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How much of the statement of purpose should be focused on each of my academic background and my work experience?
I am currently writing up my SOP for a PhD in Economics. I studied math and economics in college and I have been working for 4.5 years in financial services since graduation.
I have two main question:

How much should reiterate my educational courses in college? It's on my transcript and I have already mentioned a synopsis of the coursework I took. Am I being redundant by mentioning the tough courses I took. I wrote a senior thesis, I'll obviously mention that.
Since the career jobs I took after graduation are heavily economic modelling/quantitative finance oriented and add a lot of value in terms of modelling skills and programming skills. How much of the SOP should be focused on my academic how much on my work experience? I feel like the skills I received from my work experience do a better a job at expressing how qualified I am for the program. I had a high GPA in difficult math and econ courses but the same can be said about most applicants, so I was wondering that if the work experience is extremely relevant, maybe I should concentrate on that to distinguish myself.

Anyone? Really appreciate any advice on the topic.

The SoP should focus on what you can add to the programme that no one else can. In your case, it sounds like the work experience is really what sets you apart. The students who apply for PhDs will generally all have taken difficult classes and gotten good grades in them, so that's not something you should spend time on in your SoP. The only exception is if any class contained a project or small dissertation or research component where you did really well: this should be mentioned. Anything else will show up in the transcript.
So yes, focus on the experience you got from working, and how that will make you an asset in an economics lab.


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What is a right way to criticize a published method in my paper?
I am writing a research paper, and am fairly new to writing. I am working on a research topic that has not been touched too much. There has only been one other paper published regarding the same topic.
In this other paper, they have a fairly strange methodological approach that almost doesn't make use of the method at hand. My paper is an improvement of their approach; I am wondering what would be the best way to criticize their approach to present my own approach.
As Bob et al. failed to notice, we can actually do this...

There's no need to harshly criticize the authors of the first paper, however strange it seems, even if their approach is plainly wrong. After all, as you say, it appears that they are the only ones who actively worked on that research topic before you.
So, be constructive and build upon what they've done. For instance, you might write something like:

Bob et al. [1] developed an algorithm to square the circle. This algorithm can square the circle in 198 steps. Here we present a modification of the original algorithm which can square the circle in just 87 steps. This modification is based on the observation that blah blah...

I would make that 'even if their approach is plainly wrong'. My experience is that it is assumed you will avoid saying outright that something is wrong. In a somewhat related situation I thought I had worded something pretty mildly, but it seems that others took what I wrote to be too strong.

@JessicaB: agreed!

Another thing that I guess I like to add: Bob et al. didn't actually use the method correctly. (ps. Bob et al isn't real..)

@user26850: No, again no. Are you writing a paper to present your own work? Then present your own work; show the advantages of your approach and show why your approach is an improvement over the previous one. No more than that. If, instead, your aim is just that of criticizing Bob's paper, than submit a comment to their article, so that they can reply on the same journal issue.

PS: I've suspected that Bob et al weren't real ;-)

Thanks for the response. I am new to writing and I would hate if someone made that type of remark to me!!

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What can I do if I find errors in someone's thesis?
I was browsing someone's thesis from a US university. I found several typos and missing (incomplete) sections. There was no plagiarism and dishonesty though. What would happen if I write to their advisor? Can some action be taken or is it a closed case once a thesis is accepted and signed.

Someone once asked me 'have you found the hole in your thesis yet?' They hadn't read it at that point. The point was that pretty much every thesis will have mistakes. The published version might be more correct. Citing a thesis is relatively rare, in my field at least.

What kind of "action" do you envision the advisor taking?

Related (but not duplicate): Are spelling and/or grammar mistakes a cause for submitting Errata?

I'm not familiar with academia, but why can't you tell the author directly?

@Navin: Lack of contact details for the author would be the first issue that comes to my mind. The chance to find such contact details may be a little higher for doctoral theses than for Bachelor and Master theses, yet even for previous doctoral candidates that have since left the university, university e-mail addresses are often not kept alive for very long.

I second the question by @NateEldredge and would like to concretize it: OP, do you expect any "action" related to the graded former student (probably not a good idea, quite well covered in various of the answers so far), or are you rather referring to any "action" concerning the published document (probably quite desirable for the sake of saving future readers some confusion, but realistically highly unlikely to happen)?

Generally no official action can or should be taken regarding errors in a dissertation (assuming they are not a sign of dishonesty or fraud).  However, it could be worth pointing out errors to the author in case he/she is preparing a publication based on the dissertation.  I wouldn't do this if it's from long ago or you see that the material is already published, but you could be providing a useful service to the author otherwise.  (If these errors have already made it into publications, then it's worth reporting them to the authors if they are substantive, so they can decide whether to publish errata, but it may not be worth reporting typos.  I'm a perfectionist and would like to know of typos in my publications, but others might be annoyed.)
But you certainly shouldn't write to the advisor.  That comes across like you are reporting bad behavior to an authority figure, so it's not appropriate unless that's the message you want to send (for example, if you discover plagiarism).  Instead, you should communicate directly with the student who wrote the dissertation.  If you can't figure out how to track down the author, then you can assume he/she isn't pursuing a research career and you don't need to worry about it.

Writing to the Author would be the best, but definitely not to the adviser.

I would not like to be told about typos in published papers where I can't correct them. Obviously they are almost certainly there, but knowing specificly where they are would be annoying.

@jessica So Gaiman's first law - "Picking up your first copy of a book you wrote, if there’s one typo, it will be on the page that your new book falls open to the first time you pick it up"- doesn't apply to papers for you? ;)

@Voo I'm young enough never to have had a physical copy of a published paper of mine.

I do not know really. After all, it is the adviser, who bears the primary responsibility for checking the results of the thesis (the student is not mature enough most of the time and the rest of the committee do not care much this way of the other).
My personal experience with this was that my adviser gave me a 50 page thesis of his former student (written like 5 years before) and asked me to close the gap between the lower bound of $m$ and the upper bound of $m\log 1/m$ for some quantity depending on the small parameter $m$. With my usual laziness, I decided just to see what I can get myself instead of reading anything someone else did, and after a few weeks I had a lower bound of $\sqrt m$ with a short and very clear proof, which, obviously contradicted the upper bound in the thesis.
Now, it is today that I'm a middle age cynical person with fairly low opinion of human abilities and standards of behavior, including my own. At that time I was a young boy to whom my adviser looked if not like a semi-god, then, at least, as an impeccable mathematical professor of intelligence bordering on supernatural. It was absolutely impossible that he could pass anyone with a wrong result!
So, I set up looking for a mistake in my own argument. By the end of the second week of search I was feeling like in a few days I would need to be sent to a mental asylum if I spend just a few more hours on it. The argument was absolutely clean. The heretical thought crossed my mind that the thesis might contain an error, after all, and I started to sift through 50 pages of dense text in which I didn't even know some words. In three more weeks I had read all of it and saw no error either. Back to my proof. Watertight. Back to the thesis and its half-page long computations. Nothing. When I finally found the mistake in the thesis (which was as stupid as $\sin x\to 1$ as $x\to 0$ done en passe in the middle of a long sophisticated limit computation with trigonometric functions), I was half insane.
Moral. If you see an error in a (at least, mathematical) work, by all means, let it be known! It can save if not the life, then the sanity of someone in the future, while all you can harm is something as ephemeral as "self-esteem".
The story is real though I omitted the names (some of which are easy to figure out and some are not).
The best way to report the error is, of course, to figure out what should really be there yourself first and to offer both the criticism and the way out simultaneously. Some good joint papers have been written exactly this way :-)

I think that not finding an error in a thesis would be much more impressive. If you've never seen errors in a scientific piece of work before, it is that you are not very attentive. You probably know of the famous Excel error of Reinhart-Rogoff. Actually, this kind of thing happens all the time, in the best papers too. And it's normal. Scientists are human beings. That is why science is about replication.
I don't even speak about typos and such. 90% of scientists writing in English are not English native speakers, so of course they (we) make a lot of mistakes. And so what ? Is it better to spend 100 hours reading again and again the same paper to correct a handful of spelling mistakes without any consequences, or should this time be better employed solving scientific problems ?

