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Does still it matter to be the "first author" nowadays
It used to be that the first author (meaning, the author whose name comes before the others) is thought to have contributed most to the publication.
But in the last couple of decades, it seems that the first author no longer matters AT ALL, instead the last person has become the most important.
I attribute my observation to two things,

The first author is typically a student, someone with no name recognition, or someone who is getting advised or funded by the last author.
The last author is typically the director or advisor of the project. In recent years many of these people have become ultra famous through things like TEDtalks and other media hype. It didn't use to be this way before the internet.

Nowadays whenever I evaluate how potentially interesting a paper is in my field (stem), before I even read it, I almost always look at the last author, especially if it is someone famous. If I don't recognize anyone, I am quick to assume that the paper is not interesting. I am trying to fight back against my bias.
Does being the "first author" still carry any weight in today's academic culture?

This is very field dependent some fields the student is first, others last and the first author is the supervisor so this will be down to opinion.

See but one relevant post on here - there are others : https://academia.stackexchange.com/q/10059/72855

In fields that don't do alphabetical order being "first author" still matters most in early career stages.
As you correctly say the senior author is usually a professor (= group leader) while the first author is the person that did most of the work. In an early career stage (until you become group leader or assistant professor) first authorships are the most important thing. As soon as you start your own research group the senior authorships become more important (in rare cases some very senior postdocs might have one or the other senior authorship as well).
In many application guidelines you would find instructions like "attach separate lists of (a) all publications, (b) first authorships and (c) senior authorships". If you don't have a sufficient number of first authorships they will not even look at your application in more detail.


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Are modern-day classes primarily for distillation of knowledge or are they primarily for testing/examination/certification?
This is a philosophical question.
From undergrad (which I did stem), I have noticed that in some classes, the teachers taught the absolute bare minimum, almost like overviews of a topic, often times with no examples (as they are allocated to the tutorials), whereas the exam coverage often involves material that are usually much more advanced, with details far surpassing the lectures or even the textbooks.
This trend gets even more extreme in grad school. Sometimes the classes (say a math class) simply involves a lecturer jogging down a few key results, write a few equations on the board. Proofs, if ever even given, tend to be handwavy. Whereas in the assignments or exams, these equations and proofs for these results may need to be derived from scratch.
In other words, there are many things that students need to fill by his/her self. Much of the learning do not occur because of lecture but rather from preparation for exams.
So in a sense, "taking a class" is not to learn from the lectures or to gain some panoramic understanding of a subject, as much as to wrestle with the assignments and exams, which may be very narrow in scope.
Is this the correct way of thinking about the purpose of taking courses, i.e., just to pass the exam of these courses, however narrow they might be in the context of the entire subject that's taught?

No, the purpose of teaching is not for students to be able to pass an exam and be done with it. That makes it not a correct way for you the student to think about the purpose of taking courses.
Yes, in university students are supposed to work on subjects on their own. This is not necessarily a modern development. It is bit less intense for freshman/sophomore years, however.
There are cases where a professor has to teach a lot in a very limited time, so they'd make a heavy use of homework. There are also cases when they succumb to giving just cursory understanding of the subject and invite people to join a more advanced class. In that type of classes, we'd typically had a "prepare at home and come have a talk about some topic" type of exam. If that's the case - "narrow at scope" these assignments might seem, it's actually probably the best attempt of getting you a panoramic view of the subject by giving various assignments which are supposed to highlight some links and important properties. The entire point of that "calculate wind shear ..." assignment is obviously not so that you know its numerical value and not so that you memorize the formulae by which it is derived but rather so that you can reason about it. Since we're talking STEM, going through the technicalities of applying some laws is usually the less important part, the more important is figuring out which one is applicable and why, which values should you put into it and what are the limitations of that approach.
And sometimes, well, people just teach poorly. But still, your goal is to learn the subject and be able to reason about it. Taking the least effort path of just doing the bare minimum to get a pass is a shortcut.

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Applying to theoretical physics Masters in Europe while not having a physics undergraduate degree
I intend to apply to European Master programs in theoretical physics. I don't have an undergraduate degree in physics.
My question is : Is an undergrad degree in physics absolutely required for admission ? Can I get admitted if I can demonstrate that I have the requisite background knowledge in physics and math ?
All the programs that I looked at explicitly state that an undergraduate degree in physics is a prerequisite for admission.
I took the physics GRE test , teached college level physics "TA" , worked as a research assistant in theoretical physics , attended graduate level courses , can provide letters of recommendations. However , my undergraduate degree is not in physics.

Find and apply to courses that will accept experience in lieu of a degree...

Email the admissions officer, and set up a correspondence. I was admitted to a US masters program for physics without an undergrad in physics.

What is your degree in? If it's in maths, I'd say you'll have no problems. If it's in underwater basket weaving, you may run into a few issues...

It's in medicine. I spent a lot of time studying math and physics without courses.

This is a tough case. In many European universities, the expectation for master's study in a given discipline is a bachelor's degree in that discipline. Whether or not it is possible to petition for admission with another degree is up to the regulations of the particular university. However, if you do not have formal coursework available demonstrating that you have the requisite background, it is unlikely that you will be able to get approval.
Your best bet might be to look for programs that are interdisciplinary in nature, as they tend not to have such stringent requirements.

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Is it OK to use bullet points in the statement of purpose for graduate school applications?
Is it OK to use bullet points in the statement of purpose for graduate school applications?
I'm applying for a PhD program in physical science. I want to organize some information in a bullet points form. However, I didn't see this done in any of the statements that I have seen online.

Both Buffy and JoshuaZ raise valid points:

One of the things that [some] reviewers will be looking for...is your basic writing ability.
The reaction [to bullet points] seemed to be all over the place. One person thought bullet points stood out and were great. Another considered it to be unprofessional.

I'll add: Used well, bullet points can convey your message succinctly, which is a skill reviews are looking for. Used badly, they suggest a poor writing style. You, yourself, can perhaps determine whether bullet points are working. Give it a try. You can also ask people what they think.

I would guess that a narrative form serves you better for most of your statement. However, some bullet points, if explained well, are probably fine.
However, if the whole thing looks like a naive Powerpoint slide deck it would likely be damaging. One of the things that a few, at least, of the reviewers will be looking for in your statement is you basic writing ability. Don't make it so sparse as to require interpretation, but don't make it pedantic.

I literally just had a conversation a few people on this subject although it was for Post-Docs and similar positions rather than for graduate school. The reaction seemed to be all over the place. One person thought bullet points stood out and were great. Another considered it to be unprofessional. I can't speak to your specific field, but I suspect that the same reaction will occur here with it being either very good or very bad depending on the exact makeup of the committee reading the letters.


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Asking a commitee to replace a letter of recommendation?
I have asked one of my thesis committee members for a letter of recommendation for a position I was applying to. He is a well-known and well-connected figure in my field, we have a good relationship and he has written me letters in the past which I am fairly certain were very good.
The only problem is that he is quite busy, and therefore unreliable: During my latest job search he submitted a letter two months late and forgot to submit another one.
The position I applied to was very important to me and I did not want to risk applying with a missing letter, so as the deadline approached and I still hadn't received a letter, I asked another, lesser-known colleague to write me a recommendation instead.
The deadline has now passed a couple of days ago and I just received my committee's member's letter on Interfolio today. I already submitted my application and I can not amend it anymore through the online application service.
Should I try contacting the search committee directly and ask if I can get the letter replaced?
I'm afraid it might sound disrespectful toward the colleague that nicely wrote me the last-minute letter, but on the other hand I think the new letter would go a long way in helping my application...

You can ask. They can say yes or no. But it might be an even better option to ask them if they will accept an additional letter that arrived too late to include. This respects everyone.
If the answer is still no, then the professor who wrote the "replacement" letter might be convinced to send it directly to the hiring committee on his own initiative. It might be harder for them to reject it if he has a well established position that is known to them.

The job posting specifically mention 3 letters maximum though, I keep hearing that  submitting more documents than specified annoys committee members...

It can, certainly. That is why you ask first and explain the lateness. They can say no, but I doubt that a request could be disqualifying. Now if it were 20 additional letters...

If they only want to consider 3, but will substitute, name the best candidates.


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How to further follow up after contacting project supervisor twice?
I am applying for a foreign research internship/ scholarship that requires the applicants to first approach their potential adviser over email.
I had sent my first email around the end of August and then a follow up email around September 18.
I heard back from the professor the next day, who said that my application will go through a pipeline and then he will let me know if there is a further possibility for me.
It has already been a month since that.
Now here's the thing, the deadline for application is approaching fast and there is a need for a number of documents to be prepared and processed both by me and my potential supervisor before that. Also, my institute has declared an official holiday of about two weeks, so it won't be possible to get the signatures and stamps from my home institute before that (nearly October 25 and the deadline is November 1).
Should I send a second email? If I should, then how can I structure such an email without sounding impatient and unprofessional?

