-satipatthana Sutta: "And what is right view? Knowledge with regard to stress, knowledge with regard to the origination of stress, knowledge with regard to the cessation of stress, knowledge with regard to the way of practice leading to the cessation of stress: This is called right view."

Hi Xelber and welcome to Buddhism SE. Good answer you made. If you want to make it even better then you could put in some references to the texts. Also here is a guide for new users: http://meta.buddhism.stackexchange.com/questions/1502/i-am-a-new-user-here-at-buddhism-se-what-should-i-know-before-i-post?cb=1

@Lanka Thanks, will do from now on. Really glad buddhism is in SE.

Sounds great. I am too:)

Seeing things as they are(ultimate reality) is right view. When practicing mindfulness any conceptual view is wrong view. When we have a foundation of virtue, we see things  as they are in the present moment, moment by moment, second by millisecond and along with concentration, that is the basic practice(mindfulness) we need to understand the difference between ultimate reality and conceptual reality.  A view can't fit into ultimate reality.  It would be great if you could get a teacher. One can actually get by with little theoretical knowledge, especially if they have a teacher. We all have a constraint on time, that's what we are trying to see deeply: Impermanence as well as dukkha and not-self.
Bhante Yuttadhammo on right view:

"The first step towards enlightenment is right view, which simply means seeing reality from the proper paradigm. The theory, which holds perfectly in practice, is that if you are not looking at reality in the right way, you will never be able to approach the understanding of it. A physicalist paradigm is useless in practice - it gives rise to stress, depression, anger and immorality for the simple reason that it doesn't describe the first-hand experience of the mind that subscribes to it. An idealist paradigm (which says that reality is entirely mental) is equally useless, for similar reasons. An experientialist paradigm fits perfectly, by its very definition, with the reality it seeks to describe, focusing only on those phenomena as can be understood first-hand without postulating a physical or mental substratum. As a result, it can never fall prey to the dissociation from reality that plagues the other, more theoretical paradigms."

from his Bhante's blog here: http://yuttadhammo.sirimangalo.org/2013/05/a-skeptic-guide-to-neuroscience.html?m=1

Developing and maintaining right view when there is a lack of information, knowledge and a constraint of time can be achieved with few things in mind. What view produces the most positive result in my environment and how can my view be improved is a good starting place. If you feel happy with your new found insight and your view seems to be doing wonders for your environment than you can rest assured that you (and your people) have generated a 'right view'. If you feel as if your energies are reducing after sometime though, than it may be time for some improvement (like tuning your car when its running a bit sluggish). Unfortunately there is no 'right view' that you can cling to that will keep you happy and satisfied. Hence the core teaching of Buddhism which refers to 'attachment'. Fortunately however, right views that have been generated overtime need not be thrown out and forgotten. Combining your best views can produce wonders for your life (kind of like the art of chemistry where two seemingly useless chemicals are combined to make a great product)! This makes view creation and maintenance a constant effort, as so mentioned in the eight-fold noble path. So don't be satisfied with one view no matter how shiny it is and don't be quick to chuck out other views because they deem no significance. Instead play with your box of views life a scientific lab and see what you can come up with! :D
Hope this helps :)