You should do nothing and hope that the people who find the errors in your own documents are kind enough to do the same.  (There is at least one error in my own master's thesis and at least one in my doctoral dissertation.  There are also errors in textbooks by respected authors.  I've found one in a fifth edition of a book; I checked and it's in the first four editions, too.)
If the document were a book, a web page, or something else amenable to revision, one would send the author a polite note.  The "do nothing" advice is for a "one and done" document like a thesis or dissertation.

Also see the answer by Anonymous Mathematician about notifying the author if there are errors that might be propagated into future publications.

I dislike this answer. I once found an typo in an article  (with lots of tables with hundreds of datas I had to check). This wasted me lot of my time and ruined part of the work I did from these datas. In the era of Internet, I whish there would be a place where one can report and check these mistakes to save other people's time.

@Taladris: Well, your downvote got me a hat.  As far as wishing, there are things for which I wish that aren't and will never be real, too.  The question was "what can I do?" and not "what ought to exist?"

There are at least two errors in my thesis. One I corrected in preparing a portion of the thesis for publication. The other remains unresolved, but I believe it can be patched up. I'm sure there are some others as well. It bothers me that they are there, but not to the point that I lose sleep over it. At this point in my career, it is probably almost irrelevant. I work in another area now, but I would like to go back and fix them some time, when I can find the time.

What are you really hoping to accomplish by emailing the person's advisor?  It sounds like you want to have the student's "case" re-opened and that you possibly disagree with the person's worthiness of his or her qualification.  This is a huge deal (not a small one, by any measure).  I think you are opening up the proverbial can of worms, and for no good reason I might add.  Sorry to be blunt, but is this your business, really?  (The question is only semi-rhetorical, but I think the answer is "no".)
Please read the responses of "Anonymous Mathematician" and Bob Brown above --- they are quite on the mark.
If the author wrote the thesis relatively recently, then do let him or her know directly (not through the advisor), as your constructive criticism could be useful as he or she prepares publications.  If the person submitted their thesis some time ago, check to see which publications, if any, arose from it. Maybe the gaps have been closed in those publications.
These things are all that you should do.  Leave it alone, otherwise.
A committee of experts at some point decided that the person's thesis was worthy of a degree.  They may not have cared that certain gaps existed in the write up.  What was presented in the thesis was sufficient and interesting enough for them.  The student succeeded in demonstrating a sufficient expertise, by their standards.  The thesis may not live up to your own personal standards, but that doesn't matter at all.  When you are on a graduate committee, you can apply your standards as you see fit.
If no academic dishonesty has been committed, then I say that you should leave this issue alone.  Focus your efforts on your own work and achieving something that meets your own standards.

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Do I need to send two official copies of toefl/gre scores to a US school?
I'm applying two programs in different departments in one university simultaneously. One department has a department code and the other has not. Do I need to send two official copies of toefl/gre scores to the university?

Do they have different GRE institution codes? Do they require department codes?

@ff524 One department writes down department codes explicitly (doesn't say required) and the other does not write at all.

Send the e-mail directly to the university asking for the related problem/confusion.
Every university is ready to help with these type of queries.
Send one email to admission director, or call their admission office. You will get the best clarification directly from the source because admission director will be the person reviewing your application!


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Is there any formal format for statement of purpose?
I'm about to submit my application for various PhD programs and I was wondering how should I format my statement of purpose.
Should it be addressed like a formal letter? Just contain my name and say 'Statement of Purpose'? Should I end it with something like 'Sincerely, ...' ?

When I applied to grad school I didn't give my SOP a title or address it to anyone in particular, or include any closing salutation.  Some schools required me to put my user id at the top, which I did.
(I was accepted to several places so I think the way I did it should be fine.)

Thanks! I just wanted to know if any of this was standard procedure. I don't think styling it a bit (I've typed everything using TeX-moderncv) could hurt, do you?

I would try to make the fonts as similar to other people's fonts as possible.  So either the default setting on Microsoft Word or the default on LaTeX.

Ok. So you suggest to leave it as simple as possible? I'm not thinking about any crazy stuff, just maybe some mild changes in the font size of the 'Statement of Purpose' text and a horizontal line or something like that.

Yeah, I'd keep it simple.


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Is it possibly considered weakness in my statement of purpose if I mention that I would like specific people to advise my PhD programme?
I'm writing a statement of purpose for my PhD applications and in some cases I'd be very happy if any person from a certain group (say the Algebra Group) would take me as his/her student. Could this be considered a weakness in my application? How should I handle this?
I've been researching people and groups for over 4 months and I know (as much as I can right now) what I want to do and who does it. It's just that some universities and programs have some amazing faculty.

I think it's a strength.  At least in my department, you're considered unusual if you don't have an idea of who you want to work with before you set foot on campus.  If you want to maximize your chance of acceptance I think you should say you're flexible (but still express preferences).

I would include which certain aspects of the faculty would support your intentions and why, especially if you can include meaningful references to their previously published work.
For example
"I believe that University X would be a great place to undertake my research into topic Y because it has a great reputation in this field. For example books A and B published by person C are well known texts in the field and I believe the research of person D in the area of E would compliment mine."

If you do this, please read at least the first chapter of the book or the abstract of the paper. I've had people use this language and absolutely fail to grasp the work done by the authors.

You should definitely mention your research group preferences. At my university, PhD applicants are required to do so. This implicitly forces the applicants to learn more about the research groups that are offering PhD positions. If your application get through the selection process, you will be interviewed by the professors of your choices. It would be a big plus if you can make an impression that you have general understanding of their research work. It shows that you have passion for the topics and also increases your chance of being accepted.
If none of the professors think that you are a match for them, then let it be and choose different PhD Programme. You should not do your PhD in a research group blindfolded, just because you are accepted there. If you don't like the topics, you could run into the risks of not being able to finish your PhD and wasting few years of your life. Academia is all about passion, without it your chance of success is very small.

I think this is a high-risk high-reward scenario. I did this; I called out one particular professor, and I nailed it because he accepted me, but this same tactic failed on another graduate school application. At least where I went, when an application letter mentions a specific professor, internally that application gets sent to that professor for review. If you are a match for them, you have just won a spot on the team of your choice. But if you call out this professor and they are not hiring or do not like your application, you will probably alienate others. So, I think it is risky due to potentially alienating others who may have seen your application if you didn't specify, but can be rewarding because it can land your application on their desk.

The sad, but true, situation is that admissions committees are often aware of the needs and funding status of the faculty they are serving.  If the people you list are actively looking for students, you might have an easier time with admissions, but if the people you list are in funding trouble, or their labs are full, that might be a bit of a negative.
In the long run, though, programs are looking for good people.  The impact I describe is more of a nudging effect than the big decision maker.
I'd recommend mentioning your interest, but also mentioning that you're flexible.  It shows good planning.

Why is that sad?  Isn't it better to be rejected from a school than to go to a school thinking you could work with a specific person that you would definitely not be able to work with?


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How should I facilitate a panel discussion?
I've been asked to facilitate a panel discussion at a conference I'm presenting a paper at in a few weeks, and I'm thrilled at the idea, but I really have no idea what to do. I've never facilitated a panel discussion before, and I'm wondering:

What is it like?
Is this something I can (or should) put on my CV?
Are there any benefits to me for doing so besides exposure (which I'm assuming is already a big plus)?

Moderating a panel can be a lot of fun!
First: are the panel members already chosen, or do you get to choose them?  If you get to choose them, then look for a group of people with diverse backgrounds and viewpoints.  For example, different camps of scientific thought, different career stages, academia vs. industry vs. government, different subfields.  Try to pick people who you think will both have interesting thoughts to share and who will be willing to stop sharing them---one blatherer who insists on telling a ten-minute anecdote every time they talk can ruin a panel.  Also try to look for panelists who will be respectful to one another, even when they violently disagree: a fight might be "fun" but it generally less productive and interesting than a respectful argument.
It is also critical to be aware that due to the availability heuristic, your first thoughts on who to invite are likely to be biased towards socially dominant groups (typically: white men from Europe and America).  To avoid being racist and sexist in your picks, also make a list of people who are not members of this group, and ask yourself who in this list would also be a good panel member.  You may be surprised how many qualified people there are with more diverse backgrounds than you thought of at first.  Then, from your set of qualified people, pick a mixture that is significantly closer to the diversity that you want there to be in the field, rather than its current average.
Once the panel is running, as moderator, you have three responsibilities:

Get the panelists to start talking about the subject at hand.
Keep the discussion at least vaguely related to the subject of the panel at least much of the time.
Make sure the talkative panelists don't keep the less-talkative panelists from contributing.

