Partially offsetting these were higher margins on refined product sales of $380 million and higher equity earnings from the 50 percent-owned CPChem of $320 million, primarily reflecting the absence of impacts from Hurricane Harvey.

U.S. downstream operations earned $2.94 billion in 2017, compared with $1.31 billion in 2016. The increase was primarily due to a $1.16 billion benefit from U.S. tax reform, higher margins on refined product sales of $380 million, lower operating expenses of $160 million, and the absence of an asset impairment of $110 million. Partially offsetting this increase were lower gains on asset sales of $90 million and lower earnings from the 50 percent-owned CPChem of $70 million, primarily reflecting the impacts from Hurricane Harvey.

Total refined product sales of 1.22 million barrels per day in 2018 were up 2 percent from 2017. Sales were 1.20 million barrels per day in 2017, a decrease of 1 percent from 2016, primarily due to the divestment of Hawaii refining and marketing assets in fourth quarter 2016.

Refer to the “Selected Operating Data” table on page 37 for a three-year comparison of sales volumes of gasoline and other refined products and refinery input volumes.

International Downstream

International downstream earned $1.70 billion in 2018, compared with $2.28 billion in 2017. The decrease in earnings was largely due to lower margins on refined product sales of $590 million and lower gains on asset sales of $470 million, partially offset by lower operating expenses of $290 million. The sale of the company's Canadian refining and marketing business in third quarter 2017 and the sale of the southern Africa refining and marketing business in third quarter 2018 primarily contributed to the lower margins and operating expenses. Foreign currency effects had a favorable impact on earnings of $161 million between periods.

International downstream earned $2.28 billion in 2017, compared with $2.13 billion in 2016. The increase in earnings was primarily due to higher gains on asset sales of $360 million, partially offset by higher operating expenses of $140 million. Foreign currency effects had an unfavorable impact on earnings of $65 million between periods.

Total refined product sales of 1.44 million barrels per day in 2018 were down 4 percent from 2017, primarily due to the sales of the company's Canadian refining and marketing assets in third quarter 2017 and southern Africa refining and marketing business in third quarter 2018. Sales of 1.49 million barrels per day in 2017 were up 2 percent from 2016, primarily due to higher diesel and jet fuel sales.

Refer to the “Selected Operating Data” table on page 37, for a three-year comparison of sales volumes of gasoline and other refined products and refinery input volumes.

All Other

All Other consists of worldwide cash management and debt financing activities, corporate administrative functions, insurance operations, real estate activities, and technology companies.

Net charges in 2018 decreased $1.88 billion from 2017. The change between periods was mainly due to absence of a prior year tax charge of $2.47 billion related to U.S. tax reform, lower employee