Too late to be useful, but I'm on an "unanswered questions" kick, so...
Yes, I would contact him again. The worst that can happen is that he is annoyed; the best that can happen is that you get your internship.
How to structure it? Concisely. Like this:

Dear Professor, Sorry to pester you, but if we move ahead with this, I will need to get the signatures/stamps from my home institute this week. Is there any update about my status? I am still highly interested in this opportunity. Thank you, -Name.

Thank you for the response. I ended up receiving another approval from a different Professor from a different university and proceeded with that application. I wasn't sure how the previous professor would have reacted had I sent him yet another email, so I kinda took the safe way out and approached another. I was able to submit my application before the deadline.

A phone call may work better in this case. Obtain the professor's desk phone number and call with Skype credit. Try finding out the best time to reach them by calling theirs admins first.
Before the phone call, memorize and rehearse the first few sentences that you want to say, and let the rest flow based on the tone of the talk. This allows you to manage the situation smoothly.
About your email, try saying something like "would you like me to send it again?"

Absolutely don't call a cell phone, that's highly unprofessional.

Right, I removed that part. The ones I used to call gave me their numbers themselves, but that doesn't necessarily always happen.


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How important is it to have a personal website, when applying for a PhD?
I have read several questions regarding the importance of a personal website when applying to Posdocs and other academic jobs. However, I have found little stating the importance of it when applying for a PhD.
In general, how important is it to have a website as a PhD applicant?
In my case, I have done a bachelors and master in Chemical Engineering. However, now I am doing a master in Pure Mathematics and I am planning to apply for a PhD next year. From what I have read about admissions, the focus is on the SOP and the references, a website is hardly ever mentioned. These are the things I would like the admissions committee to know but might be too much detail for the SOP:

I feel it is important to explain why the change of fields. But I don't want that to cover much of the motivation letter. So I think of having a short post on my website explaining in detail how and why I changed fields.
I would like to show how invested I am in the field (differential geometry). So I was planning on including a section with the conferences and schools I have attended during my master, and to showcase a student seminar I have organized at my university.

I do not know how to put this information in my PhD application. So I think a website might be a good solution. Is this a good idea? what would be best for me to do?

To academia it's pretty much irrelevant. For your own career it is almost an absolute imperative.
Let me explain with my own example as I also have many fields. I have a technical career in 'Environmental Diagnostics and Improvement) (thats the most direct translation), then a another university title (Licenciatura) in 'Informatic sciences', then A pos-university (posgrado) in 'Economics disclorure' (yeah, another weird translation) , an MBA in 'Systems and ITC', andother posgraduate in the same, and the PHD is in  'Organizations Direction'. And in none of them was did I even remotely needed a website or even a profile in any social media (including academic ones),a t least not for admissions.
How? Easy. All that matters is your research for the PHD. You need or argument your research as multi-field with an holistic approach, base your methods or the relation on field A and how it impacts the new field, or propose some innovative way to apply or relate Field A to field B; or why it's needed (the opportunity gap).
This relkates tot he question: [Biophysics PhD after Master's in Computational Biology. Is it a common path?
It may may vary depending on the country, but remember that academia is stuck in it's own world and real life experience is not considered for most purposes. A researcher profile in Scopus, ORCID, Google Schoolar or even creating profiles in sites like scholarly, researchgate, or academia.edu.  would be a a nice touch if you have any previous research though.
As for a personal webpage could be a bonus outside of academia though, even if it's just a linkedin profile or a site connected to it so that people can search you out.
My suggestion: Do make a page but in general, not for academia, and place the link in a profile that others can check. Place the link for that profile in your application papers and leave to the admissions personnel to check it but dont count on them doing that.

The first of your reasons would be a negative, I think. It sounds defensive. This is not the impression you want others to have.
The second of your reasons is not compelling. A personal website that just gives your qualifications is of little real value to anyone else. Your application materials will have all of that information in any case, so the web site is fairly useless. Additionally, the SOP is limited in length to get you to focus your writing on the important things, not to spew everything you know.
However, a personal web site that has things to offer to readers to make their now lives and work better can be a very positive thing but more for later, when you are looking for employment.
For example:
In mathematics, a web site that had, among other things a set of challenging exercises that give insight when solved is a very useful thing.
A blog that helps other students know how to learn a subject, or a topic.
Book and article recommendations to people studying specific things.
Software that enables generation of useful data or graphics or ...
If you can do something like that, then you can also have an extended CV with your papers and such as you develop them. But it needs to be more than just that if it is to really be helpful to others and to yourself. And if it is useful enough, then others will link to it, so that it starts to show up in Google rankings.
You don't, of course, have to develop such a site all at once. It is an incremental task that requires only periodic maintenance over an academic lifetime.


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Am I wrong to believe teachers can commit plagiarism?
This evening, my senior in high school daughter came home upset because of a bad score on a test in an AP class. The particular questions were extremely esoteric Bloom level 1 questions (e.g., how many books did character X read during the story; clearly somewhere in the book, but just recall, not analysis).
She asked the teacher to please explain the relevance of the question to understanding the story. The teacher answered she didn't know, she just copied the questions from the internet.
At this point, I was pretty livid, and wanted to immediately go to the principal/school board to complain about this individual. If a student "just copied" from the internet (without attribution, and even then a straight copy without further change would be a fair stretch), it would legitimately be plagiarism. But am I out of line believing that a teacher who just copied questions from the 'net -- especially without being able to explain why the questions actually matter -- is just as guilty? I fully understand there are only so many ways to ask, e.g., about a whale in Moby Dick, but this issue isn't about a major character's name.
My wife didn't think it was worth pursuing the issue, as the particular quiz will not significantly affect the final grade. But I remain skeptical that copy/paste by an academic leader is ethical.
What guidelines are there to help ascertain what should be an appropriate response? Am I just wrong to believe there is an unacceptable double-standard here?

Please read the question: Is it acceptable for paid online course to use quizzes and materials from elsewhere on the internet? and other related questions.

Also, high school teaching is off-topic on this site.

Note that the folks responsible for the AP system produce sample questions specifically for this purpose, so it isn't really plagiarism. The questions are designed to shadow the actual AP exam questions. Sadly, some AP teachers are unprepared to teach the course, but are assigned to do so by their school systems. Some have no computing experience at all when such an assignment is made.

If that teacher is paid to teach that course, then she should understand it and be able to complete ANY question she sets the students...

I apologize for the off-topic nature, though I note one of the linked questions is also about high school :)

@Buffy, if the question was from the AP course itself, I would agree, But the teacher specifically indicated it was separate and taken from the internet, and she did so without any attribution (or, apparently, knowledge of why it should matter to the material). But I completely agree that we have teachers thrown to the wolves to teach.

What really matters here is not plagiarism but teaching.

Not aware of any guidelines for parents to assess teacher misconduct (and not sure this is the right SE in any case), so will focus on the second part of your question. Not a copyright expert, just a researcher.

Am I just wrong to believe there is an unacceptable double-standard here?

Maybe a little bit. Recall that copyright serves two purposes:

To give credit to the person who did the original work.

Note that in some cases, "credit" is not enough (e.g., if I want to reproduce sheet music, I usually have to pay for it)
In other cases (like the classroom), educational fair use applies, and even "credit" is not legally required so long as the other requirements are met.

To avoid misrepresenting one's own knowledge/work -- i.e., a student passing off an adult's work as their own for a high grade, or a researcher stealing someone else's idea for a nice publication

As I hinted above, giving attribution is not required under fair use in the classroom (and only the copyright holder would have standing on these grounds). And it's hard to argue that the teacher is putting forth the quiz as her own work in the way that a student or researcher would; she just wanted to assess who had done the reading and didn't see the need to reinvent the wheel.
So, I think it's hard to argue that this is a "smoking gun." That said, certainly I think the teacher should have cited it, if only to set a good example.

But am I out of line believing that a teacher who just copied questions from the 'net -- especially without being able to explain why the questions actually matter -- is just as guilty?

I suspect that the real issue isn't the plagiarism, it's that the teacher is terrible. If this were a wonderful teacher who had plagiarized a fine quiz, I doubt you would be so concerned. I share your concerns; from the brief information presented here, she seems incompetent at best. But I don't think the fact that she ripped this quiz off the net is a "smoking gun" you can use to have her removed.

+1 The point is not the plagiarism vs. non-plagiarism, but the fact that the teacher used a question that they didn't understand themselves for the test.

To add to the last sentence (and to paraphrase the Stack Overflow homework help guidelines), the smoking gun is that the teacher ripped the quiz off the internet without understanding the purpose of the questions.


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Email a department head as student recommending a professor for a tenure position
I’m an undergrad student at a small liberal arts school, and while communicating with a professor whom I’ve had a course with, they mentioned they are applying for a tenure position in the department I am majoring in.
Is it appropriate for me to send a short email to the department head mentioning my support for hiring this professor? I feel rather strongly about this because I’d very much like to take more courses with this professor, and would be disappointed were they not hired. Also, I feel like I have a piece of information that is to this professors benefit that the hiring committee know, but may not come up from other sources.
I have not taken a course with the department head but I have met with them a handful of times and we know each other to some degree.
Thanks!