A good technique to support all three of these responsibilities is the prepare a list of open-ended questions related to the panel topic.  You can start things off by throwing a question out to the panel to break the ice.  If the panel starts running down or (badly) drifting off course, you can feed another question into the mix to keep things going on track.  Let them drift a while first, though: the purpose of a panel is interesting scientific discussion related to a topic, and drifting a bit may get you somewhere important. Finally, if somebody on the panel isn't getting enough chance to talk, you can inject a question targeted to them: "The next question, I want to start by hearing from Prof. Quiet."
Some panels also are expected to start with mini-presentations, in which case you also have a session chair job, to make sure that the panelists keep their presentations short enough that there is time for a good discussion.  If they are giving slides, collect them onto one machine beforehand, so that you don't lose time to A/V changeover.
As for the benefits: sure, you can put it on your C.V. (it doesn't count a lot, but it doesn't hurt).  The primary benefits, however, are exposure to the audience,  networking with the people on the panel, and the fun of running a nice event.

The panel members are already chosen. I've been informed, however, that there is some concern that one of the two panel members will not show. In any case, they are also expected to prepare mini-presentations, so that should make my job somewhat easier.

@jonathan I actually find it harder to run panels with presentations, as many times the panelists will try to just treat it as an extra paper session. Be prepared to fiercely enforce tight time limits, even on very senior people.


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How should I tell my advisor that I want to leave my undergraduate research position?
I am about to wrap up my first semester at my University. Before school had started in the summer I had developed an iOS application for the University which gained the attention of one professor, before the semester had even started he emailed me and informed me of a research position he think I'd be interested in. It turns out that I have experience in exactly what they are doing and it sounded like it would be a great fit.
I accepted the position, it took about a month before I met who I would be working with and how exactly I would be applying my experience. I found out that my colleague developer is a foreign graduate student who doesn't speak much English and has hardly any experience with our technologies. We setup weekly meetings to do something, nothing is ever accomplished at these "meetings". Most of the time the professor cancels the meeting due to "conflicts" an hour before they are supposed to take place
Overall I've got several problems with my current position:
No way to collaborate with my colleague due to a language barrier and no structure in our work environment
No clear objectives for what I should be doing with my time have been laid out, yes I've asked. I get responses back such as "Do some iOS stuff with "Bob"" Whenever I sit down to work, I really don't have an idea on what he's expecting so its hard to put in any meaningful hours.
Extremely low pay for what I am doing, the technologies I am working with are not simple and I am getting paid about 1/5 what I would if I was at a company. I know this is an academic position but it's hard to be motivated knowing I'm getting low pay.
The project I am working on seems to be some project that has been hanging around and he is just trying to produce "results" with the grant money.
Overall I just have no interest continuing to work with this professor. What is the best way to tell that to him?

..."Extremely low pay for what I am doing" compared to what? You are a first year undergrad. Who do you think hires inexperienced 20years developers (without a degree) and offers a lot of money? If you would make such a lot of money already, why do you need the degree for, or why did you accepted this position in the first place?

Directly. Just as if they were human.

Just tell him the way you have told us.  Undergraduates quit research projects all the time.  In this case the reasons you have given may help him run the project a bit better.

Alternatively, if you are interested in working in something different, do so, without necessarily giving the detailed reasons of your departure. Not everybody reacts gracefully to criticism, especially if you suspect other agendas (speak: grant money spending). Whether you want to give full disclosure of your reasons for leaving, depends heavily on the advisor and the situation.
If you consider going for industry, anyway, now is a good time, as the market is attractive. The professor may not like it, but excellent people leave academia all the time now, you wouldn't be an exception and your step requiring no out of the ordinary justification.
If you want to continue that work, somehow, but not under the current circumstances, then, either look for a suitable other position, or else, if you want to stay put for some reason, you will have to bite the bullet and to ask for conditions to be changed.


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Advisor has stopped giving me research projects
I’m a fourth-year PhD student. For a while my advisor has been complaining that I don’t take enough ownership of my projects and I just do what he tells me to do, and that I don’t have any critical thinking skills.  He told me that if he left me in a room for six months by myself, I would not be able to produce a paper.
After our last project finished, he just never gave me a new project, and I haven’t had a research project for several months now.
I asked him why he did not give me a new project, and he said that he shouldn’t have to give me projects, because I am the graduate student and I should be coming up with my own projects.  This is very different from all of our previous projects where he came up with the whole idea and I mostly just followed instructions.
Is this a polite way of firing me?

Have you shared these project ideas with him? (And before you say "no, because none of them are any good", answer the question.)

4 years is a time by which you should have several papers, and increasing autonomy. He clearly has been giving you signals to become more independent, but it seems that you find this difficult. You need to propose projects and see whether your advisor can help you improve them - but yes, he should not have to give you new projects at this stage anymore. You have reason for concern - it is high time for you to become independent. Do you see a chance for that?

Your advisor is correct. As a 4th year PhD student, you should be coming up with your own projects. It doesn't matter whether your ideas are as good as your advisor's. Follow them anyway. (The fact that your advisor let you only follow instructions in past orojects is a failure on his part.)

This is not a polite way of firing you. // Í imagine he'll give you some assistance with the selection and scope of the next project, as long as you show some effort.  Read some papers, propose some ideas.  This will be a new phase in your studies.

"my advisor has been complaining that (...) I just do what he tells me to do, and (...) that if he left me in a room for six months by myself, I would not be able to produce a paper. (...) After our last project finished, he just never gave me a new project, and I haven’t had a research project for several months now." - if it weren't for the suspicion of being about to be fired, I would genuinely be tempted to VTC as "unclear what you're asking".

Your advisor is right: a PhD student needs to take more and more ownership as the PhD progresses, as one of the main goals of attaining a PhD degree is to become an independent researcher. Taking ownership includes that a PhD student should develop the ability to formulate research hypotheses and a matching research plan (main milestones, methodology of investigation, time plan) on his/her own, and your supervisor should merely provide feedback on your plan, but not have to write it in main parts anymore. For a "normal" PhD project I would expect that after about half to two-thirds of the allocated time the student has shown strong signs of taking ownership.
As Captain Emacs said in one of the comments, it is indeed high time for you to do your own stocktake of your PhD project and develop your precise research questions / main hypotheses for the remaining PhD, including a draft of the research plan (as above: main steps / milestones, indicative time budget, being clear on the research question addressed in each step, and defining a methodology that can indeed answer the research question, make an analysis of the risks involved [do you have all the equipment / data / source code / ... you need]). Ask your supervisor for feedback, but do not ask for his/her "approval". You are the lead on your PhD project and have all the responsibility for it, and you merely ask your supervisor for expert advice, not for any decisions or his/her blessing.
And if you still find that you do not get a handle on taking ownership, and if you were my PhD student, I would ask you to seriously consider the question whether a PhD is the right thing for you and whether other options (e.g. exiting with a master degree) would make sense.

No, he's not firing you. Quite indeed the opposite. He feels you're ready to move on to the next phase. He thinks you just need a little push. Do you want to lead the next research project? You have already published some papers (probably as 2nd or 3rd author). Do you have an excellent idea for the next publication but don't have time to do the low-level coding; maybe if you could borrow the time of 2nd or 3rd year students? When others are leading, does it make you feel envious? Do you have the itch to direct your own project? If the answer is generally "no" to these questions, then the Ph.D. is not right for you.
If you are feeling forced to lead, then you'll be struggling throughout the Ph.D. program. As a Ph.D. you are expected to lead, but you must want it. If you're nervous, because it's your first time, don't worry. Just let your advisor know, and ask for guidance. Tell him you want to be 1st author on the next paper, and ask for feedback throughout the paper writing.

