report: infer correct strip prefix from known symbol location
report: infer correct strip prefix from known symbol location

google/syzkaller,hyz0906/syzkaller,xairy/syzkaller,sploving/syzkaller,google/syzkaller,google/syzkaller,xairy/syzkaller,sploving/syzkaller,dotweiba/syzkaller,google/syzkaller,hyz0906/syzkaller,xairy/syzkaller,xairy/syzkaller,zoulasc/syzkaller,hyz0906/syzkaller,xairy/syzkaller,zoulasc/syzkaller,hyz0906/syzkaller,zoulasc/syzkaller,google/syzkaller,dotweiba/syzkaller,sploving/syzkaller,zoulasc/syzkaller,sploving/syzkaller,dotweiba/syzkaller,hyz0906/syzkaller,google/syzkaller,xairy/syzkaller,google/syzkaller,xairy/syzkaller,dotweiba/syzkaller