Of course you can write to the head. Make it a formal, printed, mail, however. Email might just get mislaid. But also note that most tenure decisions go through committees. It might be more appropriate to write a formal letter to the head of that committee.
The letter on paper will become part of the tenure file to be discussed within the committee.
Also, say more than that you support the professor. Say why. How has he/she helped you or others, for example. Inspired you. Whatever.

Absolutely!  Teachers love hearing stuff like this from students and so do department heads!

Thanks! I sent an email, if I don’t receive a response I’ll send real mail too. I’m off campus and across an ocean, and my generation has a real fear of the postal system.

@Student_hiring__ Using hardcopy mail means that you went beyond that obstacle of hardcopies, so it is really important to you. Be factual with your reasons why you want this candidate tenured.


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Recourse for patently unfair make-up exam?
I am a senior finishing dual degrees in chemistry and mathematics and missed an exam in an upper level chemistry course due to a brief hospitalization which was fully documented. I was granted a make-up exam by the instructor along with a few other students. Our exam was 14 pages long, five pages longer than the original, and incredibly difficult in comparison. Several questions were structured in such a way that knowledge of very obscure and minute details from the 800 plus lecture slides and 200 plus pages of text was required. Without exaggeration, the make-up was perhaps 5 or 6 times harder and significantly longer for the same amount of time. I have no doubt that I failed and will be lucky if my score is even 60%. What actions, if any, should I take? I plan to talk the instructor when my grade posts, but I doubt that is going to get me anywhere. After spending at least 48 hours studying in the last two weeks, this feels very defeating.

I don't have any good advice, i just want to say i'm sorry, you're not alone, and most importantly given time this big deal will be totally insignificant in the grand scheme of your life. Don't lose faith in yourself, your abilities, particularly your ability to determine your own future!

Country? Please note that it is not easy to make make-up exams that are of the same difficulty than the original.

due to a brief hospitalization  Is this course the only one you're taking this semester? Is this exam the only exam you missed during your brief hospital stay? How long did it take for recovery from the illness? Are you fully recovered yet? What did your medical doctor's documentation/note/letter say? Did your doctor say you are back to 100% functionality? Are you sure the instructor had read the doctor's note? If the answers to the questions above are in your favor, you really should talk to the instructor about it before the grade is posted.

I have no doubt that I failed You don't get to decide your grade. The instructor does.

Just curious: how do you know the makeup exam was much harder than the original exam if you didn't write the original exam? Is it possible you're just going on hearsay where students who didn't write the original exam jumped to the conclusion that the makeup exam was much harder simply because it was longer?

Given that exams are difficult to create, especially make-up exams, it is just possible that it will work out when the instructor sees the results. I doubt that it was any sort of 'retaliation'. Wait for the grades and have a conversation.
It is too early to take action until you see the actual results and their effect.
Let me note that for some sorts of exams, writing intelligently about the problem is enough. If the problems are especially difficult then it may not really be possible under exam constraints to find a proper solution. But if what you write is "sensible", and demonstrates that you have the required knowledge, it may be enough, depending on the person interpreting the results. In any case, it is pretty much impossible to treat the results as "equivalent" to those of the normally given exam. A sensible instructor will recognize this.

Sadly, I know a colleague who does this as well. It's a terrible practice, but it does exist in the wild.

I have taken many exams and never felt that one was unreasonably difficult until now. I honestly feel that it was meant as a sort of punitive measure, and I am not the type of person who is quick to play the victim card.

@R.T It's also worth noting that if the matter is not resolved to your satisfaction, most institutions have some sort of procedure for appealing an unfair grade to some higher authority.  You'll need to look up your institution's regulations to see how this works.  There's usually considerable deference given to the instructor's decision, but this case sounds like it could be sufficiently extreme to overcome that.

The fact that the make-up exam was five pages longer than the original does seem to count somewhat against the "given that exams are difficult to create" theory. It is, indeed, quite difficult to ensure that a make-up exam is comparable to the original in difficulty, but it's not that difficult for them to broadly be similar in size.

So the TL:DR on your answer is to wait and see how the exam is marked before making a fuss.  Sounds reasonable; a followup question might be required if the grading isn't reasonable, but it's probably not a good idea to react in any way yet.

@R.T For closure here, consider coming back and appending an edit to your question telling us how this turned out. In particular, was this nice accepted answer right in your particular situation.

It's been a long time since I took a university course but I wonder if you might be unduly concerned about the makeup exam? From what I hear, professors are very prone to use Bell curves when marks aren't what they hoped for. For what it's worth, I once taught a database course at a college when a friend who had the gig normally had a conflict and couldn't do it. I wrote a pretty straight-forward exam with no trick questions or indeed anything terribly challenging but the marks were disappointing, mostly in the 60s and 70s. I'd already heard vague general rumours about colleges and universities belling up marks so I asked if I was supposed to be belling up the grades. The department head strongly encouraged me to do so. On reflection, I decided that the exam was perfectly fair and I could not justify altering the marks; I submitted exactly the grades the students had earned. I never heard further about it beyond one student expressing his disappointment that he hadn't gotten a mark of 90+ as he had with the other courses in the program.
If Bell curves are truly rampant in academia, then this may well solve your problem.

A bell curve would be ok for a class with a hundred students, but creating a meaningful bell curve when only a handful of students are taking the test is impossible.

@MaxW - Thanks for explaining that. I have only the most rudimentary knowledge of statistics. The department head at the college where I taught may have been in the same boat: the class I mentioned in my anecdote was only 6 students yet he apparently thought I could bell up the marks, as did the instructor I was substituting for, who has a stronger math background than I do.

Late, but I suspect the right answer is somewhere between the other answers.
As Buffy says, I think you should wait until the results come out before starting any sort of formal process. It could be that your grade will be better than you hope, and certainly it's hard to complain that your grade is unfairly low before you even have a grade.
On the other hand, as Daruiod's (edited) answer points out, I do think it is unlikely that your professor just accidentally made the exam way too hard. This probably was a strategic move. The suggestions about including other students in your complaint, and talking to the professor before grades come out, also make sense.
So, in summary, my recommendation is to:

Talk to the instructor (politely) before you get your grade, and say that you understand that the makeup exam is harder to prevent strategic sicknesses, but you have a well-documented illness and you hope that the grading will reflect your knowledge. The professor won't lose face if he gives you a good grade the first time, but his position will be a bit more entrenched after he returns your graded exam.
If despite this he still gives you an unfairly low grade, you will have no choice but to appeal. Don't talk to the professor again, but go to the department chair or whoever is in charge of grading procedures. Professors typically have wide latitude in such matters, but manifestly punishing you for an illness/disability just might be enough to win such an appeal.


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How to restart an assignment after a long break?
I usually work on an assignment in a continuous flow. I study Philosophy, so I have to read and write a little every day.
I have recently shifted place and it took a whole two weeks gap. Now that I'm back on the desk, I don't know where to start from. My already half-done assignment looks gibberish to me.
It's frustrating and very difficult for me to get past that feeling and start over again. Any helpful suggestions on what I can do about this?

Actually, if it looks like gibberish, then starting over is probably the wisest option. It will get you back in the flow. Put the first "version" aside and just begin again from the description you have of the task.
I'll note that some people doing important work re-write from scratch, maybe more than once, to get what they think is a better result each time.


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How can we measure the subjectivity in the scientific papers?
The subjective decisions come up many times in the process of paper writing/doing research. These decisions' consequences are added up at the end. I didn't find research that would actually measure somehow this subjectivity in papers.
I'm wondering to quantify the subjectivity individually while the process is on.
I thought first I would just count the number of such decisions... One approach would be to ask people, to note each time when they decide about something that could have been put in another way... Do you know a better approach? I would appreciate any idea!

Can you give examples? Also, what discipline are you considering?

The entire process of writing is innumerable decisions on how to put something another way.

How do you decide that a certain decision was taken not taken objectively?

What makes a decision "objective"?


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How to address "positively" an unemployment gap for a postdoc application in a CV
I’m planning to apply for a postdoc in Europe but in the eligibility conditions section for this position, it is written that the PhD shouldn’t be obtained more than 3 years ago unless it is a case of serious illness or parental leave.
I obtained my PhD 4 years ago and I had 2 years of unemployment gap. I'm from a developing country and the job market is simply very tough here.
Is there a way to clarify this in a positive way in my CV or cover letter and to apply for the position?