Whilst I fully agree with your advisor, I understand your feelings.
In my opinion you have now the opportunity of working with a better supervisor than your previous ones. Perhaps you have moved to a far place to take your PhD and now essentially you face a cultural shock. In some cultures (e.g. China) most academic advisors and professors expect students to obey without questioning. In other cultures however (e.g. Central Europe) academics believe more in the importance of independent and critical thinking. I am of the latter opinion.
My suggestion is that you study your field of research deeply, discuss the state of art with your peers and best specialists you can reach, and then identify the areas where you believe you'd be able and willing to contribute with. Then you write 2-3 short proposals in such directions, ask your peers for advice, and then present them to your supervisor.
If you're unable to do that independently, or if you find yourself merely copying/following others on everything, I suggest you think again whether a PhD is truly what you need and why. If you're better off following orders perhaps others fields are the best fit for you, and your advisor would benefit from a different sort of advisee.
Personal hints: (i) Give special preference to a project style you're most intimately passionate about, as that will keep you going in your lonely ride; (ii) sending indirect implied messages is actually misguiding others, and thus can never be a truly professional, efficient way of advising a student. Take this message home, regardless of what is considered "polite" there.

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What is considered appropriate women's attire for a PhD interview in Germany?
I have an interview for a PhD position (engineering) at a Central German University. I am not sure what to wear (formal wear for woman). Since certain countries are very particular about what you wear to an interview, I want to make sure that I don't look out of place. Any suggestion about formal wear for woman would be appreciated.

Maybe you wish to ask at https://workplace.stackexchange.com

When interpreting the wide range of answers, be sure to consider your own feelings on the matter.  For example I'd be more comfortable overdressed than underdressed in an interview, though I'm not exactly smart the rest of the time; others get nervous just from dressing formally. (This is a male perspective, so you may want to discount it)

I would copy what you see the professors wearing in the department.  Being overdressed as well as underdressed can unfortunately mark you out as academically less serious.

@Lembik: If being overdressed can be bad, according to your comment, why should an applicant for a PhD position mimic the style of professors?

@O.R.Mapper I was defining overdressed as more dressed up than the professors.

Just to give my two cents, I know maths and engineering people in German universities. Engineers are in general more conservative than mathematicians, so I would not come in jeans if I am not sure about the style in the department you are applying. Better as others have said, a little bit overdressing the first time you meet them.

One important point is that whatever people in the department usually dress in may not be ok for an interview. I know of specific examples in which faculty members expected interviewees to dress up nicer (more formally) than what people in their department would wear for everyday work.

In the CS/math parts of thegerman university I am studying at, this is not an important factor at all for all professors I ever met. They don't dress formal and they don't expect you to do. For an interview you probably should wear something nice and no band shirt and ten your old jeans, but they should hire you for what you know, not what you look like.

I think this is highly field dependent, but in general overdressed is better than underdressed. In fields close to mine (math, computer science) things are quite relaxed, so no one would expect a (skirt) suit (although this would be ok) and nice trousers (usually including jeans) and shirt are most probably ok. Ragged jeans and t-shirt may not always work, though. Avoid wearing something revealing.

Ragged jeans and t-shirt...This sounds almost like how my mother described the University of Texas Philosophy Department during the 1970s, when she was a secretary there.

"Ragged jeand and t-shirt" is exacly what I what I wore ...

@FuzzyLeapfrog  And how did things turn out (and what were you applying for lol)

PhD in Atmospheric physics at a German University (Mainz) and ETH Zurich. Went very well, got the job and my PhD. But I knew the professor, his daily dress, what he wore for more important meetings (nearly the same) and he knew me. For an unkown professor, I would have woren a jeans and a blouse. I've seen this a lot.

In France in physics, I was way overdressed in a suit. But overdressed isn't really a bad thing.

I can tell you that as a female grad student in Sweden in mathematics, I wore a nice pair of jeans, a (ironed!) white shirt, ballet flats, and discreet jewelry (small gold studs and a thin gold bracelet) for my interview. I got the position. I did not stand out in any way from the other interviewees or professors.
In general, I would perhaps switch the jeans for a pair of slacks, and if it's cold outside, switch the ballet flats for a pair of (freshly polished!) boots. Then you would blend, but be on the nicer side, in any northern European science department I've ever visited.

Johanna, I think you got the position thanks to your merits, not for your clothing. // My impression is that Scandinavians put a great deal of importance on not standing out, and are very good it at.  Congrats if you achieved that!  But really, blending in is, I would hope, at most of minor importance.  One only need demostrate with the outfit that one cares about getting the position.

@aparente001 I'm sure I got the position because of my qualifications :) I'm merely trying to say just what your comment does: that the clothes I wore helped show I was serious about my application and would fit in at the department.

Scientific academia in Germany is very informal these days; dress codes barely exist at all, and there is no expectation to dress up, or to dress gender specifically. This includes engineering.
In general, for interviews, the rule “better overdressed than underdressed” applies of course. However, in my experience it’s even more important that you feel comfortable. I’ve been in a very similar situation to yours and felt uncomfortably overdressed, which made me nervous and certainly didn’t help my chances in the interview.
So: if you feel comfortable dressing formally, do that. If not, I’d suggest dressing slightly less formally rather than facing discomfort. At any rate, as others have noted, I’d avoid a too casual/careless clothing style, as for any interview.

From Germany here.
Generally at the Math department things are less formal. Most of the time people are wearing jeans.
At the Engineering faculty it seems like professors always are wearing suits so I'd suggest that. Trousers and white shirt with a jacket should do the trick.
Good luck!

Here are two tips:
1) Look at the current faculty's (or PhD students') departmental headshots and webpages online. If most people dress in a suit or blazer for the photos, then I would suggest you dress in that way for the interview.
2) If you wear a pantsuit or slacks/blazer, try to wear a shirt underneath that would also be perceived as appropriate without the jacket (i.e. no sleeveless shirts). Then you will be able to remove the jacket and leave it with your luggage if you perceive yourself to be overdressed.
I know these don't precisely address the German context, but I thought the ideas might be helpful to the OP.

I can confirm that this strategy would work well in a German context.

You can't go wrong with a pants suit.  That's why women politicians favor them.  You don't look overdressed in a pants suit; yet they also fit when the men in the group are wearing a suit and tie.  You would only look overdressed in a pants suit if you were attending an informal outdoor party!  And even there, you'd be okay, by just taking off the jacket.
The top worn under the jacket should be a simple knit top (not form-fitting as you might wear to a nightclub, but not baggy like a T-shirt you'd wear for sports).  It can be long sleeved in the winter if you wish.  Avoid anything sleeveless.  Make sure that even when bending forward, no under garments or straps are visible.
Wear comfortable shoes in case there's a lot of walking to do.  (Thank you to Robokaren for this advice on another clothing question.)  Don't wear perfume or scented personal hygiene products (e.g. deodorant).  If your shampoo or conditioner has a subtle perfume, that is okay, however.
Note, if you are a person who likes wearing a skirt instead of slacks, that's fine too.
Blouses are a bit unusual these days, but you could wear one if that's your style.  However, please avoid ruffles, lace, garish colors, or partial transparency.
Don't forget to let your personal style come through.  If you are someone who enjoys wearing a warm Scandinavian style sweater in the colder months, go for it!  As long as the sweater is still in very good repair (no pilling or thread pulls).  If you wear a pullover, make sure you have a formal sort of top on underneath, in case you find yourself in an overheated room and need to take off a layer.
To play it safe, do not wear jeans.  Once you know the group better, you'll know whether jeans are okay or not.
Make sure your winter coat is warm, clean and tidy.
If the weather is bad, do not hesitate to wear sturdy boots that will keep you warm and dry.
The ballet style shoes that someone else mentioned -- if that's your natural style, go for it.  But please don't feel you suddenly have to invent a super-feminine persona for an interview.
In short, dress for success!

As a woman who has interviewed for PhD programs in engineering in the USA, I find this answer the most accurate and helpful. There is nothing wrong with wearing skirts instead of trousers, and that is stated clearly in this answer. Skirts can be worn with practical low-heeled shoes that are good for walking. They can also be worn with wool or cotton opaque stockings rather than nylon hose. Opaque stockings are preferable for warmth.

@EllieKesselman - And in winter, thick tights could be helpful.

Wear the same kind of clothes that is worn at a conference in your field. At most a slight bit more formal if you want to be recognized from a distance as the applicant.

EDIT: In Germany

Women also dress conservatively, in dark suits and white blouses or
  conservative dresses. This form of dress is observed even in
  comparatively warm weather. Do not remove your jacket or tie before
  your German colleague does so.

I would dress professionally. You are interviewing for a job at a university, not a tech startup. So for a woman I would wear something more conservative - perhaps a nice skirt and blouse? However, the important thing is to be comfortable! That's how you'll do your best.

Herein lies the issue.  What is considered professional dressed differs from culture to culture.  Hence why OP is asking for advice on attire that matches the cultural expectations in Germany.

Business culture (as described in your link) can be considerably different from university culture, depending on the field.

I would advise against a skirt in engineering. You want to give the impression that you wear clothes that are practical (?) for the job even if you rarely have to work with machinery.

@Sumyrda You are assuming that it is something like mechanical or civil engineering. She could be applying to a software engineering position.

@MichaelC. I'm a software engineer and every now and then I get to do work where wearing a skirt would be impractical. Pants just suggest a more hands on mentality to some prejudiced people.

I’m actually puzzled by the whole article, it gets even the basic premise wrong: “ Germans take great pride in dressing well” — That’s complete nonsense. Compared to other cultures, Germans have no sense of formal wear. It’s true that traditionally many office jobs used to (but longer do!) require wearing a suit, but there’s a difference between wearing a suit and dressing well, and most Germans wouldn’t know the difference. Nowadays, many Germans I know don’t even own a suit or if they do, they use the same one for everything from wedding to funeral.

First, as said by others, do as "they" do, whoever they are. We don't really know what's en vogue at your place.
This triviality aside, I would strongly suggest for you to look past this interview and, along with a possible new job, decide on which style you are seeing yourself sporting in the future. Do you wish to come accros as a hands-on "techie"? Do you see yourself in a management position in 5 years?
Put yourself in that mindset, and wear appropriate clothes. I know you are asking which the appropriate clothes are, but I suggest that it is most important four you to decide which image you want to portrait. Google "woman business clothing" and switch to the image search, everything you see there will be appropriate for about any professional setting in Germany, from universities to companies.
Looking at said google image result, not being a woman myself, I believe the most important choice you have to make is whether your clothes end above or below the knee, or at the shoes. That is a personal choice for you, as in Germany, most everything will be accepted (with a certain minimum height which should be pretty obvious). And it will also depend on your character a bit, and what makes you comfortable.
Being comfortable is of the utmost importance, so if in doubt, do as you really want to!

The dress code in engineering in Germany varies widely. I know one institute where the professor forces his PhD-students to show up in suits every single day. At the other end of the spectrum are institutes where even professors just wear normal clothes all the time, even for interviews with candidates.
I would recommend to look at the homepage of the institute you're applying to and check out the pictures of your potential supervisor and his/her PhD-students. If all of the students are wearing suits on their pictures, wearing something similar for the interview is definitely a must. If even your potential supervisor wears something very casual, you should be fine with a clean t-shirt and jeans. For the cases in between, I would recommend a blouse combined with a skirt or slacks. (I would even recommend this for the casual supervisor, just to be on the save side. You will never appear as overdressed if you dress like this.)


text:
Getting a letter of recommendation from a socially controversial PhD advisor
I am about to finish my PhD at a US university and am starting to apply for jobs and postdocs in physics and computer science. Throughout my PhD, I maintained a good relationship with my PhD supervisor. However, in the last year and a half, he has made social (not academic) comments that were very inappropriate. These comments more directly influenced other students, and the proper actions have been taken with the university and an investigation is on-going. To be clear, the comments are inexcusable and I have lost all respect for my supervisor.
I am wondering what the most appropriate way for me to proceed is, as many positions explicitly ask for a letter of recommendation from ones supervisor.
Some additional data:

I, luckily, had a rather successful PhD and have many collaborators who I could ask in his place. However, I imagine I would need to address why my advisor is not writing a letter.

I do think my advisor would write me a positive letter, but (a) I feel uncomfortable asking him for a favor and (b) I worry that (and I hope) if public action is taken, his letter will not be viewed in a positive light. Quite simply: I'd rather not have a word of support from him.

Is this something I can/should address in a cover letter or otherwise?

General question - are you in a position where you avoid his inappropriate comments naturally? For example, if his inappropriate comments are directed at women, are you also a woman who he "approved of" more, or also a man?

Is the ongoing nature of the university's investigation public knowledge?

While there is always risk in such things, if his professional credentials are good and the other comments don't reflect badly on that, I'd suggest asking for the recommendation and not otherwise mentioning it in cover letters and such. Treat it as a purely professional relationship, which it should be.
As you note it is odd to not have a recommendation from one's advisor. And I'm assuming that your judgement is that his letter would be professional. If you have a way to find out anything about what he has written for others, it would be a benefit. A department head might, possibly, give you some guidance. But that is another judgement call - whether to ask.
Of course, you can't control the reactions of others, but you can, if asked, disassociate yourself from his views. Just say that you don't hold those views in any interview or such.
I'll note that in math and cs there have been a number of similar situations where a person is widely respected professionally, but whose views on some issues have been shunned and the people condemned. It doesn't reflect on their technical work, not should it reflect badly on you or your work.

See the case of William Shockley, and that of Robert Lee Moore.
And, of course, many people hold appalling views of things, that may be known to others, but not to their students.

Yes, avoiding asking your advisor for a letter in these circumstances feels a bit like sabotaging your own career for no gain - after all, it doesn't help your adviser to write you a letter.

I think the question is not the effect on the advisor but whether the recommendation could be actually harmful to the student @Jeff

@BryanKrause That's reasonable, although I intended my comment to be an endorsement of the answer from Buffy, so I would refer to that.

This also matches what I was advised to do in a similar situation. After discussing it with several people, the conclusion was that leaving out a reference from your advisor was probably going to be too big of a disadvantage. Plus, the people reviewing applications can hopefully be counted on to act professionally and not let their view be tainted by non-professional aspects.

If you don't get a letter from your advisor, and I certainly see why you'd feel uncomfortable doing so, the best thing to do would be to ask one of your other letter writers to address why you don't have a letter from your advisor.  In practice, this may be tricky because it only works if you know that one of your letter writers knows about the problem with your advisor and agrees that it's a problem, so I understand if this is not possible.  But it has several advantages over only you mentioning it:

Faculty where you're applying are much more likely to read the recommendations than your cover letter.
The committee is more likely to believe a third party that your advisor's offensive comments are the real issue and not that you're worried your advisor wouldn't write a good letter
The presence of a powerful person backing you up lessens the chances of a friend of your advisor retaliating against you.

In a sense, what you really want is a kind of "surrogate advisor", someone who's willing to step in and champion you going forward because they understand the situation.  A postdoc advisor might be able to play that role, but if you've worked closely with other faculty already they also might be able to play that role.
All that said, I think most people would understand that you're in a powerless situation vis-a-vis your advisor and wouldn't hold you getting a letter from your advisor against you.

You might be able to get the best of both worlds this way.  An ordinary letter from the PhD advisor, and a letter from another writer acknowledging that Advisor is a jerk but none of the jerkness has rubbed off on the candidate.