The job announcement contains a contact person - a professor or the head of a department, often. Contact them, state your situation, and ask if it is possible to get the job regardless. If you know someone from the faculty or the country, you might also ask them informally, first.
If you, for example, had family reasons to not leave a particular city, where you could not get a position, that might qualify as a sufficient reason. State any relevant reason, but do it in short manner. Get to the point.
Also, in some countries it is possible to hire you under a different title (researcher vs. postdoc, for example) in spite of the work history. It might be that the condition in the announcement is not binding for some other reason.
You will not know of such factors without asking, so just ask.
For example:

Dear professor,
I wish to apply to the position of [link to the job announcement and
name of the position], which says that my PhD must be no more than
three years old [or whatever it states, precisely]. My PhD is four
years old, for [reasons]. Is it still possible to be considered for
the job?

Many thanks for this answer, I just did that. I contacted the coordinator of the fellowship programme saying that I inevitably took some time-off after my first postdoc and if there is a way that I can apply for the position. Right now I’m waiting for her reply.

@anonymous9876543 Keep in mind that if the application process is bureaucratic there's a good chance you'll be told to apply anyway even if it's obvious that you're not eligible.


text:
Phd, Graduate School, Transfer
I was pursuing Ph.D. at a certain institution, let's call it X. After I started working, my experiments would fail repeatedly. My supervisor started calling me incompetent in the first two months of starting my Ph.D. Only later did I know that my experiments were failing due to some uncontrollable factor that I was not initially aware of. Later, I found research articles to support my argument and told about the same to my supervisor. Now, he was pressurizing me to do something unethical and I refused, quit the program after one year. Now, I am planning to pursue Ph.D. somewhere else, probably in the USA. Should I tell the admission committee and prospective supervisor what I went through and why did I left first Ph.D. programme?

There are a lot of reasons that people want to change programs. You don't need to have a justification to want to join the program of Y rather than X. You are seeking better guidance and a more supportive atmosphere, but you don't even need to stress that.
Don't however, make accusations about individuals.
In your written application materials, just list the existing program. In your statement of purpose focus on that (SOP), not on the past. If there is a well respected potential advisor or group sharing your interests, focus on that. Make it forward looking and positive.
If you are asked during an interview you can say that you were a poor fit for the other program and had some ethical concerns with behavior there. You don't need to go into detail, and, again, shouldn't make accusations.

I would not put that full story on the initial admission, perhaps you could put that time as "research" or somesuch...
If questions in an interview bring it into the open, then you should have an answer ready that is  truthful and relevant. How and what you say is for you to know...

In the US, most graduate schools will ask for a transcript from every school you ever enrolled in. So, they will know that you were in this program and left it without a degree. Given this, it is a good idea to concisely, neutrally, and optimistically describe the circumstances under which you left in your statement of purpose. For example, rather than saying unethical, you may want to say "I did not feel his suggestion of X was appropriate."


text:
Is recommendation letter a completely professional thing or keeping good personal relation with the writer required?
Is recommendation letter (faculty position) a completely professional thing ? I mean I completed PhD one year ago, I had good relation with my Phd advisor when I was his student. After that I left my country for postdoc and obviously the relation is not like earlier. Does keeping good relation influences recommendation letter or it is completely professional thing ?

If you did well during your PhD (and did not have a fight with your supervisor afterwards), your supervisor should write a good recommendation letter. Recommendation letters are professional and you do not need to keep a good personal relation. It happens often that people have to ask for recommendation letters some time after moving on to somewhere else.
The only advantage of being still there could be that it would make it easier to remind your supervisor if he takes too long to write the letter.

I would like to a highlight something without disagreeing Wimi. Some PHD programs require recommendation letters to mention your social skills. Even if they don't, it is beneficial for you if your recommender thinks you have good interpersonal skills, able to communicate well etc. Depending on what you mean by "good relationship" this might be quite relevant. However, if you have had a decent interpersonal relationship, you should be okay. From what I have seen people seem to understand how distances effect relationships quite well. I do not think there will be resentment just because there had been some physical distance between you.

Actually, it isn't an either/or thing. It can and should be both.
You should try to keep in touch with your advisor, keeping them up to date on what you are doing. But the reason is that you want them to remember you when it comes time for recommendations and not have to search their memory for something good to say about you.
You don't have to socialize with them. An occasional email is enough. Papers you have submitted, children born, anything. The thread can be pretty thin, but if you maintain it you will get a better letter in most cases. If you live in approximately the same place, an occasional visit is worth doing.
And maybe they will also respond generally and do things that might otherwise boost your career. Introducing you to others with similar interests, perhaps.


text:
Can I tell the PI who has offered me a postdoc job that I have not decided yet waiting for other results
I have got a postdoc job offer from a reputed University in Applied Mathematics. Now, I have given several postdoc interviews and some interviews are scheduled in the coming days. In such situation can I tell the PI (wherefrom I got the offer) that I have not decided yet as I have some other interviews scheduled in the future. I have heard that accepting multiple offers is not a good thing.

Just thank them and tell them you will respond before the deadline in the offer letter.

@AnonymousPhysicist: There is no deadline given. Can I politely ask them ?

Did you receive a formal offer?  Usually these are signed by a high ranking administrator.  If not, you might be wise to ask for one.  Then you will know what the deadline is.

I think you are right about not accepting multiple offers. But that isn't the same as not considering multiple offers.
Unless you have a special relationship with the PI you don't actually owe him or her an explanation of why you are waiting. It would, however, do you good if you could give a date, not too far in the future, by which you will let him/her know.
Of course, it is possible that the offer could be withdrawn, rules permitting, but if you wait to accept you can't control that.
I wouldn't probably say I was awaiting other offers, or give a false reason instead. It is enough to say that you aren't yet quite ready to make a decision on such a big step. Yes, that sort of thing is a bit of hedging, but probably called for, since you are actually hedging.
But don't put them off too long.

Is it ok to say to the PI that I need to talk to my advisor.

I might, rather, put it that you are in discussions with your advisor. You are allowed to keep your reasoning to yourself. The PI is allowed to make independent decision.


text:
Accepted a postdoc offer by just emailing, have not signed any contract, what to do if other offer comes
Hi I am a Phd student (Phd thesis submitted). Recently, I have received a postdoc offer from a reputed university and accordingly accepted the offer by emailing them. Now this is just a offer letter, no salary is written there (the PI has told me unofficially the salary amount). In order to join the job, I have to defend my Phd thesis, then they will send a formal joining letter (where salary will be written). In other words, I have not signed any contract till now. Now, my Phd thesis reviews have not come yet (in my country thesis is sent to two reviewers: one within and one outside the country). Till I defend my Phd thesis what should I do if I get postdoc offer from other places.
Any help/suggestions will be useful. Thanks in advance.

Your honor is at stake here. The email should constitute an agreement, even if not legally binding yet. You can, of course, by mutual agreement with the PI, still change your acceptance, indicating that it is tentative because of the restriction. This should be easy and natural, if the condition was raised after your "acceptance."
Just don't get yourself in the position of the PI thinking he has "caught" you and you later "get away." The consequences will be on you.

Thanks. I have asked them. They told that any kind of formal letter requires that the Phd is completed which means that thesis is defended.

@applied_math, it might be good, then, to "clarify" with them that your acceptance is also tentative and that, while you are happy with the offer you remain free of obligations at this time. Use words of thanks and praise. Don't imply withdrawal. But put down a marker that neither party is yet bound. If the original "acceptance" was email, then email is likely fine for this, but retain copies of everything.

If (and only if) you get another postdoc offer, you should inform the PI of this and ask if they can get you a contract, even if a conditional one.
No position is secure before a contract has been signed.


text:
If a paper gets rejected two times (in two different journals) is that a bad impression if I try to submit in a different journal?
If a paper gets rejected two times (in two different journals) is that a bad impression if I try to submit in a different journal (different from the earlier two)?

There is a reasonably high chance that at least one of the reviewers will be the same. So depending on why it was rejected the reviewer may get annoyed seeing the same paper again if you haven't addressed their concerns.

I've been in this exact situation this year. The first journal rejected my paper after a few months I sent it, stating that it didn't attend their novelty criteria, but that it should be published elsewhere. Second journal rejected it within a few weeks with no comments on it. The third paper accepted it without any suggestion or remark. It's now published on a top-quality journal (according to my country's classification). It's also in mathematics (since your name involves math). So, relax!

To support @mg4w : the exact same paper will likely produce the exact same result, so take the comments from the referees as guidance to improve your manuscript.

If your papers are always accepted in the first journal you submit to, then you are aiming too low.

@GEdgar - that does depend on which journal you first aim at. If Phys Rev Letters accepts it, it’s good enough.

Question does not appear to be grammatically correct. A set of historical facts is not, by definition, an impression, good or bad. Perhaps the asker means to ask a related question based on the reviewers/editors somehow knowing or being told at time of submission. Or is that part of the question also?