In Nate’s approach, OP should not also mention the issue with the advisor, due to the risk of someone telling the advisor and the advisor changing their letter (which is easy to do on mathjobs).  It’s a little tricky.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


text:
Arranging a visit to a professor you do not know yet
I am a PhD student in mathematics and I’d like to visit professor X (whom I don’t know personally), as he’s an expert in my field and could really help me with some passages in my research. I have quite a few questions:

How to approach professor X to ask if I can visit him and what sort of information should I provide?
When PhD students visit academics, what happens usually? I mean, would professor X become a sort of supervisor for the time of the visit, or would it just be that me and professor X would mostly be in the same place at the same time and able to chat a bit if the opportunity arises?
How long do visits last, usually? Would I be a student at professor X’s university during the time of my visit? Would I have any academic requirements (e.g. to give talks at seminars, etc.)?
Professor X is in a different country than I am. Are professors based in a different country than a potential visiting student more reluctant to let students visit them? If so, why?

There's no definite answer to any of your questions. All of these details depend a lot on the professor, the circumstances (e.g., funding), and you:

How to approach professor X to ask if I can visit him and what sort of information should I provide?

I would assume a mail is sufficient. However, if you don't know the prof personally, and you are not overly well-known in your community yet, it may be better to ask your advisor to establish contact. Professors get many mails from prospective students on various levels, with various intends. Those mails tend to get discarded quickly and unceremoniously.
I don't know what information would be required, initially probably almost none, except who you are and what you would like to work on with the professor. At a later point, details of how this visit would be funded may become an important discussion item (e.g., who pays your travel? who pays your hotel / apartment? if you are an university employee, who pays YOU during your visit?). Don't expect your host to arrange funding - this is something that you / your advisor will need to arrange, and just agree with the host.

When PhD students visit academics, what happens usually? I mean, would professor X become a sort of supervisor for the time of the visit, or would it just be that me and professor X would mostly be in the same place at the same time and able to chat a bit if the opportunity arises?

I have seen both happen. Clearly, in the second case, the visit is often close to worthless. However, in most cases, the truth is somewhere in the middle. The prof meets a few times with the visitor, and "appoints" one or more of his own students with a matching profile /research interests as a contact point and collaborator for the visit. You should not have too high expectations of how much time your host can really invest into you (and not into, say, his own students or his own research).

How long do visits last, usually? Would I be a student at professor X’s university during the time of my visit? Would I have any academic requirements (e.g. to give talks at seminars, etc.)?

Depends. I have so far done two research visits, one as a short as 2 weeks, one for 6 weeks. I know of others who have done visits for up to 6 months. You usually have little academic requirements, and you are not usually considered a student of the host institution (at least for visits that are shorter than one term). Giving a talk is sometimes necessary as part of your funding arrangements. For instance, in my second stay, my travel was funded by the host institution over the vehicle that they officially invited me as an expert speaker for their seminar series (so that they could formally pay for my travel, which they could not do for a visit). In my first visit, the expectation of the funding source was that at some point a paper would be published related to the visit (clearly not within those two weeks, but at some point). Further, I had to write a brief report.

Professor X is in a different country than I am. Are professors based in a different country than a potential visiting student more reluctant to let students visit them? If so, why?

Not typically, however, finding funding may be even more difficult. However, both of my visits have been cross-country, in one case cross-continents, so it definitely can be done.

Some advice: when you want something from someone e-mail is almost never the best way to approach. It is too indirect and too easily dismissed. It is also very hard to convey what you really want using e-mail as you cannot predict the questions someone might have. Why not give someone a friendly call? The call can be kept very short, just introduce yourself. Tell about your intent and if the other person might be interested. Then ask if you can e-mail that person with some more detailed information. This way you already have a rapport with someone.

@RoyT. I strongly discourage everybody from calling busy professors unsolicited.

@RoyT: Like xLeitix, I disagree.  For me personally, I'd much rather be emailed than called.  (1) I am only in my office a couple hours a day, so you'd probably get my voice mail, and when I called back I'd probably get yours.  Repeat.  If I am in my office, it's probably because I am meeting with someone, or working intently on something that I don't want interrupted.  (2) Perhaps a social thing, but I don't do well talking to strangers by phone.  If you call me, what you'll get is not so much a rapport as a lot of awkward hesitant stammering.

@RoyT.: On the other hand, if you email me, I'll read it carefully, look up your web page, and compose a graceful response.  I don't find it indirect at all and I won't dismiss it.  Not everyone needs to hear a voice in order to form a rapport.

@RoyT. To add to the other comments about using the phone, recall that there is a good likelyhood that the professor in question will be based in another country, with potential for problems with timezones and huge charges for international calls.

I forgot to ask: how long in advance should I make the first contact with professor X?

Funny how we disagree so much. In my experience a busy person gets dozens or even hundreds of e-mails and it would be unlikely that they carefuly read it and visit your website. A phone call is more direct and often faster. Of course I would always ask if someone has a few minutes. Don't be so afraid of professors :).

The points of not being in office much, and time differences are of course 100% valid, independent off your point of view on this matter.

@RoyT. Well, this is kind of the point. Professors already get a bunch of mail, which at least has the advantage that it can be worked on when it's convenient. Now think about what happens when all of those people start calling the professor instead of sending an email, forcing her/him to deal with you right now. You expect this to help your point?

Of course if everybody does this it doesn't work. The point is being more assertive than other people. Also I'm not saying you should force people to handle it right now, or to demand things from them.

Academic visits take all sorts of forms, so it really depends on the situation. There are however some general things that you should keep in mind.
First of all, it would be necessary to come into contact with the professor you want to work with. Just contacting him out of the blue might not be very successful. If your PhD advisor knows him, it is probably a good idea to let him make the initial contact. Another option would be to try to talk to him or his students at a conference of workshop.
Another question is who will fund the visit (hotel, travel costs, etc.). If you would be able to attract funds yourself, that would be helpful. Especially since you say you will have to travel abroad, this could run up the costs.
As to what happens during the visit, that really depends. It is usual that the visitor gives a seminar or colloquium talk. What I usually do is to try to talk to as many people in the group as possible, to get some feeling about the kind of projects the people are working on. If you come there to solve a particular problem with the professor, then in-dept dicussion sessions with him make more sense. Finally, most groups have desks available for visitors, so that you can work on your own as well.
For longer visits, say more than a week or two, the professor might take more of an advisor role, but that really depends on the goal of the visit and on the people involved.


text:
What is the difference between academic and administrative department heads?
In a comment, it was quoted that some universities have administrative or academic department head. I sensed this difference before (but do not remember specifically), but I always thought that the latter is the case: one of the faculty members of a department is appointed as the head or hiring a new faculty member to serve as the department head (or vice versa in some sense).
How and why are administrative and academic heads different?

An administrative head of department heads up the administration of the department, and will typically have little or no involvement in the direction or the content of the research or teaching.
An academic department head leads the academic direction of the department. This often include somes administrative duties. Well, they nominally lead the academic direction of the department. In theory, they guide the direction of the department's researchers and teaching. In practice, that's like herding cats.

+10: In practice, that's like herding cats.

I agree with EnergyNumbers.  As another way to think about it, the administrative head deals more with the business functions -- e.g., grant management, hiring of staff, issues with the physical environment, communications, technology, etc.  The academic head focuses on issues related to teaching, research, and service.  Indeed, the functions may overlap, but this the general division of labor.


text:
How to find less-competitive faculty positions in the US universities?
I plan to move to the US, and thus, looking for a less-competitive faculty position to start there. Later, I can find better jobs, but at this stage, I just need to find a position.
For an outsider, all the job ads are similar. How can I find which job is less-competitive.
As an example, is it really less-competitive to apply for a faculty position in Alaska or less-interesting states (due to geographical reasons, I do not know which).
NOTE: This is the additional question separated from my previous question, as advised by a moderator.

Alaska less interesting?  Really?

Less competitive jobs may have less to do with location than, say, how well known the particular department is in certain research areas. Even for those departments which are not as well known, or are more teaching oriented, may still be competitive due to the overflow of candidates.

I'm afraid that (as an American) I don't know anyone who has successfully followed such a career path. I recommend that you simply apply to all positions which interest you and for which you are qualified.

I recommend contacting some professors with whom you have research interests in common, asking them if they have any visiting (= temporary) positions available, and asking if you could apply for them.