No. In fact most of the time you do not need to (and should not) tell the editors of the new journal that your manuscript had been rejected elsewhere.
Of course, you should figure out why your manuscript was rejected and fix the issues if possible. For example if a referee says your manuscript is not acceptable because you need twice as much data to make your claims, then you should try to get twice as much data before submitting it to another journal.


text:
Using substantial parts of a paper you authored in your thesis
IEEE is very slow to answer and I need some clarification rather soon. If I am writing a dissertation and want to use extensive parts (but not the full paper!) of one of my own papers that was previously published in an IEEE conference's proceedings, what do I need to state in the dissertation to satisfy the IEEE copyright regulations?
IEEE states that for thesis or dissertation reuse the following rules apply:

Thesis / Dissertation Reuse
The IEEE does not require individuals
  working on a thesis to obtain a formal reuse license, however, you may
  print out this statement to be used as a permission grant:
Requirements to be followed when using any portion (e.g., figure,
  graph, table, or textual material) of an IEEE copyrighted paper in a
  thesis:
1) In the case of textual material (e.g., using short quotes
  or referring to the work within these papers) users must give full
  credit to the original source (author, paper, publication) followed by
  the IEEE copyright line © 2017 IEEE.
2) In the case of illustrations
  or tabular material, we require that the copyright line © [Year of
  original publication] IEEE appear prominently with each reprinted
  figure and/or table.
3) If a substantial portion of the original paper
  is to be used, and if you are not the senior author, also obtain the
  senior author's approval.
entire IEEE copyrighted paper in a thesis:
1) The following IEEE
  copyright/ credit notice should be placed prominently in the
  references: © [year of original publication] IEEE. Reprinted, with
  permission, from [author names, paper title, IEEE publication title,
  and month/year of publication]
2) Only the accepted version of an IEEE
  copyrighted paper can be used when posting the paper or your thesis
  on-line.
3) In placing the thesis on the author's university website,
  please display the following message in a prominent place on the
  website: In reference to IEEE copyrighted material which is used with
  permission in this thesis, the IEEE does not endorse any of
  [university/educational entity's name goes here]'s products or
  services. Internal or personal use of this material is permitted. If
  interested in reprinting/republishing IEEE copyrighted material for
  advertising or promotional purposes or for creating new collective
  works for resale or redistribution, please go to
  http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/rights_link.html
  to learn how to obtain a License from RightsLink.
If applicable,
  University Microfilms and/or ProQuest Library, or the Archives of Canada may supply single copies of the dissertation.

Am I correct in the assumption that for my case only the first case (marked bold) is relevant and I hence only need to a) cite the source and b) put a mark "(c) 2017 IEEE"?
Does anyone have any hands-on experience with such a case?

I think that this answer that I gave on a similar question might be helpful.

Yes, but still this explicitly only applies if you reprinted the ENTIRE paper, not just (some) sections

@puppetsock and how did you cite the papers?

The statement seems pretty clear and I'd suggest you are correct that the first paragraph applies. However, I'd also suggest adding the permissions paragraph (your bold) to the thesis itself as a foot/end note just to be clear to readers. Self-plagiarism is actually a thing these days.
I don't have actual experience with this, but can suggest a strategy. It seems conservative enough to satisfy IEEE given the above.
Include your work as you like. However, don't just incorporate it, but actually quote the relevant parts of your papers, listing yourself (and others as appropriate) as author(s). This avoids the "self plagiarism" issue. You are treating your work just as you would that of another.
You are also listing IEEE as the "publisher" of record by referencing it, so their interest in your work is preserved.
See if there is some way to send a late draft of your dissertation to IEEE along with pointers to the referenced material, asking them, again, whether they have any objections. They may reply or not. If they do, you will have clear guidelines. I doubt that you would need to do extensive revisions even in the worst case.


text:
Legality of collecting/distributing a dataset of screenshots of websites
I'm doing a research project where I want to collect thousands of screenshots of different websites, for training/testing of image models. Ultimately, I am trying to create a dataset that I can present and distribute to the community at various conferences/symposia.
My primary concern is how legal this might be. My assumption would be that taking a screenshot of websites of private companies like newyorktimes.com would be some sort of copyright violation, but that may be a faulty assumption.
I'm also unclear as to grey areas like:

reddit:  user provided content
twitter: user provided content
wikipedia:   open source knowledge base
google:  content scraped/sourced from other providers

Essentially, what copyright considerations, if any, would I have to keep in mind when collecting, annotating and distributing screenshots? How might licensing/attribution work when making this data publically available to others for use?

Would it not be equally effective (and legally safer) to share the code of your web crawler so that others can easily re-create the dataset?

It would be, but part of what I'm aiming to do is annotate these images as well. My proposed dataset would include the images with said annotations, so just releasing my crawler doesn't quite get at what I'm aiming for.

Given the state of copyright law, this sounds like a minefield. There are people trying to sue Google, just for indexing sites.
It isn't so much that you want to do research on these "images", which is likely ok, but I think that distributing them will be almost impossible. Many sites won't want to give you permission and will complain (via lawyers) if you haven't obtained permission.
The general law about copyright is that people own what they produce, whether they register a copyright or not. If there isn't a clear license offered such as a Creative Common license, then the owner retains all rights to the work unless they explicitly put their creation into the public domain. Most of the sites you will probably want to visit likely will NOT have given up rights. The deal is supposed to be time limited, but that idea has been nearly eliminated in the law.
Places like wikipedia have clear statements of licensing and rights transfer. But individual users at reddit, twitter, etc. likely still have rights unless they have yielded them (as part of signing up) to the hosting site. I don't participate much in social media so haven't investigated these user agreements.
Attribution isn't enough. You need permission. Once you have that, you need to provide attribution.
However, if you want to "process" images, gleaning characteristics of the sites (but not text and images...) you can probably do it without permission.
Also note that copyright law is in flux and varies greatly around the world. The EU is currently trying to work out very restrictive laws, for example.
The core problem is that IP owners often have a lot of political power. Disney, for example will declare war on you if you try to compromise their rights to Mickey Mouse. Common understandings that once permitted Voltaire to make a living from his writings have now expanded to unlimited rights to lock up the culture forever by large commercial firms.
Another problem is that many formerly lucrative publishing strategies have been money losers lately because of the internet. The NYTimes, for example, if it wants to continue in business needs to achieve income somehow. They can't do it printing on paper anymore, so their web sites have value to them and they are fearful (maybe overly fearful) that re-publishing, or even indexing, their material will cost them enough that they can't sustain their business model anymore.
It is even worse for sites that show advertising. You not only have issues with the site itself, but all of the images shown by the advertisers are, themselves, likely copyright protected with teams of lawyers ready and willing to go after you.
That said, you might be able to do your research on a wide range of sites/images without formal permission, depending on what it is, but then only publish a smaller set for which it is clear that you have a right to do so.
Note that there are a few exceptions to strict copyright law. These fall into the realm of formal criticism, and parody. There is a notion of fair use that is being eroded, so can hardly be depended on anymore.
If you are part of an institution, such as a University, then the institution probably has an Office of Research that can give you explicit advice for your locale. That office probably has access to lawyers that can provide explicit legal advice. Tread cautiously.


text:
Publishing elementary results
As the title suggests, I am interested to know the chances of a middle-ranking journal's acceptance of a paper by an unknown author, detailing comparatively elementary results. By elementary, I mean results which are simply stated and simply proven: requiring knowledge only up to perhaps undergraduate year 3 or 4 courses. The results are new but do not have any obvious implications, nor are they usually considered as well-known interesting questions (not like open questions posed by previous authors). The "interestingness" of the results are mediocre at best. The methodology involved is new, but there is nothing to show that it is applicable in other related problems in the field, nor that it is significant in any way beyond the paper. Note that the field I am interested in is mathematics.
So, what are the chances of a journal accepting such a paper? My initial reaction is that perhaps this kind of papers would seem too trivial, given that often papers published in journals consider material from the PhD level or beyond. But then again, it is novel research with results interesting to some, so perhaps they are worth publishing.
(You can assume that the results and methodology given in the paper are truly novel and correct.)

What's the "story" behind the paper? That is, what makes your paper worth reading?

The quality of a mathematical result is certainly not proportional to the sophistication of the techniques used to prove it.  On the contrary, an elementary proof of a worthwhile result is typically viewed as much better than a proof that uses more advanced techniques.
What matters more is how interesting your results are, and you haven't provided enough information here to determine that.  Why not show them to an expert or two and ask for their opinions?  In any case, it sounds like something that is worth putting on arXiv to start with.

From your description it sounds like the results have no implications, no relation to other problems, and is not significant in any way beyond that paper. In that case, chances are journals will not accept the paper. A paper needs to convince the editors & reviewers that its results are actually interesting.
Check out Steven Gubkin's answer to another question:

Here is a brand new mathematical theory I have invented just now (in the last 30 seconds):
A Gobleflump is a set together with a ternary operation Star(a,b,c), and a binary operation Spade(a,b) satisfying Star(Spade(a,b),Spade(c,d),Spade(e,f)) = Spade(Star(a,b,c),Star(d,e,f)).
I could now devote my life to the study of Gobleflumps. I could publish papers about extremely regular gobleflumps, and the equivalence between hyperconvex gobleflumps and hypoconvex grendleflops. This might all be legitimate, correct mathematics.
No one will ever care about my lifes work, or probably even read it, unless it makes some connection to existing mathematical theory, illuminates why something disconnected from the theory works the way it does, or solves some existing problem.

... and if no one will ever care about the results, most reputable journals will not publish them, either.

Can I say that the main thing now determining the success of the paper is it's connections to existing theories, their impacts, etc. (i.e. how interesting the results are) and the sophistication or "level of math" involved in the paper is not as important?

@user496634 That's certainly part of it.

@Allure I think it is a little premature to speculate that the "results have no implications, no relation to other problems, and is not significant in any way beyond that paper." Perhaps you can elaborate on how the OP can determine whether this is the case? (I like your reference to Steven Gubkin!)

Stash the paper for now. Talk to people that you trust about it. Chances are, in a few years you'll discover a connection to something completely unexpected, making it interesting. At that point you have a good chance it gets published, regardless of how 'advanced' the required foundations are.

In general, mathematical results need to be interesting in some way to some subset of practitioners to be publishable. You haven't pressented them in that way so you need to think about who wants to know this.
But it isn't the quality of the journal here that will matter, but the kind of thing they want to publish. For example, if the results are accessible to beginners, say undergraduates, then you might find acceptance in a journal devoted to teaching at that level, rather than a more research oriented journal. The MAA, Mathematical Association of America, for example, could possibly be interested. But it still needs to be interesting.


text:
Quitting undergraduate research internship
I am an undergraduate in theoretical chemistry, and I am currently having a summer research internship at one of the top institutions in the world. I was dreaming about this experience for a long time, but now I think that I can't handle it.
I started to feel drained of energy six months ago when my family had serious problems in their relationships, finances and health. Now, it's two weeks into my 8-week-long internship and I am unable to focus on anything at all. The only hope I have is that intermittently I have bursts of energy, when the idea of leaving seems preposterous, but they only last 1-2 days max. I also have troubles sleeping.
I have always been a diligent student coming in top 1-5 in all examinations I sat. My internship last year also went quite well and my results from it resulted in a publication. I have never felt as I do now, and even though I'm trying really hard to pull myself together, I'm failing.
I wonder how much quitting would affect my reputation, especially if I'm being honest that the issue is about my mental health. On the other hand, if I stay but am utterly unproductive, would it be worse?

This is not really the best forum for this. You need to go see a counselor to talk through what's going on. They can probably guide you better in what you need to do, rather than asking the masses who don't necessarily have your best interests in mind (not that this community is out to get you, but we don't the background that a trained counselor could gain on your particular situation).

@scrappedcola Thanks. I just wanted to hear from any PI's or senior academics what they response would it be in this situation. I'll speak to my counsellor as well but they might not necessarily have an understanding of the attitudes in academic circles.

Your institution may also have academic counselors that could give you a better feel for how stopping your internship at this point could affect you. If you want academic advice you may want to edit your question as it seems more about your mental state than an actual question on how this would affect your academic career.

@scrappedcola, you might want to expand your comments about counselors into a full answer. Comments often get purged in time whereas answers won't.

See this related answer on quitting a PhD. I think you should speak to a medical counselor if available at the university. These sound like classic symptoms of anxiety and depression, and you may be able to get some medication or talk therapy that will help! https://academia.stackexchange.com/questions/95747/how-do-i-know-that-i-have-truly-lost-interest-in-research-and-should-drop-out-of/95751#95751

Actually a student health counselor at a university would definitely know about academic perceptions of these problems, since the people they see are students! At my university, most of their work is with graduate students who are pursuing high-intensity research degrees and have to deal with deadlines/PIs etc.

Quitting a program like this would not disqualify you from future research pursuits as long as the rest of your CV is on point and you have strong recommendations.
However, before quitting, I strongly suggest that you speak to a mental health counselor at the school, if available. The issues you describe sound like classic symptoms of anxiety or depression, which could have been triggered by the family problems. You may be able to continue the internship successfully if you get the help you need.
In any case, university counselors trained in mental health are very familiar with the pressures of research and the career paths of students like you. They can help you make a balanced decision based on your individual problems and circumstances and can also help you make a plan on who to talk to and how to frame the issue.
See also this answer I gave to a PhD students who had a somewhat related question: How do I know that I have truly lost interest in research and should drop out of a top CS PhD program?

I think it would be a mistake to discuss your mental health. But you can more safely discuss the issues that might have led to it. It is natural to feel drained when family/relationship issues take so much mental and emotional effort.
The best thing, assuming you cannot continue, is to discuss the underlying issues with someone involved in the program. They might have some solutions for you that you don't see now, such as deferring your participation. Be sure to stress your interest in the program and your abilities, so that you have some positive things to say beyond any obstacles in your way.
If I were the person you talked to, I would try to find a way to make it possible. Your background suggests you would be the sort of person the PI would want to accommodate.
The comment of user scrappedcola also seems wise.


text:
Possibility of submitting a paper whose one page has been previously accepted in a poster session?
If a topic (only one page) has been accepted previously in poster session of a conference / workshop, is it possible to submit the long version of the same topic (15 pages) to another conference? (particularly in field of computer science)

If it were never allowed to expand a conference poster into a journal article, there would be many fewer journal articles (or conference posters). Presumably you have 14 pages worth of new material, and the 15 page paper will not extensively copy portions of your 1 pager...

Based on your question, I can see no issues with that.
My thoughts:
1. Yes. Note that 'Buffy's answer regarding self-plagiarism is a fair point though I think the additional 14 pages probably helps mitigate this issue substantially (as pointed out by 'Jon Custer'). Citing the previous (shorter) work is a good idea and in general can't really hurt you.
2. You can always double-check if you're worried. You can always submit with an attached letter (or include in email) that a small portion of the material was published or presented in/at [X]. Then no one would think you're trying to be sneaky.
Caveat:  As always, these things are situation dependent (field, conference, etc). I would further defer to a Computer Science answer if it disagreed with mine.

Only the conference committee can really answer that, but I offer two suggestions. These apply even if the conference committee sees no problem.
There is a concept called self-plagiarism, that I think is a bit stupid, but it exists and many consider it a serious issue. You should, at a minimum cite your own earlier work (the poster) just as you would cite anyone else and quote it appropriately.
The second suggestion is that, while you still cite the poster work, you re-write it, incorporating the important ideas rather than quoting it directly.
But you will run in to trouble with some if you just use it without comment even though it is your own work.
I doubt that the field matters much. My field is also CS, however.


text:
Letter of recommendation from a professor who barely knows me
I  am having a situation. I am applying to America at the end of the year. Now I have 3 LoR from my department, 1 of which is not so strong (the professor barely knows me).
Anyway, this is why I want another LoR. Days ago I contacted a professor from one of the universities I am going to apply, sending him my thesis and asking to work under him in some project he may assign. He turned me down, but wanted me to contact him when I apply (could be a good sign).
Obviously he did, since he barely knows me and I am even not sure to accept the admission from his university (if I luckily get accepted). The fact that he turned me down makes me think. Should I contact more professors? I mean if he accepts me, gives me some project and ultimately I do not go to his university, would it make him angry? And is the chance of I having a LoR from a famous professor in this way high?
This leads me to another option. I can go to my current university and strengthen my research with a professor there to get a stronger LoR. One drawback is that he is not as good as professors I may contact via email and he works in a different area, so basically I have to learn from scratch (my area and his are both algebra, though).
The most important question I want to ask in this post is that: what should I choose between two options?
I hope you guys can read all and answer to all the questions here, I would really appreciate it

I wonder if he turned you down simply because it was too early to make a decision, rather than for anything about your application. I think it is too early to panic. (We aren't all "guys" actually.)

sorry, I thought "you guys" simply means "you"

So some it does, to others you get coffee flung at you. It's a modern world, and better if we are more aware.

Days ago I contacted a professor from one of the universities I am going to apply, sending him my thesis and asking to work under him in some project he may assign. He turned me down, [...]

I'm not surprised.  It's rare for a professor to assign or supervise a project for a student who's not already enrolled at the professor's university.  They already have plenty of other work to do, and working with outside students isn't part of their expected duties, so there's no real incentive for them to take on such a task.

Should I contact more professors?

It's unlikely to be successful, for the reasons I just mentioned.  So I don't think this is a good approach.

I mean if he accepts me, gives me some project and ultimately I do not go to his university, would it make him angry?

This isn't the issue.  First, it's unlikely that any professor would accept an outside student for a project in the first place.  But if they did, they realize that students have many factors affecting their choice of graduate institution, and are not likely to be angry if they go somewhere else.

And is the chance of I having a LoR from a famous professor in this way high?

No, it is not.  This is not an effective way to get a letter of recommendation.