I have to ask why you're committed to finding a faculty position at all?  If your goal is research, I get it, but that isn't your stated objective.  Without knowing your field of study, I'd hazard a guess that the PhD you have earned (?) comes with valuable, marketable knowledge & skills.  You're looking for an H-1B sponsorship regardless, so it might be better looking for non-academic, and thus (probably) less competitive, position.

Although (see my comments), I cannot recommend this sort of career path, here are two ways for an outsider to determine which positions will be less competitive:

Teaching load and pay. If the pay is poor, and the teaching load is high (say, 4/4 or higher), then the position will be less competitive.
Look up the average SAT scores (easy to find via Google) of American schools to which you are applying. This is a reasonable (although not perfect) guide for the quality of the undergraduates that these schools enroll. Schools with lower averages will have less competition for faculty positions.

That said, all faculty jobs are highly competitive.

Is that 200 qualified applicants?  I've heard of mixed research/teaching positions that remained unfilled due to a lack of qualified applicants.

The U.S. academic job market (at least in my field, mathematics) is very competitive, regardless of the institution and its perceived quality. Now, competition comes in various flavors. We have a lot of people looking for few jobs. That automatically creates competition. You need something to make yourself stand out from the other candidates.
My school is less-competitive as far as admission of students is concerned. Our student body is not that strong overall, although we get a fair number of really bright kids. We also have a 4/4 teaching load, and faculty salaries are relatively low. Our last job search was conducted almost ten years ago and we received in the neighborhood of 200 applications. At more research oriented schools, you may be competing with more applicants, and applicants who have very strong resumes relative to research. So, you're likely to be competing against a larger and more talented pool. This makes the situation even more competitive.
I thought that I was going to follow your intended career path, start out small, be able to spend some quality time with the family, and produce some great work that would allow me to move up to a better school. Didn't happen. I've been able to do some research, but not nearly enough, or of high enough quality, to allow me to move up. There are a couple of factors to keep in mind working in a less competitive environment, especially with a high teaching load. Your research time will be limited, and you won't have a lot of resources at your disposal (great library, colleagues who are fluent in your area, etc.). So, think carefully about what you want to do. Mine has not been a bad career, but it is not what I imagined starting out. As a general rule, it's easier to move down than up. So, I'd apply to the best places for which you're qualified and hope for the best.

Well as you mentioned, depending on the geographical location, reputation of the university, strong graduate (PhD and masters), and the size of the institutions you can make a good guess about the competitiveness of getting hired.
As for your reasons, I've heard from many scholars that it's better to wait longer and get a proper position than starting in a teaching-only university and burning yourself.
Any thoughts ?

Waiting is good for those who have a position in the target country. Waiting is not a good option for someone who is in a long way for immigrating/settling down in a new country.

Note that  second- and third-tier are often much less willing to sponsor H1B visas compared to R1s. This is not only because they have less money and less expertise with this, but some simply don't see the investment as worthwhile.
This puts a considerable hurdle in your path.

I have heard from a few international colleagues that sometimes 2nd tier schools are very happy to sponsor H1B visas since the timing often makes switching universities pre-tenure difficult meaning they are less likely then a comparable US citizen of getting poached. I don't know if it is true.

Not really. Once you get the H1B, most people immediately apply for the green card (because if you do them immediately sequentially, you can use the same labor certification). That means you should get your green card by your 3rd year -- which is also when you're willing to fly the coop.


text:
How should I cite presentation slides?
A friend has made some nice slides that I could reuse (similar topics). He sent me the slides and commented that if I use them and could cite him that would be nice, I asked him how should I cite the slides but he said that whatever suits better to me he said "Just add my surname in some place where it's not very intrusive".
I'm not sure if he doesn't care or he doesn't want to be too picky, but I'd like to cite him, to each one his own.
AFAIK, they are related to a paper (but not in the paper) and to his thesis, where they could be as a diagram but definitively not animated. The slides (as such) may be available at some URL, he said they will be but they are not available yet (so I don't have the URL yet). If citing by the URL I guess I could use this: "How to cite a website URL?"
Should I cite slides? If yes, how?

How are you using the slides (e.g., in a talk or embedded in a manuscript)?

@DanielE.Shub I'm using the slides as such, copy-paste the slides in a new slide set.

There are two practical purposes to scholarly citations:

acknowledging scientific contribution of others, the borrowing of ideas (mainly) and content (sometimes, in the form of quotes)
helping people find relevant content if they want to read it
bookkeeping, for scientometric/bibliometric purposes

In your particular case, you cannot fulfill #2 and #3, because your friend's slides are not available for others to read, and even if they were, random documents on the internet are not really used for bibliometric purposes.
So, you want a solution that will achieve #1, i.e. make sure his contributions are recognized by people who will read your slides. To do so, you don't need to give your citation any specific format. I suggest you simply write, at the bottom of slides you borrowed from him:

Slide courtesy of John Doe

or

Slide modified from John Doe, with permission

In addition, you can thank him in your acknowledgements at the end of your talk.

In practice, what I've often seen is to just stick in a footnote saying "slide from [name]" or something similar. To do otherwise could be considered plagiarism. Admittedly, people are not picky about this with slides the way they are with papers; it seems to be tacitly accepted sometimes to borrow figures or entire slides without always acknowledging the source, but still, unless you want to be the kind of person who doesn't care about academic integrity, I think you should strive to credit the sources of your content.
If you want something more formal, you could have your friend upload his slides to figshare, which will archive them and allow him to claim a DOI. You can then use that DOI for a more standard citation.


text:
Elsevier's 'MethodsX' journal as an additional article to my original research article (plagiarism)
I recently submitted a paper to an Elsevier Journal (Biomedical Signal Processing and Control), in the revision stage they propose to me to send a part of my work as MethodX article https://www.journals.elsevier.com/methodsx alongside my revised research article and if my paper accepted for publication the MethodX article will automatically be transferred to MethodX where will be reviewed and published as a separate article.
Now, If I prepared the MethodX article, should I change the original text, rewrite  (not be guilty of plagiarism) or just take parts from the original article and format a MethodX article?

That would seem to be a good question for the Elsevier editor who suggested it in the first place.

The MethodsX journal says, as part of its guide to authors:

Your submission can also be an extension of a previously published original research paper, whereas your MethodsX paper will include all of the technical details that might not have been included in your research paper.

It also has an extremely abbreviated format,

an abstract to outline the customization
a graphical abstract visual to illustrate what you've done
the method(s) in sufficient detail to help people replicate it, including any relevant figures, tables etc
at least one reference to the original description of the method you're using

Thus, for a properly prepared MethodsX article, I think that any question of plagiarism will be moot. Abstract and context material will need to be heavily paraphrased for its new context, and any repeated material on the method will be explicitly cited as an adaptation (with permission) of the original paper.


text:
Publication a prerequisite for PhD Programs
I'm completing a master's in history (one year in), and am beginning to look at possible PhD programs. I have noted in a lot of forums that it looks really good if you have one (or several) publications to your name.
How does one even begin this process? Also, with coursework and the thesis writing process having just begun, how do graduate students find time to write and attempt to publish original work in addition to the aforementioned obligations?

Find a professor that you're interested in working with and setup a meeting to discuss it with him/her.

In theory a publication is not needed but in practice it is often the result of a really good master thesis, indicating you are a potentially good candidate for a PhD position.

Publication is not a prerequisite for PhD programs. To be specific, the only requirements for a PhD program are those published by the particular university department in the official degree catalog.
But having your name on some published articles before applying for PhD programs, and including your publications as part of your "pitch," sure makes for a more competitive application.
To get started doing research, talk to your advisor, faculty members whose research areas are similar to yours, look at research assistant positions (anywhere, not just at your school), and so on. Most importantly, define some questions that you want to research, dig into the literature, and just get started on your own. Then let your rough investigation be a conversation starter with local and other faculty.