This leads me to another option. I can go to my current university and strengthen my research with a professor there to get a stronger LoR. One drawback is that he is not as good as professors I may contact via email and he works in a different area, so basically I have to learn from scratch (my area and his are both algebra, though).

This is a much better approach.


text:
Contacting a professor in the university you are applying
I am applying to American universities. And just like many others, I intend to apply to many of them.
Anyway, I read a lot on the internet about this application thing and I notice that I should contact a relevant professor, read some of his articles and form an opinion (like in the answer of How does the admissions process work for Ph.D. programs in the US, particularly for weak or borderline students? ), maybe for the professor to acknowledge who this applicant (me) is.
I think there would be a big obstacle. Let's say I am applying to 10 universities, then I have to contact 10 professors. Their work may belong to the same big branch, but definitely to small branches. What I want to say here is, 10 articles in technically 10 different areas, and they are totally not easy to understand. Then it would be literally impossible to do such a task.
I really hope I took it the wrong way somewhere. Do I understand this "contacting professors" part? Hope you could answer me

Note that many departments disencourage contacting potential advisors regarding admissions before you have been admitted to the program.

Only contact professors if you are genuinely interested in working with them and can demonstrate that you might be a good fit. Profs get a lot of generic cold emails so it isn't worth it if you aren't excited about them specifically.
But if you see someone's work that really does interest you, then definitely reach out! In a short email, use a few sentences to demonstrate that you are interested, know what they actually do (take a look at a few of their papers), and why you are a good fit (relate your experiences to their work).

The most likely outcome is that you will be ignored with a "blind" contact and won't get a reply to any email. I've gotten a lot of mail from "students" wanting to "join my research group" when they obviously have no knowledge of what it is and no relevant background. It will be difficult to be heard through this noise. They normally attach a CV, but it never gets read.
The suggestion of first learning about what the professor is interested in is a good one if you can possibly do it, but, just as you suggest, that will be difficult.
You mention that the article you read is about doctoral admissions but don't say if that is what you want. For undergraduate admissions, however, I think that the normal admissions process through the university is all you can achieve.
But if it really is doctoral education, then, I hope you have a suitable undergraduate education and maybe a Master's Degree, so that you already show some level of specialization.
If this is the case, you might be able to find a few professors who do things of interest to you just by reading the titles and abstracts of a few articles. Narrow them down by searching in specialist journals or conference proceedings. If you can understand the abstracts and if your background is applicable then you might have the basis for a contact.
If you can find a suitable professor or two, and also find the "introductory" courses they teach (at the desired level), you could express your interest and ask if they would send you a reading list for such a course. This would give you a way to explore the topic more deeply without going into state of the art research articles. But you have to be able to get a reply.
But if your degree is in Pneumatic Hydrology and you are applying to someone in Mathematics or Computer Science, you won't get a reply.
I'm assuming here that you are not currently in the US so it wouldn't be possible for you to attend a US conference in the field you want to study. Many conferences have "student volunteers" who do low level tasks at the conference but allow you to attend sessions and meet people. This might be better if it is feasible. You would probably need a sponsor for travel, of course.
You also indicate that you may be a weak or borderline student. This makes it much harder unless you have done some especially good piece of work in the common field that will be of interest to the professor.
Finally, if you have access to some professor locally who really believes in your potential and who has contacts, perhaps he or she will be willing to introduce you to someone who is willing to consider you. A letter from someone the professor met at a conference previously is going to be read, and curtesy will require a reply.


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What should I do when someone's falsified information based on governmental connections to accuse me of academic ethical misconduct?
It was about three years ago that I have started my M.Sc. degree. I was a top student at our department. I have graduated with honors and with several journals and conference papers. Everyone knew who I was and I was really popular in our department. In the first year, a supervisor asks me to work on a data that he said the data was his own and he had worked on it along with a draft written originally in another language. The data he had given me was based on a project in our class. Every student had to take part in the project as an assignment. There was a student X.X. he was so bad with me and always showed negative behavior through me. Our supervisor decided to put us on a team to make us friend! eventually, we were the only people that have finished the project and decided to publish it as an article. The calculation made by X.X. was wrong therefore our supervisor had told him that we have to go with my calculations for the journal based on the propositions that I have made. At that point, I have changed many things within the initial draft. With the insistence of Mr. X.X. our supervisor agreed to a conference submission of early stages of our project BUT he said that Mr. X.X does not have to be on the Journal paper because he didn't do any of new calculations and the writing process has been done by our supervisor. Therefore he told me to finalize the project without his name in the paper. Also, he told me that I could be the first and corresponding author because he doesn't have any time to work on the project. So, We have published the paper in English in a reputed journal. It is also worth mentioning that few weeks after we submit the paper to the journal, the conference has emailed us that the abstract along with a text has been accepted in the conference for a poster presentation. Our supervisor has shocked! because the paper that was available in the inventory of the conference proceeding was the semi-final paper in the native (foreign) language and the conference had sent us the final acceptance letter. Our supervisor has sent them an email and explained the situation that the paper that has been sent is not spouse to be online because he does not agree to sent this paper and the acceptance was based on only a poster presentation, not a manuscript text! they said OK and the argument was done.
It was in March that we have found the conference paper have been forged and indexed in the conference proceeding that we said not to publish. This proceeding was indexed after 1 year and a half after the conference! Our supervisor had three other proceedings in this conference and they were published at the time in 2015. BUT the conference paper that Mr. X.X. was working on published in 2018 which obviously they have forged the date. Because I have printed all the proceedings in 2016. I have gathered that Mr. X.X is a son of a very powerful man in a governmental organization. Himself Mr. X.X works in as a government employee and he has many and many connections.
Exactly a week after we saw the proceeding my supervisor has sent emails to the conference explaining that this article has been sent without his permission and we have once told them to withdraw the paper. He has also included the technical report on the paper that have problems. Consequently, they have removed the paper from the indexing website.
Two weeks after this the journal that we have sent our paper contacted us that someone emailed us that this paper has been published in a conference proceeding and the policy of journal said that the translation of such is a redundant publication and it is marked as plagiarism.
We have answered their email that Mr. X.X have forged this paper and sent it to the conference and they had published the paper based on his lobbying and concoctions. We explained that at that moment (April 2018) there was NOT a single proceeding available with that information and we have sent the journal complete information about that. We have told them that Mr. X.X is a very well connected man to the government and everything is possible in this country because it is a dictatorship in a middle east (you guess!).
Since then there was not a single email have came to us from the journal. BUT two weeks ago July 2018 the proceeding have been uploaded once again in the same database with a forged date that indicates it had been uploaded in 2015 !!!!
I don’t know what to do.
This man is very well-connected and powerful within the government.
I am really scared that the journal won’t believe this and someday Retract the paper due to duplication or redundant publication.
I have told this story to my main supervisor who supervised my thesis he told me that Mr. X.X is linked to the dean of our department and it would not have any effect if I told him. Also, the head of our department is a woman that works for his father.
I don’t know what to do, and I am really scared that at this point that I have made this far and took this much effort in order to be an academic and to continue my studies as a Ph.D., retraction of this article with such accusation and falsification ruin my career and my life. Because we can't do anything about the conference proceeding that is not even in English!
What do you think I should do?

Sorry, I have no idea what you are talking about. If I follow the story, you and student S wrote a paper with professor P, S's part was wrong so you and P submitted a paper without S, but somehow S resubmitted an earlier draft (with all three names) as a second paper and a (forged) earlier submission date. And S has gov't connections in your (corrupt) country. Is this correct? Either way, you'll get better answers if you can edit your post to make it clearer and remove non-essential details.

"We have told them that Mr. X.X is a very well connected man to the government and everything is possible in this country because it is a dictatorship in a middle east." If you mean this seriously, then based on the other details presented there is nothing you can do.

My understanding is that there was one submission to a journal from superviser and OP and another, to a conference, from XX. Now OP is afraid they will be accused of plagiarism (or self-plagiarism, that wasn't clear to me). There is not much recourse, as XX seems well-connected, so the usual paths to clear up the situation are not available. [Looks like cutting the losses (and leaving this environment) is the only recourse, but perhaps someone has a better idea]. Country - or at least area - tag?

As a favourite type of comments here says: "Don't walk, run!". Would you have a possibility to do a PhD abroad? Use it then!

I strongly recommend you remove any emotional details and irrelevant parts, highlights, side comments, etc, and focus on the essentials. It is hard to read and weighs a readers against you.

Please provide a TL;DR so that we have some idea what you're asking.

The question is a bit confusing to read, but the issue appears to be that the journal claims the paper you submitted was already published elsewhere, but that publication was not authorized by you or your supervisor.
With regard to X's publication - generally, all authors must agree to publish a manuscript with their name on it, and everyone who contributed to it must be acknowledged. Sounds like when X published, he put at least your supervisor on as an author. Your supervisor could contact the journal and say that it was based on work X did together with you and him, and that neither of you agreed to publish, and it is preventing you from publishing where you really want to. You could then go to the actual journal you want and explain the situation. But honestly this will probably not help, because:

It is not in the editor's interest (principles aside) to retract a paper so you can publish it in another journal
It is not in the other journal's interest to accept your paper because from their point of view this is a very complicated situation and could easily be some sort of dishonest scheme you have cooked up (you know you're honest, but it may be hard for the journal to trust you)
You have said that X was very powerful and could realistically interfere with this

Journals tend to have a policy of not accepting results published elsewhere. This includes publication even by someone else entirely, although in my experience conferences are not always excluded. There are good reasons for this. For one, their income and status depends on being the place where the news broke first. So the journal may not want to publish results that have already been reported before, even if that's not your fault. But conversely, they may feel that the other publication is much lower quality than your submission or it is invalid due to academic dishonesty. If they don't, other journals might.
You can strengthen your case by providing evidence, such as notebooks or dated correspondence, proving your story that X did not contribute much and also when the work was done.
It sounds like X is responsible for very little intellectual contribution to this work, so another thing you can do is try to expand the research a little to include novel results, and then publish. The version X published will then not be a duplicate, and your manuscript will be clearly novel. You may need to also cut out or de-emphasize some of the results in your submission that X has already published. You could also do substantial rewrite to improve the analysis and discussion of the results in your submission. That will help materially differentiate your version from X's.


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What does it mean "English proficiency" for a J-1 visa?
English is not my native language. Meanwhile,  sometimes  I should read and write in English due to various reasons and work duties. In most cases, I understand a lot of (approx 80% and more) from the newspapers and other articles without a dictionary. The main idea and specific moments understand without serious difficulties in listening to different conversations or TED talks. I don't know my exact CERF level because I have never passed the corresponding exams before. Meanwhile, I have passed through the interview with PI in a US university and got an offer, so my English is acceptable for them probably.  However, speaking fluently is difficult for me (I have not had enough practice for the last two years), especially when a topic does not link with work. Sometimes seem that the current speaking problem is due to a long break.
Now I am preparing for the J-1 visa interview, where "English proficiency" is one of the requirements, and I am a bit confused by this moment. What does it mean "proficiency" for an embassy officer? What should it be minimal CERF level?
Sometimes I am sure I will not have got the visa due to my English ((

I have no knowledge whatsoever about the visa process, but I have to say given that you wrote this post: your English is great. Don’t sweat it.

As @DanBron points out, your written English is really good. You shouldn't go alone through this. Contact your future PI and the office for international students at your future university (or however it's called at your place) to ask for guidance. Different universities provide different levels of support (e.g., some allow for a test taken with your future PI). In the past, seeing a talented student of your reading and writing proficiency denied would have been rare, but I don't know how current circumstances are.

Candidates must be proficient enough in English to participate successfully in their exchange program and to function on a day-to-day basis. J-1 Exchange Visitors must have sufficient, verifiable English language skills.
The CEFR Common European Framework of Reference for Languages is a European certificate. Notice that it's CEFR level, not CERF.
In the US, they expect a TOEFL certificate or equivalent (like SAT or Pearson tests). An acceptable grade for some programs in the internet based TOEFL would be 79 points, which is the equivalent to a B2 level in the CEFR.
There are sample tests online that might help you get an idea of your present level. For example, this one. However, judging by your post, I assume you are at a more than acceptable level, probably at the C1 or even C2 level.
PS: I have the impression that you believe it's the US gov who is setting the English proficiency standards. Actually, it's the university who sets the standards and how to prove proficiency. If the university accepts you I don't see how the government can reject the J2 application for lack of proficiency in English.
Consider taking some Zoom 1-to-1 conversations lessons, but more for brushing up your knowledge and for peace of mind than for need. As said above, your English seems fine.

I've taken up a free test here https://www.efset.org/. My level has been determined as B2.

Or even just look online for some groups to practice English speaking, since your concerns are lack of practice and expressing non-work related ideas even just hearing/speaking english again will probably help as your prior experience comes back to you.


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The hiring process for a postdoc position in the US
I need a piece of advice.
I found an interesting postdoc position one month ago. I applied all required documents (CV and cover letter) and 4-5 days later I was interviewed by the group (including head). A few days later I was asked to prepare the research highlights and I did that. One week later they asked me to apply for the position via the university website if I am interested in the position, and also requested recommendation letters from possible referees. All letters were provided as I know, and they are positive. Moreover, I know I well match to that position. Of course, I do not exclude other possible existing candidates for the position and I can be not the first among them, of course. So, one month passed from the interview.
I haven't experience in the application process for a postdoc position in the US and this is for the first time for me. Thus, the evaluation and hiring process for a postdoc position is a bit unclear for me. I am not sure that a direct request to the lab head for clarifying the situation is a good idea because in this case, I can look like a hysteric or in need person, and I don't want that due to obvious reasons. I do not exclude that they must prepare for the position a justification or something like and this also needs time.
In accordance with the above, I need a piece of advice. What should I do? Is the situation normal or I'm screwed? What should I choose as a strategy (wait or write)?

I think after a month you are not going to look hysterical or needy. Just send them a brief email.

I wrote the last email approx one week ago and didn't get any answer.

@Libor: "You should keep bothering them by email."??? What??? That sounds like bad advice.

The academic decision clock can run very slowly. If you don't have other options then I'd suggest some patience. There may be a number of interviews they need to have with others and there may be issues about scheduling decision meetings. Lots of things can slow it down.
If you have a specific need to know about the decision then you can be a bit more aggressive in asking, but otherwise, a request for an update after a couple of weeks is probably acceptable. The most information you are likely to get, however, is that you are or are not, still in the running. You can ask whether they can give you an "estimated decision date" and they might answer, but  don't expect it to be especially accurate.
But don't pass up other opportunities as you wait.
I doubt that very many places will tell you that you aren't the first choice and if others are ahead of you they will wait for a decision from one of those before telling others they won't get the position. But don't read too much into a delay, and don't panic. There are too many possibilities.

Thank you for your response. In my case, I can use that time gap to improve my English skills. Especially taking into account that I wasn't using it for the last two years and forgot a lot.

In my case, this position is an interesting opportunity and I will not lose anything if they don't choose me. But I will be glad to try.

I had got the offer and signed it two weeks ago. Probably, the delay was due to specific preparations and justifications related to papers and so on. Meanwhile, I hope this question will be helpful for other persons. Just be patient and accurate in your actions.
Now, I must resolve the visa question at the time of US embassies are predominantly closed all over the world due to the COVID.....


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Do I cite the article or the article's sources?
I am writing an article that is analysing an existing article, that only uses secondary research (research that wasn't conducted by myself - and that I'd obtained from this article). When citing this information in my essay do I cite the same article over and over again when talking about each piece of information? Or cite the article's bibliography? I am only obtaining information from this one article.

Cite the article(s) you use. If you need to talk about that article in terms of earlier ones, cite those.
An example. Suppose the article you are analyzing is "Smith". Then you cite Smith. But if you have to say somewhere that, for example "Smith was led to this conclusion from ... 'Jones'", where "Jones is in Smith's bibliography, then also cite Jones.
Otherwise you are sort of led to citing a chain of publications back to the foundations of the field. Very few papers require that sort of thing and they are very specialized.

To add to this, though, you need to make sure you actually read Jones too; you shouldn't cite Jones merely because you read Smith's citation of Jones.

@BryanKrause, yes indeed. Thanks for the clarification.

To add, you can also write something like "See Smith (2016) and references cited therein".

To reiterate: if you use it, cite it. The question of citing sources cited by the source you cite is subtler.

To extend on the point @BryanKrause made: You should absolutely read Jones, as an important part of your analysis should be if Smith quoted correctly  - not (only) formally, but with regard to quoting wrong things that never were in the original paper.


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Am I entitled to any benefit by implementing an idea from my professor's published paper?
I'm an undergraduate student. A new professor joined our college this year. The new professor went about asking other department faculty about students proficient in programming and one of the existing faculty recommended me. Now apparently, this new professor is not so good at programming, and wanted someone to implement an idea from one of his already published paper. Now I have been asked to do it and I agreed, cause I like programming. Now my question is, do I stand to gain anything non-trivial from doing this? What would be the proper stuff that I could ask the professor in return for doing it?

This is a perfect situation for you to suggest that if possible you would like to get started on a career that includes publication of scholarly articles, either alone or in collaboration with the prof. Ask him if this project is a good vehicle for this. It assumes either the implementation or an extension of the original paper is valid for publication, of course. You might wind up a big winner. He will, in any case, likely consider you for a future project if this one doesn't seem right to him. There is little to lose.
Don't ask him for a gimme. Ask for collaboration and help in learning how to develop and write for publication.
There are two additional thoughts. Maybe he just didn't think of it, so your approach might wake him up to the possibility. And also, he may put your name around to other faculty who might be willing also. Just expressing your interest can start a lot of wheels turning.