Publications are really the name of the game, and you'll find that not very many people read theses (especially Master's theses).  If you are interested in staying in academia, then it is worth it to take the time to publish your Master's work regardless of whether it's required for the PhD.  I tried writing up my Master's work after I finished my PhD, and it was much harder than if I had done it at the appropriate time.
One way to motivate yourself to write the article is this fact: the peer-review process will point out flaws in your current research, and it will help to guide your future research.  The experience will help you when it comes time to do your PhD research and write it up.


text:
Is development research?
I'm a Msc student, and my project is to develop a novel software tool for use in neurosurgery.
There is a current tool that is considered the standard of care for the procedure, but it has low rates of clinical adoption (~45%) due to archaic technical limitations. We propose that we can develop a new system, exploiting advances in available computational power and state-of-the-art image processing algorithms, that could improve the rate of adoption for these systems.
My question: Does development qualify as research? Or does research begin after development? My intuition tells me the latter.
For example, a hypothesis I could have would be "We propose that we can develop a novel system that overcomes technical limitations of traditional systems". However, this seems to be a weak hypothesis to me. Could we ever say that it is theoretically not possible to do that?
However, if research begins after development, we could propose that "our tool has increased usability compared to traditional systems". This seems much stronger to me: we can test whether our tool leads to significant improvements in different measures of usability.
I am unsure which path is more suitable to present in a formal research proposal, after all, at the stage of the proposal, we have not developed anything.
Maybe I'm not even formulating the initial hypothesis correctly.
I've looked at other dissertations in the field, and have noticed that some do not even attempt to structure the dissertation around a hypothesis, but rather say things like: "The goal of this thesis is the development of such techniques utilizing prominent HARDI data models", "This thesis presents the development of a 96-well plate culture system that allows 4-color, flow cytometry based high throughput screening of defined, serum-free hESC differentiation conditions". It seems that they just present the outcome of development, rather than test some constructed hypothesis.
I ask because my courses and committee seem to desire a formal hypothesis and I am hesitant to provide something weak.

By formal definition, I don't think so. That's why an R&D department is called Research and Development. Not Research/Development, not Research or Development.

I get the impression you are overthinking this...

Development involves doing things that have already been done (e.g. reinventing the wheel).  Research involves doing something new and analyzing/testing its effectiveness.  It sounds to me like you're doing the latter.  In the end, it really doesn't matter how you phrase it in your thesis as long as you do both development and testing.

The goal of research is to advance the state of human knowledge.  The goal of development is to create a new capability that did not previously exist.
Sometimes, these goals are separate.  For example, one might acquire knowledge by studying outcomes from a medical intervention without needing to develop anything new.  Likewise, one may do development that provides new capabilities but doesn't particularly add to the state of human knowledge (e.g., making phone app versions of existing software or web sites).
Often, however, as in the case of your own research, the goals are inextricably intertwined: the capability comes from the synthesis of recent developments in knowledge, and will in turn produce new knowledge ("Yes, this is better positioned for adoption").  If you're doing it right, there will tend to be a lot of feedback between the two sides in the process, and thus the idea of does research come "before" or "after" development doesn't make much sense.
Rather, when you are putting together research proposals, I would suggest that you focus on the following questions:

What will be possible when you have finished the project, which is not possible now?
How will you be able to measure that you have succeeded?

The first is the development aspect, the second the research aspect (which is inextricably tied to the development).

Generally, scientific theses require an innovative development and some evaluation of its effectiveness for its intended uses.  A thesis proposal requires some justification of why the "improvements" might be beneficial, but not necessarily direct evidence.  Although, if you have already developed the "idea" and have some positive preliminary evidence to present in your proposal, this certainly helps.  Often, it is not a requirement for a proposal.
In your final dissertation writeup, after you have all of your evidence and conclusions in mind, you can still structure your thesis around the presentation of the idea and its effectiveness.  Either way, as long as you're doing something new and testing it, you're doing more than 'development'... you're actually doing 'research'.

I don't know the standards for neuromedicine, but in my engineering field, the research contribution, cast into medical terms, would be the increased adoption rate leading to measurably better patient outcomes. In my field, sayings like "no one ever got a PhD/tenure in this department for writing a code" are extremely common. I think this does a disservice to important work in the field, but it's an extremely common viewpoint.
As such, most famous software packages have a marker paper out there somewhere which describes the functioning of the code and an new science result enabled by it.

He is working on his MSc thesis project and I think that developing some codes, programs or software is a normal/common project title for MSc students in engineering fields. On the other hand, developing some codes/software may be part of a PhD student's project in engineering fields to support their computation part of their projects but not the main part.

Yes, I see that, but my point was that some communities, communities that I happen to disagree with, concluded that code development is not research. It's very common.


text:
What kind of information are expected in the "Additional comments" section of a letter of recommendation?
A student of mine asked me to write a letter of recommendation for  undergraduate admission. I know Academia.SE focuses on questions about graduate schools and above, but I hope my question is general enough for this site.
The university my student is applying to has a standard form for the letter of recommendation, with standard information on the applicant (name, GPA, intended major,...) as well as on the recommender (name, position,...), followed by three essay-type sections about 1. academic/intellectual performance, 2. personal/interpersonal evaluation and 3. additional comments.
I am confident that I can give inputs on the 2 first essay sections on my student as I have been supervising her/him for some time, but I am clueless on the third one.
What kind of "additional information" is the admission committee expecting to read in this section ?
Would it give a bad impression if I don't write anything (I will write very enthusiastically on my student's academic and interpersonal prowess)? I am worried of it, as the form specifically mentioned that I "may attach additional sheets, if necessary".
Is it the right place to comment about the fact that the student's diversity (being a foreigner, a woman,...) would be an asset for the university she/he is applying to?
Note: this is not in the US, but for a university with a world wide reputation and the American-like system.

It's a great idea to address diversity.  If you do, though, make sure you make it a selling point, not an empty descriptor.  For example, if the woman was active in a women's group in her department, mention that; if the international student was involved in a peer advising group that developed a special program that matched each incoming international grad student with a one-on-one peer advisor, mention that.

@aparente001: the question is about a student applying for undergraduate admission (i.e. they are likely a high school student of age roughly ~18). It therefore seems quite unlikely that they would have e.g. developed a mentoring program for graduate students. Do you feel your comment applies to high school students?

You could email the university's admissions office and ask what "additional comments" is intended to cover.

@TomChurch - I saw "university" and thought, Master's.  I totally missed the word "undergraduate" in the first sentence. // My impression is that there are boxes on a form where a student would indicate race and gender.  Even for an undergraduate, I don't think a simple mention of the student's diversity status would be a selling point beyond what's checked off in the boxes.  Here's an example of something that could work for a high school letter: Joe Diverse founded a Rainbow Theater Club that promoted diversity.

Note: this is just my opinion, not necessarily the "correct" or "necessary" way to do this. I also agree with @aparente001 that you could highlight some other accomplishments of the student outside their academic work, or reflect on a particular struggle the student had and overcame if appropriate. Another alternative is an anecdote about the student that highlights one of the other characteristics you discussed or something else in their application.
That said, Sections 1 and 2 relate to the characteristics of the student, and you could write these sections without necessarily knowing anything about the university or program the student is applying to. Section 3 is an opportunity for you to say "this student would be a great fit for your university because _____." That reason might not be particularly about their academic performance or personal demeanor but rather something that ties the student to where they want to attend. If you don't know what the student's particular ambitions are, it would be completely appropriate to ask them.
Essentially you are corroborating the student's statement of purpose or similar essay they might be including in their application (you could ask them for this, as well). Along the lines of diversity, I'd be a bit wary of saying "because this student checks categories A, B, and C they'd be great for your school's statistics!" (I know you wouldn't really say that, but I'm just pointing out that the school will already have whatever diversity-related information they need to make those decisions) However, there might be related issues you can highlight. Maybe the student has aspired to be the first generation in their family to attend an institution of higher learning. Maybe they want to go to University X because of their excellent program in the agricultural sciences. Maybe their parents are both physicians and the student wants to go to University Z because their broad liberal arts education will allow them to seek what really drives them. It all depends on the student and their goals. Anecdotes are great too. This is your opportunity to talk about the time your student gave a talk in class on a particular topic, or produced a particular project, or took on a role in the school play, etc, and showed a particular passion or aptitude.
I'd avoid leaving it blank if you want to submit a solid recommendation.